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From the last London edition. In which all the late Discoveries and Improvements are brought up to the present time, by Dr. Thomas P. Jones. All preceptors who Have a sincere desire to im- part a correct knowledge of this important science to their pupils, will piease examine the present edition, as the correction of all the errors in tht body of the work renders it very valuable. A DICTIONARY OF SELECT AND PO- PULAR Q.UOT ATIONS, which are in daily use; taken from the Latin, French, Greek, Spanish, and Italian languages: together with a copious collection of Law-maxims and Law- terms; translated into English, with Illustra- tions historical and idiomatic. Sixth American edition, corrected, with additions. 1 vol. 12rno. In preparing this Sixth edition for the press, care has been taken to give the work a thorough revision, to correct some errors which had before escaped notice, and to insert many additional Quo- tations, Law-maxims, and Law-terms.—In this state it is offered to the publip, in the stereotype form. THE DISPENSATORY i*t UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. By GEORGE ,B. WOOD, M.D., PHOFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY IN THE PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OP PHARMACT, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, &C, &C. J FRANKLIN BACHE, M.D., PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, ONB OF THE SECRETARIES OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, &C, &C. v$/U& PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY GRIGG & ELLIOT, NO. 9 NORTH FOURTH STREET. 1S33. ftA/ Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1833, By George B. Wood, M.D., and Franklin Bache, M.D., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. Fl'i/i do. S^kft -no Printed by Lydia R. Bailey, No. 26 North Fifth Street. TO JOSEPH PARRISH, M.D.,, AND THOMAS T. HEWSON, M.D., AS A MARK OF RESPECT FOR THEIR PRIVATE WORTH AND PROFESSIONAL CHARACTER, AND AS AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THEIR NUMEROUS KIND OFFICES, THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THEIR FRIENDS, THE AUTHORS. PREFACE. The objects of a Dispensatory are to present an account of medicinal substances in the state in which they are brought into the shops, and to teach the modes in which they are prepared for use. The impor- tance of these objects, and the general value and even necessity of a work of this nature, will not be disputed. It may, however, be a question, how far the wants of the medical and pharmaceutical com- munity in this country are supplied by the Dispensatories already in circulation; and whether such a deficiency exists as to justify the offer of a new one to the public attention. The great merits of the works severally entitled " The Edinburgh New Dispensatory," and "The London Dispensatory," the former edited by the late Andrew Duncan, M. D., the latter by Anthony Todd Thomson, M. D., are well known wherever the English language is spoken. Founded, as they both are, upon the excellent basis laid by Lewis, they are nevertheless entitled, from the great addition of valuable materials, and the distinctive cha- racter exhibited in the arrangement of these materials, to be considered as original works; while the style in which they have been executed speaks strongly in favour of the skill and industry of their authors. But they were calculated especially for the sphere of Great Britain, and are too deficient in all that relates exclusively to this country, to admit of being received as standards here. In the history of our com- merce in drugs, and of the nature, growth, and collection of our indi- genous medical plants; in the chemical operations of our extensive la- boratories ; and in the modes of preparing, dispensing, and applying medicines, which have gradually grown into use among us; there is much that is peculiar, a knowledge of which is not to be gained from foreign books, and is yet necessary to the character of an accomplished American pharmaceutist. We have, moreover, a National Pharma- copoeia, which requires an explanatory commentary, in order that its precepts may be fully appreciated, and advantageously put into prac- tice. On these accounts it is desirable that there should be a Dispensa- tory of the United States, which, while it embraces whatever is useful vi Preface. in European pharmacy, may accurately represent the art as it exists in this country, and give instruction adapted to our peculiar wants. It appears due to our national character, that such a work should be in good faith an American work, newly prepared in all its parts, and not a mere edition of one of the European Dispensatories, with here and there additions and alterations, which, though they may be useful in themselves, cannot be made to harmonize with the other materials so as to give to the whole an appearance of unity, and certainly would not justify the assumption of a new and national title for the book. Whether in the Dispensatories which have been published in the United States, these requisites have been satisfactorily fulfilled, it rests with the public to determine. That valuable treatises on Materia Medica and Pharmacy have been issued in this country, no candid per- son, acquainted with our medical literature, will be disposed to deny. In offering a new work to the medical and pharmaceutical professions, the authors do not wish to be considered as undervaluing the labours of their predecessors. They simply conceive, that the field has not been so fully occupied as to exelude all competition. The pharmacy of continental Europe is ground which has been almost untouched ; and much information in relation to the natural history, commerae, and management of our own drugs, has lain ungathered in the posses- sion of individuals, or scattered in separate treatises and periodicals not generally known and read. Since the publication of the last edi- tion of our National Pharmacopoeia, no general explanation of its pro- cesses has appeared, though required in justice both to that work and the public. The hope of being able to supply these deficiencies, may, perhaps, be considered a sufficient justification of the present under- taking. The Pharmacopoeia of the United States has been adopted as the basis of this Dispensatory. It is followed both in its general division of medicines, and in its alphabetical arrangement of them under each division. Precedence is, in every instance, given to the names which it recognises; while the explanations by which it fixes the signification of these names, are inserted in immediate connexion with the titles to which they severally belong. Every article which it designates is more or less fully described; and all its processes, after being literally copied, are commented on and explained whenever comment or ex- planation appeared necessary. Nothing, in fine, has been omitted, which, in the estimation of the authors, could serve to illustrate its meaning, or promote the ends which it was intended to subserve. Preface. vii This course of proceeding appeared to be due to the national character of the Pharmacopoeia, and to the important object of establishing, as far as possible, throughout the United States, uniformity both in the nomenclature and preparation of medicines. In one particular, convenience required that the plan of the Pharmacopoeia should be de- parted from. The medicines belonging to the department of.Materia Medica, instead of being arranged in two divisions, corresponding with the Primary and Secondary Catalogues of that work, have been treated of indiscriminately in alphabetical succession; and the place which they respectively hold in the Pharmacopoeia is indicated by the employment of the term Secondary, in connexion with the name of each of the medicines included in the latter catalogue. But though precedence has thus been given to the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, those of Great Britain have not been neglected. The nomenclature adopted by the different British Colleges, and their formulae for the preparation of medicines, have been so extensively fol- lowed throughout the United States, that a work intended to represent the present state of pharmacy in this country would be imperfect with- out them; and the fact that the writings of British physicians and sur- geons, in which their own officinal terms and preparations are exclu- sively employed and referred to, have an extensive circulation among us, renders some commentary necessary in order to prevent serious mistakes. The Pharmacopoeias of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, have, therefore, been incorporated, in all their essential parts, into the present work. Their officinal titles are uniformly given—always in subordination to those of the United States Pharmacopoeia, when they express the same object; but in chief, when, as often happens, no cor- responding medicine or preparation is recognised by our national standard. In the latter case, if different names are applied by different British Colleges to the same object, that is generally preferred which is most in accordance with our own system of nomenclature, and the others are given as synonymes. The medicines directed by the British Colleges are all described, and their processes either copied at length, or so far explained as to be intelligible in all essential particulars. Besides the medicinal substances recognised as officinal by the Pharmacopoeias alluded to, some others have been described, which, either from the lingering remains of former reputation, or from recent reports in their favour, or from their important relation to medicines in general use, appear to have claims upon the attention of the physi- cian and apothecary. Opportunity has, moreover, been taken to in- viii Preface. troduce incidentally brief accounts of substances used in other countries or in former times, and occasionally noticed in medical books; and that the reader may be able to refer to them when desirous of infor- mation, their names have been placed with those of the standard remedies in the Index. In the description of each medicine, if derived immediately from the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, the attention of the authors has been directed to its natural history, the place of its growth or pro- duction, the method of collecting and preparing it for market, its commercial history, the state in which it reaches us, its sensible pro- perties, its chemical composition and relations, the changes which it undergoes by time and exposure, its accidental or fraudulent adultera- tions, its medical properties and application, its economical uses, and the pharmaceutical treatment to which it is subjected. If a chemical preparation, the mode and principles of its manufacture are indicated in addition to the other particulars. If a poison, and likely to be ac- cidentally taken, or purposely employed as such, its peculiar toxico- logical effects, together with the mode of counteracting them, are indi- cated ; and the best means of detecting its presence by reagents are ex- plained. The authors have followed the example of Dr. A. T. Thomson, in giving botanical descriptions of the plants from which the medicines treated of are derived. In relation to all indigenous medicinal plants, and those naturalized or cultivated in this country, the advantages of such descriptions are obvious. The physician may often be placed in situations, in which it may be highly important that he should be able to recognise the vegetable which yields a particular medicine; and the apothecary is constantly liable to imposition from the collectors of herbs, unless possessed of the means of distinguishing by infallible marks the various products presented to him. A knowledge of foreign medicinal plants, though of less importance, will be found useful in various ways, independently of the gratification afforded by the in- dulgence of a liberal curiosity in relation to objects so closely con- nected with our daily pursuits. The introduction of these botanical notices into a Dispensatory appears to be peculiarly appropriate, as they are to be considered rather as objects for occasional reference than for regular study or continuous perusal, and therefore coincide with the general design of the work, which is to collect into a con- venient form for consultation all that is practically important in relation to medicines. The authors have endeavoured to preserve a due pro- Preface. ix portion between the minuteness of the descriptions, and their value as means of information to the student; and, in pursuance of this plan, have generally dwelt more at length upon our native plants, than upon those of foreign growth : but in all instances, in which they have deemed any botanical description necessary, they have taken care to include in it the essential scientific character of the genus and species, with a reference to the position of the plant in the artificial and natural systems of classification ; so that a person acquainted with the elements of botany may be able to recognise it when it comes under his observation. In preparing the Dispensatory, the authors have consulted, in addi-, tion to many of the older works of authority, the greater number of the treatises and dissertations which have recently appeared upon the various subjects connected with Pharmacy, and especially those of the French writers, who stand at present at the head of this department of medical science. They have also endeavoured to collect such de- tached facts scattered through the various scientific, medical, and phar- maceutical journals, as they conceived to be important in themselves, and applicable to the subjects under consideration ; and have had fre- quent recourse to the reports of travellers in relation to the natural and commercial history of foreign drugs. The occasional references in the body of the work will indicate the sources from which they have most largely drawn, and the authorities upon which they have most relied. In relation to our own commerce in drugs, and to the opera- tions of our chemical laboratories, they are indebted for information chiefly to the kindness of gentlemen engaged in these branches of business, who have always evinced, in answering their numerous in- quiries, a promptitude and politeness which merit their warm thanks, and which they are pleased to have this opportunity of acknowledging.* It has not been deemed necessary to follow the example of the British Dispensatories, by inserting into the work a treatise upon Chemistry under the name of Elements of Pharmacy. Such a treatise must necessarily be very meagre and imperfect; and, as systems of chemistry are in the hands of every physician and apothecary, would unnecessarily occupy the place of valuable matter of less easy access. • The authors deem it proper to state that they are peculiarly indebted for assistance to Mr. Daniel B. Smith, president of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, to whom, besides much important information in relation to the various branches of the Apothe- cary's business, they owe the prefatory remarks on Pharmacy which are placed at the commencement of the second part of the work, and the several articles in the Materia Medica, upon Leeches, Litmus, and the Carbonate and Sulphate of Magnetia. 2* x Preface. The authors may perhaps be permitted to observe, in relation to themselves, that they have expended much time and labour in the preparation of the work ; have sought diligently for facts from every readily accessible source ; have endeavoured by a comparison of au- thorities, and a close scrutiny, of evidence, to ascertain the truth whenever practicable; and have exerted themselves to the extent of their abilities to render the Dispensatory worthy of public approbation, both for the quality and quantity of its contents, and the general ac- curacy of its statements. They are conscious, nevertheless, that in so great a multiplicity of details, numerous errors and deficiencies may exist, and that the faults of undue brevity in some cases, and prolixity in others, may not have been entirely avoided: but they venture to hope that a candid public will make all due allowances ; and they take the liberty to invite, from all those who may feel interested in the diffusion of sound pharmaceutical knowledge, the communication of friendly suggestions or criticisms in relation to the objects and execu- tion of the work. Philadelphia, January, 1833. Abbreviations employed in the Work. U.S.—"The Pharmacopeia of the United States of America. By authority of the National Medical Convention, held at Washington, A.D. 1830." Lond.—London Pharmacopceia, A.D. 1824. Ed.—Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, A.D. 1817. Dub.—Dublin Pharmacopceia, A.D. 1826. Off. Syn.—Officinal Synonymes, or the titles employed by the Phar- macopoeias with the accompanying explanations, when these titles 9 are not given in chief. Nat. Ord.—The Natural Order to which any particular genus of plants belongs. Gen. Ch.—The Generic Character, or scientific description of any particular genus of plants under consideration. . Off. Prep.—Officinal Preparations ; including all the preparations into which any particular medicine directed by the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia and the British Colleges enters. When the same preparation has received different names in the different Pharmacopoeias, only one of these names is mentioned, and precedence is always given to that of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Sp. Gr.—Specific Gravity. Equiv.—Chemical Equivalent, or the number representing the smallest quantity in which one body usually combines with others. Linn.—Linn^us.—Juss. Jussieu.—De Cand. De Candolle.—Willd. Sp. Plant., Willdenow's edition of the species plantarum of Lin- naeus.—Woodv. Med. Bot. Woodville's Medical Botany, 2nd edi- tion. Fr., French.—Germ., German.—Ital., Italian.—Span., Spanish.—Arab., Arabic. THE DISPENSATORY OF THE UNITED STATES. PART I. MATERIA MEDICA. The Materia Medica, in its most comprehensive sense, embraces all those substances which are capable of making sanative impressions on the human system; but, as the term is employed in this work, it has a more restricted signification. The Pharmacopoeias of the United States and Great Britain very appropriately arrange medicines in two distinct divisions, one including all those which are furnished immediately by nature or thrown into commerce by the manufacturer, the other those which are prepared by the apothecary, and are the objects of officinal directions. The former are enumerated under the title of " Materia Medica," the latter under that of " Preparations," or " Preparations and Compositions." In Dispensatories, which may be considered as commentaries on the Pharmacopoeias, the same arrangement is usually followed; and the authors of the present work adopt it the more willingly, as, independently of the weight of authority in its favour, it has the re- commendation of being the most convenient. By this plan, all the direc- tions which relate to the practical operations of the apothecary are col- lected in one place, and are thus more easily referred to, than if mixed indiscriminately with other matters, as they must be by any mode of arrangement which makes no distinction between the original medicinal • substances and their preparations. Under the head of Materia Medica, therefore, in this Dispensatory, we treat of medicines in the state only in which they are produced by nature, or come into the hands of the apothecary. Of these medicines, such as are recognised by our National Pharmacopoeia are most minutely described; but we consider also all that are included in the officinal catalogues of the British colleges, and some others which appear to deserve attention from their present or former reputation. Another point in which we accord with the Pharmacopoeias, is the alphabetical arrangement of the objects of the Materia Medica. As a Dispensatory is intended rather for reference than for regular perusal, it 2 Materia Medica. *ART l' is important that its contents should be so disposed as to facilitate con- sultation. Medicines, in a work of this kind, are considered as indepen- dent objects to be studied separately, and without any reference to com- munity of source, or similarity of character. Their scientific classifica- tion belongs to works which treat of them rather in their relations than their essential properties; and different systems have been adopted, ac- cording to the set of relations towards which the mind of the author has been especially directed. Thus, the naturalist classifies them according to the affinities of the several objects in nature from whLh they are de- rived ; the chemist according to their composition; the practitioner ot medicine according to their effects upon the system in a state of health and disease. But none of these classifications is without imperfections; and a simple alphabetical arrangement is decidedly preferable in every case in which the medicines are considered solely in their individual capacity. Yet, as it comes within the scope of this work to treat of their physiological and therapeutical effects, and as the terms by which these effects are expressed are also the titles of classes to which the medicines belong, it will not be amiss to present the reader with the outlines of a system of classification, by'consulting which he will be enabled to ascer- tain the precise meaning we attach to the terms employed to designate the peculiar action of different medicinal substances. Remedies are divided into General and Local, the former acting on the whole system, the latter on particular parts or organs. I. GENERAL REMEDIES include 1. Simple Stimulants, sometimes called Incitants, which, while they raise the actions of the system above the standard of health, exhibit their influence chiefly upon the heart and arteries; 2. Narcotics, which especially affect the cerebral functions, and are either stimulant or sedative according as they increase or diminish the natural actions; 3. Antispasmodics, which, with a general stimulant power, exert a peculiar influence over the nervous system, exhibited in the relaxation of spasm, the calming of nervous irritation, Sec, without any special and decided tendency to the brain; 4. Tonics, which mo- derately and permanently exalt the energies of all parts of the frame, without necessarily producing any apparent increase of the natural ac- tions ; and 5. Astringents, which, with more or less tonic power, have the property of producing contraction in the living fibre wherever they come in contact with it. II. LOCAL REMEDIES may be divided into four sections: a. Those affecting the function of a part, namely, 1. Emetics, which act on the stomach, producing vomiting; 2. Cathartics, Avhich act on the bowels, producing a purgative effect; 3. Diuretics, which act on the kidneys, pro- ducing an increased flow of urine; 4. Antilithics, which act on the same organs, preventing the formation of calculous matter; 5. Diaphoretics, which increase the cutaneous discharge; 6. Expectorants, which aug- ment the secretion from the mucous membrane of the bronchise, or pro- mote the discharge of the secreted matter; 7. Emmenagogues, which ex- cite the menstrual secretion; 8. Sialagogues, which increase the flow of saliva; and 9. Errhines, which increase the discharge from the mucous membrane of the nostrils: b. Those affecting the organization of apart, in- cluding 1. Rubefacients, which produce redness and inflammation of the skin; 2. Epispastics or Vesicatories, which produce a serous discharge beneath the cuticle, forming a blister; and 3. Escharotics or Caustics, which destroy the life of the part upon which they act: c. Those operating by a mechanical agency, consisting of 1. Demulcents, which lubricate the surface to which they are applied, and prevent the contact of irritat- PART I. Materia Medica. 3 ing substances, or mingle with these and diminish their acrimony; and 2. Emollients, which serve as vehicles for the application of warmth and moisture, at the same time excluding the air: d. Those which act on extraneous matters contained within the organs, including 1. Anthelmin- tics, which destroy worms or expel them from the bowels; and 2. Antacids, which neutralize acid, whether existing in the alimentary canal, or circulating with the blood. It is believed that all substances employed as medicines, with the ex- ception of a very few, which are so peculiar in their action as scarcely to admit of classification, may be distributed without violence among the above classes. Some substances, however, in addition to the properties of the classes to which they are severally attached, possess others in common, which give them practical value, and authorize their associa- tion in distinct groups, not recognised in the system of classification, but constantly referred to in medical language. Thus we have Refrigerants, which, when internally administered, diminish animal temperature; Alteratives, which change, in some inexplicable and insensible manner, certain morbid actions of the system; and Carminatives, which by pro- moting contraction in the muscular coat of the stomach and bowels, cause the expulsion of flatus. It is common, moreover, to attach distinct names to groups of remedies, with reference to certain effects which are incident to the properties that serve to arrange them in some more com- prehensive class. Thus Narcotics frequently promote sleep and relieve pain; and in relation to these properties are called Soporifics and Ano- dynes ; and various medicines, which by diversified modes of action serve to remove chronic inflammation and enlargements of the glands or vis- cera, are called Deobstruents. These terms are occasionally employed in the following pages, and are here explained, in order that the sense in which we use them may be accurately understood. 4 Acacias Gummi. PART I. ACACLE GUMMI. U.S. Gum Arabic. « Acacia vera. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S Off. Syn. ACACLE GUMMI. Acacia vera. Gummi. Lond.; ALA- CIM ARABICS GUMMI. Ex variis Acacias speciebus. Ed.; ACA- CIA ARABICA et ACACIA VERA. Gummi. Dub. Gomme Arabique, Fr.,- Arabische gummi, Germ.,- Gomma Arabics, Hal.; GomaAra- biga, Span.,- Samagh Arebee, Arab. Acacia. ClassPolygamia. Order Monoecia,Linn.-, Monadelphia Foly- andria, Persoon.—Nat. Orrf.Leguminosse, Juss. This genus is associated with the group denominated Mimosex, from the old genus Mimosa of Linnseus, which was reformed by Willdenow, and divided into several genera, of which this is the most important. The name Acacia was employed by the ancient Greeks to designate the gum-tree of Egypt, and was appropriately applied by Willdenow to the new genus in which that plant was included. Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-cleft, or formed of five petals. Stamens 4-100. Pistil one. Legume bivalve. Male. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-cleft, or formed of five petals. Stamens 4-100. Willd. Several species of Acacia contribute to furnish the Gum Arabic of the shops. The two from which it is most abundantly derived are the A. vera and A. Senegal. 1. Acacia vera. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1085; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 438. t. 8.—A. Nilotica. Delile, Flor. Mgypt. Must. No. 963. This is a thorny tree of various size, in some situations little more than a shrub, in others attaining a height of forty feet, with a trunk as thick as a man's body. The stem is usually crooked, and covered with a smooth gray bark. That of the branches is of a reddish or purplish colour. The leaves are alter- nate, bipinnate, composed of from six to eight pairs of pinnae, with nu- merous narrow elliptical leaflets, which are about two lines long, ant|V( furnished with glandular petioles. On the common petiole are glands,.' between the two lower pinnae, and at the base of the terminal pair. Two long, whitish, very sharp spines are found at the base of each leaf. The flowers are yellowish, inodorous, small, and collected in globular heads, which are supported by slender peduncles, and rise from the axils of the leaves, to the number sometimes of four o>r five together. The pods are three or four inches long, flat, smooth, and composed of from five to eight rounded portions, each of which contains a single seed. This species of Acacia appears to be very widely spread over the con- tinent of Africa. It is found abundantly in Upper Egypt, Barbary, and Senegal, was observed by Sparman near the Cape of Good-Hope, and probably extends throughout the whole unexplored interior. It grows also in Arabia. Calculated by nature for a dry and sandy soil, it flour- ishes in deserts where no other trees will grow, and even the date-tree perishes. We are told that the camels attached to the caravans derive from it their chief sustenance in many parts of those desolate regions in which Africa abounds. In these situations it has a stunted groAvth, and presents a bare, withered, and uninviting aspect; but in a more favoura- ble soil, as on the borders of the Nile in Upper Egypt, it is said to be an elegant tree. The gum exudes spontaneously from the bark of the trunk and branches and hardens on exposure: but incisions are sometimes made in order to part i. Acacias Gummi. 5 facilitate the exudation. This is supposed by some to be favoured by disease; and it is stated by Jackson, that, in Morocco, the greatest pro- duct is obtained in the hottest and driest weather, and from the most sickly trees. An elevated atmospheric temperature appears to be essen- tial; for in the cooler climates, though the tree may flourish, it yields no gum. We are told by Niebuhr that this is the case even in Lower Egypt; and Thunberg makes the same report of the Acacia vera of the Cape of Good Hope. The bark and unripe fruit of this, as well as most other species of Acacia, contain tannin and gallic acid, and are sometimes used for tan- ning leather. An astringent extract is obtained from the immature pods by expression and inspissation. It was known to the ancients by the name ofAcaciae verse succus, and was highly lauded by some of the Greek medi- cal writers. It is still occasionally employed in French pharmacy, as an ingredient in some of those complicated preparations handed down from the ancients, and not yet entirely abandoned. It is a solid, heavy, shining, reddish-brown substance, of a sweetish, styptic taste, and soluble in water. Its virtues are probably those of a mild astringent. 2. Acacia Senegal. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1077; Black, t. 345. This spe- cies is distinguished by its whitish gray bark, by its three spines at the base of each leaf, by the arrangement of its flowers, which are disposed in cylindrical spikes, and byjts pubescent pods. The height of its stem, when full grown, is from 15 to 20 feet. It inhabits the hottest regions of Africa, and forms vast forests in Senegal and the neighbouring parts of the continent. Much of that variety of the drug under consideration, known by the commercial title of gum Senegal, is procured from this tree. Besides the two species of Acacia above described, several others yield a product similar in essential characters to gum Arabic. The Acacia Arabica of Willdenow, which flourishes not only in Arabia but in Hindos- tan, where it is called babul tree by the natives, is said to be the source of much of the gum brought from the E.Indies; and the A. decurrens and A.floribunda of Willdenow, natives of New Holland, afford by sponta- neous exudation a tolerably pure gum, which has not yet, however, been extensively collected. Among the gum-bearing species are also mention- ed the A. gummifera, A. Ehrenbergiana, A. Seyal, A. L,ebbek, A. tortilis, and A. Karoo, natives of Africa or Arabia; and other trees not belong- ing to the genus yield a similar product, especially the Feronia elephantum of Hindostan, the gum of which, according to Ainslie, is used for med- ical purposes by all the practitioners of Lower India. Commercial History. Gum Arabic was formerly procured, chiefly if not exclusively, from Egypt and the neighbouring countries; and much is still obtained from the same sources. It is collected in Upper Egypt, Nubia, and Darfur, whence it is taken down the Nile to Alexandria. A considerable quantity is also brought to the same port from Arabia. We obtain it in this country either through Marseilles, or some of the free ports of the Mediterranean. Two varieties of the gum have long been noticed, one more or less coloured, the other white, which were formerly, and on the continent of Europe are still distinguished by the titles of gum gedda, and gum turic, derived from the ports of the Red Sea—Gidda and Tor, from which they were erroneously supposed to be respectively ex- ported. It will be perceived, when we come to describe the properties of the gum, that there are better grounds of distinction than mere difference of colour, or place of shipment. Much gum Arabic is at present obtained from Barbary; and Mogadore, 6 Acacias Gummi. part i. a port of Morocco, is the chief entrepot of the trade. According to Jackson, the natives call the tree which affords it attaleh. They gather it in the months of July and August, when the weather is hot and very dry. Two kinds are brought to Mogadore, one from the neighbouring provinces, the other by caravans from Timbuctoo. The former is most highly esteemed. When first deposited in the warehouses it has a faint smell, and makes a crackling noise, occasioned by the spontaneous rup- ture of the small masses as they become more dry. The Barbary gum is exported in casks, and reaches the U. States through the route of English commerce. Gum Senegal, which is a mere commercial variety of this drug, was first introduced into Europe by the Dutch. The French afterwards plant- ed a colony on the western coast of Africa, and took possession of the trade; but since the last great European war, it has passed chiefly into the hands of the English. Senegal, however, is not the only place in this portion of Africa in which the gum trade is carried on. Large quantities are exported also from Sierra Leone, and it is highly probable that the colony of Liberia will soon obtain a share in this branch of commerce. Immense forests of the Acacia are said to exist at some distance in the interior. These are composed chiefly of two different trees, called by the natives vereck or nereck, and nebuel or nebued, the former of which yields a white gum, the latter a red. These are probably distinct species, the vereck being, according to M. Rain, the A. vera, and the nebuel the A. Senegal. According to Adanson, there are many other species in the neighbourhood which yield gum, but none so abundant as to form forests. * In the month of November the juice begins to exude from the trees. The dry winds which prevail after the rainy season, cause the bark to crack; the juice flows out, and hardens in round or oval masses, some of which are as large as a pigeon's egg. At this period the Moors and Negroes proceed to the forests in caravans, collect the gum in leather sacs, and convey it to the coast, where they exchange it for British goods. When stowed in the warehouses, it presents the phenomena' before noticed in relation to the Barbary gum. The slight odour at first emitted, ceases after a few weeks, and the masses no longer crack when perfectly dry. We obtain our supplies of this variety of gum from England. It differs little from the gum Arabic of Egypt and Barbary. Considerable quantities bf gum are imported directly into this country from India. Ainslie states that it is derived from the A. Arabica; but it is not improbable that much of it is taken to Calcutta in the Arab ves- sels from the ports of the Red Sea. It is usually much contaminated. A considerable portion has the character of genuine gum Arabic: but min- gled with this is frequently a different kind of gum, having all the pro- perties of that known by the name of Bassora. It is distinguished by its insolubility in water, with which, however, it unites, swelling up, and forming a soft viscid mass. It owes its properties to the presence of bassorin. The pieces of this gum bear a considerable resemblance to those of the genuine article, and may easily escape detection. Their want of solubility, however, is a ready test. More or less of a similar substance is found in the parcels of gum Arabic from other sources; and we have seen some said to have come from Barbary, chiefly com- posed of it. Besides this impurity in the India gum, there are often others more readily detected. Among these, we have observed a yellow- ish-white resinous substance, which has the sensible properties of the turpentines. If proper care be used in assorting this commercial variety, it may be employed for all the purposes of good gum Arabic. PART I. Acacias Gummi. 7 Properties. Gum Arabic is in rounded pieces, or irregular frag- ments of various sizes, more or less transparent, hard, brittle, pulver- izable, and breaking with a shining fracture. It is usually white, or yellowish-white; but frequently presents various shades of red, and is sometimes of a deep orange colour. In powder it is always more or less purely white. It is inodorous, has little taste, and when pure, dissolves wholly away in the mouth. The specific gravity varies from 1.31 to 1.48 (Berzelius). Water, either cold or hot, dissolves it, and forms a viscid solution, called mucilage, which when evaporated, yields the gum un- changed. (See Mucilago Acacize). It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and the oils. Alkaline solutions and lime-water dissolve without altering it. The diluted acids also dissolve it, but the stronger acids produce decomposi- tion. Concentrated sulphuric acid causes the formation of water and acetic acid, and the separation of charcoal. Strong nitric acid converts it into the mucic or saccholactic, and at the same time produces oxalic, and malic acids. Chlorine is said by Vauquelin to convert it into citric acid. Gum in solution unites with sugar, and the liquid when evapo- rated, yields a transparent, solid substance, which is not susceptible of crystallization. It forms a definite insoluble compound with the oxide of lead, and is precipitated from its solution by the subacetate of that metal. It is also precipitated by alcohol, and is coagulated by a solution of borax. Berzelius mentions as characteristic of gum Arabic, the prop- erty of precipitating from a solution of silicated potassa, a compound of gum, potassa, and silica, while a compound of gum and potassa re- mains dissolved. It is also distinguished from other gums by affording a yellow or orange precipitate with the solution of sulphate of iron, and a precipitate insoluble in nitric acid with even a dilute solution of the muriate of iron. Gum Arabic undergoes no change by time; but is bleached by the fight of the sun. The aqueous solution, if strong, remains for a consid- erable length of time unaltered, but ultimately becomes sour in conse- quence of the production of acetic acid; and this happens even though the air be excluded. Gum when heated to redness is decomposed, and among other sub- stances yields a small portion of ammonia, proving the presence of nitro- gen among its ingredients. According to Vauquelin, it leaves when burnt, three per cent, of ashes, which consist of carbonate of lime with a little phosphate of lime and of iron. It is probable that most of the lime exists in the gum itself, combined with acetic or malic acid, or both. In consequence of the presence of'lime, the solution yields a precipitate with oxalate of ammonia. Berzelius states that pure gum, separated from its combination with oxide of lead, leaves no ashes. From the analysis of Gay Lussac and Thenard, it appears that the es- sential constituents of gum are carbon, 42.25, oxygen, 50.84, and hy- drogen, 6.93; or carbon, 42.23, and water, 57.77. This result accords very closely with that obtained by Berzelius. The properties above described belong to gum Arabic generally. There are, however, pharmaceutic varieties differing from each other, to a de- gree and in a manner which deserve notice. 1. Gum that is transparent and readily soluble. This constitutes by far the greater portion of the commercial varieties distinguished by the names of gum Arabic and gum Senegal. It is characterized by its transparency, ready solubility, and the comparatively slight degree of thickness and viscidity of its so- lution. Under this head may be included the gofnme blanche fendillee of 8 Acacias Gummi. part I. Guibourt, and other French writers. It is distinguished by its greater whiteness, dryness, and brittleness, and in consequence of this last pro- perty, is full of minute cracks or fissures, which in the larger pieces im- pair its transparency; though each fragment is perfectly translucent and homogeneous. In consequence of its prompt and entire solubility, it is usually preferred for medical use, and for some purposes in pharmacy. It is sometimes called in Europe by the commercial name of gum Tunc, not because it is brought from Tor, but because the gum for which this port formerly served as the entrepot, was celebrated for its whiteness and other valuable properties. 2. Gum less transparent and less soluble. Gui- bourt has proposed for this variety the name of gomme pellicuUe, from the circumstance that the masses are always apparently covered, on some part of their surface, by a yellowish opaque pellicle. Its transparency is less perfect than that of the former variety; it is less quickly dissolved by water, and forms a more viscid solution. It melts with difficulty in the mouth, and adheres tenaciously to the teeth. It probably constitutes a larger portion of the Senegal than of the Egyptian gum. In Europe it is called by some, gum Gedda, though without sufficient reason. The India gum appears to belong to this variety. We read also of the green gum, distinguished by its emerald green colour, and of the gum of Galam which does not appear to be well characterized. They both belong to the second variety. Gum Arabic is frequently adulterated with foreign matters, and should generally be assorted before being applied to medicinal purposes. Medical Properties and Uses. This gum is used in medicine, chiefly as a demulcent. By the viscidity of its solution, it serves to cover and sheathe inflamed surfaces; and by blending with, and diluting irritating matters, tends to blunt their acrimony. Hence it is advantageously em- ployed in catarrhal affections and irritation of the fauces, by being held in the mouth and allowed slowly to dissolve. Internally administered it has been found especially useful in inflammatory affections of the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane; and its employment has even been ex- tended to similar affections of the lungs, and urinary organs. Whether it is beneficial in the latter cases in any other manner than by the dilution resulting from its watery vehicle, is a doubtful point. By some physi- cians it is thought to possess a positively sedative influence over the ac- tion of inflamed surfaces to which it is applied in the state of solution. As an article of diet in febrile cases, and others requiring an adherence to a very rigid regimen, it is perhaps superior to almost any other sub- stance. If not positively sedative, it is certainly not in the least irritat- ing, while it is sufficiently nourishing to prevent the injurious action of the organs upon themselves. Its nutritive properties have been denied; but the fact of their existence rests on incontrovertible evidence. The Moors and Negroes live on it almost exclusively during the period of its collection and conveyance to market; the Bushmen Hottentots, in times of scarcity, support themselves upon it for days together; and we are told that the apes of South Africa are very fond of it.* Six ounces a day are said to be sufficient to sustain life in a healthy adult. In many cases of disease, its solution may with propriety constitute the exclusive drink and food of the patient. It 1S best prepared by dissolving an ounce of the gum in a pint of boiling water, and allowing the solution to cool In pharmacy, gum Arabic is extensively used for the suspension of insol- uble substances in water, and for the formation of pills and troches • Patterson—Journey to the country of the Nimiquas, p. 162. PART I. Acetosas Folia.—Acetosella. 9 Off. Prep. Emulsio Acaciae Arabicae, Ed., Dub.; Mucilago Acaciae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Cretae Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Tragacanthae Compositus, Lond.; Syrupus Acaciae, U.S.; Trochisci Gummosi, Ed. ACETOSA FOLIA. Lond. Sorrel Leaves. " Rumex Acetosa. Folia." Lond. Off. Sun. RUMICIS ACETOSA FOLIA, Ed.; RUMEX ACETOSA. Folia. Dub. Oseille des jardins, Fr.; Sauerampfer, Germ.; Acetosa, Hal.; Azedera, Span. Rumex. See RUMEX AQUATICUS. Several species of Rumex have acid leaves, and are distinguished by the common name of sorrel, from the others which are called dock. Three are mentioned in the French codex, the R. scutatus, R. acetosa, and R. acetosella. The first is not found in this country; the second, which is the common English sorrel, is sometimes cultivated in our gardens; the third is the common sorrel of our fields. We shall notice only the two last. Rumex acetosa. Willd.; Sp. Plant, ii. 260.; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 660. t. 230. This is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a striated leafy stem, branching at top, and rising one or two feet in height. The radical leaves are narrow, oblong, arrow-shaped, and supported on long footstalks; those attached to the stem are alternate, pointed, and clasping. The flowers are dioecious, in terminal panicles, and partly tinged of a red colour. R. acetosella. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 260.; Eng. Bot. 1574. The common field sorrel is also an herbaceous perennial, with a stem from four to twelve inches high, and lanceolate-hastate leaves, having the lobes spreading or recurved. The male and female flowers are on separate plants. The valves are without grains. The flowers appear in May, June, and July. Though abundant in the light sandy or gravelly soils of this country, it is supposed by some botanists to have been introduced from Europe. Sorrel leaves are pleasantly sour, and without odour. Their acidity is dependent on the presence of binoxalate of potassa, with a small propor- tion of tartaric acid. Starch and mucilage are also among their consti- tuents. Their taste is almost entirely destroyed by drying. They are refrigerant and diuretic, and may be used with great advan- tage, as an article of diet, in scorbutic complaints. They are prepared in the form of salad, or boiled like spinage. The juice of the fresh leaves forms with water a pleasant acidulous drink, sometimes given in fevers. ACETOSELLA. Lond. Wood-sorrel. " Oxalis acetosella." Lond. Oseille de bucheron, Surelle, Fr.; Sauerklee, Germ.; Alleluja, ltal.; Acederilla, Span. Oxalis. Class Decandria. Order Pe'ntagynia.—Nat. Ord. Gerania, Juss.; Oxalideae, DeCand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals, five, connected by the claws. Sta* mens unequal, the five shorter exterior ones connected at the base. Cap- sules opening elastically at the corners, five-angled. Seeds covered with an arillus. Pursh. 2 10 Acetosella. —Acetum. part i. Oxalis acetosella. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 780.; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 563- t. 201. The wood-sorrel is a small perennial, herbaceous, stemless plant, with numerous radical leaves, which are all ternate, and supported upon slender hairy petioles. The leaflets are obcordate, entire, hairy, ot a yel- lowish-green colour, but frequently purplish on their under surface. 1 ne scape or flower-stalk, which usually exceeds the petioles.in length, is furnished with two scaly bractes near the middle, and terminates in a large white, or flesh-coloured flower, marked with red streaks. 1 he styles are of the same length with the inner stamens. This plant is a native both of Europe and N. America. In this country it is found chiefly in the mountainous regions of the interior. It s(j^cts shady places, such as woods, groves, and hedges; and flowers in Aiay. Other indigenous species of Oxalis, more widely diffused than the O. ace- tosella, might be substituted for it without disadvantage, as they possess similar properties. They all have ternate leaves with obcordate petioles, and, with the single exception of the O. violacea,bea.r yellow flowers. The whole herbaceous portion may be used. Properties. Wood-sorrel is without smell, and has a pleasant sour taste. It owes its acidity to the binoxalate of potassa, which is separated for use, and sometimes sold in the shops under the name of the salt of sorrel. In England it is mixed with a considerable proportion of bitartrate of potassa, and sold as the essential salt of lemons. It comes from Switzerland and Ger- many, where it is prepared from different species of Oxalis, and Rumex. The following process is employed. The plants previously bruised are macerated for some days in water, and then submitted to pressure. The liquid thus obtained is mixed with clay and occasionally agitated for two- days. At the end of this time, the clear liquor is decanted, and evapo- rated so that crystals may form when it cools. These are purified by solution and a new crystallization. Five hundred parts of the plant afford four parts of the acidulous salt. The same salt may be prepared by cau- tiously dropping a solution of potassa into a saturated solution of oxalic acid. The binoxalate crystallizes when a sufficient quantity of the alkali has been added. It is in rhomboidal crystals, of a sour pungent bitterish taste, soluble in ten times their weight of boiling water, much less so in cold water, and unalterable in the air. It is employed for removing iron mould and ink stains from linen, and sometimes as a test for lime. It con- tains 72 parts or two equivalents of oxalic acid, 42 parts or one equivalent of potassa, and 18 parts or two equivalents of water. (Diet, des Drogues.') Medical Properties. This and other species of sorrel are refrigerant; and their infusion, or a whey made by boiling them in milk, may be used as a pleasant drink in febrile and inflammatory affections. A solution of the binoxalate of potassa is used on the continent of Europe as a substitute for lemonade. The fresh plant, eaten raw, is said to be useful in scorbutic cases. ACETUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Vinegar. Off. Syn. ACETUM VINI. Dub. Vinaigre, Fr.; Essig, Germ.,- Aceto, Ital; Vinagre, Span. Vinegar is a sour liquid, the product of a peculiar fermentation called acetous. Viewed chemically, it is a very dilute solution of acetic acid, containing impurities. (See Acidum Aceticum.) The acetous fermentation can be induced in all liquors which have un- dergone, or are susceptible of the vinous fermentation. Thus sugar and part i. Acetum. 13. water, saccharine vegetable juices, infusion of malt, cider, and wine, may be converted into vinegar, if subjected to the action of a ferment, and exposed, with access of air, to a temperature between 75° and 90°. In different countries, different liquors are used for conversion into vinegar. In France and other wine countries, wine is employed; in Bri- tain, infusion of malt; and in the United States, for the most part, cider. For the use of the white lead manufacturer, it is sometimes made from potatoes. The method pursued in making wine vinegar at Orleans, in France, where it is manufactured in the greatest perfection, is as follows. Casks are employed of about the capacity of 88 wine gallons, those being pre- ferred which have been previously used for a similar purpose. They are placed upright in three rows, one above another, each cask having an opening at the top of about two inches in diameter. In summer, no arti- ficial heat is used; but in winter, the temperature of the manufactory is maintained at about 68°. The wine intended to be converted into vine- gar is kept in separate casks, containing beech shavings, on which the lees are deposited. Twenty-two gallons of good vinegar, boiling hot, are first introduced into each vinegar cask, and at the end of eight days, about two gallons of the wine, drawn off clear, are added; and the same quan- tity is added every eight days, until the casks are full. After this, the vinegar takes about fifteen days to form. At the end of this time, only half the contents of each cask is drawn off, and it is filled up again by the addition of two gallons of wine every eight days as at first. In some cases, however, the quantity of wine added, and the intervals between the successive additions, are greater or less than those here indicated; the variations in this respect depending upon the progress of the fer- mentation. To determine this progress, the vinegar makers plunge a stave into the casks;.and if, upon withdrawing it, they find it covered with froth, they judge that the fermentation is going on properly, and, ac- cordingly, add more wine. Two sorts of wine vinegar occur in commerce, the white and the red; the former being derived from the acetification of white, the latter, of red wine. The red vinegar, however, may be deprived of its colour, and rendered limpid, by being passed repeatedly through animal charcoal. When the infusion of malt is employed, the process is as follows. The infusion, when properly cooled, is put into large and deep fermenting tuns, where it is mixed with yest, and kept in fermentation for four or five days. The liquor is now distributed into smaller vessels, placed in a room heated by means of a stove, and kept there for about six weeks, or until the whole is soured. It is then transferred to common barrels, which are placed in the open air, the bung-holes being simply covered with a tile to keep out the wet; in which situation they are allowed to remain for four or five months, or until perfect vinegar has formed. The process is then completed in the following manner. Large tuns are prepared, with a false bottom, on which is put a quantity of the refuse of raisins and other fruit, technically called rape. These tuns are worked in pairs, one being completely filled with the vinegar from the barrels, and the other only three-fourths filled. In the latter, the fermentation takes place most readily; and the process is rendered more active alternately in one or the other tun, by filling up each daily from the other, until the process is finished. In the United States, cider is the principal liquid from which vinegar is prepared. In families, it is made from cider which has become too sour, and from the daily remains of the family consumption. These are put 12 Acetum. part i. into the vinegar barrel, in a warm place, along with some good vinegar, or with what is called the mother of vinegar, that is, the peculiar gela1- nous coagulum which forms in this liquid during the progress ol the acetous fermentation, and which acts as the ferment. In a few weeKS the vinegar will be formed. . . , When vinegar is made on a large scale from cider, the liquor is placed in barrels with their bung-holes open, which are exposed during the summer to the heat of the sun. The acetification is completed in the course of about two years. The progress of the fermentation, however, must be watched; and so soon as perfect vinegar has formed, it should be racked off into clean barrels. Without this precaution, the acetous fermentation would be followed by the putrid, and the whole of the vine- gar be spoiled. The early cider is not so good for conversion into vine- gar as the late, m consequence of the abundance of malic acid which it contains; for it must be recollected, that in cider, the malic acid is not the subject matter of the acetous fermentation, but the alcohol which it contains as a vinous liquor. Vinegar may be clarified, without injuring its aroma, by throwing about a tumbler full of boiling milk into from fifty to sixty wine gallons of the liquid, and stirring the mixture. This operation has the effect, at the same time, of rendering the red vinegars pale. The changes which occur during the acetous fermentation, are not well understood. It is known that the vinous liquor loses a portion of its carbon, which is converted into carbonic acid by the oxygen of the air. At the same time, there is a slight disengagement of heat; the liquor becomes turbid, and filaments form, which are observed to move in all directions, until, finally, the fermentation being completed, they are de- posited in a mass of a pultaceous consistence. The liquor now becomes transparent, its alcohol is found to have disappeared, and acetic acid to have been formed in its place. How then is this change of alcohol into acetic acid effected ? From a comparison of the ultimate composition of these two substances, alcohol must lose not only carbon, but hydrogen also, to be converted into acetic acid; and it might be supposed that the oxygen of the air combines with a certain portion of the hydrogen of the alcohol, so as to form water. This supposition, however, is inadmissible; for according to Th. de Saussure, the volume of carbonic acid formed during acetification, is precisely equal to the volume of the oxygen ab- sorbed, and, therefore, all the oxygen which disappears, is present in the carbonic acid, and none is left to form water with hydrogen. Consequently, in the present state of our knowledge, we do not know what becomes of the proportional excess of hydrogen existing in alcohol, when compared with acetic acid. It is known with certainty, that alcohol, either pure, or simply diluted with water, will never undergo the acetous fermentation; but if it be pro- perly reduced with water, and mixed with yest, or some other ferment, ace- tification will take place. According to Chaptal, if two pints of brandy be carefully mixed with about four drachms of yest, and a little starch, there will be produced an extremely strpng vinegar, which will begin to form about the fifteenth day. Vinegar may also be made by means of the starch and ferment mixed with water, without the alcoholic liquor; but in this case the process will be longer, and the product much weaker. The contact of air has been supposed to be essential to acetifica- tion; but this is a mistake, as there are several liquius which will acetify, even in close vessels. Thus sugar, mixed with water in which the gluten of wheat has fermented, will be converted into vinegar, without access PART I. Acetum. 13 of air, and without any appearance of fermentation. The infusion of malt, provided sufficient hops have not been added, becomes sour in the course of a few days; and the same is the case with beer and cider if long kept. It must be conceded, therefore, that the access of air, though promo- tive of the acetous fermentation, is not essential to its production. A fer- ment, however, seems always necessary to the change; but of its'precise mode of action, we as yet remain ignorant. Properties. Vinegar, when good, is of an agreeable penetrating odour, and pleasant acid taste. Its colour varies from pale yellow to deep red. When long kept, particularly if exposed to the air, it becomes muddy and ropy, acquires an unpleasant smell, putrefies, and loses its acidity. This result may, in a good measure, be prevented by boiling it for a few minutes, so as to coagulate and separate the gluten, and immediately transferring it to bottles, which must be well corked. The essential parts of vinegar are acetic acid and water, in the propor- tion of about five parts of the former to ninety-five of the latter; but be- sides these it contains various impurities, derived from the particular vinous liquor from which it may have been prepared. Among these may be mentioned, colouring matter, gum, starch, gluten, sugar, a little alco- hol, and frequently malic and tartaric acid, with minute portions of alka- line and earthy salts. It is sometimes intentionally adulterated with sul- phuric, muriatic, or nitric acid. Sulphuric acid may be detected by ace- tate of baryta, which throws down sulphate of baryta, distinguishable from the malate and tartrate of the same base, by its insolubility in nitric acid. Muriatic acid is shown by a precipitate being formed by nitrate of silver, insoluble in nitric acid, but perfectly soluble in water of ammo- nia. To detect nitric acid, add a little common salt, saturate by adding carbonate of potassa, and evaporate to dryness. Upon the dry residue, pour equal parts of sulphuric acid and water, through which some gold- leaf has been diffused, and boil the mixture. If nitric acid be present, nitro-muriatic acid will be generated, in consequence of the decomposi- tion of the common salt, and the gold-leaf will be dissolved. English malt vinegar always contains sulphuric acid. The strongest vinegar of this kind is called, according to Mr. Phillips, proof vinegar, and is distinguished by the manufacturer as No. 34. It is estimated to contain five per cent, of real acid, and the maker is allowed to mix with it one-thousandth of its weight of sulphuric acid. In testing this vinegar for impurities, allowance should be made for this proportion of sulphuric acid, equivalent to one grain and a fifth of sulphate of baryta to the fluidounce. Sometimes grains of paradise, spurge flax, capsicum, or pellitory of Spain, are added to vinegar to give it more pungency. When present, they can be detected by the taste. Vinegar is rendered aromatic by various additions; such as citron, thyme, and rosemary. Henry's aromatic vinegar is an acetic solution of camphor, and of the oils of cloves, lavender, and rosemary. The Edin- burgh College have a preparation of this kind under the name of Acidum Aceticum Aromaticum, to which the reader is referred. Medical Properties. Vinegar, when taken into the stomach, acts as a refrigerant and diuretic. With this view, it is added to diluent drinks in inflammatory fevers. It is useful in those affections of the urinary organs, attended with a white deposition in the urine, consisting of phosphate of lime and phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. It is sometimes used as a clyster, diluted with twice or thrice its bulk of water. It has been sup- posed to be a powerful antidote to the narcotic poisons, but this is pro- 14 Acetum.—Acid. Acet. Empyreum. part bably a mistake. In the case of opium at least, the best authorities unite in considering it worse than useless, as it rather gives activity to the poi- son than neutralizes it. Externally it is employed as a fomentation or lotion, in bruises and sprains. Diluted with water, it forms the best means of clearing the eye from small particles of lime. Its vapour is inhaled in certain states of sore throat; and is diffused through sick rooms, under the impression that it neutralizes pestilential effluvia, though in fact it has no other effect than to cover unpleasant smells. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms; as a clyster from one to two fluid- ounces. Off. Prep. Acetum Destillatum, U.S.; Cataplasma Sinapis, Lond., Dub.; Ceratum Saponis, U.S., Lond.; Emplastrum Ammoniaci, U.S.; Linimentum iEruginis, Lond.; Tinctura Opii Acetata, U.S. ACIDUM ACETICUM EMPYREUMATICUM. U.S. Pyroligneous Acid. " Acidum aceticum impurum, ex ligno destillatum. Impure acetic acid, obtained from wood by distillation. U. S. Acide pyro-ligneux, Fr.; Brenzliche holzsaure, Germ.; Acido pyrolignico, Ital. This is the impure acetic acid obtained from wood by destructive dis- tillation in close vessels. Wood, when charred, yields many volatile products, among which are an acid liquor, empyreumatic oil, and tar. When the carbonization is performed in close vessels, these products, which are lost in the ordinary process of charring, may be collected, and at the same time, a larger amount of charcoal obtained. The acid liquor, when freed as far as possible by rest from tar and oil, is the pyroligneous acid. Carbonization in close vessels, with a view to preserve the volatile products, was first put in practice by Mollerat at Nuits in France. The apparatus employed at Choisy, near Paris, is thus described byThenard: It consists of, 1st, a furnace with a moveable top; 2d, a strong sheet- iron cylinder, sufficiently capacious to contain a cord of wood, and fur- nished with a sheet-iron cover; 3d, a sheet-iron tube proceeding horizon- tally from the upper and lateral part of the cylinder to the distance of about a foot; 4th, a copper tube connected with the last, which is bent in such a manner as to plunge successively to the bottom of two casks filled with water, and, after rising out of the second, is then bent back, and made to terminate in the furnace. At the bottom of the cask, the tube dilates into a ball, from the under part of which another tube pro- ceeds, which, passing water-tight through the cask, terminates over the vessel, intended to receive the condensible products. The sheet-iron cylinder, being filled with wood, and closed by luting on its cover with fire-clay, is let down into the furnace by the help of a crane. The fire is then applied, and when the process is completed, the cylinder is removed by the same means, to be replaced by another. Dur- ing tb,e carbonization, the volatile products pass off by the tube; and those which are condensible, being the pyroligneous acid and tar, are condensed by the water in the casks, and collect in the lower bends of the tubes, from which they run into the several recipients; while the in- condensible products, being inflammable gases, are emitted finally in the furnace, where by their combustion they assist in keeping up the heat. Eight hundred pounds of wood, afford on an average thirty-five gallons of crude acid, weighing about three hundred pounds. tart i. Acid. Acet. Empyreum.—Acidum Arseniosum. 15 Properties. Pyroligneous acid is a brown transparent liquid, having a strong smoky smell. It consists essentially of acetic acid, diluted with more or less water, and holding in solution tar and empyreumatic oil. It may be purified by chemical means, and furnishes a strong acetic acid, which is officinal with the London College under the name of Acidum Aceticum Fortius. In its purified state it is sometimes used in the ma- nufacture of white lead. In the extensive lead works of the Messrs. Lewis, of Philadelphia, pyroligneous acid is made on a large scale, after the French method, with a view to its subsequent purification and em- ployment in the manufacture of this article. Medical and Economical Properties. Pyroligneous acid, in a dilute state, has been used as an application to gangrene, and ill-conditioned ulcers. It acts on the principle of an antiseptic and stimulant. Several cases in which it was successfully employed, are reported in a paper by Dr. T. Y. Simons, of Charleston, S. C. published in the fifth volume of the American Journal of Medical Sciences. This acid is advantageously applicable to the preservation of animal food. Mr. William Ramsay, (Edin. Phil. Journ. iii. 21.) has made some inter- esting experiments on its use for this purpose. Herrings and other fish, simply dipped in the acid and afterwards dried in the shade, were effec- tually preserved, and when eaten, were found very agreeable to the taste. Herrings slightly cured with salt, by being sprinkled with it for six hours, then drained, next immersed in pyroligneous acid for a few seconds, and afterwards dried in the shade for two months, were found by Mr. Ram- say to be of fine quality and flavour. Fresh beef, dipped in the acid in the summer season for the short space of a minute, was perfectly sweet in the following spring. Professor Silliman states, that one quart of the acid added to the common pickle for a barrel of hams, at the time they are laid down, will impart to them the smoked flavour as perfectly as if they had undergone the common process of smoking. ACIDUM ARSENIOSUM. U.S. Arsenious Acid. Off Syn. ARSENICUM ALBUM, Lond.; OXIDUM ARSENICI, Ed.; ARSENICI OXYDUM ALBUM, Dub. White Arsenic; Acide arsenieux, Arsenic blanc, Fr.; Arsenichte saure, Weisser Arsenik, Germ.; Arsenik, Dan., Swed., Polish; Acidoarsenioso, Arsenico, Ital.,- Ar- senica- bianco, Span. The basis of all the arsenical preparations is a peculiar metal called arsenic. This metal is brittle, and of a steel-gray colour, possessing much brilliancy when recently broken, or sublimed. Exposed to the air, its surface becomes dull and blackens. Its texture is granular, and some- times a little scaly. Rubbed in the hands it communicates a peculiar odour, but it is devoid of taste. Its sp. gr. is 5.7 according to Berzelius, 5.9 according to Guibourt. When heated to about 356° of Fahr. it sub- limes without fusing, giving rise to vapours having an alliaceous or gar- licky odour. Its equivalent number is 38. Arsenic forms two well characterized combinations with oxygen, both of which are acids, called arsenious and arsenic acid. Preparation, fyc. Arsenious acid is prepared chiefly in Bohemia and Saxony, where it is procured on a large scale as a collateral product dur- ing the smelting of cobalt ores, which are almost invariably accompanied by arsenic. These ores are roasted in reverberatory furnaces, with long 16 Acidum Arseniosum. part i. horizontal flues. The arsenic is converted by combustion into arsenious acid, which sublimes and condenses on the sides of the flues. In this state it is not pure, and requires a second sublimation, which is per- formed in cast iron vessels, fitted with conical heads of the same mate- rial, having an opening at the summit. The vessels are placed over a tur- nace, and brought to a red heat, when a portion of the impure arsenious acid is thrown in through the opening, which is immediately stopped. This portion being sublimed, a new portion is introduced in a similar manner. Finally the vessels are allowed to cool, and the heads being re- moved, the purified acid is found attached to them in vitreous layers, at first as transparent as glass, but gradually becoming, by contact of the air, opaque at their surface. These are broken up into fragments of a convenient size, and thrown into commerce. The arsenious acid which reaches this country is generally packed in casks, containing from two to five hundred pounds, and is shipped principally from the ports of Ham- burg and Bremen. Properties. Arsenious acid, as it occurs in commerce, is in masses ex- hibiting a vitreous fracture. It is of a milk-white colour exteriorly, but internally, perfectly transparent. As first sublimed, the whole of the mass is transparent, but it gradually becomes white and opaque, the change proceeding progressively from the surface inwards. The nature of this change has not been well determined. According to Guibourt, the sp. gr. of the transparent variety is 3.73; that of the opaque, 3.69. As it occurs in the shops for medicinal use, it is in the form of a white powder, almost as fine as flour. In this state it is sometimes adulterated with powdered chalk, or sulphate of lime, a fraud which is easily detected by exposing the powder to a heat, sufficient to evaporate the arsenious acid, when these impurities will be left behind. It is erroneously stated to have an acrid taste. Dr. Christison asserts that it possesses hardly any taste, inas- much as it produces merely a faint sweetish impression on the palate. It has no smell, not even when in a state of vapour; as the garlicky odour, which is sometimes attributed to it, belongs only to the vapours of the metal, and when apparently arising from the acid itself, is, in fact, ow- ing to its reduction. Its point of sublimation is at a low red heat. When sublimed slowly, it condenses in regular octahedrons. It consists of one equivalent of arsenic 38, and an equivalent and a half of oxygen 12 = 50. Arsenious acid is soluble in water. According to Guibourt, its solubili- ty differs according as it is transparent or opaque. Thus he states that 1000 parts of water at 69° Fahr. dissolve 9.6 of the transparent, and 12.5 of the opaque variety; and the same quantity of boiling water dissolves 97 parts of the transparent, retaining 18 when cold, and 115 parts of the opaque, retaining 29 on cooling. These results show that a boiling satu- rated solution, when allowed to cool, retains more of the acid in solution, than can be dissolved in cold water without a preliminary boiling, and teach the propriety of employing a boiling temperature when searching for this mineral. The solubility of the powder of arsenious acid, as pre- pared for use in medicine, corresponds, of course, with that of the opaque variety. Medical Properties. The preparations of arsenic have been used both internally and externally. Internally, their action is alterative and febri- fuge; externally, for the most part, violently irritant. They have been considered as peculiarly applicable to the treatment of diseases of a peri- odical character. In commencing with their exhibition, the dose should at first be small, and afterwards gradually increased, its operation being carefully watched. When the specific effects of the medicine are pro- PART I. Acidum Arseniosum. 17 duced, it must be immediately laid aside. These are a general disposi- tion to oedema, especially of the face and eyelids, a feeling of stiffness in these parts, itching of the skin, tenderness of the mouth, loss of appe- tite, and uneasiness and sickness of the stomach. The peculiar swelling produced is called oedema arsenicalis. The principal preparations now in use, are the arsenious acid, the article under consideration; and the solu- tion of arsenite of potassa, or Fowler's solution. The arseniate of potas- sa and sulphuret of arsenic are also occasionally employed. It may be a question whether the different arsenical preparations act precisely in the same way, when exhibited internally. It is the opinion of some, that the election need only be regulated by the convenience for exhibition. Dr. Physick, whose opinion is entitled to great respect, thinks otherwise; for, with regard to the arsenious acid, and the solution of ar- senite of potassa, (Fowler's solution,) the result of his experience is, that they act differently, and cannot be substituted for one another. Some writers have entirely proscribed the use of the arsenical pre- parations in medicine. Amongst these, one of the most authoritative, is Mr. Brande. He conceives the introduction of them into the Pharmaco- poeias to be a great evil; as facilitating, by legalizing the medicinal use of the poison, its employment for self-destruction and murder. At the same time, he believes that more harm than benefit has resulted from its ad- ministration. (Man. ofPharm. p. 29.) We confess, however, that we do not share these opinions with Mr. Brande. Arsenic is confessedly a viru- lent poison, and is often employed for criminal purposes; but when it is considered how extensively it is used in the arts, it is questionable whe- ther its exclusion from the materia medica would much reduce the faci- lity of obtaining it. On the other hand, it may be asked, are poisons more dangerous as medicines than other medicinal articles, if given in their appropriate doses? We should think not; though we are free to ac- knowledge, that dangerous mistakes in the dose are more apt to be made. If the views of Mr. Brande were carried out, they would lead to the dis- carding of the corrosive chloride of mercury, hydrocyanic acid, strych- nia, and other articles from the materia medica; but we believe that no practitioner will be found willing to strike these substances from,the list of remedies. While we wish to retain arsenic as a potent remedy in the hands of the judicious practitioner, we should be glad to find the public authorities in the United States subjecting the sale of this poison to strict regulations, under heavy penalties for their infraction. Speaking of the practice in Europe, Berzelius remarks, " Le commerce de l'acide arsenieux est tou- jours soumis a une surveillance severe, et l'achat n'en est permis qu'a ceux, qui ont donne des preuves legales qu'il leur est indispensable dans l'exercise de leur etat. A l'exception de ces cas, I'acheteur et le yendeur sont soumis a une responsabilite tres severe." (Traite de Chimie, ii. 431.) Arsenic has been exhibited in a great variety of diseases, the prin- cipal of which are scirrhus and cancer, especially cancer of the lip; anomalous ulcers; intermittent fever; chronic rheumatism, particularly that form of it attended with pains in the bones; diseases of the bones, especially nodes; frontal neuralgia; and different painful affections of the head, known under the names of hemicrania and periodical headach. It has been extolled as a remedy in certain cutaneous affections, particularly lepra. Cases of its efficacy in several of these diseases, will be men- tioned here, while its effects in other complaints will be noticed under the article Liquor Arsenitis Potassx, to which the reader is referred. Its ex- ternal application has been principally restricted to cancer, and anomalous 3 18 Acidum Arseniosum. part i. and malignant ulcers, especially of that kind denominated noli me tangere. For a complete list of the diseases in which arsenic has been tried, the reader is referred to Mr. Hill's paper in the Edin. Med. Journal, Vols. v. and vi. Justamond considered arsenic as a specific in cancer; but subsequent experience has not justified his opinion. This metal, however, is thought highly of by many practitioners in cases of lupus, and ill-looking sores of the face, lips, and tongue, and often effects a cure. Arsenic is the chief ingredient in nearly all the empyrical remedies for the cure of cancer by external application. Plunket's caustic was a secret remedy of this kind, of great celebrity, and consisted of the ran- unculus acris, (greater crowfoot,) and the flammula vulgaris, (lesser crowfoot,) each an ounce, bruised, and mixed with a drachm of arsenious acid, and five scruples of sulphur. The whole is beaten into a paste, formed into balls, and dried in the sun. When used, these balls are rubbed up with yolk of egg, and spread on pig's bladder. The use of the vegetable matter is to destroy the cuticle; for unless this is done, the arsenic will not act. Mr. Samuel Cooper thinks this caustic was never of any permanent benefit in genuine cancer, but has effected per- fect cures in some examples of lupus, and malignant ulcers of the lips and roots of the nails. TJje late Dr. Rush, (Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. ii. 212,) has given an ac- count of the cancer powder of a certain Dr. Hugh Martin, who was sur- geon to one of the Pennsylvania regiments during the American Revo- lution. Dr. Rush had witnessed its application in several cases, and bears testimony to its having performed complete cures in several can- cerous ulcers, mostly seated on the nose or cheeks; but where the dis- ease was much connected with the lymphatic system, or with scrofula, it always failed. Upon the death of Dr. Martin, Dr. Rush obtained some of the powder, and having subjected it to analysis, found its active ingre- dient to be arsenious acid, in the proportion of about one-fortieth of the whole powder. The remainder was vegetable matter, and in the speci- men which Dr. Rush experimented upon, consisted of belladonna. The powder in question, gave less pain than the nitrate of silver, and seldom produced an eschar, but only moderate inflammation; the vegetable matter with which it was mixed mitigating the violence of its action. Dr. Martin sometimes touched the ulcers with a feather, dipped in a liquid, which was probably a solution of arsenious acid. At Paris, an arsenical paste of the following composition, is often used as an application to malignant ulcers:—Red sulphuret of mercury, 70 parts; dragon's blood, 22 parts; arsenious acid, 8 parts. It is applied made up into a paste with saliva. The pain produced by this compo- sition is very severe, and its application dangerous. The practice of sprinkling unmixed arsenious acid on ulcers, is now reprobated, as fraught with the greatest danger. Mr. S. Cooper characterizes it as a murderous practice. It may, however, be used either in solution, or re- duced by some mild ointment. A lotion may be formed with eight grains of arsenious acid, and the same quantity of carbonate of potassa, dissolv- ed in four fluidounces of distilled water; and a cerate, with one drachm of arsenious acid, and twelve drachms of simple cerate. The lotion is in effect a solution of arsenite of potassa. Febure's remedy for cancer consisted of ten grains of arsenious acid dissolved in a pint of distilled water, to which were added an ounce of extractum conii, three fluidounces of liquor plumbi subacetatis, and a flui- drachm of tinct. opii. With this the cancer was washed every morning. part i. Acidum Arseniosum. 19 For internal exhibition, Febure's formula was arsenious acid two grains; rhubarb half an ounce; syrup of chicory, q. s.; distilled water a pint. Of this mixture, a tablespoonful was given every night and morning, with half a fluidrachm of the syrup of poppies. Each dose contained about a twelfth of a grain of the acid. The dose was gradually increased to six tablespoonfuls. Arsenious acid may also be given in pills. A convenient formula is to mix one grain of arsenious acid with ten grains of sugar, and to beat the mixture with crum of bread, so as to form a pilular mass, to be di- vided into ten pills, one of which is a dose. Properties of Arsenious Acid as a Poison.—Arsenious acid, in an over- dose, administered internally, or applied externally, acts with very great energy, and generally destroys life in a short time. The symptoms it produces are an austere taste; fetid state of the mouth; frequent ptyalism; continual hawking; constriction of the pharynx and oesophagus; the sensation of the teeth being on edge; hickups; nausea; anxiety; fre- quent sinkings; burning pain at the precordia; inflammation of the lips, tongue, palate, throat, and oesophagus; irritable stomach, so as not to be able to support the blandest drinks; vomiting of matters, sometimes brown, at other times bloody; black, horribly fetid stools; pulse small, frequent, concentrated, and irregular, occasionally slow and unequal; palpitations; syncope; insatiable thirst; burning heat over the whole body, or a sensation of icy coldness; difficult respiration; cold sweats; scanty, red, and bloody urine; change in the countenance; a livid circle round the eye-lids; swelling and itching of the body; livid spots over the surface, and occasionally a miliary eruption; prostration of strength; loss of feeling, especially in the feet and hands; delirium; convulsions, often accompanied with insupportable priapism; falling off of the hair; detachment of the cuticle, &c. It is very rare to observe all these symp- toms in the same individual. In some cases, indeed, they are nearly all wanting, death taking place without any pain or prominent symptom. After death,'the morbid appearances are various. In some cases, no ves- tige of lesion can be discovered. The appearances, however, in the generality of cases, are the following. The mouth, stomach, and intes- tines are inflamed; the stomach and duodenum exhibit spots resembling eschars, and perforations of all their coats; and the villous coat of the former is in a manner destroyed, and reduced to the consistence of a reddish-brown pulp. Dr. Christison divides the poisonous effects of arsenious acid into three orders of cases, according to the character and violence of the symptoms. J.n the first order, the poison produces symptoms of irritation and in- flammation along the course of the alimentary canal, and commonly kills in from one to three days. In the second, the signs of inflammation are moderate, or even altogether wanting, and death occurs in five or six hours, at a period too early for inflammation to be always fully developed. In the third order of cases, two stages occur, one in which inflammatory symptoms are developed, as in the first order; the other, marked by symptoms referrible to nervous irritation, such as imperfect palsy of the arms or legs, epilepsy, tetanus, hysterical affections, mania, and coma. It is a gsneral character of this poison to induce inflammation of the stomach in almost all'instances, provided death does not take place im- mediately, whatever be the part to which it is applied. Thus the appli- cation of the poison to a fresh wound, will give rise to the same morbid appearances, in the stomach and intestines, as when it is swallowed. In 20 Acidum Arseniosum. part i. some cases, observed by Drs. Mall and Baillie, the rectum was much in- flamed, while the colon and small intestines escaped. The precise rank which should be assigned, in the scale of poison, to arsenious acid when applied externally, is still involved in some obscu- rity. One set of observers contend that its external application is not attended with great danger, while another party conceives that it acts as a virulent poison. Hunter, Sir Everard Home, Joeger, Brodie, Dr. Camp- bell of Edinburgh, Smith, and Orfila, have all adduced experiments on the inferior animals, which prove that arsenious acid, inserted into a recent wound, causes death in a longer or shorter period. Indeed, some observations prove that the poisonous effects of the substance are de- veloped in a smaller dose, when used in this way, than when taken into the stomach. Nor are there wanting many well authenticated facts of its deleterious effects on the human constitution. Roux reports the case of a young woman under his care, whose death was caused, after ago- nizing sufferings, by the application of an arsenical paste to a cancer- ous breast. Sir Astley Cooper, in his lectures, bears testimony to the dangerous effects of arsenic externally applied. On the other hand, some writers contend for the safety of the external application of this poison. Mr. Blackadder applied it in large quantities to sores, and never wit- nessed a single instance in which it acted constitutionally. Dr. Randolph of Philadelphia, (North Amer. Med. and Surg. Journ. v. 257,) states that Dr. Physick informed him, that though he had frequently and suc- cessfully employed arsenic by external application, he had never, in the whole course of his practice, seen it productive of the injurious conse- quences which have been attributed to it. In weighing such conflicting testimony, we are constrained to believe, that the circumstances of the different experiments and observations must have been different, and we think that the observations of Blackadder and Harles point out in what this difference consists. It seems to depend entirely on the circum- stances of the application, as being favourable or unfavourable to absorp- tion. Blackadder attributes his very success to the large quantities of the arsenic which he employs, and which he contends, kills the part, without being absorbed; and this is probably the fact. Harles's observations may be explained on the same principle. He contended that the outward ap- plication of arsenic is comparatively safe to ulcers, either common or malignant; but is dangerous to parts recently wounded and pouring out blood. Here the difference would seem to consist in the greater liability to absorption in the latter than in the former case. The very dilution caused by the blood, may be an efficient promoter of absorption, and is entirely consonant with the experiments of Dr. Campbell, who found that arsenic acted with more energy, when dissolved in water, than in the solid state. The case in which Dr. Randolph employed this mineral, by the advice of Dr. Physick, was one of ulcerated scrotum, in which it acted by producing the death of the diseased part, a state evidently un- favourable to absorption. The formula employed was one part of the arsenious acid to five parts of the flowers of sulphur. Arsenious acid, when it produces the death of a part, does not act, strictly speaking, as an escharotic. It destroys the vitality of the organized structure, and its decomposition is the consequence. The true escharotic acts chemically by decomposing the part to which it is applied, inducing a change incompatible with its life. This distinction being preserved, we can explain why the operation of the arsenious acid is often limited to the destruction of the diseased formations, which are known to possess a feeble vitality, while the true escharotics destroy both the diseased and healthy PART I. Acidum Arseniosum. 21 structure. When the arsenious acid succeeds as an external application to cancers, which is a very rare occurrence, it acts on this principle; destroy- ing the vitality of the whole diseased portion, and causing it to be thrown off as something foreign to the system. Upon the whole, new facts are wanting to clear up this difficult sub- ject. Judging from the lights we possess, the external application of ar- senious acid, in case it is absorbed, is attended with very great danger; and the conditions of a part and of the system at large, favourable or otherwise to absorption, are too little understood, to make it warrantable to use this poison externally without the greatest caution. Treatment of Poisoning by the Arsenious Acid:—It may not be out of place in this work, to make a few remarks under this head. We possess no antidotes for arsenic. Magnesia, proposed by Mr. Hume, and char- coal, by M. Bertrand, are not found, on further observation, to be enti- tled to this character. Three cases are on record, of recoveries after the use of large doses of magnesia, but it is more than probable that col- lateral circumstances contributed to the cure. With regard to charcoal, Orfila has proved, that, whatever may be its powers when swallowed mixed with arsenious acid, it has no effect when taken after the ingestion of the poison. Though we possess no antidotes, still medical treatment is not without its use. If vomiting has not occurred, an emetic of sul- phate of zinc should be administered. This should be followed immedi- ately with copious draughts of milk, or some mucilaginous drink, to en- courage vomiting and to wash out the stomach. Hahneman recommends one pound of soap dissolved in four pints of water; a teacupful of which is to be given warm every three or four minutes. This remedy has the advantage of being almost always at hand. Chalk and water, or lime- water may be employed. Lime-water is supposed to be useful on the prin- ciple of its forming with the poison an insoluble arsenite of lime, which is nearly inert. Orfila, however, contends that it is useful only when the arsenious acid is swallowed in solution; that when in the solid state, the arsenite of lime is not formed. It might be a question, however, how far part of the poison, even if swallowed in the solid state, may not become dissolved in the stomach, and thus be brought into the state to be acted upon by the lime-water. If this object could be partially accomplished, it would point out the propriety of drinking the lime-water as warm as could be conveniently borne. Should the patient survive long enough for inflammatory symptoms to supervene, they should be combated on the general principles for treating inflammation. Accordingly, bleed- ing and leeches may become necessary; and in the course of the treat- ment, emollient enemata, antispasmodics, and narcotics, will often prove useful to allay pain and nervous irritation. Convalescence is generally long and distressing, and hence it becomes of the greatest importance to attend to diet, which should consist exclusively of milk, gruel, cream, rice, and similar bland articles. Reagents for detecting Arsenious Acid.—As arsenic is so frequently em- ployed for criminal purposes, or self-destruction, it becomes of importance to detect its presence in medico-legal investigations. The tests for this poison may be divided into, 1. those which indicate indirectly its presence; and 2. those which demonstrate its presence incontestibly by bringing it to the metallic state. The former embrace all the liquid reagents, so called; the latter the different processes for metallization. The most characteristic reagents, according to Dr. Christison, are sul- phuretted hydrogen, ammoniacal nitrate of silver, and ammoniacal nitrate of copper. In the opinion of this writer, the concurrent indications of 23 Acidum Arseniosum. PART I. these three tests are all-sufficient for detecting in an infallible manner the presence of arsenious acid; but we think that in questions involving hie and death, it is best to make assurance doubly sure, and, therefore, that the metallization of the poison ought never to be omitted. In using sulphuretted hydrogen, the solution must be neutral. An ex- cess of alkali may be neutralized with acetic acid; and an excess of nitric or sulphuric acid, by potassa. A slight excess of acetic acid is^ not, however, hurtful, as it rather favours the subsidence of the precipitate, which is, of course, sulphuret of arsenic. According to Dr. Christison, this test is so exceedingly delicate, that it detects the poison, when dis- solved in one hundred thousand parts of water. The colour it produces, is lemon or sulphur-yellow; but the presence of vegetable or animal mat- ter commonly changes it to a whitish or brownish tint. Some medical jurists recommend the use of sulphuretted hydrogen water; but the gas is far preferable. It can be applied with much convenience by using one of Dr. Hare's self-regulating gas reservoirs. Dr. Christison has shown, that how delicate soever the ammoniacal nitrate of silver may be in ordinary solutions, it is not to be depended upon in dilute solutions of this poison, where animal or vegetable matter is present; for the precipitate is either essentially altered in colour, or not formed, in consequence of the organic principles having a solvent power over it. The ammoniacal sulphate of copper is a test of very great delicacy. The precipitate occasioned by it is an arsenite of copper, of an apple- green or grass-green colour. Its operation is prevented by muriatic, ni- tric, sulphuric, acetic, citric, and tartaric acids in excess; as also by am- monia. But a greater objection to it is, that its indications fail, when animal or vegetable matter is present, in case the arsenic is not abundant. Of the three tests mentioned, perhaps the sulphuretted hydrogen is the most delicate; and it has the advantage of yielding a precipitate eligible for subsequent reduction. But they are all liable to the objection of being obscured in their indications, where the amount of poison is minute, by the presence of organic principles; a complication which constitutes the most difficult problem which can be presented to the attention of the med- ical jurist. As this case includes all others of more easy solution, we shall suppose it presented to the medical chemist, and shall indicate the steps which are to be pursued. Having obtained general indications of the presence of arsenic, the first step will be to separate the organic matters; the second, to throw down the arsenic by means of sulphuretted hydrogen; and the third, to reduce the precipitate obtained. The following are the directions laid down by Dr. Christison, for sepa- rating the organic principles. Boil the suspected matter with distilled water for half an hour, and filter, first through gauze, to separate the coarser particles, and afterwards through paper. To the transparent solution thus obtained, add acetic acid, which will coagulate some animal principles. To ascertain whether the solution has been sufficiently freed from animal matter by this measure, neutralize with ammonia, and test a small portion of it with the ammoniacal nitrate of silver. If this gives a characteristic precipitate, the solution is sufficiently deprived of animal matter; if not, another measure must be adopted to separate it. This consists in first rendering the solution neutral or slightly alkaline, next faintly acidulating with muriatic acid, and then adding an excess of ni- trate of silver. This salt precipitates the animal matter in combination with oxide of silver. After this step, the excess of silver is thrown down part I. Acidum Arseniosum.—Acidum Citricum. 23 by a slight excess of chloride of sodium, (common salt,) and the solution filtered. Having in this manner disembarrassed the solution from organic matter, the free nitric acid is neutralized by potassa in slight excess, and the so- lution acidulated with acetic acid. A stream of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed through it, which will throw down the arsenic as a sul- phuret. If the proportion of arsenic be very small, only a yellowness will be produced, owing to the precipitate being soluble in an excess of the precipitant. In thy* case it is necessary to boil, to drive off the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen. The precipitate is then collected and dried. It it be very minute, it is to be allowed to subside, and the supernatant liquid having been withdrawn, the remainder is to be poured into a filter. After filtration, the precipitate is washed down to the bottom of the filter by means of the instrument employed for washing scanty precipitates. The filter is then gently pressed between folds of bibulous paper, and the precipitate removed with the point of a knife before it dries, and then dried in little masses on a watch-glass. In this manner Dr. Christison states that it is easy to collect so small a portion as the twenty-fifth part of a grain of the sulphuret. The precipitate is then to be reduced by means of a flux, which Dr. Christison recommends to consist of two parts of ignited carbonate of soda and one of charcoal, as preferable to black flux. The best flux for the arsenious acid is freshly ignited char- coal. . . The general formula for reduction is as follows. The operation is per- formed in a small glass tube. If the matter to be operated on is small, it is introduced to the bottom of the tube, and then a little of the flux is added to cover it, taking care that the materials are conducted to their place by means of a small glass funnel, without soiling the empty part of the tube. The heat is to be applied by means of a spirit lamp, the upper part of the material being heated first with a small flame, and afterwards the lower part with a larger flame. A little water, disengaged at first, should be removed with a roll of filtering paper, before sufficient heat has been applied to sublime the metal. When the dark crust begins to form, the tube should be held quite steady, and in the same part of the flame. This crust is the metallic arsenic, having the surface next the tube resplendent and polished, and the interior surface crystallized. Its characters are quite distinct, even when it does not amount to more than the three-hundredth part of a grain. Off. Prep. Arsenicum Album Sublimatum, Lond., Dub.; Liquor fo- tassae Arsecitis, U.S., Lond., Ed. ACIDUM CITRICUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Citric Acid. Off. Syn. ACIDUM CITRICUM CRYSTALLIZATUM, Ed. Acidum limonis; Acide citrique, Fr.; Citronensaure, Germ.; Acido citrico, Ital., Span. Citric acid is the peculiar acid to which limes and lemons owe their acidity, being found in greatest abundance in the former. It is present also in the juice of other fruits, though in smaller amount; such as the cranberry, (vaccinium oxycoccus,) the red whortleberry, (vaccinium vitis idaea,) the berry of the bittersweet, (solanum dulcamara,) the red goose- berry, (ribes grossularia,) the garden currant, (ribes rubrum,) the straw- berry, (fragaria vesca,) the raspberry, (rubus idaeus,) and the tamarind, (tamarindus Indica.) 24 Acidum Citricum. part I. The acid is extracted from lemon or lime juice by a very simple pro- cess, for which we are indebted to Scheele. The juice is imported into the United States from the West Indies, principally from the Island of Cuba, for the purpose of being converted into syrup, or manufactured into citric acid. To obtain the acid, the juice is first completely saturated by carbonate of lime, (chalk or whiting,) in fine powder, and the citrate of lime which is formed is allowed to subside. This is then washed re- peatedly with water, and decomposed by diluted sulphuric acid. An in- soluble sulphate of lime is immediately formed, and the citric acid being separated, remains in the supernatant-liquor. This is carefully concentrat- ed in leaden boilers, until a pellicle begins to form, when it is transferred to other vessels in order to cool and crystallize. As the crystals obtained by the first crystallization are generally brown, they require to be redis- solved and recrystallized for several successive times, in order to render them pure and white. Mr. Parkes, in his Chemical Essays, has given a very interesting ac- count of the manufacture of citric acid, which is made in large quanti- ties in London for the use of the calico-printers. As Mr. P. was himself engaged in this manufactnre, the following outline of the process which . he pursued, may be received with the greater confidence. The juice is placed in large square vats, in which it is saturated with clear soft chalk or whiting, gradually added, to prevent excessive effervescence. The in- soluble citrate of lime is allowed to subside, and the supernatant liquid, containing mucilage, saccharine matter, and a little malic acid, is drawn off by means of a syphon. The citrate is then passed through a sieve, and' washed with warm water, until all remaining mucilage, and other soluble impurities are removed. It is then decomposed, while yet moist* by means of sulphuric acid, taken in the proportion of nine poifhds and a half of the strong acid diluted with seven gallons of water for every ten pounds of chalk used in the saturation. Some deduction, however, may be made from the water of dilution, in consideration of the water present in the moist citrate. The quantity of chalk expended may be easily ascertained by weighing out more than is sufficient for the purpose of saturation, and weighing the remainder after the point of saturation shall have been attained. The sulphuric acid is poured in gradually, and immediately after the water has been added to it, in order that the de- composition may be assisted by the heat generated by its dilution; and at the same time, the whole is well stirred with a strong wooden spatula, in order to prevent the citrate from running into lumps and thus escaping the action of the acid. As the point of complete decomposition of the citrate approaches, the sulphate of lime precipitates more and more quickly, and the quantity of supernatant liquid becomes sensibly greater. When the decomposition has been completed, the solution of citric acid is drawn off, and the sulphate of lime washed repeatedly with cold water, to separate any remains of acid. The solution of the acid, together with the washings, is then concentrated by evaporation in leaden boilers, until it reaches the sp. gr. of about 1.130; when the fire is to be withdrawn and the acid removed to a smaller leaden vessel, where it undergoes a further concentration by means of a water-bath. When the bulk of the acid liquor becomes very much reduced by evaporation, it requires to be transferred to a still smaller leaden boiler, where it is further evaporated by the same means, until the liquor acquires the consistence of very thin molasses. It is then watched with the greatest attention for the appearance of a pellicle, upon the occurrence of which over the whole surface of the liquor, the acid is to be deemed sufficiently concen- part I. Acidum Citricum. 25 trated, and must be immediately removed from the water-bath, and laid aside to cool and crystallize. At this stage of the process, were the re- moval of the acid neglected, the whole would be in danger of being car- bonized and spoiled. The liquor is allowed to remain at rest for four days, that crystals may be formed, from which the mother waters, presenting a black colour, are to be drained. These are then diluted with ten or twelve times their bulk of water, saturated anew by means of carbonate of lime, and treated in all respects as if they consisted of fresh lemon juice. By this proceeding, a new crop of crystals will be obtained. Whatever care may be taken in conducting the process, the first crop of crystals will be of a light brownish colour; but if" the solution has been burnt during the evaporation, or the mucilage imperfectly separated, they will be dark brown or black. In order to have the crystals perfectly pure and white, it is necessary to subject them to repeated solutions and crystallizations. According to Mr. Parkes, a gallon of good juice, if the process be well conducted, will yield eight ounces of white crystals. But the product depends very much on the quality of the juice, which is very variable as to the quantity of citric acid which it contains. The more recent the juice the better its quality. That which is stale will sometimes be quite sour, without containing any citric acid, in conse- quence of having undergone the acetous fermentation. In decomposing the citrate of lime by sulphuric acid, it is not prudent to trust altogether to the appearance of the liquor, in deciding when the decomposition is complete. A more certain criterion is to filter a small portion of the liquor, and test it with acetate of lead. If no sulphuric acid be present in excess, the precipitate will consist of citrate of lead, and be entirely soluble in nitric acid. On the contrary supposition, the precipitate will be a mixture of citrate and sulphate of lead, the latter salt remaining undissolved on the addition of that acid. It is desirable to have an excess of sulphuric acid; as it rather favours than otherwise the crystallization of the acid. It is found necessary also, to add occasionally a small portion of sulphuric acid to the citric acid liquor, during the progress of its concentration. Citric acid is manufactured in different cities of the United States, for use in the arts and in medjeine. In Philadelphia it is made in the usual manner, from the juice §f limes and lemons, to the extent, perhaps, of 500 pounds annually, and commands the wholesale price of § 2 75, or S3 00 per pound. The juice which is imported is of variable quality, furnishing from four to six ounces of the pure crystallized acid to the gallon. Citric acid is very properly placed in the Materia Medica of the United States and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, as an article purchased from the manufacturing chemist, and not made by the apothecary. The Dublin , College introduces it among its preparations; while the London places it in the materia medica, and gives a process for preparing it. The following is an outline of the processes of the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias for preparing this acid. The London College add an ounce of prepared chalk, or a sufficient quantity for saturation, to a pint of lemon juice# The resulting citrate of lime is then dried, and decom- posed by means of nine fluidounces of diluted sulphuric acid. The pro-, cess of the Dublin College is the same, with the exception that the dried citrate is decomposed by a quantity of diluted sulphuric acid, equal to eight times the weight of the chalk employed. It would seem, that both these colleges use an excess of sulphuric 4 26 Acidum Citricum.—Acidum Muriaticum. acid. The acid added should always bear a fixed relation to the chalk employed; and this relation was ascertained by Mr. Phillips to be nearly six fluidounces of the officinal diluted sulphuric acid to the ounce ot chalk. This chemist considers the drying of the citrate to be an injudi- cious measure, as the salt will be more readily decomposed in the moist State* ■ ■ u f f Properties. Citric acid is a white crystallized solid, in the torm oi rhomboidal prisms, terminated with dihedral summits. Its sp. gr. is l.o. It undergoes no change in the air. Its taste is strongly acid, and almost caustic. When heated, it dissolves in its water of crystallization, and at a higher temperature undergoes decomposition, becoming yellow or brown, and forming a very sour syrupy liquid, which is uncrystalhzable. By destructive distillation, it gives rise to water, empyreumatic oil, ace- tic and carbonic acids, carburetted hydrogen, and a peculiar empyreu- matic acid, called pyro-citric acid. Citric acid dissolves in three-fourths of its weight of cold, and half its weight of boiling water. A weak solution of it has an agreeable taste, but cannot be kept, as it undergoes spontaneous decomposition. It is incompatible with alkaline solutions, whether pure or carbonated; con- verting them into citrates; also with the earthy and probably all the me- tallic carbonates, most acetates, the alkaline sulphurets, and soaps. It consists of two equivalents of hydrogen 2, four equivalents of carbon 24, and four equivalents of oxygen 32 = 58. The crystallized salt contains two equivalents of water 18, making its equivalent 76. Medical Properties. Citric acid is principally employed for making a substitute for lemonade, and in the composition of effervescing draughts. When added in the quantity of nine drachms and a half to a pint of dis- tilled water, it forms a solution of the average strength of lime juice. Of this solution, or of lemon juice, a scruple of bicarbonate of potassa saturates three fluidrachms and a half; a scruple of carbonate of potas- sa, four fluidrachms; and a scruple of carbonate of ammonia, six flui- drachms. Half a fluidounce of lemon juice, or of an equivalent solution of citric acid, when saturated, is considered as a dose. An agreeable substitute for lemonade may be formed by dissolving from two to four parts of the acid, mixed with a little sugar and oil of lemons, in nine hundred parts of water; or a scruple of the acid may be dissolved in a pint of water, and sweetened to the taste with sugar which has been rubbed on fresh lemon peel. ACIDUM MURIATICUM. U.S. Lond., Ed., Dub. Muriatic Acid. Spirit of sea-salt, Marine acid, Hydro-chloric acid ; Acide Hydro-chlorique liquide, Fr.; Kochsalzsaure, Germ.; Zoutzuur, Dutch; Acido Muriatico, Ital., Span. The muriatic acid of pharmacy and the arts, is a solution of muriatic acid gas in water, and is sometimes called liquid muriatic acid. Its offi- cinal sp. gr., according to the United States, London, and Dublin Phar- macopoeias, is 1.16; according to the Edinburgh, 1.17. The three British colleges give a process for this acid; while in the United States Pharma- copoeia, it is placed exclusively in the materia medica, as an article to be procured from the manufacturing chemist. Preparation. Muriatic acid is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid part l. Acidum Munaticum. 27 on chloride of sodium or common salt. It is procured, on a large scale, by distilling the salt with an equal weight of sulphuric acid, somewhat diluted with water, from iron stills furnished with earthen heads, into earthenware receivers containing water. Thus obtained, it is contami- nated with iron and other impurities, and is not fit for medicinal em- ployment. The acid is generally prepared in the laboratory, by saturating distilled water with the gas in a Wolfe's apparatus. A quantity of pure fused* common salt is introduced into a retort or matrass, placed in a sand-bath. The vessel is then furnished with an S tube, and connected with the series of bottles, each two-thirds full of water. A quantity of sulphuric acid is then gradually added, equal in weight to the common salt employed, and diluted with one-third of its weight of water. The materials ought not to occupy more than half the body of the retort. When the extrication of the gas slackens, heat is applied, and gradually increased until the water in the bottles refuses to absorb any more, or until upon raising the heat, no more gas is found to come over. As soon as the process is completed, boiling water is to be added to the contents of the retort, in order to facili- tate the removal, of the residue. During the progress of the saturation, the water in the several bottles suffers an increase of temperature, which lessens its power of absorption. It is therefore expedient, in order to ob- tain a strong acid, to keep the bottles cool by means of water or ice. The connecting tubes need not plunge deeply into the acid. The rationale of the process for obtaining this acid is sufficiently sim- ple. Common salt is a compound of chlorine and sodium; muriatic acid, of^chlorine and hydrogen; and liquid sulphuric acid, of dry sul- phuric acid and water. The water is decomposed; its oxygen, combin- ing with the sodium of the common salt, generates soda, which unites with the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of soda; while the hydrogen and chlorine, being in the nascent state, combine, and escape as muriatic acid gas. The residue of the process is consequently sulphate of soda or Glauber's salt. It is reserved by the British colleges to be dissolved and crystallized, in order to form the officinal sulphate of soda. (See Sodse Sulphas.) The following is a synopsis of the proportions of the ingredients pre- scribed by the British Colleges for obtaining this acid.—London. Two pounds of dried chloride of sodium; twenty ounces of sulphuric acid, and a pint and a half of distilled water. Edinburgh. Equal weights of salt, acid, and water; the salt having been previously4 exposed to a red heat. Dublin. One hundred parts of dried salt, eighty-seven of sulphuric acid of commerce, and one hundred and twenty-four of water. The three colleges distil the materials to dryness, the London and Edin- burgh directing the use of a sand-bath. One-third of the water prescribed in the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, and one-half of that di- rected in the Dublin, is mixed with the sulphuric acid; the rest being put in the receiver to absorb the gas. The dilute acid is not added to the salt until it has cooled. The London College add the salt to the diluted acid, previously introduced into the retort, while the other two colleges pursue the more convenient plan of adding the acid to the salt. From the above view, it is perceived that the British Colleges differ as to the proportion of acid to the salt. Theory calls for a little less than * According to Thenard, the fusion of the common salt will very much facilitate the conducting of the process. 28 Acidum Muriaticum. part x. 82 parts of the liquid acid to 100 parts of the common 8alt»J^Jf th® London College uses about 83 parts, the Dublin 87, and the Edinburgh 100 parts of acid to that quantity of salt. The London proportions are, therefore, nearest the theoretical quantities, and would even seem to furnish a slight excess of acid; but from careful experiments made by Dr. Barker of Dublin, it appears to be demonstrated, that to decompose completely the whole of the salt, 87 parts of strong acid are necessary; for it is a principle now generally conceded, as was contended for many years ago by Dr. Hope, that to produce a complete decomposition ot a salt, it is often necessary to use more than an equivalent quantity oi the decomposing agent. Accordingly, Dr. Hope declares in favour ot the Edinburgh process, that equal weights of acid and salt give a larger product of muriatic acid, with less expense of time and fuel, than when a smaller quantity of acid is employed. The drying and igniting of the common salt, is not done with a view, as was formerly supposed, of driving off water of crystallization, as it does not contain any; but we are assured by Dr. Duncan, that the igni- tion has the effect of affording a product which is less coloured, and it secures the incidental advantage of freeing the salt from nitrate of po- tassa. Properties of the Liquid Acid. Muriatic acid, when pure, is a transpa- rent, colourless liquid, of a corrosive taste and suffocating odour. Ex- posed to the air, it emits white fumes, owing to the acid gas uniting with the moisture of the atmosphere. As ordinarily seen, it has a straw co- lour, due to the presence either of iron or of a minute portion of organic matter, such as cork, wood, &c. When concentrated, it blackens organic matters like sulphuric acid. Its sp. gr. varies with its strength. When as highly concentrated as possible, its density is 1.21; when of proper medicinal strength, 1.16. Mixed with nitric acid, it forms nitro-muriatic acid, or aqua regia. (See Acidum Nitro-muriaticum.) As it is desirable to know, on many occasions, in chemical and pharma- ceutical operations, the exact strength of muriatic acid corresponding to different densities, and as the acid kept in the shops, is of very varia- ble qualities, we subjoin a table, prepared by Mr. E. Davy, giving this information. Specific Quantity of Specific Quantity of Specific Quantity of gravity. acid per cent. gravity. acid per cent. gravity. acid per cent. 1.21 42.43 1.14 28.28 1.07 14.14 1.20 40.80 1.13 26.26 1.06 12.12 1.19 38.38 1.12 24.24 1.05 10.10 1.18 36.36 1.11 22.30 1.04 8.08 1.17 34.34 1.10 20.20 1.03 6.06 1.16 32.32 1.09 18.18 1.02 4.04 1.15 30.30 1.08 16.16 1.01 2.02 Muriatic acid is characterized by the formation, on the addition of ni- trate of silver, of a white precipitate, (chloride of silver,) which is in- soluble in acids, but readily soluble in ammonia. It is incompatible with alkalies, most earths and oxides, whether pure or carbonated; also with PART I. Acidum Muriaticum. 29 sulphuret and tartrate of potassa, tartar emetic, nitrate of silver, and so- lution of subacetate of lead. Adulterations.—This acid, when pure, will evaporate without residue in a platinum spoon. If sulphuric acid be present, muriate of baryta will cause a precipitate in the dilute acid of sulphate of baryta. If nitric acid' be present, the muriatic acid will have the properties of aqua regia, and will consequently act upon gold leaf. The presence of iron may be de- tected by saturating the dilute acid with carbonate of soda, and adding ferrocyanate of potassa, which will strike a blue colour. Properties of Muriatic Acid Gas.—Muriatic acid gas is a colourless elastic fluid, possessing a pungent odour, and irritating properties to the organs of respiration. It destroys life and extinguishes flame. It reddens litmus strongly, and has the other properties of a strong acid. Its sp. gr., compared with that of air, is 1.28. Subjected to a pressure of 40 atmospheres, at the temperature of 50°, it is condensed into a transparent liquid. It absorbs water with the greatest avidity, and according to the temperature and pressure, unites with a greater or less quantity of that liquid. Water, at the temperature of 69° F., takes up 418 times its vo- lume of the gas, increasing one-third in bulk, and about three-fourths in weight. Water thus saturated constitutes the liquid acid already de- scribed. With metallic oxides it forms either a muriate of the oxide, or a chloride of the metal and water. Composition.—Muriatic acid gas consists of one equivalent of chlorine 36, and one equivalent of hydrogen 1 = 37; or of one volume of chlorine and one volume of hydrogen without condensation. Its constituents ex- plain why it is called hydrochloric acid'in the systematic nomenclature of the French. Medical Properties.—Muriatic acid is refrigerant and antiseptic. It is exhibited, largely diluted with water, in fevers, some forms of syphilis, and in the phosphatic calculous diathesis. Dr. Paris has given it with success in the most malignant cases of typhus and scarlatina, adminis- tered in a strong infusion of quassia. The same writer has found it one of the most efficacious remedies for preventing the generation of worms, after a free evacuation of the bowels. It proves also a good adjunct to gargles in ulcerated sore throat and scarlatina maligna. The dose for internal exhibition is from ten to twenty minims in a sufficient quantity of some bland fluid, as barley water or gruel. In the composition of gar- gles it may enter in the proportion of from half a fluidrachm to two fluidrachms to six fluidounces of the vehicle. Toxicological Properties.—Muriatic acid is occasionally swallowed by accident or design in a poisonous dose. It produces blackness of the lips, fiery redness of the tongue, hickups, violent efforts to vomit, and agoniz- ing pain in the stomach. There is much thirst, great restlessness, a dry and burning skin, and a small and concentrated pulse. If the acid has been recently swallowed, white vapours, of a pungent smell, are emitted from the mouth. The best antidote is magnesia, which acts by saturating the acid. Soap is also useful for the same reason. In the course of the treatment, bland and mucilaginous drinks must be given freely. When inflammation supervenes, it must be treated on the general principles for combating inflammation from other causes. Off. Prej). Acidum Muriaticum Dilutum, Dub.; Acidum Nitro-muria- ticum, Dub.; Antimonii Oxydum Nitro-muriaticum Dub.; Barytae Mu- rias, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Ferrum Ammoniatum, Lond.; Liquor Calcis Muri- atis, U.S., Ed.; Tinctura Ferri Muriatis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. 30 Acidum Nitricum. PART i. ACIDUM NITRICUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. JVitric Acid. Spirit of Nitre, Aqua Fortis; Acide Nitrique, Fr.; Salpetersaure, Germ.; Zalpe- terzuur Skerkwater, Dutch; Skedwatter, Swed.,- Acido Nitrico, Ital, Span. This is a very powerful acid, obtained from nitrate of potassa, or ni- tre, by the action of sulphuric acid. It is officinal in all the Pharmaco- poeias. The British Colleges give a process for obtaining it; but, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, it is more properly included in the Materia Medica, as an article to be purchased from the manufacturing chemist. Its officinal sp. gr. in the United States & Lond. Pharm., is 1,5; in the Dublin, 1.49. The Edin. College do not specify its sp. gr. The usual process adopted in the laboratory for obtaining this acid, is to add to nitrate of potassa in coarse powder, contained in a retort, an equal weight of strong sulphuric acid, poured in, by means of a tube or similar contrivance, so as not to soil the neck. The materials should not occupy more than two-thirds of the capacity of the retort. A receiver being adapted, heat is applied by means of a spirit-lamp, the naked fire, or a sand-bath, moderately at first, but afterwards more strongly, when the materials are observed to be beginning to get solid, in order to bring the whole into a state of perfect fusion. Red vapours will at first arise, and afterwards disappear in the progress of the distillation. Towards its close they will be reproduced, which is an indication that the process is completed. The rationale of this process is sufficiently simple. Nitrate of potassa is a dry salt, consisting of one equivalent of nitric acid and one equiva- lent of potassa. Liquid sulphuric acid consists of one equivalent of dry sulphuric acid and one equivalent of water; and liquid nitric acid, of one equivalent of dry nitric acid and two equivalents of water. The equiva- lent quantities of the materials are, therefore, one equivalent of nitrate of potassa 102, and two equivalents of liquid sulphuric acid 98. Two equivalents of dry sulphuric acid 80, combine with the one equivalent of potassa 48, forming one equivalent of bisulphate of potassa 128, which remains in the retort; while the two equivalents of water from the sul- phuric *cid 18, uniting with the one equivalent of dry nitric acid 54, form one equivalent of liquid nitric acid 72, which distils over. The residuum of the process is, accordingly, the bisulphate of potassa. It is perceived also that liquid sulphuric and nitric acids differ in this respect, that the former contains one, the latter two equivalents of water, to one equivalent of the dry acid. Now nitric acid is found to be incapable of existing in the ordinary liquid state, without being combined with two equivalents of water; and hence the necessity of employing a quantity of liquid sul- phuric acid which contains two equivalents of water, in order to furnish the requisite quantity of water to the nitric acid, to hold its elements to- gether. The quantities of salt and acid for mutual decomposition, as just ex- plained, are 102 of the former, to 98 of the latter. Now this approaches very nearly to equal weights, the quantities found most eligible in prac- tice ; and when it is recollected that the theoretical proportions are based upon the supposition of a perfectly concentrated sulphuric acid, which is not always the condition of the acid of commerce, the slight excess of PART I. Acidum Nitricum. 31 acid, which equal weights would seem to give, may be necessary to make up for any deficiency in its strength. The British Colleges differ somewhat in the proportion of materials which they employ for making this acid. The following is an outline of their respective processes. The London College takes equal weights, (two pounds each,) of dried nitrate of potassa and sulphuric acid. These are mixed in a glass retort, and the nitric acid is distilled by means of a sand-bath, until red vapours arise. The acid is then redistilled from an ounce of nitrate of potassa. Two hundred and twelve grains of crystallized carbonate of soda are satu- rated by one hundred grains of this acid. The Dublin College mixes one hundred parts of nitrate of potassa with ninety-seven parts of commercial sulphuric acid, "in a glass retort, and with an apparatus adapted to ^collecting the acid products, distil until the residuum in the retort shall concrete, and again become liquid." The Edinburgh College first obtains a red fuming acid under the name of nitrous acid, by one formula; and by a separate one, exposes this to a gentle heat to dissipate the red portion, and convert it into nitric acid. The following is an outline of these two processes. Acidum Nitrosum. Ed.—Pour sixteen ounces of sulphuric acid on two pounds of bruised nitrate of potassa, and distil by means of a sand- bath by a heat gradually increased, until the iron pot begins to be red- hot. The sp. gr. of this acid is 1.52. Acidum Nitricum. i£ti.—Take any quantity of nitrous acid, and pour it into a glass retort. Then having adapted a cooled receiver, expose the acid to a very gentle heat, until the red portion has passed over, and the nitrous acid, nearly deprived of colour, has been converted into nitric acid. The proportions of the London College are perhaps the best for ob- taining nitric acid, for reasons already explained. They are preferred also by Thenard, and being equal weights, have the advantage of being ea- sily recollected. The redistillation from nitre, ordered by this College, is intended to free the product from any contaminating sulphuric acid. It is, however, unnecessary;-for if the sulphuric acid be added in the pro- cess, without soiling the neck of the retort, the nitric acid obtained will never be impure from this cause. The Dublin proportions of acid and nitre were deduced by Dr. Barker from careful experiments, and approach more nearly to the exact quan- tities for mutual decomposition than equal weights. They may be con- sidered as virtually the same with the London. The Edinburgh College uses a proportion of sulphuric acid considera- bly less than the other colleges, being only two-thirds of the weight of the nitre. The consequence is, that sufficient water is not present to con- dense the elements of the nitric acid; and accordingly a part of the acid is resolved into nitric oxide or red nitrous acid fumes, which uniting with the undecomposed acid, give rise to a red acid product, erroneously called by this College nitrous acid. Hence arises the necessity of the snbseque.nt application of heat to dissipate the red portion, in the pro- cess for bringing it to the state of nitric acid. According to the Edinburgh proportions, it is perceived that there are less than two, but more than one, equivalent of sulphuric acid to one of the salt. It has been very justly remarked by Mr. Phillips, that one equivalent of sulphuric acid is competent to decompose one equivalent of nitrate of potassa, but not sufficient, from the deficiency of water, to con- dense and preserve all the nitric acid extricated. Dr. Hope, however, 32 Acidum Nitricum. part i. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, defends ^V™' cess of the College, and insists that the proportion of sulphuric acid used is necessary and sufficient to decompose the nitre, and that an acid of great strength, and free from sulphuric acid, is obtained. Dr. Duncan also advocates the Edinburgh proportions, by alleging that in the Paris Codex the same proportions are ordered. The question of the relative eligibility of the two processes is not to be decided solely by the strength of the product, but by its strength and amount considered conjointly, and by those incidental advantages or dis- advantages which may attach to either process. Neither ought the nitrous acid product to be made the basis of comparison; but rather the nitric acid, which may be obtained from it by the subsequent exposure to heat. Comparing the two processes in this point of viewr, it cannot fail to strike everyone, that the copious production of red vapours, as happens in the Edinburgh process, must lessen the nitric acid, as these are in fact the evidence of the partial decomposition of the acid; and though it may be alleged, that they are in the nitrous acid, they are lost when this is con- verted into nitric acid. Mr. Phillips found that 150 parts of red nitrous acid, of the sp. gr. 1.52, yielded, by the application of heat, only 114 of pale nitric acid, of sp. gr. 1.49; while 27 parts of red nitrous acid of sp. gr. 1.58 distilled over. The loss, therefore, amounted to 9 parts. It is also an incidental disadvantage of the Edinburgh process, that the residual salt is a mixture of sulphate and bisulphate of potassa, which is not so readily washed out as the bisulphate, and the removal of which is much more apt to cause the fracture of the retort. Any saving which arises from the use of less sulphuric acid in the Edinburgh process, is perhaps more than counterbalanced by this circumstance. As the main objection to the process of the Edinburgh College is that the quantity of water supplied to the elements of the nitric acid is too small, while the sulphuric acid used is amply sufficient to decompose the salt; the question arises, how far it would answer to add the necessary quantity of water to the sulphuric acid, before its addition to the nitre. This plan has been adopted by Dobereiner, who has found that a larger though less concentrated product is obtained, when one part of water is added to nine parts of sulphuric acid, just before its addition to the nitre. As in medicine and most of the arts, a strong nitric acid is not requir- ed, we would suggest, that one equivalent of nitre might be decomposed with least loss of acid, by being distilled with one equivalent of liquid sul- phuric acid, previously united with three equivalents of water. The water here would form a nitric acid with four equivalents of water, constituting a liquid acid, in which the acid and water are united with the strongest affinity, and which boils without undergoing any change. On these prin- ciples, Berzelius states, that where it is not necessary to have a concen- trated nitric acid, it is best to dilute the sulphuric acid with an equal weight of water, before commencing the distillation. Whenever this plan is adopted, iron distillatory vessels would be inadmissible, as the di- lute sulphuric acid would act on them much more rapidly than when it is in a concentrated state. We have stated above, that the red acid of the Edinburgh College is erroneously called nitrous acid. It is in fact nitric acid holding nitric oxide in solution. Indeed, the acid of the other Colleges, is to a certain extent of the same nature, as it is generally yellow from the presence of a small quantity of the same gas. Real nitric acid is perfectly colourless. Nevertheless, it may be proper to add, that according to the equivalent numbers, if we suppose two equivalents of nitric acid, united to one equiv- PART I. Acidum Nitricum. S3 alent of nitric oxide, the compound would correspond to three equivalents of nitrous acid. The red acid, whatever may be its exact nature, is known to be considerably denser than the real pale nitric acid. The officinal red acid, as already stated, has the density of 1.52. When at its highest degree of concentration, it weighs, according to Meissner, 1.63; while the strongest perfectly colourless nitric acid, according to the same au- thority, has the sp. gr. of only 1.48. Upon the whole, we prefer the process of the Dublin College for ob- taining nitric acid. The proportions adopted are good, and the unneces- sary re-distillation of the London College is omitted. Preparation of Nitric Acid for the Arts. Two strengths of nitric acid occur in the arts;—double aqua fortis, which is half the strength of con- centrated nitric acid, and single aqua fortis, which is half as strong as the double. Aqua fortis is frequently obtained by distilling a mixture of nitre and calcined sulphate of iron. By an interchange of ingredients, sulphate of potassa and nitrate of iron are formed, the latter of which, at the distilling heat, readily yields its nitric acid. The sulphate of potassa is washed out of the residue, and the peroxide of iron which is left, is sold under the name of colcothar to the polishers of metals. The distil- lation is performed in large cast iron retorts, lined on the inside with a thick layer of red oxide of iron, to protect them from the action of the acid. The acid is received in large glass vessels containing water. A large portion of the acid is decomposed by the heat into reddish vapours, which are subsequently dissolved in the water, and absorb the oxygen which has been disengaged. The acid thus obtained is red and tolera- bly strong; but it is diluted with water before being thrown into com- merce. The sp. gr. of this acid is about 1.22. In France, nitric acid is manufactured on a large scale from nitre and sulphuric acid, in cast iron cylinders. The cylinders are disposed hori- zontally across a furnace, and are covered internally throughout their whole length with nitre. Two circular cast iron plates, each pierced with a hole, serve to close the extremities. Atone, the sulphuric acid is poured in, and by means of a stoneware tube connected with the other, the nitric acid is collected in receivers. The sulphate of potassa is re- moved after each operation. The iron cylinders are acted upon by the acid; yet notwithstanding this disadvantage, the process, when conducted in such vessels, is attended with a great saving of expense. In England, nitric acid is generally procured for the purposes of the arts, by distilling the materials in earthenware retorts, or cast iron pots with an earthen head, connected with a series of glass or stoneware re- ceivers containing water. The quantity of sulphuric acid employed by the manufacturer, is between one and two equivalents, and hence the pro- duct has an orange-red colour, which is removed by heating the acid. In the United States, nitric acid is made on a large scale, in a distilla- tory apparatus, having the same general arrangement as in France and England. Sometimes a cast iron cylinder is used as in France, and some- times a thick cast iron pot, with an earthenware head. The pot is set in brick work over a fire place, and the materials having been placed in it, the head is luted on with fat lute, and made to communicate with two receivers, either of stoneware or glass, connected together by means of a tube. Large demijohns of glass answer the purpose of receivers very well. The incondensible products are made to pass by means of a tube into a portion of water. The quantity of sulphuric acid employed in dif- ferent establishments, varies from one-half to two-thirds of the weight 5 3 Acidum Nitricum. PART i. of the nitre. In a very large chemical establishment in this city, which we lately had the pleasure of inspecting, through the kindness of the lib- eral proprietor, the proportions employed for a charge are 150 pounds ot nitre to 84 pounds of strong sulphuric acid. Nitrate of soda having been latterly imported into the United States from Peru in large quantities, has been used by some manufacturing chemists, to obtain nitric acid. It yields a larger amount of acid for a given weight than the nitrate ot potassa, but the residuum, sulphate of soda, is less valuable than sulphate of potassa; as the latter salt may be sold to the alum makers at the average price of twenty dollars per ton. Nitric acid is never imported into the United States; the foreign arti- cle not being able to enter into competition with the home manufacture. Properties. Nitric acid, so called from nitre, is a dense liquid, ex- tremely sour and corrosive. It was discovered by Raymond Lully, in the 13th century, and its constituents, by Cavendish, inl784. When per- fectly pure, it is colourless, but as usually obtained, it is of a straw-co- lour, owing to the presence of nitrous acid. When exposed to the air, it emits white fumes, possessing a disagreeable odour. By the action of light, it undergoes a slight decomposition and becomes yellow. Its sp. gr., when as highly concentrated as possible, is 1.5. It acts powerfully on animal matter, producing its decomposition. On the living fibre it operates as a strong caustic. It stains the skin, and most animal sub- stances, of an indelible yellow colour. On vegetable matter, it acts, when concentrated, by imparting oxygen, converting the carbon into car- bonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. When diluted, it converts most animal and vegetable substances into oxalic, malic, and carbonic acids. The general character of its action is to impart oxygen to other bodies, which it is enabled to do in consequence of the large quantity of this prin- ciple which it contains in a state of loose combination. It acidifies sulphur and phosphorus, and oxidizes all the metals, except chromium, tungsten, columbium, cerium, titanium, osmium, rhodium, gold, platinum, and iri- dium. In the liquid state, it always contains water, which is essential to its existence in that state. Mixed with a certain quantity of water, it forms the diluted nitric acid of the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. (See Acidum Nitricum Dilutum.) It combines with salifiable bases and forms nitrates. With muriatic acid, it constitutes nitro-muriatic acid or aqua regia. (See Acidum Nitro-muriaticum.) When of the sp. gr. of 1.42, being composed of one equivalent of dry acid and four equivalents of water, it boils at 250°. When either stronger or weaker, it volatilizes at a lower temperature, and by losing more acid than water in the first case, and more water than acid in the second, it constantly approaches to the sp. gr. of 1.42, when its boiling point becomes stationary. As in many chemical and pharmaceutical operations, a nitric acid be- low the standard strength is necessarily employed, it often becomes im- portant to know the proportion of dry acid, and of acid of the standard strength of 1.5, contained in an acid of any given specific gravity. The following table, drawn up from experiments by Dr. Ure, gives informa- tion on these points. PART I. Acidum Nitricum. 35 Table, showing the Quantity of Liquid Nitric Acid, (sp. gr. 1.5) and of Dry Nitric Acid, contained in 100 parts of the Acid at different Densities. Sp.Gr. Liq. Acid in 100 Dry Acid in 100. Sp.Gr. Liq. Acid in 100 Dry | Acid in 100. Sp.Gr. Liq. Acid in 100 Dry j Acid in 100. Sp.Gr. Liq. Acid in 100 Dry Acid in 100 1.5000 1.4980 1.4960 1.4940 1.4910 1.4880 1.4850 1.4820 1.4790 1.4760 1.4730 1.4700 1.4670 1.4640 1.4600 1.4570 1.4530 1.4500 1.4460 1.4424 1.4385 1.4346 1.4306 1.4269 11.4228 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 79.700 78.903 78.106 77.309 76.512 75.715 74.918 74.121 73.324 72.527 71.730 70.933 70.136 69.339 68.542 67-745 66.948 66.155 65.354 64.557 63.760 62.963 62.166 61.369 60.572 1.4189 1.4147 1.4107 1.4065 1.4023 1.3978 1.3945 1.3882 1.3833 1.3783 1.3732 1.3681 1.3630 1.3579 1.3529 1.3477 1.3427 1.3376 1.3323 1.3270 1.3216 1.3163 1.3110 1.3056 11.3001 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 59.775 58.978 58.181 57.384 56.587 55.790 54.993 54.196 53.399 52.602 51.805 51.068 50.211 49.414 48.617 47.820 47-023 46.226 45.429 44.632 43.835 43.038 42.241 41.444 140.647 1.2947 1.2887 1.2826 1.2765 1.2705 1.2644 1.2583 1.2523 1.2462 1.2402 1.2341 1.2277 1.2212 1.2148 1.2084 1.2019 1.1958 1.1895 1.1833 1.1770 1.1709 1.1648 1.1587 1.1526 1.1465 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 39.850 39.053 38.256 37.459 36.662 35.865 35.068 34.271 33.474 32.677 31.880 31.083 30.286 29.489 28.692 27.895 27.098 26.301 25.504 24.707 23.910 23.113 22.316 21.519 20.722 1.1403 1.1345 1.1286 1.1227 1.1168 1.1109 1.1051 1.0993 1.0935 1.0878 1.0821 1.0764 1.0708 1.0651 1.0595 1.0540 1.0485 1.0430 1.0375 1.0320 1.0267 1.0212 1.0159 1.0106 1.0053 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4, 3 2 1 19.925 19.128 18.331 17.534 16.737 15.940 15.143 14.346 13.549 12.752 11.955 11.158 10.361 9.564 8.767 7.970 7.173 6.376 5.579 4.782 3.985 3.188 2.391 1.594 0.797 The nitrous acid of the Edinburgh College (Acidum Nitrosum) is a red or orange coloured liquid, exceedingly volatile, and emitting red fumes of a suffocating odour. It consists of nitric acid holding nitric oxide in solution. When diluted with water, it parts with the nitric oxide and becomes successively blue, green, and yellow. Mixed with an equal weight of water, it forms the dilute nitrous acid of the Edinburgh College. (See Acidum Nitrosum Dilutum.) Nitric acid, when uncombined, is recognised by its peculiar action on silver and copper, and by its forming nitre when saturated with potassa. When in the form of a nitrate, it is detected by its action on gold leaf, after the addition of muriatic acid, in consequence of the evolution ot chlorine; or it may be discovered, according to Liebig, by dropping into the liquid to be examined, a sufficient quantity of the solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, to give it a distinct blue tint, and then adding a few drops of sulphuric acid, and boiling the mixture. If a nitrate be present, the liquid will be bleached, or at least rendered yellow. The most common impurities in nitric acid are sulphuric and muriatic acids; the former derived from the acid used in the process, the lat- ter from common salt, which is not an unfrequent accidental impurity in nitre. They may be detected by adding a few drops of the solution of muriate of baryta and nitrate of silver, to separate portions of the nitric acid, diluted with three or four parts of distilled water. If these preci- pitants should produce a cloud, the muriate will indicate sulphuric acid, and the nitrate, muriatic acid. These impurities may be separated by adding nitrate of silver in slight excess, which will precipitate them as 36 Acidum Nitricum. PART I. chloride and sulphate of silver, and then distilling nearly to dryness in very clean vessels. The sulphuric acid may also be got rid of by distil- ling from a fresh portion of nitre, as is practised by the London College. These impurities, however, do not in the least affect the medicinal pro- perties of the acid. . Composition.—Nitric acid in the liquid form consists of one equivalent of dry acid 54, and two equiv. of water 18 = 72. The dry acld_co£ sists of one equiv. of nitrogen 14, and five equiv. of oxygen 40 — 54; or in volumes of one volume of nitrogen, and two and a half volumes ot oxygen, supposed to be condensed, to form nitric acid vapour, into one volume. . . , Incompatibles.—Most of the substances with which nitric acid is in- compatible, may be inferred from what has been already said. It is in- compatible with protosulphate of iron, which it converts into persul- phate, with salifiable bases, carbonates, and sulphurets, and with the acetates of lead and potassa. It is also capable of decomposing alcohol, with which it forms nitric ether. Medical Properties.—Nitric acid is a tonic and antiseptic. Largely diluted with water, it forms a good acid drink in febrile diseases, espe- cially typhus. Dr. Duncan frequently gave it, with unequivocal advan- tage, in the low typhus occurring in the suburbs of Edinburgh. In syphilis, and in the chronic hepatitis of India, it is highly extolled by Dr. Scott, formerly of Bombay. It cannot be depended upon as a remedy in syphilis, but is often an excellent adjuvant in worn out constitutions, either to prepare the system for the use of mercury, or to lessen the effects of that metal on the constitution, by supporting the tone of the system. Externally, it has been used with advantage as a lotion to fetid ulcers, of the strength of about twelve minims to the pint of water. As nitric acid dissolves both uric acid and the phosphates, it was supposed to be applicable to those cases of gravel in which the uric acid and the phosphates are mixed; but subsequent experience has not confirmed its practical efficacy in such cases. Nevertheless, when the sabulous deposite depends upon certain states of disordered digestion, this acid may prove serviceable by restoring the tone of the stomach. The dose is from five to twenty minims in three fluidounces or more of water, given three or four times a day. Nitric acid, in a state of vapour, is considered to be useful for destroy- ing contagion; and hence is employed in purifying gaols, hospitals, and ships, and other infected places. It is prepared for use by the extem- poraneous decomposition of nitre by sulphuric acid. Half an ounce of powdered nitre is put into a saucer, which is placed in an earthen dish containing heated sand. On the nitre, two drachms of sulphuric acid are then poured, and the nitric acid fumes are immediately disengaged. The quantities just indicated are considered to be sufficient for disin- fecting a cubic space of ten feet. Fumigation in this manner was first introduced by an English physician, Dr. Carmichael Smyth, who re- ceived for its discovery a reward from the British Parliament of five thousand pounds. It may well be doubted whether the nitric acid, as a disinfector, is at all comparable to chlorine; and since the introduction of the chlorides of lime and soda as disinfecting agents, this gas has been brought into so manageable a form, that its use may very well supersede that of every other agent employed with similar intentions. (See Calcis Chhridum and Sodae Chloridum.) Properties as a Poison.—Nitric acid, in its concentrated state, is the part l. Acidum Nitricum.—Acidum Oxalicum. 37 mineral poison most frequently taken for the purpose of self-destruc- tion. Immediately on swallowing it, there are produced burning heat in the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach; acute pain; disengagement of gas; abundant eructations; nausea and hiccup. Soon after, there occur re- peated and excessive vomiting, the vomited matter having a peculiar odour and taste; tumefaction of the abdomen, with exquisite, tender- ness; a feeling of coldness on the surface; horripilations; icy coldness of the extremities; small depressed pulse; horrible anxieties; continual tossings and contortions; extreme thirst. The breath becomes ex- tremely fetid, and the countenance exhibits a complete picture of suffer- ing. The cases are almost uniformly fatal. The best remedies are, repeated doses of magnesia as an antidote; mucilaginous drinks in large quantities; olive or almond oil in very large doses; emollient fomentations and clysters. Until magnesia can be obtained, an immediate resort to a solution of soap in large amount will be proper. Off. Prep, of Nitric Acid.—Acidum Nitricum Dilutum, IjOnd., Dub.; Acidum Nitro-muriaticum,Dub.; Antimonii Oxydum Nitro-muriaticum, Dub.; Argenti Nitras, U.S., Lond.; Bismuthi Subnitras, U.S., Lond.; Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum, U.S., Lond.; Spiritus ^Etheris Nitrici, Lond.,. Dub.; Unguentum Acidi Nitrici, Dub. Off. Prep, of Nitrous Acid.—Acidum Nitrosum Dilutum, Ed.; Spiritus ^theris Nitrosi, Ed.; Unguentum Acidi Nitrosi, Ed. ACIDUM OXALICUM. Oxalic Acid. Acide Oxalique, Fr.,- Kleesaure, Germ.,- Acido Oxalico, Span. Oxalic acid is not officinal in the United States or British Pharmaco- poeias ; but its importance as a chemical reagent and as a poison, seems to justify a notice of it in the present work. Oxalic acid was discovered by Scheele. It is found both in animals and vegetables. It is generated occasionally in consequence of a diseased action of the kidneys, and deposited in the bladder as an oxalate of lime, forming a peculiar concretion, called from its appearance the mulberry calculus. In vegetables, it occurs in a free state in the bristles of the chick-pea, (Cicer arietinum), combined with potassa as a supersalt in the Rumex acetosa or common sorrel, and the Oxalis acetosella or wood sorrel, and united with lime in several species of lichen, and in the roots of rhubarb, valerian, and of several other plants. It is from the generic appellation oxalis, that it takes its name. Preparation.— This acid may be prepared, by proper management, from the juice of the wood sorrel. The first step is to obtain the bin- oxalate of potassa in crystals, by a careful evaporation of the juice of the plant The excess of acid is then neutralized with carbonate of potassa, and the neutral oxalate obtained is decomposed by acetate of lead. In consequence of a double decomposition, a precipitate of oxalate of lead is obtained. This is to be well washed and dried, and decomposed by means of one-third of its weight of strong sulphuric acid, previously diluted with ten times its weight of water. An insoluble sulphate of lead is formed, and the oxalic acid, being liberated, may be made to crystal- lize by evaporation. The mother waters, by further evaporation, will fur- 38 Acidum Oxalicum. part i. nish fresh portions of crystals, until quite exhausted. By this process a very pure acid may be obtained. The usual process for obtaining oxalic acid consists in decomposing sugar by nitric acid. Four parts of sugar are acted upon by twenty-four parts of nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1.220, and the mixture heated so long as any nitric oxide is disengaged. A part of the carbon of the sugar is converted into carbonic acid by oxygen derived from the nitric acid, which is thereby partially converted into nitric oxide. The undecom- posed nitric acid, reacting on the remaining elements of the sugar, generates oxalic and malic acids, the former of which crystallizes as the solution cools, while the latter remains dissolved. The crystals being removed, a fresh crop may be obtained by further evaporation. The thick mother water which now remains is a mixture of malic, nitric, and oxalic acid; and by treatment with six times its weight of nitric acid, the greater part of the malic acid will be converted into oxalic acid. The new crop of crystals, however, will have a yellow colour, and con- tain a portion of nitric acid, the greater part of which may be got rid of by allowing them to effloresce in a warm place. Many substances besides sugar yield oxalic, by the action of nitric acid; as for example, starch, gum, wool, hair, silk, and many vegetable acids. In every case in which it is thus generated, the proportional excess of oxygen which it contains, compared with every other organic compound, is furnished by the nitric acid. Organic substances also yield oxalic acid, when heated with potassa. Thus shavings of wood, if mixed with a solution of caustic potassa, and exposed to a heat con- siderably higher than 212°, will be partially decomposed and converted into oxalic acid, which then combines with the alkali. This process constitutes, perhaps, the cheapest method of obtaining oxalic acid. Properties.—Oxalic acid is a colourless crystallized solid, possessing a strong sour taste. Its crystals have the shape of slender, flattened, four or six-sided prisms, with two-sided summits; and when exposed to a very dry atmosphere, undergo a slight efflorescence. It dissolves in about nine times its weight of cold, and in its own weight of boiling water. The solution of the crystals takes place with slight crepitation. It dis- solves also, but not to the same extent, in alcohol. The presence of nitric acid renders it more soluble in water. It combines with salifiable bases, and forms the class of salts called oxalates. The most interesting of these are the three oxalates of potassa, called severally, oxalate, binoxalate, and quadroxalate, and the oxalate of lime. The binoxalate of potassa is the salt of sorrel, sometimes absurdly called in the shops, the essential salt of lemons; and is employed for removing iron moulds from linen. It acts, in these cases, by its excess of acid forming a soluble salt with the peroxide of iron constituting the stain. This acid has a very strong affinity for lime, and forms with it an in- soluble precipitate, consisting of oxalate of lime, whenever the acid and earth are brought into contact. Hence, oxalic acid and its soluble com- binations are the best tests we possess for lime; and conversely, a solu- ble salt-of lime, for oxalic acid. When lime is searched for, the oxalate usually employed is the oxalate of ammonia, as being the most conve- nient. So strong is the mutual attraction between this acid and lime, that the former takes the latter, even from sulphuric acid. Hence, the addition of a soluble oxalate disturbs the transparency of a solution of sulphate of lime. Oxalic acid is distinguished from all other acids, by the form of its PART I. Acidum Oxalicum. 39 crystals, and by its solution yielding a precipitate with lime-water, insolu- ble in an excess of the acid. Composition. Oxalic acid consists of two equivalents of carbon 12; and three equiv. of oxygen 24 = 36. When crystallized, three equiv. of water 27, must be added, making the equiv. of the crystals 63. Two equivalents of this water may be driven off by a regulated heat by which the acid is made to effloresce; but the third cannot be removed without destroying the acid itself. Accordingly, as in the case of nitric acid, we have no knowledge of anhydrous oxalic acid in an uncombined state. From the composition of oxalic acid, as given above, it is plain that this acid corresponds in composition to carbonic acid and oxide, taken together, and is, therefore, intermediate, in the quantity of oxygen which it contains, between this acid and oxide. Notwithstanding it contains less oxygen than carbonic acid, it is incomparably a stronger acid, which circumstance may be accounted for by supposing some peculiarity in the mode in which its constituents are combined. The composition of the acid not only corresponds with the united constituents of carbonic acid and oxide; but there is reason to believe that these two compounds are ac- tually its proximate constituents; for if it be treated with strong sulphuric acid, the whole of the water will be abstracted, and the elements of the dry oxalic acid will be instantly resolved into equal volumes of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide. Oxalic acid seems, therefore, to require one equivalent of water as a bond of union between its elements, without which they arrange themselves in a new binary order. Oxalic acid combines with salifiable bases in two principal ways. Sometimes it drops its essential equivalent of water, which at other times it retains. Thus the oxalate of lead is a compound of the dry acid and the protoxide of lead; while the oxalate of lime retains the one equiva- lent of water. Dulong has suggested that the proto-hydrated acid might be viewed as a hydracid, consisting of three equiv. of carbonic acid and one equiv. of hydrogen, and that where the acid loses one equiv. of wa- ter, it is made up between the hydrogen of his acid and the oxygen of the base. According to this view, when oxalic acid combines with pro- toxide of lead, the hydrogen of the acid unites with the oxygen of the protoxide, forming water, which is dissipated, while the carbonic acid combines with the metallic lead. For oxalates susceptible of this hypo- thetical view, Dulong has proposed the name of carbonides. Whatever theory we may adopt, it is certain that in oxalate of lead and similarly constituted oxalates, if we suppose the oxygen of the protoxide transfer- red to the elements of the oxalic acid, we shall have what is equivalent to three equiv. of carbonic acid, and one of metal; but as we have no ad- mitted instance of carbonic acid combining directly with a metal, it seems unlikely that Dulong's view will prove correct. Medical and Toxicological Properties. According to Dr. A. T. Thom- son, oxalic acid in small doses, largely diluted with water and sweetened to the taste, forms an agreeable, cooling beverage, which may be used in febrile diseases as a substitute for lemonade. Notwithstanding the safety of its employment in this way, it is a virulent poison, producing death with great rapidity and certainty. Instances are on record of its proving fatal in ten minutes, and few survive beyond an hour. As this acid is generally kept in the shops, and not a few instances are on record of its fatal effects, when taken by design, or by mistake for Epsom salt, we shall feel ourselves justifiable in being somewhat full on its toxicolo- gical relations. 40 Acidum Oxalicum. part i. Oxalic acid was first noticed as a poison by Mr. Royston in 1814; since which time it has been principally investigated in this relation by Dr. A. T. Thomson of London, Dr. Percy of Lausanne, Dr. Coindet of Geneva, and Dr. Christison of Edinburgh. Since its properties of certainty and rapidity as a poison have been more generally known, its employment for committing suicide has become more frequent. In consequence of the general resemblance which the crystallized ox- alic acid bears to Epsom salt, many fatal mistakes have occurred since the acid has become so extensively an article of commerce, in conse- quence of its being sold for that saline purgative. Nothing can be easier than to distinguish them; for upon tasting a minute portion of the acid, which may be done with perfect safety, it will be found strongly sour, whereas the salt in question is bitter. Unfortunately, however, in the instances of these fatal mistakes, no suspicions being awakened, the solu- tion is swallowed with the greatest rapidity, and the mischief is done before the victim is aware of his danger. Oxalic acid acts on the animal economy in two principal ways, ac- cording as its solution is concentrated or dilute. When concentrated, it causes exquisite pain, followed by violent efforts to vomit; then sudden dulness, languor, and great debility, and finally death without a strug- gle. When dilute, it acts in a totally different manner. Dissolved in twenty times its weight of water, it possesses no corrosive, and hardly any irritating power, and yet it operates as a deadly poison, causing death by acting indirectly on the brain, spinal marrow, and heart. The morbid appearances caused by oxalic acid are various. In a dissec- tion reported by Dr. Christison, the mucous coat of the throat and gul- let had an appearance as if scalded, and that of the gullet could be easily scraped off. The inner coat of the stomach was pultaceous, in many points black, in others red; and that of the intestines, similarly but less violently affected. In another case recorded by the same author, the whole villous coat of the stomach was either softened or removed, as well as the innep membrane of the oesophagus, so that the muscular coat was exposed, and this coat exhibited a dark gangrenous appearance, being much thickened, and highly injected. The stomach usually contains a dark fluid, resembling coffee-grounds, consisting chiefly of altered blood. In a few cases, after death by this acid, no morbid appearances are discoverable. In the treatment of poisoning by oxalic acid, the remedial measures must be taken with great promptitude. If the antidotes are not at hand, and vomiting is not free, emetics will be proper. The stomach pump would be useful; but no delay in the application of other remedies is ad- missible, in anticipation of its use. Dr. Christison objects to the use of warm water to promote vomiting, from a fear that it would increase the danger by promoting the absorption of the poison; but it may be a ques- tion whether this evil, considering the incidental benefit of the water in promoting vomiting, is not less than that of the corrosion of the sto- mach, which copious dilution has a tendency to prevent. The proper antidotes are magnesia and chalk, suspended in water; and as soon as either can be procured, it must be administered in large and frequently repeated doses. These substances act by neutralizing the poison, form- ing with it an insoluble oxalate of magnesia or lime, either of which is inert. Alkalies as antidotes are inadmissible, as the soluble salts of this acid are likewise poisonous. The best tests for the detection of oxalic acid in the contents of the sto- mach or in the vomited matter, in cases of suspected poisoning by this part i. Acidum Oxalicum.~ Acidum Sulphuricum. 41 acid, are muriate of lime, sulphate of copper, and nitrate of silver. The first causes a white precipitate of oxalate of lime, known by its being soluble in nitric acid ; the second, a bluish-white precipitate of oxalate of copper; and the third, a dense white one of oxalate of silver, which, when dried and heated, becomes brown and detonates faintly. When the antidotes have been freely used during life, the poison will be in the state of oxalate either of lime or magnesia. Here the oxalate found, is to be boiled with a solution of carbonate of potassa, whereby an oxa- late of potassa will be generated; and this must then be examined by the re-agents above indicated. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Sulphuric Acid. Off Syn. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM VENALE, Dub. Oil of Vitriol; Acide Sulphurique, Fr.; Vitriolbl, SchwefelsaUre, Germ.; Acido Sol- forico, ltal.; Acido Sulfurico, Span. Sulphuric acid is placed in the Materia Medica of all the Pharmaco- poeias noticed in this work, as an article to be obtained from the whole- sale manufacturer. Its officinal sp. gr., as prescribed in the U.S. Pharm., is 1.8485; in the London and Dublin, 1.850; and in the Edinburgh, 1.845. These differences in density are so slight, that a virtual agreement may be said to obtain in the strength of the different officinal acids. Preparation.—Sulphuric acid is obtained by burning sulphur, mixed with one-eighth of its weight of nitre, over a stratum of water, contain- ed in a chamber lined with sheet lead. If the sulphur were burnt by it- self, the product would be sulphurous acid, which contains only two- thirds as much oxygen as sulphuric acid. The object of the nitre is to furnish, by its decomposition, the requisite additional quantity of oxy- gen. To understand the process, it is necessary to know, that nitric acid contains five, sulphuric acid three, sulphurous acid two, nitric oxide two, and nitrous acid four equivalents of oxygen, combined with one equiv. of their several radicals. One equiv. of sulphur decomposes one equiv. of nitric acid of the nitre, and becomes one equiv. of sulphuric acid, which combines with the potassa of the nitre to form sulphate of potassa. In the mean time, the nitric acid, by furnishing three equiv. of oxygen to form the sulphuric acid, is itself converted into one equiv. of nitric oxide, which is evolved. This gas, by combining with two equiv. of the oxygen of the air, immediately becomes nitrous acid va- pour, which diffuses itself in the leaden chamber. While these changes are taking place, the great excess of sulphur employed is undergoing combustion, and filling the chamber with sulphurous acid gas. The ni- trous and sulphurous acid gases, being thus mingled in the chamber, react on each other: one equiv. of nitrous acid, by the aid of moisture, unites with two equivalents of sulphurous acid, and the united acids precipi- tate on the surface of the water. Here they undergo mutual decomposi- tion, and by the transfer of two equiv. of oxygen from the nitrous to the sulphurous acid, there are formed one equiv. of nitric oxide, which escapes to be converted again into nitrous acid, and two equiv. of sul- phuric acid, which dissolve in the water on the floor of the chamber. It is thus perceived that the nitric oxide performs the part of a carrier of oxygen from the air of the chamber to the sulphurous acid, to con- 42 Acidum Sulphuricum. part i. vert the latter into sulphuric acid. The residue of the process, consist- ing of sulphate of potassa, is sold to the alum makers. # Preparation on the large scale.—The leaden chambers vary in size, but are generally from thirty to thirty-two feet square, and from sixteen to twenty feet high. The floor is slightly inclined, to facilitate the drawing off of the acid, and covered to the depth of several inches with water. There are several modes of burning the mixture of sulphur and mtre>and otherwise conducting the process, but that pursued in France is as follows. Near to one of the sides of the chamber, and at about a foot from its bot- tom, a cast iron tray is placed over a furnace, resting on the ground, and passing through the bottom of the chamber, with a chimney having no communication with it. On this tray the mixture is placed, being intro- duced by a square opening, which may be shut by means of a sliding door, and the lower side of which is even with the surface of the tray. The door being shut, the fire is gradually raised in the furnace, whereby the sulphur is inflamed, and the products already spoken of are generat- ed. When the combustion is over, the door is raised, and the sulphate of potassa removed. A fresh portion of the mixture is then placed on the tray, and the air of the chamber is renewed, by opening a door and valve situated at its opposite side. Next, the several openings are closed, and the fire is renewed. These operations are repeated with fresh por- tions of the mixture, every three or four hours, until the water at the bottom of the chamber has reached the sp. gr. of about 1.2. It is then drawn off and transferred to leaden boilers, where it is boiled down until it has nearly attained the sp. gr. of 1.5. To concentrate it further, it re- quires a higher heat than lead can bear, and accordingly, it is transferred to large glass or platinum retorts, where it is evaporated as long as water distils over. This water is slightly acid, and is thrown back into the chamber. When the acid is fully concentrated, opaque grayish-white vapours arise, and the process, by their appearance, is known to be finish- ed. The acid is allowed to cool, and transferred to large demijohns of green glass, called carboys, which, for greater security, are surrounded with straw or wicker work, and packed in tubs, or flour barrels sawed in two. The English method of manufacturing this acid, as described by Mr. Parkes, is somewhat different. The mixture is usually spread on iron or leaden plates, resting on stands of lead within the chamber, placed at some distance from each other, and a foot or two above the surface of the water. The sulphur is then lighted by means of a hot iron, and the doors closed. If the sulphur and nitre be well mixed, the combustion will last for thirty or forty minutes; and in three hours from the'time of lighting, the condensation of the gases having in that interval been completed, the doors are thrown open for fifteen or thirty minutes, to admit fresh atmospheric air, and to allow time for the residuary nitrogen to escape, preparatory to the next burning. These operations are repeat- ed with fresh charges of the mixture, every four hours, night and day, until the water has attained the requisite acid impregnation, when it is transferred to the leaden boilers, and otherwise treated as already ex- plained. The quantity of the charge for each burning is determined by the size of the chamber, allowing one pound of the mixture for every three hundred cubic feet of atmospheric air which it may contain. As, in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the nitre is the most expen- sive article, many plans have been resorted to, for the purpose of obtain- ing the nitrous acid at a cheaper rate. One plan is to procure it by the igneous decomposition of nitre and dried sulphate of iron, and to pass it PART I. Acidum Sulphuricum. 43 into a chamber already filled with sulphurous acid and atmospheric air, but devoid of water. After an interval of several hours, when the chamber is fully charged with the several gases, a certain quantity of steam from a boiler is allowed to enter with great force. This causes the formation of the sulphuric acid, which precipitates with the condensed steam on the floor of the chamber. Another method of obtaining nitrous acid, is by treating molasses or starch with common nitric acid. In this case, the manufacturer obtains oxalic acid as a collateral product, which serves to diminish his expenses. ' We have explained above the mode of preparation of the common sulphuric acid; but there is another kind known on the continent of Eu- rope by the name of the fuming sulphuric acid of Nordhausen, so called from its properties, and a place in Saxony where it is largely manufac- tured. This acid is obtained by distilling dried sulphate of iron, in large stoneware retorts, heated nearly to whiteness, and connected with re- ceivers of glass or stoneware. The acid distils over, and peroxide of iron is left behind in the form of colcothar. The process for making sulphuric acid by the combustion of sulphur with nitre, was first mentioned by Lemery, and afterwards put in practice by an English physician of the name of Ward. As practised by him, the combustion was conducted in very large glass vessels. About the year 1746, the great improvement of the leaden chambers was introduced by Dr. Roebuck, an eminent physician of Birmingham, where the first ap- paratus of this kind was erected. The acid immediately fell to one- fourth of its former price, and was introduced into many arts, from which it was previously excluded by its dearness. At the present day, immense quantities are manufactured in Great Britain, amounting, in 1823, ac- cording to a calculation of Mr. Parkes, to upwards of six millions of In the United States, the first manufactory of this acid was established hi Philadelphia, by Mr. John Harrison. Many other establishments have been subsequently formed; and at this time, (1832,) there are in successful operation, three in Boston, one in New-York, three in Phila- delphia, two in Baltimore, and one in Pittsburgh. These manufactories supply the entire demand of the United States, no foreign acid being im- ported at the present day. The wholesale price of the acid varies from three and a half to four and a half cents per pound. Properties.— Sulphuric acid is a dense, colourless, inodorous liquid, having an oleaginous appearance, and possessing strong corrosive quali- ties. On the living fibre, it acts as a powerful caustic. Rubbed in small quantity between the fingers, it has an unctuous feel, in consequence of its dissolving the cuticle. In the liquid form, it always contains water, which is essential to its existence. When pure and as highly concentrated as pos- sible, its sp. gr.is 1.8485, a fluidounce weighing a small fraction over tour- teen drachms. Whenever its density exceeds this, the presence of sulphate of lead, or of some other impurity is indicated. It boils at 620°, and freezes at 15°. When diluted, its boiling point is lowered. When of the sp. gr. 1 78, it freezes above 32° ; and hence it is hazardous for manufacturers to keep an acid of that strength in glass vessels in cold weather, as they are liable to burst. With salifiable bases, it forms a numerous class of salts called sulphates. It acts powerfully on organic bodies, whether vegeta- ble or animal, depriving them of the elements of water, developing char- coal, and turning them black. A small piece of cork or wood dropped into the acid, will, on this principle, render it of a dark colour. When diluted with pure water, it ought to remain limpid, and when heated 44 Acidum Sulphuricum. part i. sufficiently in a platinum spoon, it should evaporate without residue. When present in small quantities in solution, it is detected unerringly by muriate of baryta, which causes a precipitate of sulphate of baryta. The most usual impurities are the sulphates of potassa and of lead, the former derived from the residue on the iron tray, the latter from the leaden boiler in which the acid is concentrated. It occasionally contains nitre, which is added to render dark acid colourless. These impurities often amount to 3 or 4 per cent. The commercial acid cannot be expected to be absolutely pure, but it ought not to contain more than one per cent. of impurity when properly manufactured. The fixed impurities are dis- covered by evaporating a portion of the suspected acid, when they will remain. If sulphate of lead be present, the acid will become turbid by dilution. Sulphuric acid, as it occurs in commerce and in the shops, is often under its standard strength; and hence it becomes important to know, how much liquid sulphuric acid of the standard specific gravity, and of dry acid, is contained in an acid of any given density. The following table, drawn up from careful experiments by Dr. Ure, gives information of this kind. The mode of using it, is first to ascertain the specific gravity of any acid by experiment; and then, opposite this specific gravity in the table, will be found the percentage of standard liquid acid, and of dry acid, contained in it. Table of the Quantity of Liquid Sulphuric Acid of Sp. Gr. 1.8485, and of Dry Acid, in 100 parts of dilute Acid at Different Densities. Liq. Dry Liq. Dry Liq. Dry Liq. Dry Sp. Gr. Acid Acid Sp. Gr. Acid Acid Sp.Gr. Acid Acid Sp. Gr. Acid Acid in 100 in 100 in\00 in 100 in 100 in 100 inlOO in 100 1.8485 100 81.54 1.6520 75 61.15 1.3884 50 40.77 1.1792 25 20.38 1.8475 99 80.72 1.6415 74, 60.34 1.3788 49 39.95 1.1706 24 19.57 1.8460 98 79.90 1.6321 73 59.52 1.3697 48 39.14 1.1626 23 18.75 1.8439 97 79.09 1.6204 72 58.71 1.3612 47 38.32 1.1549 22 17.94 1.8410 96 78.28 1.6090 71 57.89 1.3530 46 37.51 1.1480 21 17.12 1.8376 95 77.46 1.5975 70 57.08 1.3440 45 36.69 1.1410 20 16.31 1.8336 94 76.65 1.5868 69 56.26 11.3345 44 35.88 1.1330 19 15.49 1.8290 93 75.83 1.5760 68 55.45 11.3255 43 35.06 1.1246 18 14.68 1.8233 92 75.02 1.5648 67 54.63 1.3165 42 34.25 1.1165 17 13.86 1.8179 91 74.20 1.5503 66 53.82 1.3080 41 33.43 1.1090 16 13.05 1.8115 90 73.39 1.5390 65 53.00 1.2999 40 32.61 1.1019 15 12.23 1.8043 89 72.57 1.5280 64 52.18 '1.2913 39 31.80 1.0953 14 11.41 1.7962 88 71.75 1.5170 63 51.37 1.2826 38 30.98 1.0887 13 10.60 1.7870 87 70.94 1.5066 62 50.55 1.2740 37 30.17 1.0809 12 9.78 1.7774 86 70.12 1.4960 61 49.74 11.2654 36 29.35 1.0743 11 8.97 1.7673 85 69.31 1.4860 60 48.92 ! 1.2572 35 28.54 1.0682 10 8.15 1.7570 84 68.49 1.4760 59 48.11 ! 1.2490 34 27.72 1.0614 9 7.34 1.7465 83 67.68 1.4660 58 47.29 ! 1.2409 33 26.91 1.0544 8 6.52 1.7360 82 66.86 1.4560 57 46.48 i 1.2334 32 26.09 1.0477 7 5.71 1.7245 81 66.05 1.4460 56 45.66 11.2260 31 25.28 1.0405 6 4.89 1.7120 80 65.23 1.4360 55 44.85 i 1.2184 30 24.46 1.0336 5 4.08 1.6993 79 64.42 1.4265 54 44.03 1.2108 29 23.65 1.0268 4 3.26 1.6870 78 63.60 1.4170 53 43.22 11.2032 28 22.83 1.0206 3 2.446 1.6750 77 62.78 1.4073 52 42.40 1.1956 27 22.01 1.0140 2 1.63 1.6630 76 61.97 1.3977 51 41.58 1.1876 26 121.20 1.0074 1 0.8154 The only way to obtain pure sulphuric acid is by distillation. Owing to the high boiling point of this acid, the operation is rather precarious, consequence of the danger of the fracture of the retort, from the sud- m part I. Acidum Sulphuricum. 45 den concussions to which the boiling acid gives rise. Dr. Ure recom- mends that a retort of the capacity of from two to four quarts be used in distilling a pint of acid. This is connected, by means of a wide glass tube three or four feet long, with a receiver surrounded with cold water. All the vessels must be perfectly clean, and no luting is employed. The retort is then to be cautiously heated by a small furnace of charcoal. It is useful to put into the retort a few sharp-pointed pieces of glass, or slips of platinum foil, with a view to diminish the shocks produced by the acid vapour. The distilled product ought not to be preserved until a dense grayish-white vapour is generated, the appearance of which is the sign that the real concentrated acid is coming over. If this vapour should not immediately appear, it shows that the acid subjected to dis- tillation is not of full strength, arid the distilled product, until the point of utmost concentration is attained, will be an acid water. The Dublin College give a formula for purifying the commercial acid by distillation. (See Acidum Sulphuricum Purum.) This formula, how- ever, is unnecessary; as the commercial sulphuric acid, diluted with wa- ter, whereby it is purified from sulphate of lead, is sufficiently pure for medical use; while the pure distilled acid is only necessary in conducting experiments of research. The strong acid is not convenient for medicinal use, and hence a formula for a diluted acid is given in the United States Pharmacopoeia, following the example of the British Colleges. (See Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum.) Incompatibles.—Sulphuric acid is incompatible with most metals; with salifiable bases and their carbonates, which it neutralizes; with most salts, effecting their decomposition; with alcohol, which it converts into ether; with all organic substances, which it chars or otherwise decom- poses; and with all vegetable astringent infusions. Composition.—The ordinary liquid acid of the sp. gr. of 1.8485, con- sists of one equivalent of dry acid 40, and one equiv. of water 9 = 49; and the dry acid, of one equiv. of sulphur 16, and three equiv. of oxygen 24 = 40. The liquid acid of Nordhausen has a density as high as 1.89 or 1.9, and consists of two equiv. of dry acid 80, and one equiv. of wa- ter 9 = 89. This acid is particularly adapted to the purpose of dissolv- ing indigo for dyeing the Saxon blue. When heated gently in a retort, connected with a dry and refrigerated receiver, dry or anhydrous sul- phuric acid distils over, and the common liquid acid remains behind. The anhydrous acid under 64° is in the form of small colourless crystals, resembling asbestos. It is tenacious, difficult to cut, and may be mould- ed in the fingers like wax, without acting on them. Exposed to the air, it emits a thick opaque vapour, of an acid smell. Above 64° it is a liquid, very nearly of the density of 2. It has so strong an affinity for water, that when thrown into that liquid, it causes a hissing noise, like that produced by quenching red-hot iron. Medical Properties.—Sulphuric acid is tonic, antiseptic and refrigerant. Internally it is always administered in a dilute state. (See Acidum Sul- phuricum Dilutum, for its medical properties in this form.) Externally it is sometimes employed as a caustic; but, from its liquid form, it is very inconvenient for this purpose. It is applied also as an ointment mixed with lard, in swellings of the knee-joint and other affections, in the proportion of a drachm to an ounce. (See Unguentum Acidi Sulphurici.) Charpie, corroded by it, forms a good application to gangrene. Toxicological Properties.—The symptoms of poisoning by this acid are the following:—Burning heat in the throat and stomach; extreme fetid- ness of the breath; nausea, and excessive vomitings of black or reddish 46 Acidum Sulphuricum.—Acidum Tartaricum. part i. matter; excruciating pains in the bowels; difficulty of breathing; extreme anguish; a feeling of cold on the skin; great prostration; constant toss- ing; convulsions, and death. The intellectual faculties remain unimpair- ed. Frequently the uvula, palate, tonsils, and other parts of the mouth, are covered with black or white sloughs. The treatment consists in the administration of large quantities of magnesia, or if this is not at hand, of a solution of soap. The safety of the patient depends upon the greatest promptitude of action. After the poison has been neutralized, mucilagi- nous and other mild drinks must be taken in large quantities. Uses in the Arts.—Sulphuric acid is more used in the arts than any other acid. It is employed to obtain nearly all other acids; to extract soda from common salt; to make alum and sulphate of iron, when these salts command a good price, and the acid is cheap; to dissolve indigo and prepare skins for tanning; and, finally, to prepare phosphorus, sul- phuric ether, the chlorides of mercury, chloride of lime or bleaching salt, sulphate of zinc, and sulphate of magnesia. The arts of bleaching and dyeing cause its principal consumption. Off. Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum, U.S.,Ed., Dub.; Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Acidum Sulphuricum Purum, Dub.; Ferri Sulphas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Hydrargyri Persulphas, Dub.; Hydrargyri Sulphas Flavus, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Magnesise Sulphas Purum, Dub.; Potassae Bisulphas, Dub.; Quiniae Sulphas, U.S.; Solutio Sulphatis Cupri Composita, Ed.; Unguentum Acidi Sulphurici, Dub.; Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, U.S.; Zinci Sulphas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. ACIDUM TARTARICUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tartaric Acid. Acide tartrique, Fr.; Weinsteinsaure, Germ.; Acido tartarico, Ital., Span. Tartaric acid is officinal in all the Pharmacopoeias commented on in this work, except the Edinburgh. It is placed among the preparations by the London and Dublin Colleges; but stands more properly in the United States Pharmacopceia in the Materia Medica, as an article to be purchased from the wholesale manufacturer. It is extracted from tartar, a peculiar substance, which concretes on the inside of wine-casks, being deposited during the fermentation of the wine. Tartar, when purified, is the cream of tartar of the shops, and is found to be a supersalt, con- sisting of two equivalents of tartaric acid, and one equiv. of" potassa. It is, therefore, in correct chemical language, a bitartrate of potassa. (See Potassse Supertartras.) Tartaric acid was first obtained in a separate state by Scheele in 1770. The process consists in saturating the excess of acid in the bitartrate of potassa with carbonate of lime, and decomposing the insoluble tartrate of lime by sulphuric acid, which precipitates in combination with the lime, and liberates the tartaric acid. The equivalent quantities are one equiv. of bitartrate 198, and one equiv. of carbonate of lime 50. The pro- cess, when thus conducted, only furnishes the second equivalent or excess of acid of the bitartrate. The other equivalent may be procured by decom- posing the neutral tartrate of potassa remaining in the solution after the precipitation of the tartrate of lime, by muriate of lime in excess. By double decomposition, muriate of potassa will be formed, and a fresh por» PART I. Acidum Tartaricum. 47 tion of tartrate of lime, which is to be decomposed by sulphuric acid, as the first portion. The process, when thus conducted, will furnish, in theory, twice as much tartaric acid as when the excess of acid only is saturated and set free. Preparation on the large scale.—The mode of obtaining this acid on a large scale, is as follows. Mix intimately, by grinding in a mortar and passing through a sieve, 100 parts of bitartrate of potassa (cream of tar- tar) with 26£ parts of pulverized chalk. Throw the mixture, by spoon- fuls, into 8 or 10 times its weight of boiling water, waiting until the effervescence has ceased, before every fresh addition. Examine the solution by litmus paper, and if not neutral, make it so, by a fresh addition of chalk. Wash the tartrate of lime with abundance of cold water, and add to it a quantity of sulphuric acid equal in weight to the chalk employed, and diluted with from 10 to 16 times its weight of wa- ter. Agitate the mixture frequently for 24 hours, and then test a small portion of the clear solution for sulphuric acid by acetate of lead. A precipitate will be formed, which is either tartrate of lead, or a mixture of tartrate and sulphate of lead. If the former, it will dissolve entirely in dilute nitric acid; if the latter, only partially, as the sulphate of lead is insoluble in this acid. If a slight excess of sulphuric acid should be indicated, it is of no consequence; but if considerable, it must be re- moved by a fresh addition of chalk. On the other hand, an excess of tartrate of lime, which interferes very much with the crystallization of the tartaric acid, must be decomposed by adding a small quantity of sulphuric acid. The clear liquor, separated from the sulphate of lime, is concentrated by evaporation to the consistence of syrup, and allowed to crystallize. Repeated solutions and crystallizations are neces- sary to get the crystals white. The mode of ascertaining the quantity of chalk consumed, is to weigh out more than is necessary in the process, and after the saturation has been completed, to weigh what is left. If the neutral tartrate of potassa be also converted into tartrate of lime in the manner already explained, the quantity of sulphuric acid for decom- position must be doubled. Sometimes the bitartrate of potassa is decomposed by lime. Here the whole of the tartaric acid present is converted into tartrate of lime at one operation; but the caustic potassa, also liberated, by dissolving the tar- trate of lime formed, and preventing it from precipitating, renders this process ineligible. The reader is now prepared to understand the formulae of the London and Dublin Colleges. " Take of supertartrate of potassa two pounds and a half; boiling distilled water three gallons; prepared chalk a pound; sulphuric acid a pound. Boil the supertartrate of potassa with two gallons of the distilled water, and add by degrees the prepared chalk, until effervescence shall have ceased. Set the mixture by, that the tartrate of lime may subside. Pour off the solution, and wash the tartrate of lime repeatedly with dis- tilled water, until it comes off tasteless. Then pour on. the sulphuric acid, diluted with a gallon of boiling distilled water, and set aside for twenty-four hours, occasionally agitating the mixture. Filter the liquor, and evaporate it in a water-bath, that crystals may form."—Lond. "Take of bitartrate of potassa, reduced to powder, ten parts; pre- pared chalk, four parts; sulphuric acid, seven parts; water, one hun- dred and twenty parts. Mix the bitartrate of potassa with one hundred parts of hot water, and gradually add the prepared chalk; then, as soon as the effervescence shall have ceased, pour off the supernatant liquor. 48 Acidum Tartaricum. part i. Wash the residual tartrate of lime, until it becomes tasteless. Into the clear decanted liquor, drop as much of die water of muriate ot lime as may be sufficient to throw down the tartrate of lime. Let this also be washed with water, and mixed with the former deposite. Then add the sulphuric acid, diluted with twenty parts of water, and, employ- ing frequent agitation, digest the mixture with a medium heat during three days. Pour off the supernatant acid fluid, and wash out the acid from the sediment. Let the liquors, including the first acid liquor and the washings, evaporate with a gentle heat to the point of crystalliza- tion. Let the crystals, purified by repeated solutions and crystallizations, be kept in a stopped glass vessel."—Dub. These processes agree in the proportions of bitartrate and chalk em- ployed. The quantity of chalk directed appears to be excessive, being two-fifths of the weight of the bitartrate; whereas, by theory, about one- fourth only of this weight is required; and making every allowance for impurities, one-third would be amply sufficient. The plan of dissolving the bitartrate in boiling water, and then adding the chalk, is not an eligi- ble one. It is better to mix them together according to the plan of Dr. Henry, as described in the beginning of this article, and to throw the mixture by spoonfuls at a time into boiling water. In this way, less wa- ter is necessary, and less excess of chalk is required, as less of it es- capes decomposition. Instead of prescribing the quantity of chalk, it would, perhaps, have been an improvement, if the Colleges above quoted, had directed a quantity "sufficient for saturation." The London College uses the proper quantity of sulphuric acid, the best authorities directing that this acid should equal in weight the chalk employed, where the ex- cess of acid only in the bitartrate is obtained. The Dublin College, it is perceived, decomposes the neutral tartrate, and would obtain, if no loss occurred, a double quantity of tartaric acid. The London College, how- ever, makes no use of the solution of the neutral tartrate; but to pre- vent waste it ought to be evaporated so as to form soluble tartar. The process of the Dublin College is inaccurately quoted by the authors of the London and Edinburgh Dispensatories. Dr. Thomson has misap- prehended the effect of the muriate of lime employed in the Dublin for- mula. Nearly all the tartaric acid consumed in the United States, is of do- mestic manufacture. Occasionally, however, a few kegs are imported from Box^deaux or Marseilles, when the article happens to command a good price. Properties.—Tartaric acid is a white crystallized solid, unalterable in the air, possessing a strong acid taste, which becomes agreeable when the acid is diluted with water. It is soluble in 5 or 6 times its weight of cold, and twice its weight of boiling water. It is also soluble in alcohol. A weak solution of it undergoes, by keeping, spontaneous decomposition, becom- ing covered with a mouldy pellicle. In the form of crystals, it always contains combined water, from which it cannot be separated without previous combination with a base. In uniting with bases, it h^s a re- markable tendency to form double salts, several of which constitute im- portant medicines. When subjected to heat, it yields, in addition to the usual products of the destructive distillation of vegetable matter, a pecu- liar acid, called the pyrotartaric. It is distinguished from all other acids by forming a precipitate, consisting of bitartrate of potassa, when added to a salt of that alkali. The most usual impurity in it is sulphuric acid, which is detected by the solution affording with muriate of baryta a pre- cipitate insoluble in excess of muriatic acid. part i. Acidum Tartaricum.—Aconitum. 49 Tartaric acid is incompatible with salifiable bases and their carbonates; with salts of potassa, with which it produces a crystalline precipitate of bitartrate; and lastly, with the salts of lime and of lead, with which it also forms precipitates. It consists, when dry, of two equivalents of hydrogen 2; four equiv. of carbon 24; and five equiv. of oxygen 40 = 66; and when crystallized, of one equiv. of dry acid 66, and one equiv. of water 9 == 75. Medical Properties.—Tartaric acid, being cheaper than citric acid, forms when dissolved in water and sweetened, a good substitute for le- monade. It is very much used in medicine to form acid refrigerant drinks and effervescing draughts. What are called soda powders, con- sist of twenty-five grains of tartaric acid, and half a drachm of bicarbon- ate of soda, put up in separate papers. When used, the acid and salt are dissolved in separate portions of water, and the solutions mixed and drank in a state of effervescence. These powders furnish a good substi- tute for soda water. Tartaric acid is also a constituent in the gentle ape- rient called Seidlitz powders. These consist of a mixture of two drachms of tartrate of potassa and soda, and two scruples of bicarbonate of soda, put up in a white paper, and thirty-five grains of tartaric acid, contained in a blue paper. The contents of the white paper are dissolved in about half a pint of water, to which those of the blue paper are added; and the whole is taken in a state of effervescence. The excess of acid ren- ders the medicine more pleasant, without injuring its aperient quality. This acid, when powdered and dried at a gentle heat, and then mixed in due proportion with the bicarbonate of potassa or of soda, forms a good effervescing powder, a teaspoonful of which, stirred into a tumbler of water, forms the dose. The mixture must be kept in well stopped vials. The neutralizing power of tartaric acid is about the same as that of ci- tric acid. Tartaric acid is not employed in any officinal preparation. ACONITUM. U.S. Aconite. " Aconitum Neomontanum. Folia. The leaves." U. S. Off. Syn. ACONITI FOLIA. Aconitum Napellus. Folia. Lond.; ACONITI NAPELLI FOLIA, Ed.; ACONITUM PANICULA- TUM. Folia. Dub. Aconit, Fr.; Eisenhut, Mbnchskappe, Germ.; Aconito, Napello, Hal; Aconito, Span. Aconitum. Class Polyandria. Order Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranunculi, Juss.; Ranunculaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx, none. Petals, five, the highest arched. Nectaries, two, peduncled, recurved. Pods, three or five. Willd. The plants belonging to this genus are herbaceous, with divided leaves, and violet or yellow flowers disposed in spikes, racemes, or panicles. They are all poisonous, and are very similar in their properties; so much so that one is frequently substituted for another in the shops. In the French Codex three species are adopted as officinal, the A. Anthora, A. Cammarum, and A. Napellus. The London and Edinburgh Colleges re- cognise only the A. Napellus, which was erroneously supposed to be the plant employed by Storck, who introduced the medicine into notice. The U.S. Pharmacopoeia follows Willdenow and the former edition of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, in adopting the A. neomontanum as the plant de- scribed by Storck. At present the Dublin College recognises only the A. paniculatwn of De Candolle. This botanist, in his Prodromus, divides the 7 50 Aconitum. part i. genus Aconitum into four sections—Anthora, Lycoctonum, Cammarum, and Napellus. The A. paniculatum belongs to the third of these divisions; ana the particular plant, believed to have been used by Storck, is a variety 01 this species, distinguished in the Prodromus as the Storckianum. Uniy one species of Aconite is indigenous in this country—the A. unanatum. Most of the others are natives of the Alpine regions of Europe and ot Siberia. Those employed in medicine appear to be indiscriminately named by English writers wolfsbane or monkshood. The former name belongs properly to the A. lycoctonum, and originated in the circumstance, that the natives of the mountainous countries where this plant grows employ it for the destruction of the wolves by which they are infested. Aconitum neomontanum. Willd. Spec. Plant, ii. 1236; Jaqum. J'lor. Austr. t. 381. This is a perennial plant, with a stem five or six feet high, leafy, more or less branched, and terminating in a long, sparse spike ot flowers, racemose and branching below. The leaves are smooth and shining, of a deep green on the upper surface, and a pale green on the under. Those on the lower part of the stem are few, standing alternately on long channeled footstalks, and divided to the base into five broad wedge-shaped divisions, which are deeply cleft and toothed. As they approach towards the summit of the stem, they have shorter footstalks and are less divided. The flowers are of a deep violet colour, and stand alternately on the spikes, on erect, smooth, unifloral peduncles. Though without calyx, they have two small calycinal stipules situated upon the peduncle within a few lines of the flower. The petals are five, the up- permost helmet-shaped and beaked, the lateral broad and roundish, the lower oblong and elliptical, the four last slightly pubescent. They include two nectaries, of which the spur is hooked and obtuse, and the lip lan- ceolate, bifid, and revolute. A. Napellus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1235; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 461. t. 165. In this species, the flower spikes are shorter and denser, and the segments of the leaves narrower and more linear than in the A. neomon- tanum. The former differs also in having the spur of the nectaries straight, and the lip ascending. Both plants are abundant in the mountainous forests of France, Switzer- land, and Germany. All parts of them are acrid and poisonous; but the leaves only are officinal. They should be collected when the flowers ap- pear. The A. Napellus has been introduced into our gardens. Properties.—The fresh leaves have a faint narcotic odour, and a bit- terish very acrid taste; and when chewed inflame the tongue. Their sensible properties and medicinal activity are said to be impaired when they are dried or long kept. They have not been accurately analyzed. Brandes, the German chemist, thinks he has discovered, in the A. Napel- lus, a peculiar alkaline principle, which may be called Aconitia; and a similar discovery was made by M. Pallas in the root of the A. lycoctonum. Medical Properties and Uses.—Aconite was well known to the ancients as a powerful poison, but was first employed as a medicine by Baron Storck of Vienna, whose experiments with it were published in the year 1702. In moderate doses it excites the circulation, increases the per- spiratory and urinary discharge, and exercises considerable influence over the nervous system. When given in poisonous doses, it occasions burning heat of the stomach, thirst, violent nausea, vomiting, purging, vertigo, mania, convulsions, and death. Orfila inferred from his experi- ments, that, while it irritates the part to which it is applied, it also en- ters the circulation and acts powerfully on the nervous system, particu- larly the brain, giving rise to a species of mental alienation. Dissection part i. Aconitum.—Adeps. 51 reveals inflammation of the stomach and bowels, with engorgement of the brain and lungs. Aconite has been employed in rheumatism, gout, scrofula, secondary syphilis, scirrhus and cancer, certain cutaneous dis- eases, amaurosis, paralysis, epilepsy, intermittent fever, and other com- plaints. Its highest reputation has perhaps been as a remedy in obstinate rheumatism, in which complaint it has been very successful in the hands of the German practitioners. Professor Fouquier, who experimented largely with it in the Hopital de la Charite, found little advantage from its use, except as a diuretic in passive dropsy. It may be administered in powder, extract, or tincture. The dose of the powdered leaves is from four to eight grains; that of the extract from one to two grains, to be gradually increased. It is little used by American practitioners. Off. Prep. Extractum Aconiti, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. ADEPS. U.S. Lard. «' Sus scrofa. Adeps curata. The lard." U.S. Off. Sim. ADEPS PRJEPARATA, Lond.; ADEPS SUILLUS, Ed.; ADEPS SUILLUS PR^PARATUS, Dub. Axonge, Graisse, Saindoux, Fr.; Schweineschmalz, Germ.; Grasso di porco, Lardo, Ital.; Manteca de puerco, Lardo, Span. Lard is the prepared fat of the hog. The London and Dublin Colleges give processes for its preparation; but as in this country it is purchased by the druggists already prepared, the introduction of any officinal di- rections into our Pharmacopoeia were deemed superfluous. The adipose matter of the omentum and mesentery, and that which surrounds the kidneys, are usually employed; though the subcutaneous fat is said to afford lard of a firmer consistence. In the crude state it contains mem- branes and vessels, and is more or less contaminated with blood, from all which it must be freed before it can be fit for use. For this purpose, the fat, having been deprived as far as possible, by the hand, of membranous matter, is cut into pieces, washed with water till the liquid ceases to be coloured, and then melted, usually with a small portion of water, in a copper or iron vessel, over a slow fire. The heat is continued till all the moisture is evaporated, which may be known by the transparency of the melted fat, and the absence of crepitation when a small portion of it is thrown into the fire. Care should be taken that the heat is not too great, as otherwise the lard might be partially decomposed, acquire a yellow colour, and become acrid. The process is completed by straining the fluid through linen, and pouring it into suitable vessels, in which it con- cretes upon cooling. Lard, as offered for sale, often contains common salt, which renders it unfit for pharmaceutic purposes. To free it from this, the Dublin Col- lege directs that it be melted with twice its weight of boiling water, the mixture well agitated and set aside to cool, and the fat then separated. Properties.—Lard is white, inodorous, with little taste, of a soft con- sistence at ordinary temperatures, fusible at about 100° F., insoluble in water, partially soluble in alcohol, dissolved and decomposed by the stronger acids, and converted into soap by union with the alkalies. Ac- cording to Braconnot, it contains, in 100 parts, 62 of elaine or the liquid principle of oils, and 38 of stearine or the concrete principle. Most fats and oils, whether of animal or vegetable origin, are composed of these two ingredients, upon the relative proportion of which their consistence 52 Adeps. —Alcohol. PART I. respectively depends. They may be obtained separate by the action of boiling alcohol, which on cooling deposites the stearine, and yields tne elaine upon evaporation. Another method is to compress fat, or oil con- gealed by cold, within the folds of bibulous paper. The elaine is absorb- ed by the paper, and may be separated by compression under water; the stearine remains. . Elaine resembles oil in appearance, is colourless when pure, congeals at 20° F., may be evaporated unchanged in vacuo, has little odour and a sweetish taste, is insoluble in water but soluble in boiling alcohol, and consists of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Stearine is white, concrete, fusible at 111° F., volatilizable unchanged in vacuo, partly volatilized and partly decomposed when heated in a retort, insipid, inodorous, slightly soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water, and composed, like the former principle, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Exposed to the air, lard absorbs oxygen and becomes rancid. It should therefore be kept in well closed vessels, or procured fresh when wanted for use. In the rancid state it is irritating to the skin, and sometimes exercises an injurious reaction on substances mixed with it. Thus the ointment of iodide of potassium, which is white when prepared with fresh lard, is said to be more or less yellow when the lard employed is rancid. Medical Properties and Uses.—Lard is emollient, and is occasionally employed by itself in frictions, or in connexion with poultices to preserve their soft consistence; but its chief use is in pharmacy as an ingredient of ointments and cerates. It is frequently added to laxative enemata. Off Prep. Ceratum Simplex, U.S.; Unguentum Aquse Rosae, U.S.; Unguentum Cetacei, Dub.; Unguentum Simplex, U.S., Dub. ALCOHOL. U.S. Alcohol. SPIRITUS RECTIFICATUS, Lond., Dub.; ALCOHOL FOR- TIUS, Ed. Spirit of wine; Alcool, Esprit de vin, Fr.; Rectificirte weingeist, Germ.; Alcoole, Acquavite rettificata, Ital; Alcohol, Espiritu rectificado de vino, Span. Considerable confusion prevails in the nomenclature adopted in the different Pharmacopoeias, to express the various pharmaceutical strengths of the liquid, which in its pure state is known to the chemist under the name of alcohol. The London and Dublin Colleges have adopted three strengths of this substance; while the Edinburgh and United States Pharmacopoeias have admitted only two. The following table presents the reader with a synoptic view of the names and strengths of the alcohol, as prescribed according to these different authorities; assuming those preparations to be identical, the specific gravities of which approach to an equality. U.S. Lond. Dub. Ed. Highest off. C strength. £ Medium do. •< Lowest do. ^ Alcohol. Sp.gr. .835 Alcohol Dilu-tum. Alcohol. Sp. gr. .845 Spiritus Rectifi-catus. Sp. gr. .835 Spiritus Tenuior. Sp. gr. .930 Alcohol. Sp. gr. .810 Spiritus Rectifi-catus. Sp. gr. .840 Spiritus Tenuior. Sp. gr. 919. Alcohol Fortius. Sp. gr. .835 Alcohol Dilutius. Sp. gr. .935 PART I. Alcohol. 53 Thus it is perceived that the officinal "Alcohol" of the United States Pharmacopoeia, is a rectified spirit of the sp. gr. . 835; while the spirit under the same officinal name, of the London and Dublin Colleges, is much stronger. It is certainly to be regretted that the same name has been applied to the substance of such different strengths, as it leads to confusion. Our principal object, however, in this article, is to describe the alcohol of the United States Pharmacopceia, corresponding to the London and Dublin Spiritus Rectifcatus, and the Edinburgh Alcolwl For- tius; and under it, we shall introduce incidentally the formulae for the stronger spirit of the London and Dublin Colleges, called by the same name. The Alcohol Dilutum, and the corresponding preparations of the British Pharmacopoeias, will be considered in their appropriate place, under the head of preparations. (See Alcohol Dilutum.) Alcohol, in the chemical sense, is a peculiar liquid, generated for the most part in vegetable juices and infusions by a peculiar fermentation, called the vinous or alcoholic. The liquids which have undergone it are called vinous liquors, and are of various kinds. Thus the fermented juice of the grape is called wine; of the apple, cider; and the fermented infusion of malt, beer. All these, and many others, are vinous liquors, and for that reason contain alcohol. With regard to the nature of the liquids susceptible of the vinous fer- mentation, one general character runs through them all, how various so- ever they may be in other respects, that, namely, of containing sugar in some form or other. It is found further, that after they have undergone the vinous fermentation, the sugar theycontain, either wholly or in part, disappears, and that the only new products are alcohol which remains in the liquid, and carbonic acid which escapes during the process; and these, when taken together, are found to be equal in weight to the sugar which has disappeared. It is hence inferred, with much appearance of probability, that sugar is the subject-matter of the vinous fermentation, and that during that change, it is resolved into alcohol and carbonic acid. Additional facts in support of this view, will be adduced under the head of the composition of alcohol. . Sugar, however, will not undergo the vinous fermentation by itselt; but requires to be dissolved in water, subjected to the influence of a fer- ment, and kept at a certain temperature. Accordingly, sugar, water, the presence of a ferment, and the maintenance of a certain tempera- ture, may be deemed the prerequisites of the vinous fermentation. The water acts by giving fluidity, and the ferment and temperature operate by commencing and maintaining the chemical changes. The precise manner in which the ferment operates in commencing the reaction is not known. Neither has it been certainly ascertained whether it is a pecu- liar vegetable principle, or whether a number of distinct vegetable sub- stances are capable of acting in a similar way. As a general rule, sub- stances containing nitrogen, such as gluten, albumen, caseous matter, &c, possess this property. The proper temperature for the vinous fer- mentation, ranges from 60° to 90°. Certain vegetable infusions, as those of potatoes and rice, though con- sisting almost entirely of starch, are, nevertheless, capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation, and form seeming exceptions to the rule thatsu- ffar is the only substance susceptible of this fermentation. The apparent exception is explained by the circumstance, that starch is susceptible of a spontaneous change which converts it into sugar. How this change takes place is not well known, but it is designated by some authors as the sac- charine fermentation. Thus Kirchoff proved, that if a mixture of gluten 54 Alcohol. PART I. from flour, and starch from potatoes, be put into hot water, the starch will be converted into sugar. When, therefore, starch is apparently con* verted into alcohol by fermentation, it is supposed that during the change it passes through the intermediate state of sugar. Alcohol, being the product of the vinous fermentation, necessarily ex- ists in all vinous liquors, and may be obtained from them by dlstjJ'a- tion. Formerly it was supposed that these liquors did not contain alcohol, but were merely capable of furnishing it in consequence of a new arrange- ment of their ultimate constituents, the result of the heat applied in the distillation. Brande, however, disproved this idea, by showing that al- cohol may be obtained from all vinous liquors without the application of heat, and, therefore, must pre-exist in them. His method consists in precipitating the acid and colouring matter by subacetate of lead, and separating the water by carbonate of potassa. Gay-Lussac and Donovan have proved the same fact. According to the former, litharge in fine powder is the best agent for precipitating the colouring matter. In vinous liquors, the alcohol is diluted with abundance of water, and associated with colouring matter, volatile oil, extractive, and various acids and salts, their nature and variety depending upon the source of the liquor. In purifying it we take advantage of its volatility, which en- ables us to separate it by distillation, combined with some of the princi- ples of the vinous liquor employed, and more or less water. The dis- tilled product of vinous liquors, forms the different varieties of ardent spirit of commerce. When obtained from wine, it is called brandy; from fermented molasses, rumj'from cider, malted barley, or rye, whis- key; from malted barley and rye-meal with hops, and rectified frorh juni- per berries, Holland gin; from malted barley, rye, or potatoes, rectified with turpentine, common gin; and from rice, arrack. These spirits are of different strengths, that is, contain different proportional quantities of alcohol, and have various peculiarities by which they are distinguished by the palate. Their strength is accurately judged of by the specific gravity, which is always less in proportion as this is greater. When they have a sp. gr. of .920 they are designated in commerce by the terra proof spirit. If lighter than this, they are said to be above proof; if hea- vier, below proof. Proof spirit may be considered as corresponding with the average strength of the weaker alcohol used in pharmacy. (See Alco- hol Dilutum.) Proof spirit is still very far from being pure, being a dilute alcohol, containing about half its weight of water, together with essential oil and other impurities. It may be further purified and strengthened by redis- tillation, or rectification as it is called. Whiskey is the spirit usually employed for this purpose, and from every hundred gallons, eighty will be obtained, of the average strength of rectified spirit, (sp. gr. .835,) corresponding to the alcohol of the U. S. Pharm., and the spiritus recti- fcatus of the Lond. and Dub. Colleges. If this be once more cautiously distilled, it will be further purified from water, and 'attain the sp. gr. of about .825, which is the lightest spirit which can be obtained by ordinary distillation. It still, however, contains eleven per cent, of water. In the mean while, the spirit, by these repeated distillations, becomes more and more freed from essential oil. If it be desired to obtain alcohol of still greater concentration, it is necessary to avail ourselves of certain substances which have a powerful affinity for water. Of this nature are lime, carbonate of potassa, and chloride of calcium. These being mixed with the rectified spirit, unite with the water and sink, while the purer spirit floats above, and may be part I. Alcohol. 55 separated by decantation or distillation. By availing themselves of sub- stances of this nature, the London and Dublin Colleges are enabled to produce their strongest spirit, which they denominate alcohol. (See the tabular view already given.) The following are the processes which they adopt. Alcohol, (sp. gr. .815,) Lond.—"Take of rectified spirit, a gallon; subcarbonate of potassa, three pounds. To the spirit add a pound of the subcarbonate of potassa, previously healed to 300°, and allow the mix- ture to macerate for twenty-four hours, Avith frequent agitation. Then, having poured off the spirit, add to it the remaining subcarbonate, heated to the same degree. Finally, by means of a water-bath, distil the alcohol, and keep it in stopped bottles." Alcohol,(sp. gr. .810,) Dub.—"Take of rectified spirit, a gallon; pearl- ashes, dried and still hot, three pounds and a half; muriate of lime, dried, a pound. Add the pearl-ashes in powder to the spirit, and let the mixture digest in a covered vessel for seven days, shaking it fre- quently. Draw off the supernatant spirit, and mix with it the muriate of lime. Lastly, distil, with a moderate heat, until the mixture in the retort begins to thicken." The alkali used in both these processes, is the carbonate of potassa, (improperly called subcarbonate in the London formula,) which is a very deliquescent salt, and consequently well fitted to abstract the water from the alcohol. The chloride of calcium, (dry muriate of lime,) used by the Dublin College, is an agent of a similar kind, and for the same reason. The London College use only the carbonate, and that in two portions; while the second addition of the Dublin, is of chloride of cal- cium. The Dublin formula is the preferable one, on account of the supe- rior deaquating power of chloride of calcium, which being soluble in the alcohol, comes in contact, as Dr. Barker very justly remarks, with every particle of the water. Alcohol, thus obtained, still contains a small portion of water; to rid it of which, it must be very carefully apd repeatedly distilled from chlo- ride of calcium, or somfc other substanae having a powerful attraction for water. When thus treated, it is finally brought to the sp. gr. of .796, at the temp, of 60°, which is considered its point of greatest concentra- tion, as it is now entirely free from water of dilution. In this state, it is called absolute alcohol. Absolute alcohol may be obtained, on a small scale, by the ingenious method of Mr. Graham of Edinburgh. It consists in supporting a cup, containing a few ounces of common alcohol, over a shallow basin, covered to a small depth with lime. The whole is placed on the plate of an air- pump under a shallow receiver, and the air exhausted. The exhaustion causes a mixed atmosphere of the vapours of alcohol and water to rise, the latter of which only is absorbed by the lime. Its absorption per- mits fresh portions of watery vapour to rise, which are absorbed in their turn, and the emission and absorption of the aqueous vapour con- tinue so long as any water remains in the alcohol. In the mean time, the permanent atmosphere of alcoholic vapour effectually represses its fresh formation. Common spirit may thus be brought to the state of absolute alcohol in the course of five or six days. A good way for ascer- taining when all the water has been removed, is to drop into the liquid a piece of anhydrous baryta, which will remain unchanged if the alcohol be free from water; otherwise it will fall to powder. Properties.—Alcohol is a colourless transparent liquid, of a penetrating, agreeable odour, and a burning and highly pungent taste. When free 56 Alcohol. PART I. from water of dilution, its sp. gr. is .796, at the temp, of 60°. Its density progressively increases by dilution, so that its sp. gr. is an in"^ ot .lts strength. When of the sp. gr. of .820, its boiling point is at 176°; this point being always lower in proportion as the alcohol is stronger. Its specific gravity, as a vapour, is 1.61 compared with air. It has never been con- gealed, having been exposed to the greatest artificial cold yet produced, (91r° below zero,) without losing its liquidity. On account of this prop- erty, it istused in thermometers for measuring very low temperatures. It is inflammable, and burns without smoke or residue, the products being water and carbonic acid. Its flame is of a bluish colour when the alcohol is strong; but yellowish, when it is weak. It combines with water in all proportions, forming mixtures which are variously denomi- nated in commerce. Its value depends upon the quantity of absolute alcohol which it contains; and as this is greater in proportion as the sp. gr. of any sample is less, it is found convenient to take the density in estimating its purity. This is done by instruments with long stems, called hydrometers, which by being allowed to float in the spirit, sink deeper into it, in proportion as it is lighter. Any given hydrometer strength corresponds with some particular specific .gravity; and by re- ferring to tables constructed for the purpose, the percentage of absolute alcohol indicated in each case is at once shown. The following table, constructed by Lowitz and improved by Thomson, is of this kind. We have placed in notes, referring to their respective specific gravities in the table, the names of the different officinal spirits, whereby the per- centage of absolute alcohol is indicated which they severally contain. Table of the Specific Gravity of different mixtures of Absolute Alcohol and Distilled Water, at the Temp, of 60°. 100 Parts. Sp. Gr. at 60°. 100 Farts. Sp. Gr. at 60°. 100 Farts. Sp.* Gr. at 60°. 100 Parts. Sp. Gr. at 60°. Ale. Wat. Ale. Wat. Ale. Wat. Ale. Wat. 100 99 0 1 ,7%B 75 Hi .85* .so *. 52 51v, *48 - 49* .912 *915 28 27 72 73 .962 .963 98 2 .801 74 26 .863 50 50' ' .917 ' 26 74 .965 97 3 .804 73 27 .865 49 51 .9201 25 75 .967 96 4 .807 72 28 .867 48 52 .922 24 76 .968 95 5 .809* 71 29 .870 47 53 .924 23 77 .970 94 6 .812 70 30 .871 46 54 .926 22 78 .972 93 7 .815f 69 31 .874 45 55 .928 21 79 .973 92 8 .817 68 32 .875 44 56 .930** 20 80 .974 91 9 .820 67 33 .879 43 57 .933 19 81 .975 90 10 .822 66 34 .880 42 58 •935ft 18 82 .977 89 11 .825* 65 35 .883 41 59 .937 17 83 .978 88 12 .827 64 36 .886 40 60 .939 16 84 .979 87 13 .830 63 37 .889 39 61 •941 15 85 .981 86 14 .832 62 38 .891 38 62 ■943 14 86 .982 85 15 • 835§ 61 39 .893 37 63 •945 13 87 .984 84 16 .838 60 40 .896 36 64 •947 12 88 .986 83 17 .840|| 59 41 .898 35 65 .949 11 89 .987 82 18 .843 58 42 .900 34 66 •951 10 90 .988 81 19 .846 57 43 .903 33 67 •953 9 91 .989 80 20 .848 56 44 .904 32 68 .955 8 92 .990 79 21 .851 55 45 .906 31 69 .957 7 93 .991 78 22 .853 54 46 .908 30 70 .958 6 94 .992 77 23 .855 53 47 .910 29 71 .960 • Alcohol, Dub. (nearly.) t Alcoht § Alcohol, U.S.; Spiritut Rectificatus, 1 Spiritus Tenuior, Dub. (nearly.) » spiritxmute/f*,. I 8»rt AJ5KffifSi?S part i. Alcohol. 57 Alcohol is capable of dissolving a great number of substances; as for example, sulphur and phosphorus in small quantity; iodine; ammonia; and potassa, soda, and lithia in the caustic state, but not as carbonates. Among vegetable substances, it is a solvent of the organic vegetable alkalies, sugar, mannite, camphor, resins, balsams, volatile oils, and soap. It dissolves the fixed oils sparingly, except castor oil, which is abundantly soluble. It acts on most acids, forming ethers with some, and effecting the solution of others. All deliquescent salts are soluble in it,except carbonate of potassa; while the efflorescent salts, and those either insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, are mostly insoluble in alcohol. It is capable of combining, in the solid form, with different substances, so as to form definite compounds; which, from their analogy to hydrates, are called alcoates. Composition.—Alcohol consists of three equivalents of hydrogen 3, two equiv. of carbon 12, and one equiv. of oxygen 8 = 25; or in volumes, of three volumes of hydrogen, two volumes of the vapour of carbon, and half a volume of oxygen. These ultimate constituents are considered by the generality of chemists to be so combined as#to form two equiv. of olefiant gas = 14, and one equiv. of water 9; corresponding in volume to one volume of olefiant gas, and one volume of the vapour of water, which, in the vapour of alcohol, are supposed to be condensed into one volume. We have already stated, that in the vinous fermentation, sugar is con- verted into alcohol and carbonic acid. Now sugar consists, according to the analysis of Dr. Prout, of one equiv. of hydrogen, one of carbon* and one of oxygen; and carbonic acid consists of one equiv. of carbon and two of oxygen. Bearing in mind these data, as also the composition of alcohol, it is easy to explain how sugar may be resolved into alcohol and carbonic acid. If, in order to equalize the hydrogen in the sugar and alcohol respectively, we suppose three equiv. of sugar to be the subject- matter of decomposition, we shall have for its composition three equiv. of hydrogen, three of carbon, and three of oxygen. Now, if from these we take one equiv. of carbon and two of oxygen—that is, carbonic acid— we shall have left three equiv. of hydrogen, two of carbon, and one of oxygen, or the exact constituents of alcohol. Thus the composition of the several substances concerned most fully confirms the statement pre- viously given of the subject-matter and products of the vinous fermenta- tion. Medical Properties, fyc.—Alcohol is a very powerful diffusible stimulant. It is the intoxicating ingredient in all spirituous and vinous liquors, in- cluding under the latter term porter, ale, and cider, and every liquid in short which has undergone the vinous fermentation. In its pure state it is never used in medicine; but diluted to various degrees, it forms the menstruum for many remedies. In a diluted state, and taken in small quan- tity, it excites every part of the system, renders the pulse full, commu- nicates additional energy to the muscles, and gives temporary exaltation to the mental faculties. In some states of acute disease, characterized by excessive debility, it is a valuable remedy. In the form of brandy, it is frequently given in the sinking stages of typhus with advantage. Other kinds of ardent spirits are occasionally administered, and each is suppos- ed to have its peculiar qualities. Thus, according to Dr. Paris, brandy may be esteemed simply cordial and stomachic; rum, heating and su- dorific; and gin and whiskey, diuretic. Physicians ought to be on their guard not to prescribe alcoholic remedies in chronic diseases, whether alone or in the form of tinctures, for fear of begetting habits of intem- 8 58 Alcohol. —Aletris. part i. perance in their patients. Externally, alcohol is sometimes applied to produce cold by evaporation, or to stimulate when its evaporation P1ATan article of daily and dietetic use, alcoholic liquors produce the most deplorable consequences. Besides the moral degradation which they cause, their habitual use gives rise to dyspepsia, hypochondriasis, visceral obstructions, dropsy, paralysis, and not unfrequently mania. Alcohol is extensively employed by perfumers and distillers, in mak- ing essences and cordials. In the arts, it is used to form drying varnishes, and in chemistry, as an important analytic agent. Being a powerlul an- tiseptic, it is very useful in preserving anatomical preparations. Effects as a Poison.—When taken in large quantity, alcohol, in thelorm of various ardent spirits, produces a true apoplectic state, and occasion- ally speedy death. The face is livid or pale, the respiration stertorous, the mouth frothy, and sense and feeling are more or less completely lost. Where the danger is imminent, an emetic may be administered. The affusion of cold water is often very useful. As a counter poison, acetate of ammonia has been.asserted to act with advantage. Pharmaceutic Uses.—Mcohol is very extensively employed as a pharma- ceutic agent. Either in its rectified state, or diluted with water, it is used in the formation of all the tinctures, spirits, ethers, and resinous extracts; is added to the vinegars, distilled waters, and one or more of the decoc- tions and infusions, to assist in their preservation; serves as a vehicle or 'diluent of certain active medicines, as in the alcohol ammoniatum, and acidum sulphuricum aromaticum ; and is employed for various incidental purposes connected with its solvent power. Off Prep. Alcohol Dilutum, U. S. ALETRIS. U.S. Secondary. Star Grass. " Aletris farinosa. Radix. The root." U.S. Aletris. Class Hexandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Asphodeli, Juss.; Asphodeleae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla tubular, six-cleft, wrinkled, persistent. Stamens in- serted into the base of the segments. Style triangular, separable into three. Capsule opening at the top, three-celled, many seeded. Bigelow. Aletris farinosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 183; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 92. This is an indigenous perennial plant, the leaves of which spring immediately from the root, and spread on the ground in the form of a star. Hence have originated the popular names of star grass, blazing star, and mealy starwort, by which it is known in different parts of the country. The leaves are sessile, lanceolate, entire, pointed, very smooth, longitudinally veined, and of unequal size, the largest being about four inches in length. From the midst of them a flower stem rises, one or two feet in height, nearly naked, with remote scales, Avhich sometimes become leaves. It terminates in a slender scattered spike, the flowers of which stand on very short pedicels, and have minute bractes at the base. The calyx is wanting. The corolla is tubular, oblong, divided at the summit into six spreading segments, of a white colour, and presenting, when old, a mealy or rugose appearance on the outside. The plant is found in al- most all parts of the U. States, growing in fields and about the borders of woods, and flowering in June and July. Properties.—The root, which is the officinal portion, is small, crooked, PART I. Aletris. —Allium. 59 branched, blackish externally, brown within, and intensely bitter. The bitterness is extracted by alcohol, and the tincture becomes turbid upon the addition of water. The decoction is moderately bitter; but much less so than the tincture. It affords no precipitate with the salts of iron. (Bigelow.) Medical Properties.—In small doses the root appears to be simply tonic, and may be employed advantageously for similar purposes with other bitters of the same class. When largely given it produces nausea. The powder may be administered as a tonic in the dose of ten grains. ALLIUM. U.S. Garlick. " Allium Sativum. Bulbus. The Bulb." U. S. Off. Syn. ALLII RADIX. Allium Sativum. Radix. Lond.; ALLII SATIVI RADIX. Ed.; ALLIUM SATIVUM. Bulbus. Dub. Ail, Fr.; Knoblauch, Germ.,- Aglio, Ital; Ajo, Span. Allium. Class Hexandria. Order Monogynia.— Nat. Ord. Asphodeh, Juss.; Asphodeleae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla six-parted, spreading. Spathe many-flowered. Umbel crowded. Capsule superior. Willd. This is a very extensive genus, including more than sixty species, most of which are European. Of the nine or ten indigenous to this country, none are employed. Of the European species, several have been used from a very early period, both as food and medicine. Three only are of- ficinal; the A. sativum, or garlick; the A. Cepa, or onion; and the A. Porrum, or leek. The U.S. Pharmacopceia has adopted only the A. sa- tivum, and to this we shall confine our observations in the present place, simply stating that few genera present a greater resemblance in medical and sensible properties among the various species that compose them, than the present. Allium sativum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 68; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 749. t. 256. This is a perennial plant, and like all its congeners, bulbous. The bulbs are numerous, and enclosed in a common membranous covering, from the base of which the fibres that constitute the proper root descend. The stem, which is simple, rises to the height of two feet. The leaves are long, flat, and*grass-like; and proceed chiefly from the young bulbs. At the termination of the stem is a cluster of flowers and bulbs mingled together, and enclosed in a spathe which opens on one side and withers. The flowers are small and white, and make their appearance in July. This species of garlick grows wild in Sicily, Italy, and the south of France; and is cultivated in all civilized countries. The part employed as well for culinary purposes as in medicine, is the bulb, which is properly designated in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. The London and Edinburgh Colleges erroneously direct the root, which, though in ordinary language confounded with the bulb, is, in fact, botani- cally speaking, composed of the fibres that proceed from its base. The bulbs are dug up with a portion of the stem attached, and, haying been dried in the sun, are tied together in bunches, and thus brought into mar- ket. They are said to lose by drying nine parts of their weight out of fif- teen, with little diminution of their sensible properties. This species of Allium is commonly called English garlick, to distinguish it from those which grow wild in our fields and meadows. Properties.—Garlick, as found in the shops, is of a shape somewhat 60 Allium. part r. spherical, flattened at bottom, and drawn towards a point at the summit,. where a portion of the stem several inches in length projects, it is co- vered with a white, dry, membranous envelope, consisting of.tour deli- cate laminx, within which the small bulbs are arranged around the stem in clusters, each of which has a distinct coat. These small bulbs, which in common language are called cloves of garlick, and have also distinct en- velopes, are 5 or 6 in number, of an oblong shape, somewhat curved, and in their interior are whitish, moist, and of a fleshy consistence. 1 hey have a disagreeable pungent odour, so peculiar as to have received the name of alliaceous. Their taste is bitter and acrid. This smell and taste, though strongest in the bulb, are found to a greater or less extent in all parts of the plant. They depend on an essential oil which is very volatile, and may be obtained by distillation, passing over with the first portions of water. It is of a yellow colour, exceedingly pungent odour, strong and acrid taste; is heavier than water; and when applied to the skin produces much irritation, and sometimes even blisters. Besides this oil, fresh garlick, according to Cadet-Gassicourt, contains in 1406 parts, 520 of mucilage, 37 of albumen, 48 of fibrous matter, and 801 of water. Bouillon-Lagrange mentions among its constituents, sul- phur, a saccharine matter, and a small quantity of fecula. The fresh bulbs yield upon pressure nearly a fourth part of juice which has all their peculiar properties. Water, alcohol, and vinegar, extract their virtues. Boiling, however, if continued for some time, renders them inert. Medical Properties and Uses.—The use of garlick as a medicine and condiment, ascends to the highest antiquity. When taken internally, its active principle is very speedily absorbed, and penetrating throughout the system, becomes sensible in the breath and various secretions. Even ex- ternally applied, as for example to the soles of the feet, it imparts its pe- culiar odour to the breath, urine, and perspiration, and according to some writers, may be tasted in the mouth. Its effects upon the system are those of a general stimulant. It quickens the circulation, excites the nervous system, promotes expectoration in a debilitated state of the vessels of the lungs, produces diaphoresis or diuresis according as the patient is kept hot or cool, and acts upon the stomach as a tonic and carminative. Applied to the skin, it is irritant and rubefacient, and moreover exercises to a greater or less extent, its peculiar influence upon the system, in conse- quence of its absorption. Moderately employed, it is beneficial in en- feebled digestion and flatulence; and is habitually used as a condiment by many who have no objection to an offensive breath. It has been given with advantage in chronic catarrh, humoral asthma, and other pectoral affections in which the symptoms of inflammation have been subdued, and a feeble condition of the vessels remains. Some physicians have highly recommended it in old atonic dropsies and calculous disorders; and it has been employed in the treatment of intermittents. It is said also to be an excellent anthelmintic. If taken too largely, or in excited states of the system, it is apt to occasion gastric irritation, flatulence, hemorrhoids, headach, and fever. As a medicine, it is at present more used externally than inwardly. Bruised and applied to the feet, it acts very beneficially as a revulsent in disorders of the head; and is especially useful in the febrile complaints of children, in quieting restlessness and producing sleep. Its juice mixed with oil, or the garlick itself bruised, and steeped in spirits, is frequently used as a liniment in infantile convut sions, and other cases of spasmodic or nervous disorder among children- PART I. Allium.—Allium Cepa. 61 The same application has been made in cases of cutaneous eruption. A clove of garlick, or a few drops of the juice introduced into the ear, are said to prove highly efficacious in atonic deafness; and the bulb bruised and applied in the shape of a poultice above the pubis, has sometimes restored action to the bladder in cases of retention of urine from debility of that organ. In the same shape it has been recommended as a resol- vent in indolent tumours, and may perhaps prove beneficial by stimulat- ing the absorbents. Garlick may be taken in the form of pill, or the clove may be swallowed either whole or cut into pieces of a convenient size. Its juice is also fre- quently administered mixed with sugar. The infusion in milk was at one time highly recommended, and the syrup is officinal. The dose in sub- stance is from half a drachm to a drachm, or even two drachms of the fresh bulbv That of the juice is half a fluidrachm. Off Prep. Syrupus Allii, U. S. ALLIUM CEPA. Bulbus. Dub. Onion. Ognon, Fr.; Zwiebellauch, Germ.; Cipolla, Ital; Cebolla, Span. Allium. See ALLIUM, U. S. Allium Cepa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 80. The onion is a perennial bulb- ous plant, with a naked scape, swelling towards the base, exceeding the leaves in length, and terminating in a simple umbel of white flowers. The leaves are hollow, cylindrical, and pointed. The original country of this species of Allium is unknown. The plant has been cultivated from time immemorial, and is now diffused over the whole civilized world. All parts of it have a peculiar pungent odour, but the bulb only is used. Properties.—It is of various size and shape, ovate, spherical, or flat- tened, composed of concentric fleshy and succulent layers, and covered with dry membranous coats, which are reddish, yellowish, or white, ac- cording to the variety. It has, in a high degree, the characteristic odour of the plant, with a sweetish and acrid taste. Fourcroy obtained from it a white acrid volatile oil holding sulphur in solution, a substance re- sembling gluten, much uncrystallizable sugar and mucilage, phosphoric acid both free and combined with lime, acetic acid, citrate of lime, and lignin. The expressed juice is susceptible of the vinous fermenta- tion. . Medical Properties and Uses.—The onion is stimulant, diuretic, expecto- rant, and rubefacient. Taken moderately, it increases the appetite, and promotes digestion; and is much used as a condiment; but in large quan- tities it is apt to cause flatulence, gastric uneasiness, and febrile excite- ment. The juice is occasionally given, made into a syrup with sugar, in infantile catarrhs and croup, in the absence of much inflammatory action. It is also recommended in dropsy and calculous disorders. Deprived of its essential oil by boiling, the onion becomes a mild esculent; and it is much more used as food than as medicine. Roasted and split, it is some- times applied as an emollient cataplasm to suppurating tumours. 62 Aloe. PART I. ALOE. U.S. Aloes. " Aloe Spicata. Extractum. The extract." U.S. nrcrv Off. Syn. ALOES SPICATA EXTRACTUM, Lond.; AEOEbEA- TRACTUM. Ex variis aloes speciebus. a. Aloe Hepatitc*' c^°e Socotorina. Ed.; ALOE HEPATICA, ex A. vulgari. ALOE 5>UtU- TORINA, ex A. spicata. Dub. Sue d' aloes, Fr.; Aloe, Germ., Ital; Aloe, Span.; Musebber, Arab. m It is said that most of the species belonging to the genus Aloe yield a bitter juice, which has all the properties of the officinal aloes; and_ the Agave Americana, belonging to a kindred genus, has been ascertained to afford a similar product.* It is impossible, from the various and some- times conflicting accounts of writers, to determine exactly from which of the species the drug is in all instances actually derived. The Aloe spicata, however, is generally acknowledged to be the most abundant source of it; and the Aloe vulgaris, and Aloe Soccotrina of Haworth, or Aloe vera of Miller, are usually ranked among the medicinal species. In Loudon's Encyclopaedia of plants are also mentioned the A. purpuras- cens of Haworth, and'the A. arborescens-f of the Hortus Kewensis; and others are, without doubt, occasionally resorted to. The U.S. Pharma- copoeia and that of London at present recognise only the Aloe spicata. We shall confine ourselves to a description of this species, noticing others only incidentally, when speaking of the products which they afford. Aloe. Class Hexandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Asphodeli, Juss.; Asphodelese, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla erect, mouth spreading, bottom nectariferous. Fila- ments inserted into the receptacle. Willd. Aloe spicata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 185. This species of aloes was de- scribed by Thunberg; but we cannot ascertain that it has been figured. The stem is round, three or four feet high, about four inches in diameter, and leafy at the summit. The leaves are spreading, subverticilate, about two feet long, broad at the base, gradually narrowing to the point, chan- neled or grooved upon their upper surface, and with remote teeth upon their edges. The flowers are bell-shaped, and spread horizontally in very close spikes. They contain a large quantity of purple honey juice. The Spiked aloes is a native of Southern Africa, growing near the Cape of Good Hope, and, like all the other species of this genus, preferring a sandy soil. In some districts of the colony it is found in great abundance, particularly at Zwellendam, near Mossel bay, where it almost covers the surface of the country. As it grows spontaneously, and requires not the least culture, the Hottentots find an occupation accordant with their in- dolent habits, in collecting and preparing the juice. The process is ex- ceedingly simple. According to Thunberg, the end of the leaf is cut off, and the juice which flows from the wound is conveyed, usually by means of one of the lower leaves pulled for the purpose, into a suitable recipient. It is then taken to the farm houses, where it is inspissated by heat in iron cauldrons, and when of a proper consistence is poured into casks • Vidot. Bulletin de Pharmacie. vi. 325. . f The A. vulgaris, A. Soccotrina, A. purpurascens, and A. arborescens, are considered by some botanists as mere varieties of the A. perfoliata of Linnaeus. PART I. Aloe. 63 which contain from one hundred to three hundred pounds. In other ac- counts it is stated, that the leaves are removed from the plant and cut in pieces, and the juice extracted by pressure. Commercial History and Varieties.—Three varieties of aloes reach the markets of this country; that of the Cape of Good Hope, the Socotrine, and the H.iatic. 1. 'fEe Cape Aloes, which is by far the most abundant, and by its ex- traordinary cheapness and excellent qualities, promises to supersede the other varieties, is imported chiefly if not exclusively from G. Britain, as no direct trade is carried on between the U. States and the Cape of Good Hope. It has sometimes been confounded with the Socotrine, from which, however, it differs very considerably in appearance and sensible properties. When fresh broken, it has a very dark olive colour approach- ing to black, presents a smooth bright almost glassy surface, and if held up to the light appears translucent at its edges. The small fragments also are semitransparent, and have a tinge of yellow or red mixed with the deep olive of the opaque mass. The powder is of a fine greenish yellow colour, and being generally more or less sprinkled over the sur- face of the pieces as they are kept in the shops, gives them a somewhat yellowish appearance. The odour is strong and disagreeable, but not nauseous. It has not the slightest mixture of the aromatic. Cape aloes, when perfectly hard, is very brittle, and readily reduced to powder; but in very hot weather, it is apt to become somewhat soft and tenacious, and the interior of the pieces is occasionally more or less so even in winter. It is usually imported in casks or boxes. 2. Socotrine Aloes.—The genuine Socotrine aloes is produced in the Island of Socotora, which lies in the Straits of Babelmandel, about forty leagues to the east of Cape Guardafui; but we are told by Ainslie, that the greater part of what is sold under that name is prepared in the kingdom of Melinda, upon the eastern coast of Africa. It is stated by the same author, that the Island of Socotora now belongs to the princes of Hadramaut, a province of Arabia, contiguous to Yemen; and it is probable that the commerce in this variety of aloes is carried on chiefly by the maritime Arabs, who convey it either to India, or up the Red Sea by the same channel through which it reached Europe before the dis- covery of the southern passage into the Indian Ocean. The species of Aloe which yields it is not certainly known. Ainslie says that it is evi- dently from the same species with the Cape aloes; but he does not give his reasons for the opinion; and the external character of the drug is so different from that of the Cape, that we cannot but hesitate in admitting their identity of origin. We have been able to discover no good reason for depriving the A. Soccotrina of Haworth—the A. vera of Miller—of the honour formerly conceded to it, of producing this highly valued va- riety of aloes. The process for procuring the medicine in Socotora is said to differ somewhat from that followed at the Cape. The juice, ex- pressed from the leaves, is allowed to stand for some time that the fecu- lent matter may subside; the clear liquor is then poured off into flat dishes and evaporated in the sun. When sufficiently hard it is introduced into skins and exported. A portion ascends the Red Sea, and through Egypt reaches the ports of Smyrna and Malta, whence it is sent to Lon- don. Another portion is carried to Bombay, and thence transmitted to various parts of the world. The little that reaches this country either comes by special order from London, or is brought by our India traders. We have been informed that the drug has been received in our market directly from the Island of Socotora. 64 Moe. *ART l- The Socotrine aloes is in pieces of a reddish-brown colour, with a tinge of yellow, wholly different from that of the former variety. Its surface is somewhat glossy, and its fracture smooth and conchoidal, with sharp and semi-transparent edges. The colour of its powder is a bright golden yellow. It has a peculiar, not unpleasant odour, and a taste, which, though bitter and disagreeable, is accompanied with an aromatic flavour. Though hard and pulverulent in cool weather, it is somewhat tenacious in summer, and softens by the heat of the hand. Much of the aloes sold as the Socotrine, has never seen the island of Socotora, nor even the Indian seas. It has been customary to affix this title as a mark of superior value to those portions of the drug, from whatever source they may have been derived, which have been prepared with unusual care, and are supposed to be of the best quality. Thus, both in Spain and the West Indies, the juice which is obtained without ex- pression, and inspissated in the sun without artificial heat, is called Soc- otrine aloes; and is probably little inferior to the genuine drug. The Socotrine aloes has been very long known under this name, and in former times held the same superiority in the estimation of the pro- fession, which it still, to a certain degree, retains. Avicenna tells us, that of the different kinds, the Socotrine is the best. 3. Hepatic Aloes.—This variety is prepared in the West Indies and Spain; and is also brought from the ports of India, particularly from Bombay. According to Ainslie, it is not produced in Hindostan; but taken thither from Yemen in Arabia. It is probably obtained from the same plant or plants which yield the Socotrine; but prepared with less care than this variety, or by a different process. In Spain it is pro- cured from the Aloe vulgaris. But the British West Indies are the source of by far the greater part of this variety that is consumed in Europe. In Barbadoes and Jamaica, the aloes plant is largely cultivated in the poorer soils; and in the former island especially, the drug has been so abundantly produced, that the name of Barbadoes aloes has been fre- quently used as synonymous with hepatic. The species most extensively cultivated in the West Indies, is the Aloe vulgaris,* a native of South- eastern Europe, and supposed to be the true aloe of the ancients. The A. Soccotrina,^ A. purpurascens,\ and A. arborescens,§ are also said to be cultivated in these islands. The process for preparing the aloes appears to be somewhat different in different places, or at least as described by different authors. The finest, which is usually called Socotrine, results from the inspissation of the juice placed in bladders or shallow vessels, and exposed to the sun. The common kind is made either by boiling the juice to a proper consistence, or by first forming a decoction of the plant, and then evaporating the decoction. In either case, when the liquor has attained the consistence of honey, it is poured into calabashes and allowed to harden. Hepatic aloes, like the Socotrine, is of a reddish-brown colour, but is darker and less glossy. It derived its name from the supposed resem- blance of its colour to that of the liver. It has none of the aromatic odour of the Socotrine, and is often exceedingly unpleasant. The taste is nauseous, and intensely bitter. The fracture is not so smooth, nor the edges so sharp and transparent as in either of the first mentioned varie- • De Candolle, Plantes Grasses, fig. 27. f De Candolle, Plantes Grasses, fig. 85. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, pi. 472. * Curtis's Botanical Magazine, pi. 1474. § De Candolle, Plantes Grasses, fig. 38. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, pi. 1306. PART I. Aloe. 65 ties. It softens in the hand, and becomes adhesive. The powder is of a dull olive-yellow colour. Very little hepatic aloes comes to this country. We sometimes re- ceive a parcel from India, and it has occasionally been ordered from London: but under its proper name, it would not be bought by our druggists at a price which would pay for its importation; and to give it currency at the rate at which it sells in England, it would be necessary to change its title. The Caballine, fetid, or horse aloes, seldom if ever reaches us. It is a very impure and offensive variety of the drug, procured either from the dregs of the juice deposited during the preparation of the more valuable varie- ties, or from an inferior species of the plant. It is given only to horses; and the best Cape aloes is so cheap, as to render the importation of the caballine, for this purpose, unnecessary. General Properties.—The odour of aloes is different in the different varieties. The taste is in all of them intensely bitter and very tenacious. The colour and other sensible properties have already been sufficiently described. Several distinguished chemists have investigated the nature and composition of aloes. The opinion at one time entertained, that it was a gum-resin, has been abandoned since the experiments of Braconnot, who found it to consist of a bitter principle, soluble in water and in alco- hol of 38° B., which he considered peculiar and named resino-amer; and of another substance, in much smaller proportion, inodorous and nearly taste- less, very soluble in alcohol, and scarcely soluble in boiling water, which he designated by the name of flea-coloured principle. These results have been essentially confirmed by the experiments of Trommsdorff, Bouillon- Lagrange, and Vogel, who consider the former substance as extractive matter, and the latter as having the chief characters of resin. Besides these principles, Trommsdorff discovered in a variety of hepatic aloes, a proportion of insoluble matter which he considered as albumen; and Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel found that Socotrine aloes yields, by distil- lation, a small quantity of volatile oil, which they could not obtain from the hepatic. The proportions of the ingredients vary greatly in the dif- ferent varieties of the drug; and the probability is, that scarcely any two specimens would afford precisely the same results. Braconnot found about 73 per cent, of his resino-amer, and 26 of the flea-coloured principle. Trommsdorff obtained from Socotrine aloes 75 parts of extractive, and 25 of resin; and from the hepatic 80.25 of extractive, 6.25 of resin, and 12.5 of albumen, in the hundred parts. The former variety, according to Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel, contains 68 per cent, of extractive and 32 of resin; the latter 52 of extractive, 42 of resin, and 6 of the albu- minous matter of Trommsdorff. We are not aware that any analysis has been published of the Cape aloes as a distinct variety. Berzelius considers the resin of Trommsdorff and others, to belong to that form of matter which he calls apotheme, (See Extracts,) and which is nothing more than extractive, altered by the action of the air. It may be obtained separately treating aloes with water, and digesting the undis- solved portion with oxide of lead, which unites with the apotheme, form- ing an insoluble compound, and leaves a portion of unaltered extractive, which had adhered to it, dissolved in the water. The oxide of lead may be separated by nitric acid very much diluted; and the apotheme remains in the form of a brown powder, insoluble in cold water, very slightly soluble in boiling water to which it imparts a yellowish-brown colour, soluble in alcohol, ether, and alkaline solutions, and burning like tinder without flame and without being melted. According to the same author, 9 66 Aloe. PART I. the bitter extractive which constitutes the remainder of the aloes, may be obtained by treating the watery infusion of the drug with oxide ot lead, to separate a portion of apotheme which adheres to it, and evaporating the liquor. Thus procured, it is a yellowish, translucent, gum-like substance, fusible by a gentle heat, of a bitter taste, soluble in ordinary alcohol, but insoluble in that fluid when anhydrous, and in ether. Chlo- rine produces with its solution a precipitate analogous to the apotheme. Cold sulphuric acid dissolves without changing it. Nitric acid dissolves it, producing a greenish colour. Its solution is rendered brighter by acids, which occasion a slight precipitate, and dark red by the alkalies and the salts of iron. The acetate of lead, tartarized antimony, permuriate of tin, and the salts of manganese, zinc, and copper, do not disturb the solution; the promuriate of tin, and the nitrates of mercury and silver, occasion precipitates. Aloes yields its active matter to cold water, and when good is almost wholly dissolved by boiling water; but the resinous portion or apotheme of Berzelius is deposited as the solution cools. It is also soluble in alco- hol, rectified or diluted. Long boiling impairs its purgative properties by converting the extractive into insoluble apotheme. The alkalies, their carbonates, and soap, alter in some measure its chemical nature, and render it of easier solution. It is inflammable, swelling up and decrepi- tating when it burns, and giving out a thick smoke which has the odour of the drug. Those substances only are incompatible with aloes, which alter or pre- cipitate the bitter extractive; as the insoluble portion is without action upon the system. Its aqueous solution keeps a long time, even for seve- ral months, without exhibiting mouldiness or putrescency; but it becomes ropy, and acquires the character, which it did not previously possess, of affording an abundant precipitate with the infusion of galls. Medical Properties and Uses.— Aloes was known to the ancients. It is mentioned in the works of Dioscorides and Celsus, the former of whom speaks of two kinds. The varieties are similar in their mode of action. They are all cathartic, operating very slowly but certainly, and having a peculiar affinity for the large intestines. Their action, moreover, appears to be directed rather to the muscular coat than to the exhalent vessels; and the discharges which they produce, are therefore seldom very thin or watery. In a full dose they quicken the circulation, and produce gen- eral warmth. When frequently repeated, they are apt to irritate the rectum, giving rise, in some instances, to hemorrhoids, and aggravating them when already existing. Aloes has also a decided tendency to the uterine system. Its emmenagogue effect, which is often very considera- ble, is generally attributed to a sympathetic extension of irritation from the rectum to the uterus; but we can see no reason why the medicine should not act specifically upon this organ; and its influence in promoting menstruation is by no means confined to cases in which its action upon the neighbouring intestine is most conspicuous. A peculiarity in the action of this cathartic is, that an increase of the quantity administered beyond the medium dose, is not attended by a corresponding increase of effect. Its tendency to irritate the rectum may be obviated, in some measure, by combining it with soap or an alkaline carbonate; but it does not follow, as supposed by some, that this modification of its operation is the result of increased solubility; for aloes given in a liquid state produces the same effect as when taken in pill or powder, except that it acts some- what more speedily. Besides, when externally applied to a blistered sur- face, it operates exactly in the same manner as when internally adminis- part l. Aloe.—Althsese Folia et Radix. 67 tered; thus proving that its peculiarities are not dependent upon the particular form in which it may be given, but on specific tendencies to particular parts.* With its other powers, aloes combines the property of slightly stimulating the stomach. It is therefore, in minute doses, an excellent remedy in habitual costiveness, attended with torpor of the digestive organs. From its special direction to the rectum, it has been found peculiarly useful in the treatment of ascarides. In amenorrhceait is perhaps more frequently employed than any other remedy, entering into almost all the numerous empirical preparations which are habitually resorted to by females in this complaint, and enjoying a no less favoura- ble reputation in regular practice. It is, moreover, frequently given in combination with more irritating cathartics, in order to regulate their liability to excessive action. Aloes is contra-indicated by the existence of hemorrhoids, and is obviously unsuitable, unless modified by combina- tion, to the treatment of inflammatory diseases. The medium dose is 10 grains; but as a laxative it will often operate in the quantity of 2 or 3 grains, and when a decided impression is requir- ed, the dose may be augmented to 20 grains. In consequence of its ex- cessively bitter and somewhat nauseous taste, it is most conveniently ad- ministered in the shape of pill, t Off. Prep. Extractum Aloes Hepaticae, Dub.; Ext. Colocynth. Comp., U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Aloes, U.S., Ed.; Pil. Aloes Comp., Lond., Dub.; Pil. Aloes et Assafcetida, U.S., Ed.; Pil. Aloes et Myrrhae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Colocynth. Comp., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Cambogiae Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Rhei Comp., U.S., Ed.; Pulvis Aloes et Canellae, U.S., Dub.; Pulvis Aloes Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Tinc- tura Aloes, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Aloes iEtherea, Ed.; Tinct. Aloes et Myrrhae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Benzoini Comp., U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Rhei et Aloes, U.S., Ed.; Vinum Aloes, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. ALTKMM FOLIA et RADIX. Lond. Leaves and Hoot of Marshmallow. " Althaea Officinalis. Folia et Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. ALTHjEtE OFFICINALIS RADIX. Ed.; ALTH^A OFFICINALIS. Folia et Radix. Dub. Guimauve, Fr.; Eibesch, Germ.,- Altea, Ital.,- Altea, Malvavisco, Span. Althjea. Class Monadelphia. Order Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Malva- ceae, Juss. • See a jwper on Endermic Medication, by Dr. Gerhard, in the North Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. Vol. x. p. 155. f Dr. Paris enumerates the following empirical preparations, containing aloes as a leading ingredient:—Anderson's pills, consisting of aloes, jalap, and oil of aniseed; Hooper's pills, of aloes, myrrh, sulphate of iron, canella, and ivory black; Dixon's antibilious pills, of aloes, scammony, rhubarb, and tartarized antimony?; Speedi- man's pills, of aloes, myrrh, rhubarb, extract of chamomile, and ess. oil of chamom.; Dinner pills, of aloes, mastich, red roses, and syrup of wormwood; Fothergill's pills, of aloes, scammony, colocynth, and oxide of antimony; Peter's pills, of aloes, jalap, scammony, gamboge, and calomel; and Radcliff's Elixir, of aloes, cinnamon, zedoary, rhubarb, cochineal, syrup of buckthorn, and spirit and water as the solvent; to which may be added, Lee's Windham pills, consisting of gamboge, aloes, soap, and nitrate of potassa, and Lee's New-London pills, of aloes, scammony, gamboge, calomel, jalap, soap, and syrup of buckthorn. 68 Althsese Folia et Radix.—A lumen. PART I. Gen. Ch. Calyx double, the exterior six or nine-cleft. Capsules numer- ous, one-seeded. Willd. Althsea Officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 770.; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 552. t. 198. As the marshmallow is little if at all used in this country, a very brief description only is necessary. It is an herbaceous perennial, with a spindleshaped root, and an upright woolly stem, three or four feet in height, branched and leafy towards the summit. The leaves are oppo- site, petiolate, oblong-ovate, usually with a lobe on each side, pointed, irregularly serrate, and covered with a soft down. The flowers are axil- lary, almost sessile, large, and of a pale purplish colour. The plant grows throughout Europe, inhabiting salt marshes, the banks of rivers, and other moist places. It is found also in this country on the borders of salt marshes. In some parts of the Continent of Europe, it is largely cultivated for medical use. The whole plant abounds in mucilage, which is especially abundant in the root. Though both the leaves and root are officinal, it is the latter which is usually kept in the shops. As found in commerce it is in pieces three or four inches long, of the thickness of the finger, and very white externally, owing to the removal of the yellowish epidermis. The best pieces are those which are plump and but slightly fibrous. The root has a feeble odour, and a mild muci- laginous taste. It yields its mucilage to water by decoction. Among its ingredients is a substance identical with asparagin. The roots of other Malvaceae are sometimes substituted without dis- advantage, as they possess similar properties;—such are those of the Althaea rosea, and the Malva Alcea. Medical Properties and Uses.—The virtues of the Marshmallow are ex- clusively those of a demulcent. The decoction of the root is much used in Europe in irritation and inflammation of the mucous membranes. The roots themselves, boiled and bruised, are sometimes employed as a poultice. The leaves are applied to similar uses. In France, the pow- dered root is much used in the preparation of pills and electuaries. Off. Prep. Decoctum Althaeae, Dub., Ed.; Syrupus Althaeae, Lond., Ed., Dub. ALUMEN. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Alum. Alun, Fr., Dan., Swed.; Alaun, Germ.; Allume, Itah; Alumbre, Span. The officinal alum is a double salt, consisting of the sulphate of alu- mina, united to the sulphate of potassa. It is included in the Materia Medica of the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, as an article to be procured from the wholesale manufacturer. Alum is manufactured occasionally from earths which contain it ready formed, but most generally from minerals which embrace most or all of its constituents, and are hence called alum ores. The principal alum ores are the alum stone, found in large quantities at Tolfa and Piombino in Italy, which is a native mixture of subsulphate of alumina, and sulphate of potassa; and certain natural mixtures of sulphuret of iron with schist or clay. It is particularly at the Solfaterra and other places in the kingdom of Naples, that alum is extracted from earths which contain it ready form- ed. The ground being of volcanic origin, and having a temperature of PART I. Alumen. 69 about 104°, an efflorescence of pure alum is formed upon its surface. This is collected and lixiviated, and the solution made to crystallize by slow evaporation in leaden vessels sunk in the ground. The alum stone is manufactured into alum by calcination, and subse- quent exposure to the air for three months, the mineral being frequently sprinkled with water, in order that it may be brought to the state of a soft mass. This is lixiviated, and the solution obtained crystallized by evaporation. The mineral in question may be considered to consist of alum united with a certain quantity of the hydrate of alumina. This latter, by the calcination, loses its water, and becomes incapable of re- maining united with the alum of the mineral, which is consequently set free. Alum of the greatest purity is obtained from this alum ore. Native mixtures of sulphuret of iron and schist, when compact, are treated by exposure to the air for a month. The mineral is then stratified with wood, which is set on fire. The combustion which ensues is slow and protracted; the sulphur is in part converted into sulphuric acid, which unites with the alumina, and the sulphate of alumina thus formed generates a portion of alum with the potassa in the ashes of the wood. The iron, in the mean time, is almost wholly converted into peroxide, and thus becomes insoluble. The matter is lixiviated, and the solution crystallized into alum by evaporation. The mother-waters, consisting of sulphate of alumina, are then drawn off and converted into a fresh por- tion of alum by the addition of sulphate of potassa. This process is practised at Liege in France. When the iron ore consists principally of sulphuret of iron and clay, sulphate of iron or green vitriol is obtained at the same time. The ore is placed in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled with water. The sulphuret of iron gradually absorbs oxygen and passes to the state of sulphate, which effloresces on the surface of the heap. Part of the sulphuric acid formed unites with the alumina; so that after the chemical changes are completed, the heap contains both the sulphate of iron and the sulphate of alumina. At the end of about a year, the matter is lixiviated, and the solution of the two sulphates obtained is concentrated to the proper de- gree in leaden boilers. The sulphate of iron crystallizes, while the sul- phate of alumina, being a deliquescent salt, remains in the mother-wa- ters. These are drawn off, and treated with a certain quantity of the sulphate of potassa in powder, heat being at the same time applied. They are then allowed to cool, that the alum may crystallize. The crystals are then separated from the solution, and purified by a second solution and crystallization. They are next added to boiling water to full saturation, and the solution is transferred to a cask, where, on cooling, nearly the whole concretes into a crystalline mass. The cask is then taken to pieces, and the salt having been broken up, is packed in barrels for the purposes of commerce. This process is the one most generally followed for manu- facturing alum, being employed in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Alum is manufactured also by the direct combination of its consti- tuents. With this view, clays are selected as free from iron and carbon- ate of lime as possible, and calcined to peroxidize the iron and render them more easily pulverizable; after which they are dissolved, by the assistance of heat, in weak sulphuric acid. The sulphate of alumina thus generated, is next crystallized into alum by the addition of sulphate of potassa in the usual manner. Alum has not been an article of import into the United States since 1818, or a year or two earlier; the demand since then having been en- 70 Alumen. PART I. tirely supplied by the domestic manufacture. There are at present six establishments in the United States where alum is manufactured; namely, two in Baltimore, one in New-York, and three in Massachusetts, at Salem, Roxbury, and Newton. The aggregate quantity made in these works, may be estimated at from a thousand to twelve hundred tons. 1 he method employed consists in the direct combination of sulphuric acid with clay. Lately, however, Messrs. Tyson & Ellicott, manufacturing chemists of Baltimore, have commenced working the ore found at Cape Sable, on the Magothy river, Maryland. This ore, which was extensively worked during the late war, under the superintendence of Dr. .Troost, consists of lignite, clay, sulphuret of iron, and sand. It exists in beds of from six to ten feet in thickness, covered by a stratum of sand. It is dug up, and thrown into heaps of from one to three thousand tons, is set on fire, and continues to burn for years. The ashes are transported to the manufactory, where they are lixiviated and evaporated in leaden ves- sels. When the solution indicates about 25° of Baume's hydrometer, sulphate of ^potassa is added, after which it is drawn off to crystallize. At the end of about a week, the crystallization having been completed, the mother-waters are pumped off; and the crystals, after being washed and well drained, are dissolved in leaden boilers. From these the solu- tion is transferred to the refining vessels, and left for about three weeks to crystallize. At the end of that lime, the mother-waters are drawn off from the crystals, and these are broken up, dried, and packed in barrels. Besides the officinal alum, the mode of manufacturing which has just been described, there are several varieties of this salt, in which the po- tassa is replaced by other bases, as for example, ammonia and soda. Ammoniacal alum, or the sulphate of alumina and ammonia, is some- times manufactured in France, where it is formed by adding putrid urine to a solution of the sulphate of alumina. It resembles so exactly the potassa-alum, that it is impossible by simple inspection to distinguish them; and in composition,it is perfectly analogous to the ordinary alum. It may, however, be distinguished by means of strong calcination, which leaves alumina as the sole residue; or by rubbing it up with potassa or lime and a little water, when the smell of ammonia will be perceived. Properties.—Alum is a white, slightly efflorescent salt, crystallized in regular octohedrons, and possessing a sweetish, astringent taste. It dis- solves in between fourteen and fifteen times its weight of cold, and three- fourths of its weight of boiling water. Its sp. gr. is 1.71. It reddens litmus, but changes the blue tinctures from the petals of plants, green. It cannot, therefore, be properly said to contain an excess of acid. When heated a little above the boiling point, it undergoes the aqueous fusion; and if the heat be continued, it loses its water, swells up, becomes white and opaque, and is converted into the officinal preparation called dried alum. (See Alumen Exsiccatum.) Exposed to a red heat, it gives off oxy- gen, together with sulphurous and anhydrous sulphuric acids; and the residue consists of alumina and sulphate of potassa. When calcined with finely divided charcoal, it gives rise to a peculiar spontaneously inflammable substance, called pyrophorus, which probably consists of a mixture of sulphuret of potassium, alumina, and charcoal. Several varieties of alum are known in commerce. Roche alum, so called from its having come originally from Roccha in Syria, is a purer sort of alum, which occurs in fragments about the size of an almond, and covered with an efflorescence of a pale rose colour. A similar descrip- tion is given by Thenard of the Roman alum, which he states to be in PART I. Alumen.—Ammoniacum. 71 small fragments, having a rose coloured surface, arising from a slight covering of oxide of iron. All-the alums of commerce contain more or less sulphate of iron, varying from five to seven parts in the thousand. Roman alum is among the purest varieties, and is, therefore, much esteemed. The iron is readily detected by adding to a solution of the suspected alum a few drops of the ferrocyanate of potassa, which will cause a greenish-blue tint, if iron be present. The quantity of iron usually present, though small, is injurious to the alum when used in dyeing. It may, however, be purified by dissolving it in the smallest quantity of boiling water, and stirring the solution as it cools; or by repeated solutions and crystallizations. Incompatiblcs.—Alum is incompatible with the alkalies and their car- bonates, lime and lime-water, magnesia and its carbonate, tartrate of potassa, and acetate of lead. Composition.—Alum was for a long time regarded as a sulphate of alumina. It is to Descroizilles, Vauquelin, and Chaptal, that we owe the discovery that it also contains sulphate of potassa, sulphate of ammonia, or both these salts. When its second base is potassa, it consists of three equivalents of sulphate of alumina 174, one equiv. of sulphate of potassa 88, and twenty-five equiv. of water 225 = 487. Berzelius, however, ad- mits only twenty-four equivalents of water. In the ammoniacal alum, the equiv. of sulphate of potassa is replaced by one of sulphate of ammo- nia. In other respects its composition is the same. Medical Properties, 8fc.—Alum is a powerful astringent, and as such is used both internally and externally in restraining haemorrhages. It has been recommended by Dr. Scudamore, in the form of a saturated solu- tion, in free doses, in haemoptysis and haematemesis. It is employed locally in the form of astringent and repellent injections, gargles, and collyria. The dose in haemorrhages is from five to twenty grains, repeated every hour or two, until the bleeding abates. In less urgent cases, smaller doses are advisable; as large ones are apt to nauseate, and produce ob- stinate constipation. The former effect may often be obviated by the addition of some aromatic. It is sometimes exhibited in the form of alum whey, made by boiling two drachms of alum in a pint of milk, and strain- ing the decoction, of which two fluidrachms are a dose. Briskly agitated with the white of eggs, it forms a coagulum which is used as an external application in some forms of ophthalmia, (See Cataplasma Aluminis.y Off. Prep.—Alumen Exsiccatum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Cataplasma Aluminis, Dub.; Liquor Aluminis Compositus, Lond.; Pulvis Aluminis Compositus, Ed. AMMONIACUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Ammoniac. "Heracleum gummiferum. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Gomme Ammoniaque, Fr.; Ammoniak, Germ.,- Gomma Ammoniaco, Ilal; Goma Amoniaco, Span.; Ushek, Arab.; Semugh belshereen, Persian. Much uncertainty has existed among botanists as to the plant which yields ammoniac. It was generally believed to be a species of Ferula, till Willdenow raised from some seeds mixed with the gum-resin found in the shops, a plant which he ascertained to be an Heracleum, and named H. gummiferum, under the impression that it must be the true source of the 72 Ammoniacum. PART I. medicine. On his authority, the plant has been adopted by the British Colleges, and is recognised in our national Pharmacopoeia. Willdenow expressly acknowledges that he could not procure from it any gum-resin, but ascribes the result to the influence of climate. The Heracleum, how- ever, does not correspond exactly with the representations given of the ammoniac plant by travellers; and Sprengel has ascertained that it is a, native of the Pyrennees, and never produces gum. By this botanist it is named H. Pyrenaicum, though before described by Lapeyrouse under the title of H. amplifolium. (Merat and De Lens.) Mr. Jackson, in his ac- count of Morocco, imperfectly describes a plant indigenous in that coun- try, supposed to be a species of Ferula, from which gum-ammoniac is procured by the natives: but it may be doubted whether its product is the true ammoniac of the shops, which is derived exclusively from Per- sia. Two English officers, Colonel Johnson and Captain Hart, have seen the real Persian plant, and given such imperfect accounts of it as might be expected from intelligent travellers wholly ignorant of botany; and M. Fontanier, a man of science, who was sent by the French government into the Levant, and resided many years in Persia, saw it growing in the province of Fars. By the last mentioned gentleman, a drawing of the plant with specimens was transmitted to Paris. From these it is infer- red to be a species of Ferula; and Merat and De Lens propose for it the name originally applied to it by Lemery, of F. ammonifera. It would appear, however, from a very recent notice, that specimens of the plant obtained in Persia by Colonel Wright, and examined by Mr. David Don, prove it to belong to a genus allied to Ferula, but essentially different; and named by Mr. Don, Dorema. We are promised a description of it under the name of D. Ammoniacum, in the transactions of the Linnaean Society for the year 1831. (Journ. de Pharm. Avril 1831.) The ammoniac plant grows spontaneously in Farsistan, Irauk, and other Persian provinces; in the southern districts of Arabia; and perhaps in the north of Africa. It attains the height of six or seven feet, and in the spring and early part of summer abounds in a milky juice, which flows out upon the slightest puncture. From the accounts of travellers it appears, that in the month of May, the plant is pierced in innumerable places by an insect of the beetle kind. The juice, exuding through the punctures, con- cretes upon the stem, and when quite dry is collected by the natives. M. Fontanier states that the juice exudes spontaneously, and that the harvest is about the middle of June. The gum-resin is sent to Bushire, whence it is transmitted to India. It reaches this country usually by the route of Calcutta. The name gum ammoniac is thought to have been de- rived from the temple of Jupiter Ammon in the Lybian desert, where the drug is said to have been formerly collected. Properties.—Ammoniac comes either in the state of separate tears, or in aggregate masses, and in both forms is frequently mixed with impu- rities. That of the tears, however, is preferable, as the purest may be conveniently picked out, and kept for use. These are of an irregular shape, usually more or less globular, opaque, yellowish on the outside, whitish within, compact, homogeneous, brittle when cold, and breaking with a conchoidal shining fracture. The masses are of a darker colour and less uniform structure, appear- ing, when broken, as if composed of numerous white or whitish tears, embedded in a dirty gray or brownish substance, and frequently mingled with foreign matters, such as seeds, fragments of vegetables, and sand, or other earth. The smell of ammoniac is peculiar, and stronger in the mass than in part i. Ammoniacum. —Ammonise Murias. 73 the tears. The taste is slightly sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid. The sp. gr. is 1.207. When heated, the gum-resin softens and becomes ad- hesive, but does not melt. It burns with a white flame, swelling up, and emitting a smoke of a strong, resinous, slightly alliaceous odour. It is partly soluble in water, alcohol, ether, vinegar, and alkaline solutions; more completely in the volatile oils, ethereal spirit, and ammoniated al- cohol. Triturated with water, it forms an opaque milky emulsion, which becomes clear upon standing. The alcoholic solution is transparent, but is rendered milky by the addition of water. Braconnot obtained from 100 parts of ammoniac, 18.4 parts of gum, 70 of resin, 4.4 of a substance resembling gluten, (bassorin), and 6 of water. The remainder was lost. A volatile oil, in minute proportion, is probably among the ingredients, as water distilled from ammoniac has its peculiar odour. Medical Properties and Uses.—This gum-resin is stimulant and expecto- rant, in large doses cathartic, and, like many other stimulants, may be so given as occasionally to prove diaphoretic, diuretic, or emmenagogue. It has been employed in medicine from the highest antiquity, being men- tioned in the writings of Hippocrates. The complaints in which it is most frequently used, are chronic catarrh, asthma, and other pectoral affections, attended with deficient expectoration without acute inflam- mation, or with too copious secretion from the bronchial mucous mem- brane dependent upon debility of the vessels. It is thought to have been useful in some cases of amenorrhoea, and in those chlorotic and hysteri- cal conditions of the system arising out of this complaint. It has also been prescribed in obstructions or chronic engorgements of the abdomi- nal viscera, under the vague notion of its deobstruent power. Any good which it may do in these affections, is more probably ascribable to its revulsive action upon the alimentary mucous membrane. Authors speak of its utility in long and obstinate colics dependent on mucous matter lodged in the intestines; but it would be difficult to ascertain in what cases such mucous matter existed, and, even allowing its presence, to decide whether it was a cause or a result of the diseased action. Ammo- niac is usually administered in combination with other expectorants, with tonics, or emmenagogues. It is much less used than formerly. Externally applied in the shape of a plaster, it is thought to be useful as a discutient or resolvent in white swellings of the joints and other indo- lent tumours. (See Emplastrum Ammoniaci.) It is given in substance, in the shape of pill or emulsion. The latter form is preferable. (See Mistura Ammoniaci.) The dose is from ten to thirty grains. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Ammoniaci, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emplas- trum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro, Lond., Dub.; Emplastrum Gummo- sum, Ed.; Mistura Ammoniaci, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Scillae Com- positae, Lond., Ed., Dub. AMMONITE MURIAS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Muriate of Ammonia. Off. Syn. MURIAS AMMONLE, Ed. Sal Ammoniac, Hydrochlorate of ammonia; Sel ammoniac, Fr.; Salmiak, Germ.; Sale Ammoniaco, Ital.; Sal Ammoniaco, Span. This salt is placed in the Materia Medica of all the Pharmacopoeias noticed in this work, as a substance to be obtained from the wholesale 10 74 Ammonias Murias. part I. manufacturer. It originally came from Egypt, where it was obtained by sublimation from the soot of camels' dung, which is used in that coun- try for fuel. Since the year 1790, it has been manufactured in Europe by chemical processes, and the importation from Egypt gradually ceased. The first European sal ammoniac manufactories were established in Eng- land and Scotland. Soon after these, one was set up in Paris by Baume, and shortly afterwards another in Brunswick in Germany. Preparation—The French method of preparing muriate of ammonia is as follows. Bones and old woollen rags are distilled in cast iron cyl- inders, placed over furnaces. At one end of the cylinder, which is made to open and shut, the substances are introduced, and from the other, by means of a tube communicating with a series of casks connected to- gether by other tubes, the products are disengaged. A tube from the last cask carries the incondensible products either outside the manufac- tory, or into the furnace to be destroyed by combustion. In case of the latter arrangement, partitions of wire-gauze must be placed at intervals within the tube, to prevent explosions. The products consist of water, oil, a small quantity of acetate and hydrocyanate of ammonia, and a large quantity of carbonate of ammonia. After being withdrawn from the casks, they are mixed with powdered sulphate of lime, or made to filter through a layer of this salt. By double decomposition, sulphate of am- monia and carbonate of lime are generated, the former of which re- mains in solution, while the latter is precipitated. Chloride of sodium (common salt) is now added in excess to the solution of the sulphate; and by a new play of affinities, implying the decomposition of water, muriate of ammonia and sulphate of soda are formed. The solution of the mixed salts is then concentrated, and by successive evaporations and coolings, they are made to crystallize separately. The muriate of ammonia is then purified and dried, and finally sublimed. The drying is performed by exposing the crystallized salt to heat in a kind of oven, whereby it becomes changed into a spongy friable ash-coloured mass. This is put, while hot, into glazed earthen jars, furnished with a perfo- rated cover, where it is sublimed by means of a sand-bath, at a heat of 320°. The process pursued in England, is in principle the same as that adopted by the French. In London, however, much use is made of the ammoniacal liquor generated in coal-gas works, to obtain the sulphate of ammonia for sublimation with the common salt. Besides the method just described, there are several others for obtain- ing sulphate of ammonia, for the purpose of being converted into muri- ate of ammonia. Sometimes bones are heated to redness directly with sulphate of lime or gypsum. In this case there are formed sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime, the former of which is separated by lixiviation. In Scotland, the sulphate of ammonia is procured by lixiv- iating the soot of sulphureous coal. It has been proposed to obtain muriate of ammonia by heating a mix- ture of the bittern of sea-salt works with animal matters. The bittern consists principally of muriate of magnesia, and the animal matters fur- nish impure carbonate of ammonia; and these salts, by double decom- position, generate muriate of ammonia and carbonate of magnesia. Other processes have been proposed or practised, for an account of which the reader is referred to the Chemical Essays of Mr. Parkes, who has appropriated a separate essay to this subject. Commercial History.—All the muriate of ammonia consumed in the PART I. Ammonise Marias. 75 United States, is obtained from abroad. Its commercial varieties are known under the names of the crude and refined. The crude is imported from Calcutta in chests, containing from 350 to 400 pounds. This variety is consumed almost entirely by coppersmiths and other artisans in brass and copper, being employed for the purpose of keeping metallic surfaces bright preparatory to soldering. The refined comes to us exclusively from England, packed in casks containing from 5 to 10 cwt. Its whole- sale price is about twenty-two cents per pound, while that of the crude is only sixteen or eighteen cents. Properties.—Muriate of ammonia is a white salt, occurring either in round concavo-convex cakes of about an inch in thickness, or crystal- lized in conical masses. It has a sharp saline taste, but no smell. Its sp. gr. is 1.45. It dissolves in three times its weight of cold, and about its own weight of boiling water; and during its solution, considerable cold is produced. A hot concentrated solution, when it cools, deposites the salt in feathery crystals. These, when exposed to heat, first undergo the watery fusion, then dry, and finally, below a red heat, sublime in the form of white vapours. The muriate of ammonia possesses the property of combining with the corrosive chloride of mercury and increasing its solubility. It is decomposed by the strong mineral acids, and by the alka- lies and alkaline earths, the former disengaging muriatic acid, and the latter, ammonia. It is a permanent salt in the ordinary states of the at- mosphere, but sometimes the conical crystallized variety is deliquescent, owing to thepresence of a portion of muriate of lime. Hence the sublimed salt is always to be preferred in medicine. It is incompatible with ace- tate of lead and nitrate of silver, producing with these salts a precipitate of chloride either of lead or silver. Composition.—Muriate of ammonia is composed of one equivalent of muriatic acid 37, and one equiv. of ammonia 17 = 54; or in ultimate constituents, of one equiv. of chlorine 36, one equiv. of nitrogen 14, and four equiv. of hydrogen 4. In equivalent volumes, it consists of two volumes of muriatic acid, and two volumes of ammonia, condensed into a solid. Medical Properties.—Muriate of ammonia is employed both internally and externally. Internally, it acts primarily on the alimentary canal as' a peculiar irritative stimulus; but secondarily as an excitant and altera- tive of the capillary, glandular, and lymphatic system, as also of the mucous, serous and fibrous membranes, the secretions of which it is sup- posed to improve. It has accordingly been deemed useful in catarrhal and rheumatic fevers, pneumonia, bronchitis, pulmonary catarrh, and other mucous and serous inflammations, after their first violence has abated. It has also been found useful in visceral obstructions of various kinds. The dose is from five to thirty grains, repeated every two or three hours, given in powder mixed with powdered gum or sugar, or dissolved in syrup or mucilage. It is very little used as an internal re- medy in the United States, but on the continent of Europe, especially in Germany, it is a good deal employed. Considering the potent nature of its constituents, and the various testimony borne in favour of its powers, its employment has perhaps been too much neglected. Externally applied, it operates in two ways; by the cold produced during its solution, and by the stimulus created by the salt. It acts in the former way when it proves beneficial in the form of lotions, applied to the head in mania, apoplexy, and violent headachs; and on the latter principle, in the cure of indolent tumours, contusions, gangrene, psora, 76 Ammonias Murias.—Amygdala. part i. ophthalmia, chilblains, &c. For external use, it may be dissolved to the extent of an ounce in nine fluidounces of water, a fluidounce ot alcohol being added to the solution. . Muriate of ammonia is used in the preparation of several officinal compounds, but is not itself the basis of any one. AMYGDALA. U.S. Almonds. " Amygdalus communis. Nuclei. The kernels." U.S. Off. Syn. AMYGDALAE AMARjE, AMYGDALAE DULCES. Amyg- dalus communis. Nuclei. Lond., Dub.; AMYGDALI COMMUNIS NUCLEI. Amygdalae dulces, ex varietate sativa. Ed. Amande douce, Amande amere, Fr.; SUsse Mandeln, Bittere Mandeln, Germ.; Man- dorle dolci, Mandorle amare, Ilal.; Almendra dulce, Almendra amarga, Span. Amygdalus. Class Icosandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosa- ceae, Juss.; Amygdalese, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Petals five. Drupe with a nut perforated with pores. Willd. Amygdalus communis. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 982; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 507. t. 183. The almond tree rises usually from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and divides into numerous spreading branches, which are covered with a dark gray bark. The leaves stand upon short footstalks, are about three inches long, and three quarters of an inch broad, elliptical, pointed at both ends, veined, minutely serrated, with the lower serratures glandu- lar, and are of a bright green colour. They bear a close resemblance to those of the peach. The flowers are large, of a pale red colour, varying to white, with very short peduncles, and are usually placed in numerous pairs upon the branches. The fruit is of the peach kind, with the outer covering thin, tough, dry, and marked with a longitudinal furrow, where it opens when fully ripe. Within this covering is a rough shell, which contains the kernel or almond. There are several varieties of this species of Amygdalus, differing chiefly in the size and shape of the fruit, the thickness of the shell, and the taste of the kernel. The last is the most important point of difference, and has given rise to the botanical division of the species into—1. Amyg- dalus (communis) dulcis, and 2. Amygdalus (communis) amara, the former bearing sweet, the latter bitter almonds. It is the fruit of the first only which is considered officinal in the Pharmacopceia of the United States. The almond tree is a native of Persia, Syria, and Barbary; and is very extensively cultivated in various parts of the south of Europe. It has been introduced into the United States, but in the northern and middle sections the fruit does not usually come to perfection. We are supplied with sweet almonds chiefly from Spain and the south of France. They are distinguished into the soft-shelled and the hard-shelled, the former of which come from Marseilles and Bordeaux, the latter from Malaga. From the latter port they are sometimes brought to us without the shell. Dr. A. T. Thomson states, that the Jordan almonds, which are taken from Malaga to England, and are the best imported into that country, are said to be the produce of a distinct species of Amygdalus. According to the same author, the bitter almonds are obtained chiefly from Morocco, Properties.—The shape and appearance of almonds are too well known part i. Amygdala. 77 to require description. Each kernel consists of two white cotyledons, enclosed in a thin yellowish-brown, bitter skin, which is easily separable after immersion in boiling water. When deprived of this covering, they are called blanched almonds. The two varieties of sweet and bitter al- monds deserve each a separate notice, as they are both considered offici- nal in several of the Pharmacopoeias of Europe, and both are occasionally employed in medicine. 1. Amygdala Dulces. Sweet Almonds. These when blanched are with- out smell, and have a sweet, very pleasant taste, which has rendered them a favourite article of diet in almost all countries where they are readily attainable. They are, however, generally considered of difficult digestion. By the analysis of M. Boullay, it appears that they contain in 100 parts, independently of the pellicle, 54 parts of fixed oil, 24 of albumen, 6 of saccharine matter, 3 of gum, 4 of fibrous matter, and a small proportion of water. The fixed oil, which may be obtained by expression, is colour- less or slightly tinged with yellow, sweet and bland to the taste, and may be substituted for olive oil in most of the economical uses to which the latter is applied. Almonds when rubbed with water.form a milky emul- sion, the insoluble matters being suspended by the agency of the muci- laginous and saccharine principles. 2. Amygdala Amar^e. Bitter Almonds. These have the bitter taste of the peach-kernel, and, though in their natural state inodorous or nearly so, have, when triturated with water, the fragrance of the peach blossom. They have generally been supposed to contain, in addition to the princi- ples found in the other variety, a proportion of hydrocyanic acid, and an essential oil, to which their peculiar taste and smell, and their peculiar operation upon the system, have been ascribed. The bitter almonds yield their fixed oil by pressure; and the essential oil, impregnated with hy- drocyanic acid, may be obtained from the residue by distillation with water. This oil has a bitter, acrid, burning taste, and the peculiar odour of the kernel in a very high degree. It is of a yellowish colour, heavier than water, soluble in alcohol and ether, slightly soluble in water, and deposites, upon standing, a white crystalline substance, which consists chiefly of benzoic acid. That it contains hydrocyanic acid is inferred from the fact, that it forms a cyanuret of mercury when the red oxide of that metal is digested in it. Some maintain, that when entirely deprived of this acid, it still retains its characteristic sensible properties, and the tremendous energy which it is capable of exercising upon the system. But this opinion is probably erroneous; as Dr. Goppert of Breslau has recently found, that when the oil is treated with caustic potassa till the alkaline solution ceases to afford evidence of the presence of hydrocy- anic acid, it loses its poisonous properties, or at least retains only such as are common to most of the essential oils. Its peculiar odour, how- ever, remains. This odour has been thought to resemble that of hydro- cyanic acid, and to depend upon the presence of this substance: but it will be found upon examination to be entirely distinct; and the experi- ments of Goppert show, that it resides in the oil and not in the acid. The above remarks are equally applicable to the essential oils of the cherry laurel, of the bird cherry, and probably of other vegetables supposed to contain hydrocyanic acid.* The benzoic acid which the oil of bitter al- monds deposites upon standing, has been satisfactorily proved, by Robi- * Rust's Magazin, fur die ges. Heilkunde, 1830, xxxii. 494.—Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. xxxv. 455. 78 Amygdala.—Amygdalus Persica. part i. quet and Boutron, not to pre-exist in the oil, but to result from the action of the air. According to these chemists, the oil is wholly converted into benzoic acid by exposure to atmospheric air or oxygen gas. It appears also, from their experiments, that the oil itself does not exist already formed in the bitter almond, and that water is essential to its production. The principle from which it is probably formed, and upon which the peculiar, sensible, and perhaps medicinal properties of the almond depend, is a crystallizable, azotized substance, white, inodor- ous, of a sweetish bitter taste, unalterable in the air, soluble in alcohol, exhaling an agreeable odour when heated alone, and an odour of ammo- nia when heated with a solution of caustic potassa. MM. Robiquet and Boutron, by whom it was discovered, have conferred on it the name of amygdalin.* The essential oil of bitter almonds operates upon the system in a man- ner closely analogous to that of hydrocyanic acid. A single drop is suf- ficient to destroy a bird, and four drops have occasioned the death of a dog of the middle size. The distilled water of bitter almonds operates in a similar manner, though less powerfully; and the almonds themselves have proved deleterious when taken in considerable quantities. Confectioners employ the bitter almonds for communicating flavour to the syrup of orgeat. The kernel of the peach possesses similar proper- ties, and is frequently used as a substitute. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sweet almonds exercise no other in- fluence upon the system than that of a demulcent. The emulsion formed by triturating them with water is a pleasant vehicle for the administra- tion of other medicines, and is itself useful in cases of catarrhal affection. Bitter almonds are more energetic, and, though not much in use, might undoubtedly be employed with advantage in cases to which the hydro- cyanic acid is applicable. An emulsion made with them has been bene- ficially prescribed in pectoral affections attended with cough, and is said to have cured intermittents when bark had failed, f It probably operates by diminishing the excitability of the nervous system, and moderating existing irritation. Dr. A. T. Thomson says that he has found the emul- sion of bitter almonds extremely useful as a lotion in acne rosea and in impetigo. Off.Prep. Confectio Amygdalae, U.S., Lond.; Emulsio Acaciae Arabicae, Ed., Dub.; Emulsio Amygdali Communis, Ed.; Mistura Amygdalae, U.S., Lond.., Dub.; Oleum Amygdalarum, Lond., Ed., Dub. AMYGDALUS PERSICA. Folia. Dub. Peach Leaves. Pecher, Fr.; Pfirsichbaum, Germ.; Persico, Ital; Alberchigo, Span. Amygdalus. See AMYGDALA. Amygdalus Persica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 982; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 511. t. 184.—Persica Vulgaris. Miller, Lamarck. Every one is familiar with the appearance of the common peach tree. It is characterized spe- cifically by having "all the serratures of the leaves acute, and by its ses- sile solitary flowers." Though its native country is not certainly known, it is generally supposed to have been brought originally from Persia. In * See Journ. de Chimie M^dicale, VI. Annee, p. 380 and 750. f Bergius, Mat. Med. p. 412. part i. Amygdalus Persica.—Amylum. 79 no country, perhaps, does it attain greater perfection, as regards the character of its fruit, than in the United States. Peaches are among the most grateful and wholesome of our summer fruits. They abound in saccharine matter, which renders their juice sus- ceptible of the vinous fermentation; and a distilled liquor prepared from them is much used in some parts of the country, under the name of peach brandy. The kernels of the fruit bear a close resemblance in appearance and properties, and probably in chemical nature, to the bitter almonds, for which they are frequently, and without inconvenience, substituted in our shops. They are employed by distillers in the preparation of liqueurs, and by cake-bakers to give flavour to various productions of their ovens. The flowers and leaves also have the peculiar odour and taste of the bitter almonds, and probably contain hydrocyanic acid. The leaves afford a volatile oil by distillation. These are the only part directed by the Dublin College. Medical Properties, Src.—Peach leaves are said to be laxative; and they probably exert, to a moderate extent, a sedative influence over the nervous system. They have been used as an anthelmintic with great reported suc- cess. More recently their infusion has been recommended in morbid irri- tability of the bladder. Half an ounce of the dried leaves may be infused in a pint of boiling water, and half a fluidounce given for a dose three times a day. The flowers are also laxative; and a syrup prepared from them is con- siderably used, in infantile cases, upon the continent of Europe. Wood- ville states that a drachm of the dried flowers, or half an ounce in their recent state, given in infusion, is the'dose as a vermifuge. The kernels have more of the peculiar powers of hydrocyanic acid, and therefore require to be used with some caution. Blanched, and rub- bed up with hot water, they form an emulsion well adapted to coughs depending on or associated with nervous irritation. The dried fruit stewed with sugar is an excellent laxative article of diet, suitable to cases of convalescence attended with torpid bowels. AMYLUM. Lond., Ed. Starch. " Triticum hybernum. Amylum." Lond. Amidon, Fr.; Starkmehl, Germ.; Amido, ltal.; Almidon, Span. Starch is a proximate vegetable principle contained in most plants, and especially abundant in the various grains, such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, maize, &c; in other seeds, as peas, beans, chestnuts, acorns, &c; and in numerous tuberous roots, as those of the pota"to, (Solanum tuberosum,) the sweet potato, (Convolvulus batatus,) the arrow-root, the cassava plant, and different species of curcuma. The process for obtaining it consists essentially in reducing the substances in which it exists to a state of mi- nute division, agitating or washing them with cold water, straining or pouring off the liquid, and allowing it to stand till the fine fecula which it holds in suspension has subsided. This, when dried, is starch, more or less pure according to the care taken in conducting the process. The starch of commerce is procured chiefly from wheat, sometimes also from potatoes. Our space will not allow us to enter into details in relatioh to the particular steps of the operation to which these substances are sub- SO Amylum. pABT x- jected; and the omission is of less consequence, as starch is never pre- pared by the apothecary. Starch is white, pulverulent, opaque, and as found in the shops, is usually in columnar masses, having a somewhat crystalline aspect, and producing a peculiar sound when pressed between the fingers. It is in- soluble in alcohol, ether, and cold water; but unites with boiling water, which, on cooling, forms with it a soft semi-transparent paste, or a gelatinous opaline solution, according to the proportion of starch em- ployed. If the proportion be very small, the solution remains permanent. When gently evaporated to dryness, it affords a semi-transparent mass like horn, which is soluble in cold water. The starch has, therefore, been modified by the heat^ nor can it be restored to its original state. The new substance has usually been considered a hydrate of starch; but by Caventou it is thought to be identical with the amidine of De Saussure. Starch is precipitated from its aqueous solution by subacetate of lead. Iodine forms with it, whether in its original state or in solution, a blue compound; and the tincture of iodine is the most delicate test of its pre- sence in any mixture. The colour varies somewhat according to the pro- portions employed. When the two substances are about equal, the com- pound is of a beautiful indigo blue; if the iodine is in excess, it is blackish- blue; if the starch, violet blue. It appears also that a colourless compound of starch and iodine exists, as the blue colour produced by the latter in a solution of the former sometimes disappears upon the addition of a great excess of the solution of starch. Alkalies unite with starch, forming a soluble compound, which is decomposed by the acids, the starch being precipitated. It is soluble in the diluted acids, and by long boiling is converted first into gum, and ultimately into sugar. (Berzelius.) ' Strong muriatic and nitric acids dissolve it; and the latter, by the aid of heat, converts it into oxalic and malic acids. Concentrated sulphuric acid de- composes it. By long boiling with water diluted with one-twelfth of its weight of sulphuric acid, it is converted into a saccharine substance simi- lar to the sugar of grapes. An analogous change takes place in the starch contained in seeds during the process of germination. Mixed with hot water and exposed to a temperature of about 70°, it undergoes fermenta- tion, which results in the formation of several distinct principles, among which are sugar, gum, and a modification of starch, upon which De Saussure conferred the name of amidine. According to Caventou, amidine also results when starch is exposed to a temperature rather higher than 212° F., or when submitted to the action of boiling water; and in the opinion of the same chemist, the prin- ciple as obtained by De Saussure, resulted from the hot water employ- ed in making the paste, rather than from the process of fermentation. Amidine forms a blue compound with iodine; but differs from starch in being soluble in cold water. When exposed to a higher temperature than necessary for the formation of amidine, starch is rendered brownish and converted into a substance still more soluble in cold water • and a similar effect is produced by long continued boiling. This substance separated by evaporation from its aqueous solution, closely resembles gum, and may be used for the same purposes in the arts. Starch may be made to unite with tannin by boiling their solutions together; and a compound results, which, though retained by the water while hot, is deposited when it cools. Hence the precipitate which takes place in the decoction of Peruvian bark, in which both these principles are contained. part i. Amylum. 81 Some new views in relation to starch have been presented by M. Ras- pail, and confirmed and extended by Guibourt. According to these chem- ists, it consists of organized granules, which, examined by the micro- scope, appear to be of various form and size. These granules are com- posed of an exterior integument, and an interior substance, the former insoluble, the latter soluble in cold water. Starch itself is insoluble, because the little grains remain unbroken when agitated with cold water, which therefore finds no access to the interior soluble part. Heat has the effect of destroying the integrity of the envelope, and admits the en- trance of the solvent. Hence roasted or boiled starch becomes to a cer- tain extent soluble. The same effect is produced by breaking the integu- ments of the granules mechanically, as by trituration in a mortar; and that this is not the result of the heat evolved by friction, is evinced by the fact, that the change takes place when the starch is triturated with water. M. Guibourt, however, does not believe that the interior and exterior portions are chemically different; but ascribes the comparative insolubility of the latter to a greater density and adhesiveness of parts resulting from organization. Both are coloured blue by iodine. Starch, as obtained from different substances, is somewhat different in its characters. That from wheat, when examined by a microscope, is found to consist of smaller globules than that from the potato. It is usually, moreover, harder and more adhesive, owing, according to Gui- bourt, to the escape of a portion of the interior substance of the granules in the act of grinding the grain. This attracts some moisture from the air, and thus becoming glutinous, acts as a bond between the unbroken globules. The fecula from the root of the Maranta arundinacea, com- monly called arrow-root, is in grains much larger and more shining than those of wheat starch, and quite transparent when examined by the mi- croscope. Hence the powder in mass is of a less brilliant whiteness. The granules are intermediate in size between those of the fecula of wheat and those of the potato starch. In the last they are largest. In other respects these three forms of starch are closely similar. Tapioca differs in being partially soluble in cold water, as well as in its consist- ence. (See Tapioca.) This is attributable to the circumstance that it is granulated upon heated plates of iron, which cause many of the gran- ules to burst. A form of fecula is procured from the same root, which bears a close resemblance to arrow-root, differing only in the smaller size of its granules, and their greater tiniformity, as evinced by examina- tion by the microscope. This fecula is prepared by drying in the open air, without the assistance of heat. It is called moussache in France. Sago differs from the ordinary forms of starch, rather in the degree of its aggregation than in any essential quality. It is scarcely at all solu- ble in cold water; and the microscope shows that it consists of small un- broken granules like those of the potato, closely pressed and often mat- ted together. If prepared with heat, the degree of it must have been insufficient to produce much change in the integrity of the organized granules. Starch consists, according to Berzelius, of 6.674 parts of hydrogen, 44.250 of carbon, and 49.076 of oxygen in the hundred. The results obtained by Gay-Lussac and Thenard are nearly the same. Medical Properties, fyc.—Starch is nutritive and demulcent; but in its ordinary form is seldom administered internally. Powdered and dusted upon the skin, it is sometimes used to absorb irritating secretions, and prevent excoriation. Dissolved in hot water and allowed to cool, it is 11 82 Amylum.—Amyridis Gileadensis Resina. part i. often employed in enemata, either as a vehicle of other substances, or as a demulcent application in irritated states of the rec1tu.m,T-M„ar!irith» Off. Prep. Mucilago Amyli, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Tragacanthae Comp. Lond.; Trochisci Gummosi, Ed. AMYRIDIS GILEADENSIS RESINA. Ed. Balsam of Gilead. Baume de la Mecque, Fr.; Mekkabalsam, Germ.; Balsamo della Mecca, ltal; Opo- balsamo, Balsamo de Meca, Span. The genuine Balsam of Gilead is the resinous juice of the Amyris Gilleadensis of Linn., the Balsamodendrum Gileadense of Kunth, a small evergreen tree, growing on the Asiatic and African shores of the Red Sea. It was in high repute with the ancients, and still retains its value in the estimation of the eastern nations, among whom it is employed both as*a medicine and cosmetic. In western Europe, and in this coun- try, it is never found in a state of purity, and its use has been entirely abandoned. We notice it here, simply because it is retained by the Edin- burgh College. It possesses no medical properties which do not exist in other balsamic or terebinthinate juices. It was formerly known by the name of opobalsamum, while the dried twigs of the tree were called xylobalsamum, and the dried fruit, carpo- balsamum. ANCHUSJE TINCTORIiE RADIX. Ed. Alkanet Root. Orcanette, Fr.; Alkanne, Germ.; Alcanna, ltal.; Bugula, Span. Anchusa. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Boragi- neae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped; the throat closed with arches. Seeds sculptured at the base. Willd. Anchusa tinctoria. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 758; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 314. t. 106. The dyer's alkanet has a perennial root, with a round, rough, hairy, branching, herbaceous stem, from one to two feet high, and fur- nished with long, lanceolate, obtuse, hairy, sessile leaves. The flowers are reddish or purple, and disposed in close terminal clusters. The bractes are longer than the calyx, which is five-parted. The stamens are shorter than the corolla. This species of Anchusa is a native of the Grecian Archipelago and the South of Europe. It is said in some medical works to be cultivated abundantly in the South of France; but the plant referred to is probably the Lithospermum tinctorium of Linnaeus and De Candolle, the Anchusa tinctoria of Lamarck, which is a native of that country, and the root of which is considered as the true alkanet by the French writers. Alkanet, as found in the shops, is in pieces three or four inches in length, from the thickness of a quill to that of the little finger, some- what twisted, consisting of a dark-red, easily separable bark, and an internal ligneous portion which is reddish externally, whitish near the centre, and composed of numerous distinct, slender, cohering fibres. The fresh root has a faint odour and a bitterish astringent taste; but when dried it is nearly inodorous and insipid. Its colouring principle is part i. Anchusse Tinctorix Radix.—Anethi Semina. 83 soluble in alcohol, ether, and the oils, to which it imparts a fine deep red; but is insoluble in water. The tincture has its colour deepened by the acids, changed to blue by the alkalies, and again restored by neutral- izing the latter substances. It may, therefore, be used as a test. The extract obtained by evaporating the tincture, is dark brown. Medical Properties and Uses.—Alkanet root is somewhat astringent, and was formerly applied to the treatment of several diseases; but it is now exclusively employed for colouring oils, ointments, and plasters, which are beautifully reddened by one-fortieth of their weight of the root. It is said also to be used in the preparation of spurious Port wine. ANETHI SEMINA. Lond. Dill Seeds. " Anethum graveolens. Semina." Lond. Aneth a odeur forte, Fr.; Dill, Germ.; Aneto, ltal.,- Eneldo, Span. Anethum. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Fruit nearly ovate, compressed, striated. Petals involuted, en- tire. Willd. Anethum graveolens. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1469.; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 125. t. 48. Dill is an annual plant, three or four feet high, with a long spindleshaped root; erect, striated, jointed, branching stems; andbipin- nate, glaucous leaves, which stand on sheathing footstalks, and have linear and pointed leaflets. The flowers are yellow, and in large, flat, terminal umbels, destitute of involucre. The plant is a native of Spain, Portugal, and the South of France. It is cultivated in all the countries of Europe, and has been introduced into our own gardens; but is much less esteemed than its congener, the A. fozniculum. The seeds only are used. They are usually rather more than a line in length, of an oval shape, thin, concave on one side, convex and striated on the other, of a brown colour, and surrounded by a yellowish membranous expansion. Their smell is strong and aromatic, but less agreeable than that of fennel-seed; their taste moderately warm and pungent. These properties depend on a volatile oil, which may be obtained separate by distillation. The bruised seeds impart their virtues to alcohol and to boiling water. Medical. Properties.—aoS a friend. The C. umbellata only is officinal. Chimaphila umbellata. Barton, Med. Bot. i. 17.—Pyrola umbellata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 622; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 15. The pipsis- sewa is a small evergreen plant, with a perennial creeping yellowish root, which gives rise to several simple, erect or semi-procumbent stems, from four to eight inches in height, and ligneous at their base. The leaves are wedge-shaped somewhat lanceolate, serrate, coriaceous, part i. Chimaphila. 193 smooth, of a shining sap-green colour on the upper surface, paler be- neath, and supported upon short footstalks, in irregular whorls, of which there are usually two on the same stem. The flowers are dis- posed in a small terminal corymb, and stand upon nodding peduncles. The calyx is small, and divided at its border into five teeth or segments. The corolla is composed of five roundish, concave, spreading petals, which are of a white colour tinged with red, and exhale an agreeable » odour. The stamens are ten, with filaments shorter than the petals, and with large, nodding, bifurcated, purple anthers. The germ is globular and depressed, supporting a thick and apparently sessile stigma, the style being short and immersed in the germ. The seeds are numerous, linear, chaffy, and enclosed in a roundish, depressed, five-celled, five- valved capsule, having the persistent calyx at the base. This humble but beautiful evergreen is a native of the northern lati- tudes of America, Europe, and Asia. It is found in all parts of the United States, and extends even to the Pacific ocean. It grows under the shade of woods, and prefers a loose sandy soil, enriched by decay- ing leaves. The flowers appear in June and July. All parts of the plant are endowed with active properties. The leaves and stems are kept in the shops. The C. maculata, or spotted winter green, probably possesses similar virtues with the C. umbellata. The character of the leaves of the two plants will serve to distinguish them. Those of the C. maculata are lan- ceolate, rounded at the base, where they are broader than near the sum- mit, and of a deep olive green colour, veined with greenish white; those of the officinal species are broadest near the summit, gradually narrowing to the base, and of a uniform shining green. In drying, with exposure to light, the colour fades very much, though it still retains a greenish hue. Pipsissewa, when fresh and bruised, exhales a peculiar^ odour. The taste of the leaves is pleasantly bitter, astringent, and sweetish; that of the stems and root unites with these qualities a considerable degree of pungency. Boiling water extracts the active properties of the plant, which are also imparted to alcohol. The constituents, so far as ascer- tained, are bitter extractive, tannin, resin, gum, lignin, and saline mat- ters. The active principle has not yet been isolated, though it probably exists in the substance called bitter extractive. Medical Properties and Uses.—This plant is diuretic, tonic, and astrin- gent. It was employed by the aborigines in various complaints, espe- cially scrofula, rheumatism, and nephritic affections. From their hands it passed into those of the European settlers, and was long a popular remedy in certain parts of the country, before it was adopted by the pro- fession. The first regular treatise in relation to it that has come to our knowledge, was the thesis of Dr. Mitchell, published in the year 1803; but little was thought of it till the appearance of the paper of Dr. Som- merville, in the 5th vol. of the London Medico-Chirurgical Transac- tions. By this writer it was highly recommended as a remedy in dropsy; and his favourable report has been sustained by the subsequent state- ments of many respectable practitioners. It is particularly useful in cases attended with disordered digestion and general debility, in which its tonic properties and general acceptability to the stomach prove highly useful auxiliaries to its diuretic powers. Nevertheless, it cannot be re- lied on exclusively in the treatment of the complaint; for though it gene- rally produces an increased flow of urine, it has seldom effected cures. Other disorders, in which it is said to have proved useful, are calculous and nephritic affections, and in general all those complaints of the urin- 194 Chimaphila.—Chiococca vel Cahinca. part i. ary passages for which uva ursi is prescribed. It is very highly esteem- ed by some practitioners as a remedy in scrofula, both before and alter the occurrence of ulceration; and it has certainly proved highly advan- tageous in certain obstinate ill-conditioned ulcers and cutaneous erup- tions, supposed to be connected with a strumous diathesis. In these cases it is used both internally, and locally as a wash. The decoction is the preparation usually preferred. It is made by boiling two ounces of the fresh bruised leaves with three pints of water to a quart, and given to the amount of a pint in twenty-four hours. The watery extract may be given in the dose of twenty or thirty grains four times a day. Off. Prep. Decoctum Pyrolae, Dub. CHIOCOCCA vel CAHINCA. Cahinca. Though not admitted into the Pharmacopoeias, this medicine has recently attracted so much attention as to have just claims to notice in the present work. We prefer the title Chiococca, as conforming with the nomenclature of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, which, as a general rule, designates particular vegetable remedies by the name of the genus or species to which the plants producing them belong. Cahinca or cdinca is a term which has passed into common use from the language of the Brazilian Indians. The Portuguese of Brazil call the medicine raiz pretta or black root. When first noticed in Europe, it was supposed to be derived from the Chiococca racemosa of Linnaeus, which was known to botanists as an inhabitant of the West Indies. But Martius, in his "Specimen Materiae Medicae Brasiliensis," describes two other species of Chiococca, the C. anguifuga and the C. densifolia, which afford roots having the properties of that ascribed to the C. racemosa; and as the medicine is brought from Brazil, not from the West Indies, there is reason to believe that it is really derived from one or both of the plants named by that botanist. A. Richard, however, informs us that he has received from more than one source in Brazil, specimens of the C. race- mosa as the cahinca plant; and it is not impossible that the roots of the three species possess identical properties and are indiscriminately used. Chiococca. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rubia- ceae, Juss., Cinchonaceae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx small, five-toothed. Corolla funnelshaped, with the tube ventricose, the throat bearded, the limb five-parted, reflexed. Sta- mens five, included. Stigma undivided. Berry small, roundish, compress- ed, crowned, somewhat striated when dried, two-celled, two-seeded, with compressed, roundish seeds. Martius. 1. Chiococca racemosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 975; Plum. Icon. t. 217. f. 2. This is a vine-like shrub, having the appearance of a jessamine, usually five or six feet high, with its branches and leaves opposite. The leaves are oval, somewhat pointed or occasionally almost obtuse, nar- rowed at their base into a short petiole, entire, very smooth, shining on their upper surface, and one or two inches in length. The two stipules are short, pointed, and joined together at their sides. The flowers are in small axillary one-sided racemes, which are usually shorter than the leaves. The fruit is a small, white, compressed berry. The plant grows in the West Indies, and on the continent of South America. A. Richard, Elem. d'Hist. Nat. Med. PART I. Chiococca vel Cahinca. 195 2. C. anguifuga. Martius, Specim. Mat. Med. Brasiliens. tab. 5. This species has erect, suffruticose stems, from six to ten feet high, with ovate, acuminate, smooth leaves, and axillary, panicled, leafy racemes. It was observed by Martius in the province of Minas Geraes in Brazil. 3. C. densifolia. Martius, Specim. Mat. Med. Brasiliens. tab. 6. The trunk is woody, and eight or ten feet high; the leaves subcordate, ovate, acute; the racemes axillary and simple; the filaments densely bearded. This species is found in various parts of the province of Bahia. The root of these plants is the part employed. As found in French commerce, it is described by M. Achille Richard in the following terms. " It is of a reddish-brown colour, and consists of cylindrical branches, two or three feet long, of the thickness of a quill or smaller, occasionally putting forth slender and branching fibres, obscurely striated longitudi- nally, presenting at certain distances small irregular tubercles, and here and there transverse fissures produced by drying. These branches are composed of a very thin whitish bark, covered externally with an adher- ing brown epidermis, and of an internal ligneous centre, which forms almost the whole mass of the root. The cortical portion, which is of a resinous character, has a bitter disagreeable taste, somewhat acrid and astringent; the ligneous part is quite tasteless. Together with the pieces just described, others are sometimes found, derived either from the branches of the stem above ground, or from those which run along the ground and have taken root. They are distinguishable from the true root by being straighter and more regular, and presenting a medullary canal in their centre. The taste of their cortical portion is much weaker, and they are probably less active." Elem. d'Hist. Nat. Med. ii. 331. A specimen brought into our market as the cahinca, consisted of cylin- drical pieces, varying in size from the thickness of a straw to that of the little finger, somewhat bent or contorted, slightly wrinkled longitudinal- ly, with occasional small asperities, internally ligneous, externally covered with a thin brittle reddish-brown bark, having a light brown or brownish jtsh-coloured epidermis. The virtues of the root reside almost exclusively in the cortical portion. They are extracted by water and alcohol. Cahinca has been analyzed by several chemists. Four distinct principles were dis- covered in it by Pelletier and Caventou:—1. a crystallizable substance, in which all the bitterness of the root resides; 2. a green fatty matter of a nauseous odour; 3. a yellow colouring matter; and 4. a coloured viscid substance. The crystallizable principle appears to be that in which the medical virtues reside. Under the belief that it is essentially acid, its discoverers have named it cahincic acid. It is white, without smell, of a taste at first scarcely perceptible, but afterwards extremely bitter, and slightly astringent; of difficult solubility in water, but readily soluble in alcohol, permanent in the air, and unaltered at the temperature of boiling water. It reddens vegetable blues, and unites with the alkalies, but does not form crystallizable compounds. The form in which it exists in the root is thought to be that of a sub-cahincate of lime. Medical Properties.— Cahinca is tonic, diuretic, purgative, and emetic. I.i moderate doses it gently excites the circulation, increases the dis- charge of urine, and produces evacuations from the bowels; but is rather si >w in its operation. Like most other diuretics, it may be so adminis- tered as to prove diaphoretic, by keeping the skin warm, using warm drinks, and counteracting its purgative tendency. In some patients it occasions nausea and griping pains in the bowels, and in very large doses always acts powerfully both as an emetic and cathartic. In Brazil it has long been used by the natives as a remedy for the poisonous effects 196 Chiococca vel Cahinca.—Cimicifuga. PART I. resulting from the bites of serpents; and its Indian name is said to have been derived from this property. According to Martius, the bark of the fresh root is rubbed with water till the latter becomes charged with all its active matters; and the liquid, while yet turbid, is taken in such quan- tities as to produce the most violent vomiting and purging, preceded by severe spasmodic pains. Patrick Brown speaks of the root of the C. race- mosa as resembling seneka in taste, and as very useful in obstinate rheu- matisms. But the virtues of cahinca in dropsy, though well known in Brazil, were first communicated to the European public in the year 1826, by M. Langsdorff, Russian Consul at Rio Janeiro. Achille Richard afterwards published a few observations in relation to it in the Journal de Chimie Medicate; and within a few years the medicine has been noticed, and its properties investigated by numerous practitioners. M. Frangois of Paris has contributed more than any other physician to its present reputation as a cure for dropsy. By this gentleman it is con- sidered superior to all other remedies in hydropic complaints. General experience appears to be decidedly in its favour, but by no means to the extent of the partial estimate of Dr. Francois. The root will probably take a place among the standard diuretics, but is equally obnoxious with most others to the charge of uncertainty. It may be employed in sub- stance, decoction, extract, or tincture. The powdered bark of the root may be given as a diuretic and purgative, in a dose varying from a scru- ple to a drachm; but in this form the remedy is considered very uncer- tain. The aqueous extract is usually preferred. The dose of this is from ten to twenty grains. An extract is also prepared with diluted alcohol, and given in the same dose. Dr. Francois recommends that in the treatment of dropsy, a sufficient quantity should be given at once to produce a decided impression, which should afterwards be maintained by smaller doses, repeated three or four times in the twenty-four hours. CIMICIFUGA. U.S. Secondary, Black Snakeroot. " Cimicifuga racemosa. Nuttall. Cimicifuga serpentaria. Pursh. Ra- dix. The root." U.S. Cimicifuga. Class Polyandria. Order Di-Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Rar nunculi, Juss., Ranunculaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen.Ch. Calyx four or five-leaved. Petals four to eight, deformed, thickish, sometimes wanting. Capsules one to five, oblong, many-seeded. Seeds squamose. Nuttall. Cimicifuga racemosa. Torrey, Flor. 219.—C. serpentaria. Pursh, Flor, Am. Sept. p. 372.—Actxa racemosa, Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1159. This is a tall, stately plant, having a perennial root, from which several herbaceous stems rise from four to eight feet in height. The leaves are large, and ternately decomposed, consisting of oblong ovate leaflets, incised and toothed at their edges. The flowers are small, white, and disposed in long panicled racemes. The corolla is wanting, and there is usually one style. The fruit is an ovate capsule containing numerous scaly seeds. The black snakeroot, as this plant is usually called, is a native of the United States, growing in shady and rocky woods, from Canada to Florida, and flowering in June and July. The root is the part employed. This, as found in the shops, consists of a thick, irregularly bent or contorted body or caudex, from one-third of an inch to an inch in thick- ness, often several inches in length, furnished with many slender radjcjesj PART I. Cimicifuga.—Cinchona. 197 and rendered exceedingly rough and jagged in appearance by the remains of the numerous stalks, which to the length of an inch or more are fre- quently left attached to the root. The colour is externally dark brown, almost black, internally whitish; the odour is feeble; the taste bitter, herbaceous, and somewhat astringent, leaving a slight sense of acri- mony. The root yields its virtues to boiling water. It has not yet been analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses.—Cimicifuga unites, with a tonic power, the property of stimulating the secretions, particularly those of the skin, kid- neys, and pulmonary mucous membrane. It is thought also by some to have a particular affinity for the uterus. Its common name was probably derived from its supposed power of curing the disease arising from the bite of the rattlesnake. It is employed chiefly in domestic practice as a remedy in rheumatism, dropsy, hysteria, and various affections of the lungs, particularly those resembling consumption. The form of decoc- tion is usually preferred. An ounce of the bruised root may be boiled for a short time in a pint of water, and one or two fluidounces given for a dose several times a day. CINCHONA. U.S. Peruvian Park. CINCHONA FLAVA, Yellow Park. CINCHONA PAL- LIDA, Pale Park. CINCHONA RUBRA, Red Park. " Cinchona lancifolia, et aliae. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Off. Syn. CINCHONA CORDIFOLIA CORTEX. CINCHONA LANCIFOLIA CORTEX. CINCHONA OBLONGIFOLIA COR- TEX. Lond. CINCHONA CORDIFOLLE CORTEX. Cortex Cinchona flavus — CINCHONA LANCIFOLIA CORTEX. Cortex Cinchonae commu- nis.—CINCHONA OBLONGIFOLIA CORTEX. Cortex Cinchona ruber. Ed. CINCHONA CORDIFOLIA. Cortex. Cinchona flava—CINCHO- NA LANCIFOLIA. Cortex. Cinchona officinalis—CINCHONA OB- LONGIFOLIA. Cortex. Cinchona rubra. Dub. Quinquina, Fr.; China, Peruvianische rinde, Germ.,- China, ltal; Quina, Span. The great importance of Peruvian bark, and the extraordinary de- gree of attention which it has received, as well from naturalists as from physicians and pharmaceutists, entitle it to a fuller consideration, than in accordance with the plan of this work, can be given to most other articles of the Materia Medica. Our remarks, therefore, on this sub- ject, will be more than usually extensive; and will embrace many par- ticulars in relation to the natural and commercial history of the drug' which, though not absolutely essential to the full understanding of its properties, are possessed of interest for the inquiring mind, and mav lead to useful practical results. 7 Potanical History. Th0US^h-e USC °f P?™vian bark was introduced into Europe so early as 1640, it was not till the year 1737 that the plant which produced it was known to naturalists. In that year, La Condamine, one of the French Academicians who were sent to South America to make observa- tions relative to the figure of the earth, on his journey to Lima, through 198 Cinchona. part i. the province of Loxa, had an opportunity of examining the tree, of which, upon his return, he published a description in the Memoirs of the Academy. Soon afterwards Linnaeus gave it the name of Cinchona officinalis, in honour of the Countess of Cinchon, who is said \.o have first taken it to Europe; but, in his description of the plant, he is stated by Flumboldt to have united the species discovered by La Condamine with the C. pubescens* a specimen of which had been sent him from Santa Fe de Bogota. For a long time botanists were ignorant that more than one species of this genus existed; and the C. officinalis continued, till a comparatively recent date, to be recognised by the Pharmacopoeias as the only source of the Peruvian bark of commerce. A plant was at length discovered in Jamaica, having the generic characters of the Cin- chona as then established, and received the title of C. Cariboea. Analo- gous species were afterwards met with in various parts of the West In- dies; Forster found one in the island of Tongataboo in the South Pacific; Roxburgh another on the Coromandel coast of Hindostan; Nee a third in the Philippines; many new species were discovered in various parts of New-Granada and Peru by Mutis, Zea, Ruiz and Pavon, Humboldt and Bonpland, and Tafalla; several Brazilian plants appeared to certain botanists worthy of ranking in the same genus; and even the southern portion of our own country, and the distant isles of Bourbon and Mau- ritius, were made to burthen with their productions the already greatly overloaded catalogue. Not less than forty-six different plants have by various authors been brought under the genus Cinchona; and the num- ber would be greatly augmented, were we to admit as distinct species all the varieties for which this rank is claimed by one or another botan- ist. But in thus throwing together the productions of so many and such distant climates, botanists compelled an association which nature never intended, which many authors indeed have never admitted, and which is now dissolved by universal consent. Between some of the plants thus associated, there exists scarcely any resemblance in appearance, or habi- tudes, or medicinal properties; and a comparatively small number have been found to afford products possessing the chemical characters which distinguish those of the genuine Cinchona. According to De Candolle, there exists sufficient ground for distributing these various species into at least eight genera, viz. Cinchona, Buena, Remijia, Exostemma, Pinck- neya, Hymenodyction, Luculia, and Danais. These genera all belong to the Class and Order Pentandria Monogynia; Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Juss., tribe Cinchonacese, and undertribe Cinchoneae of De Candolle. The Cin- chona is exclusively confined to Columbia and Peru. The Buena includes two Peruvian and one Brazilian species, the former of which, before their change of name, were designated as the Cinchona acuminata, and C. obtusifolia. The genus Remijia was established by De Candolle, and embraces three shrubs of Brazil, which were ascribed by Aug. de St. Hilaire to the Cinchona, and the bark of which is used as a febrifuge by the natives of the country. To the Exostemma belong the West In- * Humboldt states, in one place, that it was the C. pubescens which Linnaeus described, and in another, that it was the C. cordifolia of Mutis. Now the discovery of the C. cordifo- lia by Mutis, A. D. 1772, must have been subsequent to the publication by Linnaeus of his first description of the Cinchona; and if a specimen, as Humboldt informs us, was sent from Santa Fe, it must have been derived from the neighbourhood of Loxa, much further to the south, and may have been the C. pubescens. But by Humbolt the C. pubescens and C. cordifolia are considered identical, and this accounts for the appa- rent discrepancy. Many botanists, however, do not admit the identity of the two spe- cies. PART I. Cinchona. 199 dia species, of which there are not less than nine, formerly known as the Cinchona Caribaea, C. floribunda, &c. To the same genus belong the former Cinchona Philippica of the Philippine islands, the C. corymbifera of Tongataboo, four species indigenous to Peru, and two discovered by M. de St. Hilaire in Brazil. The Pinckneya consists of a single species, inhabiting Georgia and South Carolina, discovered by Michaux the elder, and described in some botanical works by the name of Cinchona Caroliniana. The Hymenodyction is an East India genus, including the Cinchona excelsa of Roxburgh, found on the Coromandel coast. The Luculia, of which there is but one species—the Cinchona gratissima of Roxburgh's Flora Indica—inhabits the mountains of Nepaul. The Danais embraces the Cinchona Afro-Inda of Willem., growing in the Isle of France. Of these various genera, the Cinchona, Buena or Cosmibuena of Ruiz and Pavon, and the Exostemma, have been most generally confounded. The last, however, is decidedly distinguished by the projection of the stamens beyond the corolla, a character expressed in the name of the genus. The two former are still frequently combined by scientific wri- ters. The Buena was originally suggested as a distinct genus by Ruiz and Pavon, has been recognised by De Candolle and some other authors, and appears to be sufficiently characterized. Its chief peculiarities are the shape of the corolla, the separation of the calyx from the fruit at maturity, and the opening of the capsule from above downwards. We have briefly noticed these genera, which have at various times been con- founded with the true Cinchona, because the barks of some of them have been substituted in pharmacy for the genuine febrifuge of Peru; and in describing the false barks of commerce we shall have occasion to allude to them. We shall now proceed to consider the proper Cin- chona. Cinchona. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rubia- ceae, Juss.; Tribe Cinchonaceae, section Cinchoneae, De Cand. Gen. Ch. Calyx with the tube turbinate", the limb five-cleft, persistent. Corolla with the tube terete, and the limb divided into five oblong lobes. Stamens five; filaments short and inserted in the middle of the tube; an- thers linear, entirely included. Stigma bifid, somewhat club-shaped. Capsule ovate or oblong, marked with a furrow on each side, two-celled, crowned with the calyx, opening from below upwards. Seeds numerous, erect, imbricated upwards, compressed, furnished with a membranous margin. The plants composing this genus are trees or shrubs. The leaves are opposite, upon short petioles, with flat margins, and are attended with ovate or oblong, foliaceous, free, deciduous stipules. The flowers are terminal, in corymbose panicles, and of a white or purplish rose colour. De Candolle. It has been mentioned that La Condamine was the first botanist who had an opportunity of examining the Cinchona tree. The species ob- served by him was in the vicinity of Loxa, and has subsequently re- ceived from Humboldt the name of C. Condaminea. In the.year 1739, two years after the visit of La Condamine, Joseph de Jussieu was in the same neighbourhood, where he gathered numerous specimens which are still preserved in Jussieu's collection at Paris, and among which Hum- boldt recognised his own C. Condaminea, and the C. Pubescens of Vahl. From the period in which Linnaeus drew up the description of his C. officinalis from a specimen of this latter species, the knowledge of bo- tanists with regard to the true Cinchona, remained stationary till the year 1772, when Mutis, a Spanish physician who had long resided in 200 Cinchona. part I. Santa Fe de Bogota, discovered cinchona trees upon the mountains in the neighbourhood of that city. Not less than four species were described by this author as inhabiting the vice-royalty of New-Granada. A few years afterwards, other trees of the same genus were discovered in the mountainous provinces to the N. E. of Lima, whither a botanical expe- dition had been sent by the Spanish government under the direction of Ruiz and Pavon, the celebrated authors of the Flora Peruviana. By these gentlemen, assisted by Tafalla, not less than thirteen species were de- scribed, several of which, however, have been subsequently found to be identical with one'another, or mere varieties of some species before de- scribed. The country of the cinchonas was afterwards visited by Hum- boldt and Bonpland, whose personal researches resulted in the discovery of at least two new species, and by whom much light has been thrown upon the intricate subject of the botanical and commercial history of Peruvian bark. Besides the botanists above mentioned, several others have at different times devoted much attention to the natural history of this genus of plants, and by the examination of dried specimens, or by the critical acumen which they have carried into their investigations of the works of other botanists, have assisted in the determination of the several species. Among these may be mentioned Zea, the pupil and friend of Mutis; Lambert, vice-president of the Linnaean Society of Lon- don ; Vahl, a distinguished Danish botanist; Von Bergen, author of a recent German work on the subject of Peruvian bark; and the celebrat- ed De Candolle. Laubert, a French physician of eminence, and Gui- bourt, a distinguished pharmaceutist of Paris, may also be mentioned among those who have contributed to illustrate this difficult subject, rather, however, in the department of pharmacy, than of botany. It has been stated that the genuine cinchona trees are confined exclu- sively to the continent of South America. Within these limits, how- ever, they are very widely diffused, extending from La Paz, in the for- mer vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, to the mountainous regions of Santa Martha on the northern coast. Those which yield the bark of commerce grow at various elevations upon the Andes, seldom less than 4000 feet above the level of the sea; and require a temperature considerably lower than that which usually prevails in tropical countries. There appears to have been much difficulty in arranging the plants belonging to this genus into their appropriate species; and botanists have not only differed among themselves on this point, but have in some instances exhibited a degree of excitement unbecoming the dignity of science. Ruiz and Pavon, in the Flora Peruviana, describe thirteen new species, while Mutis reduced all those described by him to seven, and Professor Zea has attempted to prove, that almost all the efficacious spe- cies of Ruiz and Pavon are reducible to the four described by Mutis in the year 1793, in the Literary News of Santa Fe de Bogota. It appears, from the best testimony, that the number of the species has been unne- cessarily augmented by certain botanists; mere fugitive differences, de- pending on peculiarities of situation or growth, having been exaggerated into permanent characteristics. One source of the difficulty of a proper discrimination is stated by Humboldt to be the varying shape of the leaves of the same species, according to the degree of elevation upon the mountainous declivities, to the severity or mildness of the climate, the greater or less humidity of the soil, and to various circumstances in the growth of individual plants. Even the same tree often produces foliage of a diversified character; and a person not aware of this fact, might be led to imagine that he had discovered different species from PART I. Cinchona. 201 an examination of the leaves which have grown upon one and the same branch. The fructification partakes, to a certain extent, of the same vary- ing character with the foliage; and the difficulty is thus still further augmented. „ , Lambert, in his "Illustration of the genus Cinchona, * alter ad- mitting with Humboldt the identity of several varieties which had re- ceived specific names from other botanists, describes nineteen species exclusive of the two Peruvian Buenae. De Candolle enumerates only sixteen well ascertained species. In the present state of our knowledge, it is impossible to decide from which species of Cinchona the several varieties of bark are respectively derived. The former references of the yellow bark to the C. cordifolia, of the pale to the C. lancifolia, and of the red to the C. oblongifoha, have been very properly abandoned in the last edition of the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia, though still retained in those of Great Britain. We shall have occasion hereafter to show, that the valuable barks which are now known in the market by these titles, are, at least in two of the three instances, not the product of the species to which they have been ascribed. It is stated by Humboldt, that the property of curing agues belongs to the barks of all the Cinchonae with hairy and woolly blossoms, and to those alone. In Lambert's catalogue this division includes seventeen species. We shall notice the most prominent, mentioning also the synonyms em- ployed by different authors. C. Condaminea and C. lancifolia. Not a little difference of opinion has existed on the subject of these species of Cinchona. The name lancifo- lia was applied by Mutis to a tree, first noticed by himself, which flour- ishes in the neighbourhood of Santa Fe de Bogota, and the bark of which is known at that place by the title of cascarilla naranjanda, or orange-coloured bark. From specimens which he received of the Cin- chona originally observed by Condamine, from which the celebrated Cas- carilla fna de Uritusinga was derived, he was induced to consider this tree as identical with the C. lancifolia. But Loxa, in the vicinity of which this fine bark is collected, is separated from Bogota, the residence of Mutis, and the locality of his C. lancifolia, by no less than eight de- grees of latitude, and was never visited by this botanist; so that he had no opportunity of personally inspecting the plant in its natural state. While Mutis, five hundred miles to the north of Loxa, was thus identi- fying the cascarilla fina with his own cascarilla naranjanda, Ruiz was claiming for his C. nitida, which grows at an almost equal distance to the south of that place, the honour of being the plant seen and described by La Condamine. But Ruiz also laboured under the disadvantage of never having visited Loxa, and like Mutis was compelled to form his opinion upon uncertain grounds. Humboldt and Bonpland, who were themselves in that neighbourhood, and had the opportunity of person- ally inspecting the tree in its native forests, assert that it is neither the lancifolia of Mutis nor the nitida of Ruiz and Pavon—plants which have since been satisfactorily ascertained to be identical—but a distinct spe- cies never before accurately described, which they name, in honour of its first observer, Condaminea. Lambert, however, gives his opinion in favour of Mutis, stating that the scrobiculi on the leaves, which Bon- pland regarded as a permanent differential character, are found more or less numerous in all the species of the genus. Much weight is due to the opinion of this botanist, as he had specimens of both plants before 26 * Published in the year 1821. 202 Cinchona. part i. him. Dr. A. T. Thomson in his Dispensatory states, that the C. Con- daminea, if not precisely the same with the C. lancifolia, is evidently a variety of that species; and M. Guibourt, in a report recently presented to the Society of Pharmacy at Paris, coincides with Lambert. If this opinion can be relied on, the C. lancifolia would appear to be very widely spread over the mountainous regions of New Granada and Peru; for Bogota, where it was found by Mutis, is between 4° and 5° of north latitude; while the forests of Haumalies and Xauxa, where the C. nitida of Ruiz and Pavon, now acknowledged to be identical with it, was ob- served, are from 10° to 12° south of the equator; and the C. Conda- minea occupies an intervening station between these two extremes. To this species are also reduced, by the best authors, the C. glabra and C. angustifolia of the Quinologia of Ruiz, and the C. lanceolata of the Flora Peruviana. But giving its due weight to the authority of Mutis, sup- ported by the botanists who have been mentioned, it is impossible not to hesitate, unless with ampler means of forming a correct opinion than we are at present possessed of, in pronouncing Humboldt and Bonpland to have been mistaken; for these celebrated travellers, from their abun- dant opportunities of personal inspection, from their access to all the knowledge of their predecessors, and from their high scientific qualifi- cations and habits of observation, are indisputably among the first autho- rities at present existing on the subject of the natural history of the Cin- chona. In the remarks, therefore, which follow, the C. Condaminea of Humboldt and Bonpland, and the C. lancifolia of Mutis, will be consid- ered separately, without any decided opinion being pronounced as to the identity of their botanical characters. It is proper, in the present place, to observe, that the causes which tend to perplex botanists in arranging the different species of the genus Cinchona, are particularly applicable in the individual case before us; as, in the language of Hum- boldt, "the C. Condaminea varies amazingly in its leaves." 1. C. Condaminea. Humb. et Bonpl.P/. Equin. i. p. 33. t. 10; De Cand. Prodrom. iv. 352. This tree, when full grown, has a stem about eighteen feet high and a foot in thickness, with branches arranged in opposite pairs,of which the lower are horizontal; the higher rise upwards at their extremities. The bark of the trunk is of an ash-gray colour, with clefts or fissures, and yields on incision a bitter astringent juice; that of the small branches has a greenish hue, is smooth and glossy, and easily separable from the wood. The leaves are oblong, generally when full grown about four inches in length by less than two in breadth, acumi- nate at both extremities, of a shining lively green colour, and furnished with glands upon their upper surface, with corresponding scrobiculi or depressions upon the under. In very young plants they are much broader in proportion to their length; and it is an observation of Humboldt, that the older the tree, the narrower is the leaf. The corolla has a rose- coloured tube, and a woolly border, snow white upon its upper surface. The capsules are ovate, and twice as long as they are broad. The tree grows under the fourth degree of south latitude, on the declivities of the mountains, at an elevation of from about one mile to a mile and a half, and in a mean temperature of 67° of Fahrenheit. It is confined to the neighbourhood of Loxa, where it grows near the village of Ayavaca, and in the vale of Rio Calvas. It is this plant which yields the Casca- rilla fina of Loxa, the original Peruvian bark, which was valued so highly in Spain as to be the subject of royal monopoly, and was received in other parts of the world only through the channels of illegitimate com- PART I. Cinchona. 203 merce. The name of Crown bark of Loxa, by which it is very generally known, evidently originated in this circumstance. 2. C. lancifolia. Mutis, Period, de Santa Fe, p. 465; De Cand. Pro- drom. iv. 352.—C. nitida, Ruiz and Pavon, Ft. Peruv. ii. 50. t. 191.— C. lanceolata. Ibid. iii. 1. t. 223.—C. angustifolia. Ruiz, Quinolog. Suppl. p. 14. The variety of this species discovered by Mutis in New Granada is a very handsome tree, from thirty to forty-five feet in height, with a trunk from one to four feet in diameter. The leaves are obovate lanceo- late, very smooth on both sides, and without glands; the flowers are in large bracheate panicles; the corolla is silky externally; and the cap- sules are oblong, smooth, and of a length five times greater than their breadth. The tree is quite solitary, never clustering like other Cincho- na of the same neighbourhood, which are often so crowded.together as to form almost closely connected shrubberies. This solitary character appears to pertain to all the more valuable species, and has led to their scarcity in the regions where bark has been long collected. When a tree has been felled, no suckers, as in the inferior species, arise from the roots, and assist to propagate the plant. Perhaps the superiority in size of the full grown C. lancifolia of Mutis over the C. Condaminea as described by Humboldt, is attributable to the fact, that the bark has been gathered in Loxa from the earliest periods of its use as a medicine, while in New Granada, the commerce in the drug is comparatively of recent date. The C. lancifolia requires a colder climate than the C. Conda- minea, growing between the fourth and fifth degrees of north latitude, at an elevation upon the mountains of from 4500 to near 10,000 feet, and in a mean temperature of 61° of Fahrenheit. In the highest situations in which it is found, the thermometer often sinks to 50°, and in the nights is sometimes at the freezing point. Judging from the botanical characters of this species as given by Mutis, it scarcely differs from the C. Condaminea, unless we consider the absence of glands upon the leaves as sufficiently distinctive. That it yields the same kind of bark is to be inferred from, the fact, that the Cascarilla fina de Uritusinga or Crown bark of Loxa, admitted to be the product of the C. Condaminea, was considered by the experienced Mutis as identical with the cascarilla naranjanda, derived from his C. lancifolia; while Ruiz and Pavon, with- out auy communication with Mutis, and at the distance of nearly a thou- sand miles, claimed a similar identity for the bark of their C. nitida, now generally acknowledged to be the same tree with the C. lancifolia. The Crown bark of Loxa is universally ranked among the pale barks, while that of the C. lancifolia, growing near Bogota, is called orange coloured; and this difference of title might appear to indicate a difference in their nature; but the difficulty vanishes when we consider, that the latter name was derived from the colour of the internal surface of the bark, the former from that of the powder; and that the pale barks are orange coloured in their natural state. It is probable that much, if not most of the pale bark of commerce, is derived from varieties of the C. lancifolia. 3. C. cordifolia. Mutis, ex Humb. Magaz. Berlin, 1807, p. 117; Lambert, Illustration, 4*c, 1821, p. 4. This is a spreading tree, fifteen or twenty feet high, rising on a single erect round stem, which is covered with a smooth bark of a brownish-gray colour. The smaller branches have a lighter coloured bark, and are covered with a fine down. The leaves vary much in form; but some of a heart-shape are to be found on almost every branch, and have given origin to the name of the species. They are usually roundish ovate, about nine inches long, smooth and shining 204 Cinchona. PART I. on the upper surface, ribbed and pubescent on the under. The down upon the leaves and smaller branches has given rise to the name ol vel- vet bark, by which the tree is known to the common people of New Granada. The flowers are in spreading, brachiate, pubescent panicles. The teeth of the calyx are roundish and somewhat mucronate. The cap- sules are ovate, oblong, cylindrical, and without ribs. This species was first described by Mutis, who found it in the moun- tains about Santa Fe de Bogota; and it is said to flourish also in those of Loxa, Cuenca, and the ancient kingdom of Quito. Like the other me- dicinal species, it grows in the elevated plains, and on the declivities of the Andes at heights varying from 5800 to 9500 feet. In the British Pharmacopoeias, the C. cordifolia is recognised as the source of the officinal yellow bark. It undoubtedly produces the variety known to the Spaniards as the quina amarilla or yellow bark of Santa Fe; but this is by no means the article which circulates in the commerce of this country, England, and France, by the name of yellow bark or Cali- saya bark, and which is so largely consumed in the manufacture of the sulphate of quinia. This will be rendered obvious at once by the state- ment, that the valuable yellow or Calisaya bark is derived exclusively from the western coast of South America on the Pacific; while the C. cordifolia of Mutis flourishes most about Bogota, of which the com- mercial outlet is Carthagena on the northern coast of the continent. The truth seems to be that this species yields the yellow Carthagena bark, which is probably identical with the quina amarilla de Santa Fe of the Spaniards; and the British Colleges have simply followed Mutis in as- cribing the yellow bark to the C. cordifolia, without taking into con- sideration the total want of similarity, except in the shade of colour, between the medicine known to him by that title, and the valuable variety which they intended to adopt as officinal. The yellow bark described by Thomson in the London Dispensatory as derived from the C. cordifolia, is in all respects identical with the Calisaya, and totally different from the yellow Carthagena bark, which is probably the real product of this spe- cies. In the United States Pharmacopoeia this error of the British Col- leges has been corrected. By some authors the C. pubescens of Vahl, and the C. hirsuta of the Flora Peruviana, are considered mere synonymes of the C. cordifolia. 4. C. pubescens. Vahl, in Act. Havn. i. p. 19. t. 2; Lambert, Monog. t. 2.—C. Ovata. Ruiz and Pavon, Flor. Peruv. ii. p. 52. t. 195. This was described and named by Vahl, who received his specimen from the col- lection of Jussieu at Paris, whither it was brought by Joseph de Jussieu from the neighbourhood of Loxa. It is admitted to be identical with the C. ovata of the Peruvian Flora, even by the authors of that work. Bon- pland has pronounced it to be the same with the C. cordifolia; but Lam- bert, though he admits their similarity, decides, from dried specimens in his possession, that they are quite distinct. The C. pubescens differs, according to this botanist, from the C. cordifolia, in having longer pe- tioles, the teeth of the calyx less broad and round, the filaments not more than half the length, and the capsules obscurely ribbed and tomentose, while those of the C. cordifolia are smooth and ribless. The tree grows about Loxa, also in the warmer regions of the Andes near Pozuzo and Panao, and in the forests of Huanuco to the north-east of Lima. It con- tributes to furnish the bark of commerce, though we are wholly unable to ascertain the particular variety it affords. Ruiz calls its product cas- carillo palido; and it is not improbable that a portion of the pale bark of Loxa and Lima is derived from it. part I. Cinchona. 205 5. C. hirsuta. Ruiz and Pavon, Flor. Peruv. ii. p. 51. t. 192. Humboldt, upon the authority of Zea, erroneously referred this species to the C. cordifolia; and the error has been copied by De Candolle. The two species have not the least resemblance; and Zea himself has acknow- ledged his mistake.* The C. hirsuta derives its name from the stiff hairs upon its extreme branches, leaves, and flowers. The leaves are oval and acute at the base; the flowers glomerate; the segments of the calyx lanceolate and acuminate; and the capsules ovate. It grows in lofty and cold situations upon the Peruvian Andes near Pillao and Acomayo. It attains the height of about fifteen feet, and is then surrounded by shoots springing upwards from its roots, and forming with the parent tree an oval surface, having the appearance of a dome. Its bark is called del- gada or slender, is very thin, and may be ranked among the pale varie- ties of English and American pharmacy, the gray of the French. Though a valuable bark, it is seldom gathered, as its extreme fineness renders its collection much less profitable than that of the larger varieties. 6. C. scrobiculata. Humb. and Bonpl. Plant. Equin. i. p. 165. t. 47; De Cand. Prodrom. iv. 352. This is a large tree, attaining the height of forty feet, with oval oblong leaves, from four to twelve inches in length and from two to six in breadth, acute at each end, smooth, shining on the upper surface, and marked on the under with scrobiculi at the axils of the veins. The tube of the corolla is externally pubescent and the limb woolly. The capsule is ovate oblong, with a breadth equal to one- third of its length. The tree was originally described by Humboldt and Bonpland, who found it growing in great abundance on the mountains near the city of Jaen de Bracomoros, where it forms immense forests. They inform us that the bark of its younger branches so much resembles that of the C. Condaminea, that it is difficult to distinguish the two va- rieties. It cannot, therefore, as stated by De Candolle, be one of the red barks of commerce; for the product of the C. Condaminea is universally classed among the pale or gray barks. It is called by the natives casca- rilla fina, and probably contributes to form the packages which come to us under the name of Loxa bark. 7. C. purpurea. Ruiz and Pavon, Flor. Peruv. ii. p. 52. t. 193; De Cand. Prodrom. iv. p. 353. Lambert unites this species with the C. scrobicu- lata of Humb. and Bonp., retaining the present title; but the species are generally considered, distinct. The leaves are broadly oval, somewhat wedgeshaped at the base, subcuspidate at the apex, smooth above, slightly pubescent on the veins beneath, and inclining to a purple colour. The flowers are purplish white, subcorymbose, and disposed in large brachiate panicles. The corolla is slightly tomentose on the outside, with the limb hirsute internally. The capsules are ovate oblong, about an inch in length, a quarter of an inch in breadth, and marked with longitudinal nerves. The tree grows in the Peruvian Andes, near Chin- chao, Pati, Sec. Its bark is brown on the outside, light brown within and is called by the natives Cascarilla boba de hojci morada, or simply Cascarilla morada. It is probably among those derived from Lima, which is the entrepot of the trade in bark from the interior of Peru about Hua- nuco, Sec. 8. Cinchona oblongifolia. Mutis, Mss. ex Humb. Mag. Berl. i p 118 Lambert, Illust. 1821. p. 12. This is one of the largest trees of the genusj rising to a great height on a single, erect, round stem, which is covered with a smooth, brownish, ash-coloured bark. The leaves are oblong or • Lambert's Illustration. A. D. 1821, p. 10. 206 Cinchona. part r. cordate, rough, thickly covered with hairs, and of great size, being fre- quently one or two feet in length. The flowers are in brachiate corymbose panicles. The corolla is pilose, with linear segments; the anthers three times as long as the filaments. The capsules are ovate. This tree was discovered by Mutis in New Granada, where it is very abundant, espe- cially in the vicinity of Mariquita, in about four degrees of N. latitude. It grows at an elevation of from 4000 to 8500 feet. Botanists generally agree with Humboldt and Bonpland in uniting with this species the C. magnifolia of the Flora Peruviana, which grows to the south of the equator, upon the mountains of the Panatahuas, near Cuchero, Chin- chao, and Chacahuassi, where it was seen by Ruiz and Pavon, in the year 1780. Lambert, however, describes them as different species, hav- ing found the characters of each distinct and constant in the specimens in his possession. He states that the C. oblongifolia is distinguished from the C. magnifolia " by its leaves being rounded at the base, often cordate, covered on both sides with rough pilose tomentum. Sometimes, however, the older leaves become nearly naked above. The corolla is covered on the outside with bristly pilose hairs, while that of magnifolia has short pubescence. The lacinia are also much narrower, the style is enclosed with the stamens in the tube of the corolla. The lobes of the stigma are cylindrical, and the capsules are ovate; those of magnifolia are linear and cylindrical." Illustration, &c, 1821. p. 12. The C. oblongifolia is called by the natives cascarilla deflor de azahar, from the resemblance of its flowers in odour to those of the orange. Till very recently it has been considered as indisputably the source of the best red bark of commerce, which is ascribed to it by the British Phar- macopoeias. A little reflection might have convinced those acquainted with the commerce in bark, that this reference was incorrect; for who ever hears of the officinal red bark as coming from Carthagena? and yet this is the port from which the product of the C. oblongifolia, grow- ing in New Granada, is shipped. The mistake originated in that im- plicit acquiescence with which the statements of Mutis have been re- ceived. The tree does, undoubtedly, as asserted by Mutis, produce a red bark; but it is the red Carthagena bark, a comparatively valueless variety, wholly distinct from the genuine red bark brought from the Pacific and so highly esteemed as a febrifuge. We shall have occasion to say more on this subject hereafter. 9. C. macrocarpa. Vahl in Act. Havn. i. p. 20. t. 3 ; De Cand. Prodrom. iv. 354.—C ovalifolia. Mutis. This is a shrub about nine feet in height, with elliptical coriaceous leaves, very smooth on the upper surface, somewhat hirsute pubescent beneath. The flowers are in trichotomous panicles. The corolla is externally pubescent, but hirsute on the in- ner surface of its segments. The capsules are cylindrical, and twice as long as they are broad. This species inhabits the provinces of Loxa and Cuenca, where it forms considerable forests. It was also found by Mutis in New Granada, and grows as far north as Santa Martha. The variety found in the latter locality has leaves smooth on both sides. The tree derived its name from the extraordinary magnitude of its fruit. Its bark is called by the Spaniards quina bianca, or white bark, probably from the colour of the epidermis. May not this species be the source of that commercial variety of cinchona brought from Maracaybo and Santa Martha, in the neighbourhood of which the tree is said by Humboldt to be found ? The species of Cinchona above enumerated are the most interesting, whether from the attention they have attracted or from the value of their PART I. Cinchona. 207 products. Several others probably furnish more or less of the bark of commerce. Among these may be mentioned, 10. C. micrantha of the Peruvian Flora, a large and handsome tree found by Tafalla, growing in the elevated regions of San Antonio Playa Grande in the Peruvian An- des, and furnishing a bark called cascarillafina by the natives; 11. C. glandulifera of the same work, a shrub with several stems about twelve feet high, flourishing in the country to the north of Huanuco, where it is called cascarilla negrilla; 12. C. ovalifolia of Humboldt and Bonpland, the C. Humboldtiana of Roem. and Schult., a shrub from six to nine feet high, inhabiting the province of Cuenca, where it forms considerable forests, and is called by the natives cascarilla peluda or hairy bark; 13. C. caduciffora of Humboldt and Bonpland, a very large tree, more than one hundred feet high, growing near the city of Jaen de Bracomoros, and yielding a bark called Cascarilla bova by the Peruvians; 14. C. acu- tifolia of the Fl. Peruv., a tree twenty-four feet high, discovered by Ta- falla in the Peruvian mountains north of Huanuco, near the Taso, and yielding the cascarilla hoja aguda; and 15. C. Dichotoma, which grows to the height of fifteen feet, was discovered by the same botanist in the same region as the preceding species, and affords the bark called casca- rilla aharquilla by the natives. Besides these species, several others might be.added, which, though named and described by botanists, are not known to furnish any of the bark of commerce. Such are the C. macrocalyx, C. pelalba, and C. cras- sifolia of Pavon, quoted by De Candolle; and the C. Pavonii, C. Hum- boldtiana, C. rotundifolia, and C. stenocarpa described by Lambert, upon the authority of Pavon, and from specimens in his own possession.* In all the preceding species, except the C. caduciflora, the corolla is more or less hairy or woolly: the C. Rosea is the only other strictly be- longing to this genus which has the corolla entirely smooth. It rises usually to the height of fifteen feet, and when in blossom presents a very handsome appearance, as well from the richness of its foliage, as from the beauty of its flowers, with which the natives adorn their churches. It inhabits the forests of the Andes near Pozuzo and San Antonio de Playa Grande. Its bark is called cascarilla parda. Commercial History. For more than a century after Peruvian bark came into use, it was procured almost exclusively from Loxa and the neighbouring provinces. In a memoir published A.D. 1738, La Condamine speaks of the bark of Rhiobamba, Cuenca, Ayavaca, and Jaen de Bracamoros. Of these places, the first two, together with Loxa, lie within the ancient kingdom of Quito, at its southern extremity; the others are in the same vicinity, within the borders of Peru. The drug was shipped chiefly at the Port of Payta, from which it was carried to Spain, and thence spread over Europe. Beyond the limits above mentioned the Cinchona was not sup- posed to exist, till, in the year 1753, a gentleman of Loxa, familiar with the aspect of the tree, discovered it while on a journey from the place of his residence to Santa Fe de Bogota, in numerous situations along his • Much weight has been given, in these remarks upon the different species of Cin- chona, to the authority of Lambert, who, independently of his familiarity with the sub- ject, resulting from long attentign to it, has had opportunities enjoyed by few other botanists of coming to correct conclusions—having in his pos*»gsion numerous dried specimens of all the species collected by Ruiz and Pavon andf their pupils, besides many others derived from other sources. 208 Cinchona. PART I. route, wherever, in fact, the elevation of the country was equal to that of Loxa, or about 6,500 feet above the level of the sea. This discovery ex- tended quite through Quito into the kingdom of New Granada, as far as two degrees and a half north of the equator. But no practical advantage was derived from it; and the information lay buried in the archives of the vice-royalty, till subsequent events brought it to light. To Mutis undoubt- edly belongs the credit of making known the existence of the Cinchona in New Granada. He first discovered it in the neighbourhood of Bogota in the year 1772. A botanical expedition was some time afterwards organiz- ed by the Spanish government, with the view of exploring this part of their American dominions; and the direction was given to Mutis. The re- searches of the expedition eventuated in the discovery of several species of the Cinchona in New Granada, and a commerce in the bark soon com- menced, which was afterwards increased, and carried on with great vi- gour through the ports of Carthagena and Santa Martha. The English and North Americans opening a contraband trade with these ports, were enabled to undersell the Spanish merchant, who received his supplies by the circuitous route of Cape Horn; and the barks of New Granada were soon as abundant as those of Loxa in the markets of Europe. To these sources another was added about the same time, A.D. 1776, by the discovery of the.Cinchona in the centre of Peru, in the mountain- ous region about the city of Huanuco, which lies on the eastern declivity of the Andes, to the north-east of Lima, at least six degrees to the south of the province of Loxa. To explore this new locality, another botanical expedition was set on foot, at the head of which were Ruiz and Pavon, the distinguished authors of the Flora Peruviana. These gentlemen spent several years in this region, during which time they discovered nu- merous species that were afterwards described in their Flora. Several of their species, however, are now considered identical with the C. lanci- folia previously described by Mutis. Lima became the entrepot for the barks collected around Huanuco; and hence probably originated the name of Lima bark, so often conferred, in common language, not only upon the varieties received through that city, but also upon the medicine ge- nerally. Soon after the last mentioned discovery, two additional localities of the Cinchona were found, one at the northern extremity of the continent near Santa Martha, the other very far to the south, in the provinces of La Paz and Cochabamba, then within the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, now attached to the republic of Bolivia. These latter places became the source of an abundant supply of excellent bark, which received the name of Calisaya, probably from a district of country where it was gathered. It was sent partly to the ports on the Pacific, partly to Buenos Ayres. The consequence of these discoveries, following each other in such rapid succession, was a vast increase in the supply of bark, which was now shipped from the ports of Guayaquil, Payta, Lima, Arica, Buenos Ayres, Carthagena, and Santa Martha. At the same time the average quality was probably deteriorated; for though many of the new varieties were possessed of excellent properties, yet equal care in superintending the collection and assorting of the article could not be exercised now that the field was so extended, as when it was confined to a small portion of the South of Quito and North of Peru. The varieties which were poured into the market soon became so numerous as to burthen the memory, if not to defy the discrimination of the druggist, and the best pharma- ceutists found themselves at a loss to discover any permanent peculiari- ties, which might serve as the basis of a proper and useful classification. IM- PART I. Cinchona. 209 This perplexity has continued more or less to the present time; though the discovery of the new alkaline principles has presented a ground of distinction which was before unknown. The restrictions upon the com- merce with South America, by directing the trade into irregular chan- nels, had also a tendency to deteriorate the character of the drug. In the complexity of contrivance to which it was necessary to resort to de- ceive the vigilance of the government, little attention could be paid to a proper assortment of the several varieties; and not only were the best barks mixed with those of inferior species and less careful preparation, but the products of other trees, bearing no resemblance to the Cinchona, were sometimes added, having been artificially prepared so as to deceive a careless observer. The markets of this country were peculiarly ill fur- nished. The supplies being derived chiefly, by means of a contraband trade, from Carthagena and other ports of the. Spanish Main, or indi- rectly through the Havanna, were necessarily of an inferior character; and our traders, finding a better market in Europe for the finer kinds, brought home the refuse of their cargoes. A great change, however, in this respect, has taken place since the ports on the Pacific have been opened to our commerce. The best kinds of bark have thus been ren- dered directly accessible to us; and increased intelligence in the com- munity has co-operated with the facility of supply, to exclude from our markets that kind of trash with which they were formerly glutted. A curious account is given by Humboldt of the influence of commer- cial monopoly over the reputation of the different varieties of bark. So long as Loxa and its neighbourhood continued to be the only source of supply, the complete control of the trade belonged to a few mercantile houses in Cadiz; but after the discovery of the Cinchona trees by Mutis in New Granada, it was found impossible to confine the commerce in this article within such narrow limits; and it became a matter of im- portance to those houses to undervalue what they could not make con- ducive to their pecuniary advantage. Complaisant botanists were found, who denied the identity of the species of Cinchona growing about Bo- gota, with those of the original locality in the South of Quito; and phy- sicians undertook to decide that the efficiency of the various barks depended upon their growth within certain degrees of latitude. As the trade in the barks discovered about Huanuco in Peru, naturally came into the same hands with that of the barks of Loxa, they were not found to deserve equal condemnation with those to the north of the equator. So great an influence was exerted over public opinion in Spain by this self-interested combination, that a quantity of the orange-coloured bark of Santa Fe de Bogota, which had been collected by Mutis in New Gra- nada, at the expense of the crown, was condemned to be burned in the public market-place at Cadiz. A part of this bark thus destined to the flames, was secretly bought by English merchants and shipped to Lon- don, where it brought great prices. This influence, however, did not extend beyond Spain, and perhaps France; for the barks of New Gra- • nada, which were brought by the contrabandists into Europe, from Car- thagena and Santa Martha, had the preference in England, Germany, and Italy, over those imported by the route of Spain. The above account, however, though given by Humboldt, should be received with much allowance. This philosophic traveller having had much intercourse with Mutis, and perhaps enjoyed his hospitafity in South America, was very naturally influenced by his representations, which were not those of an impartial observer. The part performed by Mutis in the discovery of the barks of New Granada, and their intro- 210 Cinchona. part I. duction into use, enlisted his partialities in their favour; and neither he nor his pupils could listen with complacence to the claims of superiority which might have been honestly urged in favour of those of Quito and Peru. Whatever might have been the motives of the merchants, botan- ists,and physicians, whom Humboldt intimates to have conspired against the produce of the Cinchona of New Granada, it is certain that time has confirmed, to some extent at least, the correctness of their represen- tations ; for it is now universally admitted, that the Carthagena barks are in every respect inferior to those derived from the ports on the Pa- cific; and the conjecture has been ventured, that the bark condemned to be burned at Cadiz might have merited its sentence. The persons who collect the bark are called in South America Casca- rilleros. "Considerable experience and judgment are requisite to render an individual well qualified for this business. He must not only be able to distinguish the trees which produce good bark from those less es- teemed, but must also know the proper season and the age at which a branch should be decorticated, and the marks by which the efficiency or inefficiency of any particular product is indicated. The dry season, from September to November inclusive, is the harvest of the bark gatherers. They separate the bark by making a longitudinal incision with a sharp knife through its whole thickness, and then forcing it off from the branch with the back of the instrument. Other means are resorted to when the trunk or larger limbs are decorticated. They consider the branch to be sufficiently mature, when the inner surface of the bark be- gins to redden upon exposure to the air within three or four minutes after its removal. The next object is to dry the bark in the sun. In the drying process it rolls itself up, or in technical language becomes quilled, and the degree to which this effect takes place, is proportionate directly to the thinness of the bark, and inversely to the age of the branch from which it was derived. In packing the bark for exportation, due care is seldom taken to assort the varieties according either to the species of Cinchona by which they are furnished, or to their resemblance in appear- ance and character; and it often happens that several different kinds are introduced into the same case. The packages are, in commercial lan- guage, called seroons. As found in this market, they are covered with a case of thick and stiff ox-hide, which is lined within by a very coarse cloth, apparently woven out of some kind of grass. Occasionally even { very good bark is bound up in bags of this coarse cloth, without any j[ covering of skin, so that air and moisture are freely admitted, and the • drug is thus exposed to injury. This was the case with some very fine * red bark which came under our own notice, recently imported from Guayaquil. The American druggists till within a few years derived their best bark from London, whither it was brought from Cadiz; but since the com- merce of South America has been freely opened to us, we have been enabled to supply ourselves immediately from the places of production. Our ships trading to the Pacific, run along the American coast from Valparaiso in Chili to Guayaquil on the western coast of Colombia, stopping at the intermediate ports of Coquimbo, Copiapo, Arica, Cal- lao, Truxillo, &c, from all which they probably receive supplies of bark in exchange for the mercury, piece-goods, flour, Sec, which constitute their outward cargo. Means of distinguishing good bark.—To the druggist and apothecary it is highly important to possess the means of deciding upon the rela- tive value of the numerous varieties of bark of every quality brought into part i. Cinchona. 211 market, or at least of discriminating between the energetic and ineffi- cient. The following rules are given by men who pretend to a familiar acquaintance with the subject. They are essentially the same with those which, according to Dr. Devoti, a physician of Lima, are practised in South America in choosing the barks proper to be admitted into com- merce. In forming a judgment, it is necessary to consider whether the bark has been taken from a branch of the proper age, and whether it has been carefully dried. Very young bark has not acquired the virtues which render the medicine valuable; that • derived from the trunk or older branches has often been injured by time or by the action of parasitic plants; and, to hasten the drying process in certain mountainous situa- tions where the sun has little power, or to increase the rolling, a certain degree of which renders the drug more saleable to the merchants,-it is said not to be an uncommon practice to expose the fresh barks injuri- ously to artificial heat. Bark more than an inch and a half in diameter must have come from the trunk or great branches, that which is smaller than a goosequill from young and immature branches; and both are deemed of inferior quality. The same remark is applicable to the de- gree of thickness; but in forming a judgment on this point it is neces- sary to take the species into consideration. Though, as a general rule, very thin or very thick bark is of inferior quality, yet specimens have been found very effectual upon trial, which have not fallen within the limits usually considered the most proper in this respect. That which exceeds a line in thickness is not approved at Cadiz. The specific gra- vity of bark is also considered, in some measure, a criterion of its value, the heaviest being most esteemed, The fracture should be to a cer- tain extent splintery; if sharp and short it indicates too great age; if the fibres are very long, there is reason to apprehend a want of maturity. The rolling of a bark affords another ground of judgment, though by no means to be relied on, as some excellent varieties are almost or quite flat. A feeble rolling indicates a bark too old or too slowly dried ; a spi- ral form, one that has been gathered before it was ripe, or afterwards exposed to an improper degree of heat. The effects of heat are also ob- servable in the darker colour of the bark, and the appearance of whitish stripes of a sickly hue on the inside. Some dependence is placed by the South Americans upon the appearance of the epidermis; and the follow- ing commercial varieties have had their origin in this source:—1. Ne- grilla, blackish; 2. crespilla, crisped; 3. pardo-obscura, dark leopard-gray; 4. pardo-clara, bright leopard-gray; 5. lagartijada, silver or lizard-co- loured; 6. blanquissima, very white; and 7. cenicienta, ash-coloured. The first three are most esteemed. It is possible that among those well skilled in the subject, and thoroughly acquainted with the cinchona tree in its natural state, inferences may be drawn from these appearances, as to the elevation upon the mountains, the degree of exposure to the sun, and sometimes, perhaps, as to the species of the plant; but little reliance can be placed upon them by persons who are not already too well inform- ed to need instruction. The properties of colour, taste, and smell are more important. The colour which, according to Dr. Devoti, is most highly esteemed, is orange; and the gradations of shades from this to white mark a corres- ponding diminution in value. A dark colour between red and yellow is considered a sign either of inferiority in species, of improper prepara- tion, or of injurious exposure to air and moisture. The taste should be bitter and very slightly acid, but not acrid, nauseous, nor very astrin 212 Cinchona. PART I. gent. The odour is never very strong; but this quality exists in some de- gree in the better kinds of bark, and affords a favourable sign when it is decided and peculiar, without being disagreeable. These remarks are of general application; they will be further ex- tended, when the varieties of bark are separately described. Classification. To form a correct and lucid system of classification is the most diffi- cult part of the subject of bark, which is throughout full of perplexi- ties. An arrangement founded on the botanical species, though the most scientific and satisfactory when attainable, is in the present instance ut- terly out of the question. There are few varieties, of the precise origin of which we can be said to have any certain knowledge; by far the greater number being either derived from an unknown source, or but obscurely traceable to their native tree. Pharmaceutists indeed are not wanting, who are disposed to ascribe all the genuine barks, yielding qui- nia and cinchonia, to the same species of Cinchona. Guibourt has ad- vanced the opinion, that they are all derived from varieties of the C. lancifolia; and adduces in support of it the statement of La Condamine, that when at Loxa he was informed, on good authority, that the trees yielding severally the yellow and red barks could not be distinguished by the eye.* The Spanish merchants adopted a system of classification dependent partly on the place of growth or shipment, and partly on some inherent property or the supposed relative value of the bark. So long as the sources of the drug were very confined, and the number of varieties small, this plan answered the purposes of trade; but at present it is al- together inadequate; and though some of the names originally conferred upon this principle are still retained, they have ceased to be expressive of the truth, and are often erroneously, almost always confusedly applied. The Loxa barks embrace, among us, not only those which come from that province, but those also from the neighbourhood of Huanuco; while others, which have received different names, are brought from the same place. It is said that by the traders in South America, the young, slen- der gray barks are called by the name of Loxa, from whatever source they may be derived; while those somewhat larger and older receive their appellation from Lima. Perhaps the best arrangement for pharmaceutical and medicinal pur- poses is that adopted in the United States Pharmacopoeia, founded upon difference of colour. It is true that dependence cannot be placed upon this property alone; as barks of a similar colour have been found to possess very different virtues ; and between the various colours considered charac- teristic, there is an insensible gradation of shade, so that it is not always possible to decide where one ends and the other begins. Still it has been found that the most valuable barks may be arranged, according to their colour, in three divisions, which, though mingling at their extremes, are very distinctly characterized, in certain specimens, by peculiarity not only in colour but also in other sensible properties, and even in chemi- cal constitution. The three divisions alluded to are the pale, the yellow, and the red. These maybe considered as exclusively the officinal barks; while the inferior varieties which approach one or other of these classes in colour, but differ in other properties, may be treated as extra-offici- * Report on the work of Von Bergen, made to the Society of Pharmacy. Journal d» Pharmacie, torn. xvi. p. 220, PART I. Cinchona. 213 nal, and considered under a separate head. As these inferior kinds come chiefly if not exclusively from the northern ports of Colombia, they are known in commerce by the name of Carthagena barks, and by this name will be described in the present work. Specimens of little value may be occasionally imported from the Pacific coast of South America; but the quantity is small, as the profit they would yield would not pay the ex- pense of so long a voyage. In describing, therefore, the different kinds of bark, we shall treat first of the officinal varieties under the three heads of pale, yellow, and red, and secondly of the extra-officinal under the title of Carthagena barks. The commercial name will at the same time be given in all instances in which a knowledge of it can be useful in this country. It is proper here to state, that the different barks frequently come to us mingled in the same package, and that, in deciding upon the character of a seroon, the druggist is guided rather by the predominance than the exclusive existence of certain distinctive properties. 1. Pale Bark. The epithet pale applied to these barks is derived from the colour of the powder. The French call them quinquinas gris, or gray barks, from the colour of the epidermis. They come into the market in cylindrical pieces of variable length, from a lew inches to a foot and a half, some- times singly, sometimes doubly quilled, from two lines to an inch in diameter, and from half a line to two or three lines in thickness. The finest kinds are about the size of a goosequill. Their exterior surface is usually more or less rough, marked with circular and longitudinal fissures, and of a grayish colour, owing to the lichens which cover the epidermis. The shade is different in different samples. Sometimes it is a light gray, approaching to white, sometimes dull and brown, sometimes a grayish fawn, and frequently diversified by the intermixture of the proper colour of the epidermis with that of the patches of lichens at- tached to it. The interior surface, in the finer kinds, is smooth and vel- vety; in the coarser, it is occasionally rough and somewhat ligneous. Its colour is uniformly a dull orange, sometimes inclining to red, some- times to yellow; and in some inferior specimens is of a dusky hue. The product of the C. lancifolia of Bogota, probably received the name of orange-coloured bark from the appearance of its inner surface. The fracture is usually clear, with some short filaments on the internal part only. In the coarser barks it is more fibrous. The colour of the powder is a pale fawn, which is of a deeper hue in the inferior kinds. The taste is moderately bitter and somewhat astringent, without being disagree- able or nauseous. Some authors speak of an acidulous and aromatic fla- vour, which is not very evident. The superior kinds have a feeble odour, which is distinct and agreeably aromatic in the powder and decoction.' The pale barks are chemically characterized by containing much tannin and cinchonia, but little quinia. Their appearance indicates that they were derived from the smaller branches. They are collected in the pro- vinces about Loxa, or in the country which surrounds the city of Hua- nuco to the north-east of Lima; and are probably obtained chiefly from varieties of the C. lancifolia. In this country, the pale barks are all known in commerce by the gene- ral title of Loxa bark. The finest specimens are sometimes called crown bark of Loxa, a. name also applied to them in England and Germany, and evidently derived from the impression, that they have the same origin and character with the bark formerly selected with great care for the use of the king of Spain and the royal family. It is probable, however, 214 Cinchona. PART I. that the best of all the different kinds were appropriated to the royal use; and the honour was certainly possessed by the yellow as well as by the pale. The extension of the term L,oxa bark to all the different varieties which belong to this class, is peculiar to the United States, and is not authorized by the facts of the case. They are not obtained exclusively from the province of Loxa, nor from the country bordering upon it. The French and Germans distribute them into at least two distinct divisions, originally named from the place of growth or export, but depending at present upon peculiarity in properties, without any geographical refer- ence. One of these divisions has the title of Loxa bark; the other is called Lima bark by the French, and Huanuco bark by the Germans and Spaniards. 1. The proper Loxa bark, is in cylindrical tubes, strongly rolled, from twelve to eighteen inches long, varying in size from that of a small quill to that of the little finger, very thin and consequently light, and covered with an epidermis more or less rough, marked with transversal fissures, and of a grayish colour. The internal surface is smooth and uniform, like that of cinnamon, and of an orange yellow or reddish hue, which becomes brighter upon the application of moisture. The fracture is clear, or but slightly fibrous. Two sub-varieties exist in this division— one with a light gray epidermis, called in French Pharmacy quinquina gris de Loxa, the other brown or of a dark gray externally, and from this circumstance named quinquina gris brun de Loxa. Guibourt con- siders the former as identical with the cascarilla delgada, or slender bark of Spanish commerce. The finest specimens of Loxa bark are thought to be derived from the C. Condaminea, and to be the same with that of which Humboldt speaks as having acquired great repute under the name of cascarilla Jina de Uritusinga. Among the Loxa barks may be included the lagartijada, or lizard-coloured, of the South Americans. Much of the Loxa bark is said to be derived from the C. scrobiculata of Humboldt, which Lambert considers identical with the C. purpurea of the Flora Peruviana. 2. The Lima bark of the French, or Huanuco of the Germans and Spaniards, was introduced into notice about the year 1779, after the dis- covery of the cinchona trees in the central regions of Peru. The first name originated from the circumstance that the bark entered into com- merce through the city of Lima, the second was derived from the name of the city in the more immediate neighbourhood of which the trees were found. The finer sort of Lima bark is scarcely distinguishable in description from that of Loxa. The French call it quinquina gris fin de Lima. The coarser kinds are more strongly marked. The size varies from that of the little finger to that of the thumb. Their external sur- face is rough, with transverse fissures closely arranged, and an epider- mis, which, though sometimes thin and adherent, is frequently thick and spongy, and easily separable in small scales, which leave numerous circular impressions. The bark is thick and breaks with a fracture which is compact and close on the exterior, but wroody and fibrous on the interior. The internal surface is yellowish or reddish, and rougher or more ligneous than that of the Loxa bark. The French call this variety quinquina gros Lima, and when the epidermis is white, as it sometimes is from the presence of chalky cryptogamous plants, they call it Lima blanc. Under this head of Lima barks are included by some authors the cascarilla ferruginea, or ferruginous bark of the Spaniards, so named from the tawny ochreous appearance of its epidermis; and the variety called Havanna, distinguished by its gray epidermis, with a reddish PART I. Cinchona. 215 or rosy tint. In the same class are also placed by M. Laubert, the cascarilla boba de hojas moradas,* of the Peruvians, derived from the C. purpurea; and the leonado obscura,^ distinguished by the tawny colour both of the epidermis and cortical layers. These latter varieties, how- ever, are little known, and not highly esteemed. It is probable that most of the Lima or Huanuco barks are derived from varieties of the C. lan- cifolia, from the C. hirsuta, and the C. purpurea. They are generally considered inferior to those of Loxa, and their somewhat less bitter and more nauseous taste would seem to justify this opinion. We have, perhaps, been more particular in noticing the different varie- ties of pale bark, with their several commercial names, than is requisite for the ordinary purposes of pharmacy; but the student will find an ad- vantage, when perusing works upon the subject of this important drug, in being able to understand the distinctions referred to by authors, and the terms familiarly employed by them, even though he should not thereby be rendered more competent to judge of the qualities or practi- cal application of the medicine. In this country, the pale bark appears to be falling into disuse; and the sales made by the druggists have, we are informed, been much diminished. As it yields little quinia, it is not employed in the manufacture of the sulphate of that alkali, which has almost superseded the bark as a remedy in intermittents; and the -red bark is preferred by physicians, when it is necessary to resort to the medicine in substance. There is little doubt, however, that cinchonia possesses febrifuge properties little if at all inferior to those of quinia; and should the source of the latter begin to fail, the pale bark would come into more extensive use for the preparation of the former. 2. Yellow Bark. The officinal term yellow bark should be considered as applicable only to the valuable varieties of the drug having this colour. These are all grouped together in commerce under the name of Calisaya, said to be derived from a district of country in Bolivia, near the city of La Paz, where this variety of bark is collected. The name was afterwards ex- tended to the produce of other and distant provinces, and is now applied to all the barks possessing the properties about to be detailed. Among the druggists they are arranged in two divisions, the quilled and the flat, which sometimes come mixed together in the same seroons, sometimes separate. The appearance of both indicates that they were taken from larger and older branches than those which yield the pale varieties. They are sometimes called by the French quinquina jaune royal, from their resemblance to a variety of bark formerly selected for the Spanish king. - The quilled Calisaya, C. arrolada of the Spanish Americans, is in pieces from three or four inches to a foot and a half long, from a quarter of an inch to two or three inches in diameter, and of equally variable thickness. The epidermis is of a brownish colour diversified by lichens, is marked by transverse fissures, and is often partially separated, and generally easily separable from the proper bark. In the larger kinds it is thick, rough, deeply indented by the transverse fissures, and composed of several layers separated from each other by a reddish-brown mem- brane like velvet. This epidermis yields a dark red powder, is tasteless, • Mulberry-leaved booby bark—the latter part of the name being derived from an idea that it is better than it looks. f Dull lion-coloured. 216 Cinchona. PART I. and possesses none of the virtues of the bark. It is desirable, therefore, to get rid of it before the bark is powdered, as the medicine is thus pro- cured of greater strength. The bark itself, without the epidermis, is from one to two lines in thickness, of a fibrous texture, and when broken presents shining points, apparently the termination of small fibres run- ning longitudinally, which, examined by the microscope, are found, when freed from a salmon-coloured powder that surrounds them, to be yellow and transparent. They readily separate when the bark is powdered, in the form of spicule, which, like those of the cowhage, insinuate them- selves into the skin, and produce a disagreeable itching and irritation. The colour of the bark is yellow with a tinge of orange, the taste less astringent than that of the pale bark, but much more bitter and more nauseous. The external cortical layers are more bitter and astringent, and consequently stronger in medicinal power, than the internal; proba- bly from the longer exposure of the latter to the action of air and mois- ture. The odour is faint, but when the bark is boiled resembles that of the pale varieties. The flat Calisaya, C. plancha of the Spaniards, which appears to have been derived from the large branches and trunk, is in pieces of various lengths, either quite flat, or but slightly curved, generally destitute of the epidermis, and therefore presenting the yellow colour of the bark both within and without. It is usually thicker than the quilled, more fibrous in its texture, less compact, less bitter, and possessed of less medicinal power. Sometimes portions of the sapwood adhere to its internal sur- face, and increase its thickness. Though weaker than the proper bark of the quills, it is usually, in equal weight, more valuable than that variety, because free from the useless epidermis. Along with the varieties above described, others are sometimes enu- merated, especially one denominated by Guibourt, and after him by other French 'writers, quinquina jaune orange, or orange-yellow bark, distinguished by its more compact texture, and its well marked orange colour. All the valuable yellow barks are characterized by their strongly bit- ter taste, with comparatively little astringency; by their fine yellow somewhat orange colour, which is still brighter in the powder; and by containing a large proportion of quinia with very little cinchonia. The salts of quinia and lime are so abundant in their composition, that their infusion instantly precipitates a solution of sulphate of soda. Authors are by no means agreed as to the particular species which yields Calisaya bark. Some, influenced simply by its officinal title of yellow bark, have attributed it to the C. cordifolia, because Mutis gave the same name to the product of this species. The British Colleges have fallen into this error, without, however, being aware that the yellow bark which they adopted as officinal was really the Calisaya. That it is an error has been fully demonstrated; as no Calisaya bark is brought from those regions where the C. cordifolia most abounds. Many writers ascribe this variety to the C. lancifolia, on the authority of Mutis him- self, who asserts that it is indisputably derived from that species.* This may possibly be the case; and the supposition of M. Guibourt may be true, that the officinal pale, yellow, and red barks are all derived from varieties of the C. lancifolia; but we have no precise information on the subject; and Ruiz himself acknowledges that he is unacquainted with * Humboldt's " Characteristics of some species of Cinchona." See Lambert's Illus- trations, 1821, p. 53. part i. Cinchona. 217 its source.* A curious mistake on this subject is made by Dr. A. T. Thomson in his Dispensatory. Considering the C. lancifolia as undoubt- edly the origin of the pale bark, and at the same time receiving without hesitation the assertion that the Calisaya is the product of this species, he has inferred that the two must be identical; and has therefore given Calisaya as one of the synonymes of pale bark; while he has accurately described the true Calisaya, but without naming it, under the head of C. cordifolia or yellow bark. The genuine Calisaya bark is produced most abundantly in Bolivia, formerly Upper Peru, in the province of La Paz; and before the dis- turbances in these countries, was shipped as well from the Port of Buenos Ayres as from those on the Pacific. It is at present, however, procured exclusively from the latter. A very fine parcel was exhibited to us, im- ported directly from Coquimbo in Chili. We have been informed by gentlemen who have been long personally engaged in commercial trans- actions upon the Pacific coast of South America, that the Calisaya bark of commerce is originally obtained chiefly if not exclusively at the Port of Arica, whither it is brought from the interior provinces of Bolivia. From that town it is sent to various other ports on the Pacific. It is gen- erally supposed to have been first introduced into commerce towards the end of the last century, and it was probably not known by its present name till that period; but La Condamine states that the Jesuits of La Paz, at a period anterior to the discovery of the febrifuge of Loxa, sent to Rome a very bitter bark by the name of quinaquina, which, though supposed by that traveller to have been derived from the Peruvian bal- sam tree, was very probably, as conjectured by Guibourt, the true cin- chona. Besides, Pomet, in his History of Drugs, published in 1694, speaks of a bark more bitter than that of Loxa, obtained from the province of Potosi, which borders upon that of La Paz; and Chomel also states, that the cinchona tree inhabited the mountains of Potosi, and produced a bark more esteemed than that which grew in the province of Quito.f It is possible that, though known at this early period, it may have gone out of use; and its re-introduction into notice towards the end of the last century, may have been mistaken for an original discovery. Whether it is found in the other localities of bark in Peru and Quito, it is difficult to determine; but we may infer from the existence of a commercial va- riety known to the Spaniards by the name of Calisaya de Quito, thta either the identical bark, or a variety closely analogous to it, has been found in that province. The Calisaya de Santa Fe mentioned by Laubert, has no other claim to the title given it than its colour; and it is not dis- tinguished in the market, perhaps not distinguishable from the ordinary yellow Carthagena bark. 3. Red Bark. The name of this variety is very appropriately applied, as the colour is usually distinct both in the bark and the powder. In South America it is called cascarilla roxa and colorada. Some writers have divided it into several sub-varieties; but there does not seem to be ground for such division in any essential difference of properties. Like the Calisaya, it * He says, however, that it may be derived from the C. lanceolata, which is now acknowledged to be the same species with the C. lancifolia. Memoir by M. Laubert." See Lambert's Illustrations, p. 70. + Guibourt's Report on the work of Von Bergen. Journ. de Pharm. xvi. p- 235. 28 218 Cinchona. PART I. comes in quills and flat pieces which are probably derived from different parts of the same plant. Some of the pieces are entirely rolled, some partially so, as if they had been taken from half the circumference of the branch; others are nearly or quite flat. They vary very greatly in size, the quill being sometimes less than half an inch in diameter, sometimes so much as two inches, while the flat pieces are occasionally very large and thick, as if derived from the trunk of a tree. They are usually covered with a reddish-brown or gray epidermis, which is rugged, has cracks running in different di- rections, and is in some instances remarkable for numerous projecting points, which correspond with small prominences on the exterior surface of the proper bark. This last peculiarity is made by M. Guibourt the distinguishing character of one of his divisions of the red barks—^ le quinquina rouge verruqueux,"—and another division in his classification is, from the absence of this appearance, entitled—" le quinquina rouge non verruqueux." Beneath the epidermis is a layer, dark, red, brittle, and compact, which possesses some bitterness and astringency, but much less than the interior parts. These are woody and fibrous, of a more or less lively red colour, which is usually very distinct, but in some speci- mens passes into the orange and even yellow, so that it is not always possible to distinguish the varieties by this property alone. The taste is bitter and astringent, and the odour similar to that of other good barks. Red bark is chemically distinguished by containing considerable quanti- ties both of quinia and of cinchohia. Till very recently, it has been almost universally admitted, on the authority of Mutis, that the red bark was the product of the C. oblongi- folia of that author, and the C. magnifolia of the Flora Peruviana, which is generally supposed to be the same species with the former. But it is now well understood that the red bark of Santa Fe, the real product of the C. oblongifolia, has little else in common with the true officinal red bark than its colour; and belongs properly to the Carthagena barks. This might have been conjectured from the fact, that none of the best red bark is brought from the Atlantic ports of New Granada, through which the product of the C. oblongifolia must, at least in part, be sent out of the country. But Von Bergen is the first author who has satis- factorily shown, that the genuine red bark of commerce was not derived from this species. The proofs advanced by him are the following. A specimen of the bark of the C. oblongifolia, given by Humboldt to Schrader, was found to be the quina nova of commerce, and to bear no resemblance to the genuine red bark; and Humboldt acknowledged to this gentleman, that he was unacquainted with the tree which yields the latter. Ruiz and Pavon, also, though they frequently mention the red bark, agree in stating that they are ignorant of its source; and in the supplement to the Quinologia, mention that the red bark from the C. ob- longifolia is wholly different from the commercial variety which bears that name. Besides, in the collection belonging to Ruiz, were specimens of the bark of the C. oblongifolia, designated by the name of quina aza- har o roja de Santa Fe, which were entirely different from the genuine red bark, while they bore an exact resemblance to the quina nova. These arguments of Bergen are still further strengthened by the testimony of Guibourt, who states that a specimen of the red bark of Mutis, the pro- duct of his C. oblongifolia, which had been presented by this botanist to Humboldt, and by him deposited in the botanical cabinet of the Jardin du Roi, was found upon examination scarcely to differ from that known in commerce by the name of quina nova. This quina nova is an inferior part i. Cinchona. 219 kind of Carthagena bark, of a red colour, formerly supposed to be fur- nished by the Portlandia grandiflora, and containing little or no quinia or cinchonia. It appears, therefore, that the valuable red bark is not derived from the C. oblongifolia, and that nothing is certainly known as to its source. There is some reason to believe that it may be de- rived from the same species with the pale barks, but taken from the larger branches or the trunk. This opinion receives some support from a statement made by La Condamine, in his memoir upon the subject of cinchona. We are told by this author that three kinds of bark were known in the neighbourhood of Loxa—the white, the yellow, and the red. The while, so named from the colour of the • epidermis, scarcely possessed any medicinal virtue, and was obtained from a tree entirely distinct from that which yielded the two other varieties. The red was superior to the yellow; but he was assured, on the very best authority, that the trees producing them grew together, and were not distinguish- able by the eye.* Of the three varieties mentioned by La Condamine, the white does not reach us; and that which he calls yellow is probably identical with the pale variety of the Pharmacopoeia, as this grows most abundantly about Loxa, and before being powdered is often of a yellow- ish colour. Should it be admitted that the red bark is furnished by the same tree which yields the pale, we have a ready explanation of the dif- ference in size of the two varieties. Carthagena Barks. Under this head may be classed all the barks brought from the At- lantic ports of Colombia. Like those of Peru and Quito, they may be arranged in several subdivisions, characterized chiefly by peculiarities of colour. 1. The most abundant is the yellow Carthagena bark, which comes in fragments of various sizes, from one to three lines in thick- ness, usually covered wholly or in part with a white epidermis. The bark itself is of a yellow colour, spongy under the teeth, and of a bitter, nauseous taste. It is probably obtained from the C. cordifolia, as Gui- bourt found that a specimen of the bark of this tree, which came ori- ginally from Mutis, resembled it precisely in all its sensible properties. 2. Another variety may be called the brown Carthagena bark. This also has a white epidermis, which is smooth and without fissures. The bark is hard, compact, very heavy, rough and thick, of a chocolate colour internally, and of a bitter and astringent taste, more disagreeable than that of the pale barks, to which it is in other respects somewhat analo- gous. Its source is unknown. 3. A third variety is the red Carthagena bark, distinguished from the officinal red bark by its white, shining, al- most micaceous epidermis. It is sometimes compact and bitter, some- • The following are the words of La Condamine, which we quote from the report of M. Guibourt. Journ. de Pharm. Avril, 1830. " Mon hote de Cajanuma, qui passe sa vie dans cette montagne a de'pouiller ces arbres, m'a assure^ ce qui m'a depuis 6t6 confirm^ par les gens les plus instruits, que le jaune et le rouge n'ont aucune difference remarquable dans la fleur, dans lafeuille, dans le fruit, ni meme dans I'ecorce exUrieurement; qu'enfin on ne distingue pas a I'oeil I'un de I'autre par dehors, et que ce n'est qu'en y mettant le couteau qu'on reconnait le jaune a son ecorce moins haute en couleur et plus tendre. Du reste le rouge et le jaune croissent a cotd I'un de I'autre, et l'on recueille indiffe>emment leur Ecorce, quoique le prejuge' soit pour le rouge. Quant au quinquina blanc, ce meme homme m'a assure" que sa feuille £tait plus ronde, moins lisse que celle des deux autres, et meme un peu rude ; sa fleur est aussi plus blanche, sa graine plus grosse, et son Ecorce exteneure- ment blanchatre. II croit ordinairement a mi-cdte, dans les creux et les gorges, et plus purticulierement dans les endroits les plus couverts." 220 Cinchona. PART I. times spongy and with little taste.* It is probably derived from the C. oblongifolia, and is not much used in this country. 4. Within a few years a variety has appeared in our market under the name of Santa Martha bark, which ranks itself by its characters among those of Car- thagena. It derives its name from the port where it is shipped. It is either in small irregularly oblong fragments, flat or but slightly curved, from one to three lines in thickness, usually destitute of epidermis, and presenting an appearance somewhat as if chipped from the large branches or trunk of the tree; or in short quills, partially covered with a whitish epidermis, and evidently derived from the smaller branches. This bark is compact, of a pale yellowish colour, and a bitter, some- what nauseous taste. It is usually considered superior to the ordinary Carthagena bark, probably from its greater bitterness. May it not be derived from the C. macrocarpa, the C. ovalifolia of Mutis, which Hum- boldt informs us grows in the neighbourhood of Santa Martha? All the Carthagena barks, as will have been observed, have a white somewhat micaceous epidermis. They are also distinguished by a taste less bitter and more nauseous than that of the officinal varieties; and, though they contain more or less quinia or cinchonia, are by no means abundant in these principles. False Barks. Before dismissing the subject of the varieties of cinchona, it is pro- per to observe, that numerous barks have at various times been intro- duced into the market, and sold as closely resembling or identical with the febrifuge of Peru, which experience has proved to differ from it ma- terially, both in chemical composition and medicinal virtues. These barks are generally procured from trees which were formerly ranked among the Cinchonae, but are now arranged in other genera. They are distinguished from the true Peruvian bark by the absence of quinia and cinchonia. Among them are 1. the Caribsean bark, from the Exostemma Caribsea; 2. the St. Lucia bark, or quinquina piton of the French, derived from the Exostemma floribunda; 3. the Pitaya bark, known in France by the name of quinquina bicolor, supposed by some to be derived from an Exostemma, by others from the Strychnos pseudo-quina; and 4. the bark called on the continent of Europe new bark (quina nova), which is believ- ed by some pharmaceutists to be the same with the red bark of Mutis, but which, as it contains no quinia or cinchonia, belongs probably to a dif- ferent genus of plants, and is generally attributed to the Portlandia gran- dijiora. Most of these barks are scarcely known in the commerce of this country; not one of them is used in our medical practice; and they are mentioned in this place only that the student, when he meets with their names in other works, may know where to refer them. Chemical History. In the analysis of Peruvian bark, the attention of chemists was at first directed exclusively to the action of water and alcohol upon it, and to the decision of the relative proportion of its gummy or extractive and resinous matter. The presence of tannin and of various alkaline or earthy salts in minute quantities was afterwards demonstrated. Fourcroy made an elaborate analysis, which attracted much attention at the time, and proved the existence of other principles in the bark than those pre- * Guibourt gives the name of spongy Carthagena bark to the specimens presenting the latter character. PART I. Cinchona. 221 viously ascertained; but the results which he obtained were not very definite. Dr. Westring was the first who attempted the discovery of an active principle in the bark on which its febrifuge virtues might de- pend; but he was unable to carry out his conception to any successful result. Seguin afterwards pursued the same track, and endeavoured, by observing the effects of various reagents, to discover the relative value of different varieties of the drug. The conclusions, however, at which he arrived, have not been supported by subsequent experiment. M. Deschamps, an apothecary of Lyons, obtained from bark a crystal- lizable salt of lime, the acid of which Vauquelin afterwards separated, and called kinic acid. The latter chemist also pushed to a much further extent the researches of Seguin as to the influence of reagents. He ex- amined seventeen different kinds of bark, which he arranged in three classes, according to their chemical relation with certain reagents—the first class including those which afforded precipitates with tannin and not with gelatin; the second, those which precipitated gelatin and not tannin; the third, those which precipitated at the same time tannin, ge- latin, and tartar emetic. He supposed those to be the most efficient which gave precipitates with tannin or the infusion of galls; but his classification has been abandoned with the progress of discovery. Reuss of Moscow succeeded in isolating a peculiar colouring matter from red bark, which he designated by the name of cinchonic red; and obtained a bitter substance, which probably consisted in part of the peculiar alka- line principles subsequently discovered. The first step, however, to- wards the discovery of cinchonia and quinia appears to have been taken by Dr. Duncan of Edinburgh. He believed the precipitate afforded by the infusion of cinchona with that of galls, to be a peculiar vegetable principle, and accordingly denominated it cinchonine. Dr. Gomez, a Portuguese physician, convinced that the active principle of bark resided in this cinchonine, but in an impure state, instituted experiments upon some pale bark, which resulted in the separation of a white crystalline substance, considered by him to be the pure cinchonine of Dr. Duncan. It was obtained by the action of potassa upon an aqueous infusion of the alcoholic extract of the bark, and was undoubtedly the principle now universally known by the name of cinchonine or cinchonia. But Dr. Gomez was ignorant of its precise nature, considering it to be analo- gous to resin. M. Laubert afterwards obtained the same principle by a different process, and described it under the name of white matter or pure white resin. To Pelletier and Caventou was reserved the honour of crowning all these experiments, and applying the results which they obtained to important practical purposes. They demonstrated the aJka- line character of the principle discovered by Gomez and Laubert, and gave it definitively the name of cinchonine. They discovered in the yel- low or Calisaya bark another alkaline principle, which they denomi- nated quinine. Both these bases they proved to exist naturally in the barks, combined with the kinic acid in the state of kinate of cinchonine and of quinine. It has moreover been established by their labours, that the febrifuge property of bark depends upon the presence of these two principles. It was in the year 1820 that these chemists announced their discovery. Dr. Duncan's suggestion was made so early as 1803. Among English and American chemists, the names of these alkaline bodies have been changed to cinchonia and quinia, for the sake of uniformity of no- menclature; and by these names Ave shall always call them. It has before been stated, on more than one occasion, that the three officinal varieties of bark are distinguished by peculiarities of composi- 222 Cinchona. PART I. tion. We give the result of the analysis of each variety as obtained by Pelletier and Caventou. (Journ. de Pharm. vii. 70. 89. 92.) Pale bark of Loxa contains, 1. a fatty matter, discovered by Laubert; 2. a red colouring matter, very slightly soluble, identical with the cin- chonic red of Reuss; 3. a yellow colouring matter, observed by Lau- bert, soluble in water and alcohol, and capable of being precipitated by the sub-acetate of lead; 4. tannin; 5. gum; 6. starch; 7. lignin; 8. kinate of lime; 9. kinate of cinchonia, with a very minute proportion of kinate of quinia. Yellow Calisaya bark contains the fatty matter, the cinchonic red, the yellow colouring matter, tannin, starch, lignin, kinate of lime, and acid- ulous kinate of quinia, with a comparatively small proportion of kinate of cinchonia. Red bark contains the fatty matter, a large quantity of the cinchonic red, the yellow colouring matter, tannin, starch, lignin, kinate of lime, and a large proportion both of acidulous kinate of quinia, and of acidulous kinate of cinchonia. Carthagena bark contains the same ingredients with the red bark, but in different proportions. It yields, moreover, its alkaline matter with much greater difficulty to water, in consequence of the abundance of insoluble cinchonic red which it contains, and which either involves the salts of quinia and cinchonia so as to prevent the full contact of water, or retains these alkalies in a species of combination. (Journ. de Pharm. vii. 105.) By the experiments of the younger Henry and Plisson, it may be con- sidered as established, that the alkalies of the different varieties of bark are combined at the same time with kinic acid, and with one or more of the colouring matters, which, in relation to these substances, appear to act the part of acids. This idea was originally suggested by Robiquet. (Journ. de Pharm. xiii. 282 et 369.) From the statements above made it appears, that the three officinal varieties of bark differ little, except in the proportion of their consti- tuents. All contain both quinia and cinchonia; the yellow bark abound- ing in the first, the pale in the second, and the red in both. Gum is the only constituent found in one and not in the others. It is an ingre- dient in the pale bark, but is wanting in the red and yellow. The ob- servations which follow on the peculiar and characteristic properties of the proximate principles of bark, are derived chieflyfrom the Memoir of Pelletier and Caventou, published in the 7th volume of the Journal de Pharmacie. The fatty matter, which was first obtained pure by M. Laubert, is of a greenish colour as obtained from the pale bark, orange-yellow from the yellow. It is insoluble in water, soluble in boiling alcohol, which precipitates a part of it on cooling, very soluble in sulphuric ether even cold, and capable of forming soaps with the alkalies. The colour is pro- bably owing to extraneous matter connected with it. The cinchonic red of Reuss, the insoluble red colouring matter of Pelletier and Caventou, is reddish-brown, insipid, inodorous, largely soluble in alcohol, especially when hot, and almost insoluble in ether or water, thpugh the latter dissolves a little at the boiling temperature. The acids promote its solubility in water. It precipitates tartar emetic, but not gelatin; but if treated with a cold solution of potassa or soda, or by ammonia, lime, or baryta with heat, and precipitated by an acid from the solution thus formed, it acquires the property of forming an insoluble compound with gelatin, and seems to be converted into a species of PART I. Cinchona, 223 tannin. It is precipitated by subacetate of lead. It is most abundant in the red bark, and least so in the pale. The yellow colouring matter has little taste; is soluble in water, alco- hol, and ether; precipitates neither gelatin nor tartar emetic; is itself precipitated by sub-acetate of lead. The tannin, or soluble red colouring matter of Pelletier and Caventou, has all the properties which chemists consider distinctive of the proxi- mate vegetable principles associated together under this name. It has a brownish-red colour and austere taste, is soluble in water and alcohol, combines with metallic oxides, and produces precipitates with the salts of iron, which vary in colour according to the variety of bark; being deep green with the pale bark, blackish-brown with the yellow, and red- dish-brown with the red. But the most interesting and important constituents of Peruvian bark are the cinchonia and quinia, and the acid with which they are com- bined. In relation to these, therefore, we shall be more minute in our details. Cinchonia when pure is a white crystalline substance, soluble in two thousand five hundred parts of boiling water, almost insoluble in cold water, very soluble in boiling alcohol which deposites a portion in the crystalline state upon cooling, and slightly soluble in ether and the fixed and volatile oils. Its bitter taste, at first not very obvious, in consequence of its difficult solubility, is developed after a short time by the solution of a minute portion in the saliva. Its alcoholic, ethereal, and oleagi- nous solutions are very bitter. Its alkaline character is very decided, as it neutralizes the strongest acids, forming with them saline compounds. Of the salts of cinchonia, the sulphate, nitrate, muriate, phosphate, and acetate, are soluble in water. The neutral tartrate, oxalate, and gallate, are insoluble in cold water, but may be dissolved in hot water or in al- cohol. Several processes have been employed for the preparation of cin- chonia. One of the simplest is the following. Powdered pale bark is submitted to the action of sulphuric or muriatic acid very much diluted, and the solution thus obtained is precipitated by an excess of lime. The precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with water, and treated with boiling alcohol. The alcoholic solution is filtered while hot, and depo- sites the cinchonia when it cools. A further quantity is obtained by evaporation. If not perfectly white, it may be freed from colour by first converting it into a sulphate with dilute sulphuric acid, then treating the solution with animal charcoal, filtering, precipitating by an alkali, and redissolving by alcohol in the manner already mentioned. Cincho- nia consists, according to Pelletier and Dumas, of 76.97 parts of carbon, 9.02 of nitrogen, 6.22 of hydrogen, and 7.79 of oxygen ; and its equiva- lent number appears, from the analysis of its sulphate by Pelletier and Caventou, to be 307.196, hydrogen being considered as unity. Expos- ed to the air it does not suffer decomposition, but very slowly absorbs carbonic acid, and acquires the property of effervescing slightly with acids. Sulphate of Cinchonia, the only salt of this base which has been em- ployed to any extent in a separate state, may be prepared by heating the cinchonia with a little water, adding dilute sulphuric acid gradually till the alkali is saturated, then boiling with animal charcoal previously washed with muriatic acid, filtering the solution while hot, and setting it aside to crystallize. By alternate evaporation and crystallization, the whole of the sulphate may be obtained from the solution. It is a white, very bitter salt, crystallizing in flexible, somewhat shining, four-sided, 224 Cinchona. PART I. flattened prisms, terminated by an inclined face, and generally collected in fasciculi; soluble in fifty-four parts of water at common temperatures, and in a smaller quantity of boiling water; and passing, by the addition of the necessary quantity of acid, into a bisulphate, which is soluble in less than half its weight of water at 58°. It consists, according to Pelletier and Caventou, of 100 parts of cinchonia, and 13.021 of sulphuric acid. (Journ. de Pharm.. vii. 57.) Quinia is whitish, and as usually prepared is rather flocculent in its appearance, not crystalline like cinchonia. It may, however, be crystal- lized, by cautious management, in pearly silky needles. (Journ. de Pharm. xi. 249.) It is fusible like the resins, and becomes brittle on cooling. It is more bitter than cinchonia, is almost insoluble in water, but is very • soluble in alcohol, and soluble also in ether. Its alcoholic solution is intensely bitter. It unites with the acids to form salts, which crystallize with facility. The neutral gallate, tartrate, and oxalate, like the analo- gous salts of cinchonia, are insoluble, or nearly so, in cold water. It is unalterable in the air, not even absorbing carbonic acid. Its constituents, according to Pelletier and Dumas, are carbon 75.02, oxygen 10.43, hy- drogen 6.66, nitrogen 8.45. Its equivalent number, that of hydrogen being unity, would appear, from the analysis of the sulphate by Pelletier and Caventou, to be 366.47. M. Baup calculates it at 360. If the com- position of the sulphate as determined by Robiquet (See Quinise Sulphas) be correct, the number does not exceed 323.60. We are inclined to adopt the round number of 360, as the experiments of M. Baup have been confirmed by those of Winkler and Buchner. (See Journ. de Pharm. xvi. 707.) Quinia is obtained by treating its sulphate with the solution of an alkali, collecting the precipitate which forms, washing it till the water comes away tasteless, then drying it, dissolving it in alcohol of 97° F., and slowly evaporating the solution. The only important artificial salt of quinia is the sulphate, the process for procuring which, as well as its properties, will be hereafter describ- ed. (See Quiniae Sulphas, among the Preparations.) Kinic Acid and the Kinates of Cinchonia and Quinia. It may be desira- ble to procure the alkaline principles in that state of saline combination in which they exist in the bark, as it is possible that they may exert an influence over the system in this state, somewhat different from that produced by their combinations with the sulphuric or other mineral acid. As it is impossible to procure the kinates immediately from the bark in a pure state, it becomes necessary first to obtain the kinic acid separately, which may thus become of some practical importance. We shall therefore briefly describe the mode of procuring it, and its charac- teristic properties. By evaporating the infusion of bark to a solid con- sistence, and treating the extract thus obtained with alcohol, we have in the residue a viscid matter consisting chiefly of mucilage and kinate of lime.* If an aqueous solution of this substance be formed, and allowed to evaporate at a gentle heat, crystals of the kinate are deposited, which may be purified by a second crystallization. The salt thus obtained, be- ing dissolved in water, is decomposed by means of oxalic acid, which precipitates the lime and leaves the kinic acid in solution. This may be procured in the crystalline state by spontaneous evaporation. The crys- tals are transparent and colourless, sour to the taste, and readily soluble in alcohol and water. The kinates of cinchonia and quinia may be ob- tained either by a direct combination of their constituents, or by the * The kinate of lime is soluble in water but not in alcohol. PART I. Cinchona. 225 mutual decomposition of the sulphates of those alkalies and the kinate of lime. The kinate of cinchonia has a bitter and astringent taste, is very soluble in water, is soluble also in alcohol, and is crystallized with diffi- culty. The kinate of quinia is also very soluble in water, but less so in rectified alcohol. Its taste is very bitter, resembling exactly that of yel- low bark. It crystallizes in crusts of a mammillated form, and opaque or semitransparent. The salt is with difficulty obtained free from colour, and only by employing the ingredients in a state of extreme purity. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Juillet, 1829.) Of the relations of bark with the several solvents employed in phar- macy we shall speak hereafter, under the heads of its infusion, decoc- tion, and tincture; where we shall also have an opportunity of mention- ing some of the more prominent substances which afford precipitates with its liquid preparations. It is sufficient at present to state, that all the substances which precipitate the infusion of bark do not by any means necessarily affect its virtues, as it contains several inert ingredi- ents which form insoluble compounds with bodies which do not disturb its active principles. As gallic, oxalic, and tartaric acids form com- pounds nearly insoluble in cold water with quinia and cinchonia, it is desirable that substances containing these acids in a free state or in ex- cess should not be prescribed in connexion with the infusion, decoction, or tincture of bark; for, though it is not improbable that these insoluble gallates, oxalates, and tartrates might be found efficacious if administer- ed, yet being precipitated from the liquid, they would be apt to be thrown away as dregs, or at any rate would communicate to it, if agitated, an unpleasant turbidness. It is evident from what has been said, that an infusion of bark, on account of the tannin which it contains, may precipitate gelatin, tartar emetic, and the salts of iron, without having a particle of cinchonia or quinia in its composition; and that consequently any inference as to its value drawn from this chemical property, would be altogether fallacious; but, as the active principles are thrown down by gallic acid, no bark can be considered good which does not afford a precipitate with the infusion of galls. It is impossible to determine with accuracy the relative proportion of the active ingredients in the different varieties of cinchona, as the quan- tity is by no means uniform in different specimens of the same variety. Pelletier and Caventou state, in their first memoir, that they had been able to obtain only 2 parts of cinchonia from 1000 of pale bark; while from an equal quantity of the yellow they had succeeded in extracting 9 parts of quinia, and from the red 8 parts of cinchonia and 17 parts of quinia. (Journ. de Pharm. vii. 92.) But either they employed inferior specimens of the first two varieties, or did not completely exhaust those upon which they experimented. According to a statement subsequently made by them to the French Institute, they obtained from the best Cali- saya bark 2.9 per cent, of sulphate of quinia, from inferior kinds 1.5 percent.; and the average result was 2.33 per cent. (North Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. v. 475.) Accounts generally agree in giving less alka- line matter to the pale barks than to the yellow, and more to the red than to either. Mr. Viltmann of Osnabruck, obtained from the Huanu- co bark 3.5 per cent, of cinchonia, from the Calisaya or royal yellow, 5 per cent, of quinia, from the red, 6 per cent, of quinia and cinchonia, and from the Carthagena, 3.3 per cent, of alkaline matter. (Journ. de Chem. Medical. Nov. 1830.) We cannot, however, avoid suspecting some 29 226 Cinchona. PART I. inaccuracy in the steps by which he obtained results so different from those of the experienced French chemists before quoted. The following mode of estimating in a hasty way the value of bark by the quantity of alkaline matter it contains, we copy from a communi- cation of M. Tilloy of Dijon, published in the 13th vol. of the Journ.de Pharmacie, p. 530. " Take an ounce of the bark coarsely powdered, in- troduce it into about 12 ounces of alcohol of 30° B. (sp. gr. .8748), expose the' mixture for half an hour to a temperature of from 105° to 120° F., draw off the alcohol, add a fresh portion, and act as before; unite the liquors, and throw into them a sufficient quantity of acetate or subacetate of lead to precipitate the colouring matter and kinic acid, then allow the insoluble matter to subside, and filter. Add to the filtered liquor a few drops of sulphuric acid to separate the excess of acetate of lead, filter, and distil off the alcohol. There remains an acetate or sul- phate of quinia, according to the quantity of sulphuric acid employed, together with a fatty matter which will adhere to the vessel. Decant the liquor, and add ammonia, which will instantaneously precipitate the quinia. Too much ammonia will retain it in solution; but in this case a few drops of sulphuric acid will cause it to precipitate. The quinia washed with warm water, and then treated with sulphuric acid, water, and a little animal charcoal, yields very white sulphate of quinia. I have thus obtained in six hours nine grains of the sulphate from an ounce of bark [576 grains French], which is a large proportion when allowances are made for the loss during the process." Medical Properties and Uses. This Valuable remedy was unknown to the civilized world till about the middle of the seventeenth century; though the natives of Peru are generally supposed to have been long previously acquainted with its febrifuge powers. Humboldt, however, is of a different opinion. In his memoir on the Cinchona forests he states, that it is entirely unknown as a remedy to the Indians inhabiting the country where it grows; and as these people adhere with pertinacity to the practices of their ancestors, he concludes that it never was employed by them. They have generally the most violent prejudices against it, considering it absolutely poison- ous ; and in the treatment of fever prefer the milder indigenous reme- dies. Humboldt is disposed to ascribe the discovery of the febrifuge powers of the bark to the Jesuits, who were sent to Peru as missiona- ries, and among whom were many familiar with the medical knowledge of the day. As bitters had been chiefly relied on in the treatment of intermittent fevers, and as bitterness was observed to be a predominant property in the bark of certain trees which were felled in clearing the forests, the missionaries were naturally led to give it a trial in the same complaint. They accordingly administered an infusion of the bark in the tertian ague, then a prevalent disorder in Peru, and soon ascertained its extraordinary powers. A tradition to this effect is said by Humboldt to be current at Loxa. Ruiz and Pavon, however, are among the writers who ascribe the discovery to the Indians. The Countess of Chin- chon, wife of the Viceroy of Peru, having in her own person experienced the beneficial effects of the bark, is said, on her return to Spain in the year 1640, to have first introduced the remedy into Europe. Hence the name of pulvis comitissse, by which it was at first known. After its in- troduction, it was distributed and sold by the Jesuits, who are said to have obtained for it the enormous sum of its weight in silver. From this circumstance it was called Jesuits' powder, a title which it long retained. PART I. Cinchona. 227 It had acquired some reputation in England so early as the year 1658; but from its extravagant price, and from the prejudice excited against it, was at first little used. At this early period, however, its origin and nature do not seem to have been generally known; for we are told that Sir John Talbot, an Englishman, having employed it with great success in France, in the treatment of intermittents, under the name of the English powder, at length, in the year 1679, sold the secret of its origin and preparation to Louis XIV., by whom it was divulged. When taken into the stomach, bark usually excites in a short time a sense of warmth in the epigastrium, which often diffuses itself over the abdomen and even the breast, and is sometimes attended with consider- able gastric and intestinal irritation. Nausea and even vomiting are sometimes produced, especially if the stomach was previously in an in- flamed or irritated state. Purging, moreover, is not an unfrequent at- tendant upon its action. After some time has elapsed, the circulation often experiences its influence, as exhibited in the somewhat increased frequency of pulse; and if the dose be repeated, the whole system be- comes more or less affected, and all the functions undergo a moderate degree of excitement. Its action upon the nervous system is sometimes evinced by a sense of tension or fulness or slight pain in the head, sing- ing in the ears, and partial deafness, which are always experienced by some individuals when brought completely under its influence. The effects above mentioned entitle bark to a place among the tonics, and it is usually ranked at the very head of this class of medicines. But be- sides the mere excitation of the ordinary functions of health, it pro- duces other effects upon the system, which must be considered peculiar, and wholly independent of its mere tonic operation. The power by which, when administered in the intervals between the paroxysms of intermittent disorders, it breaks the chain of morbid association, and interrupts the progress of the disease, is something more than what is usually understood by the tonic property; for no other substance belong- ing to the class, however powerful or permanent may be the excitement which it produces, exhibits a control over intermittents at all compara- ble to that of the medicine under consideration. As in these complaints it is probable, that in the intervals, a train of morbid actions is going on out of our sight, within the recesses of the nervous system, so it is also probable, that bark produces in the same system an action equally mysterious, which supersedes that of the malady, and thus accomplishes the restoration of the patient. From the possession both of the tonic, and of the anti-intermittent property, if we may be allowed so to desig- nate it, bark is capable of being usefully applied in the treatment of a great number of diseases. It may usually be employed with benefit in all morbid conditions of the system, whatever may be the peculiar modifications, in which a per- manent corroborant effect is desirable, provided the stomach be in a proper state for its reception. In low or typhoid forms of disease, in which either no inflammation exists, or that which does exist has been moderated by proper measures, or has passed into the suppurative or the gangrenous stage, this remedy is often of the greatest advantage in supporting the system till the morbid action ceases. Hence its use in the latter stages of typhus gravior; in malignant scarlatina, measles, and small pox; in carbuncle, and gangrenous erysipelas; and in all cases in which the system is exhausted under large purulent discharges, and the tendency of the affection is towards recovery. As a tonic, bark is also advantageously employed in chronic diseases connected with de- 228 Cinchona. PART I. bility; as, for example, in scrofula, dropsy, passive hemorrhages, cer- tain forms of dyspepsia, obstinate cutaneous affections, amenorrhoea, chorea, hysteria; in fact, whenever a corroborant influence is desired, and no contra-indicating symptoms exist. But in all these cases it greatly behooves the physician to examine well the condition of the system, and before resorting to the tonic, to ascertain the real existence of an enfee- bled condition of the functions, and the absence of such local irritations or inflammations, especially of the stomach or bowels, as would be likely to be aggravated by its use. But it is in the cure of intermittent diseases that bark displays its most extraordinary powers. It was originally introduced into notice as a remedy in fever and ague, and the reputation which it acquired at an early period it has ever since retained." Very few cases of this disease will be found to resist the judicious use of bark, or some one of its pre- parations. This is not the place to speak of the precise circumstances under which it is best administered. It will be sufficient to say, that physicians generally concur in recommending its early employment, in divided doses, to the extent of one or two ounces, during the intermis- sion, and the repetition of this plan till the disease is subdued, or the remedy is found insufficient for its cure. Other intermittent diseases have been found to yield with almost equal certainty to the remedy, particularly those of a neuralgic character. Hemicrania and violent pains in the eye, face, and other parts of the body, occurring periodi- cally, are often almost immediately relieved by the use of bark. Some cases of epilepsy, in which the convulsions recurred at regular inter- vals, have also been cured by it; and even the hectic intermittent is fre- quently arrested, though, as the cause still generally continues to ope- rate, the relief is too often only temporary. Diarrhoea and dysentery sometimes put on the intermittent form, especially in miasmatic dis- tricts; and under these circumstances may often be cured by bark. Nor is it necessary, that, in the various diseases which have been mention- ed, the intermission should always be absolute, in order to justify a re- sort to the remedy. Remittent fevers, in which the remission is very decided, not unfrequently yield to the use of bark, if preceded by pro- per depleting measures. But, as a'general rule, the less of the diseased action there is in the interval, the better is the chance of success; and if it exceed a certain point, the bark has usually been found to aggra- vate instead of relieving the complaint. Some observations are requisite as to the choice of the barks and the forms of administration. In the treatment of intermittents, either the red or the yellow bark is decidedly preferable to the pale, and of the first two, the red is usually considered the most powerful. With regard to this last, experience had pronounced in its favour long before ana- lysis had proved its superiority. It not only contains more of the active principles of the bark than the other varieties, but has also the advan- tage of uniting them both in nearly equal proportion. The pale bark may possibly, in its finest forms, be superior for the purposes of a gene- ral tonic, as it is less liable to offend the stomach, and perhaps to irri- tate the bowels. Where the object is to make a decided and speedy impression, bark is most effectually administered in substance. We can by no means be ab- solutely certain that quinia and cinchonia are its only active ingredients; and even supposing them to be so, we are equally uncertain whether they may not be somewhat modified in their properties, even by the the- rapeutically inert principles with which they are associated.. In fact, PART I. Cinchona. 229 bark in substance has been repeatedly known to cure intermittents when the sulphate of quinia has failed. It is best administered diffused in wa- ter or some aromatic infusion. Experience has proved that its efficacy in the cure of intermittents is often greatly promoted by admixture with other substances. A mixture of powdered bark, Virginia snake root, and carbonate of soda, was at one time highly esteemed in this city; and another, consisting of bark, confection of opium, lemon-juice, and port wine, has, in our own experience, and that of some of our friends, proved highly efficacious in some obstinate cases of fever and ague.* But notwithstanding the superior efficacy of the bark in substance, it is in the great majority of instances sufficient to resort to some one of its preparations; and in many cases we are compelled to this resort by the inability of the stomach to support the powder, or the unwillingness of the patient to encounter its disagreeable taste. The best substitute, in cases of intermittent disease, is decidedly the sulphate of quinia, or that of cinchonia, the former of which is used almost to the exclusion of the latter, though not perhaps upon sufficient grounds. The advantage of these preparations is their great facility of administration, and the pos- sibility, by their employment, of introducing a large quantity of the active matter, with less risk of offending the stomach. The sulphate of quinia is now almost universally employed in the treatment of inter- mittents, and bark resorted to only after this has failed. (See Quinise Sulphas.) Though quinia possesses the anti-intermittent power of bark, it is by no means satisfactorily ascertained that it is capable of exerting all the peculiar influence of that medicine as a tonic; but as bark in powder can seldom be supported by a delicate stomach, for a sufficient period to insure the necessary influence of the medicine in chronic disease, it is customary to resort, in this case, to some one of its preparations in which the quinia is extracted in connexion with the other princi- ples; as the infusion, decoction, tincture, and extract. Each of these will be particularly treated of among the preparations. It is here only necessary to say, that they are mostly confined to chronic cases; or to those of a malignant character, as typhus gravior, &c, in which the whole virtues of bark are desired, but the stomach is unable to bear the powder. Should bark or its preparations produce purging, as they oc- casionally do, they should be combined with a small proportion of laud- anum. It is sometimes desirable to introduce bark into the system by other surfaces than that of the stomach; and it has been found to exercise its peculiar influence to whatever part it has been applied. Injected into the rectum in connexion with opium to prevent purging, it has been employed successfully in the cure of intermittents; and the use of bark jackets, made by quilting the powder between two pieces of flannel or muslin, and worn next the skin, and of bark baths made by infusing the medicine in water, has proved serviceable in cases of children. But the best preparation of bark for external application is decidedly the sul- phate of quinia, which, sprinkled upon a blistered surface, denuded of the cuticle, is speedily absorbed, and produces on the system effects not less decided than those which result from its internal administration. • The following are the formulae for these mixtures. 1. R Cinchon. pulv. gss,- Ser- pentaria: pulv. 3J ; Sodae Carbonat. ^ss: Misce et in pulveres quatuor divide, una tertia vel quarti quaque hora sumenda. 2. R Cinchon. Rub. pulv. §ss; Confect. Opii £j ; Sue. Limon. recentis f^ij; Vin. Oporto f^iv: Misce. Tertia pars, tertia quaque hora Bumenda. 230 Cinchona.—Cinnamomum. PART r. The medium dose of bark, as administered in intermittents, is one drachm, to be repeated more or less frequently according to circum- stances. When given as a tonic in chronic complaints, the dose is usu- ally smaller; from ten to thirty grains being sufficient to commence with. Off. Prep. Infusum Cinchonse, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Cinchonse, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Cinchonse, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Cinchonae Resinosum, Lond.; Pilulse Quiniae Sulphatis, U.S.; Pilulae Quiniae Sulphatis Impuri, U.S.; Quiniae Sul- phas, U.S., Dub.; Quiniae Sulphas Impurus, U.S.; Tinctura Cinchonae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinchonae Ammoniata, Lond.; Tinc- tura Cinchonae Composita, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. CINNAMOMUM. U.S. Cinnamon. " Laurus Cinnamomum. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Off. Syn. CINNAMOMI CORTEX. Laurus Cinnamomum. Liber. Lond.; LAURI CINNAMOMI CORTEX.—LAURI CASSIA COR- TEX.— LAURI CASSIA FLORES. Ed.; CINNAMOMUM. LAU- RUS CINNAMOMUM. Cortex.—CASSIA. LAURUS CASSIA. Cortex. Dub. Cinnamon.—Cannelle, Fr.; Brauner canel, Zimmt, Germ.; Cannella, Hal; Canela, Span.; Kurundu, Cingalese; Karua puttay, Tamul. Cassia.—Cassia lignea; Casse, Fr.; Cassien-zimmt, Germ.; Cannellina, ltal.; Casia, Span. Laurus. See CAMPHORA. Laurus Cinnamomum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 477; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 670. t. 233. The cinnamon tree grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet, with a trunk from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter, irregular, knotty, and covered with a thick, rough, scabrous bark, which is exter- nally ash-coloured, internally reddish. The branches are numerous, strong, horizontal, and declining. The young shoots are beautifully speckled with dark green and light orange colours. From the root spring numerous suckers which form a bush about the trunk. The leaves are from six to nine inches long, and from two to three broad, entire, oblong, pointed, three-nerved, with the lateral nerves vanishing as they approach the point. They are in opposite pairs, and stand upon short slightly channelled footstalks. When young they are generally of a scarlet or light liver-colour, become olive as they approach maturity, are after- wards of a shining green, and ultimately, before they fall, of an olive-yel- low. The flowers are small, white, and arranged in axillary and terminal panicles. The fruit is an oval berry, which adheres like the acorn to the receptacle, is larger than the black currant, and when ripe has a bluish- brown surface thickly scattered with white spots. The tree emits no smell perceptible at any distance. The bark of the root*has the odour of cinnamon with the pungency of camphor, and yields this principle upon distillation. The leaves have a spicy odour when rubbed, and a hot taste. The petiole has the flavour of cinnamon. It is a singular fact, that the odour of the flowers is to people in general dis- agreeable, being compared by some to the scent exhaled from newly sawn bones. The fruit when opened has a terebinthinate odour, and a taste in some degree like that of juniper berries. It is the prepared bark PART I. Cinnamomum. 231 that constitutes the spice so well known and so highly valued under the name of cinnamon. This species of laurel is a native of Ceylon, where it has long been cultivated for the sake of its bark. It also grows in Malabar; in Su- matra, Java, Borneo, Sooloo, and the neighbouring islands; and in Co- chin-china, Tonquin, the Chinese province of Quangsi, the Philippines, the Nicobar Islands, and other parts of the East.* It has at various periods been introduced into the Isle of France, Bourbon, the Cape de Verds, Brazil, Cayenne, several of the West India Islands, and lately into Egypt; and in some of these places is at this time highly produc- tive. This is particularly the case in Cayenne, where the plant was flourishing so early as the year 1755. It has been doubted whether the tree which grows in Sumatra, Cochin-china, See, is the real Laurus Cin- namomum, or another species of the same genus. Some authors consider it a distinct species, with the name of Laurus Cassia; but there is rea- son to believej both from the reports of travellers, and from the simi- larity of its product with that of the Ceylon tree, that the two plants are specifically identical, and differ only in consequence of the variety of soil and climate to which they are exposed. The Laurus Cinnamomum is exceedingly influenced, as regards the aromatic character of its bark, by the circumstances of soil, and climate, and mode of culture. Thus we are told by Marshall that in Ceylon, beyond the limits of Negombo and Matura, in the western and southern aspect of the island, the bark is never of a good quality, being greatly deficient in the spicy, aromatic flavour of the cinnamon; and that even within these limits it is of unequal value from the various influence of exposure, soil, shade, and other cir- cumstances. Culture, Collection, Commerce, <^c. Our remarks under this head will first be directed to the cinnamon of Ceylon, in relation to which we have more precise information than concerning the aromatic obtained from other sources. The bark was originally collected exclusively from the tree in a wild state; but under the government of the Dutch the prac- tice of cultivating it was introduced, and it has been continued since the British have come into possession of the island. The seeds are planted in a prepared soil at certain distances, and as four or five are placed in a spot, the plants usually grow in clusters like the hazel bush. In fa- vourable situations they attain the height of five or six feet in six or seven years, and a healthy bush will then afford two or three shoots fit for peeling; and every second year afterwards will afford from four to seven shoots in a good soil. The cinnamon harvest commences in May and continues till late in October. The first object is to select shoots proper for decortication, and those are seldom cut which are less than half an inch or more than two or three inches in diameter. The bark is divided by longitudinal incisions, of which two are made opposite to each other in the smaller shoots, several in the larger, and is then re- moved in strips by means of a suitable instrument. The pieces are next collected in bundles, and allowed to remain in this state for a short time, so as to undergo a degree of fermentation which facilitates the separa- tion of the cuticle. The epidermis and the green matter beneath it are removed by placing the strip of bark upon a convex piece of wood and scraping its external surface with a curved knife. The bark now dries • Ainslie's Mat. Indie—Description of the L. Cinnamomum by Marshall. Eclectic Be- pertory, vol. viii. p. 66. From this last paper we have derived most of the observations which we have made on the cinnamon and cinnamon tree of Ceylon. 232 Cinnamomum. PART I. and contracts, assuming the appearance of a quill. The peeler introduces the smaller tubes into the larger, thus forming a congeries of quills into a cylindrical pipe which is about forty inches long. When sufficiently dry, these cylinders are collected into bundles weighing about thirty pounds, and deposited in the government warehouses. The East India Company, which has a monopoly of the commerce in cinnamon, em- ploys inspectors, who open the bales and carefully examine every quill, dividing them into three sorts, two of which are intended for exporta- tion, and the third, consisting of bark that is too old, or too young, or altered by the weather, or inferior from some other cause, is rejected. The better kinds are put into bundles, and shipped for England in the Company's vessels at the ports of Galle and Columbo. The bark of in- ferior quality is either employed for preparing oil of cinnamon, or ex- ported to the continent of India, whence much of it is said to reach Eu- rope under the name of cassia. Immense quantities of cinnamon are exported from China, the finest of which is little inferior to that of Ceylon, though the mass of it is much coarser. It passes in commerce under the name of cassia. Travellers inform us that the best cinnamon produced in Cochin-china is quite equal to the best of Ceylon; but is monopolized by the sovereign of the coun- try. The inferiority of that which circulates in commerce is probably attributable to the want of care in selecting and preparing the bark. It is supposed that most of the cinnamon obtained from China is imported into that country from Cochin-china and the islands of the Indian Archi- pelago ; but we have good authority for the belief, that this spice is also cultivated within the limits of the Celestial empire. Cayenne, and several of the West India Islands, yield to commerce considerable quantities of cinnamon of various qualities. That of Cay- enne is of two kinds, one of which closely resembles though it does not quite equal the aromatic of Ceylon, the other resembles the Chinese. The former is supposed to be derived from plants propagated from a Ceylonese stock, the latter from those which have sprung from a tree introduced from Sumatra. By far the greater proportion of cinnamon brought to this country is imported from China. It is entered as cassia at the custom houses, while the same article brought from other sources is almost uniformly entered as cinnamon. By an examination of the treasury returns from the year 1820 to 1829, we find that the average annual import of this spice has been, in round numbers, 652,000 pounds from China, 12,000 pounds from England, 9,000 pounds from the British East Indies, 3,000 pounds from the West Indies, and an insignificant quantity from all other places, with the exception of 12,758 pounds brought in one year from the Philippines. There is no doubt that much of the amount brought from China is ex- ported ; but we have not been able to ascertain the proportion. Though cassia and cinnamon were both terms used by the ancients, it is impossible to ascertain with certainty whether the spices which they designated were identical with those known by the same names in modern times. Neither the plants nor their localities, as described by Dioscorides, Pliny, and Theophrastus, correspond precisely with our present knowledge; but in this respect much allowance must be made for the inaccurate geography of the ancients. It is not improbable that the Arabian or other Eastern navigators, at a very early period, convey- ed this spice within the limits of Phoenician and Grecian, and subse- quently of Roman commerce. Properties.—Ceylon cinnamon is in long cylindrical fasciculi, com- PART I. Cinnamomum. 233 posed of numerous quills, the larger enclosing the smalier. It is of a light yellow colour, almost as thin as paper, smooth, shining, pliable to a considerable extent, with a splintery fracture when broken. It has a pleasant fragrant odour, and a warm, aromatic, slightly pungent, sweetish and highly agreeable taste. When distilled it affords but a small quantity of essential oil, which, however, has an exceedingly grateful flavour. It is brought to this country from England ; but is very costly, and is not generally kept in the shops. The finer variety of Cayenne cinnamon approaches in character to that just described, but is paler, and in thicker pieces, being usually collected from older branches. That which is gathered very young, is scarcely distinguishable from the cinnamon of Ceylon. It is not recognised in our markets as a dis- tinct variety. The Chinese cinnamon, called cassia in commercial language, is in single tubes of various sizes, from an eighth of an inch to half an inch or even an inch in diameter. Sometimes the bark is rolled very much upon itself, sometimes is not even completely quilled, forming segments more or less extensive of a hollow cylinder. It is of a redder or darker colour than the finest of the East India Company's cinnamon, thicker, rougher, denser, and breaks with a shorter fracture. It has a stronger, more pungent and mucilaginous, but less sweet and grateful taste; and, though of a similar odour, is less agreeably fragrant. It is the kind almost universally kept in our shops, and while it is much cheaper than the former variety, is perhaps not inferior to it for the preparation of the various tinctures, Sec, into which cinnamon enters as an ingredient. Of a similar character is the cinnamon imported directly from various parts of the East Indies. But under the name of cassia are also brought to us very inferior kinds of cinnamon, collected from the trunks or large branches of the trees, or injured by want of care in keeping, and per- haps some derived from distinct species of Laurus. It is said, that cin- namon from which the oil has been distilled, is sometimes fraudulently mingled with the genuine. These inferior kinds are detected, indepen- dently of their greater thickness, and coarseness of fracture, by their deficiency in the peculiar sensible properties of the spice. We have treated of cinnamon and cassia under the same head; because, even admitting the latter to be sometimes derived from the Laurus Cassia, we are absolutely certain that much of what is sold by that title is real cinnamon, and we are in possession of no grounds by which we can dis- tinguish them. The only differences observable between the numerous varieties, are such as might readily arise from causes unconnected with difference of species; and even the mucilaginous taste of cassia, is as- cribed by Dr. A. T. Thomson to the circumstance, that the larger branches being decorticated, and the cuticle only removed, the cellular integument is left, thick, spongy, and full of a slimy mucus. In fact, the very existence of the Laurus Cassia as a distinct species, is denied by some botanists, who consider it at most but a variety of the L. Cin- namomum. From the analysis made by Vauquelin, it appears, that cinnamon contains a peculiar essential oil, tannin, mucilage, a colouring matter, an acid, and lignin. The oil obtained from the Cayenne cinnamon, he found to be more biting than that from the Ceylonese, and at the same time to be somewhat peppery. This aromatic yields its virtues wholly to alcohol, and less readily to water. At the temperature of boiling al- cohol very little of the oil rises, and an extract prepared from the tine- 234 Cinnamomum.—Cocculus Suberosus. part i. ture retains therefore the aromatic properties. For an account of the essential oil see Oleum Cinnamomi. Medical Properties and Uses.—Cinnamon is among the most grateful and efficient of the aromatics. It is warm and cordial to the stomach, carminative, astringent, and, like most other members of this class, more powerful as a local than general stimulant. It is seldom, however, prescribed alone, though sometimes capable, when given in powder or infusion, of allaying nausea, checking vomiting, and relieving flatulence. It is,chiefly used as an adjuvant to other less pleasant medicines, and enters into a great number of officinal preparations. The dose of the powder is from ten grains to a scruple. Cassia Buds. Under the title of Flores Lauri Cassiee, the Edinburgh College have adopted the cassia buds of commerce. They are the dried hexangular receptacles of the seeds of the Laurus Cinnamomum, or some analogous species, and are imported exclusively from China. In shape they resemble nails with round heads. The seeds sometimes fall out by drying; and the receptacle is then cup-shaped. They have a brown colour, with the flavour of cinnamon, and yield an essential oil upon distillation. Though little known in this country, they may be used for the same purposes with the bark. Off.Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Con- fectio Aromatica, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Decoctum Haematoxyli, Dub.; Electuarium Aromaticum, Ed.; Emplastrum Aromaticum, Dub.; In- fusum Acacise Catechu, Ed.; Infusum Catechu Compositum, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Aromaticus, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Cinnamomi Com- positus, Lond.; Pulvis Cretse Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Kino Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Spiritus iEtheris Aromaticus, Lond.; Spi- ritus Ammoniae Aromaticus, Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Lauri Cinnamomi, Ed.; Spiritus Lavandulae Compositus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus, U.S.; Tinctura Cardamomi Composita, Lond.,Dub.; Tinctura Catechu, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinnamomi, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinnamomi Composita, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Vinum Opii, U.S., Lond., Ed. COCCULUS SUBEROSUS. FRUCTUS. Dub. Cocculus Indicus. Off. Syn. MENISPERMI COCCULI BACC.E. Ed. Coque du Levant, Fr.; Kokkelskbrner, Fischkbrner, Germ.; Galla di Levante, Hal. Cocculus. See COLOMBA. Several species of Cocculus, described by Linnaeus under the common title of Menispermum Cocculus, but referred to the genus in which they now stand by De Candolle, produce fruit differing only in size, and bear- ing the same commercial name of Cocculus Indicus. The C. suberosus and C. Plukenetii of Malabar, and the C. lacunosus of the Moluccas and Celebes, are particularly designated by authors. The Dublin College recognises only the C. suberosus, on the authority of Roxburgh, who raised this plant from genuine seeds which he had received from Mala- bar, and planted in the recent state. It is a climbing shrub, with a su- berose or corky bark; thick, shining, smooth, cordiform leaves, some- what truncate at the base; and many-flowered panicles. The fruit of these Cocculi, as found in the shops, is roundish, some- what kidney-shaped, about as large as a pea; having a thin, dry, black- ish, wrinkled exterior coat, within which is a ligneous bivalvular shell, i parti. Cocculus Suberosus.—Coccus Cacti. 235 enclosing a white, oily, very bitter kernel. Cocculus Indicus is without smell, but has an intensely and permanently bitter taste. M. Boullay discovered in the seeds a peculiar bitter principle which he denominated picrotoxin. This is white, crystallizable in quadrangular prisms, solu- ble in twenty-five parts of boiling and fifty of cold water, very soluble also in alcohol and ether, but insoluble in the oils. It is poisonous, and in the quantity of from five to ten grains, given to strong dogs, it pro- duced death preceded by convulsions. To procure it, the watery extract of the seeds is triturated with pure magnesia, and then treated with heated alcohol, which dissolves the picrotoxin and yields it upon eva- poration. In this state, however, it is impure. To obtain it colourless it must be again dissolved in alcohol, and treated with animal charcoal. After filtration and due evaporation, it is deposited in the crystalline form. Besides picrotoxin, Cocculus Indicus contains a large propor- tion of fixed oil and some other substances of less interest. Its active principle is said to reside exclusively in the kernel, upon which part M. Boullay operated. Medical Properties, fyc.—It acts upon the system in the manner of the acrid narcotic poisons; but is never given internally. In India it is used to stupify fishes in order that they may be caught; and it has been ap- plied to the same purpose in Europe and this country. It is asserted that the fish thus taken have no poisonous properties. The powdered seeds, mixed with oil, are employed in the East Indies as a local appli- cation in obstinate cutaneous affections. An ointment made with the powder has been used in tinea capitis and to destroy vermin in the hair. Picrotoxin has been successfully substituted by Dr. Jaeger for the drug itself. Rubbed up with lard in the proportion of ten grains to the ounce, it usually effected cures of tinea capitis in less than a month. —••»♦©© ©♦<«.— COCCUS CACTI. Ed., Dub. Cochineal. Off. Syn. COCCUS. Coccus cacti. Lond. Cochenille, Fr.; Cochenille, Germ.; Cocciniglia, ltal.; Cochinilla, Span. The Coccus is a genus of hemipterous insects, having the snout or rostrum in the breast, the antennae filiform, and the posterior part of the abdomen furnished with bristles. The male has two erect wings, the female is wingless. The C. cacti is characterized by its depressed, downy, transversely wrinkled body, its purplish abdomen, its short and black legs, and its subulate antennae, which are about one-third of the length of the body. Recs's Cyclopaedia. This insect is found wild in Mexico and the adjoining countries, in- habiting different species of Cactus; and is said to have been discovered also in some of the West India islands, and the southern parts of the United States. In Mexico, particularly in the provinces of Oaxaca and Guaxaca, it is an important object of culture. The Indians form planta- tions of a species of Cactus, generally supposed to be the C. coccinilifer, but thought by Humboldt to be an undescribed species, upon which the insect feeds and propagates. During the rainy season, a number of the females are preserved under cover upon branches of the plant, and are distributed after the cessation of the rains upon the plants without. They perish very speedily after having deposited their eggs. These, hatched by the heat of the sun, give origin to innumerable minute insects, 236 Coccus Cacti. PART I. which spread themselves over the plant. The males, of which, accord- ing to Mr. Ellis, the proportion is not greater than one to one hundred or two hundred females, being provided with wings and very active, ap- proach and fecundate the latter. After this period, the females, which before moved about, attach themselves to the leaves, and increase rapidly in size, so that, in the end, their legs, antennae, and proboscis are scarcely discoverable, and they appear more like excrescences on the plant than distinct animated beings. They are now gathered for use, by detaching them from the plant by means of a blunt knife, a few being left to con- tinue the race. They are destroyed either by dipping them enclosed in a bag into boiling water, or by the heat of a stove. In the former case they are subsequently dried in the sun. The males, which are much smaller than the. full grown females, are not collected. It is said that of the wild insect there are six generations every year, furnishing an equal number of crops; but the domestic is collected only three times annu- ally, the propagation being suspended during the rainy season, in con- sequence of its inability to support the inclemency of the weather. As kept in the shops, the finer cochineal, grana fina of Spanish com- merce, is in irregularly circular or oval somewhat angular grains, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, convex on one side, concave or flat on the other, and marked with several tranverse wrinkles. Two varie- ties of this kind of cochineal are known to the druggists, distinguished by their external appearance. One is of a reddish-gray colour, formed by an intermixture of the dark colour of the insect with the whiteness of a powder by which it is almost covered, and with patches of a rosy tinge irregularly interspersed. From its diversified appearance, it is called by the Spaniards cochinilla jaspeada. It is the variety commonly kept in our shops. The other, cochinilla renegrida, or grana nigra, is dark coloured, almost black, with only a minute quantity of the whitish powder between the wrinkles. The two are distinguished in our mar- kets by the names of silver grains and black grains. Guibourt supposes the difference to depend upon the effect of culture, or, perhaps, on ori- ginal varieties in the insect. According to others, it arises from the mode of preparation; the gray cochineal consisting of the insects de- stroyed by a dry heat; the black, of those destroyed by immersion in hot water, which removes the external whitish powder. There is little or no difference in their quality. Another and much inferior variety, is the grana sylvestra or wild cochineal, consisting partly of very small separate insects, partly of roundish or oval masses, which exhibit, under the microscope, minute and apparently new born insects, enclosed in a white or reddish cotton- like substance. It is scarcely known in our drug market. Cochineal has a faint heavy odour, and a bitter slightly acidulous taste. Its powder is of a purplish carmine colour, tinging the saliva intensely red. According to Pelletier and Caventou, it consists of a pe- culiar colouring principle which they call carmine, a peculiar animal matter constituting the skeleton of the insect, a fatty matter composed of stearin and ela'i'n, an odorous fatty acid, and various salts. It was also analyzed by John, who called the colouring principle cochinilin. Carmine is of a brilliant purple red colour, unalterable in dry air, fusible at 122° F., very soluble in water, soluble in cold and more so in boiling alcohol, insoluble in ether, and without nitrogen among its constituents. It is obtained by macerating cochineal in ether, and treating the residue with successive portions of boiling alcohol, which on cooling deposite a part of the carmine, and yield the remainder by part i. Coccus Cacti.—Cochlearia Officinalis. 237 spontaneous evaporation. It may be freed from a small proportion of fatty matter which adheres to it, by dissolving it in alcohol of 40° Baume, and then adding an equal quantity of sulphuric ether. Pure carmine is deposited in the course of a few days. The watery infusion of cochineal is of a violet crimson colour, which is brightened by the acids, and deepened by the alkalies. The colouring matter of cochineal is readily precipitated. The salts of zinc, bismuth, and nickel, produce a lilac pre- cipitate, and those of iron a dark purple approaching to black. The salts of tin, especially the nitrate and muriate, precipitate the colour- ing matter of a brilliant scarlet, and form the basis of those splendid scarlet and crimson dyes, which have rendered cochineal so valuable in the arts. With alumina the colouring matter forms the pigment called lake. The finest, lakes are obtained by mixing the decoction of cochineal with freshly prepared gelatinous alumina. The pigment called carmine is the colouring matter of cochineal precipitated from the decoction by acids, the salts of tin, &c, or animal gelatin, and when properly made is of the most intense and brilliant scarlet. Medical Properties, fyc.—Cochineal is supposed by some to possess anodyne properties, and has been recommended in hooping cough and neuralgic affections; but it is little used internally. In pharmacy it is employed to colour tinctures and ointments. The dose of a tincture prepared by macerating one part of cochineal in eight parts of diluted alcohol, is for an adult from twenty to thirty drops twice a day. In the neuralgic paroxysm, Sauter gave half a table- spoonful, with the effect of curing the disease. —hH0©04m»-- COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS. HERBA. Dub. Common Scurvy-grass. Cranson, Herbe aux cuillers, Fr.; Lbffelkraut, Germ.; Coclearia, Hal., Span. Cochlearia. See ARMORACIA. Cochlearia officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 448; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 393. t. 112. The common scurvy-grass is an annual or biennial plant, sending up early in the spring a tuft of radical leaves, which are heart- shaped, roundish, of a deep shining green colour, and supported on long footstalks. The leaves of the stem are alternate, oblong, somewhat sinuate, the lower petiolate, the upper sessile. The stem is erect, branched, angular, six or eight inches high, and bears at the extremity of the branches, numerous white cruciform peduncled flowers, in thick clusters. The fruit is a roundish two-celled pod, containing numerous seeds. The whole plant is smooth and succulent. It is a native of the northern countries of Europe, where, as well as in the United States, it is occasionally cultivated in gardens. The whole herb is officinal. It has, when fresh, a pungent unpleasant odour, if bruised, and a warm, acrid, bitter taste. These properties are lost by drying. They are imparted to water and alcohol by maceration, are retained by the expressed juice, and probably depend on a peculiar vola- tile oil which is separable in very small quantity by distillation with water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Common Scurvy-grass is gently stimu- lant, aperient, and diuretic. It is highly ctlebrated as a remedy in sea scurvy; and has been recommended in chronic obstructions of the vis- cera, and certain forms of chronic rheumatism. The fresh plant may 238 Cochlearia Officinalis.—Colchici Radix. part i. be eaten as a salad, or used in the form of infusion in water or wine, or of the expressed juice. Alcohol and water are impregnated with its virtues by distillation, and the distilled spirit has been found useful in paralysis in the dose of thirty drops several times a day. The expressed juice may be used as a local application in scorbutic affections of the gums. COLCHICI RADIX. U.S. Meadow-saffron Root: "Colchicum autumnale. Bulbus. The bulb." U.S. COLCHICI SEMEN. U.S. Meadow-saffron Seed. "Colchicum autumnale. Semina. The seeds." U.S. Off. Syn. COLCHICI RADIX ET SEMINA. Colchicum autum- nale. Radix recens et Semina. Lond.; COLCHICI AUTUMNALIS RADIX. Ed.; COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE. Bulbus. Semina. Dub. Colchique, Fr.; Zeitlosc, Herbst-Zeitlosc, Germ.; Colchico, ltal., Span. Colchicum. Class Hexandria. Order Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Junci, Juss.; Melanthaceae, R. Brown, Lindley; Colchicaceae, De Cand. Gen. Ch. A spathe. Corolla six-parted, with a tube proceeding directly from the root. Capsules three, connected, inflated. Willd. Colchicum autumnale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 272; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 759. t. 258. The meadow-saffron is a perennial bulbous plant, the leaves of which appear in spring, and the flowers in autumn. Its manner of growth is peculiar, and deserves notice in this place, as connected in some measure with its medicinal efficacy. In the latter part of summer a new bulb begins to form at the lateral inferior portion of the old one, which receives the young offshoot in its bosom, and embraces it half round. The new plant sends out fibres from its base, and is furnished with a radical spathe, which is cylindrical, tubular, cloven at top on one side, and half under ground. In September, from two to six flowers, of a purplish rosy colour, emerge from the spathe, unaccompanied with leaves. The corolla consists of a tube five inches long concealed for two-thirds of its length in the ground, and of a limb divided into six segments. The flowers perish by the end of October, and the rudiments of the fruit remain under ground till the following spring, when they rise upon a stem above the surface in the form of a three-lobed, three- celled capsule. The leaves of the new plant appear at the same time, so that in fact they follow the flower instead of preceding it, as might be inferred from the order of the seasons in which they respectively show themselves. The leaves are radical, spear-shaped, erect, numerous, about five inches long, and one inch broad at the base. In the mean time, the new bulb has been increasing at the expense, of the old, which having performed its appointed office perishes, while the former, after attaining its full growth, sends forth new shoots from itself, and in its turn decays. Each parent bulb has two offsets. The C. autumnale is a native of the temperate parts of Europe, where it grows wild in moist meadows. Various attempts have been made to introduce its culture into this country, but with no very encouraging success; though small quantities of the bulb of apparently good quality have been brought into the market. The officinal portions are the bulb PART I. Colchici Radix. 239 and seed. The root, botanically speaking, consists of the fibres which are attached to the base of the bulb. The Pharmacopoeias, in adopting the term Colchici Radix as officinal, are justified by common usage, while those of the United States and Dublin take care to secure the reader against the possibility of error by designating the bulb as the part in- tended. The flowers have been found to possess similar virtues with the bulb and seeds, but have not been adopted in the Pharmacopoeias. 1. Colchici Radix. The medicinal virtue of the bulb depends much upon the season at which it is collected. Early in the spring it is too young to have fully developed its peculiar properties; and late in the fall it has become ex- hausted by the nourishment which it has afforded to the new bulb. The proper period for its collection is from the early part of June, when it has usually attained perfection, to the middle of August, when the off- set appears. It is probably owing in preat measure to this inequality in the colchicum at different seasons, that entirely opposite reports have been given by different authors of its powers. Krapf ate whole bulbs without experiencing inconvenience; Haller found it entirely void of taste and acrimony; and we are told that in Carniola the peasants use it as food with impunity in the autumn. On the contrary, abundant testimony might be adduced of its highly irritating and poisonous na- ture, of which in fact there exists at present no doubt. Perhaps soil and climate may have some influence in modifying its character. The meadow-saffron bulb is often used in the fresh state in the coun- tries where it grows, as it is apt to be injured in drying, unless the process is very carefully conducted. The usual plan is to cut the bulb, as soon after it has been dug up as possible, into thin transverse slices, which are spread out separately upon paper or perforated trays, and dried with a moderate heat. The reason for drying it very speedily after removal from the ground, is that it otherwise begins to vegetate, and a change in its chemical nature takes place; and such is its retentive- ness of life, that if not cut in slices, it is liable to undergo a partial vege- tation even during the drying process. It sustains much loss of weight by exsiccation. Mr. Bainbridge obtained only two pounds fifteen ounces of dried bulb from eight pounds of the fresh. Properties.—The recent bulb of the C. Autumnale resembles that of the tulip in shape and size, and is covered with a brown membranous coat. Internally it is solid, white, and fleshy; and when cut transversely, yields, if mature, an acrid milky juice. Professor Coxe lays much stress on a small lateral projection from its base, which serves in his opinion to distinguish it from all other bulbs; but which appears to be merely a connecting process between it and the new plant; and is not always pre- sent. When dried, and deprived of its external membranous covering, the bulb is of an ash-brown colour, convex on one side, and marked on the other by a deep groove extending from the base to the summit. As found in our shops it is always in the dried state, sometimes in seg- ments made by vertical sections of the bulb, but generally in transverse, circular slices, about the eighth or tenth of an inch in thickness, with a notch at one part of their circumference. The cut surface is white, and of an amylaceous aspect. The odour of the recent bulb is said to be hircine; the dried is inodorous. The taste is bitter, hot, and acrid. Its constituents, according to Pelletier and Caventou, are a-peculiar vegeta- ble alkali denominated veratria; a fatty matter composed of elain, stea- rin, and a peculiar volatile acid; a yellow colouring matter; gum; 240 Colchici Radix. tart i. starch; inulin in large quantity; and lignin. The active properties are ascribed to the veratria, for an account of which see Veratrum album. Wine and vyiegar extract all the virtues of the bulb. Dr. A. T. Thom- son informs us that the milky juice of fresh colchicum produces a beau- tiful cerulean blue colour, if rubbed with the alcoholic solution of guaiac; and that the same effect is obtained by substituting for the juice an ace- tic solution of the dried bulb. He considers the appearance of this colour, when the slices are rubbed with a little distilled vinegar and tincture of guaiac, as a proof that the drug is good and has been well dried. A very deep or large notch in the circumference of the slices is considered by the same author an unfavourable sign, as it indicates that the bulb had been somewhat exhausted in the nourishment of the offset. Medical Properties and Uses.—Meadow-saffron acts upon the nervous system, allaying pain, and producing other sedative effects, even when it exerts no obvious influence over the secretions. Generally speaking, when taken in doses sufficiently large to affect the system, it gives rise to more or less disorder of the stomach or bowels, and sometimes occasions active vomiting and purging, with the most distressing nausea. When not carried off by the bowels, it often produces copious diaphoresis, and occasionally acts as a diuretic and expectorant; and a case is on record of violent salivation supposed to have resulted from its use.* It appears in fact to have the property of stimulating all the secretions, while it rather diminishes than otherwise the action of the heart. In an overdose it is capable of producing dangerous and even fatal effects. It was well known to the ancients as a poison, and is said to have been employed by them as a remedy in gout and other diseases. Storck revived its use among the moderns. He gave it as a diuretic and expectorant in dropsy and humoral asthma; and on the continent of Europe it acquired con- siderable reputation in these complaints; but the uncertainty of its ope- ration led to its general abandonment, and it had fallen into almost entire neglect, when Dr. Want of London again brought it into notice, by attempting to prove its identity with the active ingredient of the eau medicinal d'Husson, so highly celebrated as a cure for gout. The white hellebore had also been considered by some physicians the chief consti- tuent of this empyrical remedy; and the discovery of veratria both in the Colchicum and Veratrum album, is an evidence as well of the saga- city of those who traced the resemblance in the actions of these medi- cines, as of the existence of this alkaline principle in the eau medicinale. The chief employment of the meadow-saffron is at present in the treat- ment of gout and rheumatism, in which experience has abundantly prov- ed it to be a highly valuable remedy. We have, within our own observa- tion, found it especially useful in these affections, when of a neuralgic character. It sometimes produces relief without obviously affecting the system; but is more efficient when it evinces its influence upon the skin or alimentary canal. Professor Chelius has recently discovered that it changes the chemical constitution of the urine in arthritic patients, pro- ducing an evident increase of the uric acid.f Dr. Elliotson success- fully treated a case of prurigo with the wine of meadow-saffron given in the dose of half a drachm three times a day, and continued for three weeks.$ The medicine is generally given in the state of vinous tincture. (See Vinum Colchici Radicis.) The dose of the dried bulb is from two * N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. x. p. 204. | N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. ii. p. 234. * Medico-Chirurg. Review, October, 1827. part i. Colchici Semen.—Colocynthis. 241 to eight grains, which may be repeated every four or six hours till the effects of the medicine are obtained. Off. Prep. Acetum Colchici, U.S., Lond.; Oxymel Colchici, Dub.; Syrupus Colchici, U.S., Ed.; Vinum Colchici Radicis, U.S., Lond. 2. Colchici Semen.. The seeds of the meadow-saffron ripen in summer, and should be col- lected about the end of July or beginning of August. They never arrive at maturity in plants cultivated in a dry soil, or in confined gardens. (Williams.) They are nearly spherical, about the eighth of an inch in diameter, and of a reddish-brown colour externally. Their active pro- perties reside in the testa or husk, and they should not therefore be bruised in the preparation of the wine or tincture.* Dr. Williams of Ipswich in England, who first brought them into notice, recommends them in the warmest terms, in chronic rheumatism, and considers them superior to the bulb, both in the certainty of their effects and the mildness of their operation. There is no doubt that they possess virtues analo- gous to those of the bulb, and have this advantage, that they are not liable to become injured by drying—an advantage of peculiar value in a country where the plant is not cultivated, and where the bulb cannot be readily procured in the fresh state. A wine of the seeds is directed in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Their dose is about the same with that of the bulb. Off. Prep. Tinctura Seminum Colchici, Dub.; Vinum Colchici Semi- nis, U.S. COLOCYNTHIS. U.S. Colocynth. " Cucumis colocynthis. Fructus, cortice abjecto. The fruit deprived of its rind." U.S. Off Syn. COLOCYNTHIDIS PULPA. Cucumis Colocynthis. Pe- ponum Pulpa. Lond.; CUCUMERIS COLOCYNTHIDIS PULPA. Ed.; CUCUMIS COLOCYNTHIS. Fructus pulpa. Dub. Coloquinte, Fr.,- Coloquinle, Coloquintenapfel, Germ.; Coloquintida, Hal., Span. Cucumis. Class Moncecia. Order Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbi- taceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-parted. Filaments three. Female. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-parted. Pistil three-cleft. Seeds of the gourd with a sharp edge. Willd. Cucumis Colocynthis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 611; Woodv. Med. Bot. p, 189. t. 71. The bitter cucumber is an annual plant, bearing considerable resemblance in appearance to the common cucumber of our gardens. The stems, which are herbaceous and beset with rough hairs, trail upon * The following description of the seeds is given by Mr. Gray in the Lond. Med. Repository for April 1821. "Seeds, ovate, globose, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. Integuments, simple, soft, spongy, membranaceous, thin, reddish-brown, closely adherent to the perisperm. Perisperm or albumen, hard, rather cartilaginous, pellucid, pale, not in the least divided, of the same shape as the seed. Corculum or embryo, very small, ovate globose, not in the least divided, whitish, placed nearly op- posite to the hylum, or that part where the seed is affixed to the parent plant, but out of the axis of the seed. Ease pointing to the hylum, slender. Apex very obtuse." An acquaintance with the real characters of the seeds is the more necessary, as the seeds of other plants have been sold for them. 31 242 Colocynthis. PART I. the ground, or rise upon neighbouring bodies to which they attach themselves by their numerous tendrils. The leaves are of a triangular shape, many-cleft, variously sinuated, obtuse, hairy, of a fine green co- lour on the upper surface, rough and pale on the under; and stand alter- nately upon long petioles. The flowers are yellow, and appear singly at the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a globular berry or pepo, of the size of a small orange, yellow and smooth when ripe; and contains, within a hard coriaceous rind, a white, spongy, medullary matter, en- closing numerous ovate, compressed, white seeds. The plant is a native of Turkey, and abounds in the islands of the Archipelago. It grows also in various parts of Africa and Asia. Burk- hardt, in his travels across Nubia, found the country covered with it; Thunberg met with it at the Cape of Good Hope; and Ainslie says that it grows in many parts of Lower India, particularly in sandy situations near the sea. The fruit is gathered in autumn, when it begins to assume a yellow colour, and having been peeled, is dried quickly, either in a stove or by the sun. Thus prepared it is imported from the Levant. Properties.—As kept in the shops, colocynth is in the shape of whitish balls, about the size of a small orange, very light and spongy, and abounding in seeds which constitute three-fourths of their whole weight. The seeds are destitute of active properties, and are even employed as food in some parts of Northern Africa. When the medicine is pre- pared for use, they are separated and rejected, the pulpy or medullary matter only being employed. This has a very feeble odour, but a nau- seous and intensely bitter taste. Vauquelin obtained the bitter principle in a separate state, and called it colocynthin. MM. Edwards and Vavas- seur mention as constituents of the pulp of colocynth, a resinous mat- ter insoluble in ether, a peculiar bitter principle identical with the colocynthin of Vauquelin, a fixed oil, extractive matter, gum, and va- rious salts. Colocynthin is obtained by the alternate action of water and alcohol, and the evaporation of the tincture. It is a resinoid substance, yellow, friable, more soluble in alcohol than in water, but capable of imparting to the latter an intense bitterness. The aqueous solution gives with the infusion of galls an abundant white precipitate. An infusion of colocynth, made with boiling water, has a golden-yellow colour, and gelatinizes upon cooling. Neumann obtained from 768 parts of the pulp, treated first with alcohol and afterwards with water, 168 parts of alco- holic and 216 of aqueous extract. Medical Properties and Uses.—The pulp of colocynth is a powerful drastic, hydragogue cathartic, producing, when given in large doses, violent griping, and sometimes bloody discharges, with dangerous in- flammation of the bowels. Even in moderate doses it sometimes acts with much harshness, and is therefore seldom prescribed alone. It was frequently employed by the ancient Greeks and the Arabians, though its drastic nature was not unknown to them. Among the moderns it is occasionally used, especially by the German practitioners, in obstinate cases of dropsy, and various affections depending on disordered action in the brain. In combination with other cathartics it loses much of its violence, but retains its purgative energy; and in this state is very ex- tensively employed. The compound extract of colocynth is a favourite preparation with many practitioners; and combined with calomel, ex- tract of jalap, and gamboge, it forms a highly efficient and safe cathar- tic, especially applicable in congestion of the portal circle, and torpidity of the liver. (See Pilulae Catharticas Compositae.) The dose of colocynth PART I. Colocynthis.—Colombo. 243 is from five to ten grains. It is best administered in a state of minute division effected by trituration with gum or farinaceous matter. Thunberg states that the fruit of colocynth at the Cape of Good Hope, is rendered so mild by being properly pickled, that it is eaten both by the natives and colonists; but as it is thus employed before attain- ing perfect maturity, it is possible that the drastic principle may not have been developed. Off. Prep. Extractum Colocynthidis, Lond., Dub.; Extractum Colo- cynthidis Compositum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Catharticae Compo- sitae, U.S.; Pilulae Colocynthidis Compositae, Ed., Dub. COLOMBA. U.S. Columbo. " Cocculus palmatus. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. CALUMBA. Cocculus palmatus. Radix. Lond.; COLOM- BO RADIX. Ed.; COLOMBA. Radix. Dub. Colombo, Fr.; Columbowurzel, Germ.,- Columba, Hal.; Raiz de Columbo, Span.; Kalumbo, Port.; Calumb, Mozambique. The columbo plant was until a recent period unknown to botanists. In the year 1805, M. Fortin, a French gentleman resident at Madras, took to that city from Mozambique an offset from the root, from which a plant was raised in the garden of Dr. Anderson. From a drawing made of this plant, it was ascertained to belong to the natural order Menispermeas; but as the female flowers were wanting, some difficulty was experienced in determining the genus and species. It has, however, by general consent, been placed in the genus Cocculus of De Candolle, separated by that botanist from the genus Menispermum, and including those species which have six stamens, while the Menispermum is limit- ed to those with twelve or more. In the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and London, the plant is recognised as the Cocculus palmatus. Cocculus. Class Dioecia. Order Dodecandria.—Nat. Ord. Menisper- meae. Juss. Gen. Ch. Sepals and Petals ternate, usually in two, rarely in three rows. Male. Stamens six, distinct, opposite the petals. Female. Drupes berried, 1-6, generally oblique, reniform, somewhat compressed, one- seeded. Cotyledons distinct. Loudon's Encyc. Cocculus palmatus. De Cand. Syst. Nat. i. 515; Berry, Asiat. Research. x. 385.—Menispermum palmatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 825. This is a climbing plant, with a perennial branching root, and annual stems, which are simple, twining, round, hairy, and of the thickness of a goose-quill. The leaves, which stand on round hairy petioles, are alternate, distant, palmate, with five entire acuminate lobes, and five nerves, each of which runs to one of the lobes. The flowers are small, and in axillary solitary compound racemes shorter than the leaves. The calyx has six leaflets, three of which are exterior, three interior; and the corolla has the same number of petals. There are six stamens, which are rather longer than the corolla. The male plant only has been described. This species of Cocculus is a native of Mozambique, on the south- eastern coast of Africa, where it grows wild in great abundance in the thick forests which extend from the sea many miles into the interior. The plant is never cultivated. The root is dug up in March, when dry weather prevails. From the base of the root numerous fusiform offsets proceed, less fibrous and woody than the parent stock. These offsets 244 Colomba. part i. are separated and cut into transverse slices, which are dried in the shade. The old root is rejected. Columbo is a staple export of the Portuguese from their dominions in the South East of Africa. It is taken to India, and thence distributed to various parts of the world. It was formerly supposed to be a product of Ceylon, and to have derived its name from Colombo, a city of that island, from which it was thought to be exported. It is possible that, when the Portuguese were in possession of Ceylon, Colombo may have been the entrepot for the drug brought from Africa, and thus have given origin to its name; but a more probable derivation appears to be from the word calumb, which is said to be the Mozambique name for the root. Properties.—The root, as it reaches us, is in flat circular or oval pieces, from the eighth of an inch to near an inch in thickness, and from one to two inches in diameter. The cortical portion is thick, of a bright yel- low slightly greenish colour internally, but covered with a brownish wrinkled cuticle. The interior or medullary portion, which is readily distinguishable from the cortical, is light, spongy, yellowish, usually more or less shrunk, so that the pieces are thinnest in the centre; and is frequently marked with concentric circles and radiating lines. Those pieces are to be preferred which have the brightest colour, are most compact and uniform in their texture, and are most free from the worm holes by which the root is apt to be penetrated. The odour of columbo is slightly aromatic. The taste is very bitter, that of. the cortical much more so than that of the central portion, which is somewhat mucilagi- nous. The root is brittle, and easily pulverized. The powder has a greenish tinge, which becomes browner with age and deepens when it is moistened. As it attracts moisture from the air, and is apt to undergo decomposition, it should be prepared in small quantities at a time. M. Planche analyzed columbo in 1811, and found it to contain a pecu- liar azotized substance in large quantity, a bitter yellow substance not precipitated by metallic salts, and one-third of its weight of starch. He obtained also a small proportion of essential oil, salts of lime and po- tassa, oxide of iron, and silica. Mr. Wittstock of Berlin has very re- cently isolated a peculiar crystallizable principle, in which the bitterness resides, and for which he proposes the name of colornbin. (Journ. de Pharm. Fevrier, 1831.) It appears to be the bitter yellow substance of Planche, deprived of a portion of colouring matter. Colornbin crystal- lizes in beautiful transparent quadrilateral prisms, is without smell and extremely bitter. It is very slightly soluble in water, alcohol, or ether, at ordinary temperatures, and yet imparts to these fluids a strongly bit- ter taste. It is more soluble in boiling alcohol, which throws it down upon cooling. The best solvent is diluted acetic acid. It is taken up by the alkaline solutions, from which it is precipitated by acids. It has neither acid nor alkaline, properties; and its alcoholic and acetic solutions are not affected by the metallic salts, nor the infusion of galls. The process for obtaining it consists in exhausting columbo by means of alcohol, evaporating the tincture one-third, allowing the residue to stand for some days till crystals are deposited, and lastly treating these crystals with alcohol and animal charcoal. Colornbin is thought to be the active principle of columbo, but is probably somewhat modified in its action on the system by the other substances with which it is associated. The virtues of the root are extracted by boiling water and by alcohol. Pre- cipitates are produced with the infusion and tincture by the infusion of galls, the acetate and sub-acetate of lead, corrosive chloride of mercury, PART I. Colomba. 245 and lime water; but the bitter principle is not affected by these reagents. From the effect of infusion of galls, Dr. Duncan conjectured that cin- chonia might be among the ingredients of columbo; but his conjecture has not been confirmed. Adulterations.—In France, a spurious columbo has been extensively substituted for the genuine root, which, according to Guibourt, has be- come rare in the commerce of that country. As it may possibly be in- troduced into our market, it is desirable that our druggists should be put in possession of the characters by which it may be distinguished. Though similar to columbo in appearance, it is different in properties, and is therefore truly a sophistication. It is said to be taken to France from Barbary; but the plant which yields it is not known. Though in round slices, like the genuine, root, it has an epidermis of a gray-fawn colour,marked with close and parallel circular striae; its transverse sur- faces are irregularly depressed; the medullary portion is of a yellowish- orange, with a deeper coloured circle; the smell is weak like that of gentian, the taste feebly bitter and rather saccharine; the powder is of a yellow-fawn instead of a greenish colour: but the most striking dif- ference is the total absence of starch, which constitutes one-third of columbo. Iodine therefore is an excellent test. If the true columbo be moistened with hot water, and touched with iodine, it immediately as- sumes a blackish colour; while the spurious root, treated in the same way, undergoes no change. The latter differs also in communicating a fine yellow colour to ether, in evolving ammonia when treated with caustic potassa, and in reddening in infusion the tincture of tournesol. It is said that the root of white bryony, tinged yellow with the tinc- ture of columbo, has sometimes been fraudulently substituted; but the adulteration is too gross to deceive those acquainted with the charac- ters of either of these drugs. The American columbo, the root of the Frasera Walteri, is said to be sold in some parts of Europe for the genuine. Independently of the sen- sible differences between the two roots, (see Frasera,) M. Stolze of Halle states, that while the tincture of columbo remains unaffected by the protosulphate or permuriate of iron, and gives a dirty gray precipi- tate with tincture of galls, the tincture of frasera acquires a dark green with the former reagent, and is not affected by the latter. (Duncan.) Medical Properties and Uses.—Columbo is among the most useful of the mild tonics. Without astringe'ncy, with very little stimulating power, and generally acceptable to the stomach, it answers admirably as a remedy in simple dyspepsia, and in those states of debility which are apt to attend convalescence from acute disorders, especially when the alimentary canal is left in an enfeebled condition. Hence it is often prescribed in the declining stages of remittent fever, dysentery, diar- rhoea, cholera morbus, and cholera infantum. The absence of irritating properties renders it also an appropriate tonic in the hectic fever of phthisis, and its kindred affections. It is frequently administered in com- bination with other tonics, with aromatics. , ith mild cathartics, and with antacids. The remedy which we have found most effectual in the permanent cure of a disposition to the accumulation of flatus in the bow- els, is an infusion made with half an ounce of columbo, half an ounce of ginger, a drachm of senna, and a pint of boiling water, and given in the dose of a wineglassful three times a day. Columbo is much used by the natives of Mozambique, and the neighbouring parts of Africa, in dysen- tery and other diseases. (Berry.) It was first introduced to the notice of the profession in Europe by Francois Redi, in the year 1685. 246 Colomba.—Conium. PART I. It is most commonly prescribed in the state of infusion. (See Infusum Colombae.) The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains, and may be repeated three or four times a day. It is frequently combined with powdered ginger, carbonate of iron, and rhubarb. Off. Prep. Infusum Colombae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub.; Tinctura Colombae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. CONIUM. U.S. Hemlock. "Conium maculatum. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Off Syn. CONII FOLIA et SEMINA. Conium maculatum. Folia et Semina. Lond.; CONII MACULATI FOLIA, Ed.; CONIUM MACULATUM. Folia. Dub. Cigue ordinaire, grande cigue', Fr.; Geflecter schierling, Germ.,- Cicuta, ltal., Span. Conium. Class Pentandria. Ordmer Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Partial Involucre halved, usually three-leaved. Fruit nearly globular, five-streaked, notched on both sides. Willd. Conium maculatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1395; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 113; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 104. t. 42. This is an umbelliferous plant, having a biennial spindle-shaped whitish root, and an herbace- ous branching stem, from three to six feet high, round, hollow, smooth, shining, slightly striated, and marked with brownish-purple spots. The lower leaves are tripinnate, more than a foot in length, shining, and at- tached to the joints of the stem by sheathing petioles; the upper are smaller, bipinnate and inserted at the divisions of the branches; both have channelled footstalks, and incised leaflets which are deep green on their upper surface, and paler beneath. The flowers are very small, white, and disposed in compound terminal umbels. The general invo- lucre consists of from five to seven lanceolate, reflected leaflets, whitish at their edges; the partial involucre, of three or four, oval, pointed, spreading, and on one side only. The petals are cordate, with their points inflected, five in number, and nearly equal. The stamens are spreading, and about as long as the corolla; the styles diverging. The fruit is roundish ovate, striated, and composed of two plano-convex seeds, which have on their outer surface five crenated ribs. The hemlock is a native of Europe, and has been introduced into the United States, where it is now naturalized. It grows usually in bunches along the road sides or in waste grounds, and is found most abundantly in the neighbourhood of old settlements. Its flowers appear in June and July. The whole plant, especially at this period, exhales a fetid odour, usually compared to that of the urine of cats; and narcotic effects are experienced by those who breathe for a long time air impregnated with the effluvia. The plant varies in narcotic power according to the cli- mate and character of the weather, being most active in hot and dry seasons, and in warm countries. The hemlock of Greece, Italy, and Spain, is said to be much more energetic than that of the North of Eu- rope. As a general rule, those plants are most active which grow in a sunny exposure. The proper season for gathering the leaves is when the plant is in flower; and Dr. Fothergill asserts from experimental know- ledge, that they are most active about the time when the flowers begin to fade. The footstalks should be rejected, and the leaflets quickly dried, either in the hot sun, or on tin plates before a fire. They should be PART I. Conium, 247 kept in boxes or tin cases, excluded as much as possible from the air and light, by exposure to which they lose their fine green colour, and become deteriorated in medical virtues. The same end is answered by pulverizing them, and preserving the powder in opaque and well stopped bottles. The term cicuta, which till recently was very often applied to this plant, belongs to a different genus. Properties.—The dried leaves of the hemlock have a strong, heavy, narcotic odour, less disagreeable than that of the recent plant. Their taste is bitterish and nauseous; their colour a fine green, which is retained in the powder. The acrimony of the fresh leaves is dissi- pated by drying, leaving the narcotic property unimpaired. Water distilled from them has the odour of hemlock and a very nauseous taste, but does not produce narcotic effects upon the system. The decoc- tion has little taste, and the extract resulting from its evaporation is nearly inert. From these facts it is inferrible that the active principle is not volatile at 212°, and little soluble in water. Alcohol and ether, however, take up the narcotic properties of the leaves; and the ethereal extract, which is of a rich dark green colour, is stated by Dr. A. T. Thomson to have the smell and taste of the plant in perfection,' and iii the dose of half a grain to produce headach and vertigo. Dr. Paris has prematurely proposed for this substance the name of conein, as it has no claim to be considered the active principle, which is only one of its in- gredients. Its colouring matter is probably chlorophylle or the green resin of leaves. We have no satisfactory analysis of hemlock. Schroeder found in the leaves, resin, extractive, gum, albumen, a green fecula, and various saline substances. Brandes obtained a very odorous oil, albumen, resin, colouring matter, salts, and a peculiar alkaline principle ol a strong narcotic smell, a disagreeable nauseous taste, insoluble in water, and in the quantity of half a grain producing vertigo and intense headach. To this principle he gave the name of cicutin, but conia would be more appropriate. (Fee.) It is obtained by digesting the bruised leaves and stem, for several days, in alcohol, filtering and evaporating the tincture, treating the alcoholic extract with water, adding magne- sia, alumina, or oxide of iron, evaporating the whole to dryness, and sub- mitting the residue to the action of a mixture of ether and alcohol. The solution thus obtained, when filtered and evaporated, yields this princi- ple in a pure state. (N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vi. 421.) M. Giseke tou"d the same substance in the seeds. (Journ. de Pharm. xiii. 366.) Medical Properties and Uses. —Hemlock is narcotic, without beini de- cidedly stimulant or sedative. When given so as fully to affect the sys- tem, it produces more or less vertigo, dimness of vision, nausea, fain ness, and general muscular debility. In larger doses it occasions dilated pupils, difficulty of speech, delirium or stupor, tremors and para ysis, and ultimately convulsions, and even death. Its operation usually commences in less than half an hour, and if moderate seldom continues longer than twenty-four hours. It is supposed to be the nar- cotic used by the Athenians to destroy the life of condemned individuals, and by which Socrates and Phocion died. It was also used by the an- cients as a medicine but fell into entire neglect; and was not again brought into notice till the time of Storck, by whom it was much em- ployed and extravagantly praised. Since that period it has been sub- mitted to ample trial, and though its original reputation has not been fully sustained, it still retains a place in the catalogue of useful medi- cines. It was highly recommended by Storck as a remedy in scirrhus 248 Conium.—Contrayerva. part i. and cancerous ulcers; but at present is considered only a useful pallia- tive in this complaint. In chronic enlargements of the liver and other abdominal viscera; in painful scrofulous tumours and ulcers; in vari- ous diseases of the skin, as leprosy and elephantiasis; in the complicated derangements of health attendant upon secondary syphilis; in chronic rheumatism and neuralgic affections; in pertussis, asthma, chronic ca- tarrh, and consumption; and in various other disorders connected with nervous derangement, or a general depraved state of the health, it is occasionally employed with the effect of relieving or palliating the symp- toms, or favourably modifying the action of remedies with which it is combined. The powdered leaves, and the inspissated juice (the extract of the Pharmacopoeias), are the forms in which it is usually administered. Either of these may be given in the dose of three or four grains twice a day, gradually increased till the occurrence of slight vertigo or nau- sea indicates that it has taken effect. To maintain a given impression, it is necessary to increase the dose even more rapidly than is customary with most other narcotics, as the system becomes very speedily habitua- ted to its influence. In some instances, the quantity administered in one day has been augmented to more than two ounces. The strength of the preparations of hemlock is exceedingly unequal; and caution is there- fore necessary, when the medicine is given in very large quantities, to employ the same parcel, or, if a change be made, to commence with the new parcel in smaller doses, so as to obviate any danger which might result from its greater power. Unpleasant consequences have resulted from a neglect of this precaution. A tincture of hemlock is directed by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, and is an efficient preparation. The fresh juice of the plant has been recommended by Hufeland in the dose of from twelve to forty drops. The seeds have also been employed, and Cullen states that an extract prepared from them is stronger than that of the plant. The fresh leaves are sometimes used externally as an anodyne cataplasm. Though fatal to some animals, hemlock is eaten with impunity by others, as horses, goats, and sheep. The best means of relieving its poisonous effects, is the speedy evacuation of the stomach. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Conii, Dub.; Extractum Conii, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Conii, Dub.; Unguentum Conii, Dub. CONTRAYERVA. U.S. Secondary. Contrayerva. " Dorstenia contrayerva. Radix. The root." U.S. Off Syn. CONTRAJERVA RADIX. Dorstenia Contrajerva. Ra- dix. Lond.; DORSTENIA CONTRAJERViE RADIX. Ed. Contrayerva, Fr.,- Giftwurzel, Germ.; Contrajerva, Hal.,- Contrayerba, Span. Dorstenia. Class Tetrandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Urticeze, Juss.; Atrocarpeae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle common, one-leafed, fleshy, in which solitary seeds are nestled. Willd. The root known by the name of contrayerva is believed to be derived from several species of Dorstenia, among which, besides the D. Contra- yerva, two others are mentioned by Dr. Houston, the D. Houstonia, and D. Drakena of Willdenow. The first only is recognised in the Pharma- copoeias of the United States and Great Britain. part i. Contrayerva.—Convolvulus Panduratus. 249 Dorstenia Contrayerva. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 682; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 705. t. 240. This plant has a perennial, fusiform, branching, rough, compact root, which sends up several leaves of an irregular shape, about four inches in length, lobed, serrated, pointed, and placed upon long radi- cal footstalks, which are winged towards the leaves. The scapes or flower- stems are also radical, rise several inches in height, and support irregu- lar quadrangular receptacles, which contain the necessary parts of fruc- tification. The capsule, when ripe, possesses an elastic power, by which the seeds are thrown out with considerable force. The plant grows in Mexico and the West Indies, in Peru, Brazil, and other parts of South America. The root, which is the officinal portion, is brought chiefly from the West Indies. The term contrayerba in the Spanish language signifies counterpoison or antidote, and was applied to this root under the impression that it has the property of counteracting all kinds of poison. Properties.—The root as found in our shops is an inch or two long, of varying thickness, very hard, rough, and solid, of a reddish-brown colour externally and pale within; and has numerous long slender yel- lowish fibres attached to its inferior part. The odour is aromatic; the taste, warm, slightly bitterish and pungent. The fibres have less taste and smell than the tuberous portion. The sensible properties are ex- tracted by alcohol and boiling water. The decoction is of a dark, brown- ish-red colour, and highly mucilaginous. The tincture reddens infusion of litmus, and lets fall a precipitate on the addition of water. The root has not yet been analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses.—Contrayerva is a stimulant tonic and diaphoretic, and has been given in low states, of fever, malignant erup- tive diseases, some forms of dysentery and diarrhoea, and other diseases requiring gentle stimulation. It is very seldom used in this country. The dose of the powdered root is about half a drachm. Off. Prep. Pulvis Contrayervae Compositus. Lond. CONVOLVULUS PANDURATUS. U.S. Secondary. Wild Potato. " Convolvulus panduratus. Radix. The root." U.S. Convolvulus. See SCAMMONIUM. Convolvulus panduratus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 850; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 249. The wild potato has a perennial root, and a round, purplish, pro- cumbent or climbing stem, which twines around neighbouring objects, and grows sometimes twelve feet in length. The leaves, which stand alternately on long petioles, are broad, heart-shaped at the base, entire, or lobed on the sides like a guitar or violin, somewhat acuminate, deep green on the upper surface, and paler beneath. The flowers are in fascicles upon long axillary peduncles. The calyx is smooth and awnless; the corolla tubular campanulate, very large, white at the border, but purplish-red at the base. r The plant is indigenous, growing throughout the United States in sandy fields and along fences, and flowering from June to August. A variety with double flowers is cultivated in the gardens for the sake of ornament. The root is the active part of the plant. It is very large, two or three feet in length, about three inches thick, branched at the bottom, externallv of a brownish-yellow colour, and full 32 ' 250 Convolvulus Panduratus.— Copaiba. part i. of longitudinal fissures, internally whitish and milky, and of a somewhat acrid taste. Pursh says that he has seen a root as thick as a man's thigh. Medical Properties.—The wild potato is feebly cathartic, and has been proposed as a substitute for jalap, but is scarcely used. It is thought also to be somewhat diuretic, and has been employed, with supposed advantage, in strangury and calculous complaints. Forty grains of the dried root are said to purge gently. Perhaps an extract might be found more effectual. COPAIBA. U.S. Copaiba. " Copaifera officinalis. Succus. The juice." U.S. Off. Syn. COPAIBA. Copaifera officinalis. Resina liquida. Lond.; COPAIFERA OFFICINALIS RESINA. Resina liquida. Ed.; CO- PAIFERA OFFICINALIS. Resina liquida. Dub. Baume de copahu, Fr.; Copaiva-balsam, Germ.; Balsamo di copaiba, ltal.; Balsamo de copayva, Span. Copaifera. Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Legumi- nosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals four. Legume ovate. Seed one, with an ovate arillus. Willd. The first notice to be found of the copaiba plant is that by Marcgrav and Piso, in the year 1648. Jacquin in 1763 described a species of Co- paifera, which grew in the island of Martinique, and which he named C. officinalis, from the fact that it afforded this resinous juice. As this was believed to be the same plant with that observed by Marcgrav in Brazil, it was adopted without hesitation in the Pharmacopoeias; but their identity is now denied; and Desfontaines has proposed for the offi- cinal species the title of C. Jaquini, in honour of the botanist who ori- ginally described it. From recent observation and discoveries it appears, that numerous species of Copaifera exist in Brazil and other parts of South America, from which copaiba is indiscriminately collected. Be- sides the C. officinalis, we find enumerated by writers the C. Guianen- sis, C. Langsdorffi, C. coriacea, C. Beyrichii, C. Martii, C. bijuga, C. nitida, C. laxa, C. cordifolia, C. Sellowii, C. oblongifolia, and C. multijuga. The last is thought by Hayne to furnish the greatest quantity. (Dun- can.) Copaifera officinalis. Willd. ii. 630; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 609. t. 216. This is an elegant tree, with a lofty stem, much branched at the top, and crowned by a thick canopy of foliage. The leaves are alternate, large, and pinnate, composed of three or four pairs of ovate, entire, pointed leaflets, two or three inches in length, rather narrower on one side than the other, smooth, somewhat shining, and supported on short footstalks. The flowers are white, and disposed in terminal branched spikes. The fruit is an oval, two-valved pod, containing a single seed. This species of Copaifera is a native of Venezuela, and grows in the province of Carthagena, mingled with the trees which afford the bal- sam of Tolu. It grows also in some of the West India islands, particu- larly Trinidad and Martinique, where it is said to be naturalized. The juice is obtained by wounding the tree; and the operation is said to be repeated several times in the same season. As it flows from the wound, it is clear, colourless, and very thin, but soon acquires a thicker con- sistence, and a yellowish tinge. It is most largely collected in the pro- PART I. Copaiba. 251 vince of Para, in Brazil, and is brought to this country almost exclu- sively from the port of Para, in small casks or barrels. Properties.—Copaiba is a clear, transparent liquid, usually of the con- sistence of olive oil, of a pale yellowish colour, a peculiar not unpleasant odour, and a bitterish, hot, nauseous taste. Its specific gravity varies from .950 to 1.000. It is insoluble in water; but is entirely soluble in ab- solute alcohol, ether, and the fixed and volatile oils. With the alkalies it unites to form saponaceous compounds, which are soluble in water. Its essential constituents are volatile oil and resin, with a minute propor- tion of sub-resin less soluble in alcohol, and of an acid which appears to be the acetic. (Durand, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. i. 3.) As it contains no benzoic acid, it cannot with propriety retain its former title of balsam of copaiva. The substances which it most closely re- sembles, both in composition and properties, are the turpentines. The proportion of volatile oil varies from a third to one-half or more. The remainder, with the exception of about two or three parts in the hun- dred, is resin. The oil may be separated by distillation. As it first comes over it is colourless, but the latter product is of a fine greenish blue. By redistillation it may be rendered wholly colourless. It is lighter than water, has the odour and taste of copaiba, and appears to contain no oxygen, as potassium is preserved in it even better than in ordinary naphtha. This fact was first noticed by Mr. Durand of Philadelphia, and has been fully confirmed in our own experience. The resin, when en- tirely deprived of the oil, is hard, brittle, transparent, of a greenish- brown colour, and without smell or taste. By mixing the resin and oil in proper proportion, we may obtain a liquid identical or nearly so with the original juice. Copaiba, upon exposure to the air, assumes a deeper colour and a thicker consistence, and if spread out upon an extended surface, ultimately be- comes dry and brittle. This change is owing partly to the volatilization, partly to the oxidation of the essential oil. When triturated with about a sixteenth of its weight of magnesia, and set aside, it gradually assumes a solid consistence. (See Pilulse Co- paibae.) It is said to be frequently adulterated; but the remark is applicable rather to the markets of Europe than to those of the United States. The fixed oils are the most frequent addition, especially castor oil, which, in consequence of its solubility in alcohol, cannot, like the others, be detected by the agency of this fluid. Various plans have been proposed for ascertaining the presence of castor oil. The simplest is to boil one drachm of the copaiba in a pint of water, till the liquid is wholly eva- porated. If the copaiba contain oil, the residue will be more or less soft according to the quantity present; otherwise it will be hard. Another mode, proposed by M. Planche, consists in shaking together in a bottle one part of aqua ammoniae of the sp. gr. .9212 (22° Baume) with two and a half of copaiba, at a temperature of from 50° to 60° F. The mix- ture, at first cloudy, quickly becomes transparent if the copaiba is pure, but remains more or less opaque if it is adulterated with castor oil. The carbonate of magnesia, caustic potassa, and sulphuric acid, have also been proposed as tests; but the two above mentioned are more cer- tain and of easier application. Turpentine, which is said to be some- times added to copaiba, may be detected by its smell. Medical Properties and Uses.—Copaiba is gently stimulant, diuretic, laxative, and in very large doses often actively purgative. It produces, when swallowed, a sense of heat in the throat and stomach, and extends 252 Copaiba.—Coptis. PART I. an irritant action, not only throughout the alimentary canal, but also to the urinary passages, and in fact, in a greater or less degree, to all,the mucous membranes, for which it appears to have a strong affinity. The urine acquires a peculiar odour during its use. As a remedy it has been found most efficient in the diseases of the mucous membranes, particu- larly such as are of a chronic character. Thus it is given with occa- sional advantage in leucorrhcea, gleet, chronic dysentery, painful hemor- rhoidal affections, and in chronic catarrh and other forms of bronchial disease. The complaint, however, in which it is most employed is gonorrhoea. It is given in all stages of the disorder; but caution is re- quisite when the inflammatory symptoms are high. Even in health, if taken largely, it sometimes produces very unpleasant irritation of the urinary passages, and by sympathy, of the testicles. It was formerly highly esteemed as a vulnerary; but is now seldom used externally. The dose of copaiba is from twenty to thirty drops three times a day, or a smaller quantity repeated more frequently. It may be given drop- ped on sugar; but in this form is often so exceedingly offensive, as to render some concealment of its nauseous qualities necessary. A less dis- agreeable form is that of emulsion, prepared by rubbing the copaiba first with mucilage, or the yolk of an egg, and sugar, and afterwards with water impregnated with some aromatic essential oil, as that of mint or cinnamon. The volatile oil may be used in the dose of ten or fifteen drops, and probably with the same effects as the copaiba, of which it is the active ingredient. The resin, which has been proposed as a sub- stitute, is nearly inert. The pills made by means of magnesia may some- times be resorted to with advantage. Off. Prep. Pilulse Copaibae. U. S. COPTIS. U.S. Secondary. Goldthread. « Coptis trifolia. Radix. The root." U.S. Coptis. Class Polyandria. Order Polygynia.'—Nat. Ord. Ranunculi. Juss. Ranunculaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five or six, caducous. Nectaries five or six, cucullate. Capsules five to eight, stipitate, stellately diverging, and rostrate, many-seeded. Nuttall. Coptis trifolia. Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 60; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 97. This little evergreen bears considerable resemblance to the straw- berry in size and general aspect. It has a perennial creeping root, which, from its slenderness and bright yellow colour, has given rise to the name of goldthread, by which the plant is commonly known. The caudex, from which the petioles and flower-stems proceed, is invested with ovate, acuminate, yellowish, imbricated scales. The leaves, which stand on long slender footstalks, are ternate, with firm, rounded, or obo- vate sessile leaflets, having an acute base, a lobed and acuminately cre- nate margin, and a smooth veined surface. The scape or flower-stem is slender, round, rather longer than the leaves, and surmounted by one small white flower, with a minute mucronate bracte beneath it. The pe- tals are oblong, concave, and of a white colour; the nectaries inversely conical, hollow, and yellow at the top. The stamens have capillary fila- ments, and globose anthers. The germs are from five to eight, stipi- tate, oblong, compressed, and surmounted by short recurved styles with acute stigmas. The capsules, which diverge in a star-like form, are pe- part i. Coptis.—Coriandrum. 253 dicelled, compressed, beaked, and contain numerous black seeds attach- ed *n the inner side. The goldthread inhabits the northern regions of this continent and of Asia, and is found in Greenland and Iceland. It delights in the dark shady swamps, and cold morasses, of northern latitudes and Alpine regions; and abounds in Canada, and in the hilly districts of New-Eng- land. Its blossoms appear in May. All parts of the plant possess more or less bitterness; but this property is most intense in the root, which is the only portion directed by the Pharmacopceia. Dried goldthread, as brought into the market, is in loosely matted masses, consisting of the long, threadlike, orange-yellow roots, fre- quently interlaced, and mingled with the leaves and stems of the plant. It is without smell, and has a purely bitter taste, unattended with aroma or astringency. It imparts its bitterness and yellow colour to water and alcohol, but most perfectly to the latter, with which it forms a bright yellow tincture. Its virtues appear to depend on a bitter extrac- tive matter, which, like that of quassia, is precipitated by nitrate of silver and acetate of lead. (Bigelow.) It affords no evidence of contain- ing either resin, gum, or tannin. Medical Properties and Uses.—It is a simple tonic bitter, bearing a close resemblance to quassia in its mode of action, and applicable to all cases in which that medicine is prescribed, though, from its higher price, not likely to come into general use as a substitute. In New-Eng- land it is much employed as a local application in aphthous ulcerations of the mouth; but it probably has no other virtues in this complaint than such as are common to all the simple bitters. It may be given in- ternally in substance, infusion, or tincture. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains, of a tincture prepared by macerating an ounce of the root in a pint of diluted alcohol, one fluidrachm. CORIANDRUM. U.S. Coriander. " Coriandrum sativum. Semina. The seeds." U.S. Off Syn. CORIANDRI SEMINA. Coriandrum sativum. Semina. Lond.; CORIANDRI SATIVI SEMINA. Ed.; CORIANDRUM SATIVUM. Semina. Dub. Coriandre, Fr.; Koriander, Germ.,- Coriandro, Hal.,- Cilantro, Span. Coriandrum. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelli- ferae. Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla radiate. Petals inflex-emarginate. Universal involucre, one-leafed. Partial involucres, halved. Fruit spherical. Willd. Coriandrum sativum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1448; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 137. t. 53. This is an annual plant, with an erect, round, smooth, branching stem, which rises about two feet in height, and is furnished with compound leaves, of which the upper are thrice ternate, with linear pointed leaflets, the lower pinnate, with the pinnae cut into irre- gular serrated lobes, resembling those of common parsley. The flowers are white or rose-coloured, and disposed in compound terminal um- bels. The fruit is globular, and consists of two concave hemispherical seeds. The C. sativum is a native of Italy, but at present grows wild in most parts of Europe, having become naturalized in consequence of its ex- tensive cultivation. The flowers appear in June, and the fruit ripens in 254 Coriandrum—Cornu Cervi Elaphi. part i. August. It is a singular fact, that all parts of the fresh plant are ex- tremely fetid when bruised, while the seeds become fragrant by drying, These are the officinal portion. They are brought to us from Europe. The fruit of the coriander, as found in the shops, is globular, about the eighth of an inch in diameter, obscurely ribbed, of a grayish or brown- ish yellow colour, and separable into the two seeds of which it consists. It has the persistent calyx at its base, and is sometimes surmounted by the adhering style. The smell and taste are gratefully aromatic, and depend on a volatile oil, which may be obtained separate by distillation. They are imparted to alcohol by maceration, and less readily to water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Coriander has, in a moderate degree, the ordinary medical virtues of the aromatics. It is almost exclusively employed in combination with other medicines, either to cover their taste, to render them acceptable to the stomach, or to correct their griping qualities. The dose is from a scruple to a drachm. Off. Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Confectio Sennae, U. S., Lond., Ed..; Infusum Gentianae Compositum, U.S., Ed.; Infusum Sennae, U.S.; Infusum Sennae Compositum, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Sennae cum Tamarindis, Dub., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennae, U.S.; Tinctura Sennae et Jalapae, U.S., Ed. CORNU CERVI ELAPHI. Ed. Hartshorn. Stag's Horn. Off.Syn. CORNUA. Cervus Elaphus. Cornua. Lond.; CORNUA CERVINA. Ramenta. Dub. Come de cerf, Fr.,- Hirschhorn, Germ.; Corno di cervo, Hal.; Cuerno de ciervo, Span. The stag or hart—Cervus Elaphus—the horns of which are directed by the British Colleges, is a native of Europe. Those of our own common deer—Cervus Virginianus—though employed in the arts, are not offici- nal. Hartshorn is usually imported into this country from Germany in the state of shavings, but is very little employed. Hartshorn shavings are without smell and taste, pliable, and of an ivory yellow colour. According to M. Merat-Guillot, they contain in 100 parts, 27 of gelatin, 57.5 of phosphate of lime, 1 of carbonate of lime, and 14.5 of water, including the loss. Boiling water extracts their gelatin, forming a transparent, colourless jelly, which may be rendered palatable by the addition of sugar, lemon or orange juice, and a little wine. In its preparation, two pints of water are boiled with four ounces of the shavings to a pint, and the residue strained while hot. The clear liquid gelatinizes upon cooling. By destructive distillation, the shav- ings yield an impure solution of carbonate of ammonia, which formerly received the name of spirit of hartshorn; and the same name has been subsequently applied to preparations of ammonia procured from other sources. When burnt, they leave an earthy residue consisting almost exclusively of phosphate of lime. Medical Properties, fyc.—The jelly prepared from the shavings of harts- horn has been thought to possess medical virtues; but it is only nutri- tive and demulcent; and is probably not superior to calfsfoot jelly. The shavings themselves are used in the preparation of the Pulvis Antimo- nialis. Off. Prep. Cornu Ustum, Lond^ Dub.; Pulvis Antimonialis, Lond. Ed., Dub. part I. Cornus Circinata.—Cornus Florida. 255 CORNUS CIRCINATA. U.S. Secondary. Round-leaved Dogwood. "Cornus circinata. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Cornus. Class Tetrandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Caprifolia, Juss.; Caprifoliaceae, De Cand. Gen.Ch. Involucre usually four-leaved. Petals superior, four. Drupe with a two-celled nut. Willd. We have ten indigenous species of Cornus, all of which are supposed to possess similar medical properties; and three—the C. Florida, C. cir- cinata, and C. sericea—have been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. The last two are placed in the secondary list, not because they are esteemed less efficient than the first; but because they have hitherto less attracted the attention of the profession. Cornus circinata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 663. This is a shrub from six to ten feet high, with warty branches, large, roundish, pointed leaves, waved on their edges and downy beneath, and white flowers disposed in depressed cymes. The fruit is blue. The plant is a native of the United States, extending from Canada to Virginia, and growing on hill-sides and the banks of rivers. It flowers in June and July. The bark, when dried, is in quills of a whitish or ash colour, and affords a powder resembling that of ipecacuanha. Its taste is bitter, astringent, and aromatic. In chemical composition, so far as this has been ascertained, it is analogous to the Cornus Florida. It possesses also similar medical virtues, and may be employed in the same doses. It is much used as a tonic and astringent by several physicians in Con- necticut, and is highly extolled by Dr. Ives of New-York, who recom- mends, as the most eligible preparation, an infusion made by pouring a pint of boiling water on an ounce of the coarsely powdered bark. The dose of this is from one to two fluidounces. CORNUS FLORIDA. U.S. Dogwood. " Cornus Florida. Cortex. The bark." U. S. Cornus. See CORNUS CIRCINATA. Cornus Florida. Willd. % Plant, i. 661; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 73; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 44. This is a small indigenous tree, usually about fifteen or twenty feet in height, though sometimes not less than thirty or thirty-five feet. It is of slow growth; and the stem, which generally attains a diameter of four or five inches, is compact, and covered with a brownish bark, the epidermis of which is minutely divided by numerous superficial cracks or fissures. The branches are spreading, and regularly, disposed, sometimes opposite, sometimes in fours nearly in the form of crosses. The leaves are opposite, oval, about three inches long, pointed, dark green, and sulcated on the upper sur- face, glaucous or whitish beneath, and marked with strong parallel * veins. Towards the close of summer they are speckled with black spots, and on the approach of cold weather assume a red colour. The proper flowers are small, yellowish, and collected in heads, which are sur- rounded by a very large conspicuous involucre, consisting of four white 256 Cornus Florida.—Cornus Sericea. parti. obcordate leaves, having the notch at their summit tinged with red or purple. It is this involucre that constitutes the chief beauty of the tree at the period of flowering. The calyx is four-toothed, and the corolla composed of four obtuse reflexed petals. The fruit is an oval drupe of a vivid glossy red colour, containing a two-celled and two-seeded nucleus. The drupes are usually collected together to the number of three or four, and remain on the tree till after the early frosts. They ripen in September. The dogwood is found in all parts of the United States, from Massa- chusetts to the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico; but is most abun- dant in the Middle States. In the month of May it is clothed with a profusion of large white blossoms, which render it one of the most conspicuous ornaments of the American forests. The bark is the offici- nal portion, and is derived for use both from the stem and branches, and from the root. The bark of the root is preferred. It is brought into market in pieces, of various sizes, usually more or less rolled, some- times invested with a fawn coloured epidermis, sometimes partially or wholly deprived of it, of a reddish-gray colour, very brittle, and afford- ing, when pulverized, a grayish powder tinged with red. The odour of dogwood is feeble, its taste bitter, astringent, and slightly aromatic. Water and alcohol extract its virtues. It has not been accurately ana- lyzed; but from the experiments of Dr. Walker and others, appears to contain extractive matter, gum, resin, tannin, and gallic acid. A pecu- liar bitter principle, for which the name of cornine has been proposed, has been announced as an ingredient by Mr. Carpenter; but we need more definite information on the subject. The flowers of the C. Florida have the same bitter taste as the bark, and, though not officinal, are sometimes employed for the same purposes. Medical Properties and Uses.—Cornus Florida is tonic and astringent. By Dr. Walker it was found, when taken internally, to augment the force and frequency of the pulse, and increase the heat of the body. It is thought to possess remedial properties closely analogous to those of Peruvian bark, for which it has occasionally been successfully sub- stituted in the treatment of intermittent fevers; but the introduction of sulphate of quinia into use, has nearly banished this, as well as many other substitutes for cinchona, from regular practice. The dogwood has also been employed with supposed benefit in typhoid fevers, and other complaints for which the Peruvian tonic is usually prescribed. It may be given in powder, decoction, or extract. The dose of the powder is from a scruple to a drachm, repeated in cases of intermittent fever, so that from one to two ounces may be taken in the interval be- tween the paroxysms. The decoction is officinal. (See Decoctum Cornus Floridae.) The dried bark is said to be preferable to the fresh, as it pos- sesses all the activity of the latter, without being equally liable to offend the stomach and bowels. Off. Prep. Decoctum Cornus Floridae. U. S. CORNUS SERICEA. U.S. Secondary. Swamp Dogwood. "Cornus sericea. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Cornus. See CORNUS CIRCINATA. Cornus sericea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 663; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 115. This species of Cornus is usually six or eight feet in height, with numer- PART I. Cornus Sericea.—Cotula. 257 ous erect stems, which are covered with a shining reddish bark, and send out opposite spreading branches. The young shoots are more or less pubescent. The leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate, pointed, en- tire, and on the under surface covered with soft brownish hairs. The flowers are small, white, and disposed in terminal cymes, which are de- pressed and woolly. The fruit consists of globular, berry-formed drupes, of a cerulean blue colour, and collected in bunches. The swamp dogwood inhabits the United States from Canada to Carolina, and is found in moist woods, in swamps, and on the borders of streams. It flowers in June and July. The bark was ascertained by Dr. Walker to have the same medical properties with that of the Cor- nus Florida. It may be given in the same doses, and administered in a similar manner. COTULA. U.S. Secondary. May-weed. " Anthemis cotula. Planta. The plant." U.S. Camomille puante, Maroute, Fr.; Hunds-kamille, Stinkende-kamille, Germ.; Ca- momilla fetida, Cotula, Hal.; Manzanilla loca, Span. Anthemis. See ANTHEMIS. Anthemis Cotula. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2181; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 161. The May-weed is an annual plant, with a fibrous root, and an erect stri- ated stem, very much branched even to the bottom, from one to two feet in height, and supporting alternate, sessile, flat, doubly pinnated, somewhat hairy leaves, with pointed linear leaflets. The flowers stand singly upon the summits of the branches, and consist of a central, con- vex, golden-yellow disk, with white radial florets, which spread hori- zontally during the day, but are reflexed or bent towards the stem at night. The calyx, which is common to all the florets, is hemispherical, and composed of imbricated hairy scales. The receptacle is conical or nearly cylindrical, and surmounted by rigid, bristle-shaped paleae, shorter than the florets. The seeds are naked. This plant grows abundantly both in the United States and in Europe. In this country, it is found in the vicinity of inhabited places, growing among rubbish, along the sides of roads, and in waste grounds. Not- withstanding its extensive diffusion, it is generally believed to be a na- turalized, not an indigenous plant. It is frequently called wild chamomile. It flowers from the middle of summer till late in autumn. The whole plant has a strong, disagreeable smell, and a warm, bitter taste; and imparts these properties to water. We are not aware that its analysis has been attempted. The medical properties of this species of Anthemis are essentially the same with those of chamomile, for which it may be employed as a sub- stitute; but its disagreeable odour is an obstacle to its general use. On the continent of Europe, it has been given in nervous diseases, espe- cially hysteria, under the impression, probably derived from its peculiar smell, that it possesses antispasmodic powers. It has also been thought to be emmenagogue. In the French Codex, it is ranked among the offi- cinals; but neither of the British Colleges has adopted it, though abun- dant in Great Britain. In this country it is scarcely employed, except as a domestic remedy. The whole plant is active; but the flowers being less disagreeable than the leaves, are preferred for internal use. The remedy is best administered in the state of infusion. 33 258 Crocus. PART I. CROCUS. U.S. Saffron. "Crocus sativus. Stigmata. The stigmas." U.S. Off Syn. CROCI STIGMATA. Crocus sativus (Anglicus). Stig- mata. Lond.; CROCI SATIVI STIGMATA. Ed.; CROCUS SA- TIVUS. Stigmata. Dub. Safran, Fr., Germ.,- Zafferano, Hal.; Azafran, Span. Crocus. Class Triandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Irides, Juss.;. Iridese, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla six-parted, equal. Stigmas convoluted. Willd. Crocus sativus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 194; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 763. t. 259. The common cultivated saffron is a bulbous, perennial plant. From the bulb, which is rounded and depressed, the flower rises a little above the ground upon a long, slender, white, and succulent tube. It is large, of a beautiful lilac or bluish purple colour, and makes its appearance in September or October. The leaves are radical, linear, slightly revolute, dark green upon their upper surface with a white longitudinal furrow in the centre, paler underneath with a prominent flattened midrib, and enclosed at their base, together with the tube of the corolla, in a membranous sheath, from which they emerge soon after the appearance of the flower. The style hangs out on one side be- tween two segments of the corolla, and terminates in three long convo- luted stigmas, which are of a rich orange colour, highly odorous, rolled in at the edges, and notched at the summit. These stigmas are the offi- cinal part of the plant. Botanists have found much difficulty in deciding which of the plants belonging to this genus are mere varieties of the C. sativus, and which are distinct species. Linnaeus considered them all as varieties of the officinal species; but the vernal crocus is now almost universally recog- nised as distinct; and the number of species has been greatly multiplied by some authors. The C. sativus, or autumnal crocus, is a native of Greece and Asia Minor, where it has been cultivated from the earliest ages of antiquity. It is also cultivated for medicinal use in Sicily, Spain, France, England, and other temperate countries of Europe. In Great Britain it has been found growing wild, but is not thought to be indigenous. Large quanti- ties of saffron are raised in Egypt, Persia, and Cashmere, whence it is sent to India. We cultivate the plant in this country chiefly, if not sole- ly, as a garden flower. In England the flowers appear in October, and the leaves continue green through the winter; but the plant does not ripen its seed, and is propagated by offsets from the bulb. These are planted in grounds pre- pared for the purpose, and are arranged either in rows,, or in small patches at certain distances. The flowers are gathered soon after they show themselves, as the period of flowering is very short. (Fee.) The stigmas, or summits of the pistils, are separated from the remainder of the flower, and carefully dried by artificial heat. During this process they are sometimes made to assume the form of a cake by pressure; but the finest saffron is that which has been dried loosely. Five pounds of the fresh stigmas yield one pound of the dried. (Duncan.) A field planted with saffron continues to be productive for three years. The English saffron is most highly esteemed in this country. That PART I. Crocus. 259 imported from Spain is often impregnated with oil, said to be added under the impression that it conduces to the preservation of the drug. It is probable that the produce of other countries is sometimes sold un- der the name of English saffron. Much is imported from Gibraltar packed in canisters; and parcels are occasionally brought from Trieste and other ports of the Mediterranean. The high price of this medicine gives rise to frequent adulterations. Water is said to be very often added in order to increase its Aveight. Sometimes the flowers of other plants, particularly the Carthamus tinc- torius or safflower, and the Calendula officinalis or officinal marygold, are fraudulently mixed with the genuine stigmas. They may be known by their shape, which is rendered obvious by throwing a portion of the suspected mass into hot water, which causes them to expand. Other adulterations are the fibres of dried beef, the stamens of the Crocus distinguishable by their yellow colour, the stigmas previously exhaust- ed in the preparation of the infusion or tincture, and various mineral substances easily detected upon close examination. In the purchase of this medicine in cakes, those should be selected which are close, tough, and firm in tearing. Saffron should not be very moist, nor very dry, nor easily pulverized; nor should it emit an offen- sive smell when thrown on live coals. The freshest is the best, and that which is less than a year old should, if possible, be selected. It should possess in a high degree the characteristic properties of colour, taste, and smell. If it does not colour the fingers when rubbed between them, or has an oily feel, or a musty flavour, or a black, yellow, or whitish colour, it should be rejected. As its activity depends, partly at least, on a volatile ingredient, it should be kept in well stopped vessels. Some recommend that it should be enclosed in a bladder, and introduced into a tin case. Properties.—Saffron has a peculiar, sweetish, aromatic odour, a warm, pungent, bitter taste, and a rich deep orange colour, which it imparts to the saliva when chewed. Analyzed by Vogel and Bouillon-Lagrange, it afforded a very large proportion of a peculiar extractive matter, an odorous volatile oil, wax, gum, albumen, a small quantity of saline mat- ters, besides water, and vegetable remains. The extractive matter was named by them polychroite, from the changes of colour which it under- goes by the action of reagents. It is prepared by evaporating the watery infusion to the consistence of honey, digesting the residue in alcohol, filtering the tincture, and evaporating it to dryness. In this state, how- ever, according to M. Henry, it contains much essential oil, which can be separated only by the action of an alkali. Polychroite is reddish-yel- low, slightly bitter, soluble in water and alcohol, and deliquescent. Its solution becomes grass green by the action of nitric acid, blue and then violet by that of sulphuric acid, and loses its colour altogether on expo- sure to light, and by chlorine. M. Henry states that this colouring mat- ter constitutes 42 per cent, of saffron, and the essential oil 10 per cent. It is to the latter that the medicine owes its active properties. It may be partially separated by distillation. Medical Properties and Uses.—Saffron was formerly considered highly stimulant and antispasmodic. It has been alleged, that in small doses it moderately excites the different functions, exhilarates the spirits, re- lieves pain, and produces sleep; in larger doses, gives rise to head- ach, intoxication, delirium, stupor, and other alarming symptoms; and Shroeder asserts, that in the quantity of two or three drachms it proves fatal. It was thought also to act powerfully on the uterine system, pro- 260 Crocus.—Cubeba. PART I. moting menstruation. The ancients employed it extensively, both as a medicine and condiment, under the name of crocus. It was also highly esteemed by the Arabians, and enjoyed considerable reputation among the physicians of modern Europe till within a comparatively recent pe- riod. On the continent it is still much used as a stimulant and emmen- agogue. But the experiments of Dr. Alexander have proved it to pos- sess little activity as a medicine; and in Great Britain and the United States it is seldom prescribed. By old women and nurses saffron tea is frequently used in exanthematous diseases, to promote the eruption; a practice introduced by the humoral pathologists, but afterwards aban- doned by the profession, and not greatly injurious only from the inac- tivity of the medicine. The chief use of saffron at present is to impart colour and flavour to officinal tinctures. From ten to thirty grains may be given for a dose. Off Prep. Confectio Aromatica, Lond., Dub.; Decoctum Aloes Com- positum, Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Aloes et Myrrhae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulse £ Styrace, Dub.; Syrupus Croci, Lond.; Tinctura Croci Sativi, Ed.; Tinctura Aloes et Myrrhae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinc- tura Cinchonae Composita, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei, Lond.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennae, U.S.; Tinctura Rhei Composita,Lond., Dub. CUBEBA. U.S. Cubebs. " Piper cubeba. Fructus. The fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. CUBEBA. Piper Cubeba. Baccse. Lond.; CUBEBA. PI- PER CUBEBA. Fructus. Dub. Cubebe, Fr.; Kubeben, Germ.; Cubebe, ltal.; Cubebas, Span.; Kebabeh, Arab. Piper. Class Diandria. Order Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Urticae, Juss., Piperaceae, Richard, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla none. Berry one-seeded. Willd. Piper Cubeba. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 159. This is a climbing perennial plant, with a smooth, flexuous, jointed stem, and entire, ovate, oblong or lanceolate leaves, which in the old vine are unequal at the base, less than an inch long, and supported upon short channelled footstalks, The flowers are pedicelled, and form long, pendent spikes. The fruit is a berry which grows in clusters. This species of piper is a native of Java, where it grows luxuriantly in the woods, and furnishes much of the cubebs of commerce. It flourishes also in Nepaul; and is said to be found in the Isles of Bourhpn and France, and in Guinea, It is not cultivated. Properties.—Cubebs are round, about the size of a small pea, of a blackish or grayish-brown colour, and furnished with a short stalk, which appears to be continuous with raised veins that run over the sur- face of the berry, and embrace it like a network. The shell is hard, almost ligneous, and contains within it a single loose seed, covered with a blackish coat, and internally white and oleaginous. The odour of the berry is agreeably aromatic; the taste, warm, bitterish, and camphor- ous, leaving in the mouth a peculiar sensation of coolness, like that pro- duced by the oil of peppermint. The powder is dark coloured, and of an oily aspect. Vauquelin found in cubebs a volatile oil nearly con- crete, a resin analogous to that of copaiba, a coloured resin of a dif- ferent character, a coloured gummy substance, an extractive principle, PART I. Cubeba.—Cumini Semina. 261 and some saline matters. Baume obtained from twelve and a half pounds (French weight) of the berries, two ounces and two drachms of a vola- tile oil, having the consistence of the oil of sweet almonds, and but slightly odorous. (Fee.) To Schonwald, ten pounds yielded eleven ounces of an oil having a similar consistence, with a gray colour, and a bland taste. (Duncan.) Cubebs gradually deteriorate by age; and in the state of powder become rapidly weaker, in consequence of the escape of some active volatile ingredient. They should always be kept whole, and pul- verized at the time of dispensing them. The powder is said to be some- times adulterated with that of pimento. Medical Properties and Uses.—Cubebs are gently stimulant, with a spe- cial direction to the urinary organs. In considerable quantities they usually excite the circulation, increase the heat of the body, and some- times occasion headach and giddiness. At the same time they frequently produce an augmented flow of the urine, to which they impart a pecu- liar odour. Nausea and moderate purging are also occasional attend- ants upon their operation; and they are said to give rise to a sense of coolness in the rectum during the passage of the feces. We have no evidence that they were known to the ancients. They were probably first brought into Europe by the Arabians; and were formerly employed for similar purposes with the black pepper; but they were found much less powerful and fell into disuse. Some years since, they were again brought into notice in England as a remedy in gonorrhoea, and have been found very efficient in this complaint by numerous practitioners, not only of Great Britain, but of the continent of Europe and of the United States. This application of cubebs was derived from India, where they have long been used in gonorrhoea, gleet, and leucorrhoea, and as a grateful stomachic and carminative in disorders of the diges- tive organs. They are said to have occasionally produced swelled testi- cles when given in the first mentioned complaint; and though recom- mended in all its stages, will probably be found most safe and effectual in cases where the inflammatory action is confined to the mucous mem- brane of the urethra. If not speedily useful, they should be discon- tinued. They are best administered in the form of powder, of which the dose is from one to three drachms, repeated three or four times a day. In Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Plants it is stated, that the berries of the Uvaria Zeylanica of Ceylon are used as a specific for gonorrhoea, under the name of Cubebs. They are, however, wholly different from the genuine drug; and may be distinguished by containing four seeds in each berry, while the latter has but one. CUMINI SEMINA. Lond. Cumin Seed. a Cuminum Cyminum. Semina." Lond. Cunain, Fr.; llomischer kummel, Germ.; Comino, ltal, Span. Cuminum. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbellife- rae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate, striated. Partial umbels four. Involucres four- cleft. Cuminum Cyminum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1440; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 142. t. 56. This is an annual plant, about six or eight inches high, hav- ing a round, slender, branching stem, with numerous narrow, linear, pointed, smooth, grass-like leaves, of a deep green colour. The flowers 262 Cumini Semina.—Cuprum. part i. are white or purple, and disposed in numerous terminal umbels, which have very few rays, and are attended with general and partial involu- cres, consisting of three or four linear leaflets. The fruit consists of two oblong plano-convex seeds, united by their flat sides. The plant is a native of Egypt, but is cultivated for its seeds in Sicily, Malta, and other parts of Europe. The cumin seeds of the shops are elliptical, flat on one side, convex, furrowed and rough on the other, about one-sixth of an inch in length, and of a light brown colour. Two are sometimes united together as upon the plant Their odour is peculiar, strong, and heavy; their taste warm, bitterish, aromatic, and disagreeable. They contain much essential oil, which is lighter than water, of a yellowish colour, and has the sensible properties of the seeds. Medical Properties and Uses.—In medical properties they resemble the other aromatic seeds of umbelliferous plants, but are more stimulating. They are seldom used in the United States, and appear to be retained by the London College, merely as an ingredient in a stimulant and dis- cutient officinal plaster. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Cumini. Lond. CUPRUM. Copper. Cuivre, Fr.; Kupfer, Germ.; Rame, ltal.; Cobre, Span. This metal is not officinal in the metallic statejun which it is never used in medicine; but it furnishes several important preparations. Copper is very generally diffused in nature, arid exists principally in four states: as native copper; as an oxide; as a sulphuret;,and as a salt. Its principal native salts are the sulphate, carbonate, arseniate, and phosphate. In the United States it has been fou*i#;in various localities, but most abundantly in New Jersey, and the North West Territory. The principal copper mines in the world, are those of the Pyrenees in France, Cornwall in England, and Fahlun in Sweden. Properties.—-Copper is a brilliant, sonorous metal, of a reddish colour, and very ductile, malleable, and tenacious. It has* a slightly nauseous taste, and emits a disagreeable smell when rubbed.'Its texture is granu- lated, and its fracture hackly. Its sp. gr. is 8.89, and its fusing point about 27° of Wedgwood. Exposed to the air it undergoes a slight tar- nish. Its combinations are numerous and important. With oxygen it forms two well characterized oxides, and with metals, numerous alloys, of which that with zinc, called brass, is the most useful. Its equivalent number is 64. Combined with one equiv. of oxygen, it forms the prot- oxide = 72, and with two, the peroxide = 80. The latter oxide only is salifiable, and it forms with acids several salts, important in medicine and the arts. When copper is in solution, it may be readily detect- ed by the immersion of a bright plate of iron, which immediately be- comes covered with a film of metallic copper. Action on the Animal Economy.—Copper, in its pure state, is per- fectly inert; but in combination, is highly deleterious. Its combina- tions when taken in poSfeonous doses, produce a coppery taste in the mouth; nausea and vomiting; violent pain of the stomach and bowels; frequent, black, bloody stools; small, irregular, sharp, and frequent pulse; faintings; burning thirst; difficulty of breathing; cold sweats; PART I. Cuprum.—Cupri Jicetas. 263 paucity of urine; violent headach; cramps, convulsions, and finally death. The best treatment in cases of poisoning by copper, is to neu- tralize the poison by the whites of eggs, diffused in water, and admi- nistered in large and repeated doses. If this remedy be not at hand, the patient must in the meantime be gorged with warm or even cold water, or with some emollient decoction, and the throat irritated by the finger or a feather, with a view to excite vomiting. Should vomiting not take place by these means, the stomach-pump may be employed. Sugar, formerly recommended as an antidote by Orfila on the authority of M. Marcelin Duval, is now considered by the former to have the power merely of calming irritation, after vomiting has taken place, and to be far inferior to albumen, which, by decomposing the cupreous pre- paration, acts as a true counterpoison. After the above statements, we need hardly add, that vessels of cop- per ought to be entirely abandoned for the purposes of pharmacy and domestic economy; for although the metal, uncombined, is innocuous, yet the risk is great that they may be acted on, in which event, whatever may be contained in them would be rendered deleterious. CUPRI ACETA^. U.S. Acetate of Copper. Off. Syn. jERUGO, Lond.; SUB-ACETAS CUPRI, Ed.; CUPRI SUBACETAS, Dub. Verdigris; acetate de cuivre brut, Vert-de-gris, Fr.; Griinspan, Germ.; Verde rame, ltal.; Cardenillo, Span. Preparation.—Verdigris is prepared in large quantities in the South of France, more particularly in the neighbourhood of Montpelier. It is also manufactured in Great Britain and Sweden. In France the pro- cess is conducted in the following manner. Sheets of copper are strati- fied with the refuse of the grape which remains after the expression of the juice in making wine, and allowed to remain in this state for a month or six weeks. At the end of this time, the plates are found coated with a considerable quantity of verdigris. This is scraped off, and the plates are then replaced as at'first, to be further acted on. The scrapings thus obtained form a paste, which is afterwards well beaten with wooden mallets, and packed in oblong leathern bags, about ten inches in length by eight in breadth, in which it is dried in the sun, until the loaf of ver- digris attains the proper degree of hardness. The rationale in this pro- cess is easily understood. The grape-refuse contains a considerable quantity of juice, which, by contact with the air, undergoes the acetous fermentation. The copper becomes oxidized, and by combining with the acetic acid generated during the fermentation, forms the acetate of copper or verdigris. ''' Verdigris comes to this country exclusively from France, being im- ported principally from Bordeaux and Marseilles. The leathern pack- ages in which it is put up, called sacks of verdigris, weigh generally from twenty-five to thirty pounds, and arrive in casks, each containing from thirty to forty sacks. Properties.—Verdigris is in masses of a pale green colour, and com- posed of a multitude of minute silky crystals. Sometimes, however, it occurs of a bright blue colour. Its taste is coppery. It is insoluble in alcohol, and by the action of water is resolved into a binacetate which dissolves, and a subacetate which remains behind, in the form of a 264 Cupri Acetas.—Cupri Acetas. Crystalli. part i. dark green powder, which gradually becomes black. It is, therefore, evident, that when verdigris is prepared by levigation with water, it is altered in its nature. The binacetate is the crystallized acetate of copper of the Dublin College (see Cupri Acetas. Crystalli); while the subacetate may be viewed as identical with the prepared verdigris (see Cupri Acetas Prasparatus). When acted on by sulphuric acid, it is decomposed with effervescence, vapours of acetic acid being evolved, easily recognised by their vinegar odour. The verdigris of commerce generally contains from a half to two per cent, of impurities, consisting of particles of copper, and the husks and stones of the grape. When of good quality, it has a lively green colour, is free from black or white spots, and is dry and difficult of break. The green rust, called in popu- lar language verdigris, which copper vessels are apt to contract when not kept clean, is a carbonate of copper, and must not be confounded with real verdigris. Composition.—Verdigris, apart from its impurities, consists of one equivalent of acetic acid 51, one equiv. of peroxide of copper 80, and six equiv. of water 54 = 185. When acted on by water, every three equivalents may be presumed to be converted into one equiv. of soluble binacetate, and one equiv. of insoluble subacetate. Medical Properties.—Verdigris acts as an emetic, and is said also to possess tonic properties. As an emetic it is prompt in its action, and is not without danger. Externally it acts as a detergent and escharotic, and is occasionally applied to ulcers attended with fungus, or callous edges. Its dose as a tonic is stated to be under half a grain, and as an emetic, from one to two grains; but it is very seldom employed inter- nally ; and considering its irritating nature, it has very properly fallen into disuse. For its effects as a poison, and the mode of treatment, the reader is referred to the article Cuprum. Off. Prep. Cupri Acetas Praeparatus, U.S., Dub.; Emplastrum Can- tharidis Vesicatoriae Compositum, Ed.; Linimentum JLruginis, Lond.; Unguentum Sub-Acetatis Cupri, Ed. CUPRI ACETAS. CRYSTALLI. Dub. Crystals of Acetate of Copper. Distilled Verdigris ; Crystals of Venus ; Binacetate of copper; Cristaux de Ve"nus, Verdet cristallis€, Fr.; Destillirter griinspan, Kupferkrystallen, Germ. Crystallized acetate of copper is prepared principally at Montpelier in France. The verdigris which is made in private houses is collected and carried to the manufactory. It is there dissolved in vinegar by the assistance of heat, and the solution, after having been sufficiently con- centrated, is transferred to suitable vessels, where it crystallizes on cooling. The crystallization is facilitated by inserting sticks in the liquid, split in four longitudinally, the several portions being kept apart by small pieces of wood. On these the crystals are deposited. This salt has a deep blue colour and strong styptic taste, crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms, and effloresces slightly in the air. It dissolves in water without residue, a character which serves to distinguish it from verdigris. It consists of two equivalents of acetic acid 102, one equiv. of peroxide of copper 80, and three equiv. of water 27 = 209. It is, therefore, a binacetate, and is erroneously called an acetate by the Dub- lin College. Its popular name of distilled verdigris is highly improper, and as no distillation is practised in its preparation, leads to error. parti. Cupri Acetas. Crystalli.—Cupri Sulphas. 265 Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses.—It is not very obvious for what reason the Dublin College has included this among its officinal prepa- rations. It possesses similar medical properties with verdigris ; but be- ing more active and poisonous, must be used in smaller doses. It is sometimes used in pharmacy for the purpose of obtaining acetic acid, which it yields by the action of sulphuric acid; and the large propor- tional quantity of acetic acid which it contains, makes it more eligible for this purpose than verdigris. It has no officinal preparations. CUPRI SULPHAS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Sulphate of Copper. Off. Syn. SULPHAS CUPRI. Ed. Blue vitriol; Sulfate de cuivre, Vitriol bleu, Couperose bleu, Fr.; Schwefelsaures kupfer, Kupfervitriol, Blauervitriol, Blauer galitzenstein, Germ.,- Rame solfato, Vitriolo di rame, Vitriolo di Cipro, Hal.,- Sulfato de cobre, Vitriolo azul, Span. Preparation, $-c.—Sulphate of copper occasionally exists in nature, but generally in solution in the water which flows through copper mines. It is obtained artificially by three principal processes. One process con- sists in merely evaporating the waters which naturally contain the salt in solution. Another method is to roast the native sulphuret in a rever- beratory furnace, whereby it is made to pass, by absorbing oxygen, into the state of sulphate. The roasted mass is lixiviated, and the solution obtained is evaporated, that crystals may form. The salt procured by either of these processes, contains a little persulphate of iron, from which it may be freed by adding an excess of peroxide of copper, which has the effect of precipitating the iron. The third process alluded to is pursued in France. It consists in wetting, and then sprinkling with sulphur, sheets of copper, which are next heated to redness for some time, and afterwards plunged into wa- ter while yet hot. The same operation is repeated until the sheets are entirely corroded. At first a sulphuret is formed, which by the action of heat and air gradually passes into the state of a sulphate. This is dissolved in the water, and is obtained in crystals by evaporation. On account of the duty upon sulphate of copper, none of it is at pre- sent imported into the United States, so that the whole demand is sup- plied from our own laboratories. The process for making it generally pursued in this country, is by direct combination between old scrap copper and sulphuric acid. Properties.-^-Sulphate of copper has a rich deep-blue colour and strong metallic styptic taste. It reddens vegetable blues, and crystallizes in large, transparent, rhomboidal prisms, which effloresce slightly in the air, and are soluble in four parts of cold, and two of boiling water, but insoluble in alcohol. When heated, it first melts in its water of crystal- lization, and then dries and becomes white. If the heat be increased, it next undergoes the igneous fusion, and finally, at a high temperature, loses its sulphuric acid, peroxide of copper being left. Potassa, soda, and ammonia throw down from it a bluish-white precipitate of hydrated peroxide of copper, which is immediately dissolved by an excess of the last mentioned alkali, forming a rich deep-blue solution, called in the former language of pharmacy, aqua sapphirina. It is also decomposed by the alkaline carbonates, and by a number of important salts, such as borax, acetate of ammonia, acetate and subacetate of lead, acetate of iron, nitrate of silver, corrosive chloride of mercury, tartrate of potassa, 266 Cupri Sulphas.—Curcuma. part i. and muriate of lime; and it is precipitated by all astringent vegetable infusions. Of course it must not be associated in prescription with any of these substances. It consists of two equivalents of sulphuric acid 80, one equiv. of peroxide of copper 80, and ten equiv. of water 90 = 250. It is, therefore, a bisulphate of the peroxide. Medical Properties.—Sulphate of copper, in small doses, is deemed astringent and tonic; in larger doses it acts as a prompt emetic. With a view to its tonic effect it has been given in intermittent fever, and in epilepsy, as well as some other spasmodic diseases; and as an emetic, for discharging poisons from the stomach, especially opium. It has been used also as an emetic in incipient phthisis, but its effects in that disease are probably worse than useless. In small doses it has of late been highly recommended in chronic diarrhoea. Externally it is employed in solution as a stimulant to ill-conditioned ulcers; as an escharotic for de- stroying warts, fungus, and callous edges; and as a styptic to bleeding surfaces. In weak solution, either alone or associated with other sub- stances, it forms a useful collyrium in the chronic stages of ophthalmia. Eight grains of it, mixed with an equal weight of Armenian bole and two grains of camphor, and added to half a pint of boiling water, forms, after becoming limpid by standing, a collyrium strongly recom- mended by Mr. Ware as a substitute for Bates's Aqua Camphorata, in the purulent ophthalmia of infants. The dose as a tonic is a quarter of a grain, gradually increased to two grains; as an emetic, from two to five grains. Orfila cautions us against giving large doses of this salt as an emetic in cases of poisoning, as it is apt, from its poisonous effects, to do much mischief. Upon the whole, such is the activity of the sul- phate of copper, that it ought to be exhibited with the greatest caution. For its effects as a poison, see Cuprum. Off. Prep. Cuprum Ammoniatum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Solutio Sulphatis Cupri Composita, Ed. CURCUMA. U.S. Secondary. Turmeric. " Curcuma lohga. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. CURCUMA LONGA. Radix. Dub. Safran des Indes, Fr.; Kurkuma, Gilbwurz, Germ.; Curcuma, Hal., Span.; Zirsood, Arab.; Huldie, Hindoo. Curcuma. Class Monandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scitami- neae, Linn.,R. Brown, Sec, Cannae, Juss., Drymyrhizeae, Ventinat, De Cand. Gen. Ch. Both limbs of the corolla three-partite. Anther with two spurs at the base. Seeds with an arillus. Loudon's Encyc. The roots of several species of Curcuma have been employed in med- icine. Two varieties of zedoary—an aromatic tonic formerly admitted into the officinal lists of the London and Dublin Colleges, but now dis- carded—are ascribed to this genus, one to the C. Zedoaria of Roscoe, the other to the C. Zerumbet of Roxburgh. We are informed that from the tubers of many species, a very pure starch, similar to arrow-root, is pre- pared and used in some parts of India, especially in Travancore. But the only species at present acknowledged as officinal, in either of the British Pharmacopoeias, or in our own, is the C. longa, or turmeric plant. Curcuma longa. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 14; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 737. t. part I. Curcuma.—Cydonise Semina. 267 252. The root of this plant is perennial, tuberous, palmate, and inter- nally of a deep yellow or orange colour. The leaves are radical, large, lanceolate, obliquely nerved, sheathing at their base, and closely em- brace each other. The scape or flower-stem,'which rises from the midst of the leaves, is short, thick, smooth, and constitutes a spike of numer- ous imbricated bractial scales, between which the flowers successively make their appearance. The plant is a native of the East Indies and Cochin-china, and is cultivated in various parts of Southern Asia, par- ticularly in Bengal and Java, whence the root is exported. The dried root is in cylindrical or oblong pieces, about as thick but not as long as the finger, tuberculated, somewhat contorted, externally yellowish-brown, internally deep orange-yellow, hard, compact, and breaking with a fracture like that of wax. Another variety, compara- tively rare, is round or oval, about the size of a pigeon's egg, and mark- ed externally with numerous annular wrinkles. It is distinguished by the name of curcuma rotunda, the former being called curcuma longa. The two varieties have a close resemblance in sensible properties, and are thought to be derived from the same plant, though formerly as- cribed to different species of Curcuma. The odour of turmeric is pecu- liar; the taste warm, bitterish, and feebly aromatic. It tinges the saliva yellow, and affords an orange-yellow powder. Analyzed by Pel- letier and Vogel, it was found to contain lignin, starch, a peculiar yel- low colouring matter, a brown colouring matter, gum, an odorous and very acrid volatile oil, and a small quantity of muriate of lime. The peculiar colouring principle is reddish-brown in the concrete state, yellow when minutely divided, heavier than water, of an acrid and pun- gent taste like that of pepper, but slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, ether, and the oils. The alkalies rapidly change its colour to a reddish-brown; and paper tinged with tincture of turmeric is a delicate test of the presence of these bodies. Turmeric is used for dye- ing yellow; but the colour is not permanent. Medical Properties, <$-c.—This root is a stimulant aromatic, bearing some resemblance to ginger in its operation, and is much used in India as a condiment. It is a constant ingredient in the curries so generally employed in the East. In former times it had some reputation in Eu- rope as a remedy in jaundice and other visceral diseases; but at present is employed only to impart colour to ointments, and other pharmaceu- tic preparations. CYDONIJE SEMINA. Lond. Quince Seeds. " Pyrus Cydonia. Semina." Lond. Semences de coings, Fr.,- Quittenkoone, Germ.; Semi di cotogno, Hal.,- Simiente de membrillo, Span. The quince tree has been separated from the genus Pyrus and erected into a new one with the title Cydonia, which is now generally admitted by botanists. It differs from the Pyrus in the circumstance that its cells contain many seeds, instead of two only as in the latter. Cydonia. Class Icosandria. Order Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae, Sect. Pomaceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, with leafy divisions. Apple closed, many- seeded. Testa mucilaginous. Loudon's Encyc. Cydonia vulgaris. Pers. Enchir. ii. 40.—Pyrus Cydonia. Willd. Sp. 268 Cydonise Semina.—Delphinium. part i. Plant, ii. 1020; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 505. t. 182. The common quince tree is characterized as a species by its downy deciduous leaves. It does not require particular description. It is supposed to have been originally obtained from Crete, but grows wild in Austria, on the banks of the Danube. It is abundantly cultivated in this country. The fruit is about the size of a pear, yellow, downy, of a pleasant odour, a rough, astringent, acidulous taste; and in each of its five cells contains from eight to fourteen seeds. Though not eaten in its raw state, it forms a very pleasant confection; and a syrup prepared from it may be used as a grateful addition to drinks in sickness, especially in looseness of the bowels, which it is supposed to restrain by its astringency. The seeds are the officinal portion. They are ovate, angled, of a reddish-brown colour externally, white within, inodorous, and nearly insipid, being slightly bitter when long chewed. Their coriaceous envelope abounds in mucilage, which is ex- tracted by boiling water. Two drachms of the seeds are sufficient to render a pint of water thick and ropy. It has been proposed by a Ger- man pharmaceutist to evaporate the decoction to dryness, and powder the residue. Three grains of this powder form a sufficiently consistent mucilage with an ounce of water. Medical Properties, fyc.—The mucilage of quince seeds may be used for all the purposes to which other mucilaginous liquids are applied. It is preferred by some practitioners as a local application in conjunc- tival ophthalmia; but in this country is less used for this purpose than the infusion of sassafras pith. Off. Prep. Decoctum Cydonise, Lond. DELPHINIUM. U.S. Secondary. Larkspur. " Delphinium consolida. Radix. The root." U. S. Pied d'allouette, Fr.; Feld Rittersporn, Germ. Delphinium. Class Polyandria. Order Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranun- culi, Juss.; Ranunculaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five. Nectary bifid, horned behind. Pods three or one. Willd. Delphinium consolida. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1226; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 473. 7832. The larkspur is a showy annual plant, with an erect, branched, slightly pubescent stem. Its leaves are divided into linear segments, widely separated,, and forked at the summit. The flow- ers are usually of a beautiful azure blue colour, and disposed in loose terminal racemes, with peduncles longer than the bractes. The nectary is one-leaved, with an ascending horn nearly equaling the corolla. The seeds are contained in smooth, solitary capsules. This species of larkspur has been introduced from Europe into this country, where it has become naturalized, growing in the woods and fields, and flowering in June and July. Various parts of the larkspur have been employed in medicine; and the plant is said to have properties closely analogous to those of the Delphinium Staphisagria. (See Staphisagrias Semina.) The flowers are bitter and acrid, and having formerly been supposed to possess the power of healing wounds, gave the name of consolida to the species. They were considered diuretic, emmenagogue, and vermifuge; but are not now used. The seeds are very acrid, are esteemed diuretic, and in part i. Dianthi Caryophylli Flores.—Digitalis. 269 large doses produce vomiting arid purging. A tincture prepared by macerating an ounce of the seeds in a pint of diluted alcohol, has been found useful in spasmodic asthma and dropsy. The dose is ten drops, to be gradually increased till some effects upon the system are evinced. The remedy has been employed both in America and England; and the seeds of an indigenous species, the D. exaltatum, have been applied to a similar purpose. The root probably possesses the same properties with other parts of the plant; but, though designated in the Pharma- copoeia, is little if at all used. DIANTHI CARYOPHYLLI FLORES. Ed. Flowers of the Clove Pink. Off. Syn, DIANTHUS CARYOPHYLLUS. Flores. Dub. Dianthus. Class Decandria. Order Digynia.— Nat. Ord. Caryophyl- leae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx cylindrical, one-leafed, with four scales at the base. Petals five, with claws. Capsule cylindrical, one-celled. Willd. Dianthus Caryophyllus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 674; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 579. t. 205. The clove pink or carnation is too well known to require minute description. It is a perennial, herbaceous plant, characterized as a species by its branching stem; its solitary flowers; the short ovate scales of its calyx; its very broad,beardless petals; and its linear, subulate, chan- nelled, glaucous leaves. Indigenous in Italy, it is everywhere cultivated in gardens for the beauty of its flowers, of which numerous varieties have been produced by horticulturists. Those are selected for medici- nal use which have the deepest red colour, and the most aromatic odour. The petals should not be collected till the flower is fully blown, and should be employed in the recent state. They have a fragrant odour said to resemble that of the clove. Their taste is sweetish, slightly bitter, and somewhat astringent. Both water and alcohol extract their sensible properties, and they yield a fragrant essential oil by distillation. In Europe they are employed to impart colour and flavour to a syrup which serves as a vehicle for other less pleasant medicines. Off. Prep. Syrupus Dianthi Caryophylli, Ed. DIGITALIS. U.S. Foxglove. «*Digitalis purpurea. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Off. Syn. DIGITALIS FOLIA et SEMINA. Digitalis purpurea. Folia et Semina. Lond.; DIGITALIS PURPUREA FOLIA. Ed.- DIGITALIS PURPUREA. Folia. Dub. Digitale pourpree, Doightier, Fr.; Purpurrother fingerhut, Germ.; Digitale purpu- rea, Hal; Dedalera, Span. Digitalis. Class Didynamia. Order Angiospermia.—Nat. Ord. Scroph- ulariae, Juss.; Scrophularineae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla bell-shaped, five-cleft, ventricose. Capsule ovate, two-celled, Willd. Digitalis purpurea. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 283; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 218. t. 78. Foxglove is a beautiful plant, with a biennial or perennial root, which sends forth large tufted leaves, and a single, erect, downy, S70 Digitalis. part i. and leafy stem, rising from three to five feet in height, and terminating in an elegant spike of purple flowers. The radical leaves are ovate, pointed, about eight inches in length, and three in breadth, and stand upon short winged footstalks; those of the stem are alternate, sparse, and lanceolate; both are obtusely serrated at their edges, and have wrinkled velvety surfaces, of which the upper is of a fine deep-green co- lour, the under paler and more downy. The flowers are numerous, and attached to the upper part of the stem by short peduncles, in such a manner as generally to hang down upon one side. At the base of each peduncle is a floral leaf, which is sessile, ovate, and pointed. The calyx is divided into five segments, of which the uppermost is narrower than the others. The corolla is monopetalous, bell-form, swelling on the lower side, irregularly divided at the margin into short obtuse lobes, and in shape and size bearing some resemblance to the end of the finger of a glove, a circumstance which has suggested most of the names by which the plant is designated in different languages. The mouth of the corolla is guarded by long, soft hairs. Its general colour is bright purple; but the internal surface is sprinkled with black spots upon a white ground. The filaments are white, curved, and surmounted by large yellow an- thers. The style, which is simple, supports a bifid stigma. The seeds are very small, numerous, of a dark colour, and contained in a pyrami- dal, two-celled capsule. The foxglove grows wild in most of the temperate countries of Eu- rope, where it flowers in the middle of summer. In this country it is cul- tivated both as an ornamental garden plant, and for medicinal purposes. The leaves are the part usually employed, although the London College recognises the seed also as officinal. Much care is requisite in selecting, preparing, and preserving foxglove in order to insure its activity. The leaves should be gathered immediately before or during the period of inflorescence, and those only should be chosen which are perfectly fresh. It is said that those plants are preferable which grow spontaneously in elevated places, exposed to the sun. (Duncan.) As the leaf-stalk and midrib are comparatively inactive, they may be rejected. The leaves should be dried either in the sunshine, or by a gentle heat before the fire; and care should be taken to keep them separate during the drying process. It is probably owing to the want of proper attention.in pre- paring digitalis for the market, that it is so often found to be inefficient. Much of the medicine kept in our shops is obtained from the settlement of the Shakers in New-York, and is in the state of oblong compact masses, into which the leaves are probably compressed before they are thoroughly dried; at least the cakes when opened are not unfrequently found to be somewhat mouldy. This mode of preparing the drug is highly objectionable; and it is not surprising that our practitioners are so frequently disappointed in its effects. A comparison of the sensible properties of digitalis in this state, with those of the carefully dried leaves imported from England, will at once evince the great superiority of the latter. It is, indeed, highly probable, that the wild plant in its native country attains greater medicinal perfection, than that which is cultivat- ed in a foreign soil. The dried leaves should be kept in tin canisters, well closed so as to exclude light and moisture; or they may be pulveris- ed, and the powder preserved in well-stopped and opaque phials. Properties.—Foxglove is without smell in the recent state, but ac- quires a faint narcotic odour when dried. Its taste is bitter and nau- seous. The colour of the dried leaf is a dull pale green, modified by the whitish down upon the under surface; that of the powder is a fine part I. Digitalis. 271 deep green. Digitalis yields its virtues both to water and alcohol. Its analysis has not been satisfactorily accomplished. M. Le Royer, an apothecary of Geneva, announced in the year 1824, the discovery of a peculiar alkaline principle upon which he supposed the virtues of the medicine to depend, and for which he proposed the name of digitalin. But the alkaline nature of this substance has been subsequently dis- proved ; and even its claims to rank as a distinct proximate principle are disputed. It is obtained by treating foxglove with ether, evaporating the liquor to dryness, infusing the extract in distilled water, neutraliz- ing some free acid present in the aqueous solution by means of the hy- drated oxide of lead, evaporating this solution to dryness, and treating the residuum with ether, which, upon evaporation, yields the digitalin in the shape of a brown, pitch-like, deliquescent, extremely bitter sub- stance, scarcely susceptible of crystallization, and said to possess in a high degree the peculiar properties of the medicine from which it is derived. Medical Properties and Uses.—Digitalis is narcotic, sedative, and diu- retic. When administered in quantities sufficient to bring the system under its influence, it produces a sense of tightness or weight, with dull pain in the head, vertigo, dimness or other disorder of vision, and more or less confusion in the mental operations. At the same time it occasionally gives rise to irritation in the pharynx and oesophagus, which extends to the larynx and trachea, producing hoarseness; and in more than one instance ptyalism has been observed to result from its action. It some- times also disturbs the bowels, and excites nausea, or even vomiting. Another effect, which, in a practical point of view, is perhaps the most important, is an augmented flow of urine. This has been ascribed by some to the increased absorption which digitalis is supposed to pro- duce ; and in support of this opinion it is stated, that its diuretic ope- ration is observable only when dropsical effusion exists: but the fact seems to be that it is capable of augmenting the quantity of urine in health, and it probably exerts a directly stimulating influence over the secreting function of the kidneys. This influence is said sometimes to extend to the genital organs.* Besides the various effects above detailed, most of which indicate the existence of a stimulating power, digitalis exerts a remarkable sedative operation upon the heart. This is exhibit- ed in the reduction both of the force and frequency of the pulse, which sometimes sinks from the ordinary standard to 50, 40, or even 30 strokes in the minute. In some instances, however, it undergoes little change; in others only becomes irregular; and we are told that it is even occasionally increased in frequency. It was observed by Dr. Bail- don, that the effects of digitalis upon the circulation were very much influenced by posture. Thus, in his own case, the pulse which had been reduced from 110 to 40 in the recumbent position, was increased to 72 when he sat, and to 100 when he stood. We do not discover any thing remarkable in this circumstance. It is well known that the pulse is al- most always more frequent in the erect than in the horizontal posture, and the difference is greater in a state of debility than in health. Digi- talis diminishes the frequency of the pulsations of the heart by a directly debilitating power; and this very debility, when any exertion is made which calls for increased action in that organ, causes it to attempt by * See an account of experiments by Professors Jcerg and others of Leipsic, in the N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. ii. p. 235. 272 Digitalis. PART I. an increase in the number of its contractions, to meet the demand which it is wholly unable to supply by an increase in their force. The various effects above detailed may result from digitalis given in doses calculated to produce its remediate influence. In larger quantities its operation is more violent. Nausea and vomiting, stupor or delirium, cold sweats, extreme prostration of general strength, hiccough, con- vulsions, syncope, are among the alarming symptoms which indicate the poisonous character of the medicine. These effects are best coun- teracted by stimulants, such as brandy, the volatile alkali, and opium. When there is reason to believe that any of the poison remains, it is obviously proper, before employing other measures, to evacuate the stomach by the free use of warm liquids. A peculiarity of digitalis is, that after having been given in moderate doses for several days, without any apparent effect, it sometimes acts suddenly with an accumulated influence, endangering even the life of the patient. It is, moreover, very permanent in its operation, which, having once commenced, is maintained like that of mercury, for a con- siderable period, without any fresh accession of the medicine. The practical inferences deducible from these properties of digitalis, are first, that after it has been administered for some time without effect, great caution should be observed not to increase the dose, nor to urge the medicine too vigorously; and secondly, that after its effects have begun to appear, it should be suspended for a time, or exhibited in moderate doses, lest a dangerous accumulation of its influence should be expe- rienced. In numerous instances death has resulted from its incautious employment. Digitalis has been long known to possess medicinal powers; but it was never generally used, nor regarded as a standard remedy, till after its application by Withering to the treatment of dropsy, about the year 1775. It is at present employed very extensively, both for its diuretic power, and for its sedative influence over the circulation. The former renders it highly useful in dropsical diseases, though like all other re- medies it very frequently fails; the latter adapts it to the treatment of cases in which the action of the heart requires to be controlled. The idea was at one period entertained, that it might serve as a substitute for the lancet in inflammatory complaints; and it is at present much employed for this purpose by the Italian physicians, who practise in accordance with the contra-stimulant doctrine; but experience has proved that it is a very frail support in any case in which the symptoms of in- flammation are such as to call for the loss of blood. As an adjuvant to the lancet, and in cases in which circumstances forbid the employment of this remedy, it is often very useful. Though it certainly has not the power, at one time ascribed to it by some practitioners, of curing phthi- sis, it acts beneficially as a palliative in that complaint by repressing the excited movements of the heart. In the same way it proves advanta- geous in aneurism, hypertrophy of the heart, palpitations from rheuma- tic or gouty irritation, and in various forms of hemorrhage, after action has been sufficiently reduced by the lancet. It has also been prescribed in mania, epilepsy, pertussis, and spasmodic asthma; and highly re- spectable testimony can be adduced in favour of its occasional efficacy in these complaints; but any good which may be derived from it is as- cribable rather to its influence over the brain and nerves, than to that which it exercises over the circulation. The medicine is most effectually administered in substance. The dose of the powder is one grain, repeated twice or three times a day, part i. Digitalis.—Diosma Crenata. 273 and gradually increased till some effect is produced upon the head, sto- mach, pulse, or kidneys, when it should be omitted or reduced. The infusion and tincture are officinal preparations often resorted to. (See Infusum Digitalis, and Tinctura Digitalis.) The extract has also been em- ployed; and Orfila found it, whether prepared with water or alcohol, more powerful than the powder; but the virtues of digitalis are too ener- getic to require concentration; and the preparation is not more certain than the powder. The decoction has also been used, but has nothing to recommend it. Off Prep. Infusum Digitalis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Di- gitalis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. DIOSMA CRENATA. FOLIA.—BUCHU. Dub. Buchu Leaves. The plant thus designated in the Dublin Pharmacopceia has been sep- arated by Willdenow from the genus Diosma, and arranged with several others in a new genus, entitled Agathosma, which is acknowledged by other botanical writers. Agathosma. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat.Otd. Ruta- ceae, Juss.; Diosmeae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Petals ten, unequal, inserted in the calyx. Nectary five-lobed, inserted in the calyx. Loudon's Encyc. Agathosma crenatum. Willd. Hort. Berol.—Diosma Crenata. Thunberg; Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1136. This is a small evergreen shrub, Avith a stem one or two feet high, the branches of which are scattered or in whorls, and bear petiolate, ovate or lanceolate, crenate, coriaceous leaves, dot- ted on their under surface. The flowers are large, white, and solitary in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a stellate capsule, containing black shining seeds. The plant is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where, in common with others belonging to the same genus and to the analogous one of Diosma, it is called buchu in the language of the Hot- tentots, by whom the leaves are highly esteemed for their odour, and rubbed in the state of powder upon their greasy bodies. Properties.—The buchu leaves of the shops are from three quarters of an inch to an inch long, from three to five lines broad, elliptical, lan- ceolate, or ovate, sometimes slightly pointed, sometimes blunt at the apex, very finely notched and glandular at the edges, smooth and of a green colour on the upper surface, dotted and paler beneath, and of a firm consistence. Their odour is strong, diffusive, and somewhat aro- matic ; their taste bitterish, and closely analogous to that of mint. These various properties are abundantly sufficient to distinguish them from senna, with which they might be confounded upon a careless inspec- tion. Analyzed by Cadet de Gassicourt, they were found to contain 6.65 parts of a light, brownish-yellow volatile oil, 211.7 of gum, 51.7 of ex- tractive, 11 of chlorophylle, and 21.51 of resin. Water and alcohol extract their virtues, which probably depend on the volatile oil and ex- tractive matter. The latter is precipitated by the infusion of galls. Medical Properties and Uses.—Buchu leaves are gently stimulant with a peculiar tendency to the urinary organs, producing diuresis, and like all other similar medicines, exciting diaphoresis when circumstances favour this mode, of action. The Hottentots at the Cape of Good Hope have long used them in a variety of diseases. From these rude practi- tioners they were borrowed by the resident English and Dutch physi- 35 • 274 Diosma Crenata.—Diospyros. part i. cians, by whose recommendation they have been recently employed to some extent in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe, and have begun to attract attention on this side of the Atlantic. They are chiefly given in complaints of the urinary organs, such as gravel, chronic ca- tarrh of the bladder, morbid irritation of the bladder and urethra, dis- ease of the prostate, and retention or incontinence of urine from a loss of tone in the parts concerned in its evacuation. The remedy hasalso been recommended in chronic rheumatism and cutaneous affections. From twenty to thirty grains of the powder may be given two or three times a day. The leaves are also used in infusion, in the proportion of half an ounce to a pint of boiling water, of which the dose is one or two fluidounces. A tincture has been employed as a stimulant embrocation in local pains. Off". Prep. Infusum Buchu, Dub.; Tinctura Buchu, Dub. DIOSPYROS. U.S. Secondary. Persimmon. " Diospyros Virginiana. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Diospyros. Class Dioecia. Order Octandria.—Nat. Ord. Guaiacanae, Juss.; Ebenaceae, Ventinat, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx four to six-cleft. Corolla urceolate, four to six-cleft. Stamens eight to sixteen; filaments often producing two an- thers. Female. Flower as the male. Stigmas four or five. Berry eight to twelve-seeded. Nuttall. Diospyros Virginiana. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1107; Michaux, N.Am. Sylv. ii. 219. The persimmon is an indigenous tree, rising in the Southern States in favourable situations to the height of sixty feet, with a trunk eighteen or twenty inches in diameter, but seldom attaining more than half this size near its northern limits, and often not higher than fifteen or twenty feet. The stem is straight, and in the old tree co- vered with a furrowed blackish bark. The branches are spreading; the leave-s ovate, oblong, acuminate, entire, smooth, reticulately veined, alternate, and supported on pubescent footstalks. The buds are smooth. The male and female flowers are on different trees. They are lateral, axillary, solitary, nearly sessile, of a pale orange colour, and not con- spicuous. The fruit is a globular berry, of a dark yellow colour exter- nally when perfectly ripe, and containing numerous seeds embedded in a soft yellow pulp. This tree is very common in the Middle and Southern States; but, according to Michaux, does not flourish beyond the forty-second degree of north latitude. The flowers appear in May or June; but the fruit is not ripe till the middle of autumn. While in the green state, the fruit is excessively astringent; but when perfectly mature, and after having been touched by the frost, it is sweet and palatable. We are told by Michaux, that in the Southern and Western States it is made into cakes with bran, and used for preparing beer with the addition of water, hops, and yeast. A spirituous liquor may be obtained by the distillation of the fermented infusion. The bark is the only part of the tree directed by the Pharma- copoeia. It is astringent and very bitter; and is said to have been used advantageously in intermittents, and in the form of a gargle in ulcer- ated sore throat. PART I. Dolichos. 275 DOLICHOS. U.S. Cowhage. "Dolichos pruriens. Leguminum pubes. Tlie bristles of the pods." U.S. Off. Syn. DOLICHI PUBES- Dolichos pruriens. Leguminum pubes. Lond.; DOLICHI PRURIENTIS PUBES. Ex Legumine. Ed.; DOLICHOS PRURIENS. Pubes Leguminis. Dub. Pois a gratter, Fr.,- Kuhkratze, Germ.; Dolico Scottante, Hal. Dolichos. Class Diadelphia. Order Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Legumi- nosae. Juss. Gen. Ch. Base of the Banner with two oblong parallel callosities, compressing the wings beneath. Willd. The cowhage plant has been separated by some botanists from the Dolichi. De Candolle has erected the section to which it belongs into a new genus with the title Mucuna; and Persoon places it in the genus Stizolobium. All the British Pharmacopoeias, as well as that of the United States, refor it to the Dolichos. Dolichos pruriens. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1041; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 422. t. 153. This is a perennial climbing plant, with an herbaceous branching stem, which twines round the trees in its vicinity, and rises to a considerable height. The leaves are ternate, and stand on long footstalks placed alternately on the stem at the distance of a foot from each other. They are smooth on their upper surface, and hairy beneath. The flowers, which resemble those of the pea in form, are large, of a red or purplish colour, usually placed in threes on short peduncles, and hang from the axils of the leaves in pendent spikes about a foot in length. The fruit is a coriaceous pod, shaped like the Italic letter f, about four inches long, and covered with brown bristly hairs, which easily separate, and when handled stick in the fingers, producing an in- tense itching sensation. The plant is a native of the East and West In- dies, and other parts of tropical Asia and America. The part usually imported is the pod, of which the hairs are the officinal portion. Medical Properties and Uses.—These spiculae are said to be possessed of powerful vermifuge properties; and are thought to act mechanically, by penetrating the worms. That they do act in this manner is evinced, as well by the result of direct experiment upon worms out of the body, as by the fact that neither the tincture nor decoction is in the slightest degree anthelmintic. Why the worms should be injured, and the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels escape with impunity, is not satis- factorily explained. The medicine was first employed as a vermifuge by the inhabitants of the West Indies, and thence passed into British prac- tice. The testimony in its favour is too strong to admit of any reasonable doubt as to its efficiency. It has been chiefly employed.against the round worm; but all the different species which infest the alimentary canal have been expelled by its use. It is best administered mixed with some tenacious vehicle. The usual mode of preparing it is to dip the pods into syrup or molasses, and scrape off the hairs with the liquid, which is in a proper state for administration when it has attained the consistence of thick honey. The dose of this preparation is a tablespoonful for an adult, a teaspoonful for a child three or four years old, to be given every morning for three days, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. The root of the D. pruriens is said by Ainslie to be employed in the 276 Dolichos.—Dracontium. PART I. East Indies in the treatment of cholera; and both this part and the pods have been thought to possess diuretic properties. DRACONTIUM. U.S. Secondary. Skunk Cabbage. " Dracontium foetidum, Willd. Ictodes foetidus, Bigelow. Symplo- carpus fcetidus, Barton. Radix. The root." U.S. Botanists have had some difficulty in properly arranging this plant. It is attached by Willdenow to the genus Dracontium, by Michaux and Pursh is considered a Pothos, and by American botanists has been erected into a new genus, which Nuttall calls Symplocarpus, after Salis- bury, and for which Dr. Bigelow has proposed the name Ictodes, expres- sive of the odour of the plant. The term Symplocarpus, though erro- neous in its origin, was first proposed for the new genus, and, having been adopted by several botanists, should be retained. Symplocarpus. Class Tetrandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Aroi- deae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Spathe hooded. Spadix covered with perfect flowers. Calyx with four segments. Petals none. Style pyramidal. Seeds immersed in the spadix. Bigelow. Symplocarpas fcetidus. Barton, Med. Bot. i. 123.—Ictodes fcetidus. Bige- low, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 41. The skunk cabbage is a very curious plant, the only one of the genus to which it belongs. The root is perennial, large, abrupt, and furnished with numerous fleshy fibres, which pene- trate to the depth of two feet or more. The spathe, which appears be- fore the leaves, is ovate, acuminate, obliquely depressed at the apex, auriculated at the base, folded inwards at the edges, and of a brownish- purple colour, varied with spots of red, yellow, and green. Within the spathe, the flowers, which resemble it in colour, are placed in great numbers upon a globose, peduncled spadix, for which they form a com- pact covering. After the spathe has decayed, the spadix continues to grow, and when the fruit is mature, has attained a size exceeding by several fold its original dimensions. The different parts of the flower, with the exception of the anthers, augment in like proportion. At the base of each style is a roundish seed, immersed in the spadix, about the size of a pea, and speckled with purple and yellow. The leaves, which rise from the ground after the flowers, are numerous and crowd- ed, oblong, cordate, acute, smooth, strongly veined, and attached to the root by long petioles, which are hollowed in front, and furnished with coloured sheathing stipules. At the beginning of May, when the leaves are fully developed, they are very large, being from one to two feet in length, and from nine inches to a foot in breadth. This plant is indigenous, growing abundantly in meadows, swamps, and other wet places, throughout the whole northern and middle sec- tions of the Union. Its flowers appear in March and April, and in the lower latitudes often so early as February. The fruit is usually quite ripe, and the leaves decayed before the end of August. The plant is very con- spicuous from its abundance, and from the magnitude of its leaves. All parts of it have a disagreeable fetid odour, thought to resemble that of the offensive animal after which it is named. This odour resides in an extremely volatile principle, which is rapidly dissipated by heat, and diminished by desiccation. The root is the part usually employed in medicine. It should be collected in autumn, or early in spring, and dried with care. part I. Dracontium.—Dulcamara. 211 The dried root, as found in the shops, consists of two distinct por- tions; the body or caudex, either whole or in transverse slices, and the separated radicles. The former, when whole, is cylindrical, or in the shape of a truncated cone, two or three inches long by about an inch in thickness, externally dark brown and very rough from the insertion of the radicles, internally white and amylaceous. The latter are in pieces of various lengths, about as thick as a hen's quill, very much flattened and wrinkled, white within, and covered by a yellowish reddish-brown epi- dermis, of a considerably lighter shade than that of the body of the root. The fetid odour remains, to a greater or less extent, for a consider- able period after the completion of the drying process. The taste, though less decided than in the fresh state, is still acrid, manifesting itself- after the root has been chewed for a short time, by a prickling and smarting sensation in the mouth and throat. The acrimony, how- ever, is dissipated by heat, and is entirely lost in decoction. It is also diminished by time and exposure; and the root should not be kept for use longer than a single season. Medical Properties and Uses.—The properties of this root are those of a stimulant, antispasmodic, and narcotic. In large doses it occasions nausea and vomiting, with headach, vertigo, and dimness of vision. Dr. Bigelow has witnessed these effects from thirty grains of the re- cently dried root. The medicine was introduced into notice by the Rev. Dr. Cutler, who recommended it highly as an antispasmodic in asthma, and it has been subsequently employed with apparent advantage in chro- nic catarrh, chronic rheumatism, and hysteria. Cures are also said to have been effected by its use in dropsy. It is best given in powder, of which the dose is from ten to twenty grains, to be repeated three or four times a day, and gradually increased till some evidence of its action is afforded. A strong infusion is some- times employed; and the people in the country prepare a syrup from the fresh root; but the latter preparation is very unequal. The root itself, as kept in the shops, is of uncertain strength, in consequence of its deterioration by age. DULCAMARA. U.S. Bittersweet. " Solanum dulcamara. Caulis. The stalk." U.S. Off. Syn. DULCAMARA CAULIS. Solanum Dulcamara. Caulis. Lond.; SOLANI DULCAMARJE CAULES, Ed.; SOLANUM DUL- CAMARA. Caules. Dub. Douce-amere, Fr.,- Bittersiiss, Alpranken, Germ.; Dulcamara, Hal., Span. Solanum. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Solaneae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla wheel-shaped. Anthers somewhat coalescing, open- ing by two pores at the apex. Berry two-celled. Willd. Solanum Dulcamara. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1028; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 237. t. 84; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 169. The bittersweet or woody nightshade is a climbing shrub, with a slender, roundish, branching, woody stem, which, in favourable situations, rises six or eight feet in height. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, ovate, pointed, veined, soft, smooth, and of a dull green colour. Many near the top of the stem are furnished with lateral projections at their base, giving them a hastate form. Most of them are quite entire, some cordate at the base. The 278 Dulcamara. part i. flowers are disposed in elegant clusters, somewhat analogous to cymes, and standing opposite to the leaves. The calyx is very small, purplish, and divided into five blunt persistent segments. The corolla is wheel- shaped, with five pointed reflected segments, which are of a violet-blue colour, with a darker purple vein running longitudinally through their centre, and two shining greenish spots at the base of each. The fila- ments are very short, and support large erect lemon-yellow anthers, which cohere in the form of a cone around the style. The berries are of an oval shape and a bright scarlet colour, and continue to hang in beautiful bunches after the leaves have fallen. This plant is common to Europe and North America. It flourishes most luxuriantly in damp and sheltered places, as on the banks of rivu- lets, and among the thickets which border our natural meadows. It is also found in higher and more exposed situations, and is frequently cul- tivated in gardens. In the United States it extends from New England to Ohio, and is in bloom from June to August. The root and stalk are possessed of the medicinal properties of the plant, though the latter only is officinal. The berries, which were formerly esteemed poisonous, and thought to act with great severity on the stomach and bowels, are now said to be innoxious. Bittersweet should be gathered in autumn, after the fall of the leaf; and the extreme twigs should be selected. That grown in high and dry situations is said to be the best. The dried twigs, as brought to the shops, are of various lengths, cylindrical, about as thick as a goose-quill, externally wrinkled and of a grayish-ash colour, consisting of a thin bark, an interior ligneous por- tion, and a central pith. They are inodorous, though the stalk in the recent state emits, when bruised, a peculiar, rather nauseous smell. Their taste, which is at first bitter, and afterwards sweetish, has given origin to the name of the plant. Boiling water extracts all their virtues. M. Desfosses has discovered in them a peculiar alkaline principle, called solanine (solania), upon which their narcotic properties are supposed to depend. It is in the form of a white opaque powder, inodorous, of a bit- terish taste, scarcely soluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, and capable of neutralizing the acids. Solania is obtained by precipitating the decoction of bittersweet with ammonia or magnesia, washing the precipitate with cold water, and then treating it with boiling alcohol, which deposites the alkaline principle on cooling. It exists in the stalks and leaves of the Solanum Dulcamara combined with malic acid, and has been found in some other species of the same genus. Medical Properties and Uses.—Dulcamara possesses narcotic proper- ties, with the power of increasing the secretions, particularly that of the kidneys and skin. Its narcotic effects do not become obvious, unless when it is taken in large quantities. In overdoses it produces nausea, vomiting, faintness, vertigo, and convulsive muscular movements. It has been recommended in various diseases, but.is now nearly confined to the treatment of cutaneous eruptions, particularly those of a scaly character, as lepra, psoriasis, and ptyriasis. In these complaints it is often decidedly beneficial, especially in combination with minute doses of the antimonials. Its influence-upon the secretions is insufficient to account for its favourable effects; and we must be content with ascrib- ing them to an alterative action. It is said to have been beneficially em- ployed in chronic rheumatism. The usual form of administration is that of the decoction, of which two fluidounces may be taken four times a day, and gradually increased till some slight disorder of the head indi- cates the activity of the medicine. (See Decoctum Dulcamarae.) An ex- part i. Dulcamara.—Elaterium. 219 tract may also be prepared, of which the dose is from five to ten grains. That of the powder would be from thirty grains to a drachm. In cutaneous affections a strong decoction is often applied to the skin, at the same time that the medicine is taken internally. Off. Prep. Decoctum Dulcamarae, U.S., Lond. ELATERIUM. U.S. Elaterium. ''Momordica elaterium. Materia fructus succo demissa. The sub- stance deposited by the juice of the fruit." U. S. Off Syn. ELATERII PEPONES. Momordica Elaterium. Pepones recentes.—EXTRACTUM ELATERII.Lond.; ELATERIUM. Ex Mo- mordica Elaterio. Ed.; MOMORDICA ELATERIUM. Fructus. Fse- cula. Folia.—ELATERIUM.—EXTRACTUM ELATERII. Dub. Elaterion, Fr.; Elaterium, Germ.; Elaterio, Hal., Span. Momordica. Class Monoecia. Order Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Cucur- bitaceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-parted. Filaments three. Female. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-parted. Style trifid. Gourd bursting elastically. Willd. Momordica Elaterium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 605; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 192. t. 72. The wild or squirting cucumber is a perennial plant, with a large fleshy root, from which proceed several round, thick, rough stems, branching and trailing like the common cucumber, but without tendrils. The leaves are petiolate, large, rough, irregularly cordate, and of a grayish-green colour. The flowers are yellow, and proceed from the axils of the leaves. The fruit has the shape of a small oval cucumber, about an inch and a half long, an inch thick, of a greenish or grayish Colour, and covered with stiff hairs or prickles. When fully ripe, it separates from the peduncle, and throws out its juice and seed with considerable force through an opening at the base, where it was attached to the footstalk. The name of squirting cucumber was derived from this circumstance, and the scientific and officinal title is supposed to have had a similar origin; though some authors maintain that the term elaterium was applied to the medicine, rather from the mode of its operation upon the boWels, than from the projectile property of the fruit.* This species of Momordica is a native of the South of Europe; and is cultivated in Great Britain, where, however, it perishes in the win- ter. Elaterium is the substance spontaneously deposited by the juice of the fruit, when separated, and allowed to stand. Dr. Clutterbuck of London has proved that it is contained only in the free juice which sur- rounds the seeds, and which is obtained without expression. The body of the fruit itself, the seeds, as well as other parts of the plant, are nearly or quite inert. When the fruit is sliced and placed upon a sieve, a per- fectly limpid and colourless juice flows out, which after a short time becomes turbid, and in the course of a few hours begins to deposite a sediment. This, when collected and carefully dried, is very light and pulverulent, of a yellowish-white colour, slightly tinged with green. It is the genuine elaterium, and was found by Clutterbuck to purge vio- • From the Greek sx*uva> I drive, or exarxg driver. The vvord eUterium was used by Hippocrates to signify any active purge. Dioscorides applied it to the medicine of which we are treating. 280 Elaterium. PART I. lently in the dose of one-eighth of a grain. But the quantity contained in the fruit is exceedingly small. Clutterbuck obtained only six grains from forty cucumbers. Commercial elaterium is a much weaker medi- cine, owing in part, perhaps, to adulteration, but much more to the mode in which it is prepared. In order to increase the product, the juice of the fruit is often expressed; and there is reason to believe that it is sometimes evaporated so as to form an extract, instead of being allowed to deposite the active matter. The French elaterium is prepared by expressing the juice, clarifying it by rest and filtration, and then eva- porating it to a suitable consistence. As the liquid which remains after the deposition of the sediment is comparatively inert, it will be readily perceived that the preparation of the French Codex must be very feeble. The following are the directions of the London College, with which those of the Dublin College essentially correspond. " Slice ripe wild cucumbers, express the juice very gently, and pass it through a very fine hair sieve into a glass vessel; then set it aside for some hours until the thicker part has subsided. Reject the thinner, supernatant part, and dry the thicker part with a gentle heat." The product thus obtained is less pure than the elaterium of Clutterbuck; but is probably the prepa- ration usually imported from England. It is very incorrectly denomi- nated by the London and Dublin Colleges Extractum Elaterii, as it is neither an extract, strictly speaking, nor an inspissated juice. In the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and Edinburgh, it is named simply Elaterium. As the plant is not cultivated in this country for medicinal purposes, our Pharmacopoeia very properly adopts as officinal, the medi- cine as it is found in commerce. Properties.—The elaterium of the shops is in thin flat cakes or frag- ments, often bearing the impression of the muslin upon which it was dried, of a greenish-gray colour, and a bitter, somewhat acrid taste. When good, it is light, pulverulent, and inflammable. As it is ex- ceedingly variable in strength, in consequence either of adulteration or improper preparation, it is an object of some importance to ascertain in what principle its virtues reside, and to discover a mode of isolating that principle. Dr. Paris found that the alcoholic extract, treated with boiling distilled water and afterwards dried, had the property of purg- ing in very minute doses, while the remaining portion of the elaterium was inactive. Supposing this substance to be the active ingredient, he gave it the name of elatin; but from the very minute quantity of elate- rium upon which he operated, his results are by no means satisfactory. The more recent experiments of Mr. Hennel of London and Mr. Mor- ries of Edinburgh, have demonstrated the existence of a crystallizable matter in elaterium, which will probably be found to be the purgative prin- ciple; and the elatin of Dr. Paris, to be a mixture of this substance and chlorophylle, or the green colouring matter of vegetables. Mr. Mor- ries has proposed for the newly discovered principle the appropriate name of elaterin. From the analysis of Mr. Hennel, it appears that 100 parts of elaterium contain 44 of the crystallizable substance (elate- rin), 17 of a green resin (probably chlorophylle), 6 of starch, 27 of woody fibre, and 6 of saline matters. But the analysis cannot be consi- dered as complete.* Elaterin, according to Mr. Morries, crystallizes when pure in co- • See a paper by Mr. Henry Hennel in the Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, May 1831; also a paper by Mr. John D. Morries in the Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. April 1831. PART I. Elaterium. 281 lourless microscopic rhombic prisms, which have a silky appearance when in mass. It is extremely bitter and rather styptic to the taste, in- soluble in water and alkaline solutions, soluble in alcohol, ether, and hot olive oil, and sparingly soluble in dilute acids. At a temperature between 300° and 400° it melts, and 'at *a higher temperature is dissi- pated in thick, whitish, pungent vapour, having an ammoniacal odour. It has no alkaline reaction. Mr. Morries procures it by evaporating an alcoholic tincture of elaterium to the consistence of thin oil, and throw- ing the residue while yet warm into boiling distilled water. A copious white precipitate immediately forms, and increases as the liquor cools. This, when separated and well washed with distilled water, is the elate- rin sufficiently pure for medical use^It may be rendered quite pure by dissolving in alcohol, evaporating, and precipitating as before. Mr. Hennel obtained it by treating with ether the alcoholic extract procured by the spontaneous evaporation of the tincture. This consists of elate- rin and the green resin (chlorophylle), the latter of which being much more soluble in ether than the former, is completely extracted by this fluid, leaving the elaterin pure. But as elaterin is also slightly soluble in ether, a portion of this principle is wasted by Mr. Hennel's method. By evaporarting the ethereal solution the green resin is obtained in a sep- arate state. Mr. Hennel states that this was found to possess the pur- gative property of the elaterium in a concentrated state, as it acted powerfully in a dose less than one-third of a grain. But this effect was probably owing to the presence of a portion of elaterin which had been dissolved by the ether. Dr. Duncan of Edinburgh ascertained that the crystalline principle or elaterin, which was not tried by Mr. Hennel, produced, in the quantity of -Jgth or -Jg-th of a grain, all the effects of a dose of elaterium. The quantity of elaterin varies exceedingly in dif- ferent parcels of the drug. Mr. Morries obtained 26 per cent, from the best British elaterium, 15 per cent, from the worst, and only 5 or 6 per cent, from the French; while a portion procured according to the direc- tions of the London College, yielded to Mr. Hennel upwards of 40 per cent. This great diversity in the strength of elaterium renders the sub- stitution of its purgative principle highly desirable. Medical Properties and Uses.—Elaterium is a powerful hydragogue cathartic, and in the full dose generally excites nausea and vomiting. If too freely administered, it operates with great violence both upon the stomach and bowels, producing inflammation of these organs, which has in some instances eventuated fatally. It also increases the flow of urine. The fruit was employed by the ancients, and is recommended in the writings of Dioscorides as a remedy in mania and melancholy. Syd- enham and his cotemporaries considered elaterium highly useful in dropsy; but, in consequence of some fatal results from its incautious employment, it fell into disrepute, and was generally neglected, till again brought into notice by Dr. Ferriar. It is now considered one of the most efficient hydragogue cathartics in the treatment of dropsical diseases, in which it has sometimes proved successful after all other remedies have failed. The full dose of the commercial elaterium is from one to two grains; but as in this quantity it generally vomits, if of ordinary strength, the best mode of administering it is in the dose of half a grain repeated every hour till it operates. The dose of Clutter- buck's elaterium is |th of a grain. That of elaterin is from TVth to TVth of a grain, and is best given in solution. One grain may be dissolved in a fluidounce of alcohol with four drops of nitric acid, and from 30 to 40 minims may be given diluted with water. 36 282 Elemi. part i. ELEMI. Lond., Dub. Elemi. " Amyris elemifera. Resina." Lond., Dub. Resine elemi, Fr,- Oelbaumharz, Elemi, Germ.,- Elemi, ltal.; Goma de limon, Span. Amyris. Class Octandria. Order Monogynia.—Ned. Ord. Terebin- taceae, Juss.; Amyrideae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Calyx four-toothed. Petals four, oblong. Stigma four-corner- ed. Berry drupaceous. Willd. Some botanists separate from this genus the species which have their fruit in the form of a capsule instead of a nut, and associate them to- gether in a distinct genus, with the name of Idea. This is recognised by De Candolle. Most of the trees belonging to these two genera yield, when wound- ed, a resinous juice analogous to the turpentines, and differing little as procured from the different species. It is not improbable that the drug usually known by the name of elemi, though referred by the Colleges to one tree, is in fact derived from several. That known to the ancients is said to have been obtained from Ethiopia, and all the elemi of commerce was originally brought from the Levant. The tree which afforded it was not accurately known, but was supposed to be a species of Amyris. At present the drug is taken to Europe from Brazil, and is believed to be the product of a plant mentioned by Marcgrav under the name of icica- riba, and considered by Linnaeus as the Amyris elemifera. It appears, however, to be properly an Idea, and De Candolle denominates it /. Icicariba. We can find no detailed description of the tree. It has a lofty trunk, with pinnate leaves, consisting of three or five pointed, perforated leaflets, which are smooth on their upper surface, and woolly beneath. It is erroneously stated in some works to be a native of Carolina. The elemi is obtained by incisions into the tree, through which the juice flows and concretes upon the bark. It is in masses of various consistence, sometimes solid and heavy, like wax, sometimes light and porous; unctuous to the touch; diaphanous; of diversified colours, generally greenish with intermingled points of white or yellow, sometimes greenish-white with brown stains, sometimes yellow like sulphur; fragile and friable when cold; softening by the heat of the hand; of a terebinthinate somewhat aromatic odour, dimi- nishing with age, and said, in some varieties, to resemble that of fennel; of a warm, slightly bitter, disagreeable taste; entirely soluble, with the exception of impurities, in boiling alcohol; and affording a volatile oil by distillation. It consists, according to M. Bonastre, of 60 parts of resin, 24 of a resinous matter soluble in boiling alcohol, but deposited when the liquid cools, 12.5 parts of volatile oil, 2 of extractive, and 1.5 of acid and impurities. It is sometimes adulterated with colophony and turpentine. Medical Properties and Uses.—Elemi has properties analogous to those of the turpentines; but is exclusively applied to external use. In the United States it is rarely employed even in this way. In the pharmacy of Europe it enters into the composition of numerous plasters and oint- ments. We are told that it is occasionally brought to this country in small fragments mixed with the coarser kinds of gum Arabic from the Levant and India. Off. Prep. Unguent. Elemi, Dub.; Unguent. Elemi Comp., Lond. part i. Erigeron Canadense.—E. Heterophyllum. 283 ERIGERON CANADENSE. U.S. Secondary. Canada Fleabane. " Erigeron Canadense. Planta. The plant." U.S. Erigeron. Class Syngenesia. Order Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Corymbif- erae, Juss.; Compositae Corymbiferae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx imbricated, sub-hemispherical, in fruit often reflected. Florets of the ray linear, very narrow, numerous. Receptacle naked. Pap- pus double, exterior minute, interior pilose, of few rays. Nuttall. Erigeron Canadense. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1954. This is an indigenous annual plant, with a stem from two to six feet high, covered with stiff hairs, and divided into numerous branches. The leaves are linear lan- ceolate, and edged with hairs; those at the root are dentate. The flowers are very small, numerous, white, and arranged in terminal panicles. They differ from those of the other species of Erigeron in having an oblong calyx, the rays very minute and more numerous than the florets of the disk, and the seed-down simple. Hence by some botanists the plant is placed in a sub-genus with the title Csenotus. Another variety of the E. Canadense, which Mr. Nuttall makes a distinct species, with the title E. pusilum, is not more than from four to six inches high, and has an erect smooth stem, less branched than the preceding, with all its leaves entire, and scabrous on the margin. The panicle is simple, and the peduncles filiform, nearly naked, divaricate, each bearing two or three flowers. The Canada fleabane is very common throughout the northern and middle sections of the United States, and has become naturalized in many parts of Europe. It abounds in neglected fields, and blooms in July and August. The plant, all parts of which are medicinal, should be collected while in flower. The leaves and flowers are said to possess its peculiar virtues in greatest perfection. This species of Erigeron has an agreeable odour, and a bitterish, acrid, somewhat astringent taste. Among its constituents, according to Dr. De Puy, are bitter extractive, tannin, gallic acid, and volatile oil. Both alcohol and water extract its virtues. Its acrimony is diminished by decoction, probably in consequence of the escape of the oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—From the observations of Dr. De Puy, it appears to be diuretic, tonic, and astringent; and has been found use- ful in dropsical complaints, and diarrhoea. It maybe given in substance, infusion, tincture, or extract. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm; of an infusion prepared in the proportion of an ounce of the plant to a pint of boiling water, from two to four fluidounces; of the aqueous extract from five to ten grains. In each case the dose should be repeated every two or three hours. ERIGERON HETEROPHYLLUM. U.S. Secondary. Various-leaved Fleabane. " Erigeron heterophyllum. Planta. The plant." U. S. ERIGERON PHILADELPHICUM. U.S. Secondary. Philadelphia Fleabane. "Erigeron Philadelphicum. Planta. The plant." U.S. Erigeron. See ERIGERON CANADENSE. 1. Erigeron heterophyllum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1956; Barton, Am. 284 Erigeron Philadelphicum. part i, Med. Bot. i. 231. This is a biennial herbaceous plant, belonging both to North America and Europe. It has a branching root, from which proceed several erect, roundish, striated, pubescent stems, much divided near the top, and rising two or three feet in height. The lower leaves are ovate, acute, deeply toothed, and supported upon long winged foot- stalks; the upper are lanceolate, acute, deeply serrate in the middle, and sessile; the floral leaves are lanceolate and entire; all, except those from the root, are ciliate at the base. The flowers are in terminal corymbs. The florets of the disk are yellow, those of the ray numerous, very slen- der, and of a white, pale blue, or pale purple colour. The flowering period is from June to October. Erigeron Philadelphicum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1957; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 227. The Philadelphia fleabane is perennial and herbaceous, with a branching yellowish root, and from one to five erect stems, which rise two or three feet in height, and are much branched at top. The whole plant is pubescent. The lower leaves are ovate lanceolate, nearly obtuse, ciliate on the margin, entire or marked with a few serratures, and sup- ported on very long footstalks; the upper are narrow, oblong, somewhat wedge-shaped, obtuse, entire, sessile, and slightly embrace the stem; the floral leaves are small and lanceolate. The flowers are numerous, radiate, and disposed in a panicled corymb, with long peduncles bearing from one to three flowers. They resemble those of the preceding species in colour, and make their appearance at about the same period. We include these two species under one head, because they grow together, possess identical medical properties, and are indiscriminately employed. They are found in various parts of the United States, and abound in the fields about Philadelphia, where they are known and used under the common though inaccurate name of scabious. The whole herb is used, and should be collected while the plants are in flower. It has an aromatic odour, and a slightly bitterish taste; and imparts its properties to boiling water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Fleabane is diuretic, without being offensive to the stomach. It is a favourite remedy with some highly respectable practitioners of Philadelphia in gravel and other nephritic diseases, and has been employed with advantage in dropsy. By the late Dr. Wistar it was recommended in hydrothorax complicated with gout. When the obstinate character and long continuance of certain dropsical affections are considered, the advantage must appear obvious, of having numerous remedies calculated to mitigate the symptoms without ex- hausting the strength of the patient, so that when one has lost its power from repetition, we may appeal to another with some prospect of benefit. On this account it is, that fleabane is worthy the notice of the profes- sion. It cannot be relied on for the cure of dropsy. It is most conveniently administered in infusion or decoction, of which a pint, containing the virtues of an ounce of the herb, may be given in twenty-four hours. ERYNGIUM. U.S. Secondary. Button Snakeroot. " Eryngium aquaticum. Radix. The root." U. S. Eryngium. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae, Juss. part i. Eryngium.—Erythronium. 285 Gen. Ch. Flowers capitate. Involucrum many-leaved. Proper Calyx five- parted, superior, persistent. Corolla of five petals. Receptacle foliaceous, segments acute or cuspidate. Fruit bipartile. Nuttall. Eryngium aquaticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1357. The button snakeroot or water eryngo is an indigenous herbaceous plant, with a perennial tu- berous root, and a stem two or three feet high, sometimes, according to Pursh, six feet, generally branching by forks, but trichotomous above. The leaves are very long, linear-lanceolate on the upper part of the stem, sword-shaped below, with bristly spines at distant intervals upon their margin. The floral leaves are lanceolate and dentate. The flowers are white or pale blue, and disposed in globose heads, with the leaflets of the involucrum shorter than the head, and, like the scales of the recept- acle, entire. This plant is found in low wet places, from Virginia to Carolina. Its period of flowering is August. The root, which is the medicinal portion, has a bitter, pungent, aro- matic taste, provoking, when chewed, a flow of saliva. It is diapho- retic, expectorant, in large doses occasionally emetic; and is used by some physicians in decoction as a substitute for seneka. (Bigelow.) We are told in Barton's "Collections," that it is nearly allied to the contrayerva of the shops. ERYTHRONIUM. U.S. Secondary. Erythronium. 11 Erythronium Americanum. Planta. The plant." U.S. Erythronium. Class Hexandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lilia, Juss.; Liliaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla inferior, six-petalled; the three inner petals with a callous prominence on each edge near the base. Bigelow. Erythronium Americanum. Muhl. Catalogue 84; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 151.—E. lanceolatum. Pursh, p. 230. This is an indigenous perennial bulbous plant, sometimes called, after the European species, dog's tooth violet. The bulb, which is brown externally, white and solid within, sends up a single naked slender flower-stem, and two smooth lanceolate nearly equal leaves, sheathing at their base, with an obtuse callous point, and of a brownish-green colour diversified by numerous irregular spots. The flower is solitary, nodding, yellow, with oblong lanceolate petals obtuse at the point, a club-shaped undivided style, and a three-lobed stigma. The Erythronium grows in woods and other shady places throughout the Northern and Middle States. It flowers in the latter part of April or early in May. All parts of it are active. In the dose of twenty or thirty grains, the recent bulb acts as an eme- tic. The leaves are said to be more powerful. The activity of the plant is diminished by drying. So far as we are at present acquainted with its virtues, it may be considered a useless addition to the Materia Medica. Having, however, been adopted in the original edition of the Pharma- copoeia, it was deemed best, upon the revision of that work, not to ex- punge it from the catalogue till it had undergone a longer period of trial. 286 Eupatorium Perfoliatum. part i, EUPATORIUM PERFOLIATUM. U.S. Thoroughwort. "Eupatorium perfoliatum. Herba. The herb." U.S. Eupatorium. Class Syngenesia. Order jEqualis.—Nat. Ord. Corym- biferae, Juss.; Compositae Corymbiferae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx simple or imbricate, oblong. Style long, and semi- bifid. Receptacle naked. Pappus pilose, or more commonly scabrous. Seed smooth and glandular, quinquestriate. Nuttall. Of this numerous genus, comprising not less than thirty species with- in the limits of the United States, most of which probably possess ana- logous medical properties, three have found a place in the Pharmaco- poeia of the United States—the E. perfoliatum, E. teucrifolium, and E. purpureum—the first in the primary, the last two in the secondary list. The E. cannabinum of Europe, the root of which was formerly used as a purgative; and the E. Aya-pana of Brazil, the leaves of which at one time enjoyed a very high reputation as a remedy in numerous diseases, have fallen into entire neglect. The Aya-pana is an aromatic bitter, with the medical properties of the E. perfoliatum in an inferior degree. Eupatorium perfoliatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1761; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 33; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 125. The thoroughwort, or, as it is perhaps more frequently called, boneset, is an indigenous perennial plant, with numerous herbaceous stems, which are erect, round, hairy, from two to five feet high, simple below, and trichotomously branched near the summit. The character of the leaves is peculiar, and serves to distinguish the species at the first glance. They may be considered either as perforated by the stem, perfoliate, or as consisting each of two leaves joined at the base, connate. Considered in the latter point of view, they are opposite and in pairs, which decussate each other at regular distances upon the stem; in other words, the direction of each pair is at right angles with that of the pair immediately above or beneath it. They are narrow in proportion to their length, broadest at the base where they coalesce, gradually tapering to a point, serrate, much wrin- kled, paler on the under than the upper surface, and beset with whitish hairs which give them a grayish-green colour. The uppermost pairs are sessile, not joined at the base. The flowers are white, numerous, supported on hairy peduncles, in dense corymbs, which form a flattened summit to the plant. The calyx, which is cylindrical and composed of imbricated, lanceolate, hairy scales, encloses from twelve to fifteen tu- bular florets, having their border divided into five spreading segments. The anthers are five in number, black, and united into a tube, through which the bifid filiform style projects above the flower. This species of Eupatorium inhabits meadows, the banks of streams, and other moist places, growing generally in bunches, and abounding in almost all parts of the United States. It flowers from the middle of summer to the latter end of October. All parts of it are active-; but the herb only is officinal. It has a faint odour, and a strongly bitter somewhat peculiar taste. The bitterness and probably the medical virtues of the plant reside in an extractive matter, which is readily taken up by water or alcohol. No accurate analysis of thoroughwort has been made since the recent im- provements in this department of chemistry. Medical Properties and Uses.—Thoroughwort is tonic, diaphoretic, and PART I. Eupatorium Purpureum.—E. Teucrifolium. 287 in large doses emetic and aperient. It is said to have been employed by the Indians in intermittent fever, and has proved successful in the cure of the same complaint in the hands of several regular practitioners. The general experience, however, is not in its favour. We have seen it effectual in arresting intermittents when given freely in warm decoc- tion, immediately before the expected recurrence of the paroxysm; but it operated in this instance by its emetic rather than its tonic power. The medicine has also been used as a tonic and diaphoretic in remittent and typhoid fevers, and is said to have been productive of advantage in yellow fever. Given in warm infusion, so as to produce vomiting or copious perspiration, in the commencement of catarrh, it will frequently arrest that complaint. It has even been recommended as a diaphoretic in inflammatory rheumatism; and may prove serviceable if administered in the absence of general arterial excitement. As a tonic it has been given with advantage in dyspepsia, general debility, and other cases in which the simple bitters are employed. With a view to its tonic effect, it is best administered in substance or in cold infusion. The dose of the powder is twenty or thirty grains, that of the infusion a fluidounce, frequently repeated. (See Infusum Eupa- torii Perfoliati.) When the diaphoretic operation is required in addition to the tonic, the infusion should be administered warm and the patient remain covered in bed. As an emetic and cathartic, a strong decoction, prepared by boiling an ounce with three half pints of water to a pint, may be given in doses of one or two gills, or more. Off. Prep. Infusum Eupatorii Perfoliati. U. S. EUPATORIUM PURPUREUM. U.S. Secondary. Gravel-root. "Eupatorium purpureum. Radix. The root." U.S. Eupatorium. See EUPATORIUM PERI')LIATUM. Eupatorium purpureum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1759. This species of Eupatorium is, like the preceding, a perennial herbaceous plant. Its stem is hollow, of a purple colour, five or six feet high, and furnished with ovate lanceolate, serrate, rugosely veined, slightly scabrous leaves, which are petiolate, and placed four or five together in the form of whorls. The flowers are purple, consisting of numerous florets contained in an eight-leaved calyx. It grows in swamps and other low grounds, from Canada to Virginia, and flowers in August and September. The root is the officinal portion. This, according to Dr. Bigelow, has a bitter, aromatic, and astrin- gent taste; and is said to operate as a diuretic. Its vulgar name of gravel-root indicates the popular estimation of its virtues. EUPATORIUM TEUCRIFOLIUM. U.S. Secondary. Wild Horehound. " Eupatorium teucrifolium. Herba. The herb." U.S. Eupatorium. See EUPATORIUM PERFOLIATUM. Eupatorium teucrifolium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1753.—E. pilosum. Walt. Flor. Car. 199.—E. verbenaefolium. Mich. Flor. Am. ii. 98. The wild horehound is an indigenous perennial, with an herbaceous stem about two feet high, supporting sessile, distinct, ovate, acute, scabrous 288 Euphorbia Corollata. PART I. leaves, of which the lower are coarsely serrate at the base, the upper- most entire. The flowers are small, white, consisting of five florets within each calyx, and disposed in the form of a corymb. The plant grows in low wet places, from New England to Georgia, and is very abundant in the Southern States. It is in flower from August to Novem- ber. The whole herb is employed. In sensible properties it corresponds with the E. perfoliatum, though less bitter and disagreeable to the taste. It is said to be tonic, diapho- retic, diuretic, and aperient; and in the South is much employed as a domestic remedy in intermittents and other fevers, to which the country upon the seaboard is subject. Dr. Jones, formerly president of the Georgia Medical Society, was the first to make its properties known to the profession. It is usually administered infused in water. One quart of the infusion, containing the virtues of an ounce of the plant, may be given in divided doses during the day. EUPHORBIA COROLLATA. U.S. Secondary. Large Flowering Spurge. " Euphorbia corollata. Radix. The root." U.S. Euphorbia. Class Dodecandria. Order Trigynia. Linn.; Moncecia Monadelphia, Michaux."—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiae, Juss.; Euphorbiaceae, Ad. de Juss., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Involucrum caliciform, eight to ten toothed, exterior alternate dentures glanduloid or petaloid. Stamina indefinite, twelve or more, rarely less; filaments articulated. Receptacle squamose. Female flower solitary, stipitate, naked. Capsule three-grained. Nuttall. American botanists have generally followed Michaux in placing the Euphorbia in the class and order Moncecia monadelphia. The genus con- tains very numerous species, which have the common property of yield- ing a milky juice. They are herbaceous or shrubby, with or without leaves; and the leafless species, which are chiefly confined to the Afri- can deserts, have fleshy, naked, or spiny stems, resembling the genus Cactus. They nearly all afford products which act powerfully as emetics and cathartics, and in overdoses give rise to dangerous if not fatal pros- tration, with symptoms of inflamed gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. Their milky juice, which concretes on exposure to the air, usually pos- sesses these properties in a high degree, and, in addition, that of power- fully irritating the skin when externally applied. Two species only are acknowledged in our national Pharmacopoeia, the E. corollata and E. Ipecacuanha, which are both indigenous. Euphorbia corollata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 916; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 119. The blooming or large-flowering spurge, in common language frequently called milk-weed, is a tall erect plant, with a large, perennial, branching, yellowish root, which sends up several stems, from two to five feet in height, round, and generally simple. The leaves, which stand irregularly upon the stem, and without footstalks, are oblong, obovate, wedge-form or linear, flat or revolute at the margin, smooth in some plants, and hairy in others. The flowers are disposed upon a large terminal umbel, with a five-leaved involucrum, and five trifid and dichotomous rays, at each fork of which are two oblong bractes. The calyx is large, rotate, white, with five obtuse segments, closely resem- bling a corolla, from which the species has been named. At the base of these divisions are five interior smaller segments, which are described part i. Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 2S9 as nectaries by many systematic writers, while the larger are considered as belonging to a real corolla. The stamens are twelve, evolving gra- dually, with double anthers. Many flowers have only stamens. The pis- til, when existing, has three bifid styles. The fruit is a smooth, three- celled capsule. The plant grows in various parts of the United States, from Canada to Florida, and abounds in Maryland and Virginia. It prefers a dry, barren, and sandy soil, seldom growing in woods or on the borders of streams. Its flowers appear in July and August. The root is the only part used. This, when full grown, is sometimes an inch in thickness, and two feet i" length. It is without unpleasant taste, producing only a sense of heat a short time after it has been taken. The medical virtues are said to reside in the cortical portion, which is thick, and constitutes two- thirds of the whole root. They are taken up by water and alcohol, and remain in the extract formed by the evaporation of the decoction or tincture. Medical Properties and Uses.—In a full dose, the root of the E. corollata operates actively and with sufficient certainty as an emetic, producing ordinarily several discharges from the stomach, and not unfrequently acting with considerable energy upon the bowels. In quantities insuf- ficient to vomit, it excites nausea, almost always followed by brisk purg- ing. In still smaller doses it is diaphoretic and expectorant. It cannot, however, like ipecacuanha, be given largely in cases of insensibility of stomach, without endangering hypercatharsis with inflammation of the mucous coat of the stomach and bowels. It is in fact greatly inferior to this emetic in mildness, while it is no less inferior'to the tartarized antimony in certainty. It is objectionable as a purge, in consequence of the nausea which it occasions, when given in cathartic doses. Dr. Zol- lickoffer of Baltimore was the first to introduce it to the particular notice of the medical profession. It is little prescribed, and seldom kept in the shops. The dose of the dried root as an emetic is from ten to twenty grains, as a cathartic from three to ten grains. The recent root, bruised and applied to the skin, produces vesication. EUPHORBIA IPECACUANHA. U.S. Secondary. Ipecacuanha Spurge. " Euphorbia ipecacuanha. Radix. The root." U.S. Euphorbia. See EUPHORBIA COROLLATA. Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 900; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 211; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 108. The ipecacuanha spurge, or as it is sometimes called, American ipecacuanha, is a singular plant, vary- ing so muCh in the shape and colour of its leaves, and in its whole aspect, that mere individual peculiarities might without care be attributed to a real specific difference. The root is perennial, of a yellowish colour, irregular, and very large, penetrating sometimes to the depth of six or seven feet in the sand, and in its thickest part, measuring from three quarters of an inch to one inch and a half in diameter. The stems are numerous, herbaceous, erect or procumbent, smooth, dichotomous, jointed at the forks, white under the ground, red, pale-green, or yellow above, sometimes almost buried in the sand, usually forming thick low bunches upon its surface. The leaves are opposite, sessile, entire, smooth, generally oval, but sometimes round, obovate, or even lanceo- 37 290 Euphorbias Gummi-resina. part i. late or linear. They are small early in the spring, and increase in size with the age of the plant. Their colour varies from green to crimson. The flowers are solitary, and stand on long axillary peduncles. The calyx is spreading, with five exterior obtuse segments, and the same number of inner, smaller segments or nectaries. The fertile flowers have a roundish, drooping, pedicelled germ, crowned with six revolute stigmas. The capsule is three-celled, and contains three seeds. The E. Ipecacuanha is indigenous, growing in pine barrens and other sandy places in the Middle and Southern States, especially along the sea-board, and abundant in New Jersey on the bank of the Delaware. It blooms from May to August. The root, which is the officinal por- tion, is, according to Dr. Barton, equally efficacious at whatever period collected. The dried root is light and brittle, of a grayish colour externally, white within, inodorous, and of a sweetish not unpleasant taste. Its ac- tive principle has not been isolated. Dr. Bigelow inferred from his ex- periments, that it contained caoutchouc, resin, gum, and probably starch. Medical Properties and Uses.—It is an energetic, tolerably certain emetic, rather milder than the E. corollata, but, like that, disposed to act upon the bowels, and liable, if given in overdoses, to produce exces- sive nausea and vomiting, general prostration, and alarming hyperca- tharsis. It is therefore wholly unfit to supersede ipecacuanha. In small doses it is diaphoretic. The specific name of the plant indicates that the emetic property of the root has been long known. The late Professor Barton alludes to it in his Collections; but it did not come into general notice till after the publication of Dr. W. P. C. Barton's Medical Bo- tany. The dose of the powdered root is from ten to fifteen grains. EUPHORBLE GUMMI-RESINA. Lond. Euphorbium. " Euphorbia officinarum. Gummi-resina." Lond. Off. Syn. EUPHORBIA CANARIENSIS. Gummi-resina. Dub. Euphorbe, Fr.; Euphorbium, Germ.; Euforbio, Hal, Span. Euphorbia. See EUPHORBIA COROLLATA. Euphorbium is obtained from several species of Euphorbia, most abundantly from the E. officinarum, which grows in the North of Af- rica and at the Cape of Good Hope, the E. Canariensis, a native of the Canary Islands and Western Africa, and the E. antiquorum, inhabiting Egypt, Arabia, and the East Indies, and supposed to be the plant from which the ancients derived this resinous product. These species of Eu- phorbia bear a considerable resemblance in their general form to the Cactus, having leafless, jointed, angular stems, divided into branches of a similar structure, and furnished with double prickles at the angles. When wounded, they give out an acrid milky juice, which concretes upon the surface of the plant, and being removed, constitutes the eu- phorbium of commerce. This occurs in the shape of tears, or in oblong or roundish masses, about the size of a pea or larger, often forked, and perforated with one or two small conical holes, produced by the prickles of the plant, around which the juice has concreted, and which sometimes remain in the holes. The masses are occasionally large and mixed with impurities. The surface is dull and smooth, bearing some resemblance to that of trag- acanth; the consistence somewhat friable; the colour light yellowish or PART I. Extractum Glycyrrhizae. 291 reddish; the odour scarcely perceptible; the taste at first slight, but afterwards excessively acrid and burning. The colour of the powder is yellowish. The sp. gr. of euphorbium is 1.124. Triturated with water, it renders the liquid milky, and is partially dissolved. Alcohol dissolves a larger portion, forming a yellowish tincture, which becomes milky on the addition of water. Its constituents, according to Pelletier, are re- sin, wax, malate of lime, malate of potassa, lignin, bassorin, volatile oil, and water. Euphorbium contains no gum, and is therefore incor- rectly called a gum-resin. The proportions of the ingredients are variously stated by different chemists, and probably vary in different specimens. The most abundant is resin, and the remainder consists chiefly of wax and malate of lime. The resin is excessively acrid, is soluble in alcohol, and when exposed to heat, melts, inflames, and burns with a brilliant flame, diffusing an agreeable odour. It is upon this prin- ciple that the acrimony of euphorbium chiefly depends. Medical Properties and Uses.—Euphorbium taken internally is emetic and cathartic, often acting with great violence, and in large doses pro- ducing severe gastric pain, excessive heat in the throat, and symptoms of great prostration. In consequence of the severity of its action, its internal use has been entirely abandoned. Applied to the mucous mem- brane of the nostrils, it excites violent irritation, attended with inces- sant sneezing, and sometimes bloody discharges. They who powder it are under the necessity of guarding their eyes, nostrils, and mouth, against the fine dust which rises. Largely diluted with wheat flour or starch, it may be used as an errhine in amaurosis, deafness, and other obstinate affections of the head. Externally applied, it inflames the skin, often producing vesication; and on the continent of Europe is sometimes used as an ingredient of epispastic preparations. It is em- ployed in veterinary practice, with a view to its vesicating power. As an article of the Materia Medica, however, it may well be dispensed with, and it has been very properly omitted in the Pharmacopceia of the United States. EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZiE. U.S. Liquorice. " Glycyrrhiza glabra. Radicis extractum. Extract of the root." U.S. Off. Syn. EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZJE, Lond., Dub.; EX- TRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA, Ed. Extrait de reglisse, Fr.; SUssholzsaft, Germ.; Sugo di liquirizia, Hal.; Regaliza en hollos, Span. For an account of the Glycyrrhiza glabra, see article GLYCYRRHIZA. The London and Dublin Colleges give directions for the preparation of this extract; but as it is never prepared in this country, it very properly occupies in the United States Pharmacopoeia, a place in the catalogue of the Materia Medica. Liquorice is an article of export from the North of Spain, particularly Catalonia, where it is obtained in the following manner. The roots of the G. glabra having been dug up, thoroughly cleansed, and half dried by exposure to the air, are cut into small pieces, and boiled in water till the liquid is saturated. The decoction is then allowed to rest, and after the dregs have subsided, is decanted, and evaporated to the proper con- sistence. The extract thus prepared is formed into rolls from five to six inches long, by an inch in diameter, which are dried in the air, and wrapped in laurel leaves. 292 Extractum Glycyrrhizse.—Faba Sancti Ignatii. part i. Much liquorice is also prepared in Calabria, according to M. Fee, from the G. echinata which abounds in that country. The process is essen- tially the same with that just described, but conducted with greater care; and the Italian liquorice is purer and more valuable than the Spanish. We have been told that most of the extract brought to this country comes directly from Sicily, and chiefly from the port of Mes- sina. Crude liquorice is in cylindrical rolls, somewhat flattened, and cover- ed with bay leaves. When good, it is very black, dry, brittle, breaking with a shining fracture, of a very sweet peculiar, slightly acrid or bit- terish taste, and almost entirely soluble in water. It is frequently, how- ever, very impure, either from adulteration or improper preparation. Starch, sand, the juice of prunes, &c, are sometimes added; and car- bonaceous matter, and even particles of copper are found in it, the lat- ter arising from the boilers in which the decoction is evaporated. Four pounds of the extract have yielded two drachms and a half of metallic copper. (Fee.) It is rarely quite soluble in water. Neumann obtained 460 parts of watery extract from 480 of Spanish liquorice. A bitter and empyreumatic taste are signs of inferior quality. Before being used in- ternally it generally requires to be purified. The refined liquorice kept in the shops in small cylindrical pieces not thicker than a pipe stem, is prepared by dissolving the impure ex- tract in water without boiling, straining the solution, and evaporating. The object of this process is to separate not only the insoluble impuri- ties, but also the acrid oily substance, which is extracted by long boiling from the liquorice root, and is necessarily mixed with the unrefined extract. It is customary to add during the process a portion of sugar, and sometimes perhaps mucilage or glue; and flour or starch is a fre- quent adulteration.' Excellent liquorice is prepared in some parts of England from the root cultivated in that country. The Pontrefact cakes are small lozenges of liquorice of a very superior quality, made in the vicinity of Pomfret. Medical Properties and Uses.—Liquorice is a useful demulcent, much employed as an addition to cough mixtures, and frequently added to infusions or decoctions, in order to cover the taste or obtund the acri- mony of the principal medicine. A piece of it held in the mouth and allowed slowly to dissolve, is often found to allay cough by sheathing the irritated membrane of the fauces. It is used in pharmacy to impart consistence to pills and troches, and to modify the taste of other medi- cines.. Off. Prep. Decoctum Aloes Compositum, Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Opi- atae, Ed.; Pilulae Scilliticae, Ed.; Tinctura Aloes, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Opii Camphorata, U.S.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennae, U.S.; Trochisci Glycyrrhizae Glabrae, Ed.; Trochisci Glycyrrhizae et Opii, US, Ed. FABA SANCTI IGNATII. Bean of Saint Ignatius. Feve de Saint-Ignace, Fr.; Ignatius bohnen, Germ.,- Fava di S. Ignazio, Hal.; Ha- bas de S. Ignacio, Span. This is the product of the lgnatia amara of the younger Linnaeus, which is now generally considered by botanists a species of Strychnos, and entitled & lgnatia. (See Nux Vomica.) It is a tree of middling part i. Faba Sancti Ignatii.—Ferrum. 293 size with numerous, long, cylindrical, glabrous, vine-like branches, which bear opposite, nearly sessile, oval, pointed, entire, and very smooth leaves. The flowers are white, tubular, fragrant, and arrang- ed in short axillary racemes. The fruit is of the size and shape of a pear, with a smooth, whitish, ligneous rind, enclosing about twenty seeds embedded in a dry pulpy matter, and lying one upon the other. These seeds are the part used. The tree is a native of the Philippine Islands, where the seeds were highly esteemed as a medicine, and hav- ing attracted the attention of the Jesuits, were honoured with the name of the founder of their order. They are about an inch long, rather less in breadth, still less in thickness, convex on one side, obscurely angular, with two, three, or four faces on the other, and marked at one end with a small depression indicating their point of attachment. They are externally of a pale brown colour, apparently smooth, but covered in fact with a short down or efflorescence, which may be removed by scraping them with a knife. They are somewhat translucent, and their substance is very hard and horny. They have no smell, but an excessively bitter taste. To Pelletier and Caventou they afforded the same constituents with the nux vomica, but a much larger proportion of strychnia. (See Nux Vomica.) One thousand parts contain twelve of this alkali. Medical Properties and Uses.—MM. Magendie and Defile have proved that they act on the human system in the same manner as the nux vo- mica. In the Philippines they have been employed for the cure of obsti- nate intermittents, and in numerous other diseases. It is probable that in small doses they act as a tonic. In this country they are never em- ployed ; nor have they a place in the British Pharmacopoeias. We have introduced them here on account of their comparatively large pro- portion of strychnia, which is triple that contained in the nux vomi- ca. In France they are profitably employed for the extraction of this principle. FERRUM. Iron. Fer, Fr.; Eisen, Germ.; Ferro, Hal.; Hierro, Span. Iron is the most abundant and useful of the metals; and so interwoven with the wants of mankind, that the extent of its consumption by a na- tion may be taken as an index of its progress in civilization. It is uni- versally diffused throughout nature, not only in the mineral kingdom, but also in vegetables and animals. There are very few minerals in which traces of it may not be found, and it is an essential constituent in many parts of animals, but particularly in the blood. It is one of the few metals which are devoid of deleterious action on the animal eco- nomy. Iron occurs, 1. native; 2. sulphuretted, forming magnetic and cubic pyrites; 3. oxidized, forming magnetic oxide, specular oxide, red oxide, brown oxide, and argillaceous oxide of iron; 4. in saline combination, forming the carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, arseniate and chromate of iron. Those minerals of iron which admit of being worked to advan- tage, are called iron ores. These include the different native oxides, and the carbonate (sparry iron). The best iron is obtained from those va- rieties of native oxide, usually called magnetic iron ore and specular iron ore. These occur very abundantly in Sweden, and furnish the supe- 294 Ferrum. *A*T *• rior iron of that country. As a general rule, those ores yield the best iron which occur in primitive formations. Extraction.—The mode of extracting iron from its ores varies some- what with the nature of the ore; but the general principles of the opera- tion are the same for all. The ore previously roasted and coarsely pul- verized, is exposed to the action of a strong heat in contact with carbo- naceous matter, such as charcoal or coke, and some flux, capable of fusing along with the impurities of the ore. The flux varies with the nature of the ore, and is generally either lime or clay; lime being em- ployed when the ore is argillaceous, and clay when it is calcare- ous. The flux, whatever it may be, enters into fusion with the im- purities of the ore, and forms what is called the slag; while the car- bonaceous matter, acting on the oxide of iron, reduces it to the metal- lic state. The reduced metal, from its density, occupies the lower part of the furnace, and is protected from the action of the air by the melted slag which floats on its surface. When the reduction is complete, the slag is allowed to run out of a hole in the side of the furnace, and the melted metal, by an aperture at its bottom, being received into oblong triangular moulds, where it solidifies in masses, known in commerce by the name of pig or cast iron. In this state the metal is brittle and far from being pure, as it is contaminated with a portion of charcoal, un- reduced ore, and earthy impurities. It is purified, and thus brought to the state of malleable iron, by being fused by a strong heat, and subject- ed to the action of a current of air on its surface. By these means the undecomposed ore*is reduced, the earthy impurities are made to rise to the surface as a slag, and the carbon is burnt out. As the metal ap- proaches to purity, it becomes less and less fusible, and at last consoli- dates, though the temperature of the furnace continues without dimi- nution. The metal is then taken out, and by means of ponderous ham- mers, or rollers, its particles are made to approximate and cohere in one tenacious mass. It is finally drawn out into bars of a convenient size, when it constitutes the malleable iron of commerce. Iron mines occur in most countries, but more particularly in northern ones. In Spain the principal mines furnish sparry iron, and the red and brown oxides. The chief iron ores of France are the sparry iron, and the specular, brown, and argillaceous oxides, and of Germany, the sparry iron and brown oxide. The island of Elba is celebrated for its rich and abundant specular oxide. The ores which furnish the cele- brated Swedish iron have already been indicated. In the United States iron ores are abundant. The principal ores which are worked are the magnetic, brown, and argillaceous oxides. They occur in the greatest abundance in the states of New Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The ores of the three last mentioned states rival the best Swedish in quality. In 1822, Cleaveland estimated the annual product of our iron mines to be about 30,000 tons of bar iron, and 60,000 of cast iron. Properties.—Iron is a hard, malleable, very ductile and tenacious me- tal, of a grayish-white colour and fibrous texture, and having a styptic taste, and a sensible odour when rubbed. Its sp. gr. is about 7.7, and its fusing point 158° of Wedgwood. It possesses the magnetic and weld- ing properties. It is combustible, and when heated to whiteness, burns in atmospheric air, and with brilliant scintillations in oxygen gas. jYt a red heat, its surface is converted into protoxide; and by the combined influence of air and moisture at common temperatures, it becomes cover- part i. Ferrum. 295 ed with a reddish matter, called rust, which consists of the hydrated peroxide, either pure or containing a little protoxide. It combines with all the non-metallic bodies, except hydrogen and nitrogen, and with most of the metals; its equivalent number being 28. It forms two regular oxides, a protoxide and peroxide; and these by combining to- gether produce a third, of a black colour, formerly erroneously con- sidered to be the protoxide. This last is called, in the peculiar nomen- clature of Berzelius, the ferroso-ferric oxide; but it is, perhaps, more convenient to designate it as the black oxide. The protoxide of iron is of a dark blue colour, attracted by the magnet, and spontaneously com- bustible in the air, being converted into peroxide. It is the base of green vitriol, and of the green salts of iron generally. It is very prone to ab- sorb oxygen, and hence the salts which contain it, when in solution, pass quickly in part into persalts. It consists of one equivalent of iron 28, and one equiv. of oxygen 8 = 36. The peroxide is readily obtained pure by dissolving iron in nitro-muriatic acid, adding ammonia, and igniting the precipitate obtained. It is of a red colour, not attracted by the magnet, and forms salts, which for the most part have a reddish colour. It is composed of one equiv. of iron 28, and one and a half equiv. of oxygen 12. = 40. The black oxide exists in the native mag- netic oxide, and in certain ferruginous salts after they have absorbed a certain definite portion of oxygen. It consists of one equiv. of prot- oxide 36, and two equiv. of peroxide 80 = 116. Iron, combined with minute portions of carbon, and perhaps of the radicals of silica and alumina, forms steel, a modification of iron formerly used in medicine, but now very properly laid aside. It also unites, when oxidized, with various acids, giving rise to an important class of salts, several of which, as the muriate, carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, ferrocyanate, tartrate, and acetate, are used in medicine. Iron is readily detected, even in minute quantities, by bringing it to the state of peroxide in solution, and testing it with ferrocyanate of potassa, or tincture of galls, the former of which will strike a deep blue, and the latter a black colour. The object of bringing it to the state of peroxide is readily effected by boiling the solution: containing it with a little nitric acid. Medical Properties.—The preparations of iron are powerfully tonic, raising the pulse, promoting the secretions, and increasing the colour- ing matter of the blood. They are useful in diseases characterized by debility and relaxation of fibre, and a languid circulation, more espe- cially when the consequence of inordinate discharges. The diseases in which they are most usually employed are chlorosis, hysteria, fluor albus, gleet, scrofula, rickets, chorea, and all passive hemorrhages, Chalybeates are also proper in palsy after the inflammatory excitement has passed, in dyspepsia dependent upon deficient energy of the diges- tive function, and in neuralgia. They are contra-indicated in all inflam- matory diseases, producing, when injudiciously prescribed, heat, thirst, headach, difficulty of breathing, and other symptoms of an excited cir- culation. The medical effects of iron are somewhat modified in its dif- ferent combinations; but these modifications will be best studied under the head of each preparation individually. The following is a list of all the preparations of iron to be found in the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, together with the syno- nymies. 296 Ferrum.—Ferri Filum. PART I. Iron is officinal,— I. In ITS METALLIC STATE. Ferri Filum, U.S.; Ferrum, Lond., Dub.; Ferri Fila, Ed. Ferri Ramenta, U.S.; Ferri Limatura, Ed. Limatura Ferri Purificata, Ed. II. Oxidized. Ferri Oxydi Squamae, Dub.; Oxidum Ferri Nigrum, Ed. Ferri Oxydum Nigrum, Dub.; Oxidum Ferri Nigrum Purifica- tum, Ed. Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub. Ferri Oxidum Rubrum, U.S.; Oxidum Ferri Rubrum, Ed.; Ferri Oxydum Rubrum, Dub. Ferrum Ammoniatum, U.S., Lond.; Murias Ammoniae et Ferri, Ed.; Tinctura Ferri Ammoniati, Lond. Emplastrum Ferri, U.S.; Emplastrum Oxidi Ferri Rubri, Ed.; Emplastrum Thuris, Dub. III. Sulphuretted. Ferri Sulphuretum, U.S., Dub.; Sulphuretum Ferri, Ed. IV. In Saline Combination. Ferri Ferrocyanas, U.S.; Ferri Cyanuretum, Dub. Ferri Acetas, Dub. Tinctura Ferri Acetatis, Dub. Tinctura Ferri Acetatis cum Alcohol, Dub. Ferri Carbonas Praecipitatus, U.S.; Ferri Subcarbonas, Lond.; Carbonas Ferri Praecipitatus, Ed.; Ferri Carbonas, Dub. Mistura Ferri Composita, U. S., Lond., Dub. Pilulae Ferri Compositae, U.S., Lond., Dub. Liquor Ferri Alkalini, Lond. Ferri Carbonas Praeparatus, U.S.; Sub-Carbonas Ferri Praepa- ratus, Ed.; Ferri Rubigo, Dub. Ferri et Potassae Tartras, U.S.; Ferrum Tartarizatum, Lond.; Tartras Potassae et Ferri, Ed.; Ferri Tartarum, Dub. Vinum Ferri, Lond. Ferri Phosphas, U.S. Ferri Sulphas, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Sulphas Ferri, Ed. Sulphas Ferri Exsiccatus, Ed. Pilulae Sulphatis Ferri Compositae, Ed. Tinctura Ferri Muriatis, U.S., Lond.; Tinctura Muriatis Ferri, Ed.; Ferri Muriatis Liquor, Dub. In the foregoing table, the more complex preparations are arranged as sub-heads to those from which they are derived, or which they may be supposed to contain. FERRI FILUM. U.S. Iron Wire. FERRI RAMENTA. U.S. Iron Filings. Off Syn. FERRUM. Ferri Ramenta et Fila, Lond.; FERRI FILA. FERRI LIMATURA, Ed.; FERRUM. Fila. Scobs, Dub. Fil de fer, Fr.; Eisendraht, Germ.; Fil di ferro, Hal.; Hilo de hierro, Span. part I. Ferri Ramenta.—Ferri Oxydi Squamae. 297 Limailles de fer, Fr.,- Gopulvertes eissen, Germ.; Limatura di ferro, Hal.; Lima- dura de hierro, Span. Iron, when employed in pharmaceutical operations, should be of the purest kind; and hence the different Pharmacopoeias direct it, when wanted in small masses, to be in the form of iron wire, which is neces- sarily made from the softest and most malleable iron, and is readily cut up in pieces of convenient size. The metal, however, for internal exhi- bition, and for some preparations, requires to be finely subdivided, and hence it is officinal also in the form of filings. Medical Properties of Iron Filings.—Iron, in its uncombined state, has no action on the animal economy; and hence iron filings would prove inert, were it not that they met with acid in the stomach, or some other agent, whereby they become oxidized. That this change really takes place, is proved by the black stools to which they invariably give rise. During the solution of iron in the stomach, the oxygen furnished to the metal is derived from the decomposition of water, the hydrogen of which by being disengaged gives rise to unpleasant eructations. Iron filings are generally obtained from the workshops of the blacksmith, and as furnished from this source are generally very impure, and re- quire, before exhibition as a medicine, to undergo purification, for which a process is directed by the Edinburgh College. (See Limatura Ferri Purificata.) The other Pharmacopoeias have no purified filings, and this is an omission of some importance; as the common filings are evidently too impure for internal exhibition. The dose is from five to twenty grains, given in molasses, or made up into an electuary with honey, or into pills with some bitter extract. Upon the whole, there is reason to believe that no medical effects can be expected from iron ex- hibited in the metallic state, which cannot be as well obtained, and with less inconvenience to the patient, from its different combinations. Off. Prep. Ferri Carbonas Praeparatus, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Ferri Sul- phas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Ferri Sulphuretum, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Ferrum Tartarizatum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Limatura Ferri Purificata, Ed.; Liquor Ferri Alkalini, Lond.; Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub.; Vinum Ferri, Lond. FERRI OXYDI SQUAMA. Bub. Scales of the Oxide of Iron. Off. Syn. OXIDUM FERRI NIGRUM, Ed. Batitures de fer, Fr.; Eisenschlag, Germ.; Scaglia di ferro, ltal.; Escamas de hier- ro, Span. This form of oxidized iron is obtained when iron is heated to redness and subjected to the blows of a hammer on an anvil. The heat causes the iron to be covered with a thin crust of oxide, which is detached in scales during the hammering. These are formed abundantly in the operations of the blacksmith, and collect round the anvil. Scales of iron consist of small, brittle, black masses, attracted by the magnet, and without taste or smell. When reduced to powder, they have a dull grayish-white colour. Their precise composition is not well settled; but it is certain that they do not consist of the regular black oxide. (See Ferrum.) Berthier considers them, like the black oxide, to be a definite compound of protoxide and peroxide of iron, but in differ- ent proportions. By his analysis he makes the scales to consist of two 298 Ferri Oxydi Squamae.—Ferri Ferrocyanas. part i. equivalents of protoxide and one equiv. of peroxide. The results of Mosander, which are probably more correct, seem to show that the scales consist of two distinct layers; the interior, of uniform composi- tion, consisting of three equiv. of protoxide to one of peroxide; and the exterior, of a variable mixture of the two oxides, the peroxide predo- minating on the surface, and diminishing gradually inwards. Medical Properties.—These scales have the general medical proper- ties of the ferruginous preparations ; but they are not fit for medicinal use until they have undergone preparation. The Dublin and Edinburgh Colleges give formulae for this purpose, and designate the prepared article by a distinct name. See Ferri Oxydum Nigrum, Dub. and Oxidum Ferri Nigrum Purificatum, Ed. These are the only officinal preparations of the scales. FERRI FERROCYANAS. U.S. Ferrocyanate of Iron. Off Syn. FERRI CYANURETUM, Dub. Prussiate of iron; Cyanuret of iron; Prussian blue; Hydro-ferro-cyanate de peroxide de fer; Bleu de Prusse, Fr., Berlinerblau, Pariserblau, Germ.; Azzuro di Berlino, Hal.; Azul de Prussia, Span. Prussian blue was included in the Materia Medica of the first United States Pharmacopceia, published in 1820, on account of its being con- nected indirectly with the preparation of hydrocyanic acid, and has been very properly retained in the revised edition of 1830. It was made officinal by the Dublin College, in their revised Pharmacopceia of 1826, for the same reason that induced its original insertion into our Phar- macopoeia. The London and Edinburgh Colleges have not as yet adopt- ed this substance, nor, indeed, any of the prussic compounds. Prussian blue was discovered by accident in 1710, by a preparer of colours at Berlin, named Diesbach. Being desirous of precipitating a lake from a mixed solution of cochineal, alum, and sulphate of iron, by means of carbonate of potassa, he performed the experiment with an alkali which had been employed in connexion with animal matters, and unexpectedly obtained a blue precipitate. Following up the expe- riment, he was enabled to determine the precise ingredients necessary for its formation, and to obtain it at pleasure, and thus laid the founda- tion of the manufacture of this beautiful pigment, which came to be called, from the country of its discovery, Prussian blue. The mode of preparing it was kept secret until 1724, when Woodward published the process in the Philosophical Transactions of London. Since that time it has been extensively manufactured on a large scale for the purposes of the arts. Preparation.—On a small scale, Prussian blue may be obtained per- fectly pure, by double decomposition between ferrocyanate of potassa and an acid solution of persulphate or permuriate of iron. In the arts the process is as follows. A mixture made of equal parts of carbonate of potassa, (potash of commerce,) and animal matter, such as dried blood, hair, the shavings of horn, &c, is calcined at a red heat in an iron vessel, until it becomes pasty. The mass, when cold, is thrown by portions at a time into twelve or fifteen times its weight of water, with which it is stirred for half an hour. The whole is then put upon a linen filter; and the clear solution obtained is precipitated by a mixed solu- tion of two parts of alum and one of the protosulphate of iron. An PART I. Ferri Ferrocyanas. 299 effervescence occurs, due principally to carbonic acid; and a very abun- dant precipitate takes place, of a blackish-brown colour. This precipi- tate is washed by decantation, by means of a large quantity of water, which is renewed every twelve hours. By these washings, which last from twenty to twenty-five days, the precipitate becomes, successively, greenish-brown, bluish-brown, and very deep blue. In this state it is collected and allowed to drain upon a cloth, after which it is divided into cubical masses, dried, and thrown into commerce. To understand the above process, it is necessary to know that there is a permanent combination of carbon and nitrogen, called cyanogen, consisting of two equivalents of the former element 12, and one of the latter 14 = 26. This compound combines with various metals, forming combinations called cyanurets, and with hydrogen, constituting hydrocy- anic acid; it will be described under the head of cyanuret of mercury. (See Hydrargyri Cyanuretum.) During the calcination, the carbon and nitrogen of the animal matters, in the form of cyanogen, unite with the potassium of a part of the potassa, and generate cyanuret of potassium. When the mass is acted on by water, the cyanuret of potassium and the undecomposed carbonate of potassa are dissolved, the former, in the act of dissolving, being converted by the elements of water into hydrocyanate of potassa. The solution thus obtained being decomposed by the mixed solution of alum and protosulphate of iron, a complicated reaction ensues. The carbonate of potassa throws down alumina from the alum, and simultaneously the hydrocyanate of potassa and sulphate of iron, by mutual decomposition, give rise to sulphate of potassa, which remains in solution, and to one equivalent of water, one of cyanuret of iron, and two of hydrocyanate of the protoxide, the two latter of which precipitate in combination. One equiv. of cyanuret of iron with two equiv. of hydrocyanic acid, is supposed by most chemists to constitute a peculiar ferruginous acid, called ferrocyanic acid; and on this view, the above compound of cyanuret of the metal and hydrocyanate of the prot- oxide may be considered to be a ferrocyanate of the protoxide of iron. The effect of the protracted washings is to remove the sulphate of po- tassa, and at the same time to cause the protoxide of iron to pass to the state of peroxide, a degree of oxidation essential to the production of the deep blue colour of the preparation. It appears, therefore, from the explanations given, that the Prussian blue of commerce consists of a mixture of alumina and the ferrocyanate of the peroxide of iron. The alumina, however, is in variable quantity, dependent upon the quantity of alum employed in the preparation, and constitutes as it were the body of the Prussian blue, considered as a pigment; while the ferrocy- anate of the peroxide of iron may be viewed as the pure chemical Prus- sian blue. The officinal term Ferri Ferrocyanas, however, in the Uni- ted States Pharmacopoeia, is intended to designate the substance with its usual impurities as it occurs in commerce. Properties.—Prussian blue is an insipid, inodorous substance, gene- rally in the form of oblong rectangular cakes, of a rich deep blue colour. It is heavier than water, and its fracture has an appearance resembling bronze, which is distinguished from the similar appearance of indigo by its being removed when rubbed with the nail; whereas in indigo, by friction it is increased. It is completely insoluble in water or alcohol, as also the mineral acids, except the sulphuric. In this acid, in a con- centrated state, it dissolves, forming a white compound, from which the Prussian blue is precipitated unchanged by water. Nitric acid decom- poses it, and strong muriatic acid takes up the peroxide of iron and 300 Ferri Ferrocyanas. PART I. disengages the ferrocyanic acid. Treated with boiling solutions of po- tassa or soda, ferrocyanates of these bases are formed, and peroxide of iron is set free. Boiled with peroxide of mercury it gives rise to cya- nuret of mercury. (See Hydrargyri Cyanuretum.) Exposed to destructive distillation, it furnishes at first a little water and hydrocyanate of am- monia, and afterwards carbonate of ammonia; and there remains in the retort a black carbonaceous residue of tritocarburet of iron. Composition.—From the explanations already given, it may be infer- red, that pure Prussian blue is composed of one equivalent of ferrocy- anic acid 108, and two equiv. of peroxide of iron, 80 = 188; and the acid itself, of one equiv. of cyanuret of iron 54, and two equiv. of hydro- cyanic acid 54 = 108. If, in conformity with the views of Gay-Lussac, we consider this acid as a hydracid, it will consist of a compound radi- cal formed of one equiv. of iron and three equiv. of cyanogen, united to two equiv. of hydrogen. This radical may be appropriately called ferrocyanogen, and the acid itself, agreeably to the mode of naming the hydracids, hydroferrocyanic acid; and this is the precise name adopted by the best French chemical writers. Berzelius takes, a different view of the nature of ferrocyanic acid and Prussian blue, considering them both as double cyanurets. He admits the composition just given of the acid, but calls it a double cyanuret of iron and hydrogen. His view of the composition of Prussian blue is exceedingly complicated. He believes in the existence of two kinds, the one a neutral, the other a subsalt. The neutral Prussian blue is obtained by adding a neutral persalt of iron to a solution of ferrocyanate of po- tassa, and according to him consists of the union of two distinct cyanu- rets of iron. The Prussian blue with excess of base is always gene- rated, according to the same authority, when the pigment is formed by precipitation as a ferrocyanuret of iron, and subsequent washing and exposure to the air, as is the case when it is made on a large scale. Under this modification, which of course corresponds with the com- mercial pigment, a part of the cyanogen of one of the cyanurets of the neutral variety is replaced by oxygen so as to form peroxide of iron. Medical Properties, fyc.—Prussian blue is very little used in medicine. It acts as a tonic, febrifuge, and alterative. Dr. Zollickoffer of Mary- land has recommended it as a remedy in intermittent and remittent fevers, and deems it to be particularly adapted to such cases occurring in children, on account of the smallness of the dose and its want of taste. He considers it more certain, prompt, and effectual than the bark; while it has the advantage of being admissible in the state of pyrexia, and of not disagreeing with the most irritable stomach.* It has also been used by Dr. Kirchoff of Ghent in epilepsy with good success. Dr. Bridges of Philadelphia exhibited it in a case of severe and protracted neuralgia of the face, with very considerable relief, after all the more usual remedies in this complaint had been tried with little or no benefit. In the course of two days, the violence of the disease was subdued, and in a short period afterwards a greater freedom from pain was occasion- ed than had been experienced for many years. The medicine, in this case, produced no perceptible effect, besides relieving the disease, ex- cept that of a very mild tonic. The dose of Prussian blue for an adult is about five grains, repeated three times a day, and gradually increased according to its effects. It • See " A Treatise on the Use of Prussian Blue in Intermitting and Remitting Fe- vers, by William Zollickoffer, M.D." Frederick, Maryland, 1822. part I. Ferri Ferrocyanas.—Ficus. 301 must be here recollected, however, that we allude to the commercial article, which contains a considerable quantity of alumina, and not the chemically pure ferrocyanate, of which the dose is necessarily smaller. It is sometimes employed as an application to ill-conditioned ulcers, in the proportion of a drachm to some simple ointment. Its only pharma- ceutical use is to form cyanuret of mercury, as a preliminary step to the preparation of hydrocyanic acid. Off. Prep. Hydrargyri Cyanuretum. U.S., Dub. FICUS. U.S. Figs. " Ficus carica. Fructus. The fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. CARICE FRUCTUS. Ficus Carica. Fructus exsiccatus. Lond.; FICI CARICA FRUCTUS. Fructus siccatus. Ed.; FICUS CARICA. Fructus siccatus. Dub. Figues, Fr.,- Feigen, Germ.; Fichi, Hal.; Higos, Span. Ficus. Class Polygamia. Order Dioecia.—Nat. Ord. Urticae, Juss.; Atrocarpeae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Common receptacle turbinate, fleshy, converging, concealing the florets either in the same or distinct individuals. -Male. Calyx three- parted. Corolla none. Stamens three. Female. Calyx five-parted. Corolla none. Pistil one. Seed one, covered with the closed, persistent, somewhat fleshy calyx. Willd. Ficus Carica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1131; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 714. t. 244. The fig-tree, though usually not more than twelve feet in height, sometimes rises in warm climates to twenty-five or even thirty feet. Its trunk, which seldom exceeds seven inches in diameter, is divided into numerous spreading branches, covered with a brown or ash-coloured bark. Its large, palmate leaves, usually divided into five obtuse lobes, are deep green and shining upon their upper surface, pale green and downy beneath, and stand alternately on strong round footstalks. The flowers are situated within a common receptacle, placed solitarily upon a short peduncle in the axils of the upper leaves. This receptacle, the walls of which become thick and fleshy, constitutes what is commonly called the fruit; though this term is, strictly speaking, applicable to the small seeds found in great numbers on the internal surface of the recept- acle, to which they are attached by fleshy pedicels. Cultivation has produced in the fig, as in the apple and peach, an almost infinite diver- sity in shape, size, colour, and taste. It is usually, however, turbinate or top-shaped, umbilicate at the large extremity, of the size of a small pear, of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish colour, and of a mild, mucilagi- nous, saccharine flavour. The fig-tree is supposed to have come originally from the Levant. It was introduced at a very early period into various parts of the South of Europe, and is now very common throughout the whole basin of the Mediterranean, particularly in Italy and France. To hasten the matura- tion of the fruit, it is customary to puncture it with a sharp pointed instrument covered with olive oil. The ancient process of caprification is still practised in the Levant. It consists in attaching branches of the wild fig-tree to the cultivated plant. The fruit of the former contains great numbers of the eggs of an insect of the genus Cynips, the larvae of which, as soon as they are hatched, spread themselves over the cul- 303 Ficus.—Filix Mas. part I. tivated fruit, and by conveying the pollen of the male organs over which they pass to the female florets, hasten the impregnation of the latter, and cause the fig to come quickly to perfection, which might otherwise ripen very slowly, or wither and drop off before maturity. Some authors attri- bute the effect to the piercing of the fruit by the young insects. The figs, when perfectly ripe, are dried by the heat of the sun or in ovens. Those brought to the United States come chiefly from Smyrna, packed in drums or boxes. They are more or less compressed, and are usually covered in cold weather with a whitish saccharine efflorescence, which melts in the middle of summer and renders them moist. The best are yellowish or brownish, somewhat translucent when held to the light, and filled with a sweet viscid pulp, in which are lodged numerous small yellow seeds. They are much more saccharine than the fresh fruit. Their chief constituents are mucilage and sugar. Medical Properties and Uses.—Figs are nutritious, laxative, and de- mulcent. In the fresh state, they are considered in the countries where they grow a wholesome and agreeable aliment. As we obtain them, they are apt, when eaten freely, to produce flatulence, pain in the bow- els, and diarrhoea. Their chief medical use is as a laxative article of diet in cases of constipation. They occasionally enter into demulcent decoctions; and when roasted or boiled, and split open, may be applied as a suppurative cataplasm to parts upon which an ordinary poultice cannot be conveniently retained. Off. Prep. Confectio Sennae, U.S., Lond.; Decoctum Hordei Compo- situm, Lond., Dub.; Electuarium Sennae Compositum, Ed. FILIX MAS. U.S. Secondary. Male Fern. " Aspidium filix mas. The root." U. S. r Off. Syn. FILICIS RADIX. Aspidium Filix Mas. Lond.; ASPIDII FILICIS MARIS RADIX. Ed.; FILIX MAS. ASPIDIUM FILIX MAS. Radix. Dub. Fougere male, Fr.; Johanniswurzel, Germ.,- Felce maschio, Hal.,- Helecho, Span. Aspidium. Class Cryptogamia. Order Filices.—Nat. Orel. Filices. Juss. Gen. Ch. Fructification in roundish points, scattered, not marginal. Involucre umbilicated, open almost on every side. Smith. Aspidium Filix Mas. Willd. Sp. Plant, v. 259; Smith, Flor. Britan.— Polypodium Filix Mas. Linn.; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 795. t. 267. The root of the male fern is perennial, the frond annual. The portion usu- ally designated as the root, is a subterranean stem or caudex, which runs horizontally, and consists of numerous tubercles, arranged around and along a common axis, and separated from each other by fine silky scales of a brownish colour. The true root is composed of fibres which issue from between the tubercles. (Fee.) From this subterranean stem arise numerous fronds or leaves, which grow in circular tufts from a foot to four feet in height. The stipe or footstalk, and midrib, are thickly beset with brown, tough, transparent scales; the frond itself is oval, lanceolate, acute, pinnate, and of a bright green colour. The pinnae or leaflets are remote below, approach more nearly as they as- cend, and run together at the summit of the leaf. They are deeply di- vided into lobes, which are of an oval shape, crenate at the edges, and PART I. Filix Mas. 303 gradually diminish from the base of the pinna to the apex. The fructi- fication is in small dois on the back of each lobe, placed in two rows near the base, and distant from the edges. The male fern is indigenous, growing in shady pine forests from New Jersey to Virginia. (Pursh.) It is a native also of Europe, Asia, and the North of Africa. In the American plant, the leaflets are said by Pursh to be more obtuse, and oftener doubly serrated than in the Euro- pean. The proper period for collecting the root is during the summer, when, according to M. Peschier of Geneva, it abounds more in the ac- tive principle than at any other season. The same gentleman informs us that it deteriorates rapidly when kept, and in about two years be- comes entirely inert. The roots of other species of fern are frequently substituted for the officinal; and in the dried state it is difficult to dis- tinguish them. Properties.'—The dried fern root is externally of a brown colour, in- ternally yellowish white or reddish, with a peculiar but feeble odour, and a sweetish, bitter, astringent, nauseous taste. From the analysis of M. Morin, an apothecary of Rouen, it appears to contain a volatile oil, a fixed oil, gallic and acetic acids, uncrystallizable sugar, tannin, starch, a gelatinous matter insoluble in water and alcohol, lignin, and various earthy and saline substances. M. Peschier found its active principle soluble in ether. According to this chemist, its constituents are adipocire, an aromatic volatile oil, an aromatic and virose fixed oil, a brown resin, a green colouring principle, a reddish-brown colouring principle, extractive, acetic acid, and muriate of potassa. Ether extracts the adipocire along with the active ingredient, but deposites the former on standing. In powdering the root the internal parenchymatous portion only should be preserved. Medical Properties and Uses.—Male fern is slightly tonic and astrin- gent; but produces, when taken internally, no very obvious effects upon the system. It was used by the ancients as a vermifuge; and is men- tioned in the works of Dioscorides, Theophrastus, Galen, and Pliny. Its anthelmintic powers were also noticed by some of the earlier modern writers, among whom was Hoffmann. But it does not appear to have been generally known to the profession, till attention was attracted to it, about the year 1775, by the publication of the mode of treating taenia employed by Madame Nouffer. This lady, who was the widow of a sur- geon in Switzerland, had acquired great celebrity in the cure of tape- worm by a secret remedy. Her success was such as to attract the atten- tion of the medical profession at Paris; and some of the most eminent physicians of that city, who were deputed to examine into the subject, having reported favourably of the remedy, the secret was purchased by the king of France, and published by his order. The outlines of her plan were to give a dose of the powdered root of the male fern, and two hours afterwards a powerful cathartic, to be followed, if it should not operate in due time, by some purging salt; and this process was to be repeated with proper intervals, till the worm should be evacuated. A German physician by the name of Herrenschwand, had used the male fern in a manner somewhat similar before Madame Nouffer's secret was known. The remedy became very popular for a time, and was found successful in numerous instances; but the profession has now generally settled down in the opinion that the good which resulted was owing more to the purgatives than to the fern. Instances, however, are record- 304 Filix Mas.—Foeniculum. PART I. ed, in which cures were effected by the root without the use of cathar- tics; and amid the general scepticism on the subject, physicians are still found who warmly advocate the anthelmintic powers of the medi- cine. Dr. Peschier assures us that, in the course of nine months, one hundred and fifty tape-worms had been expelled by the ethereal extract of the male-fern root. Dr. Ebers has found the same preparation com- pletely successful in curing eight cases of taenia. (Journ. de Chimie Med- icate, Fev. 1829.) He states that the medicine acts specifically against the worm, which it speedily destroys, and thus favours its expulsion from the body, without producing any severe or unpleasant symptoms. The testimony of Brera is also strongly in favour of the remedy, which he has found effectual even against the armed taenia. Perhaps the dif- ferent results obtained by different practitioners may in part be ascribed to the variable strength and character of the root, dependent upon the season at which it was collected, and the length of time it has been kept. The medicine may be given in powder, or, as recommended by Dr. Peschier, in ethereal extract. The dose of the powder is from one to three drachms, to be given in the form of electuary or emulsion, and repeated morning and evening for one or two days successively. The dose of the extract is from twelve to twenty-four grains. The decoc- tion has also been employed in the proportion of an ounce of the root to a pint of water. It is customary to follow the medicine by some brisk cathartic, though Dr. Peschier does not consider this essential. FCENICULUM. U.S. Fennel Seed. " Anethum foeniculum. Semina. The seeds." U.S. Off. Syn. FCENICULI SEMINA. Anethum Foeniculum. Semina. Lond.; ANETHI FCENICULI SEMINA. Ed.; ANETHUM FCENI- CULUM. Semina. Dub. Fenouil, Fr.; Fenchel, Germ.; Finocchio, Hal.; Hinojo, Span. Anethum. See ANETHI SEMINA. Anethum Foeniculum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1469; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 127. t. 49. Fennel has a perennial, tapering root, and an annual, erect, round, striated, smooth, glaucous, jointed, and branching stem, which usually rises three or four feet in height. The leaves, which stand alter- nately at the joints of the stem, upon membranous striated sheathes, are many times pinnate, with long, linear, pointed, smooth, deep green leaflets. The flowers are yellow, and form large, many-rayed umbels, destitute both of general and partial involucres. The corolla consists of five ovate, emarginate leaflets, with their points turned inwards. The flower is succeeded by two ovate seeds. There are several varieties of this plant; but the sweet fennel, derived originally from the South of Europe, and cultivated in our gardens, is the one which furnishes the seeds of the shops. The whole plant has an aromatic odour and taste, dependent on a volatile oil by which it is per- vaded. The roots were formerly employed in medicine, but are greatly inferior in virtue to the seeds, which are now the only officinal portion. These are sometimes imported; but those produced in our own gardens are perhaps preferable on*account of their greater freshness. Fennel seeds are oblong oval, from two to four lines in length, flat on one side, convex on the other, not unfrequently connected by their flat PART I. Foeniculum.—Frasera. 305 surfaces, straight or slightly curved, of a grayish-green colour, with lon- gitudinal yellowish ridges on the convex surface. Their odour is fragrant, their taste warm, sweet, and agreeably aromatic. The seeds of domes- tic growth are usually smaller and darker, but sweeter than the import- ed. They impart their virtues to hot water, but more abundantly to alcohol. Their essential oil may be separated by distillation with water. (See Oleum Fceniculi.) They contain also fixed oil. Neumann obtained 20 parts of the former, and 120 of the latter, from 960 parts of the seeds. Medical Properties and Uses.'—Fennel-seed is among our most grateful aromatics, and in this country is much employed as a carminative, and as a corrigent of other less pleasant medicines, particularly senna and rhubarb. It is recommended for these purposes by the absence of any very highly excitant property. The infusion, prepared by introducing two or three drachms of the seeds into a pint of boiling water, is the form usually preferred. The dose of the bruised or powdered seeds is from a scruple to half a drachm. In infantile cases, the infusion is fre- quently employed as an enema to produce the expulsion of flatus. Off. Prep. Aqua Fceniculi, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Piperis Nigri, Dub.; Decoctum Chamaemeli Comp., Dub.; Oleum Fceniculi, U.S., Dub.; Spiritus Juniperi Comp., U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. FRASERA. U.S. Secondary. American Columbo. "Frasera Walteri. Radix. The root." U.S. Frasera. Class Tetrandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianeae, Juss. Gen.Ch. Calyx deeply four-parted. Corolla four-parted, spreading; segments oval, with a bearded, orbicular gland in the middle of each. Capsule compressed, partly marginated, one-celled. Seeds few, imbri- cated, large, elliptical, with a membranaceous margin. Nuttall. Frasera Walteri. Michaux, Flor. Bor. Americ. i. 96; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 103.—F. Carolinensis. Walter. This is one of our most elegant indi- genous plants, and the only one of its genus hitherto discovered. From the root, which is triennial, long, spindleshaped, horizontal, fleshy, and of a yellow colour, a strong, succulent, solid, smooth stem rises, from five to ten feet in height. The leaves are sessile, entire, glabrous, of a deep green colour, and disposed in whorls, Avhich commence at the root, and ascend to the summit with successively diminishing intervals. The radi- cal leaves, from five to twelve in number, are elliptical, obtuse, a foot or more in length by about four inches in breadth, and lie upon the ground in the form of a star. Those constituting the whorls upon the stem are successively smaller as they ascend—the lowest oblong lanceolate, the upper lanceolate and pointed. The flowers are numerous, large, of a yellowish-white colour, and disposed in a beautiful terminal pyramidal pannicle, from one to five feet long, the branches of which spring from the axils of the upper leaves. The segments of the calyx are lanceolate, acute, and somewhat shorter than those of the corolla. The filaments are inserted into the base of the corolla between its segments, which they do not equal in length. The anthers are oblong and notched at the base. The germ is oblong ovate, compressed, and gradually tapers into the style, which terminates in a bifid stigma. The fruit is an oval, acu- minate, compressed, two-valved, one-celled, yellow capsule, containing from eight to twelve flat, elliptical seeds. 39 306 Frasera. —Fucus. PART I. The Frasera flourishes in the southern and western portions of the United States, and in many situations is very abundant, especially in Arkansas and Missouri. It prefers rich woodlands and moist meadows. The period of flowering is from May to July; but the stem and flowers are produced only in the third year, the radical leaves being the only part of the plant which previously appears above ground. From this manner of growth it is inferred, that the root should be collected in the autumn of the second or the spring of the third year. Before being dried, it should be cut into transverse slices. As usually found in the market, frasera is in pieces irregularly circu- lar, an eighth of an inch or more in thickness, about an inch in diame- ter, somewhat shrunk in the middle, consisting of a central medullary matter and an exterior cortical portion, of a yellowish colour on the cut surfaces, with a light reddish-brown epidermis. In appearance these pieces bear some resemblance to columbo, but may be easily distin- guished by the greater uniformity of their internal structure, the absence of concentric and radiating lines, and their purer yellow colour without a greenish tinge. Their taste is bitter and sweetish. Water and diluted alcohol extract their virtues, and the tincture throws down a precipitate upon the addition of water, but is not disturbed by tincture of galls; thus affording additional means of distinguishing the root from columbo. Medical Properties and Uses.—Frasera is a mild tonic, calculated to meet the same indications with the other simple bitters. It has been thought to resemble columbo in medical properties as well as in ap- f>earance, and hence has received the popular name of American co- umbo; but experience has not confirmed the high estimate which was at one time formed of its virtues; and though occasionally employed in some parts of the country, it has failed to supplant the tonic of Mozam- bique. It may be given in powder or infusion. The dose of the former is from thirty grains to a drachm, that of an infusion made in the pro- portion of an ounce of the bruised root to a pint of boiling water, is one or two fluidounces, to be repeated several times a day. The fresh root is said to operate as an emetic and cathartic, and is sometimes given with a view to the latter effect. FUCUS. Lond. Sea-wrack. Bladder-wrack. "Fucus vesiculosus." Lond. Off Syn. FUCUS VESICULOSUS. Herba cum fructu. Dub. Fucus. Class Cryptogamia. Order Algae.—Nat. Ord. Algae, Juss. Gen.Ch. Male. Vesicles smooth, hollow, with villose hairs within, interwoven. Female. Vesicles smooth, filled with jelly, sprinkled with immersed grains, prominent at the tip. Seeds solitary. Thomson's Dis- pensatory. Fucus vesiculosus. Turner's Fuci. ii. 44. This sea-weed is perennial, with the frond or leaf flat, smooth and glossy, from one to four feet high, from half an inch to an inch and a half broad, furnished with a midrib throughout its length, dichotomous, entire upon the margin, and of a dark olive green colour. Small spherical vesicles, filled with air, are immersed in the frond near the midrib. The fruit consists of round- ish, compressed receptacles, at the ends of the branches, filled with a clear tasteless mucus. The plant grows upon the shores of Europe and of part i. Fucus.—Galbanum. 307 this continent, attaching itself to the rocks by its expanded woody root. On the coast of Scotland and of France, it is much used in the prepara- tion of kelp. It is also employed as a manure, and is mixed with the fodder of cattle. It has a peculiar odour, and a nauseous saline taste. Several chemists have undertaken its analysis, but the results are by no means satisfac- tory. It contains a large quantity of soda in saline combination, and iodine according to Gauthier-Claubry, in the state of hydriodate of po- tassa. These ingredients remain in its ashes, and in the charcoal result- ing from its exposure to heat in close vessels. Medical Properties, $-c—The charcoal of this plant has long had the reputation of a deobstruent, and been given in goitre and scrufulous swellings. Its virtues were formerly ascribed chiefly to the carbonate of soda, in which it abounds; but since the discovery of the medical properties of iodine, this has been considered as its most active ingre- dient. The mucus contained in the vesicles was applied externally, with advantage, by Dr. Russel, as a resolvent in scrofulous tumours. Other species of Fucus are in all probability possessed of similar prop- erties. Many of them contain a gelatinous matter, and a saccharine principle analogous to mannite; and some are used as aliment in times of scarcity, by the wretched inhabitants of the coasts where they are collected. GALBANUM. U.S. Galbanum. " Bubon galbanum. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Off. Syn. GALBANI GUMMI-RESINA. Bubon Galbanum. Gum- mi-resina. Lond.; BUBONIS GALBANI GUMMI-RESINA. Ed.; GALBANUM. BUBON GALBANUM. Gummi-resina. Dub. Galbanum, Fr.; Mutterharz, Germ.; Galbano, ltal, Span. Galbanum. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelli- ferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate, striated, villose. Willd. Bubon Galbanum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1439; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 98. t. 40.—Selinum Galbanum, Sprengel. This species of Bubon is an undershrub several feet in height, with a stem which is ligneous to- wards the base, but in the upper part, jointed, branching, leafy, and co- vered with a glaucous exudation. The lower leaves are nearly tripin- nate, and stand upon footstalks which embrace the stem; the uppermost are almost simple, three-lobed, irregularly serrated, but entire near the base, thickish, and of a sea-green colour. The flowers are yellow and arranged in terminal umbels, of which the principal is plano-convex, and surmounts the main stem. The involucres and involucels are com- posed of numerous simple, narrow, lance-shaped leaflets. Each flower is followed by two brownish, oval, striated seeds with membranous bor- ders. The plant grows on the eastern coast of Africa, from Nubia to the Cape of Good Hope, and is said also to be a native of Syria. Gal- banum is obtained from it by making incisions into the stem, or cutting it off a short distance above the root. A cream-coloured juice exudes, which concretes upon exposure to the air. A small portion of juice also exudes spontaneously from the joints, and hardens in the shape of tears. The drug is brought from the Levant. Properties.—The form in which galbanum usually appears is that of 308 Galbanum.—Galla. PART I. masses composed of whitish, reddish, or yellowish tears, irregularly agglutinated by a darker coloured substance, more or less translucent, and generally mixed with pieces of stalk, seeds, or other foreign mat- ters. It is also found, though very rarely if at all in our markets, in the state of separate tears, of a yellowish-white colour, shining externally as if varnished, and of an oily aspect. Galbanum has in cool weather the consistence of firm wax; but softens in summer, and by the heat of the hand is rendered ductile and adhesive. At the temperature of boil- ing water it is sufficiently liquid to admit of being strained. A dark brown or blackish colour, a consistence always soft, the abseuce of whitish grains, and the intermixture of earthy impurities, are signs of inferiority. The odour of galbanum is peculiar and disagreeable, but not allia- ceous like that of sagapenum. Its taste is bitterish, warm, and acrid. Its specific gravity is 1.212. When triturated with water it forms an imperfect milky solution, which upon standing deposites the greater portion of what was taken up. Wine and vinegar act upon it in a simi- lar manner. Alcohol dissolves a considerable proportion, forming a yellow tincture, which has the smell and taste of galbanum, and be- comes milky by the addition of water, but affords no precipitate. In diluted alcohol it is wholly soluble, with the exception of impurities. One hundred parts of it yielded to M. Pelletier, 66.86 parts of resin, 19.28 of gum, 6.34 of volatile oil including the loss, 7.52 of wood and impurities, with traces of the supermalate of lime. It is, therefore, en- titled to rank with the gum-resins. By distillation at the temperature of about 250° F., the essential oil is obtained of a fine indigo blue colour which it imparts to alcohol. Procured by distillation with water, the oil is colourless, and becomes yellowish by age. Medical Properties and Uses.—Galbanum is stimulant, expectorant, and antispasmodic; and may be considered as intermediate in power between ammoniac and assafetida. It is, however, much less employed than either of these gum-resins; and in the United States is seldom or never prescribed internally. The complaints to which it was formerly thought applicable, were chiefly chronic affections of the bronchial mu- cous membrane, amenorrhoea, and chronic rheumatism. It is occasion- ally applied externally in the shape of plaster to indolent swellings, with the view of promoting resolution or suppuration. Galbanum was known to the ancients. The dose is from ten to twenty grains, and may be given in pill, or triturated with gum arabic, sugar, and water, so as to form an emulsion. Off Prep. Emplastrum Assaefoetidae, Ed.; Emplastrum Galbani, Dub.; Emplastrum Galbani Compositum, U.S., Lond.; Emplastrum Gummo- sum, Ed.; Pil. Assaefoetid. Comp., Ed.; Pil. Galban. Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Galbani, Dub. GALLA. U.S. Galls. " Quercus infectoria. Cyniphis nidus. The nest of the Cynips querc&s folii." U.S. ' * Off. Syn. GALLiE. Cynips quercus folii. Nidus. Lond.; GALLA. Exvariisquercusspedebus. Ed.; GALL^. QUERCUS INFECTORIA. Dub. Noix de galle, Fr.,- Gallapfel, Germ.; Galla, Hal; Agallas de Levante, Span- part I. Galla. 309 Many vegetables, when pierced by certain insects, particularly those of the genus Cynips, are affected at the points of puncture with a morbid action, resulting in the production of excrescencies, which, as they are derived from the proper juices of the plant, partake more or less of its predominant chemical character. Most species of oak are susceptible of this kind of action; and the resulting excrescencies, having in a high degree the astringency of the plant on which they grow, have been em- ployed for various practical purposes. They are known by the name of galls, a term which, as well as their employment in medicine, has been handed down to us from the ancients. The Quercus infectoria, Q. JEgilops, Q. excelsa, Q. Ilex, Q. Cerris, and Q. Robur, have all been par- ticularized as occasionally affording this product; but it is now gene- rally admitted, upon the authority of Olivier, that the officinal galls are derived chiefly if not exclusively from the Q. infectoria; and this is re- cognised as their source in the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and of Dublin. Querous. See QUERCUS ALBA. Q. infectoria. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 436; Olivier, Voy. Or. t. 14 et 15. The dyers' oak is a small tree or shrub, with a crooked stem, seldom exceeding six feet in height. The leaves are obtusely toothed, smooth, of a bright green colour on both sides, and stand on short footstalks. The acorn is elongated, smooth, two or three times longer than the cup, which is sessile, somewhat downy, and scaly. This species of Quercus grows, according to Olivier, throughout Asia Minor, from the Archipelago to the confines of Persia. Captain M. Kinneir found it also in Arminia and Kurdistan; General Hardwicke observed it grow- ing in the neighbourhood of Adwanie; and it probably pervades the middle latitudes of Asia. The gall originates from the puncture of the Cynips quercusfolii of Linnaeus, the Dioplepsis gallae tinctorise of Geoffroy, a hymenopterous in- sect or fly, with a fawn-coloured body, dark antennae, and upper part of its abdomen shining brown. The insect pierces the shoots of the younc: boughs, and deposites its egg in the wound. This irritates the vessels of the part, and a small tumour very speedily rises, which appears to be the result of a morbid secretion, and upon examinatiqn by the micro- scope exhibits no signs of proper vegetable fibre. The egg grows with the gall, and is soon converted into a larva, which feeds upon the vege- table matter by which it is surrounded, and thus forms a cavity in the centre of the tumour. The insect at length assumes the form of a fly, and escapes by eating its way out of the nut. The galls are in perfec- tion when they have attained their full size, and before the egg has been hatched, or the fly has escaped. Collected at this period, they are called, from their dark colour, blue, or green, or black galls, and are most highly esteemed. Those which are gathered later, and which have been injured by the insect, are called white galls. They are usually larger, less heavy and compact, and of a lighter colour than the former; and are considered much inferior. The galls collected in Syria and Asia Minor are brought to this coun- try chiefly from the ports of Smyrna and Trieste. As they are produced abundantly in the vicinity of Aleppo, it has been customary to designate them by the name of that city; though the designation, however correct it may formerly have been, is now wholly inapplicable, as they are ob- tained from many other places; and the produce of different parts of Asiatic Turkey is not capable of being discriminated, at least in our markets. We have been informed, that, within a few years, great quan- 310 Galla. • parti.. tities of galls very closely resembling those from the Mediterranean have been brought to the United States from Calcutta. Whether they are the product of Hindostan, or taken thither from other countries, we are unable to decide with certainty. Ainslie is inclined to think that most of the galls found in the markets of India are imported from Per- sia by the Arab merchants. We are, nevertheless, informed that they are among the products of Moultan; and it is highly probable that they grow upon some of the other astringent vegetables, besides the oak, which flourish in Hindostan. The galls of France and other southern countries of Europe have a smooth, shining, reddish surface; are little esteemed; and are seldom brought to the United States. A species of nut was not many years since commonly sold in our markets, and is still found in some of the shops, under the name of white galls, to which, however, it bears not the slightest resemblance either in appearance or structure. It consists of an outer shell enclosing a hard kernel, is an inch or more in length, thick in the middle, some- what pointed at both extremities, of a dull white or brownish colour, and is probably a species of myrobalans. To the taste it is powerfully astringent. Properties.—Galls are nearly round, from the size of a pea to that of a very large cherry, with a surface usually studded with small tuberosi- ties, in the intervals of which it is smooth. The best are externally of a blueish or lead colour, internally whitish or brownish, hard, solid, brittle, with a flinty fracture, a striated texture, and a small spot or cavity in the centre, indicating the presence of the undeveloped or de- cayed insect. Their powder has some shade of gray. Those of an infe- rior quality are of a lighter colour, sometimes reddish or nearly white, of a loose texture, with a large cavity in the centre, communicating externally by a small hole through which the fly has escaped. Galls are inodorous, and have a bitter very astringent taste. From 500 parts Sir H. Davy obtained 185 parts of matter soluble in water, of which, ac- cording to his analysis, 130 were tannin, 31 gallic acid with a little ex- tractive, 12 mucilage and matter rendered insoluble by evaporation, and 12 saline matter and calcareous earth., Other chemists have found a larger proportion of tannin and gallic acid. Braconnot discovered the presence of a small quantity of another acid, to which he gave the name ellagic, derived from galle, the French name for galls, by re- versing the order of the letters. Galls also yielded to Professor Branchi, by distillation with water, a concrete volatile oil. All their soluble mat- ter is taken up by forty times their weight of boiling water, and the residue is tasteless: alcohol dissolves seven parts in ten, ether five parts. (Thomson's Dispensatory.) A saturated decoction of galls deposites upon cooling a copious pale yellow precipitate. The infusion or tinc- ture affords precipitates with sulphuric and muriatic acids, lime water, carbonate of ammonia, and carbonate of potassa; with solutions of ace- tate and sub-acetate of lead, the sulphates of copper and iron, the nitrates of silver and mercury, tartrate of antimony and potassa; with the infu- sions of Peruvian bark, columbo, opium, and many other vegetables, especially those containing proximate alkaline principles, with most of which gallic acid or tannin forms insoluble compounds. The solution of gelatin also produces a precipitate. The infusion of galls reddens litmus paper, is rendered orange by nitric acid, milky by the corrosive chloride of mercury, and has its own colour deepened by ammonia; but throws down no precipitate with either of these reagents. Sulphate of zinc is part i. Galla.—Gambogia. 311 said by Dr. A. T. Thomson to occasion a slow precipitate, but this re- sult was not obtained by Dr. Duncan. Medical Properties and Uses.—As might be inferred from the quantity of tannin they contain, galls are powerfully astringent. They are little employed as an internal remedy, though occasionally prescribed in chronic diarrhoea. In the form of infusion or decoction they may be advantageously used as an astringent gargle, lotion, or injection; and mixed with simple ointment, in the proportion of one part of galls, in very fine powder, to eight parts of the unguent, they are frequently ap- plied to the anus and rectum in hemorrhoidal affections. The dose of powdered galls is from ten to twenty grains, to be repeated several times a day. Off. Prep. Tinctura Gallarum, Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Gallae, U.S., Ed., Dub. GAMBOGIA. U.S. Gamboge. " Staligmitis cambogioides. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Off. Syn. CAMBOGIA. Stalagmitis Cambogioides. Gummi-resina. Lond.; GAMBOGIA. Gummi resina ex Stalagmitide Cambogioide et quibusdam aliis. Ed.; GAMBOGIA. STALAGMITIS CAMBOGIA. Dub. Gomme gutte, Fr.; Gummigutt, Germ.; Gomma-gotta, Hal; Gutagamba, Span. Several plants belonging to the natural family of the Guttiferae, grow- ing in the equatorial regions, yield on incision a yellow opaque juice, which hardens on exposure to the air, and bears a close resemblance to gamboge; but it is not certainly known from which of these plants the officinal gum-resin is procured. Persoon, De Candolle, Richard, and others, refer it to the Garcinia Cambogia—the Cambogia Gutta of Lin- naeus—while the majority of writers agree with Koenig, in considering it the product of the Stalagmitis Cambogioides of Murray; and the latter is recognised by the American and all the British Pharmacopoeias. Dr. White, who was well acquainted with the Garcinia Cambogia, asserts that its concrete juice is not the gamboge of commerce; and we are in- formed by Dr. Duncan, that a specimen of the yellow juice of the Sta- lagmitis which he received from India has not the properties of that drug. Ainslie states that a forest tree has been found in Malabar and Canara, which yields a juice in all respects identical with gamboge; but it has not been botanically described; and its product has not been brought into the market. On the whole, it must be admitted that we are uncertain, not only as to the precise tree which affords the officinal gamboge, but also whether it is derived from any one tree exclusively, or from several. In this uncertainty, it seems hardly necessary to crowd our pages with botanical descriptions, which may possibly have no rela- tion to the subject. Gamboge is collected in Siam and Cochin-china. It is said also to be produced in Ceylon, where the Stalagmitis Cambogioides grows; but it is doubtful whether any of the drug, as found in commerce, is derived from this island. Milburn does not mention it among the exports. The tree from which it is obtained in Siam has not been examined by any botanist. The mode of procuring it is to break off the leaves and young shoots, from which the juice issues in drops, and being received in 312 Gambogia. * part i. suitable vessels gradually thickens, and at length becomes solid. When it has attained the requisite consistence it is rolled into cylinders, and wrapped in leaves. The juice is sometimes received into the hollow joints of the bamboo, which give it a cylindrical form; and as it con- tracts during the process of solidification, the cylinder is ofte^ hollow in the centre. The name gummi gutta, by which it is generally known on the continent of Europe, probably originated from the circumstance that the juice escapes from the plant by drops. The officinal title was undoubtedly derived from the province of Cambodia, in which the gum- resin is collected. ;It was first brought to Europe by the Dutch about the middle of the seventeenth century. . • ' We import gamboge from Canton and Calcutta, whither it is carried by the native or resident merchants. There is no difference in the apr pearance or character of the drug as brought from these two por"ts—an • evidence that it is originally derived from the same place.« , Properties.'—It is usually in cylindrical rolls, from one 1,0 Uvo mches in diameter, sometimes hollow in the centre, often folded double, or ag-# , glutinated in masses in which the original form is not always readily distinguishable. The pieces are sometimes flattened. They are 'exter- nally striated, and of a-dull orange colour, which is occasionally dis- placed by greenish stains, or concealed by the bright yellow powder of the drug, which slightly.adheres to the surface. Gamboge is brittle, with a smooth, conchoidal, shining fracture; and the fragments are slighdy translucent at their edges. The colour of the mass when broken • ■ is a uniform deep orange-yellow, which becomes a beautiful bright yel- , low in the powder, or when the surface is rubbed with water! From the brilliance of its colour, gamboge is highly esteemed as a pigment. In the inferior kinds the tint is duller and less uniform. It has no smell, and little taste; but after remaining a short time in the mouth produces an acrid sensation in the fauces. Its sp. gr. is 1.221. Exposed to heat it burns-with a white flame, emitting much smoke, and leaving a light spongy charcoal. It is a gum-resin, and, unlike most other substances ot ^' the same class, contains no essential oil. In 100 parts of it Braconnot .»'. found 20 parts of a gum resembling that of the cherry, and 80 of a red, insipid, transparent resinous substance, becoming yellow by pulveriza.-%% tion, and supposed to consist of resin united with a yellow colouring principle. It is readily and entirely diffusible in water, forming a yellow . opaque emulsion, from which the resinous matter is very slowly depo- sited. It is almost entirely dissolved by alcohol; and a golden yellow *-, tincture'results,, which is rendered opaque and bright yellow by the ad- , dition of water. Its^solution in ammoniated alcohol is not disturbed by - water. It is wholly taken up by alkaline solutions, from which it is^,, partially precipitated by the acids. The strong acids dissolve it; "but the solution when diluted with water deposites a yellow precipitate. Medical Properties and Uses.'—Gamboge- is a powerful, drastic, hy- dragogue cathartic, very apt to produce nausea and vomiting whea given in the full dose. It is much employed in the treatment of dropsy . attended with torpid bowels, generally in combination with the super- tartrate of potassa or jalap. It is also prescribed in cases of obstinate constipation, and has frequently been found effectual in the expulsion of the tapeworm. It is often combined with other and milder cathartics, the action of which it promotes and accelerates, while its own is mode-, rated. The full dose is from two to six grains, which in ftases of taenia has been raised to ten or fifteen grains. As it is apt to occasion much sickness and griping, the best plan, under ordinary circumstances, is part i. Gambogia.—Gaullheria. 313 to give it in small doses repeated at short intervals till it operates. It may be given in pill or emulsion, or dissolved in an alkaline solution. The last method of administration has been recommended in dropsical complaints. Off Pvep. Pilulae Catharticae Compositae, U.S.; Pilulae Cambogiae Compositae, Lond., Ed., Bub. GAULTHERIA. U.S. ,. f • Partridge-berry. " Gaultheria procumbens. Folia. The leaves." U.S. • . Gaultheria. Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.-—Nat. Ord. Ericae> Jit/ss.; Ericeae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Calyx five-cleft, bibracteate at the base. Corolla ovate. Cap- sule five-celled, invested with the berried calyx. Pursh. Gaultheria procumbens. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 616; Bigelow, Am. Med. 'Bot. ii. 27; Barton, Med Bot. i. 171. This is a small, indigenous, shrub-' by, evergreen plant, with a long, creeping, horizontal root, which sends . Up at intervals one and sometimes two erect, slender, round, reddish stems. These are naked below, leafy at the summit, and usually less than a span in height. The leaves are ovate orobovate, acute, revolute at the -edges with a few mucronate serratures, coriaceous, shining, ■ bright green upon the upper surface, paler beneath, of unequal size, and supported irregularly on short red petioles. The .flowers, of which not • more than from three to five are usually found upon each stem, stand on curved, drooping, axillary peduncles. The calyx is white, five-toothed, and furnished at its base with two concave cordate bractes, which are by Some authors described as an outer calyx. The corolla is white, ovate or urceolate, contracted at its mouth, and divided at its border into five small acute segments. The stamens consist of curved, plumose fila- ..-ments, and oblong orange-coloured anthers, opening on the outside. The germ, which rests upon a ring having ten teeth alternating with the ten 0T.stamens, is roundish, depressed, and surmounted by an erect filiform style,-terminating in an obtuse stigma. The fruit is a small, five-celled, many-seeded capsule, enclosed in a fleshy covering; formed by the en- larged calyx, and presenting the appearance of a bright scarlet berry. The plant extends from Canada to Georgia, growing in large beds in mountainous tracts, or in dry barrens and sandy plains, beneath the shade of shrubs and frees, particularly of other evergreens, as the Kal- miae and Rhododendra. It is abundant in the pine barrens of New Jersey. In different parts of the country it is known by the various names of partridge-berry, deer-berry, tea-berry, and mountain tea. The ' flowers appear from May to September, and the fruit ripens at corre- * sponding periods.- Though the leaves only are officinal, all parts of the plant are endowed with the peculiar flavour for which these are em- ployed, and which is found in several other plants, particularly in the bark of the Betula lenta or sweet biech. The fruit possesses'it in a high degree, and being at the Sam©, time sweetish, is much relished by some persons, and forms a favourite article of food, with partridges, deer, and other wild animals. To the very peculiar and agreeably aromatic odour and taste which belong to the whole plant, the leaves add a marked astringency, depen- dent on the presence of tannin. The aromatic properties reside in a vola- tile oil, which maybe separated by distillation. (See Oleum Gaultherise.) 40 314 Gaultheria.—Gentiana. PART I. Medical Properties and Uses.—Gaultheria has the usual stimulant ope- ration of the aromatics, united with astringency; and may, therefore, be used with advantage in some forms of chronic diarrhoea. Like other substances of the same class, it has been employed as an emmenagogue, and with the view of increasing the secretion of milk ; but its chief use is to impart an agreeable flavour to mixtures and other prepara- tions. It may be conveniently administered in the form of infusion, which in some parts of the country is not unfrequently used at the table as a substitute for common tea. The oil, however, is more used in regu- lar practice than the leaves. Off. Prep. Oleum Gaultherise. U.S. GENTIANA. U.S. Gentian. "Gentiana lutea. Radix. The root." U.S. Off Syn. GENTIANS RADIX. Gentiana lutea. Radix. Lond.; GENTIANS LUTEAL RADIX. Ed.; GENTIANA LUTEA. Radix. Dub. Gentiane jaune, Fr.; Rother enzian, Germ.; Genziana, ltal; Genciana, Span. Gentiana. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianae, Juss.; Gentianeae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla one-petalled. Capsule two-valved, one-celled, with two longitudinal receptacles. Willd. This genus is not constant in the number of the stamens. Some spe- cies have five stamens and a five-cleft corolla; others have only four stamens and a four-cleft corolla; others again have more than five. But the plants have so strong an affinity in their general characters, and are so uniform in the structure of the fruit, that they continue to be associated together by botanists, notwithstanding the discrepancies al- luded to. Gentiana lutea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1331; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 273. t. 95. Yellow gentian is among the most remarkable of the species which compose this genus, both for its beauty, and its great compara- tive size. From its thick, long, branching, perennial root, an erect, round stem rises to the height of three or four feet, bearing opposite, sessile, oval, acute, five-nerved leaves, of a bright green colour, and somewhat glaucous. The lower leaves, which spring from the root, are narrowed at their base into the form of a petiole. The flowers are large and beautiful, of a yellow colour, peduncled, and placed in whorls at the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is a membranous deciduous spathe; the corolla is rotate, and deeply divided into five lanceolate, acute segments. This plant grows ,among the Appenines, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and in other mountainous or elevated regions of Europe. Its root is the only part used in medicine. Several other species of the genus possess analogous medicinal prop- erties, and are used for similar purposes. The roots of the G. biloba of De Candolle, and G. punctata of Linnaeus, are said to be frequently mingled with the officinal gentian, from which they are scarcely distin- guishable. The G. purpurea of Linnaeus is much used in Norway and Germany, where it grows, and is considered quite equal to the G. lutea. The G. macrophylla of Pallas is used in Siberia; the G. Chirayita of PART I. Gentiana. 315 Roxburgh in Bengal; and one indigenous species, the G. Catesbxi, has found a place in the secondary catalogue of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Gentian is imported from Germany. Properties.—As found in our shops, it is in pieces of various dimen- sions and shape, usually of considerable length, consisting sometimes of longitudinal slices, sometimes of the root cut transversely, twisted, wrinkled externally, of a grayish-brown colour on the outside, yellowish within, and of a soft spongy texture. The odour is feeble, but decided and peculiar. The taste is slightly sweetish, and intensely bitter, with- out being nauseous. The powder is of a yellowish colour. Water and alcohol extract its taste and medical virtues. Examined by MM. Henry and Caventou, it was found to contain, 1. a peculiar principle called gentianin, 2. a fugitive colouring matter, 3. a substance identical with bird-lime, 4. a greenish fixed oil, 5. a free organic acid, 6. uncrystal- lizable sugar, 7. gum, 8. yellow colouring matter, and 9. lignin. Gen- tianin, which is probably the chief active ingredient of the root, is a yellow crystallizable neutral principle, without smell, with the bitter- ness of gentian, very soluble in ether and alcohol, slightly soluble in cold water, more so in hot water, partly volatilizable by heat, partly de- composed, with the evolution of products which indicate the presence of nitrogen in its composition. The process for procuring it in a state of purity is complicated, and can never be advantageously applied in practice; especially as the gentianin is in no respect superior as a medi- cine to the simple aqueous extract of the root. When gentian is mace- rated in cold water, it undergoes the vinous fermentation, in conse- quence, probably, of the presence of its saccharine and mucilaginous principles. From the fermented infusion a spirituous liquor is obtained by distillation, which, though bitter, and unpleasant to* the smell, is much relished by the Swiss and Tyrolese. Medical Properties and Uses.—Gentian possesses, in a high degree, the tonic powers which characterize the simple bitters. It excites the appetite, invigorates the powers of digestion, moderately increases the temperature of the body and the force of the circulation, and acts in fact as a general corroborant of the system. In very large doses, how- ever, it is apt to load and oppress the stomach, to irritate the bowels, and even to occasion nausea and vomiting. It has been known as a med- icine from the highest antiquity, and is said to have derived its name from Gentius, a king of Illyria. Many of the complex preparations handed down from the Greeks and Arabians contain it among their in- gredients ; and it enters into most of the stomachic combinations em- ployed in modern practice. It may be used in all cases of disease dependent on pure debility of the digestive organs, or requiring a gene- ral tonic impression. Dyspepsia, gout, amenorrhcea, hysteria, scrofula, intermittent fever, diarrhoea, worms, are among the many forms of dis- ease in which it has proved useful; but it is the condition of the stomach and of the system generally, not the name of the disease, which must be taken into consideration in prescribing it, and there is scarcely a single complaint in which it can be advantageously administered under all circumstances. Its powder has been applied externally to malignant and sloughing ulcers. It is usually given in the form of infusion or tinc- ture. The dose of the powder is from ten to forty grains. Off. Prep. Extractum Gentianae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Gentianae Compositum, U.S, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Gentianae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei et Gentianse, U.S.; Vinum Gentianae Compositum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. 316 Gentiana Catesbsei.—Geoffrsese Inermis Cortex, part i. GENTIANA CATESB^I. U.S. Secondary. Blue Gentian. " Gentiana Catesbaei. Radix. Tlie root." U.S. Gentiana. See GENTIANA. Several indigenous species of gentian approach more or less nearly to the Gentiana lutea in the bitterness and medicinal virtues of their roots; but the G. Catesbaei, which resembles it most closely in these respects, is the only one which has attracted the particular attention of the med- ical profession. Gentiana Catesbsei. Walter, Flor. Car. 109; Bigelow, Med. Bot. ii. 137; Nuttall, Gen. of N. Am. Plants, i. 172. The blue gentian has a perennial, branching, somewhat fleshy root, and a simple, erect, rough stem, rising eight or ten inches in height, and bearing opposite leaves, which are ovate lanceolate, acute, and rough on their margin. The flowers, which are of a palish-blue colour, are crowded, nearly sessile, axillary and terminal. The divisions of the calyx are linear lanceolate, and longer than the tube. The corolla is large, ventricose, plaited, and divided at its border into ten segments, of which the five outer are more or less acute, the five inner bifid and fringed. The number of sta- mens is five, and the two stigmas are seated on the germ. The capsule is oblong, acuminate, with two valves, and a single cell. The G. Catesbsei grows in the grassy swamps of North and South Carolina, where it flowers from September to December. It was named by Walter and Elliott in honour of Catesby, by whom it was imper- fectly delineated upwards of seventy years ago. Pursh confounds it with the G. saponaria, to which it is nearly allied. Properties.—By Dr. Bigelow we are told that the dried root of this plant has at first a mucilaginous and sweetish taste, which is soon suc- ceeded by an intense bitterness, approaching nearly to that of the offi- cinal gentian. Alcohol and boiling water extract its virtues; and the tincture and decoction are even more bitter than the root in substance. Blue gentian has not been satisfactorily analysed. Medical Properties.—-As a medicine it is little inferior to the European gentian, and may be employed for similar purposes. In the Northern and Middle States it is not used; but it is said to be occasionally pre- scribed by the practitioners of the South in dyspepsia, and other cases of stomachic and general debility. It may be given in powder in the dose of fifteen or thirty grains, and may be substituted for the foreign gentian in the preparation of the officinal extract, infusion, wine, and incture. GEOFFR,E,E INERMIS CORTEX. Ed. Cabbage-tree Bark. Off. Syn. GEOFFROYA INERMIS. Cortex. Dub. Geoffroya de Jamaique, Fr.; Jamaicanische wurmrinde, Germ.; Geoffrjea, ltal. Geoffroya. Class Diadelphia. Order Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Legu- minosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Drupe ovate. Nucleus compressed. Willd. Several species have by some botanists been, separated from the Geof- froya, and erected into a new genus with the title Andira. The distinctive part i. Geoffrsese Inermis Cortex.—Geranium. 317 character of the latter is a papilionaceous corolla and leguminous fruit, while in the true Geoffroya the corolla is not papilionaceous, and the fruit is a kind of drupe. The cabbage-tree is ranked among the Andirse. Geoffroya inermis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1130; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 416. t. 151.—Andira inermis, Humb. and Bonp. Nov. Gen. Amer. The stem of this tree, which rises to a considerable height, is branched towards the top, and covered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are pinnate, consisting of several pairs of lanceolate, pointed, veined, smooth, petiolate leaflets, with an odd one at the end. The flowers are rose-coloured, and appear in clusters upon large branched spikes. The cabbage-tree is a native of Jamaica and other West India islands. The bark is the part used. On the continent of Europe the bark of the G. Surinamensis, the Andira retusa of Humb. and Bonp., which grows in Surinam, is also officinal. It is considered more powerfully vermifuge, without being equally liable to produce injurious effects. Cabbage-tree bark is in long pieces, thick, fibrous, externally of a brownish-ash colour, scaly and covered with lichens, internally yellow- ish, of a resinous fracture, a disagreeable smell, a sweetish, mucilagi- nous, bitterish taste, and affording a powder resembling that of jalap. The bark of the G. Surinamensis has a grayish epidermis, beneath which it is reddish-brown, laminated, compact, very tenacious, and when cut transversely exhibits a shining and variegated surface. In the dried state it is inodorous, but has an austere bitter taste. The powder is of a pale cinnamon colour. Medical Properties and Uses.—Cabbage-tree bark is cathartic, and in large doses is apt to occasion vomiting, fever, and delirium. In the West Indies it is esteemed a powerful vermifuge, and is much employ- ed for expelling lumbrici; but it is dangerous if incautiously adminis- tered, and instances of death from its use have occurred. It is almost unknown in this country, and does not enter into our officinal cata- logues. The usual form of administration is that of decoction, though the bark is also given in powder, syrup, and extract. The dose of the powder is from a scruple to half a drachm, of the extract three grains, of the decoction two fluidounces. Off. Prep. Decoctum Geoffraeae Inermis, Ed., Dub. GERANIUM. U.S. Cranesbill. " Geranium maculatum. Radix. The root." U.S. Geranium. Class Monadelphia. Order Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Gera- nia, Juss. Geraniaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Corolla five-petalled, regular. Nectary five melliferous glands united to the base of the longer filaments. Arilli five, one-seeded, awned, at the base of a beaked receptacle; awns sim- ple, naked, neither spiral nor bearded. Willd. Geranium maculatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 705.; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 84; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 149. This plant has a perennial, hori- zontal, fleshy root, which is furnished with short fibres, and sends up annually an herbaceous stem, with several radical leaves. The stem is erect, round, dichotomously branched, from one to two feet high, of a grayish-green colour, and thickly covered, in common with the peti- oles and peduncles, with reflexed hairs. The leaves are deeply divided 318 Geranium.—Geum. part i. into three, five, or seven lobes, which are variously incised at their ex- tremities, hairy, and of a pale green colour mottled with still paler spots. Those which rise immediately from the root are supported on footstalks eight or ten inches long; those of the stem are opposite, the lower petiolate, the upper nearly sessile, with lanceolate or linear sti- pules. The flowers are large, and usually of a purple colour. The pe- duncles spring from the forks of the stem, and severally support two flowers upon short pedicels. The calyx is composed of five oblong, ribbed, cuspidate leaves; the petals are five, obovate, and entire; the stamens ten, with oblong deciduous anthers, the five alternate filaments being longer than the others, and having glands at their base; the germ is ovate, supporting a straight style as long as the stamens, and sur- mounted by five stigmas. The fruit consists of five aggregate, one- seeded capsules, attached'by a beak to the persistent style, curling up and scattering the seeds when ripe. The cranesbill is indigenous, growing throughout the United States, in moist woods, thickets and hedges, and generally in low grounds. It flowers from May to July. The root should be collected in autumn. This, when dried, is in pieces from one to three inches long, from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, somewhat flattened, contorted, wrinkled, tuberculated, and beset with slender fibres. It is externally of an umber-brown colour, internally reddish-gray, compact, inodorous, and of an astringent taste, without bitterness or other unpleasant fla- vour. Water and alcohol extract its virtues. Tannin is an abundant constituent. Medical Properties and Uses.—Geranium is one of our most powerful indigenous astringents, and may be employed for all the purposes to which these medicines are applicable. The absence of unpleasant taste and all other offensive qualities, renders it peculiarly serviceable in the cases of infants, or of persons with very delicate stomachs. Diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, cholera infantum in the latter stages, and the various hemorrhages, are the forms of disease in which it is most commonly used and with greatest advantage; but care should be taken, before it is administered, that the condition of the system and of the part affect- ed is such as not to contra-indicate the use of astringents. As an appli- cation to indolent ulcers, an injection in gleet and leucorrhoea, a gargle in relaxation of the uvula and aphthous ulcerations of the throat, it an- swers the same purpose with kino, catechu, and other foreign remedies of similar character. It is a popular domestic remedy in various parts of the United States, and is said to be employed by the Indians in nu- merous disorders. It may be given in substance, decoction, tincture, or extract. The dose of the powder is twenty or thirty grains, that of a decoction made by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint and a half of water to a pint, from one to two fluidounces. The medicine is some- times given to children boiled in milk. GEUM. U.S. Secondary. Water Avens. « Geum rivale. Radix. The root." U. S. Benoite aquatique, Fr.,- Wiesenbenediktenwurzel, Germ. Geum. Class Icosandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx ten-cleft. Petals five. Seeds with a bent awn. Willd. m Several species belonging to this genus have been medicinally em- part i. Geum.—Geum Urbanum. Radix. 319 ployed; but two only are deserving of particular notice, the Geum ri- vale, which has a place in the secondary list of the United States Phar- macopoeia, and the G. urbanum, recognised by the Dublin College. Geum rivale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1115; Engl. Bot. 106. The water avens has a perennial, horizontal, jointed, scaly, tapering root, about six inches long, of a reddish-brown colour externally, white internally, and furnished with numerous descending yellowish fibres. Sometimes one, sometimes several stems rise from the same root, which also sends up numerous leaves. The stems are about a foot and a half high, sim- ple, erect, pubescent, and of a purplish colour. The radical leaves are interruptedly pinnate, with large terminal leaflets, and stand on long, hairy footstalks; those of the stem are petiolate, and divided into three serrate, pointed segments. The flowers are few, solitary, nodding, yel- lowish-purple, and supported on axillary and terminal peduncles. The colour of the stems and flowers has given rise to the name of purple avens, by which the plant is sometimes called. The calyx is inferior, with ten lanceolate pointed segments, of which the five alternate are smaller than the others. The petals are five, and of the same length as the calyx. The seeds are oval, and furnished with plumose awns, mi- nutely uncinate, and nearly naked at the summit. This species of Geum is common to Europe and the United States, though the plant of this country has smaller flowers, with petals more rounded on the top, and leaves more deeply incised than the European. It delights in wet boggy meadows, and extends from Canada into New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. Its flowers appear in June and July. The dried root is hard, brittle, easily pulverised, of a reddish or pur- plish colour, without smell, and of an astringent, bitterish taste. Boil- ing water extracts its virtues. Medical Properties and Uses.—Water avens is tonic and powerfully astringent. It may be used with advantage in chronic or passive hemor- rhages, leucorrhoea, and diarrhoea; and is said to be beneficially em- ployed, in the Eastern States, as a popular remedy in the debility of phthisis pulmonalis, in simple dyspepsia, and in visceral diseases con- sequent on disorder of the stomach. In Europe it is sometimes substi- tuted for the root of the common avens or Geum urbanum, but is less esteemed. The dose of the powdered root is from a scruple to a drachm, to be repeated three times a day. The decoction, which is usually pre- ferred, may be made by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint of water, and given in the quantity of one or two fluidounces. A weak decoction is sometimes used by invalids in New England, as a substitute for tea and coffee. GEUM URBANUM. RADIX. Dub. Boot of Avens. Benoite, Fr.; Benediktenwurzel, Germ.; Cariofillata, ltal.; Cariofilata, Span. Geum. See GEUM. Geum urbanum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1113; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 502. t. 181. Avens is an herbaceous perennial plant, with slender, erect, branching, hairy stems, about two feet in height. The leaves are petio- late, serrate, hairy; those on the upper part of the stem, simple, trifid, and pointed; those nearest the root, pinnate and lyrate, with two pairs of unequal leaflets, and a larger terminal leaflet, which is usually three- 320 Geum Urbanum. Radix.—Gillenia. part i. lobed. The flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, and solitary upon erect terminal peduncles. The seeds, which are hairy and collect- ed in a roundish head, have at their summit a naked awn, bent like a hook at the apex. This species of Geum is a native of Europe, where it grows in woods and shady uncultivated places. The flowers appear in June and July. The root, which is the part employed, should be dug up in March, when its sensible properties are in greatest perfection, and should be dried by a moderate heat. The large roots are preferred to those which are very small, and the cultivated, to the wild. The avens root consists of a short oblong body or caudex, from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, externally brown, internally white towards the circumference and reddish at the centre, and sending forth numerous long brown descending fibres. When quite dry it is nearly inodorous, but in the recent state has a smell resembling that of cloves, whence it is sometimes called radix caryophyllatse. Its taste is bitterish and astringent. It imparts its medicinal virtues to water and alcohol, which it tinges red. Distilled with water it yields a thick essential oil, and gives a pleasant flavour to the liquid. Tannin is an abundant con- stituent. Medical Properties and Uses.—This root has been largely used on the continent of Europe as a tonic and astringent in numerous diseases. Among these are chronic and passive hemorrhages, chronic dysentery and diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, congestions of the abdominal viscera, and intermittent fever. The dose of the powdered root is from thirty grains to a drachm three or four times a day, and the same quantity may be given at a dose in the form of decoction. The medicine is scarcely used in the United States. GILLENIA. U.S. Gillenia. " Gillenia trifoliata, Bigelow and Barton. Spiraea trifoliata, Willd. Radix. The root." U.S. Indian physic, American ipecacuanha. Gillenia. Class Icosandria. Order Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosacese, Juss. Gen.Ch. Calyx tubular campanulate, border five-toothed. Corolla part- ly unequal. Petals five, lanceolate, attenuated at the base. Stamens few, included. Styles five. Capsules five, connate at the base, opening on the inner side, each two-seeded. Torrey. This genus was separated by Moench from the Spiraea, but was not generally acknowledged till after the publication of Barton's Medical Botany. It is exclusively North American, and includes only two dis- covered species—the G. trifoliata and the G. stipulacea—of which the former only has been adopted in our Pharmacopoeia, though the two are identical in medical character. 1. Gillenia trifoliata. Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 10; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 65. This is an herbaceous plant with a perennial root, consist- ing of numerous long, slender, brown branches, proceeding from a thick tuber-like head or caudex. The stems, several of which usually rise from the same root, are two or three feet in height, erect, slender, smooth, flexuose, branched, and commonly of a reddish colour. The leaves are ternate, with very short petioles, and small linear-lanceolate PART I. Gillenia. 321 stipules. The leaflets are ovate lanceolate, sharply serrate, and acumi- nate. The flowers grow in a loose terminal nodding panicle, with long peduncles. The calyx is tubular campanulate, ventricose, and termi- nates in five pointed segments. The corolla is composed of five linear lanceolate, recurved petals, the two upper separated from the three lower, white, with a reddish tinge on their border, and of three times the length of the calyx. The stamens are twenty, the filaments short, the anthers small and yellow. Each flower is succeeded by five capsules, connate at their base, oblong, acuminate, gibbous without, acute within, two-valved, one-celled, opening inward, and containing each one or two oblong seeds. This species of Gillenia grows throughout the United States, east of the Alleghany ridge. Pursh found it in Florida, and it extends as far north as Canada. It frequents light soils, in shady and moist situations, and flowers in June and July. The root should be gathered in September. 2. G. stipulacea. Barton, Med. Bot. i. 71. This species is also herba- ceous and perennial, though much taller, and more bushy than the pre- ceding. The stems are brownish and branched. The upper leaves are ternate, lanceolate, serrate; the lower more deeply incised, becoming towards the root pinnatifid, and of a reddish-brown colour at the mar- gin. The stipules are ovate, acuminate, deeply serrate, resembling leaves, and marking the species at the first glance. The flowers are smaller than those of the G. trifoliata, and grow on long slender pedun- cles in a lax corymb. In the valley of the Mississippi this plant occupies the place of the G. trifoliata, which is not found beyond the Muskingum. It grows as far north as the state of New York, extends through Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, and Missouri, and probably into the states south of the Ohio, as it has been found in Western Virginia. Its root is precisely similar to that of the eastern species, and is reputed to possess the same properties. The dried root of Gillenia is not thicker than a small quill, wrinkled longitudinally, with occasional transverse fissures, and in the thicker pieces presenting in some places an irregular undulated somewhat knotty appearance, arising from indentations on one side corresponding with prominences on the other. It is externally of a light brown colour, and consists of a thick somewhat reddish, brittle cortical portion, with an interior slender, tougher, whitish ligneous chord. The bark, which is easily separable, has a bitter, not disagreeable taste; the wood is nearly insipid and comparatively inert, and should be rejected. The powder is of a light brownish colour, and possesses a feeble odour which is scarcely perceptible in the root. The bitterness is extracted by boiling water, which acquires the red colour of wine. The root has not been accurately analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses.—Gillenia is a mild and efficient emetic, and like most other substances belonging to the same class, occasionally acts upon the bowels. In very small doses it has been thought to exert a tonic influence. It is much used by some practitioners in the country, as a substitute for ipecacuanha, which it is said to resemble in its mode of operation. It was employed by the Indians, and became known as an emetic to the colonists at an early period. Linnaeus was aware of its reputed virtues. The dose of the powdered root is from twenty to thirty grains, repeated at intervals of twenty minutes till it vomits. 41 322 Glycyrrhiza. PART I. GLYCYRRHIZA. U.S. Liquorice Root. " Glycyrrhiza glabra. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. GLYCYRRHIZA RADIX. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Radix. Lond.; GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA RADIX. Ed.; GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA. Radix. Dub. Bois de reglisse, Fr.; Sussholzwurzel, Germ.; Liquirizia, ltal; Regaliza, Span. Glycyrrhiza. Class Diadelphia. Order Decandria.— Nat. Ord. Legu- minosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx bilabiate; upper lip three-cleft, lower undivided. Le- gume ovate, compressed. Willd. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1144; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 420. t. 152. The liquorice plant has a perennial root, which is round, succulent, tough, and pliable, furnished with sparse fibres, rapid in its growth, and in a sandy soil penetrates deeply into the ground. The stems are herbaceous, erect, and usually four or five feet in height; have few branches; and are garnished with opposite, pinnate leaves, consisting of several pairs of ovate, blunt, petiolate leaflets, with a single leaflet at the end, of a pale green colour, and clammy on their under surface. The flowers are violet or purple, formed like those of the pea, and ar- ranged in long axillary spikes. The calyx is tubular and persistent. The fruit is a compressed, smooth, acute, one-celled legume, contain- ing two or three small kidney-shaped seeds. The plant is a native of the South of Europe, Barbary, Syria, and Persia; and is cultivated in England, the North of France, and Ger- many. Much of the root imported into this country comes from the ports of Messina and Palermo in Sicily. It is also largely produced in the northern provinces of Spain, where it forms an important article of commerce. A species of Glycyrrhiza, the G. lepidota, grows abundantly about St. Louis, in the State of Missouri, and flourishes along the banks of the Missouri River to its source in the mountains. It is probably the same with the liquorice plant mentioned by Mackenzie as growing on the northern coast of this continent. Mr. Nuttall states that its root pos- sesses to no inconsiderable degree the taste of liquorice; and it is not improbable that it maybe found a fit substitute for that of the G. glabra. Properties. The liquorice root of the shops is in long pieces, varying in thickness from a few lines to more than an inch, fibrous, externally grayish-brown and wrinkled by desiccation, internally yellowish, with- out smell, and of a sweet mucilaginous taste, which is sometimes min- gled with a slight degree of acrimony. It is often worm-eaten and more or less decayed. The best pieces are those which have the brightest yellow colour internally, and of which the layers are distinct. The pow- der is of a grayish-yellow colour when the root is pulverised without being deprived of its epidermis, of a pale sulphur yellow, when the epi- dermis has been removed. Robiquet found the following ingredients in liquorice root:—1. A peculiar transparent yellow substance, called gly- cyrrhizin, of a sweet saccharine taste, scarcely soluble in cold water, very soluble in boiling water, with which it gelatinizes on cooling, thrown down from its aqueous solution by acids, readily soluble in cold alcohol, insusceptible of the vinous fermentation, yielding no oxalic acid by the action of the nitric, and therefore wholly distinct from su- gar j 2. a crystallizable principle, named agedoite by Robiquet, subse- part i. Glycyrrhiza.—Granatum. 323 quently proved to be identical with asparagin, almost tasteless, scarce- ly soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, and, when decomposed by heat, exhaling an ammoniacal odour; 3. starch; 4. albumen; 5. a re- sinous oil, thick, acrid, and insoluble in cold water; 6. lignin; 7. phos- phate of lime, with malate of lime and of magnesia. Robiquet prepared glycyrrhizin by subjecting a strong cold infusion of the root to ebulli- tion, in order to separate the albumen; then filtering, precipitating with acetic acid, and washing the precipitate with cold water to remove any adhering acid. Berzelius considers the matter thus obtained as a com- pound of glycyrrhizin with acetic acid. He procures the principle in a pure state by precipitating the infusion of the root with sulphuric acid, washing the precipitated sulphate to remove the free acid which adheres to it, then dissolving it in alcohol, which leaves the albumen, and adding carbonate of potassa to the alcoholic solution to perfect neutralization. The sulphate of potassa is precipitated, and the glycyrrhizin obtained by evaporating the alcohol. The sweetness of this principle is retained in the compounds which it forms both with acids and alkalies. An extract of liquorice root is brought from Spain and Italy; and much used under the name of liquorice. (See Extractum Glycyrrhizae.) Medical Properties and Uses.—Liquorice root is an excellent demul- cent, well adapted to catarrhal affections, and to irritations of the mucous membrane of the bowels and urinary passages. It is best given in the form of decoction, either alone, or combined with other demulcents. It is frequently employed as an addition to the decoctions of acrid or irri- tating vegetable substances, such for example as seneka and mezereon, the acrimony of which it covers and conceals, while it renders them more acceptable to the stomach. Before being used, it should always be deprived of its epidermis, which is somewhat acrid, without pos- sessing any of the virtues of the root. The decoction may be prepared by boiling an ounce of the bruised root for a few minutes in a pint of water. By long boiling, the acrid principle is extracted. The powder is used in the preparation of pills, either to give them due consistence, or to cover their surface and prevent them from ad- hering together. Off. Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Confectio Sennae, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Decoctum Glycyrrhizae, Dub.; Decoctum Guaiaci Compo- situm, Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Hordei Compositum, Lond., Dub.; De- coctum Mezerei, Dub., Ed.; Decoctum Sarsaparillae Compositum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Infusum Lini, U.S., Lond.,Dub.; Pilulae Hydrargyri, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillae, U.S.; Tinctura Rhei Composita, Lond., Dub. GRANATUM. U.S. Pomegranate. *'Punica granatum. Fructus cortex. The rind of the fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. GRANATI CORTEX. Punica Granatum. Pomorum cor- tex. Lond.; PUNICA GRANATUM. Baccae tunica exterior. Radicis cortex. Flores. Dub. Ecorce de grenade, Fr.,- Granatapffel-schalin, Germ.; Malicorio, Scorza del me- logranati, Hal; Corteza de granada, Span. Punica. Class Icosandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Myrti, Juss.; Myrtaceae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, superior. Petals five. Pome many-celled, many-seeded. Willd. 324 Granatum. TART I. Punka Granatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 981; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 531. t. 190. The pomegranate is a small shrubby tree, attaining in fa- vourable situations the height of twenty feet, with a very unequal trunk, and numerous branches, which sometimes bear thorns. The leaves are opposite, entire, oblong or lance-shaped, pointed at each end, smooth, shining, of a bright green colour, and placed on short footstalks. The flowers are large, of a rich scarlet colour, and stand at the end of the young branches. The petals are roundish and wrinkled, and are inserted into the upper part of the tube of the calyx, which is red, thick, and fleshy. The fruit is a globular berry, about the "size of an orange, crowned with the calyx, covered with a reddish-yellow, thick, coria- ceous rind, and divided internally into many cells, which contain an acidulous pulp, and numerous oblong, angular seeds. This tree grows wild upon both shores of the Mediterranean, in Ara- bia, Persia, and Japan; has been introduced into the East and West Indies; and is cultivated in ail civilized countries where the climate is sufficiently warm to allow the fruit to ripen. In higher latitudes, where it does not bear fruit, it is raised in gardens and hot-houses for the beauty of its flowers, which become double, and acquire increased splendour of colouring by cultivation. Doubts have been entertained as to its original country. The name of " punicum malum," applied by the ancients to its fruit, implies that it was abundant at an early age in the neighbourhood of Carthage. The fruit of the pomegranate, for which the plant is cultivated in tropical climates, varies much in size and flavour. It is said to attain greater perfection in both these respects in the West Indies, than in its native country. The pulp is red, succu- lent, pleasantly acid, and sweetish; and is used for the same purposes. as the orange, though not officinal. It is the rind of the fruit which is indicated in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Other parts of the plant, however, are used in medicine. The flowers, and the bark of the root have been adopted by the Dublin College; and the seeds are officinal in France. Rind of the Fruit.—This, which is the Granatum or Pomegranate of our Pharmacopoeia, is presented in commerce under the form of irre- gular fragments, hard, dry, brittle, of a yellowish-brown colour, with- out smell, and of an astringent slightly bitter taste. It contains a large proportion of tannin, and in countries where the tree abounds, has been employed for tanning leather. Flowers.—The flowers, which are sometimes called balaustines, are inodorous, have a bitterish strongly astringent taste, and impart a vio- let red colour to the saliva. They contain tannin and gallic acid; and were used by the ancients in dyeing. Bark of the Root.—The roots of the pomegranate are hard, heavy, knotty, ligneous, and covered with a bark which is yellowish-gray or ash-gray on the outer surface, and yellow on the inner. It has no smell, when chewed colours the saliva yellow, and leaves in the mouth an as- tringent taste, without any disagreeable bitterness. It contains, accord- ing to M. Mitouart, tannin, gallic acid, a substance analogous to wax, and a sweet substance of which one portion is soluble in alcohol and crystallizable, and another soluble in water with the characters of man- nite. When used it should be entirely separated from the ligneous por- tion of the root, as the latter is inert. Medical Properties and Uses.—The rind of the fruit is astringent, and in the form of decoction may be given in diarrhoea from weakness of the secreting vessels, and in the colliquative sweats of hectic fever or part I. Granatum.—Gratiolse Officinalis Herba. 325 simple debility. But the decoction is more frequently used as an injec- tion in Ieucorrhoea, and as a gargle in sore throat in the earliest stages, or after the inflammatory action has in some measure subsided. The powdered rind has also been recommended in intermittent fever. The flowers have the same medical properties, and are used for the same purposes as the rind. The bark of the root was used by the ancients as a vermifuge, and is recommended in the writings of Avicenna; but it was unknown in modern practice till brought into notice by Dr. F. Buchanan, who obtained his knowledge of its powers in India. The Ma- hometan physicians* of Hindostan consider it a perfect specific in cases of tape-worm. One of these practitioners having speedily relieved an English gentleman in 1804, was induced to disclose his secret, which was then made public. Numerous cures have been subsequently effected in Eu- rope; and there can be no doubt of the occasional efficacy of the remedy. The French medical writers prefer the bark of the root of the wild pome- granate, or that which grows on the borders of the Mediterranean, to the product of the imperfect tree cultivated for ornamental purposes in the gardens of colder countries. It may be administered in powder or decoction; but the latter form is usually preferred. M. Chevallier re- commends the following mode of employing it. The patient is prepared by a dose of castor oil and a very strict regimen on the clay preceding that on which the remedy is administered. A decoction is prepared by macerating two ounces of the bruised bark in two pints of water for twenty-four hours, and then boiling down to a pint. Of this, one-third is given every half hour. The first and second doses generally vomit; but the third remains. Within an hour after the administration of the last dose, the patient usually has three or four stools, in which the taenia is discharged. Should the bowels not be opened, an injection should be administered. Mr. Breton, who had great success with the remedy, administered it in a similar manner, and if he did not succeed on the first day, repeated the plan for four or five days successively, taking care, however, to omit the medicine when it produced vertigo, or pain in the bowels. He followed the decoction with a dose of castor oil. The remedy appears to have been used by the negroes of St. Do- mingo before it was introduced into Europe. Taenia is comparatively rare in this country; and the pomegranate root has been little used. The dose of the rind and flowers in powder is from twenty to thirty grains. A decoction may be prepared in the proportion of one ounce of the medicine to a pint of water, and given in the dose of a fluid- ounce. GRATIOLSE OFFICINALIS HERBA. Ed. Hedge-hyssop. Gratiole, Fr.; Gottes-gnadenkraut, Germ.; Graziola, Hal; Graciola, Span. Gratiola. Class Diandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scrophula- riae, Juss.; Scrophularinese, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla irregular, reversed. Stamens, two sterile. Capsule two-celled. Calyx seven-leaved; the two exterior leaves spreading. Willd. Gratiola offidnalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 102; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 360. t. 131. The hedge-hyssop is a perennial herb, with an erect quadrangu- lar stem, about a foot in height, furnished with opposite, sessile, lanceo- late, somewhat serrate leaves, and solitary, peduncled, axillary flowers. 326 Gratiolse Officinalis Herba.—Guaiaci Lignum, parti. It is a native of the South of Europe, where it flourishes in meadows and other moist grounds. The whole herb is used. It is nearly inodorous, but has a bitter nauseous taste. Both water and alcohol extract its active properties. Medical Properties and Uses.—Hedge-hyssop is a drastic cathartic and emetic, possessing also diuretic properties, and employed on the conti- nent of Europe in dropsy, jaundice, worms, chronic hepatic affections, scrofula, and various other complaints. With us it is unknown as a re- medy. The dose of the powdered herb is from fifteen to thirty grains; of the infusion, made in the proportion of half an ounce to the pint of boiling water, half a fluidounce. GUAIACI LIGNUM. U.S. Guaiacum Wood. "Guaiacum officinale. Lignum. The wood." U. S. Off Syn. GUAIACI LIGNUM. Guaiacum officinale. Lignum.Lond.; GUAIACI OFFICINALIS LIGNUM. Ed.; GUAIACUM OFFICI- NALE. Lignum. Dub. Bois de gayac, Fr.,- Pockenholz, Germ.; Legno guaiaco, ltal.; Guayaco, Span. Guaiacum. Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rutaceae, Juss.; Zygophyllese, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, unequal. Petals five, inserted into the calyx. Capsule angular, three or five-celled. Willd. Guaiacum officinale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 538; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 557. t. 200. This is a large tree of very slow growth. When of full size it is from forty to sixty feet high, with a trunk four or five feet in circumference. The branches are knotted, and covered with an ash- coloured striated bark. That of the stem is of a dark gray colour, va- riegated with greenish or purplish spots. The leaves are opposite, and abruptly pinnate, consisting of two, three, and sometimes four pairs of leaflets, which are obovate, veined, smooth, shining, dark green, from an inch to an inch and a half long, and almost sessile. The flowers are of a rich blue colour, stand on long peduncles, and grow to the number of eight or ten at the axils of the upper leaves. The seeds are solitary, hard, and of an oblong shape. The G. officinale grows in the West Indies, particularly in Hayti and Jamaica; and is found also in the warmer parts of the neighbouring con- tinent. All parts of the tree are possessed of medicinal properties, but the wood and the concrete juice only are officinal. The bark, though much more efficacious than the wood, is not kept in the shops. It is said that other species of Guaiacum contribute to the supplies brought into the market. The G. sanctum of Linnaeus, and the G. arboreum of De Candolle, are particularly specified. The former, however, is said by Woodville not to be sufficiently characterized as a distinct species from the G. officinale. Fee states that the wood of the G. sanctum is paler, less heavy and hard than the officinal. Guaiacum wood is imported from Hayti and other West India islands, in the shape of logs or billets, covered with a thick gray bark, which presents on its inner surface, and upon its edges when broken, numerous shining crystalline points. These are supposed by M. Guibourt to be benzoic acid, by others a resinous exudation from the vessels of the plant. These billets are used by the turners for the fabrication of various instruments and utensils, for which the wood is well adapted by its ex- part i. Guaiaci Lignum.—Guaiacum. 327 treme hardness and density. It is kept by the druggists and apotheca- ries only in the state of shavings or raspings, which they obtain from the turners. It is commonly called lignum vitse, a name which obviously originated from the supposition that the wood was possessed of extraor- dinary remedial powers. Properties.—The colour of the alburnum or sap-wood is yellow, that of the older and central layers greenish-brown, that of the shavings a mixture of the two. It is said that when the wood is brought into a state of minute division, the colour is rendered green by exposure to the air, (Richard,) and bluish-green by the action of nitric acid fumes; and the latter change may be considered as a test of the genuineness of the drug. (Duncan?) Guaiacum wood is almost without smell unless rubbed or heated, when it becomes odorous. When burnt it emits an agreeable aromatic odour. It is bitterish and slightly pungent; but re- quires to be chewed for some time before the taste is developed. Its medicinal properties are probably dependent on the guaiac with which it is impregnated. (See Guaiacum.) It yields its virtues but partially to water. From three pounds avoirdupois, Dr. Geiger obtained five ounces three drachms of thick extract. Medical Properties and Uses.—Guaiacum wood ranks among the stimu- lant diaphoretics. It is said to have been introduced to the notice of European practitioners by the natives of Hispaniola soon after the dis- covery of America. It was used in Europe so early as 1508, and attained great celebrity as a remedy for lues venerea, in which it was long con- sidered a specific. More extended experience, however, has proved it to be wholly inadequate to the cure of that disease; and it is now em- ployed simply to palliate the secondary symptoms, to assist the opera- tion of other and more efficient remedies, or to obviate the unpleasant effects sometimes resulting from a mercurial course in syphilitic cases. It is thought to be useful also in chronic rheumatism, scrofulous affec- tions, certain cutaneous eruptions, ozaena, and other protracted diseases dependent on a depraved or vitiated condition of the system. It is always exhibited in decoction, and generally in combination with other medi- cines, as in the compound decoction of sarsaparilla. As but a small proportion of the guaiac which it contains is soluble in water, the pro- bability is that its virtues have been greatly overrated; and that the good which has in many instances followed its employment, resulted rather from the more active medicines with which it was associated, or from the attendant regimen, than from the wood itself. The simple decoction may be prepared by boiling an ounce in a pint and a half of water down to a pint, the whole of which may be administered in divided doses du- ring the twenty-four hours. Off.Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Decoctum Guaiaci Com- positum, Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Sarsaparillae Compositum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillae, U.S. GUAIACUM. U.S. Guaiac. " Guaiacum officinale. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Off. Syn. GUAIACI RESINA. Guaiacum officinale. Resina. Lond.; GUAIACI OFFICINALIS RESINA. Ed.; GUAIACUM OFFICI- NALE. Resina. Dub. Resine de gayac, Fr.; Guajacharz, Germ.; Resina di guajaco, Hal; Resina de gua- yafo, Span. 328 Guaiacum. PART I. For a description of the Guaiacum officinale, see GUAIACI LIGNUM. Guaiac is the concrete juice of this tree, obtained either by sponta- neous exudation, or by incisions made into the trunk. It is also procured by sawing the wood into billets about three feet long, boring them lon- gitudinally with an auger, then placing one end of the billet in the fire, and receiving in a calabash the melted guaiac, which flows out through the hole at the opposite extremity. Another mode, occasionally prac- tised, is to boil the wood in the state of chips or saw-dust, in a solution of common salt, and skim off the matter which rises to the surface. Guaiac is brought to this market from the West Indies. It is usually in* large irregular pieces of various size, in which small fragments of bark, sand, and other earthy impurities are mixed with the genuine guaiac, so as to give to the mass a diversified appearance. Sometimes we find it in small roundish portions, separate, or agglutinated together, and evidently the result of exudation; sometimes in homogeneous masses, prepared by melting and straining the drug in its impure state. It is probable that the guaiac, obtained from the billets of wood in the manner above de- scribed, is also of uniform consistence. Properties.—The pieces are of a deep greenish-brown or dark olive colour on their external surface, and internally wherever the air has been able to penetrate. The predominant hue of those parts not ex- posed to the air is reddish-brown or hyacynthine, diversified, however, with shades of various colours. The odour is feeble but fragrant, and is rendered stronger by heat. The taste, which is at first scarcely per- ceptible, becomes acrid after a short period, and a permanent sense of heat and pungency is left in the mouth and fauces. Guaiac is brittle, and when broken presents a shining glass-like surface, conchoidal or splin- tery, with the smaller fragments more or less translucent. It is readily pulverised; and the powder, which is at first of a light gray colour, be- comes green on exposure to the light. Its specific gravity varies from 1.2 to 1.23. It softens in the mouth, and melts with a moderate heat. Though commonly called gum guaiac, and till recently considered a gum-resin, it has been ascertained by Mr. Brande to be a substance sui generis, neither containing nor consisting of gum nor resin. In the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, therefore, it is very properly de- signated by the simple title Guaiacum. Water dissolves 9 parts in 100, forming an infusion of a greenish-brown colour and sweetish taste, which, upon evaporation, yields a brown substance soluble in hot water- and alcohol, but scarcely so in ether. Alcohol takes up 95 parts out of 100, leaving only impurities. The tincture is of a deep brown colour, is decomposed by water, and affords blue, green, and brown precipitates with the acids. Guaiac is soluble also in ether, in alkaline solutions, and in sulphuric acid. The solution in sulphuric acid is of a rich claret colour, deposites, when diluted with water, a lilac precipitate, and when heated evolves charcoal. Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid. Exposed to air and light it absorbs oxygen and becomes green, and the change of colour takes place rapidly in the sunshine. It imparts a blue colour to gluten and substances containing it, to mucilage of gum arabic, and to milk. It has been stated that guaiac is a substance sui generis; but as a part of it is soluble in water, and another part in- soluble, it must consist of at least two proximate principles. The por- tion soluble in water, amounting to about one-tenth of the whole, is a kind of extractive; the remainder is a peculiar principle, which, though analogous to the resins, differs from this class of bodies in several particulars. It yields thirty per cent, of carbon, while the true resins part i. Guaiacum.—Hsematoxylon. 329 yield only fifteen per cent.; is converted into oxalic acid, instead of artificial tannin, by nitric acid; and by the action of the same acid is made to pass through shades of green, blue, and brown, in this respect resembling indigo. These changes of colour are supposed to be owing to the absorption of different proportions of oxygen. The term guaia- cin, which is applied by some writers to the whole concrete juice, and is therefore synonymous with the officinal title Guaiacum, should be re- stricted to the peculiar resin-like principle which constitutes by far the largest proportion. It will be inferred from what has been said, that the mineral acids are incompatible with the solutions of guaiac. This drug is sometimes adulterated with the resin of the pine. The fraud may be detected by the terebinthinate odour exhaled when the sophisticated guaiac is thrown upon burning coals, as well as by its par- tial solubility in hot oil of turpentine. This liquid dissolves resin, but leaves pure guaiac untouched. Amber is said to be another adultera- tion. Nitric acid affords an excellent test of guaiac. If paper moistened with the tincture be exposed to the fumes of this acid, it speedily becomes blue. Medical Properties and Uses.—Guaiac is stimulant and alterative, pro- ducing, when swallowed, a sense of warmth in the stomach, with dry- ness of the mouth and thirst; and promoting various secretions. If given to a patient when covered warm in bed, especially if accompanied with opium and ipecacuanha or the antimonials, and assisted by warm drinks, it often excites profuse perspiration; and hence has been usually ranked among the diaphoretics. If the patient be kept cool during its administration, it is sometimes directed to the kidneys, the action of which it promotes. In large doses it purges; and it is thought by some practitioners to be possessed of emmenagogue powers. The complaint in which it has been found most beneficial is rheumatism. In the de- clining stages of the acute form of this disease, after due depletion, it is very often given in combination with opium, ipecacuanha, nitre, and the antimonials; and in the chronic form is frequently useful without accompaniment. It is also advantageously prescribed in gouty affec- tions; and is occasionally used in secondary syphilis, scrofulous dis- eases, and cutaneous eruptions, though the guaiacum wood is more fre- quently resorted to in these latter complaints. Dr. Dewees places very great reliance upon it in the cure of amenorrhoea. It is given in substance or tincture. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains, which may be exhibited in pill or bolus, or in the shape of an emulsion formed with gum arabic, sugar, and water. An objection to the form of powder is that it quickly aggregates. Guaiac is sometimes administered in combination with alkalies, with which it readily unites. Off. Prep. Mistura Guaiaci, Lond.; Pulvis Aloes Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Guaiaci, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Guaiaci Ammoniata, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. ELEMATOXYLON. U.S. Logwood. " Haematoxylon Campechianum. Lignum. The wood." U.S. Off. Syn. HAMATOXYLI LIGNUM. Haematoxylon Campechia- 42 330 Hasmatoxylon. PART *• num. Lignum. Lond.; HAMATOXYLI CAMPECHIANI LIGNUM. Ed.; HAMATOXYLUM CAMPECHIANUM. Lignum. Dub. Bois de Campeche, Fr.; Kampeschenholz, Germ.; Legno di Campeggio, ltal.; Palo de Campeche, Span. Hjematoxylon. Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Le- guminosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Petals five. Capsule lanceolate, one-celled, two-valved, with the valves boat-form. Willd. Haematoxylon Campechianum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 547; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 455. t. 163. This is a tree of middle size, usually not more than twenty-four feet high, though under favourable circumstances it sometimes attains an elevation of forty or fifty feet. The trunk, which seldom exceeds twenty inches in diameter, is often very crooked, and is covered with a dark rough bark. The branches are also crooked, with numerous smaller ramifications, which are beset with sharp spines. The sap-wood is yellowish; but the interior layers are of a deep red colour. The leaves are alternate, abruptly pinnate, and composed of four or five pairs of sessile, nearly obcordate, obliquely nerved leaflets. The flow- ers, which are in terminal spikes or racemes, have a brownish-purple calyx, and reddish-yellow petals. They exhaled agreeable odour, said to resemble that of the jonquil. The tree is a native of Campeachy, the shores of Honduras Bay, and other parts of tropical America; and has been introduced into Jamaica, where it has become naturalized. The wood, which is the part used in medicine, is a valuable article of commerce, and largely employed in dyeing. It comes to us in logs, deprived of the sapwood, and having a blackish-brown colour externally. For medical use it is cut into chips, or rasped into coarse powder, and in these states is kept in the shops. Properties.—Logwood is hard, compact, heavy, of a deep red colour becoming dark by exposure, of a slight peculiar odour, and a sweet somewhat astringent taste. It imparts its colour to water and to alcohol. The infusion made with cold water, though red, is less so than that with boiling water. It affords precipitates with sulphuric, muriatic, and ace- tic acids, with alum, sulphate of copper, acetate of lead, and sulphate of iron, striking a bluish-black colour with the last mentioned salt. (Thomson's Dispensatory.) Gelatin throws down a precipitate, which is redissolved by an excess of that principle. (Duncan.) Among the con- stituents of logwood, according to Chevreul, are a volatile oil, tannin, two coloured substances, one soluble in alcohol and water, the other in alcohol only, and a peculiar azotized principle, called hematin, on which the colouring properties of the wood depend. This is obtained by digest- ing the aqueous extract in alcohol, evaporating the tincture till it be- comes thick, then adding a little water, and submitting the liquid to a new but gentle evaporation. Upon allowing it to rest, hematin is depo- sited in the state of crystals, which may be purified by washing with alcohol and drying. They are shining, of a whitish rose colour, bitter- ish, acrid, arid slightly astringent to the taste, readily soluble in boiling water, forming an orange-red solution, which becomes yellow on cool- ing, but reacquires its original colour when again heated. Acids added gradually to the infusion render it at first yellow and afterwards red. Al- kalies render it purple-red, but in great excess produce a violet-blue colour. Hematin unites with various metallic oxides, forming bluish compounds, and yields a flocculent reddish precipitate with a strong solution of glue. Medical Properties and Uses.-—Logwood is a mild astringent, devoid part i. Hedeoma.—Helleborus Fcetidus. 331 of irritating properties, and well adapted to the treatment of that re- laxed condition of bowels which is apt to succeed cholera infantum. In this disease it is much used in the United States, and is also occasion- ally employed with advantage in ordinary chronic diarrhoea, and in chronic dysentery. It may be given in decoction or extract, both of which are officinal. Off. Prep. Decoctum Hsematoxyli, U.S.; Extractum Haematoxyli, U.S., Lond. Dub. HEDEOMA. U.S. Pennyroyal. " Hedeoma pulegioides. Herba. Tlie herb." U.S. This herb, first attached to the genus Melissa, and afterwards to Cu- nila, is at present universally considered by botanists as belonging to the Hedeoma of Persoon. It has been very erroneously confounded by some with the Mentha Pulegium, or European pennyroyal. Hedeoma. Class Diandria. Order Monogynia.— Nat. Ord. Labiatae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx bilabiate, gibbous at the base, upper lip three toothed, lower two; dentures all subulate. Corolla ringent. Stamens, two sterile; the two fertile stamens about the length of the corolla. Nuttall. Hedeoma Pulegioides. Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 165.—Cunila Pulegioides, Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 122. This is an indigenous annual plant, from nine to fifteen inches high, with a small, branching, fibrous, yellowish root, and a pubescent stem, which sends off numerous slender erect branches. The leaves are opposite, oblong lanceolate or oval, nearly acute, attenu- ated at the base, remotely serrate, rough or pubescent, and prominently veined on the under surface. The flowers are very small, of a pale blue colour, supported on short peduncles, and arranged in axillary whorls, along the whole length of the branches. The plant is common in all parts of the United States, preferring dry grounds and pastures, and where it is abundant, scenting the air for a considerable distance with its grateful odour. Both in the recent and dried state it has a pleasant aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent, mint-like taste. It readily imparts its virtues to boiling water. The volatile oil upon which they depend may be sepa- rated by distillation, and employed instead of the herb itself. Medical Properties and Uses.—Pennyroyal is a gently stimulant aro- matic, and may be given in flatulent colic and sick stomach, or to qualify the action of other medicines. Like most of the aromatic herbs, it pos- sesses the property, when administered in warm infusion, of promoting perspiration, and of exciting the menstrual flux when the system is pre- disposed to the effort. Hence it is much used as an emmenagogue in popular practice, and frequently with success. A large draught of the warm tea is given at bed-time, in recent cases of suppression of the menses, the feet having been previously bathed in warm water. Off. Prep. Oleum Hedeomse, U.S. HELLEBORUS F(ETIDUS. U.S. Secondary. Beards-foot. «Helleborus fcetidus. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Off: Syn. HELLEBORI FCETIDI FOLIA. Lond. 332 HelleborusFcetidus.—Helleborus Niger. parti. Elle'bore fcetide, Pied de griffon, Fr.; Stinkende niesswurzel, Germ.; Elleboro fe- tido, Hal; Heleboro hediondo, Span. Helleborus. Class Polyandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranun- culi, Juss.; Ranunculaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five or more. Nectaries bilabiate, tubular. Capsules many-seeded, nearly erect. Willd. Helleborus fcetidus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1337; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 477. t. 170. This is a perennial European plant, with a fibrous root, and a stem about eighteen inches in height, naked below, dividing into branches near the summit, and surrounded in the middle by numerous pedate leaves of a lurid green colour. Each leaf stands on a long foot- stalk, and usually consists of nine lance-shaped, obscurely serrated leaflets, four on each side joined together at their base, and one ter- minal. At each division of the flower-stem is a scaly leaf, three-cleft at the first ramification, then bifid, and at the last subdivisions, entire and pointed. The flowers are numerous, terminal, peduncled, and pendent; of a roundish form; with five pale-green petals, tinged with purple at their margins. The bear's-foot grows in England under hedges and in shady places, and flowers in March and April. It derived its botanical designation from the offensive odour which it exhales. The leaves are the part used. Their taste is bitterish, pungent, and acrid; and when chewed they ex- coriate the mouth. The footstalks are even more acrid than the leaves themselves. The plant has not been analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses.—This species of hellebore is said by Al- lioni to be the most acrid and energetic of all the plants belonging to the genus. It is powerfully emetic and cathartic, and in very large doses produces dangerous effects. It has long been used in Great Britain as a domestic remedy for worms, and was brought before the notice of the profession by Dr. Bisset. This gentleman found it a very efficacious an- thelmintic, and prescribed it also in asthma, hysteria, and hypochon- driasis. M. Decerfs has known it to cause the expulsion of taenia. It is given in powder or decoction. The dose for a child from two to six years old is from five grains to a scruple of the dried leaves, or a fluid- ounce of the decoction made by boiling a drachm of the dried leaves in half a pint of water. This quantity should be repeated morning and night for two or three days in succession. A syrup made from the juice of the green leaves is also used in England. The remedy is scarcely known in the United States. HELLEBORUS NIGER. U.S. Black Hellebore. * Helleborus niger. Radix. The root." U. S. Off. Syn. HELLEBORI NIGRI RADIX. Lond.; RADIX HELLE- BORI NIGRI. Ed.; HELLEBORUS NIGER. Radix. Dub. Ell£bore noire, Fr.; Schwarze niesswurzel, Germ.,- Elleboro nero, Hal; Heleboro negro, Span. Helleborus. See HELLEBORUS FCETIDUS. Helleborus niger. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1336; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 473. t. 169. The root of the black hellebore is perennial, knotted, black- ish on the outside, white within, and sends off numerous long, simple, depending fibres, which are brownish-yellow when fresh, but become black upon drying. The leaves are pedate, of a deep green colour, and PART I. Helleborus Niger. 333 stand on long footstalks which spring immediately from the root. Each leaf is composed of five or more leaflets, one terminal, and two, three, or four on each side supported on a single partial petiole. The leaflets are ovate lanceolate, smooth, shining, coriaceous, and serrated in their upper portion. The flower-stem, which also rises from the root, is six or eight inches high, round, tapering, reddish towards the base, and bears one or two large, pendent, rose-like, flowers, accompanied with floral leaves, which supply the place of the calyx. The petals, five in number, are large, roundish, concave, spreading, at first white with a tinge of red, afterwards of a rose-colour, and ultimately, green. This, plant is a native of the mountainous regions of southern and temperate Europe. It is found in Greece, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, France, and Spain. It is cultivated in gardens for the beauty of its flow- ers, which expand in the middle of winter, and have, from this circum- stance, given rise to the name of Christmas rose, by which the black hellebore is sometimes called. Till the publication of Tournefort's travels in the Levant, this species of hellebore was regarded as identical with that so well known, under the same title, to the ancient Greeks and Romans. But in the island of Anticyra, and various parts of continental Greece, in which it appears from the testimony of ancient writers that the hellebore abounded, this traveller discovered a species entirely distinct from those before de- scribed, and particularly from the H. niger. He called it H. orientalis, and reasonably inferred that it was the true hellebore of the ancients; and botanists at present generally coincide with this opinion. But as the H. niger is also found in some parts of Greece, it is not impossible that the two species were indiscriminately employed. It is, indeed, highly probable that they possess similar properties; and a third—the H. viridis—which grows in the west of Europe, is said to be frequently substituted for the H. niger, which it closely resembles, if it does not equal in medicinal power. All three are recognised as officinal in the French Codex. The roots of various other plants not belonging to the same genus are said to be occasionally substituted for the black hellebore. Dr. A. T. Thomson informs us that they are distinguished chiefly by their paler colour. The medicine of which we are treating is sometimes called melam- podium, in honour of Melampus, an ancient shepherd or physician, who is said to have cured the daughters of king Praetus by giving them the milk of goats which had been fed on hellebore. Properties.—Though the whole root is kept in the shops, the fibres are the portion usually recommended. They are about as thick as a straw, when not broken from four inches to a foot in length, smooth, brittle, externally black or deep brown,' internally white or yellowish- white, with little smell, and a bitterish, nauseous, acrid taste. In their recent state they are extremely acrimonious, producing on the tongue a burning and benumning impression like that which results from taking hot liquids into the mouth. This acrimony is diminished by drying, and still further impaired by age. MM. Feneulle and Capron obtained from black hellebore, a volatile oil, a fixed oil, a resinous substance, wax, a volatile acid, a bitter principle, mucus, albumen, gallate of po- tassa, supergallate of lime, and a salt of ammonia. Water and alcohol extract its virtues, which are impaired by long boiling. Medical Properties and Uses.—Black hellebore is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, possessed also of emmenagogue powers, which by some are 334 Helleborus Niger.—Hepatica. part i. ascribed to a specific tendency to the uterus, by others are supposed to depend solely on the purgative property. In overdoses it produces in- flammation of the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane, with vio- lent vomiting, hypercatharsis, vertigo, cramp, and convulsions, which sometimes end in death. The fresh root applied to the skin produces inflammation and even vesication. The medicine was very highly es- teemed by the ancients, who employed it in mania, melancholy, ame- norrhoea, dropsy, epilepsy, various cutaneous affections, and verminose diseases. By the earlier modern physicians it was also much used. Ba- cher's pills, celebrated for the cure of dropsy, consisted chiefly of black hellebore. It is at present little employed, except as an emmenagogue, in which capacity it is very highly esteemed by some practitioners. Dr. Mead considered it superior to all other medicines belonging to this class. It may be given in substance, extract, decoction, or tincture. The dose of the powdered root is from ten to twenty grains as a drastic purge, two or three grains as an alterative. The decoction is prepared by boiling two drachms in a pint of water, of which a fluidounce may be given every four hours till it operates. The extract and tincture are officinal. Off. Prep. Extractum Hellebori Nigri, Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Helle- bori Nigri, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. HEPATICA. U.S. Secondary. Liverwort. " Hepatica Americana. Planta. The plant." U.S. Hepatica. Class Polyandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranunculi, Juss., Ranunculacese, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals six to nine. Seeds naked. Nuttall. Hepatica Americana. De Cand.; Eaton, Man. of Bbt. p. 241.—H. tri- loba. Willd. Enum.; Figured in Rafinesque's Med. Flor. i. 238. Botan- ists generally admit but one species of Hepatica, the H. triloba; and consider as accidental the differences of structure and colour observable in the plant. Pursh speaks of two varieties, one with the lobes of the leaf oval and acute, the other with the lobes rounded and obtuse. These are considered as distinct species by De Candolle, and the latter is the one which has been adopted by the Pharmacopoeia, and is popularly employed as a medicine in this country, under the name of liverwort. Both have a perennial fibrous root, with three-lobed leaves, cordate at their base, coriaceous, nearly smooth, of a green colour, sometimes mottled with purple on their upper surface, glaucous and purplish be- neath, and supported upon hairy footstalks from four to eight inches long, which spring directly from the root. The scapes or flower-stems are several in number, of the same length with the petioles, round, hairy, and terminating in a single white, bluish, or purplish flower. The calyx is at a little distance below the corolla, and is considered by some an involucre, while the corolla takes the name of the calyx. In the H. acutiloba the leaves are cordate, with from three to five entire acute lobes, and the leaflets of the calyx are acute. In the H. Americana the leaves are cordate-reniform, with three entire roundish obtuse lobes; and the leaflets of the calyx are obtuse. Both are indigenous, growing in woods upon the sides of hills and mountains, the former, according to Eaton, preferring the northern, the latter the southern exposure. The part I. Hepatica.—Heracleum.—Heuchera. 335 leaves resist the cold of the winter, and the flowers make their appear- ance early in spring. The whole plant is used. It is without smell, and has a mucilaginous, somewhat astringent, slightly bitterish taste. Water extracts all its active properties. Medical Properties and Uses.—Liverwort is a very mild, demulcent tonic and astringent, supposed by some to possess diuretic and deob- struent virtues. It was formerly used to some extent in Europe in various complaints, especially in chronic hepatic affections; but has fallen into entire neglect. In this country it has recently attracted much attention as a remedy in haemoptysis and chronic coughs, and acquired for a time great popular confidence. Its credit, however, has already begun to decline, and it will probably ere long be forgotten. It may be used in infusion and taken ad libitum. The term liverwort properly belongs to the cryptogamous genus Marchantia. HERACLEUM. U.S. Secondary. Masterwort. " Heracleum lanatum. Radix. The root." U.S. Heracleum. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.— Nat. Ord. Umbelli- ferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Fruit elliptical, emarginate, compressed, striated, margin- ed. Corolla difform, inflexed, emarginate. Involucre caducous. Willd. Heracleum lanatum. Michaux, Flor. Boreal. Am. i. 166. This is one of our largest indigenous umbelliferous plants. The root is perennial, sending up annually a hollow pubescent stem, from three to five feet high, and often more than an inch in thickness. The leaves are ternate, downy on their under surface, and supported on downy footstalks; the leaflets, petiolate, roundish, cordate, and lobed. The flowers are white, in large umbels, and followed by orbicular seeds. Like the European species this is sometimes called cow-parsnip. It grows in meadows and along fences or hedges, from Canada to Penn- sylvania, and flowers in June. The root, which is the officinal part, bears some resemblance to that of common parsley in appearance. It has a strong disagreeable odour, and a very acrid taste. Both the leaves and root excite redness and in- flammation when applied to the skin. Dr. Bigelow considers the plant poisonous, and advises caution in its use, especially when it is gathered from a damp situation. Medical Properties, fyc.—Masterwort appears to be somewhat stimu- lant and carminative; and was used successfully by Dr. Orne of Salem, Massachusetts, in cases of epilepsy, attended with flatulence and gastric disorder. He directed two or three drachms of the pulverised root to be taken daily, for a long time; and a strong infusion of the leaves to be drank at bed-time. (Thatcher's Dispensatory.) HEUCHERA. U.S. Secondary. Alum-root. " Heuchera cortusa, Michaux. Heuchera Americana, Willd. Radix. The root." U.S. Heuchera. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Saxifra- gae, Juss., Saxifragese, De Cand., Lindley. 336 Heuchera.—Hirudo Medicinalis. part i. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five, small. Capsule bi-rostrate, bi- locular, many-seeded. Nuttall. Heuchera Americana. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1328; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 159.—H. cortusa, Michaux, Flor. Boreal. Am. i. 171.—H. viscida, Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. p. 187. The alum-root or American sanicle is a peren- nial, herbaceous plant, the leaves of which are all radical, petiolate, cordate, with rounded lobes, furnished with obtuse mucronate teeth. There is no proper stem; but numerous scapes or flower-stems are sent up by the same root, from one to three feet in height, very hairy in their upper part, and terminating in long, loose, pyramidal, dichotomous panicles. The calyx is small, with obtuse segments; the petals lanceo- late, rose-coloured, and of the same length with the calyx; the filaments much longer, yellowish, and surmounted by small red, globose anthers. The whole plant is covered with a viscid pubescence. It is found in shady, rocky situations, from New England to Caro- lina, and flowers in June and July. The root is the medicinal portion. It is horizontal, somewhat compressed, knotty, irregular, yellowish, and of a strongly styptic taste. Medical Properties.—Alum-root is powerfully astringent, and may be employed in similar cases with other medicines belonging to the same class. It has hitherto, however, been little used. We are informed in Dr. Barton's " Collections," that it is applied by the Indians to wounds and obstinate ulcers; and that it is the basis of a powder which, when the author wrote, enjoyed some reputation as a cure for cancer. HIRUDO MEDICINALIS. Dub. The Leech. Sangsue, Fr.; Blutegel, Germ.; Mignatta, Hal; Sanguijuela, Span. Hirudo. Class 1, Annelides. Order 3, Abranchiatae. Family 2, Ase- tigerae. Cuvier. The leech belongs to that class of invertebrated articulated animals called Annelides. This class contains the worms with red blood, having soft retractile bodies composed of numerous segments or rings, breathing generally by means of branchiae, with a nervous system consisting in a double knotted cord, destitute of feet, and supplying their place by the contractile power of their segments or rings. The third order of this class—Abranchiatae—comprehends those worms which have no apparent external organ of respiration. This order is again divided into two fa- milies, to the second of which—the Asetigerae, or those not having setae to enable them to crawl—the leech belongs. It is an aquatic worm with a flattened body, tapering towards each end, and terminating in circular flattened discs, the hinder one being the larger of the two. It swims with a vertical undulating motion, and moves Avhen out of the water by means of these discs or suckers, fasten- ing itself first by one and then by the other, and alternately stretching out and contracting its body. The mouth is placed in the centre of the anterior disc, and is furnished with three cartilaginous lens-shaped jaws at the entrance of the alimentary canal. These jaws are lined at their edges with fine sharp teeth, and meet so as to make a triangular incision in the flesh. The head is furnished with small raised points, supposed by some to be eyes. Respiration is carried on through small apertures ranged along the inferior surface. The nervous system consists of a cord extending the whole length, furnished with numerous ganglions. The PART I. Hirudo Medicinalis. 337 intestinal canal is straight and terminates in the anus, near the pos- terior disc. Although hermaphrodite, leeches mutually impregnate each other. They are oviparous, and the eggs, varying from six to fif- teen, are contained in a sort of spongy, slimy coccoon, from half an inch to an inch in diameter. These are deposited near the edge of the water, and hatched by the heat of the sun. The leech is torpid during the winter, and casts off from time to time a thick slimy coating from its skin. It can live a considerable time in sphagnous moss, or in moist- ened earth, and is frequently transported in this manner to great dis- tances by the dealers. Savigny has divided the genus Hirudo of Linnaeus into several ge- nera. The true leech is the Sanguisuga of this author, and is charac- terized by its three lenticular jaws, each armed with two rows of teeth, and by having ten ocular points. Several species are used for medicinal purposes, of which the most common are the gray and the green leech of Europe, both of which are varieties of the Hirudo medicinalis of Linnaeus; and the Hirudo decora of this country. 1. Hirudo medidnalis. Linn, ed, Gmel. I. 3095.—Sanguisuga officinalis. Savigny. Moq. Tandon, Mon. Hir. p. 112, t. 5, f. 1. The green leech.— Sanguisuga medicinalis. Savigny. Moq. Tandon. Mon. Hir. p. 114, t. 5, f. 2. The gray leech. Many of the best zoologists regard the San- guisuga officinalis and S medicinalis of Savigny as mere varieties. They are both marked with six longitudinal dorsal ferruginous stripes, the four lateral ones being interrupted or tesselated with black spots. The colour of the back varies from a blackish to a grayish-green. The belly in the first variety is of a yellowish-green colour, free from spots, and bordered with longitudinal black stripes. In the second it is of a green colour, bordered and maculated with black. This leech varies from two to three or four inches in length. It inhabits marshes and running streams, and is found abundantly throughout Europe. The great use made of leeches in the modern practice of medicine, has occasioned them to become a considerable article of commerce. They are collected in Spain, France, Italy, and Germany, and exported in large numbers to London and Paris. They are also frequently brought to this country, as the practitioners in some of our large cities use only the foreign leech, although our own waters furnish an inexhaustible supply of this useful worm. 2. Hirudo decora. (Say—Major Long's Second Expedition, ii. 268.)— The medicinal leech of America has been described by Say under the name of Hirudo decora, in the appendix to the Second Expedition of Ma- jor Long. Its back is of a deep pistachio green colour, with three lon- gitudinal rows of square spots. These spots are placed on every fifth ring, and are twenty-two in number. The lateral rows of spots are black,- and the middle range of a light brownish-orange colour. The belly is of the same colour, variously and irregularly spotted with black. The American leech sometimes attains the length of four or five inches, although its usual length is from two to three. It does not make so large and deep an incision as the European leech, and draws less blood. The use of the indigenous leech is nearly restricted to the city of Phi- ladelphia. The practitioners of New York and Boston depend for their supplies upon foreign countries, and leeching is seldom resorted to in the southern or western states. Those which are used in Philadelphia are generally brought from Bucks and Berks county in Pennsylvania, 43 338 Hirudo Medicinalis. part i. and occasionally from other parts of the state. It is estimated that from 200,000 to 250,000 are annually consumed. The proper preservation of leeches is an object of importance to the practitioner, as they are liable to great and sudden mortality. They are usually kept in jars in clear water, which should be changed twice or three times a week. The jar must be covered with a linen cloth, and placed in a situation not liable to sudden changes of temperature. They will live a long time, and continue active and healthy, without any other attention than that of frequently changing the water in which they are kept. M. Derheims has proposed the following excellent method of pre- serving them. In the bottom of a large basin or trough of marble he places a bed six or seven inches deep, of a mixture of moss, turf, and fragments of wood. He strews pebbles above, so as to retain them in their place without compressing them too much, or preventing the water from freely penetrating them. At one end of the trough, and about mid- way of its height, is placed a thin slab of marble or earthenware, pierced ■with numerous holes and covered with a bed of moss, which is com- pressed by a thick layer of pebbles. The reservoir being thus disposed is half filled with water, so that the moss and pebbles on the shelf shall he kept constantly moist. The basin is protected from the light by a linen cover stretched over it. By this arrangement the natural habits of the leech are not counteracted. One of these habits, essential to its health, is that of drawing itself through the moss and roots to clear its body from the slimy coat which forms on its skin, and is a principal cause of its disease and death. Medical Uses.—Leeches afford the least painful, and in many in- stances the most effectual means for the local abstraction of blood. They are often applicable to parts which, either from their situation, or their great tenderness when inflamed, do not admit of the use of cups; and in the cases of infants, are, under all circumstances, preferable to this instrument. They are indeed a powerful therapeutic agent, and give to the physician, in many instances, a control over disease which he could obtain in no other way. Their use is in great measure restricted to the treatment of local inflammations; and, as a general rule, they should not be resorted to until the force of the circulation has been diminished by bleeding from the arm, or in the natural progress of the complaint. In applying leeches to the skin, care should be taken to shave off the hair, if there be any, and to have the part well cleaned with soap and water, and afterwards with pure water. If the leech does not bite rea- dily, the skin should be moistened with a little blood, or milk and water. Sometimes the leech is put into a large quill open at both ends, and applied with the head to the skin until it fastens itself, when the quill is withdrawn. Leeches continue to draw blood until they are gorged, when they drop off. The quantity of blood which they will draw va- ries according to the part to which they are applied, and the degree of inflammation existing in it. In the loose and vascular textures they will abstract more than in those which are firm and compact, and more from an inflamed than a healthy part. As a general rule, our leechers apply six for every fluidounce of blood. A single European leech will draw from half an ounce to an ounce. The quantity may often be much in- creased by bathing the wound with warm water. Leeches will continue to suck after their tails are cut off, which is sometimes done, although it is a barbarous practice. They may be separated from the skin at any time by sprinkling a little salt upon them. After they drop off the same part I. Hirudo Medicinalis.—Hordeum. 339 application will make them disgorge the blood they have swallowed. Some leechers draw the leeches from the tail to the head through their fingers, and thus squeeze out the blood, after which all that is necessary is to put them in clean water and change it frequently. Leeches which are gorged with blood should be kept in a vessel by themselves, as they are more subject to disease, and often occasion a great mortality among the others. They should not be again used until they have recovered their activity. In cases where the bleeding from leech-bites continues longer than is desirable, it may be stopped by continued pressure, with the application of lint, or by touching the wounds with lunar caustic. It may sometimes be necessary, in the case of a deep bite, to sew the wound, which is readily done with a single stich of the needle that need not penetrate deeper than the cutis. HORDEUM. U.S. Barley. " Hordeum distichon. Semina decorticata. The seeds decorticated." U.S. Off. Syn. HORDEI SEMINA. Hordeum distichon. Semina, tuni- cis nudata. Lond.; HORDEI DISTICHI SEMINA. Semina decorti- cata. Ed.; HORDEUM DISTICHON. Semina decorticata. Dub. Orge, Fr.,- Gerstengraupen, Germ.; Orzo, Hal; Cebada, Span. Hordeum. Class Triandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Gramina, Juss., Gramineae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx lateral, two-valved, one-flowered, three-fold. Willd. Several species of Hordeum are cultivated in different parts of the world. The most common are the H. vulgare, and the H. distichon, both of which have been introduced into the United States. 1. Hordeum vulgare. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 472; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 73. The culm or stalk of common barley is from two to four feet in height, fistular, and furnished with alternate, sheathing, lanceo- late, roughish, and pointed leaves. The flowers are all perfect, and arranged in a close terminal spike, the axis of which is dentate, and on each tooth supports three sessile flowers. The calyx or outer chaff has two valves. The corolla or inner chaff is also composed of two valves, of which the exterior is larger than the other, and terminates in a long rough, serrated awn or beard. The seeds are arranged in four rows. 2. H. distichon. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 473; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 73. This species is distinguished by its flat spike or ear, which on each flat side has a double row of imperfect or male florets without beards, and on each edge a single row of bearded perfect or hermaphro- dite florets. The seeds therefore are in two rows, as indicated by the specific name of the plant. The original country of the cultivated barley is unknown. It has been found growing wild in Sicily, and various parts of the interior of Asia; but it may have been introduced into these places. The H. vidgare is said by Pursh to grow in some parts of the United States apparently in a wild state. The seeds are used in various forms. 1. In their natural state they are oval, oblong, pointed at one end, ob- tuse at the other, marked with a longitudinal furrow, of a yellowish colour externally, white within, having a faint odour when in mass, and a mild sweetish taste. They contain, according to Proust, in 100 parts, 240 Hordeum. -^-Humulus. part i. 32 of starch, 3 of gluten, 5 of sugar, 4 of gum, 1 of yellow resin, and 55 of hordein, a principle closely analogous to lignin. 2. Malt consists of the seeds made to germinate by warmth and moisture, and then baked so as to deprive them of vitality. By this pro- cess the sugar, starch, and gum are increased at the expense of the hor- dein, as shown by the analysis of Proust, who found in 100 parts of malt, 56 of starch, 1 of gluten, 15 of sugar, 15 of gum, 1 of yellow re- sin, and only 12 of hordein. It is in this form that barley is so largely consumed in the manufacture of malt liquors. 3. Hulled barley is merely the grain deprived of its husk, which, ac- cording to Einhoff, amounts to 18.75 parts in the hundred. 4. Barley meal is formed by grinding the seeds previously deprived of their husk. It has a grayish-white colour, and contains, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, a fixed oil, sugar, starch, azotized matter, acetic acid, phosphate of lime and magnesia, silica, and iron. It may be made into a coarse, heavy, hard bread, which in some countries is much used for food. 5. Pearl barley—hordeum perlatum—is the seed deprived of all its in- vestments, and afterwards rounded and polished in a mill. It is in small, round or oval grains, having the remains of the longitudinal furrow of the seeds, and of a pearly whiteness. It is wholly destitute of hordein, and abounds in starch, with some gluten, sugar, and gum. This is the proper officinal form of barley, and is kept in the shops almost to the exclusion of the others. Medical Properties.—Barley is one of the mildest and least irritating of farinaceous substances; and, though not medically used in its solid state, forms by decoction with water, a drink admirably adapted to fe- brile and inflammatory complaints, and much employed from the times of Hippocrates and Galen to the present. Pearl barley is the form usually preferred for the preparation of the decoction, though the hulled grain is sometimes used, and malt affords a liquor more demulcent and nutritious, and therefore better adapted to cases of disease which require a supporting treatment. (See Decoctum Hordei.) The decoction of malt may be prepared by boiling from two to four ounces in a quart of water and straining the liquor. When hops are added, the decoction takes the name of wort, and acquires tonic properties, which render it useful in debilitated conditions of the system, especially those which attend the suppurative process. Off. Prep. Decoctum Hordei, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Hordei Compositum, Lond., Dub. HUMULUS. U.S. Hops. " Humulus lupulus. Strobili. The strobiles." U.S. Off. Syn. HUMULI STROBILI. Humulus Lupulus. Strobili siccati. Lond.; HUMULI LUPULI STROBILI, Ed.; HUMULUS LUPU- LUS. Strobili siccati. Dub. Houblon, Fr.; Hopfen, Germ.,- Luppolo, Hal; Lupulo, Hombrecillo, Span. Humulus. Class Dioecia. Order Pentandria.—Nat. Ord. Urticae, Juss., Urticeae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-leaved. Corolla none. Female. Calyx one- leafed, obliquely spreading, entire. Corolla\oue. Styles two. Seed one, within a leafy calyx. Willd. PART I. Humulus. 341 Humulus Lupulus^ Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 769; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 163. The root of the hop is perennial, and sends up numerous an- nual, angular, rough, flexible stems, which twine around neighbouring objects in a spiral direction, from left to right, and climb to a great height. The leaves are opposite, and stand upon long footstalks. The smaller are sometimes cordate; the larger have three or five lobes; all are serrate, of a deep green colour on the upper surface, and, together with the petioles, extremely rough, with minute prickles. At the base of the footstalks are two or four smooth, ovate, reflexed stipules. The flowers are numerous, axillary, and furnished with bractes. The male flowers are yellowish-white, and arranged in panicles; the female, which grow on a separate plant, are pale green, and disposed in soli- tary, peduncled aments, composed of membranous scales, ovate, acute, and tubular at the base. Each scale bears near its base, on its inner sur- face, two flowers, consisting of a roundish compressed germ, and two styles, with long filiform stigmas. The aments are converted into ovate membranous cones or strobiles, the scales of which contain each at their base two small seeds, surrounded by a yellow, granular, resinous powder. The hop is a native of North America and Europe. It is occasion- ally found growing wild in the Eastern States, and, according to Mr. Nuttal, is abundant on the banks of the Mississippi and Missouri. In New England it is extensively cultivated, and most of the hops con- sumed in the United States, are supplied by that district of country. The part of the plant used, as well in the preparation of malt liquors as in medicine, is the fruit or strobiles. These when fully ripe are picked from the vine, dried by artificial heat, packed in bales, and sent into the market, under the name of hops. They consist of numerous thin, translucent, veined, leaf-like scales, which are of a pale greenish-yellow colour, and contain near their base two small, round, black seeds. Though brittle when quite dry, they are pulverised with great difficulty. Their odour is strong, peculiar, some- what narcotic and fragrant; their taste very bitter, aromatic, and slightly astringent. Their aroma, bitterness, and astringency are im- parted to water by decoction; but the first mentioned property is dissi- pated by long boiling. The activity of hops depends upon a substance secreted by the scales, and in the dried fruit existing upon their surface in the form of a fine powder. This substance was called lupulin by Dr. A. W. Ives, of New-York, by whom its properties were first investigat- ed, and made generally known; though it appears to have been previ- ously noticed by Sir J. E. Smith of England, and M. Planche of France. It enters into the officinal catalogue of the United States Pharmacopoeia. Lupulina. Lupulin, U.S. This is obtained separate by rubbing or threshing and sifting the strobiles, of which it constitutes from one- sixth to one-tenth by weight. It is in the state of a fine yellowish pow- der, mixed with minute particles of the scales, from which it cannot be entirely freed when procured by a mechanical process. It has the pecu- liar flavour of hops, and appeared to MM. Lebaillif and Raspail, when examined by the miscroscope, to consist of globules filled with a yellow matter, resembling in this respect the pollen of vegetables. It is in- flammable, and when moderately heated becomes somewhat adhesive. MM. Chevallier and Payen obtained from 200 parts, 105 of resin and 25 of a bitter principle, besides volatile oil, and various other matters of no importance. Dr. Ives found in 120 grains, 5 of tannin, 10 of extrac- 342 Humulus.—Hydrargyrum. part r. tive, 11 of bitter principle, 12 of wax, 36 of resin, and 46 of lignin. The volatile oil escaped his notice, and the tannin and lignin were probably derived from the fragments of the scales mingled with the powder. The virtues of lupulin probably reside in the volatile oil and bitter principle, and are readily imparted to alcohol. By boiling in water the bitterness is extracted, but the aroma is partially driven off. Medical Properties and Uses.—Hops are tonic and moderately narco- tic; and have been highly recommended in diseases of general or local debility, associated with morbid vigilance, or other nervous derange- ment. They have some tendency to produce sleep and relieve pain, and may be used for these purposes in cases where opiates, from their ten- dency to constipate, or other cause, are inadmissible. Diuretic proper- ties have also been ascribed to them, but are by no means very obvious. The complaints in which they have been found most useful are dyspep- sia, and the nervous tremors, wakefulness, and delirium of drunkards. Dr. Maton found the extract advantageous in allaying the pain of arti- cular rheumatism. The medicine may be given in substance, infusion, tincture, or ex- tract. From three to twenty grains are mentioned as the dose of the powder; but the quantity is too small to produce any decided effect; and this mode of administration is in fact scarcely ever resorted to. An infusion prepared from half an ounce of hops and a pint of boiling water, may be given in the dose of two fluidounces three or four times a day. The extract and tincture are officinal. (See Extractum Humuli and Tinctura Humuli.) A pillow of hops has been found useful in allay- ing restlessness and producing sleep in cases of nervous derangement. They should be moistened with spirits previously to being placed under the head of the patient, in order to prevent their rustling noise. Fomen- tations with hops, and cataplasms made by mixing them with some emollient adhesive substance, are often beneficial in local pains and tumefaction. An ointment of the powder with lard is recommended by Mr. Freake as an application to cancerous sores, the pain of which it has relieved when other means have failed. All the effects of the preparations of hops may be obtained with greater certainty and convenience by the use of lupulin. The dose of this in substance is from six to twelve grains, given in the form of pills, which may be made by simply rubbing the powder in a warm mortar till it acquires the consistence of a ductile mass, and then moulding it into the proper shape. A tincture is directed by the United States Phar- macopoeia. (See Tinctura Lupulinss.) Lupulin may be incorporated with poultices, or formed into an ointment with lard, and used externally for the same purposes as the hops themselves. Off. Prep. Extractum Humuli, Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Humuli, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Lupulinae, U.S. HYDRARGYRUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Mercury. Off. Syn. HYDRARGYRUS. Ed. Quicksilver; Mercurius, Lot.; Mercure, Vif argent, Fr.; Quecksilber, Germ.; Mer« curio, Hal; Az6gue, Span, and Port. This metal is found in the earth, native, combined with sulphur, PART I. Hydrargyrum. 343 united with silver, and in the form of chloride; but of all its combina- tions, the most abundant is the sulphuret, or native cinnabar. Its most important mines are found at Almaden in Spain ; at Idria in Austria; in the Dutchy of Deux Ponts; at Durasno in Mexico; near Azogue, in New Granada; and near Huancavelica in Peru. It also occurs in the Philip- pine Islands and China. The most ancient and productive mine of mer- cury is that of Almaden, which is estimated to furnish six thousand quintals annually to commerce. Mercury, in small quantities, has" been found in the United States, in Ohio and Michigan Territory. (Cleveland.) Extraction.—Nearly all the mercury consumed in the arts and in me- dicine, is obtained from the sulphuret or native cinnabar. It is extracted by two principal processes. By one process the mineral is picked, pounded, and mixed with slaked lime. The mixture is then introduced into cast iron retorts, which are placed in rows, one above the other, in an oblong furnace, and connected with earthenware receivers, one- third full of water. Heat being applied, the lime combines with the sul- phur, forming sulphuret of calcium and sulphate of lime, while the mercury distils over, and is condensed in the receivers. The other pro- cess is practised at Almaden in Spain. Here a square furnace is em- ployed, the floor of which is pierced with many holes, for the passage of the flame from the fireplace underneath. At the upper and lateral part of the furnace, holes are made, which communicate with several rows of aludels,* which terminate in a small chamber, which serves both as condenser and receiver. The mineral having been picked by hand and pulverised, is kneaded with clay and formed into small masses which are placed on the floor of the furnace. The heat being applied, the sulphur undergoes combustion, while the mercury, being volatilized, passes through the aludels, to be condensed in the chamber already re- ferred to. This process economises fuel, but is wasteful of the mercury. A quintal of mineral yields from six to ten ounces of the metal. Commercial History.—Mercury is imported into this country almost exclusively in cylindrical iron bottles, called flasks, each containing 76j| pounds, and comes from Cadiz and Gibraltar. Occasionally, however, a small parcel is received from Trieste, from which port it generally comes tied up in whole skins of white leather, forming bags, each con- taining 31 pounds, and four of which arc generally packed together with straw in a rough flattened keg. In both Spain and Austria, the produce of the quicksilver mines is a government monopoly. In Spain all the metal is brought from the mines to Seville, from whence, after paying an export duty, it is carried by small vessels down the river to Cadiz and Gibraltar, which are the places of its depot for foreign com- merce. The quantity imported into the United States probably amounts to eight or ten thousand flasks, being brought principally to the ports of New York and Philadelphia. Not more than two per cent, however, of this quantity, is consumed with us, the rest being re-exported to Mexico, the ports in the Pacific, but principally to China. Its principal consumption is caused by its employment in the extraction of silver and gold from its ores. In the United States it is consumed for making thermometers and barometers, for silvering looking-glasses, and for preparing various pharmaceutical compounds. Of late, its consump- tion has increased in consequence of its employment in the mining ope- • Aludels are a kind of pot, open at both ends, and which admit of being adjusted to one another, so as to form a sort of tube. 344 Hydrargyrum. PART I. rations of the gold region in North Carolina and Georgia. Its average wholesale price is about 56 cents per pound. Properties.—Mercury is a very brilliant liquid, of a silver-white colour, and without taste or smell. When perfectly pure it undergoes no alter- ation by the action of air or water, but in its ordinary state suffers a slight tarnish. When heated to near the boiling point it gradually com- bines with oxygen, and becomes converted into peroxide; but at the temperature of ebullition it loses its oxygen, and is reduced again to the metallic state. Its sp. gr. is 13.5, and its equivalent number 200. Though liquid at ordinary temperatures, it freezes at 39° below zero, and boils at 656°. When frozen, it forms a soft malleable solid. It is a good con- ductor of caloric, but its specific heat is small. It is not attacked by muriatic acid, nor by cold sulphuric acid; but boiling sulphuric acid, or cold nitric acid dissolves it, generating either a persulphate or per- nitrate, with the extrication, in the former case, of sulphurous acid, in the latter, of nitric oxide becoming nitrous acid red fumes. Its com- binations are numerous, and several of them constitute important medi- cines. It forms two oxides, two sulphurets, two chlorides, and one cya- nuret, all of which are used in medicine or pharmacy, and will be noticed elsewhere under separate heads. Both its oxides are capable of uniting with acids so as to form salts, of which the nitrate, persulphate and bipersulphate, and peracetate are officinal, or enter into officinal combinations. Mercury, as it occurs in commerce, is generally very pure; though occasionally it contains foreign metals, such as lead, bismuth, and tin. Mr. Brande informs us, that in examining large quantities of this metal in the London market, he found it only in one instance intentionally adulterated. That which comes to the United States is also very pure. When impure, the metal has a dull appearance, easily tarnishes, is de- ficient in due fluidity and mobility, and when shaken in a vial soils or adheres to the glass. If agitated with dilute sulphuric acid, the adul- terating metals become rapidly oxidized, and in this manner the mer- cury may in part be purified. Lead is detected by shaking the suspected metal with equal parts of acetic acid and water, and then testing the acid by sulphate of soda, or hydriodate of potassa. The former will produce a white, and the latter a yellow precipitate, if lead be present. Bismuth is discovered by dropping a nitric solution of the mercury, prepared without heat, into distilled water; when a subnitrate of bis- muth will precipitate; and the presence of tin is shown by adding to the nitric solution, diluted with water, a few drops of muriate of gold, which will cause a purple precipitate, the purple powder of Cassius. Mercury may be purified, according to Berzelius, by digesting it with a small portion of nitric acid, or with a solution of deutochloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate); whereby all the ordinary contaminating metals will be removed. This metal, however, is ordinarily purified by distillation; and it is directed in the Pharmacopoeias to be distilled for pharmaceutical use. (See Hydrargyrum Purificatum.) Medical Properties.—Mercury, in its uncombined state, is considered to be inert; but in a state of combination, it acts on the living system as a peculiar and universal stimulant. Its combinations exhibit certain general medical properties and effects, which belong to the whole as a class; while each individual preparation is characterized by some pe- culiarity in its operation. Our business in the present place is to con- sider generally the physiological action of mercury, and the principles by which its administration should be regulated; while its effects, as PART I. Hydrargyrum. 345 modified by its form of combination, will more properly be noticed un- der the head of each preparation individually. Of the modus operandi of mercury, we can say nothing further than that it seems to act through the medium of the circulation, and that it pos- sesses a peculiar alterative power over the vital functions, which enables it in many cases to subvert diseased actions by substituting its own in their place. This alterative power is sometimes exerted, without being attended with any other vital phenomenon than the removal of the dis- ease ; while at other times it is attended with certain obvious effects, indicative of the agency of a potent stimulant. In the latter case, its ope- ration is marked by a quickened circulation, with a frequent and jerking pulse; by an increased activity imparted to all the secretory functions, particularly to those of the salivary glands and the liver; by an exalta- tion of nervous sensibility; and, in short, by a general excitement of the organic actions of the system. When its effects are no otherwise obvious than in the subversion of disease, its operation may be presumed to be the same as when it produces obvious stimulating effects, though so slight and imperceptible as altogether to escape notice. When mercury acts insensibly as an alterative, there is not the least apparent disturbance of the circulation ; but when it operates decidedly and obviously, it is very prone to let the brunt of its action fall upon the salivary glands, causing in many instances an immoderate flow of the saliva, and constituting the condition of things denominated ptya- lism or salivation. Under these circumstances, to the alterative effects of the mineral, are added those of depletion and revulsion. Occasionally its depletory action is exhibited in an increased secretion of urine, or an immoderate flow of the bile; and where ptyalism cannot be induced, and either of these secretions becomes considerably augmented, the cir- cumstance ought to be held equally conclusive of the constitutional effects of the mercury, as if the mouth had been affected. Mercury has been used in almost all diseases ; but too often empyri- cally, and without the guidance of any recognised therapeutic principle. Nevertheless, its efficacy in certain classes of diseases is universally ac- knowledged. In functional derangement of the digestive organs, mer- curials in minute doses exert a salutary operation, subverting the mor- bid action, and that too by its insensible alterative effect, without affecting the mouth. In these cases no decided disturbance of the vital functions takes place; but the alvine discharges, if clay-coloured, are generally restored to their natural hue, a certain proof that the remedy is stimulating the liver, and promoting the secretion of the bile. Indeed there is no fact better established in medicine, than that of the influence of the mercurial preparations over the hepatic system; and whether the liver be torpid and obstructed as in jaundice, or pouring out a re- dundancy of morbid bile as in melaena, its judicious use seems equally efficacious in unloading the viscus, and restoring its secretion to a healthy state. In the acute and chronic hepatitis of India it is consi- dered almost a specific ; but here its use must generally be assisted by bleeding, and carried to the extent of exciting ptyalism. In chronic in- flammation of the mucous and serous membranes, when accompanied by a feeble condition of the system, the alterative effects of mercury are often attended with much benefit. In many of these cases effusion has taken place; and under these circumstances the mercury often proves useful, by promoting the absorption of the effused fluid, as well as by removing the chronic inflammation on which its effusion depends. 44 346 Hydrargyrum. PART I. Hence it is that the remedy is often given with advantage in chronic forms of meningitis, bronchitis, pleuritis, pneumonia, dysentery, rheu- matism, &c, and in hydrocephalus, hydrothorax, ascitis, and general dropsy. Mercury may also be advantageously resorted to in certain states of febrile disease. In some cases of the remittent fever of our own country, a particular stage of its course is marked by a dry tongue, torpor of the bowels, scanty urine, and an arid, state of the surface. Here depletion by the lancet or leeches is often inadmissible, and the remedial measure most to be depended on is a judicious employment of mercury. It acts in such cases by increasing the secretions, and promoting the action of the exhalent capillaries, and, perhaps, by producing a new impression, in- compatible with the action of the disease. In syphilitic affections, mercury has been held, until of late years, an indispensable specific. Of its mode of action in these affections we know nothing, except that it operates by substituting its peculiar action for that of the disease. Without pretending to enter into the question of the necessity or non-necessity of mercury in venereal complaints, as out of place in |;his work, the discussion which has grown out of it seems to show that this remedy has sometimes been unnecessarily resorted to in affections resembling syphilis, though of a different character; and that the disease in question ought to be treated less empyrically, and more on the general principles of combating morbid action occurring in other parts. Mercury also appears to exert a peculiar control over the morbid effects of lead ; and hence in colica pictonum, it is account- ed by most writers to act almost as a-specific. For inducing the specific effects of'mercury on the constitution, blue pill or calomel is generally resorted to. For producing what we have called the insensible alterative effects of the metal, a grain or two of blue pill may be given in the twenty-four hours, or from a sixth to a fourth of a grain of calomel; or if a gentle ptyalism be our object, from three to five grains of the fdrnier, or a grain of the latter, two or three times a day. Where the bowels are peculiarly irritable, it is often neces- sary to introduce the metal by means of frictions with mercurial oint- ment ; and where a speedy effect is desired, the internal and external use of the remedy may be simultaneously resorted to. The first observable effects of mercury in inducing ptyalism are a coppery taste in the mouth, a slight soreness of the gums, and an un- pleasant sensation in the sockets of the teeth when the jaws are firmly closed. Shortly afterwards the gum's begin to swell, a line of whitish matter is seen along their edges, and the breath is infected with a pe- culiar and very disagreeable smell, called the mercurial fetor. The saliva at the same time begins to flow; and if the affection proceeds, the gums, tongue, throat, and face are much swollen; ulcerations at- tack the lining membrane of the mouth and fauces ; the jaws become ex- cessively painful; the tongue is coated with a thick whitish fur; and the saliva flows in streams from the mouth. It occasionally happens, that the affection thus induced in the mouth proceeds to a dangerous extent, inducing extensive ulceration, gangrene, and even hemorrhage; when it will demand the attention of the practitioner. The best reme- dies are the various astringent and detergent gargles, used sufficiently weak, as the parts are in a state of extreme susceptibility. In cases attended with swelling and protrusion of the tongue, the wash is best applied by injection by means of a large syringe. We have found lead PART I. Hydrargyrum. 347 water ampng the best local applications in these cases; and dilute solu- tions of chloride of soda or of lime, while they correct the fetor and add to the comfort of the patient, will be found to exert a curative influence on the ulcerated .surfaces. In the foregoing observations we have had allusion to the ordinary ef- fects of mercury; but occasionally, in peculiar constitutions, its ppera- tion is quite different, and productive of a dangerous disturbance of the vital functions. Mr. Pearson of London has given a detailed account of this occasional peculiarity in the operation of mercury in his work on the venereal disease. The symptoms which characterize it are a small fre- quent pulse, anxiety about the praecordia, pale and contracted counte- nance, great nervous agitation, and alarming general debility. Their appearance is the signal for discontinuing the mercury; as a further perseverance with it might be attended with fatal consequences. Mer- cury is also productive of a peculiar eruption on the skin, which will be found described by the systematic writers under the various names of hydrargyria, eczema mercuriale, and lepra mercurialis. Pharmaceutical Preparations.—We shall close our account of mercury by presenting a tabular view of all the preparations of this metal to be found in the United States and British Pharmacopoeias. Mercury is officinal,—• I. In the metallic state. Hydrargyrum Purificatum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Hydrargyrus Pu- rificatus, Ed. Emplastrum Hydrargyri, U. S., Lond., Ed. Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro, Lond., Dub. Hydrargyrum cum Calcis Carbonate, U.S.; Hydrargyrum cum Creta, Lond., Dub. Hydrargyrum cum Magnesia, Dub. Pilulae Hydrargyri, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Anglice, Blue pill. Unguentum Hydrargyri, U.S. Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Hydrar- gyri Fortius, Lond.; Anglice, Mercurial ointment. Unguentum Hydrargyri Mitius, Lond., Dub. Linimentum Hydrargyri, Lond. II. Protoxidized. (By the action of solution of potassa on calomel.) Hydrargyri Oxidum Nigrum, U.S.; Hydrargyri Oxydum Ni- grum, Dub. (By the action of lime-water on calomel.) Hydrargyri Oxydum Cinereum, Lond.; Oxidum Hydrargyri Cin- ereum, Ed. Unguentum Oxidi Hydrargyri Cinerei, Ed. III. Peroxidized. (By the action of heat and air.) Hydrargyri Oxydum Rubrum, Lond., Dub.; Anglice, Red preci- pitate per se. (By the action of nitric acid.) Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum, U.S.; Hydrargyri Nitrico-oxy- dum, Lond.; Oxidum Hydrargyri Rubrum per Acidum Nitricum, Ed.; Hydrargyri Oxydum Nitricum, Dub.; Anglice, Red precipitate. Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Rubri, U.S.; Unguentum Hy- drargyri Nitrico-oxydi, Lond.; Unguentum Oxidi Hy- drargyri Rubri, Ed.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxydi Nitrici, Dub. 348 Hydrargyrum.—Hyoscyamus. part i. IV. Sulphuretted. Hydrargyri Sulphuretum Nigrum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Sulphu- retum Hydrargyri Nigrum, Ed. Hydrargyri Sulphuretum Rubrum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Sulphu- retum Hydrargyri Rubrum, Ed. V. As a protochloride. ( Obtained by sublimation.) Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite, U.S.; Hydrargyri Submurias, Lond.; Sub-Murias Hydrargyri Mitis, sive Calomelas, Ed.; Calomelas Sublimatum, Dub.; Anglice, Calomel. Pilulae Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis, U.S. Pilulae Cartharticae Compositae, U. S. Pilulae Hydrargyri Submuriatis Compositae, Lond.; Pil- ulae Sub-Muriatis Hydrargyri Compositae, Ed.; Pil- ulae Calomelanos Compositae, Dub. (Obtained by precipitation.) Calomelas Praecipitatum, Dub.; Sub-Murias Hydrargyri Praeci- pitatus, Ed. VI. As A DEUTOCHLORIDE. Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum, U.S.; Hydrargyri Oxymu- rias, Lond.; Murias Hydrargyri Corrosivus, Ed.; Hy- drargyri Murias Corrosivum, Dub.; Anglice, Corrosive sublimate. Liquor Hydrargyri Oxymuriatis, Lond. Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum, U.S.; Hydrargyrum Praecipi- tatum Album, Lond.; Hydrargyri Submurias Am- moniatum, Dub.; Anglice, White precipitate. Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammoniati, U.S.; Unguen- tum Hydrargyri Praecipitati Albi, Lond.; Unguen- tum Hydrargyri Submuriatis Ammoniati, Dub. VII. Combined with cyanogen. Hydrargyri Cyanuretum, U.S., Dub. VIII. Oxidized and combined with Acids. Hydrargyri Acetas, Dub.; Acetas Hydrargyri, Ed. Hydrargyri Persulphas, Dub. Hydrargyri Sulphas Flavus, U.S.; Sub-Sulphas Hydrargyri Fla- vus, Ed.; Hydrargyri Oxydum Sulphuricum, Dub.; Anglice, Turpeth mineral. Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Unguen- tum Nitratis Hydrargyri Fortius, Ed.; Anglice, Citrine ointment. Unguentum Nitratis Hydrargyri Mitius, Ed. HYOSCYAMUS. U.S. Henbane. u Hyoscyamus niger. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Off. Syn. HYOSCYAMI FOLIA ET SEMINA. Hyoscyamus niger. Folia et semina. Lond.; HYOSCYAMI NIGRI HERBA. Ed.; HYOS- CYAMUS NIGER. Folia. Dub. Jusquiame noire, Fr.; Schwarzes bilsenkraut, Germ.; Giusquiamo nero, ltal; Be- leno, Span. Hyoscyamus. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. So- lanese, Juss. PART I. Hyoscyamus. 349 Gen. Ch. Corolla funnel-form, obtuse. Stamens inclined. Capsules covered with a lid, two-celled. Willd. Hyoscyamus niger. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1010; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 204. t. 76; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 161. Henbane is a biennial plant, with a long, tapering, white, compact, and fibrous root, bearing some resemblance to that of parsley, for which it has been 'eaten by mistake. The stem is erect, round, rigid, branching, from one to three feet in height, and thickly furnished with leaves. These are large, ob- long, ovate, deeply sinuated, with pointed segments, undulated, soft to the touch, and at their base embrace the stem. The upper leaves are generally entire. Both the stem and leaves are hairy, viscid, and of a sea-green colour. The flowers form long, one-sided, leafy spikes, which terminate the branches, and hang downwards. They are composed of a calyx with five pointed divisions, a funnel-shaped corolla with five un- equal, obtuse segments at the border, five stamens inserted into the tube of the corolla, and a pistil with a blunt round stigma. Their colour is an obscure yellow, beautifully variegated with purple veins. The fruit is a globular two-celled capsule, covered with a lid, invested with the persistent calyx, and containing numerous small, irregular, brown or ash-coloured seeds, which are discharged by the horizontal separa- tion of the lid. The whole plant has a rank offensive smell. This species of Hyoscyamus is found in the northern and eastern sec- tions of the United States, occupying waste grounds in the vicinity of the older settlements, particularly graveyards, old gardens, and the founda- tions of ruined houses. We have seen a specimen brought from the ruins of Ticonderoga. It is rare, however, in this country, of which it is not a native, having been introduced from Europe. In Great Britain, France, Germany, and other parts of that continent, it grows abun- dantly along the roads, around villages, amidst rubbish, and in unculti- vated places. It flowers in June and July. The H. albus, so named from the whiteness of its flowers, is used in France indiscriminately with the former species, which it resembles exactly in medicinal properties. All parts of the Hyoscyamus niger are possessed of activity. The leaves only are considered officinal in the United States Pharmaco- poeia; the, leaves and seed have been adopted by the London College; and the whole herb by the Colleges of Edinburgh and Dublin. Much of the efficacy of henbane, depends upon the time at which it is gathered. The leaves should be collected soon after the plant has flowered. Those of the second year are asserted by Mr. Houlton to be greatly preferable to those of the first. The latter, he informs us, are less clammy and fetid, yield less extractive matter, and are medicinally much less effi- cient. As the plant is sometimes destroyed by the severe winters in England, no leaves of the second year's growth are obtainable, and the market is on these occasions supplied with the medicine of inferior quality. This is, perhaps, one of the causes of its great inequality of strength, and uncertainty of operation. (See N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. ii. p. 484.) Properties.—The recent leaves have, when bruised, a strong, dis- agreeable, narcotic odour, somewhat like that of tobacco. Their taste is mucilaginous, and very slightly acrid. When dried, they have little smell or taste. Thrown upon the fire, they burn with a crackling noise, as if they contained a nitrate, and at the same time emit a strong odour. Their virtues are completely extracted by diluted alcohol. The watery infusion is of a pale yellow colour, insipid, with the narcotic 350 Hyoscyamus. PART I. odour of the plant. The leaves have been analyzed by Lindbergsen, who obtained from them a narcotic principle. The seeds, analyzed by Brandes, yielded a great variety of products, among which was a princi- ple which he considered alkaline, and which has been denominated Hyoscyamin or Hyoscyamia. It exists in the seeds combined with ma- lic acid, and is obtained, according to Brandes, by precipitating with an alkali the decoction of the seeds, washing the precipitate, and treat- ing it with alcohol. It crystallizes in long prisms, has a very strong taste, and forms crystallizable salts with sulphuric and nitric acids. These salts are said to have the same effect upon the pupil with the henbane itself. It is proper to state that M. Chevallier, a very skilful analytical chemist of Paris, was unable to procure any of this supposed new alkaline principle. Our information concerning it must be admit- ted to be uncertain. If the virtues of hyoscyamus do in fact reside in any one principle, it is highly desirable that this should be isolated, as we might thus obtain a certain instead of a highly uncertain remedy. The seeds contain a very large proportion of oleaginous matter, not less, according to Brandes, than 656 parts out of 1025. Dr. A. T. Thomson states that they may be eaten with impunity; but all other writers that we have consulted coincide in attributing to them narcotic properties. The root is said to be much more poisonous in the second year than the first. Medical Properties and Uses.—Hyoscyamus ranks among the narcotics. In moderate quantities it gently accelerates the circulation, increases the general warmth, occasions a sense of heat in the throat, and after a short period induces sleep. This action is sometimes attended with ver- tigo, pain in the head, and dilated pupils; and the medicine occasion- ally acts as a diaphoretic or diuretic, or even produces a pustular erup- tion. It does not constipate like opium; but, on the contrary, often proves laxative. In over doses it powerfully irritates the alimentary ca?nal and brain, giving rise to pain in the bowels, diarrhoea, delirium or stupor, convulsions, great arterial prostration, petechiae, and other alarming symptoms, which sometimes end in death. Dissection ex- hibits marks of inflammation of the stomach and bowels. The poison- ous effects1 are best counteracted by emetics, and the subsequent use of acid drinks, such as lemon-juice and vinegar. Numerous instances might be adduced from authors to prove the deleterious influence of all parts of the H. niger, when taken in large quantities. Upon inferior animals its effects are not always the same. While it proves fatal to birds and dogs, the leaves are eaten with entire impunity by horses, cows, sheep, goats, and swine. It is not impossible that injury has in some cases resulted from the use of milk derived from cows or goats which had been feeding on henbane. The remedial operation of hyoscyamus is anodyne and soporific. The medicine was known to the ancients; and was employed by some of the earlier modern practitioners; but had fallen into disuse, and was almost forgotten when Baron Storck again introduced it into notice. By this celebrated physician and some of his successors it was pre- scribed in numerous diseases; and, if we may credit their testimony, with the happiest effects; but subsequent experience of its operation has been such as very much to narrow the extent of its application. It is at present used almost exclusively to relieve pain, procure sleep, or quiet irregular nervous action; and is not supposed to exercise any specific curative influence over particular diseases. Even for the pur- poses which it is calculated to answer, it is infinitely inferior to opium PART I. Hyoscyamus. 351 or its preparations; and is generally resorted to only in cases in which the latter remedy is from peculiar circumstances deemed inadmissible. Hyoscyamus has one great advantage over opium in certain cases, that it has no tendency to produce constipation. The diseases to which it is applicable it would be useless to enumerate, as there are few complaints in which circumstances might not be such as to call for its employ- ment. Neuralgic and spasmodic affections, rheumatism, gout, hysteria, and various pectoral diseases, as catarrh, pertussis, asthma, phthisis, Sec. are among those in which it is most frequently prescribed. In Eu- rope, where the fresh leaves are readily obtained, it is often applied ex- ternally in the shape of lotion, cataplasm or fomentation, to allay pain and irritation, in scrofulous or cancerous ulcers, scirrhous, hemorrhoi- dal or other painful tumours, gouty and rheumatic swellings, and ner- vous headach. The smoke of the leaves or seeds has also been used in toothach; but the practice is deemed hazardous. The effect of henbane in dilating the pupil, when applied to the conjunctiva, has already been noticed. For this purpose it is used by European oculists, previously to the operation for cataract. An infusion of the leaves, or a solu- tion of the extract is dropped into the eye. The effect is usually great- est at the end of four hours from the time of application; and in twelve hours ceases entirely. Vision is not impaired during its continuance. Reisinger recommends for this purpose a solution of hyoscyamia in the proportion of one grain to twenty-four of water, of which one drop is to be applied to the eye. Henbane may be given in substance, extract, or tincture. The dose of the powdered leaves is from five to ten grains. The. extract is ex- ceedingly variable and precarious in its operation, sometimes being ac- tive, sometimes almost inert. The usual dose is one or two grains, re- peated and gradually increased till the desired effect is obtained. Cul- len rarely procured the anodyne operation of the medicine till he had carried the dose to eight, ten, or even fifteen or twenty grains. Collin pushed it to thirty-six grains; and ProfessorFouquier, who experiment- ed largely with hyoscyamus in the Hopital de la Charite, gave two hun- dred and fifty grains of the extract during twenty-four hours, without any specific or curative impression. (Richard, Elem. Hist. Nat. Med.) The extract here alluded to is the inspissated juice, prepared as directed by the Pharmacopoeias. (See Extractum Hyoscyami.) It is said by the French writers that the alcoholic extract, as pre- pared by M. Planche, is more certain and effectual. He directs one part of the plant to be macerated with four parts of alcohol for four days; three-fourths of the alcohol is then to be distilled, and the remaining fourth evaporated by a salt water bath till the residue assumes the con- sistence of an extract. The preparation thus made has a fine green colour, and preserves the odour of the plant. The dose to begin with is one or two grains, which may be increased gradually to twenty or even thirty grains. The dose of the tincture is one or two fluidrachms. A good plan in administering any of the preparations of hyoscyamus is to repeat the dose every hour or two till its influence is felt. Off Prep. Extractum Hyoscyami, U.S., Lond. Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Hyoscyami, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. 352 Hyssopi Officinalis Herba.—Ichthyocolla. part i. HYSSOPI OFFICINALIS HERBA. Ed. Common Hyssop. Hyssope, Fr.; Gemeiner isop, Germ.; Issopo, Hal; Hisopo, Span. Hyssopus. Class Didynamia. Order Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. La- biatae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla lower lip three-parted, with a small intermediate subcrenate segment. Stamens straight, distant. Willd. Hyssopus officinalis. Willd. aS^. Plant, iii. 47; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 318. t. 113. This is a perennial plant, with numerous erect, quadran- gular, somewhat branching stems, which are woody in their inferior por- tion, about two feet high, and furnished with opposite, sessile, lanceo- late linear, poinied, punctate leaves. The flowers are violet coloured or blue, sometimes white, turned chiefly to one side, and arranged in half- verticillated, terminal, leafy spikes. The upper lip of the corolla is roundish and notched at the apex, the lower is divided into three seg- ments, of which the undermost is obovate. Common hyssop is a native of the continent of Europe, where, as well as in this country, it is also cultivated in gardens. The flowering summits and leaves are the officinal parts. They have an agreeable aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent, bit- terish taste. These properties they owe to an essential oil, which may be obtained separate by distillation with water, and rises also with alcohol. Medical Properties, fyc.—Hyssop is a warm gently stimulant aromatic, applicable to the same cases with the other labiate plants. Its infusion has been much employed in chronic catarrhs, especially in old people, and those of debilitated habit of body. It acts by facilitating the expec- toration of the mucus which is too abundantly secreted. In this coun- try, however, it is very seldom used by regular practitioners. ICHTHYOCOLLA. U.S. Isinglass. " Acipenser huso, et Acipenser Ruthenus. Vesica natatoria. The swimming bladder." U.S. Ichtbyocolle, colle de poisson, Fr.; Hausenblase, Germ.,- Colla di pesce, ltal; Cola de pescado, Span. Isinglass is a gelatinous substance, prepared chiefly from the sounds or swimming bladders of fishes, especially those of different species of sturgeon. Though no longer retained by any of the British Colleges in their officinal catalogues, it still has a place in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, and being universally kept in the shops, requires at least a brief notice in the present work. In most fishes there is a membranous bag, placed in the anterior part of the abdomen, communicating frequently, though not always, by means of a duct, with the oesophagus or stomach, and containing usually a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases in various proportions. From the supposition that it was intended by its expansion or contrac- tion to enable the fish to rise or sink in the water, it has been denomi- nated swimming bladder. It is of different shape in different fishes, and PART I. Ichthyocolla. 353 consists of three coats, of which the two interior are thin and delicate, the outer tough and of a silvery whiteness. The Acipenser Huso or beluga of the Russians, and the A. Ruthenus or sterlet, are designated by the Pharmacopoeia as the species of stur- geon from which isinglass is procured; but two others, the A. Slurio or common sturgeon, and A. stellatus or starred sturgeon, also fur- nish large quantities to .commerce. All these fish inhabit the interior waters of Russia, especially the Wolga, and other streams which empty into the Caspian Sea. Immense quantities are annually taken and consumed as food by the Russians. The air-bags are removed from the fish, and having been slit open and washed in water in order to separate the blood, fat, and adhering extraneous membranes, are spread out, and when sufficiently stiffened, are formed into cylindrical rolls, the ends of which are brought together and secured by pegs. The shape given to the roll is that of a staple, or more accurately that of a lyre, which it firmly retains when dried. Thus prepared it is known in com- merce by the name of staple isinglass, and is distinguished into thelong and short staple. Sometimes the membranes are dried in a flat state, or simply folded, and then receive the name of leaf or book isinglass. The scraps or fragments of these varieties, with various other parts of the fish, are boiled in water, which dissolves the gelatin, and upon evapo- ration leaves it in a solid state. This is called cake isinglass, from the shape which it is made to assume. It is sometimes, however, in globu- lar masses. Of these varieties the long staple is said to be the best; but the finest book isinglass is not surpassed by any brought to this coun- try. That in cakes is brownish, of an unpleasant odour, and employed only in the arts. Inferior kinds, with the same commercial titles, are said to be prepared from the peritoneum and intestines of the fish. Isinglass little inferior to the Russian is made in Iceland, from the sounds of the cod and the ling. We receive from Brazil the air-bladders of a large fish, prepared by drying them in their distended state. They are oblong, tapering and pointed at one end, bifid with the remains of their pneumatic duct at the other, and of a firm consistence. Isinglass of a good quality is now obtained in New York from the weak fish, and perhaps others caught in the neighbourhood. The sounds are dried whole, or merely slit open, and vary much in size and texture, weighing from a drachm up to an ounce. Another kind, of inferior quality, is prepared in New England, proba- bly from the intestines of a fish. It is in the form of thin ribbands, seve- ral feet in length, and from an inch and a half to two inches in width. It has been used to a considerable extent in this country; but is less soluble than the Russian, and affords a dark coloured solution. Isinglass is sometimes kept in the shops cut into fine shreds, and is thus more easily acted on by boiling water. In its purest form it is whitish, semi-transparent, of a shining, pearly appearance, and destitute of smell and taste. The inferior kinds are yellowish and more opaque. In cold water it softens, swells up, and becomes opalescent. Boiling water entirely dissolves it, with the ex- ception of a minute proportion of earthy impurities, amounting, ac- cording to Mr. Hatchet, to less than two parts in the hundred. The solution on cooling assumes the form of a jelly, which consists of pure gelatin and water. Isinglass is in fact the purest form of gelatin with which we are acquainted, and may be used whenever this principle is required as a test. It is insoluble in alcohol, but is dissolved readily by 45 354 Ichthyocolla.—Inula. part i. most of the diluted acids, and by the liquid alkalies. It has a strong affinity for tannin, with which it forms an insoluble compound. Boiled with concentrated sulphuric acid, it is converted into a peculiar saccha- rine matter. Its aqueous solution speedily putrefies. Medical Properties and Uses.—Isinglass has no peculiar medical pro- perties. It may be given internally, in the form of jelly, as a highly nutritious article of diet; but it has no advantages over the jelly pre- pared from calves-feet. Three drachms impart sufficient consistence to a pint of water. It is employed in the arts for clarifying liquors, and imparting lustre to various woven fabrics. Added in small quantity to vegetable jellies, it gives them a tremulous appearance, which they want when unmixed. As a test of tannin it is used in solution, in the proportion of a drachm to ten fluidounces of distilled water. It forms the basis of the English court-plaster. INULA. U.S. Secondary. Elecampane. " Inula helenium. Radix. The Root." U.S. Off. Syn. HELENIUM. Inula Helenium. Radix. Lond.; INULA HELENIUM. Radix. Dub. Aunee, Fr.,- Alantwurzel, Germ.; Enula campana, Hal, Span. Inula. Class Syngenesia. Order Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Corymbiferae, Juss.; Compositae Corymbiferae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seed-down simple. Anthers ending in two bristles at the base. Willd. Inula Helenium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2089; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 64. t. 26. Elecampane has a perennial root, and an annual stem which is round, furrowed, villous, leafy, from three to six feet high, and branched near the top. The leaves are large, ovate, serrate, crowded with reticu- lar veins, smooth and deep green upon the upper surface, downy on the under, and furnished with a fleshy midrib. Those which spring directly from the root are peliolate, those of the stem sessile and em- bracing. The flowers are large, of a golden yellow colour, and stand singly at the ends of the stem and branches. The calyx exhibits seve- ral rows of imbricated ovate scales. The florets of the ray are numerous, spreading, linear, and tridentate at the apex. The seeds are striated, quadrangular, and furnished with a simple, somewhat chaffy pappus. This large and handsome plant is a native of Europe, where it is also cultivated for medical use. It has been introduced into our gardens, and has become naturalized in some parts of the country, growing in low meadows, and on the road sides, from New England to Pennsylvania. It flowers in July and August. The roots, which are the officinal part, should be dug up in autumn, and in the second year of their growth. When older they are apt to be stringy and woody. The fresh root of elecampane is very thick and branched, having whitish cylindrical ramifications which are furnished with thread-like fibres. It is externally brown, internally whitish and fleshy; and the transverse sections present radiating lines. The dried root, as found in the shops, is usually in longitudinal or transverse slices, and of a grayish colour internally. The smell is slightly camphorous, and, especially in the dried root, agreeably aromatic. The taste, at first glutinous and said to resemble that of rancid soap, becomes, upon chewing, warm, PART I. Inula. —Iodinum. 355 aromatic, and bitter. Its medical virtues are extracted by alcohol and water, the former becoming most strongly impregnated with its bitter- ness and pungency. A peculiar principle resembling starch was dis- covered in elecampane by Rose, a chemist of Berlin, who named it alantin; but the title inulin proposed by Dr. Thomson has been generally adopted. It differs from starch in being precipitated unchanged from its solution in boiling water when the liquid cools, and in not affording a blue colour with iodine. It has been found in the roots of several other plants. Besides this principle, elecampane contains a white, concrete substance, intermediate in its properties between the essential oils and camphor, and separable by distillation with water; a bitter extractive; free acetic acid; a crystallizable resin; albumen; fibrin; and saline matters. Medical Properties and Uses.—Elecampane is tonic and gently stimu- lant; and has been supposed to possess diaphoretic, diuretic, expecto- rant, and emmenagogue properties. By the ancients it was much em- ployed, especially in the complaints peculiar to females; and it is still occasionally resorted to in cases of retained or suppressed menstruation. In this country it is chiefly used in chronic diseases of the lungs, and is sometimes beneficial when the affection of the chest is attended with weakness of the digestive organs, or with general debility. From'a be- lief in its deobstruent and diuretic virtues, it was formerly prescribed in chronic engorgements of the abdominal viscera, and the dropsy to which they so often give rise. It has also been highly recommended both as an internal and external remedy in tetter, psora, and other dis- eases of the skin. The usual modes of administration are in powder and decoction. The dose of the former is from a scruple to a drachm. The decoction may be prepared by boiling half an ounce of the root in a pint of water, and given in the dose of one or two fluidounces. Off. Prep. Confectio Piperis Nigri, Lond., Dub. IODINUM. U.S. Iodine. Off Syn. IODINIUM. Dub. lode, Fr.; Tod, Germ.; Iodina, Hal, Span. Iodine was discovered in 1812 by Courtois, a soda manufacturer of Paris. It was quickly investigated by Sir H. Davy and Gay-Lussac; but particularly the latter, who presented the scientific world with a very complete chemical history of it, pointed out its analogy to chlorine, and showed the great probability of its simple nature. Its powers as a therapeutic agent were shortly afterwards tried; and these being found valuable, it came into use with many practitioners. In 1826 it was in- troduced very properly into the officinal catalogue of the revised edition of the Dublin Pharmacopceia, and in 1830 into that of the United States. As yet it has not been recognised by the London or Edinburgh College. Natural State and Preparation.—Iodine exists naturally in certain ma- rine vegetables, particularly the fuci or common sea-weeds; in the ani- mal kingdom, in sponge, the oyster, various polypi, and other sea ani- mals; and in the mineral kingdom, in sea water in minute quantity, in certain salt springs, and united with silver in a rare Mexican mineral. It was first discovered in the United States in the water of the Congress Spring, Saratoga, by Dr. William Usher; and afterwards in the same water by Dr. J. H. Steel, who ascertained it to be in the state of hydri- odate of soda- (See Aqua, p. 101.) It has also been detected in small 356 lodinum. PART I. quantity in the Kenhawa saline waters, by Professor Emmet of the Uni- versity of Virginia. When in solution, it always occurs in union with hydrogen and a base as a hydriodate. In sea-weeds, according to Gaul- tier de Claubry, it exists in the state of hydriodate of potassa; and it is from the ashes of these that iodine is most readily obtained. Berzelius conceives the iodine to exist in these ashes as a hydriodate of soda. In both England and France, sea-weeds are burnt for the sake of the car- bonate of soda contained in their ashes. In England the incinerated product is called kelp, in France, varech; and it contains besides car- bonate of soda, the iodine which pre-existed in the weeds. The manner in which the kelp is treated, in order to obtain the iodine, is to act upon it with water, and to concentrate the solution till a pellicle is formed, and allow it to crystallize. By this treatment, nearly all the carbonate of soda and chloride of sodium, (common salt,) are separated, and the un- crystallizable residue consists almost exclusively of a solution of hy- driodate of potassa. This is then mixed in a retort with an excess of strong sulphuric acid, and when the effervescence has ceased, with a portion of peroxide of manganese in fine powrder. A receiver is now adapted to the retort, and heat applied. The sulphuric acid unites with the potassa, and disengages the hydriodic acid, which is instantly de- composed; its hydrogen uniting with the oxygen of the peroxide, and the liberated iodine being driven over by the heat and condensed in the receiver. The process may be conducted without the manganese, in which case, the hydriodic acid is deprived of its hydrogen by part of the sulphuric acid, which in consequence becomes converted into sul- phurous acid; but the process conducted in this manner is less eligible than the other, as the hydriodic acid is less completely decomposed. The iodine as thus obtained is contaminated with some acid, and may be purified by washing it, and redistilling it from a weak solution of potassa. It may then be dried by pressing it between the folds of bibu- lous paper, and must be kept in glass stoppered bottles, as corks are quickly corroded. Properties.—Iodine is a soft, friable, opaque, elementary solid, in the form of crystalline scales of a bluish-black colour and metallic lustre. It possesses a strong and peculiar odour, analogous to that of chlorine, and an acrid taste. Applied to the skin, it produces an evanescent yel- low stain. Its sp. gr. is a little less than 5; its fusing point, 225°; and boiling point, 347°. It is a volatile substance, and evaporates even at common temperatures, provided it be in a moist state. As it occurs in commerce, it generally contains twelve per cent, of water. Its vapour has a rich purple colour, a property which suggested its name, and a sp. gr. of 8.7, being the heaviest of aeriform substances. When it comes in contact with cool surfaces, it condenses in brilliant steel-gray crys- tals. Iodine is soluble in 7000 times its weight of water, and in a much smaller quantity of alcohol or ether. Its solution in the former has no taste, a feeble odour, and a light brown colour; in the latter, it possesses a deep brown hue. Its solubility in water is very much increased by the addition of certain salts, as the chloride of sodium, nitrate of ammonia, or hydriodate of potassa. In chemical habitudes, it very much resem- bles chlorine ; but its affinities are much weaker. Its equivalent number is 124 (126.56 Berzelius)., It combines with most of the non-metallic, and nearly all the metallic bodies, forming, when the combination is not acid, the class of compounds called iodides. Some of these, as the iodides of potassium, mercury, and zinc, are used in medicine. (See Potassii Iodidum.) It forms with oxygen iodous and iodic acid, and with hydro- PART I. Iodinum. 357 gen, a gaseous acid, analogous in properties and constitution to the mu- riatic, called hydriodic acid. Iodine may, in most cases, be recognised by the appearance of its cha- racteristic purple vapour; but where this cannot be made evident, it is detected unerringly by starch, which produces with it an insoluble com- bination of a deep blue colour. This test was discovered by Colin and Gaultier de Claubry, and, according to Stromeyer, is so delicate, that it will indicate the presence of iodine contained in 450,000 times its weight of water. In order that the test may succeed, the iodine must be in a free state, and the solutions cold. To render it free, where it happens to be in saline combination, a little nitric acid must be added to the so- lution suspected to contain it. Iodine has been occasionally adulterated with animal charcoal and peroxide of manganese. The presence of these substances is easily dis- covered by exposing the suspected iodine to heat, when they will re- main behind. Of latter years, however, it has fallen so much in price, that the motive for these frauds is very much lessened. At present it may be imported into the United States, including all expenses, for four dollars and a half a pound. Medical Properties and Uses.—Iodine is a general excitant of the living actions, but particularly of the absorbent and glandular systems; and is capable of producing very important alterative effects. It appears to act by entering into the circulation. Its most constant effect is to excite the digestive organs, as shown by its increasing the appetite; and in some instances it proves powerfully diuretic. Salivation is occasionally induced by it,»and this effect is much more apt to occur in males than in females. When taken in an overdose it acts as an irritant poison. In doses of two drachms administered to dogs, it produced irritation of the • stomach, and death in seven days; and the stomach on dissection was found studded with numerous little ulcers of a yellow colour. In a dose of from four to six grains in man, it produces a sense of constriction in the throat, sickness and pain at the stomach, and at length vomiting and colic. These facts demonstrate the activity of iodine, and show the necessity of caution in its exhibition. When given in incautious doses, or too long continued, it sometimes produces unpleasant and even dan- gerous symptoms; such as restlessness, palpitation, a sense of burning along the gullet, excessive thirst, acute pain in the stomach, vomiting and purging, violent cramps, rapid and extreme emaciation, and fre- quent pulse. But these results can only take place from great and cul- pable negligence on the part of the practitioner; for upon the appear- ance of the first symptoms of fever or general nervous disturbance, the remedy ought instantly to be laid aside. Dr. Lugol of Paris, who has perhaps used iodine more extensively and methodically than any other practitioner, has never observed any alarming effects to arise from its exhibition in the small doses in which he is in the habit of giving it. He has not found it to cause emaciation, hemoptysis, pulmonary tuber- cles, or the other bad effects so frequently attributed to it. On the con- trary, in the hospital of Saint Louis, the theatre of his extensive expe- rience, many of the patients gained flesh, and improved in health. Iodine has been principally employed in diseases of the absorbent and glandular systems. In ascites it has been used with success by Dr. ■ Baron, an English practitioner; but it does not act while the abdomen is tense, and the absorbents consequently compressed; and operates only after this state of things is removed by tapping. It has also been recommended in ovarian dropsy. In glandular enlargements its use has 358 Iodinum. part i. proved more efficacious than perhaps in any other class of diseases. We have already spoken of its power in promoting the absorption of the thyroid gland; but it has also been used with more or less success in enlargements of the liver, spleen, mammae, testes, and uterus. Its emmenagogue power has been noticed by several practitioners; and Dr. Lugol mentions several instances, among his scrofulous patients, in which it cured obstructed and painful menstruation. In certain diseases also of the nervous system, iodine has proved useful in the hands of some practitioners. Dr. Manson, of Nottingham, England, in his work published in 1825, on the medical effects of iodine, has recorded cases of its efficacy in chorea, paralysis, and deafness. It is, however, in scrofulous diseases that the most interesting trials have been made with this remedy; and there is not wanting authentic testimony of its efficacy in these affections. Dr. Coindet and Sir Andrew Halliday have both prescribed it with benefit; and Dr. Manson reports a number of cases of scrofulous disease, in the form of enlarged glands, ulcers, and ophthalmia, occurring in his practice between 1821 and 1824, in a large proportion of which the disease was either cured or meliorat- ed, and the general health very much improved. We are indebted, however, to Dr. Lugol for the most extended and valuable researches on the use of iodine in the different forms of scrofula. This physi- cian began his trials with the remedy in the hospital Saint Louis in 1827, and made known his results in three Memoirs published in 1829-30 and 31. These memoirs give the details of a success which would stagger belief, were the cases not substantiated by two commit- tees of distinguished physicians of the French Royal Academy of Sci- ences. The scrofulous affections in which Dr. Lugol succeeded by the administration of iodine were glandular tubercles, especially of the neck, ophthalmia, ozaena, noli me tangere (dartre rongeante scrophu- leuse), and fistulous and carious ulcers. He also obtained favourable re- sults in some cases of scrofulous syphilis by the use of the iodide of mercury. In connexion with Dr. Lugol's results in scrofulous affections, it may be proper to mention that Dr. Manson derived benefit from the use of iodine in white swelling, hip-joint disease, and distortions of the spine, diseases generally admitted to have more or less of the scrofulous character. Iodine is employed both internally and externally. Internally it is ge- nerally used in the form of tincture, and externally, in combination, as iodide of potassium, or iodide of mercury. Dr. Lugol objects to the tinc- ture as of unequal strength, and as being liable to have the iodine pre- cipitated by water on the surface of the stomach, where it is apt to produce too irritating an action. This physician prefers a mixed solu- tion of iodine and iodide of potassium in distilled water; the iodide being employed merely for the purpose of dissolving the iodine more completely. He employs three strengths, namely three-fourths of a grain, one grain, and a grain and a quarter of iodine to the half pint of dis- tilled water; the quantity of iodide of potassium being in each solution double the quantity of the iodine.* These solutions are permanent, per- fectly transparent, and of an orange colour. The mode of administration employed by Dr. Lugol is to give at first two-thirds of the weakest solu- • In the original, the grains are French, and the quantity of water eight French ounces; but to facilitate prescription we have supposed them English grains, and have substituted half a pint for the eight French ounces of water 5 changes which will not make the solutions materially stronger. part I. Iodinum. 359 tion, or half a grain of iodine daily for the first fortnight; the weakest so- lution entire for another fortnight; the medium solution during the fourth or fifth fortnight; and lastly, in some cases, the strongest solution for the remainder of the treatment. In the majority of cases, however, he had not occasion to resort to the strongest solution. He gives half the daily quantity in the morning fasting, and the other half, an hour before dinner; each portion being slightly sweetened at the moment of taking it. For the convenience of making the weak iodine solution, or of admi- nistering the remedy by drops, Dr. Lugol prepares a concentrated solu- tion, consisting of a scruple of iodine, and two scruples of iodide of potassium dissolved in seven fluidrachms of water. Of this solution the dose is six drops twice a day (in the morning fasting, and an hour be- fore dinner) in a glass of sweetened water, gradually increased weekly by two drops at a time, until the dose reaches to thirty or thirty-six drops. For children under seven years the dose is two drops twice a day, gradually increased to five. It will be observed that these doses are considerably less than those employed by Coindet. The external treatment by iodine may be divided into local and gene- ral. By its use in this way it does not create a mere topical effect on the skin; but by its absorption produces its peculiar constitutional im- pression. Dr. Lugol has given a number of formulae for preparations for the local use of iodine, a short account of which will be presented in this place. His iodine ointment varies in strength from six to twelve grains of iodine, mixed with from two to four scruples of iodide of potassium, to the ounce of lard. It has a mahogany colour. He employs it in frictions to scrofulous tumours, and as a dressing to scrofulous ul- cers. The ointment ofprotiodide of mercury, which he recommends, con- sists of from one to two scruples of the mercurial iodide to the ounce of lard. Its proper colour is canary yellow; but occasionally it has a de- cided greenish tint, derived from the presence of protoxide of mercury, or an orange colour, when it contains the deutiodide. This ointment, which has the advantage of producing very little pain, is used by Dr. Lugol in noli me tangere, and in all scrofulous ulcers which have a syphilitic aspect. Dr. Lugol's iodine lotion consists of from two to four grainsycf iodine to a pint of distilled water, the solution being assisted by dbVole the quantity of iodide of potassium. This is used by injec- tion principally in scrofulous ophthalmia, ozaena, and fistulous ulcers. A rubefacient solution may be formed by dissolving half an ounce of iodine and an ounce of iodide of potassium in six fluidounces of dis7 tilled water. This is useful for exciting scrofulous ulcers, for touch- ing the eye-lids, and as an application to recent scrofulous cicatrices, to render them smooth and less prominent. A certain quantity of the ru- befacient solution added to warm water makes a convenient local bath for the arms, legs, feet, or hands; and mixed with linseed meal, or some similar substance, it forms a cataplasm, useful in particular cases, especially where the object is to promote the falling off of scabs. The only remaining local application to be mentioned, is what Dr. Lugol calls iodine caustic. It consists of iodine and iodide of potassium, each an ounce, dissolved in two ounces of distilled water, and is used to sti- mulate or destroy soft and fungous granulations. Its employment in this way has been attended with particular good effect in noli me tangere. The external application of iodine when general, consists in the use of iodine baths, a mode of applying iodine which originated with Dr. Lugol. This mode of administration is considered very valuable by this physician, on account of the great extent of the skin, which fur- 360 Iodinum. —Ipecacuanha. PART I. nishes the means of introducing a considerable quantity of the remedy into the circulation, without interfering with the digestive functions, an object of great importance, where the medicine produces peculiar irrita- tion of the stomach. The iodine bath for adults, according to the formula of Dr. Lugol, should contain from two to four drachms of iodine, with double that quantity of iodide of potassium, dissolved in water, in a wooden bath tub, the proportion of the water being about a gallon for every three grains of iodine employed. The quantity of ingredients for the baths of children is one-third as much as for adults, but dissolved in about the same proportional quantity of water. The quantity of iodine and iodide for a bath being determined on, it is best to dissolve them in a small quantity of water, (half a pint for example), before they are added to the water of the bath, as this plan facilitates their thorough diffusion. In the composition of these baths, the iodide of potassium is used by Dr. Lugol, merely to promote the solubility of the iodine, and not as a medicinal agent; as upon trial, a bath containing it alone proved nearly inert. The iodine baths, which may be directed three or four times a week, usually produce a slight rubefacient effect; but, occasionally, a stronger impression, causing the epidermis to peel off, particularly of the arms and legs. The skin at the same time contracts a deep yellow tinge, which usually disappears in the interval between the baths. Upon the whole, we have viewed the results of Dr. Lugol in the cure of scrofula by the use of iodine as extraordinary; the more especially as we have employed the remedy in a number of cases of the same disease without success. The mode in which he employs the iodine is some- what peculiar, and practitioners cannot decide upon the value of his prac- tice, unless they adopt all the details of his treatment. We can readily conceive that a dilute aqueous solution of iodine may act differently from the tincture; and that a therapeutical agent may be introduced gra- dually and imperceptibly into the current of the circulation in one form of administration, and thus be capable of producing important altera- tive effects; while in another, it may create irritation and even ulcera- tion of the stomach, and fail to be absorbed. A case in point is fur- nished by mineral waters containing a minute portion of saline matter, which often produce effects which cannot be obtained by their .. .»nsti- tuents given in larger doses. Off. Prep. Potassii Iodidum, U.S., Dub.; Tinctura Iodini, U.S., Dub.; Unguentum Iodinii, Dub. IPECACUANHA. U.S. Ipecacuanha. " Cephaelis ipecacuanha. Richard. Callicocca ipecacuanha. Brotero. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. IPECACUANHA RADIX. Callicocca Ipecacuanha. Ra- dix. Lond.; IPECACUANHA RADIX. Ed.; CEPHAELIS IPECA- CUANHA. Radix. Dub. Ipecacuanha, Fr.; Brechwurzel, Ipecacuana, Germ.; Ipecacuana, Hal, Span. The term ipecacuanha, derived from the language of the South Ame- rican Indians, has been applied to various emetic roots of American origin. The British Colleges and our national Pharmacopoeia recog- nise only that of the Cephaelis Ipecacuanha; and no other is known by PART I. Ipecacuanha. 361 the name in the shops of this country. Our chief attention will, there- fore, be confined to this root, and the plant which yields it; but as others are employed in South America, are occasionally exported, and may possibly reach our markets mingled with the genuine drug, we shall, after treating of the true ipecacuanha, give a succinct account of the different varieties, as described by the authors who have most recently written on the subject. The botanical character of the plant which yields genuine ipecacuanha was long unknown. Pison and Marcgrav, who were the first to notice this medicine, in their work on the natural history of Brazil, published at Amsterdam, A.D. 1648, describe in general terms two plants, one producing a whitish root, distinguished by the name of white ipecacu- anha, the other a brown root which answers in their description pre- cisely to the officinal drug. But their account was not sufficiently defi- nite to allow botanists to decide upon the character of the plants; and much uncertainty existed on the subject. The medicine was generally thought to be derived from a species of Viola, which Linnseus designated by the title of V. Ipecacuanha. Opinion afterwards turned in favour of a plant sent to Linnaeus by the celebrated Mutis from New Granada, as affording the ipecacuanha of that country and of Peru. This was de- scribed in the Supplementum oi the younger Linnaeus, A.D. 1781, under the name of Psychotria emetica, and was long erroneously considered as the source of the true ipecacuanha. Dr. Gomez of Lisbon was the first who accurately described and figured the genuine plant, which he had seen in Brazil, and specimens of which he took with him to Portugal; but Brotero, professor of botany at Coimbra, with whom he had left specimens, having drawn up a description, and had it inserted with a figure in the Linnean Transactions, without acknowledgment, has gen- erally enjoyed the credit due to his fellow countryman.* In the paper of Brotero the plant is named Callicocca Ipecacuanha; but the term Cal- licocca having been applied by Schreber, without sufficient reason, to a genus previously established and named, has been universally abandoned by botanists for the Cephaelis of Swartz, though this also, it appears, is a usurpation upon the previous rights of Aublet. Cephaelis. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat.Ord. Rubia- ceae, Juss. Gen.Ch. Flowers in an involucred head. Corolla tubular. Stigma two- parted. Berry two-seeded. Receptacle chaffy. Willd. Cephaelis Ipecacuanha. Richard, Hist. Ipecac, p. 21. t. i.; Martius, Spec. Mat. Med. Brazil, p. 4. t. i.—Callicocca Ipecacuanha. Brotero, Linn. Trans, vi. 137. This is a small shrubby plant, with a root from four to six inches long, about as thick as a goose-quill, marked with annular rugae, simple or somewhat branched, descending obliquely into the ground, and here and there sending forth slender fibrils. The stem is two or three feet long; but being partly under ground, and often pro- cumbent at the base, usually rises less than a foot in height. It is slen- der; in the lower portion leafless, smooth, brown or ash-coloured, and knotted, with radicles frequently proceeding from the knots; near the summit pubescent, green, and furnished with leaves seldom exceeding six in number. These are opposite, petiolate, oblong obovate, acute, entire, from three to four inches long, from one to two broad, obscurely * The memoir of Gomez appeared in Lisbon A.D. 1801; the paper of Brotero was published in the sixth volume of the Linnean Transactions of London, which did riot appear till the year 1802. 46 362 Ipecacuanha. PART I. green and somewhat rough on their upper surface, pale, downy, and veined on the under. At the base of each pair of leaves are deciduous stipules, embracing the stem, membranous at their base, and separated above into numerous bristle-like divisions. The flowers are very small, white, and collected to the number of eight, twelve or more, each ac- companied with a green bracte, into a semi-globular head, supported upon a round, solitary, axillary footstalk, and embraced by a monophyl- lous involucre deeply divided into four, sometimes five or six obovate pointed segments. The fruit is an ovate, obtuse berry, which is at first purple, but becomes almost black when ripe, and contains two small plano-convex seeds. The plant is a native of Brazil, flourishing in moist, thick, and shady woods, and abounding most within the limits of the eighth and twen- tieth degrees of south latitude. It flowers in January and February, and ripens its fruit in May. The root is usually collected during the period of flowering, though equally good at other seasons. By this practice the plant is speedily extirpated in places where it is most eagerly sought. Were the seeds allowed to ripen, it would propagate itself rapidly, and thus maintain a constant supply. The root is collected chiefly by the Indians, who prepare it by separating it from the stem, cleaning it, and hanging it up in bundles to dry in the sun. The Brazilian merchants carry on a very brisk trade in this drug. The chief places of export are Rio Janeiro, Bahia, and Pernambuco. It is brought to the United States in large bags or bales. Genuine ipecacuanha is in pieces two or three lines in thickness, va- riously bent and contorted, simple or branched, consisting of an interior slender, light straw-coloured, ligneous chord, with a thick cortical cover- ing, which presents on its surface a succession of circular unequal pro- minent rings or rugae, separated by very narrow fissures frequently extending nearly down to the central fibre. This appearance of the sur- face has given rise to the term annele or annidar, by which the true ipe- cacuanha is designated in the French works on pharmacy: The cortical part is hard, horny, and semitransparent, breaks with a resinous frac- ture, and easily separates from the tougher ligneous fibre, which is pos- sessed of the medicinal virtues of the root in a much inferior degree. Attached to the root is frequently a smoother and more slender por- tion, which is the base of the stem, and should be separated before pulverization. Much stress has been laid in works on the Materia Medica upon the colour of the external surface of the ipecacuanha root, and diversity in this respect has even led to the formation of distinct varieties. Thus the epidermis is sometimes deep brown or even black- ish, sometimes reddish-brown or reddish-gray, and sometimes light gray or ash-coloured. Hence the distinction into brown, red, and gray ipecacuanha. But these are all derived from the same plant, are essen- tially the same in properties and composition, and probably differ only in consequence of difference in age, or place of growth, or mode of de- siccation. The colours in fact are often so intermingled, that it would be impossible to decide in which variety a particular specimen should be placed. The brown is the most abundant in the packages which reach our market. The red, besides the colour of its epidermis, presents a rosy tint when broken, and is said to be somewhat more bitter than the preceding variety. The gray is much lighter coloured externally, usu- ally rather larger, with less, prominent rings and wider fissures, and is still more decidedly bitter... When the bark in either variety is opaque, with a dull amylaceous aspect, the root is less active as a medicine. PART I. Ipecacuanha. 363 As the woody part is nearly inert, and much more difficult of pulveriza- tion than the cortical, it often happens that when a particular parcel of the root is powdered, the portion which remains last in the mortar pos- sesses scarcely any emetic power; and care should be taken to provide against any defect from this cause. The colour of the powder is a light grayish fawn. Ipecacuanha has little smell in the aggregate state, but when pow- dered has a peculiar nauseous odour, which in some persons excites violent sneezing, in others dyspnoea resembling an attack of asthma. The taste is bitter, acrid, and very nauseous. Water and alcohol extract its virtues, which are injured by decoction. Its emetic property re- sides in a peculiar alkaline principle called emetin, or more properly emetia, discovered by Pelletier in the year 1817. The cortical portion of the brown ipecacuanha, analyzed by this chemist under the erroneous name of Psychotria emetica, yielded in the hundred parts, 16 of an impure salt of emetia, which was at first considered the pure emetic principle, 2 of an odorous fatty matter, 6 of wax, 10 of gum, 42 of starch, 20 of lignin, with 4 parts loss. The woody fibre was found to contain only 1.15 per cent, of the impure emetia. M. A. Richard obtained from the cortical part, the same proportion of emetia as found by Pelletier, but detected some principles not noticed by that chemist, among which were traces of gallic acid.- The bark of the red ipecacuanha was found by Pelletier to contain but fourteen per cent, of the impure emetia. The gray variety has not been analyzed. One hundred parts of good ipeca- cuanha contain about 80 of cortical and 20 of ligneous matter. Emetia when perfectly pure is white, pulverulent, unalterable in the air, very fusible, sparingly soluble in cold water and ether, very soluble in alcohol, inodorous, slightly bitter, is not reddened by nitric acid, forms crystallizable salts with the mineral acids-and acetic acid, is pre- cipitated by gallic acid from its solutions, and contains nitrogen among its ingredients. It is, however, very difficult to procure it in this state of purity, and the proportion afforded by the root is exceedingly small. As originally obtained it was very impure, probably in the condition of a salt, and in this state is directed by the French Codex. Impure emetia is in transparent scales of a brownish-red colour, almost inodorous, of a bitterish acrid taste, deliquescent, very soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether, precipitated from its solutions by gallic acid and the acetates of lead, but not by tartar emetic or the salts of iron. It is ob- tained by treating powdered ipecacuanha with ether to remove the fatty matter, exhausting the residue with alcohol, evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness, and subjecting the extract to the action of cold wa- ter, which dissolves the emetia with some gallic acid, and leaves the wax and other matters. To separate the gallic acid, the watery solution is treated with carbonate of magnesia, filtered, and then evaporated. If pure emetia is required, magnesia is used instead of the carbonate. The salt is thus decomposed, and the alkaline base being insoluble is preci- pitated with the excess of the earth. The precipitate is washed with cold water, and digested in alcohol, which dissolves the emetia; the alcoholic solution is then evaporated, the residue redissolved in a dilute acid, and the alkali again precipitated by a salifiable base. To deprive it of colour it is necessary to employ animal charcoal. Pure emetia has at least three times the strength of the impure. Medical Properties and Uses.—Ipecacuanha is in large doses emetic, in smaller, diaphoretic and expectorant, and in still smaller, stimulant to the stomach, exciting appetite and facilitating digestion. In quantities 364 Ipecacuanha. PART I. insufficient to vomit, it produces nausea and frequently acts upon the bowels. As an emetic it is mild but tolerably certain in its operation, and being usually thrown from the stomach by one or two efforts, is less apt to produce dangerous effects when taken in an overdose than some other substances of the same class. It is also recommended by the ab- sence of corrosive and narcotic properties. It was employed as an emetic by the natives of Brazil, when that country was first settled by the Portuguese; but, though described in the work of Pison, it was not known in Europe till the year 1672, and did not come into use till some years afterwards. John Helvetius, grand- father of the celebrated author of that name, having been associated with a merchant who had imported a large quantity of ipecacuanha into Paris, employed it as a secret remedy, and with so much success in dysentery and other bowel affections, that general attention was attracted to it; and the fortunate physician received from Louis XIV. a large sum of money, and public honours, on the sole condition that he should make the remedy public. From this period it has maintained its stand- ing among the most useful articles of the Materia Medica. As an emetic it is peculiarly adapted by its mildness and efficiency to all cases in which the object is merely to evacuate the stomach, or a gentle impression only is desired; and in most other cases in which emetics are indicated, it may be advantageously combined with the more energetic medicines, the action of which it renders safer by ensuring their discharge. It is especially useful where narcotic poisons have been swallowed, as under these circumstances it may be given in almost indefinite doses, with little comparative risk of injury to the patient. In dysentery it has been supposed to exercise peculiar powers; but is at present less used than formerly in doses sufficient to excite vomiting. As a nauseating remedy it is used in asthma, hooping cough, and the hemorrhages; as a diaphoretic, combined with opium, in a wide circle of diseases. (See Pulvis Ipecacuanhas et Opii.) Its expectorant properties render it beneficial in catarrhal and other pulmonary affections. It has been given also, with supposed advantage, in very minute doses, in dys- peptic cases, and in chronic disease of the gastro-intestinal mucous mem- brane. Ipecacuanha is most conveniently administered as an emetic in the form, of powder suspended in water. The dose is about twenty grains, repeated if necessary at intervals of twenty minutes till it operates. " Its operation may be facilitated and rendered milder by copious draughts of warm water or warm chamomile tea. An infusion in boiling water in the proportion of two drachms of the powder Jo six fluidounces of menstruum, may be given in the dose of a fluidounce repeated as in the former case. With a view to the production of nausea, the dose in sub- stance may be two grains, given more or less frequently according to circumstances. As a diaphoretic it may be given in the quantity of a grain; as an alterative, in diseases of the stomach and bowels, of a quar- ter or half a grain two or three times a day. Emetia has been used on the continent of Europe as a substitute, but with no great advantage. Its operation on the stomach is apt to be more violent and continued than that of ipecacuanha itself; and if given in overdoses, it may produce dangerous, and even fatal consequences. From the experiments of Magendie, it appears to have a peculiar direc- tion to the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal, and the bron- chial tubes. Ten grains of the impure alkali administered to dogs, were generally found to destroy life in twenty-four hours, and the mucous PART I. Ipecacuanha. 365 membranes mentioned were observed to be inflamed throughout their whole extent. The same result took place when emetia was injected into the veins, or absorbed from any part of the body. The dose of im- pure emetia is about a grain and a half, of the pure not more than half a grain, repeated at proper intervals till it vomits. In proportional doses it may be applied to the other purposes for which ipecacuanha is used. It will excite vomiting when applied to a blistered surface after the removal of the cuticle. Magendie found that, dogs slept much after being vomited with emetia, and concluded that the medicine was nar- cotic ; but other emetic medicines produce the same effect, which is to be ascribed rather to exhaustion than to any direct operation on the brain. Off. Prep. Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Vi- num Ipecacuanhae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Ipecacuanhas not officinal. When ipecacuanha began to be popular in Europe, the roots of seve- ral other plants were imported and confounded with the genuine, and the name came at length to be applied to almost all emetic roots^de- rived from the American continent. Several of these are still occasion- ally found in commerce, and retain the name originally applied to them. The two most worthy of notice are the ipecacuanha of New Gra- nada and Peru, and the white ipecacuanha of Brazil. On each of these we shall offer a few remarks. 1. Peruvian Ipecacuanha.—This is the root of the Psychotria emetica, formerly supposed to produce the genuine Brazilian ipecacuanha. The plant, like the Cephaelis, belongs to the class and order Pentandria Mo- nogynia, and to the natural order Rubiaceae. A description of it sent by Mutis was published by Linnaeus the younger in his supplement. It has since been described in the Plant. JRquinox.; and has been figured by A. Richard in his History of the Ipecacuanhas, and by Hayne in the eighth volume of his Medical Botany published at Berlin. It is a small shrub, with a stem twelve or eighteen inches high, simple, erect, round, slightly pubescent, and furnished with opposite, oblong lanceolate, pointed leaves, narrowed at their base into a short petiole, and accom- panied with pointed stipules. The flowers are small, white, and sup- ported in small clusters towards the end of an axillary peduncle. The plant flourishes in Peru and New Granada, and was seen by Humboldt and Bonpland growing in abundance near the river Magdalena. The dried root is exported from Carthagena. It is cylindrical, somewhat thicker than the root of the Cephaelis, usually simple, but sometimes branched, not much contorted, wrinkled longitudinally, presenting here and there deep circular intersections, but without the annular rugae of the true ipecacuanha. The longitudinal direction of the wrinkles has given origin to the name of striated ipeca- cuanha, by which it is known in French Pharmacy. It consists of an in- ternal woody chord and an external cortical portion; but the former is usually larger in proportion to the latter than in the root of the Cephae- lis. The bark is soft and easily cut with a knife; and when broken ex- hibits a brown slightly resinous fracture. The epidermis is of a dull reddish-gray colour, which darkens with age and exposure, and ulti- mately becomes almost black. Hence the root has sometimes been called black ipecacuanha. The ligneous portion is yellowish, and perforated with numerous small holes visible by the microscope. The Peruvian ipecacuanha is nearly inodorous, and has a flat taste, neither bitter nor 366 Ipecacuanha.—Iris Florentina. part i. acrid. Out of 100 parts Pelletier obtained 9 of impure emetia, 12 of fatty matter, with an abundance of starch, besides gum and lignin. The dose, as an emetic, is from two scruples to a drachm. 2. White Ipecacuanha.—This variety wis noticed in the work of Pison, but the vegetable which produced it has not been satisfactorily ascertained till a recent date. Gomez, indeed, in the memoir which he published at Lisbon, A.D. 1801, gave a figure and description of the plant; but the memoir was not generally known, and botanists remained uncertain upon the subject. By the travels of M. Saint-Hilaire and Dr. Martius in Brazil, more precise information has been obtained; and the white ipecacuanha is now confidently referred to different species of Richardsonia, the Richardia of Linnaeus. The R. scabra, or R. Brazi- liensis of Gomez, and the R. emetica are particularly indicated by Mar- tius, who also states that different species of lonidium, (Ventinat), Viola, (Linn.), produce what is called white ipecacuanha. The name of undulat- ed ipecacuanha is proposed by Guibourt for this variety, from the pecu- liar character of the surface, which presents indentations or concavities on one side, corresponding with prominences or convexities on the other, so as to give a wavy appearance to the root. It differs little in size from the genuine; is of a whitish-gray colour externally; and when broken presents a dull white farinaceous fracture, offering by the light of the sun, shining points, which are nothing more than small grains of fe- cula. Like the other varieties it has a woody centre. It is inodorous and insipid; and contains, according to Pelletier, a very large propor- tion of starch, with only six per cent, of impure emetia, and two of fatty matter. Richard found only 3.5 parts of emetia in the hundred. It is said to be sometimes mixed with the genuine ipecacuanha; but we have discovered none in the bales which we have examined. IRIS FLORENTINA. U.S. Florentine Orris. " Iris Florentina. Radix. The root." U.S. Off Syn. IRIDIS FLORENTINE RADIX. Ed. Iris de Florence, Fr.; Florentinische violenwurzel, Germ.; Ireos, Hal; Lirio Floren- tina, Span. Iris. Class Triandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Irides, Juss., Irideae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla six-parted; the alternate segment reflected. Stigmas petal-shaped. Willd. In all the species belonging to this genus, so far as examined, the roots are more or less acrid, and possessed of cathartic and emetic pro- perties. In Europe, the /. Florentina, I. Germanica, 1. pseudo-acorus, and /. tuberosa have at various times been admitted into use. Of these the /. Florentina is the only one acknowledged by the British or American Pharmacopoeias. Iris Florentina. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 226; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 776. t. 262. The root of the Florentine Iris is perennial, horizontal, tuberous, fleshy, fibrous, and covered with a brown epidermis. The leaves spring directly from the root, are sword-shaped, pointed, nerved, and shorter than the stem, which rises from the midst of them more than a foot in height, round, smooth, jointed, and bearing commonly two large white or bluish-white terminal flowers. The calyx is a spathe with two valves. The corolla divides into six segments or petals, of which three stand part i. Iris Florentina.—Iris Versicolor. 367 erect, and the remaining three are bent backward, and bearded within at their base with yellow-tipped white hairs. The fruit is a three-celled capsule, containing numerous seeds. This plant is a native of Italy, and other parts of the South of Eu- rope. The root, which is the officinal portion, is dug up in spring, and prepared for the market by the removal of its cuticle and fibres. It is brought from Leghorn in large casks. Properties.—The Florentine orris is in pieces of various form and size, often branched, usually about as thick as the thumb, knotty, flat- tened, white, heavy, of a rough though not fibrous fracture, a pleasant odour resembling that of the violet, and a bitterish acrid taste. The acri- mony is greater in the recent than in the dried root; but the peculiar smell is more decidedly developed in the latter. The pieces are brittle and easily powdered, and the powder is of a dirty white colour. Vogel obtained from Florentine orris, gum, a brown extractive, fecula, a fixed oil, a volatile crystallizable oil, and vegetable fibre. Medical Properties.—This medicine is cathartic, and in large doses emetic, and was formerly employed to a considerable extent on the con- tinent of Europe. It is said also to be diuretic, and to have proved use- ful in dropsies. At present it is chiefly valued for'its pleasant odour. It is occasionally chewed to conceal an offensive breath, and enters into the composition of numerous tooth-powders. It is one of the ingredients of the Emplastrum Plumbi Carbonatis of the United States Pharmaco- poeia. In the form of small round balls, about the size of a pea, it is much used by the French for maintaining the discharge from issues, a purpose to which it is adapted not only by its odour, but also by the slight degree of acrimony which it retains in its dried state, and by the property of swelling very much by the absorption of moisture. ' Off. Prep. Emplastrum Plumbi Carbonatis, U. S. IRIS VERSICOLOR. U.S. Secondary. Blue Flag. " Iris versicolor. Radix. The root." U. S. Iris. See IRIS FLORENTINA. Iris versicolor. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 233; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 155. This indigenous species of Iris has a perennial, fleshy, horizon- tal, fibrous root, and a stem two or three feet high, round on one side, acute on the other, and frequently branching. The leaves are sheathing at the base, sword-shaped, and striated. The flowers are from two to six in number, and are usually blue or purple, though varying much in colour. The capsule has three valves, is divided into three cells, and when mature is oblong, three-sided, with obtuse angles, and contains numerous flat seeds. The blue flag is found in all parts of the United States, flourishing in low wet places, in meadows, and on the borders of swamps, which it serves to adorn with its large and beautiful flowers. These make their appearance in June. The root is the medicinal portion. The flowers afford a fine blue infusion, which serves as a test of acids and alkalies. The recent root is without odour, and has a nauseous, extremely acrid taste, which is imparted to water by decoction, and still more perfectly to alcohol. The acrimony as well as medicinal activity is impaired by age. The blue flag possesses the cathartic, emetic, and diuretic properties 368 Iris Versicolor.—Jalapa. part i. common to most of the species of this genus. It is said by Mr. Bartram to be held in much esteem by the Southern Indians; and Dr. Bigelow informs us that he has found it efficacious as a purgative, though incon- venient from the distressing nausea and prostration which it is apt to occasion. Dr. Macbride of Carolina found it useful in dropsy. It is, however, very little employed by the profession at large, and is seldom if ever kept in the shops. It may be given in substance, decoction, or tincture. The dose of the dried root is from ten to twenty grains. JALAPA. U.S. Jalap. "Ipomcea Jalapa, Coxe; Convolvulus Jalapa, Willdenow. Radix. The root." U.S. 'Off. Syn. JALAPjE RADIX. Convolvulus Jalapa. Radix. Lond.; CONVOLVULI JALAPS RADIX. Ed.; JALAPA. CONVOLVU- LUS JALAPA. Radix. Dub. Jalap, Fr.; Jalappen-wurzel, Germ.; Sciarappa, Hal; Jalapa, Span. The precise botanical character of the jalap plant has long been a , matter of much uncertainty. Linnaeus, following Clusius, Plunder, Tournefort, and others, at first referred it to the Mirabilis, but subse- quently adopting the opinion of Ray and Miller, was led to consider it a Convolvulus, and named it accordingly C. Jalapa, a title by which it has since been generally described in botanical and medical works. Thierry de Menonville, who in 1777 was in that part of Mexico where the plant flourishes, soon afterwards described a vegetable which he found in the neighbourhood of the city of Vera Cruz, and which he sup- posed to be identical with that which yields jalap. His description was found to correspond exactly with the character of a plant which Mi- chaux the elder had sent from Charleston, South Carolina, to the Bo- tanical Garden at Paris, and which he had described under the name of Ipomcea macrorhiza. This was figured by Desfontaines, and thought by many to be the true jalap plant; and, as the /. macrorhiza grows in Georgia and Florida, it was inferred that this valuable drug was pro- duced within the limits of the United States. Pursh was so convinced of the identity of the jalap of Mexico with the /. macrorhiza of Michaux, that he conferred upon the latter the title of Ipomcea Jalapa. But there are several circumstances which tend to prove that the two plants have been improperly confounded. The simple fact that the /. macrorhiza has a root which weighs from fifty to sixty pounds, is sufficient to prove that it cannot be the source of the officinal jalap, of which the dried tubers as they reach us are very seldom larger than the fist, and the slices could by no possibility be derived from a root of very great mag- nitude. Besides, the root of the /. macrorhiza was ascertained by Dr. Baldwin to possess little or no purgative power; and another striking dissimilarity between this plant and the true jalap, is that the leaves of the former are downy on their under surface, while there is every rea- son to believe that those of the latter are perfectly smooth; for a plant raised by Miller from seeds sent from Mexico by Dr. Houston, who was well acquainted with the true jalap, is described in the sixth edition of the Gardener's Dictionary as having smooth leaves; and the same fact is stated of the plant by M. Ledanois in a recent communication transmit- ted from Mexico to Paris. Thierry de Menonville was, therefore, in all probability mistaken in considering as the jalap plant, that found by part i. Jalapa. 369 him in the vicinity of Vera Cruz; and his mistake has been the source of numerous errors in subsequent writers. It is thought by some that his plant, and consequently the I. macrorhiza, is the source of the me- choacan, a purgative root also brought from Mexico, and sometimes mixed with the jalap; but the fact has not been well ascertained. The question now recurs, what is the jalap plant? Is it a Convolvulus as generally supposed, or is it an Ipomoea? These two genera are closely allied, the most striking difference being in the character of the stigma, which in the Convolvulus is double, in the Ipomoea, according to Elliott, is simple and capitate. Some botanists place in the latter genus those Convolvuli which have divided but capitate stigmas, retaining in the former those only in which this organ is filiform. Nuttall, however, follows Elliott, and on this side of the Atlantic, the authority of these two botanists may be considered as decisive. According to this arrange- ment the plant of Michaux is a Convolvulus. There is good reason to believe that the jalap plant is an Ipomcea. That figured and described by Woodville under the name of Convolvulus Jalapa, the description of which was copied by Dr. Thomson in his Dispensatory, was introduced into the royal garden at Kew, in 1778, by M. Thouin; but we have no evidence that it is the true jalap, and Nuttall thinks it resembles more closely the Convolvulus panduratus. In the year 1827, Dr. John R. Coxe, Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Pennsylvania, received directly from Xalappa several small jalap plants in a growing state; and having placed them in his garden, succeeded in raising one with all the parts necessary for a decision upon its botanical character. Mr. Nuttall, to whom it was exhibited, had no hesitation in pronouncing it an Ipomoea, and described it with the title of Ipomcea Jalapa. This title is recognised in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The British Colleges still refer the drug to the Convolvulus Jalapa. Ipomoea. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.— Nat. Ord. Convol- vuli, Juss., Convolvulaceae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla funnel-form or campanulate, five- plaited. Stigma capitate, globose. Capsule two or three-celled, many- seeded. Nuttall. Ipomcea Jalapa. Nuttall, Am. Journ. Med. Sdences, v. 300. The root of this plant is a roundish somewhat pearshaped tuber, externally blackish, internally white, with long fibres proceeding from its lower part, as well as from the upper root-stalks. A tuber raised by Dr. Coxe was in its third year between two and three inches in diameter. The stem is round, smooth, much disposed to twist, and rises to a considerable height upon neighbouring objects, about which it twines. The leaves are heart-shaped, entire, smooth, pointed, deeply sinuated at the base, prominently veined on their under surface, and supported upon long footstalks. The lower leaves are nearly hastate, or with diverging angu- lar points. The flowers, which are large and of a lilac-purple colour, stand upon peduncles about as long as the petioles. Each peduncle sup- ports two, or more rarely, three flowers. The calyx is without bractes, five-leaved, obtuse, with two of the divisions external. The corolla is funnel-form. The stamens are five in number, with oblong, white, some- what exserted anthers. The stigma is simple and capitate. The above description is taken from that drawn up by Mr. Nuttall, and published in Dr. Coxe's paper in the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, The jalap plant is a native of Mexico, and derived its name from the city of Xalappa in the State of Vera Cruz. It might undoubtedly be cultivated in the southern section of the United States; as the offset 47 370 Jalapa. part r. of a root planted by Mr. Nuttall so far North as Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, survived the winter, and produced in the following season a vigorous plant. Jalap is brought from the port of Vera Cruz in bags containing usually between one hundred and two hundred pounds. Properties.—The tuber comes either whole, or divided longitudinally into two parts, or in transverse circular slices. The entire tubers are irregularly roundish, or ovate and pointed, or pear-shaped, usually much smaller than the fist, and marked with circular or vertical incisions, made to facilitate their drying. In this state the root is preferred, as it is less apt to be defective, and is more easily distinguished from the adulterations than when sliced. A much larger proportion comes in this shape than formerly, indicating a greater scarcity of the older roots, which it is necessary to slice in order to dry them properly. The tuber is heavy, compact, hard, brittle, with a shining undulated fracture, ex- hibiting numerous resinous points, distinctly visible by the microscope. It is externally brown and wrinkled, internally of a grayish colour, diversified by concentric darker circles, in which the matter is denser and harder than in the intervening spaces. It is always kept in the shops in the state of powder, which is of a yellowish-gray colour, and when inhaled irritates the nostrils and throat, and provokes sneezing and coughing. The odour of the root, when cut or broken, is heavy, sweet- ish, and rather nauseous; the taste is sweetish, somewhat acrid, and disagreeable. It yields its active properties partly to water, partly to alcohol, and completely to diluted alcohol. M. Cadet de Gassicourt ob- tained from 500 parts of jalap, 24 of water, 50 of resin, 220 of gummy ex- tract, 12.5 of fecula, 12.5 of albumen, 145 of lignin, 16.3 of saline matters, 2.7of silica, with a loss of 17 parts. The jalapin of Mr. Hume has prov- ed to consist of inorganic salts. (Chevallier, Diet, des Drogues.) The resin of jalap is commonly supposed to be wholly insoluble in ether; but Cadet found that it consists of two portions, one of which amount- ing to seven parts out of ten, is hard and insoluble in ether, the other is soft and soluble in that menstruum. The proportion of resin to the other ingredients of the root varies considerably in different specimens. Jalap is apt to be attacked by worms, which, however, are said to devour the amylaceous or softer parts, and to leave the resin; so that the worm-eaten drug is more powerfully purgative than that which is sound. Thus out of 397 parts of the former M. Henry obtained 72 parts of resin, while from an equal quantity of the latter he procured only 48 parts. Hence worm-eaten jalap should be employed for obtaining the resin; but should not be pulverised, as it would afford a powder of more than the proper strength. Adulterations.—Jalap is said to be sometimes adulterated with bryony root; but no instance of the kind has come under our notice; and the two drugs are so widely different that the fraud would be instantly de- tected. This must be at once evident from the following description of bryony root, which we copy from Fee's work on the Natural History of Drugs. " Root spindleshaped, about a foot long and nearly six inches in diameter, usually branching, obtuse, rounded at the top, of a yellow- ish-white colour, rough, with close transverse wrinkles, and a white, fleshy, succulent parenchyma."* It is probable, however, that the adul- * The plant producing this root is the Bryonia alba, figured and described in Wood- pile's Med. Bot. page 194. The root was formerly among the medicines directed by the Edinburgh College. As prepared for the shops, it was usually in transverse slices. $ is a powerful, irritating, hydragogue cathartic, said to be diuretic in small doses; but has been abandoned in consequence of its uncertainty and occasional harshness. PART I. Jalapa. 371 teration which has been considered as bryony root, is the mechoacan, which in Europe is sometimes called American bryony, and was for- merly erroneously supposed to be derived from a species of Bryonia. The mechoacan is a product of Mexico, which was taken to Europe even before the introduction of jalap. We have before stated that the plant which produces it is probably identical with the Ipomcea macrorhiza of Michaux, the Convolvulus macrorhizus of some other authors. According to M. Fee, it is in "fragments of various forms, or in whitish slices, which are fibrous, softish, invested with a grayish and rough bark, solid, white, or yellowish-white internally." This description answers very closely to the characters of a drug known in our markets as spu- rious jalap, which often comes mingled with the genuine, and has some- times been imported unmixed in mistake for that root. Whether it is really the mechoacan we are unable to decide with certainty, as it is not known by that name to our merchants. It always comes in slices, which are evidently portions of a large, and probably a spindle-shaped root. The shape of the greater number of pieces indicates that the root was sliced transversely, and each circular slice divided into quarters. The horizontal cut surface is dark from exposure, unequal from the greater shrinking in the drying process of some parts than others, and pre- sents the extremities of numerous fibres, which are often concentrically arranged, and run in the longitudinal direction of the root. Internally the colour is whitish, and the texture, though much less compact than that of jalap, is sometimes almost ligneous. The taste, like that of mechoacan, is at first insensible, but after some time becomes somewhat acrid and nauseous. The mechoacan is truly an adulteration, as its pur- gative powers are very feeble. Mixed with jalap are also sometimes found transverse circular slices about the size of those of Colombo root, with a uniform, white, amyla- ceous parenchyma, between which and the bark is a very evident line of division. Whether these are derived from the same or a different plant we are unable to decide. They are evidently destitute, or nearly so, of the resinous constituent of jalap, and should be rejected. It is not impossible that portions of the root of a plant called in Mex- ico male jalap, which has recently attracted attention in France, may sometimes be mixed with the genuine drug. According to M. Ledanois this root is spindle-shaped, and sometimes twenty inches long. Jalap should be rejected when it is light, of a whitish colour internally, of a dull fracture, spongy, or friable. Medical Properties and Uses.—Jalap is an active cathartic, operating briskly and sometimes painfully upon the bowels, and producing copious watery stools. The aqueous extract purges moderately, without much griping, and is said to increase the flow of urine. The portion not taken up by water gripes severely. The watery extract obtained from jalap previously exhausted by rectified alcohol, is said to have no cathartic effect, but to operate powerfully by urine. (Duncan.) The alcoholic ex- tract, usually called resin of jalap, purges actively and often produces severe griping. From these facts it appears, that the virtues of this ca- thartic do not depend exclusively upon any one principle. Jalap was introduced into Europe in the latter part of the sixteenth, or beginning of the seventeenth century, and now ranks among the purgative medi- cines most extensively employed. It is applicable to most cases in which an active cathartic is required, and from its hydragogue powers is espe- cially adapted to the treatment of dropsy. It is generally given in con- nexion with other medicines which assist or qualify its operation. In 372 Jalapa. —Juglans. PART i. dropsical complaints it is usually combined with the supertartrate of potassa; and the same mixture is much employed in the treatment of the hip disease, and scrofulous affections of other joints. With calomel it forms a cathartic compound, which has long been highly popular in the United States in bilious fever, and other complaints attended with congestion of the liver or portal circle. The dose of jalap in powder is from fifteen to thirty grains; of the resin or alcoholic extract, which is much used on the continent of Eu- rope, from four to eight grains. The latter is usually given rubbed up with sugar, or in emulsion, by which its tendency to irritate painfully the mucous membrane of the bowels is thought to be in some measure obviated. The extract of the United States and British Pharmacopoeias is preferable to the alcoholic, as it more completely represents the jalap itself. The dose of calomel and jalap is ten grains of each, that of the supertartrate of potassa and jalap, two drachms of the former to ten or fifteen grains of the latter. Off. Prep. Extractum Jalapae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Jalapae Compositus, Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Jalapae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Sennae et Jalapae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. JUGLANS. U.S. Butternut. " Juglans cinerea. Radicis liber. The inner bark of the root." U.S. Juglans. Class Moncecia. Order Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Terebinta- ceae, Juss.; Juglandeae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Amentum imbricated. Calyx a scale. Corolla six-part- ed. Filaments four to eighteen. Female. Calyx four-cleft, superior. Co- rolla four-cleft. Styles two. Drupe coriaceous, with a furrowed nut. Willd. Juglans dnerea. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 456; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 115.—/. cathartica. Michaux, N. Am. Silva. i. 160. This is an in- digenous forest tree, known in different sections of the country, by the various names of butternut, oilnut, and white walnut. In favourable situa- tions it attains a great size, rising sometimes fifty feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter at the distance of five feet from the ground. The stem divides, at a small distance from the ground, into numerous nearly horizontal branches, which spread widely, and form a large tufted head, giving to the tree a peculiar aspect. The young branches are smooth and of a grayish colour, which has given origin to the specific name of the plant. The leaves are very long, and con- sist of seven or eight pairs of sessile leaflets, and a single petiolate leaflet at the extremity. These are two or three inches in length, oblong-lan- ceolate, rounded at the base, acuminate, finely serrate, and somewhat downy. The male and female flowers are distinct upon the same tree. The former are in large aments, four or five inches long, hanging down from the sides of the shoots of the preceding year's growth near their extremity. The fertile flowers are at the end of the shoots of the same spring. The germ is surmounted by two large, feathery, rose-coloured stigmas. The fruit is sometimes single, suspended by a thin pliable peduncle; sometimes several are attached to the sides and extremity of the same peduncle. The drupe is oblong-oval, with a terminal projec- tion, hairy, viscid, green in the immature state, but brown when ripe. It contains a hard, dark-coloured, oblong, pointed nut, with a rough PART I. Juglans.—Juniperus. 373 deeply and irregularly furrowed surface. The kernel is thick, oily, and pleasant to the taste. The butternut grows in Upper and Lower Canada, and throughout the whole northern, eastern, and western sections of the United States. In the Middle States, the flowers appear in May, and the fruit ripens in September. The tree, if pierced immediately before the leaves unfold, yields a richly saccharine juice, from which sugar may be obtained nearly if not quite equal to that from the sugar-maple. The wood, though neither strong nor compact, is useful for some purposes on ac- count of its durability, and exemption from the attacks of worms. The fruit, when half grown, is sometimes made into pickles; when ripe, affords, in its kernel, a grateful article of food. The bark is used for dyeing wool a dark brown colour, though inferior for this purpose to that of the black walnut. It is said, when applied to the skin, to have a rubefacient effect. The inner bark is the medicinal portion, and that of the root, being considered most efficient, is directed by the national Pharmacopceia. It should be collected in May or June. On the living tree, the inner bark when first uncovered is of a pure white, which becomes immediately on exposure a beautiful lemon co- lour, and ultimately changes to deep brown. It has a fibrous texture, a feeble odour, and a peculiar bitter, somewhat acrid taste. Its medi- cal virtues are entirely extracted by boiling water. Dr. Bigelow could detect no resin among its constituents; and the presence of tannin was not evinced by the test of gelatin, though a brownish-black colour was produced by the sulphate of iron. Medical Properties and Uses.—Butternut is a mild cathartic, operating without pain or irritation, and resembling rhubarb in the property of evacuating without debilitating the alimentary canal. It was much em- ployed during our revolutionary war by Dr. Rush and other physicians attached to the army, and was highly esteemed. It is especially appli- cable to cases of habitual costiveness and other bowel affections, par- ticularly dysentery, in which it has acquired considerable reputation. In connexion with calomel it becomes more active, and is sometimes used in our intermittent and remittent fevers, and other complaints at- tended with congestion of the abdominal viscera. It is given in the form of decoction or extract, never in substance. The extract is offici- nal, and is almost always preferred. The dose is from twenty to thirty grains as a purge, from, five to ten grains as a laxative. Off. Prep. Extractum Juglandis. U. S. JUNIPERUS. U.S. Juniper. "Juniperus communis. Baccae. The berries." U.S. Off Syn. JUNIPERI BACCJE et CACUMINA. Juniperus commu- nis. Baccae et Cacumina. Lond.; JUNIPERI COMMUNIS BACCjE. Ed.; JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS. Baccae. Cacumina. Dub. Genevrier commun, Baies de genievre, Fr.; Gemeiner wachholder, Wachholder- beeren, Germ.; Ginepro, Hal.,- Enebro, Buyas de enebro, Span. Juniperus. Class Dioecia. Order Monadelphia.— Nat. Ord. Coniferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Male. Amentum ovate. Calyx a scale. Corolla none. Sta- mens three. Female. Calyx three-parted. Petals three. Styles three. 374 Juniperus. part r. Berry three-seeded, irregular, with the three tubercles of the calyx. Willd. Juniperus communis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 853; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 13. t. 6. This is an erect evergreen shrub, usually small, but some- times attaining a height of twelve or fifteen feet, with numerous very close branches. The leaves are narrow, longer than the fruit, entire, sharply pointed, channelled, of a deep green colour, somewhat glaucous on their upper surface, spreading, and attached to the stem or branches in threes, in a verticillate manner. The flowers are dioecious and disposed in snu.ll, ovate, axillary, sessile, solitary aments. The fruit is a globular berry, formed of the fleshy coalescing scales of the ament, and containing three angular seeds. The common juniper is a native of Europe; but has been introduced into this country, in some parts of which it has become naturalized. It is not uncommon in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. The plant de- scribed in Bigelow's American Medical Botany under the title of /. communis, deserves, perhaps, to be considered a distinct species. It is a trailing shrub, seldom rising more than two or three feet in height, spreading in all directions, throwing out roots from its branches, and forming beds which are often many rods in circumference. The name of J. depressa has been proposed for it. The common juniper flowers in May; but does not ripen its fruit till late in the following year. All parts of the plant contain a volatile oil, which imparts to them a peculiar flavour. The wood has a slight aromatic odour, and was formerly used for fumi- gation. A terebinthinate juice exudes from the tree and hardens on the bark. This has been erroneously considered as identical with sandarach, which is in fact the product of the Thuya articulata. The fruit and tops of juniper are the only officinal parts. The berries are sometimes collected in this country, and parcels are occasionally brought to the Philadelphia market from New Jersey. But, though equal to the European in appearance, they are inferior in strength, and are not much used. The best come from the South of Europe, par- ticularly from Trieste and the Italian ports. They are globular; more or less shrivelled; about as large as a pea; marked with three furrows at the summit, and with tubercles from the persistent calyx at the base; covered with a glaucous bloom, beneath which they are of a shining blackish-purple colour; and containing a brownish-yellow pulp and three angular seeds. They have an agreeable somewhat aromatic odour, and a sweetish, warm, bitterish, slightly terebinthinate taste. These prop- erties, as well as their medical virtues, they owe chiefly to an essential oil which maybe separated by distillation. (See Oleum Juniperi.) The other ingredients, according to Trommsdorff, are resin, sugar, gum, wax, lignin, water, and various saline substances. The proportion of oil is about one per cent. The berries impart their virtues to water and alco- hol. They are very largely consumed in the preparation of gin. The tops of juniper are directed by the London and Dublin Colleges. Their odour is balsamic, their taste resinous and bitterish; and they possess similar virtues with the berries. Medical Properties and Uses.—Juniper berries are gently stimulant and diuretic, imparting to the urine the smell of violets; and producing oc- casionally, when very largely taken, disagreeable irritation in the urinary passages. They are chiefly used as an adjuvant to more powerful diu- retics in dropsical complaints; but have been recommended also in scor- butic and cutaneous diseases, catarrh of the bladder, and atonic condi- tions of the alimentary canal and uterus. They may be given in substance part i. Juniperus.—Juniperus Virginiana. 375 triturated with sugar, in the dose of one or two drachms repeated three or four times a day. But the infusion is a more convenient form. It is prepared by macerating an ounce of the bruised berries in a pint of boil- ing water, the whole of which may be taken in the course of twenty-four hours. Extracts are prepared from the berries, both bruised and un- bruised, and given in the dose of one or two drachms; but in consequence of the evaporation of the essential oil, they are probably not stronger than the berries in substance. Off. Prep. Oleum Juniperi, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Juniperi Compositus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA. U.S. Secondary. Red Cedar. u Juniperus Virginiana. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Juniperus. See JUNIPERUS. Juniperus Virginiana. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 853; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 49; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 221. This species of juniper, known commonly by the name of red cedar, is an evergreen tree of slow growth, seldom attaining a very large size, though sometimes rising forty or fifty feet in height, with a stem twelve or thirteen inches in diameter. It has numerous very close branches, which, in the young tree, spread out horizontally near the ground; but as the tree advances, the lower branches slowly decay, leaving the trunk irregular with knots and crevices. The leaves are very small, fleshy, ovate, concave, point- ed, glandular on their outer surface, either ternate or in pairs, and closely imbricated. Those of the young shoots are often much longer, and spreading. The leaves closely invest the extreme twigs, increasing with their growth, till ultimately lost in the encroachments of the bark. " The barren flowers are in oblong aments, formed by peltate scales with the anthers concealed within them. The fertile flowers have a proper perianth, which coalesces with the germ, and forms a small, roundish berry, with two or three seeds, covered on its outer surface with a bright blue powder." (Bigelow.) The red cedar grows in all latitudes of the United States, from that of Burlington in Vermont, to the Guff of Mexico; but is most abundant and of most vigorous growth in the southern section, and within a short distance of the ocean. The interior wood is of a reddish colour, and highly valuable on account of its great durability. Small excrescencies which are sometimes found on the branches of the tree, are popularly used as an anthelmintic under the name of cedar apples. The leaves only are officinal. They have a peculiar not unpleasant odour, and a strong, bitterish, somewhat pungent taste. These properties reside chiefly in an essential oil, and are readily imparted to alcohol. The tincture is rendered turbid by the addition of water; and the presence of tannin in the leaves is in- dicated by the usual tests. The leaves of the /. Virginiana bear a close resemblance to those of the /. Sabina, from which they can be certainly distinguished only by the difference of odour. Medical Properties and Uses.—The resemblance of red cedar to savine is said also to extend to their medical properties; the former being considered, like the latter, stimulant, emmenagogue, diuretic, and, un- der certain circumstances, diaphoretic. It is, however, much less ener- 376 Juniperus Virginiana.—Kino. part i. getic; and though advantage may, as has been asserted, have accrued from its use in amenorrhcea, chronic rheumatism, and dropsy, it has not acquired the confidence of the profession generally. Externally ap- plied it acts as an irritant; and an ointment prepared by boiling the fresh leaves for a short time in twice their weight of lard, with the ad- dition of a little wax, is employed as a substitute for savine cerate in maintaining a purulent discharge from blistered surfaces. Sometimes the dried leaves in powder are mixed with six times their weight of resin cerate, and used for a similar purpose. But neither of these pre- parations is as effectual as the analogous preparations of savine. KINO. U.S. Lond., Ed., Dub. Kino. " Nauclea gambir, et Pterocarpus erinacea. Extractum. The extract." U.S. Kino, Fr., Germ., Hal; Quino, Span. The term kino was originally applied to a vegetable extract or inspis- sated juice taken to London from the western coast of Africa, and in- troduced to the notice of the profession by Dr. Fothergill. Vegetable products obtained from various other parts of the world, resembling kino in their appearance and properties, have subsequently received the same name; and at present a confusion prevails in relation to the bota- nical and commercial history of the drug, which, in this country, can- not be satisfactorily settled. We shall present a view of the different varieties, as described in the works of highest authority on the Materia Medica. 1. East India or Amboyna Kino.—This is the kind which is said to be at present in most general use. It is thought to be the produce of the Nauclea Gambir, a twining East India shrub, belonging to the class and order Pentandria Monogynia, and the natural order Rubiacese of Jussieu; and described minutely by Mr. Hunter in the ninth volume of the Lon- don Linnean Transactions. This plant is a native of Malacca and the island of Sumatra, where an extract is prepared from the young twigs and leaves, which is called gulta gambeer in the East, and is supposed by authors generally to be the same with kino. But any one who will compare Mr. Hunter's account of this extract with the characters of the kino of commerce, will be led at least to doubt their identity; and if the latter be procured from the same plant, it must be by a different process. The name of Amboyna, conferred on the East India kino, implies that it is prepared in that island also. It is this variety with which our market is chiefly supplied. We obtain it either directly from India, or more commonly from London, where it is bought at the East India Company's sales. It is in small, angular, deep brown, shining, brittle fragments, of a uniform consistence, appearing as though formed by the breaking down of larger masses of a dried extract. These fragments are easily pul- verised, affording a lighter brown somewhat reddish powder, a portion of which resulting from their mutual attrition, is usually found inter- spersed among them. They are without smell. The taste is very rough and astringent, and at first bitter; but ultimately leaves an impression of sweetness upon the tongue. Water at 60° dissolves two-thirds of this variety of kino, forming a deep brown clear solution. Alcohol also dis- solves the greater portion, and the resulting tincture, which is of a deep PART I. Kino. 377 claret colour, is not rendered turbid by the addition of water. The aqueous infusion affords a brick-red precipitate with a solution of isin- glass, and an olive black precipitate with the persulphate of iron. (Thom- son's Dispensatory.) 2. IVest India, or Jamaica Kino. The source of this variety is not known with certainty. Dr. Duncan was informed by Dr. Wright that it was obtained from the Coccoloba uvifera, or seaside grape. The late Dr. Murray of Edinburgh was told, as we are informed in his work on Materia Medica, that it was the extract of the mahogany wood. Dr. Thomson states in his Dispensatory that none of it is now to be pro- cured. Some years since a thick reddish-brown liquid was imported into Philadelphia from the West Indies, which, when dried by exposure to the air in shallow vessels, or by heat, afforded an extract having all the properties of kino, for which it was sold by our druggists. The supply, however, is now nearly or quite exhausted. We are unable to say what was its precise source, or whether it was identical with the variety described as Jamaica kino in the British pharmaceutical works. The Jamaica kino, from whatever plant it may be derived, is evi- dently an extract. According to Dr. Duncan, it is in large fragments, sometimes retaining the impression of the vessel in which it was dried; of a homogeneous appearance; a resinous fracture, exhibiting small air bubbles; of a dark brown almost black colour, but in very thin splinters transparent and of a ruby redness; affording when pulverised a reddish-brown powder ; crackling under the teeth when chewed ; of a taste somewhat acid at first, afterwards bitter and astringent, and ulti- mately sweetish. The greater part of it is soluble both in water and alcohol. 3. African Kino. The original kino employed by Dr. Fothergill was known to be the produce of a tree growing in Senegal and the neighbour- ing countries on the western coast of Africa; but the precise character of the tree was not ascertained, until a specimen sent home by Mungo Park, during his last journey, enabled the English botanists to decide that it was the Pterocarpus erinacea of Lamarck and Poiret. The Lon- don College accordingly refer kino to this plant; but in so doing have overlooked the fact, that the drug now used is seldom or never brought from Africa. This variety of kino "is in very small, irregularly shaped, shining, deep ruby-brown coloured fragments, and intermixed with small twigs and minute bits of wood, which are whitish on the inside. It is pulve- rulent, affording a dark chocolate or reddish-brown powder. It is in- odorous, and insipid when first taken into the mouth; but after some time ifimparts a slight degree of roughness, with a scarcely percepti- ble sweetness, to the palate'; feels gritty between the teeth when chewed, and does not colour the saliva." (Thomson's Dispensatory.) According to Dr. Thomson, water at 60° dissolves more than half of it, forming a brick-red, rather turbid infusion, which is not clear at the end of twenty-four hours. Alcohol dissolves nearly two-thirds, forming a very deep brown coloured tincture, and leaving a nearly colourless residuum. The African kino is thought to be the concrete juice of the tree, and not an extract. 4. Botany Bay Kino. This is the concrete juice of the Eucalyptus re- sinifera, or brown gum tree of New Holland, a lofty tree, belonging to the class and order Icosandria Monogynia, and the natural order Myrti of Jussieu, or Myrtaceae of other botanists. When the bark is wounded the juice flows very freely, and hardens in the air. According to Mr. 37S Kino. PART I. White, a single tree is capable of furnishing five hundred pounds of kino in one year. (Wliite's Voyage.) Duncan states that specimens of the juice have reached Great Britain in the fluid state. The Edinburgh College erroneously adopts the inspissated juice of the Eucalyptus resinifera as the officinal kino. In relation to this variety Dr. Duncan states, that when he first examined kino in 1802, it was common, and was the finest kind in commerce. According to information received by Dr. Thomson, its importation into Great Britain must have ceased soon after that period. (Thomson's Dispensatory, Edit. 1826, p. 506.) Ainslie informs us that he has met with it in the markets of Hindostan. Parcels may occasion- ally reach this country; but by such complicated routes that their ori- gin is unknown. Dr. Duncan thus describes it. "It occurs in dark brown masses of various sizes, either smooth or rounded on the surface, or in fragments often covered with a reddish-brown powder, fracture resinous and very unequal, appearance sometimes homogeneous but sometimes heteroge- neous, mixed with bits of twigs, leaves, &c.; splinters transparent, ruby red; no smell, scarcely crackling under the teeth, but sometimes gritty from the accidental mixture of sand; taste simply astringent, suc- ceeded by sweetness, and, when long chewed, a portion adheres to the teeth; infusible and friable; powder reddish-brown." White states that only one-sixth of this kino is soluble in water, Guibourt found it wholly soluble with the exception of foreign matters, and Dr. Thomson in- forms us that water at 60° dissolves more than one half. These gentle- men must have experimented with different substances. According to Dr. Duncan, alcohol dissolves the whole except impurities, and the tincture, with a certain proportion of water, lets fall a copious red pre- cipitate, but with a large portion only becomes slightly turbid. General Properties.—Kino is in small, irregular, somewhat angular, shining fragments, of a dark brown or reddish-brown colour, brittle, pulverisable, and affording a powder which is lighter coloured than the masses. It is without odour, and has a bitterish, highly astringent, and ultimately sweetish taste. It is not softened by heat. Cold water dis- solves it partially, boiling water more largely, and the saturated decoc- tion becomes turbid on cooling, and deposites a reddish sediment. Al- cohol dissolves the greater portion. It consists chiefly of a peculiar modification of tannin, with extractive matter, and, in some of the varie- ties, a minute proportion of resin. According to Vauquelin it contains no gallic acid. Its aqueous solution is precipitated by gelatin, by soluble salts of iron, silver,Tead, and antimony, by the permuriate of mercury, and by the sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. The alkalies favour its solubility in water, but essentially change its nature, and destroy its astringent property. Reference should be had to these relations of kino in prescribing it. It is said that catechu, broken into small fragments, has sometimes been sold as kino. Fortunately little injury can result from the substi- tution, as the medical virtues of the two extracts are very nearly the same. Medical Properties and Uses.—Kino is powerfully astringent, and in this country is much used in the suppression of morbid discharges. In diarrhoea not attended with febrile excitement or inflammation, it is often an excellent adjunct to opium and the absorbent medicines, and is a favourite addition to the chalk mixture. It is also used in chronic dysentery when astringents are admissible; in leucorrhoea and diabetes; and in passive hemorrhages, particularly that from the uterus. It was part i. Kino.—Krameria. 379 formerly used in intermittent fever, but has given way to more efficient remedies. It may be given in powder, infusion, or dissolved in diluted alcohol. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains. The infusion, which is a very convenient form of administration, may be made by pouring eight fluidounces of boiling water on two drachms of the ex- tract, and straining when cool. Aromatics may be added if deemed ad- visable. The dose is a fluidounce. The proportion of alcohol in a dose of the tincture, renders it frequently an unsuitable preparation. Locally applied, kino is often productive of benefit. Its infusion is useful as an injection in leucorrhoea and obstinate gonorrhoea, and thrown up the nostrils we have found it very efficacious in suppressing hemorrhage from the Schneiderian membrane. A case of obstinate he- morrhage from a wound in the palate, after resisting various means, yielded to the application of powdered kino, which was spread thickly on lint, and pressed against the wound by the tongue. The powder is also a very useful application to indolent and flabby ulcers. Off. Prep. Electuarium Catechu Compositum, Ed.,Dub.; Pulvis Kino Comp., Lond., Dub.^ Tinctura Kino, Lond., Ed., Dub. KRAMERIA. U.S. Rhatany. " Krameria triandra. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. KRAMERIA RADIX. Krameria triandra. Radix. Lond.; KRAMERIA TRIANDRA. Radix et Extractum. Dub. Ratanhie, Fr.; Ratanhiawurzel, Germ.,- Ratania, Hal, Span. Krameria. Class Tetrandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Polyga- leae, Juss. Gen.Ch. Calyx none. Corolla four petalled; the superior nectary three- parted, and inferior two-leaved. Berry dry, echinated, one-seeded. Willd. Krameria triandra. Ruiz and Pavon, Flor. Peruv. i. 61. The rhatany plant is a shrub having a long, much branched, and spreading root, of a blackish-red colour, with a round, procumbent, very dark coloured stem, divided into numerous branches, of which the younger are leafy and thickly covered with soft hairs, giving them a white silky appear- ance. The leaves are few, sessile, oblong-obovate, pointed, entire, pre- senting on both surfaces the same silky whiteness with the young branches on the sides of which they are placed. The flowers are lake- coloured, and stand singly on short peduncles at the axils of the upper leaves. There are only three stamens. The nectary consists of four leaflets, of which the two upper are spathulate, the two lower roundish and much shorter: it does not correspond with the generic character of Willdenow, which was drawn from the Krameria Ixina. The fruit is globular, of the size of a pea, surrounded by stiff reddish-brown prickles, and furnished with one or two seeds. This species of Krameria is a native of Peru, growing in dry argilla- ceous and sandy places, and abundant about the city of Huanuco. It flowers at all seasons, but is in the height of its bloom in October and November. The root is dug up after the rains. The K. Ixina, growing in Hayti, and in Cumana on the South Ame- rican continent, is said to afford a root closely analogous in appearance and properties to that of the Peruvian species; but the latter only is officinal. 380 Krameria. tart i. The name rhatany is said to express, in the language of the Peruvian Indians, the creeping character of the plant. We receive rhatany in pieces of various shapes and dimensions, some being simple, some more or less branched, the largest as much as an inch in thickness, being derived from the main body of the root, the smallest not thicker than a small quill, consisting of the minute ramifi- cations. They are composed pf a dark reddish-brown, slightly fibrous, easily separable bark, and a central woody portion less coloured, but still reddish, or reddish-yellow. The root is without smell, but has a bitter, very astringent, slightly sweetish taste, which is connected with its medical virtues, and is much stronger in the cortical, than the lig- neous part. The smallest pieces are therefore preferable, as they con- tain the largest proportion of the bark. The powder is of a reddish colour. The virtues of the root are extracted by boiling water, which forms a dark brown infusion. By digestion in alcohola deep reddish- brown tincture is obtained, from which a pink coloured precipitate sepa- rates upon the addition of water. Vogel obtained from 100 parts of the root 40 parts of a red astringent matter which he considered a modifica- tion of tannin, 48 of lignin, and minute quantities of gum, starch, and gallic acid. But it is obvious that these proportions must vary according to the relative quantity of cortical and ligneous matter. M. Peschier of Geneva announced the discovery of a peculiar acid in rhatany, which he called krameric; but M. Chevallier was unable to procure it by a repetition of the process. The mineral acids and most of the metallic salts throw down precipitates with the infusion, decoction, and tinc- ture ; and are incompatible in prescription. By evaporating the decoction an extract is obtained, which when dried has a reddish-brown colour, a vitreous and shining fracture, and yields a blood-red powder. It has the bitterness and astringency of the root, and bears a close resemblance to kino. The extract imported from South America is much inferior to that prepared in our shops. Medical Properties and Uses.—Rhatany is gently tonic and powerfully astringent; and may be advantageously given in chronic diarrhoea, pas- sive hemorrhages, some forms of leucorrhoea, and in all those cases in which kino and catechu are beneficial. It has long been used in Peru as a remedy in bowel complaints, as a corroborant in cases of enfeebled stomach, and as a local application to spongy gums. Ruiz, one of the authors of the Peruvian Flora, first made it known in Europe. It has but recently been introduced into this country, where it is acquiring increased reputation. It has the advantage over the astringent extracts imported, that being brought in the state of the root, it is free from adulteration, and may be prescribed with confidence. The dose of the powder is from twenty to thirty grains; but in this form the root is little used. The decoction is more convenient, and is usually preferred. It may be prepared by boiling an ounce of the bruised root in a pint of water, and taken in the dose of one or two fluidounces. The extract, when carefully made, is perhaps preferable to any other form, as it is of uniform strength. The dose is ten or fifteen grains. A tincture may be prepared by macerating three ounces of the bruised or powdered root in a pint of diluted alcohol for two weeks. Half an ounce of cinnamon or an ounce of orange-peel may be added to the other in- gredients, to improve the flavour, and render the tincture more pleasant to the stomach. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. part i. Lactuca Elongata.—Lactuca Virosa. Herba. 381 LACTUCA ELONGATA. U.S. Secondary. Wild Lettuce. " Lactuca elongata. Planta. The plant." U.S. Lactuca. Class Syngenesia. Order iEqualis.—Nat. Ord. Cichoraceae, Juss.; Compositae Cichoraceae, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx imbricated, cylindrical, with a mem- branous margin. Pappus simple, stipitate. Seed smooth. Willd. Lactuca elongata. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1525. This indigenous species of lettuce is biennial, with a stem from three to six feet in height, and leaves of which the lower are runcinate, entire, and clasping, the lowest toothed, and the highest lanceolate. They are all smooth on their under surface. The flowers are in corymbose panicles, small, and of a pale yellow colour. The stem and leaves yield, when wounded, a milky juice in which the virtues of the plant reside. The wild lettuce grows in all latitudes of the United States, from Canada to the Carolinas. It is found in woods, along roads, and in fer- tile soils, and flowers in June and July. It was introduced into the secondary list of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia as a substitute for the Lactuca virosa of Europe, which it is said to re- semble somewhat in medical properties. Dr. Bigelow was informed by physicians who had employed it, that it acts as an anodyne, and pro- motes the secretion from the skin and kidneys. It is seldom used in regular practice. An extract prepared by expressing and inspissating the juice o/ the fresh plant may be given in doses of from five to fifteen grains. (Bige- low's Sequel.) LACTUCA VIROSA. HERBA. Dub. Strong-Scented Lettuce. Off Syn. LACTUCJE VIROSA HERBA. Ed. Laitue vireuse, Fr.; Gift-lattig, Germ.,- Lattuga salvatica, Hal Lactuca. See LACTUCA ELONGATA. Lactuca virosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1526; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 75. t. 31. The strong-scented lettuce is biennial, with a stem from two to four feet high, erect, prickly near the base, above smooth and divided into branches. The lower leaves are large, oblong, obovate, undivided, toothed, commonly prickly on the under side of the midrib, sessile, and horizontal; the upper are smaller, clasping,and often lobed; the bractes are cordate and pointed. The flowers are numerous, of a sulphur yellow colour, and disposed in a panicle. The plant is lactescent, and has a strong disagreeable smell like that of opium, and a bitterish acrid taste. The inspissated expressed juice is the only part used in medicine. It should be prepared while the plant is in flower, as the milky fluid, upon which its virtues depend, is then most abundant. The strong-scented lettuce is a native of Europe. Medical Properties and Uses.—The extract or inspissated juice is a sedative narcotic, said also to be gently laxative, powerfully diuretic, and somewhat diaphoretic. It is employed in Europe, particularly in Germany, in the treatment of dropsy, and is especially recommended 382 Lactuca Virosa. Herba.—Lactucarium.—Lactuca. part i. in cases attended with visceral obstruction. Dr. Collen of Vienna was very successful with it in the cure of this disease. It is usually, how- ever, combined with squill, digitalis, or some other diuretic; and it is not easy to decide how much of the effect obtained is justly ascribable to the lettuce. The medicine is never used in this country. The dose is eight or ten grains, which may be gradually increased to a scruple or more. Off. Prep. Succus Spissatus Lactucse Virosae. Ed. LACTUCARIUM. U.S., Ed. Lactucarium. " Lactuca sativa. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U. S. LACTUCA. Lond. Lettuce. " Lactuca sativa." Lond. Off. Syn. LACTUCA SATIVA HERBA. Ed.; LACTUCA SA- TIVA. Herba. Dub. Laitue, Fr.,- Garten-lattig, Germ.; Lattuga, ltal; Lechuga, Span. Lactuca. See LACTUCA ELONGATA. Lactuca sativa. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1523. The garden lettuce is an annual plant. The stem, which rises about two feet in height, is erect, round, simple below, and branching in its upper part. The lower leaves are clasping, obovate, rounded at the end, and undulating; the upper are smaller, sessile, cordate, and toothed; both are shining, and of a yellowish-green colour. The flowers are pale yellow, small, and dispos- ed in an irregular terminal corymb. Before the flower-stem begins to shoot, the plant contains a bland, pellucid juice, has little taste or smell, and is much used as a salad for the table; but during the period of in- florescence it abounds in a peculiar milky juice, which readily escapes from incisions in the stem, and has been found to possess decided me- dicinal as well as sensible properties. A similar juice is produced by all the other species of lettuce, and has in fact served as the origin of the title by which the genus is designated. This juice is more abundant in the wild than in the cultivated plants. That of the L. sativa, inspis- sated by exposure to the air, has been adopted as officinal by the Edin- burgh College, and has found a place in the secondary catalogue of the United States Pharmacopceia, under the name of Lactucarium. The original native country of the garden lettuce is unknown. The plant has been cultivated from time immemorial, and is now employed in all parts of the civilized world. It flourishes equally well in hot and temperate latitudes. Some botanists suppose that the L. virosa of the old continent is the parent of all the varieties of the cultivated plant. The milky juice undergoes little alteration, if confined in closely stop- ped bottles from which the air is excluded. But when exposed to the air it concretes, and assumes a brownish colour somewhat like that of opium. Mr. Young, of Edinburgh, recommends the following mode of collecting it. When the stem is about a foot high, the top is cut off, and the juice which exudes being absorbed by cotton or a piece of sponge, is pressed out into a cup or other small vessel, and exposed till it con- cretes. In order to obtain all the juice which the plant is capable of part I. Lactuca. 383 affording, it is necessary to cut off five or six successive slices of the stem at short intervals, and to repeat the process two or three times a day. The juice may also be collected by the finger a's it flows from the incisions. In its concrete state it bears a close resemblance to opium in colour, taste, and smell, and has sometimes been called lettuce opium. It yields nearly half of its weight to water, with which it forms a deep brown infusion. From experiments made by Dr. Klink, assisted by Professor Pfaff of Kiel, the undissolved portion appears to consist of wax, resin, and caoutchouc. Lactucarium contains a free acid, and a peculiar narcotic principle ; but is destitute of morphia. Procured in the manner above indicated, it is very expensive; and other modes have been pro- posed with a view to obviate this disadvantage. A plan proposed by Mr. Probart of London, is to collect the milky juice on pieces of wove cotton about half a yard square, to throw these when fully charged into a vessel containing a small quantity of water, and allow the water thus impregm ted to evaporate in shallow dishes at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The lactucarium is left in the form of an extract, differing from the concrete juice chiefly in being destitute of caoutchouc. But prepared in this way also it is very expen- sive, in consequence of the smallness of the product. Another method of extracting the virtues of the lettuce has been re- commended by Mr. Probart. When the plant begins to assume a yellow hue, the white juice concretes in the bark of the stem, and in the old leaves, which become very bitter. These parts being separated, are ma- cerated for twenty-four hours in water, then boiled for two hours; and the clear decoction, after having been allowed to drain off through a sieve without pressure, is evaporated in shallow vessels by simple ex- posure. The resulting extract, according to Mr. Probart, has half the strength of lactucarium, and may be obtained at one-sixth of the cost. The London and Edinburgh Colleges direct an extract to be prepared by inspissating the expressed juice of the leaves; but this must be ex- ceedingly uncertain, from the variable quantity of the milky juice con- tained in the plant; and as the young leaves, which contain little or none of it, are often employed, the preparation is liable to be quite inert. The proper lactucarium is greatly preferable. Dr. Duncan erroneously states that the thridace of Dr. Francois is the expressed juice of lettuce. That practitioner employed the concrete milky juice obtained by incision. Medical Properties* and Uses.—That lettuce possesses soporific prop- erties, is a fact which was known to the ancients; but Professor Coxe of Philadelphia, enjoys the credit of having first proposed the employment of its inspissated juice as a medicine. From experiments with a tincture prepared from lactucarium, or lettuce opium, as it has been called, Dr. Coxe obtained the same results as usually follow the administration of common laudanum. Dr. Duncan senior, of Edinburgh, afterwards paid particular attention to the subject, and, in his treatise on pulmonary con- sumption, recommended lactucarium as a substitute for opium, the ano- dyne properties of which it possesses, without being followed by the same injurious effects. In consequence of this recommendation the medicine came into extensive use, and was adopted as officinal in several of the Pharmacopoeias. Dr. Francois, a French physician, has also investigated, with great care, the medicinal properties of lactucarium. According to this author it is sedative in its action, diminishing the rapidity of the circulation, and consequently the temperature of the body, without pro- ducing that disturbance of the functions which often follows the use of 384 Lactuca.—Lauri Baccae et Folia. part i. opium. In this country the medicine is habitually employed by some practitioners to allay cough, and quiet nervous irritation. The dose of lactucarium is two grains, to be repeated if necessary. Water distilled from lettuce (Eau de laitue) is used in France as a mild sedative, in the quantity of from two to four ounces. The fresh leaves boiled in water are sometimes employed in the shape of cata- plasms. It is said that in Egypt a mild oil is derived from the seeds, fit for culinary use. (Fee.) LAURI BACCjE ET FOLIA. Lond. Berries and Leaves of the Bay Tree. " Laurus nobilis. Baccae et Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. LAURI NOBILIS BACCyE. LAURI NOBILIS OLEUM EXPRESSUM. Ex Baccis. Ed.; LAURUS NOBILIS. Folia. Baccae. Dub. Laurier, Fr.; Lorbeer, Germ.,- Allorg, Hal; Laurel, Span. Laurus. See CAMPHORA. Laurus nobilis. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 479; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 678. t. 235. This species of laurel is an evergreen tree, attaining in its native climate the height of twenty or thirty feet. Its leaves are alternate, on short petioles, oval lanceolate, sinuate upon the margin, veined, of a firm texture, smooth, shining, deep green upon their upper surface, paler beneath. The flowers are dioecious, of a yellowish-white colour, and placed in small clusters of three or four together upon a common peduncle in the axils of the leaves. The corolla is divided into four oval segments. The fruit is an oval berry, of the size of a small cherry, and when ripe of a dark purple, nearly black colour. The bay tree, so famous among the ancients, is a native of the coun- tries bordering on the Mediterranean. Its leaves and fruit, and an oil expressed from the latter, are the officinal parts. The leaves have a fragrant odour, especially when bruised, and a bit- ter, aromatic, somewhat astringent taste. They yield by distillation a greenish-yellow volatile oil, upon which their properties chiefly depend. Water distilled from them has their peculiar odour. The berries when dried are black and wrinkled, and contain two oval, fatty seeds within a thin, friable envelope; or they may be considered as drupes, with a kernel divisible into two lobes. They have the same aromatic odour and taste with the leaves, but are more pungent. Be- sides an essential oil, they contain also a fixed oil, which may be sepa- rated by expression or decoction. The expressed oil, which is obtained from the fresh fruit, is concrete, of a greenish colour, and retains a portion of the volatile oil, which ren- ders it agreeably aromatic. Lard impregnated with the odorous principle of the berries, and coloured green, is said to be often substituted for the genuine expressed oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—The leaves, berries, and oil of the bay tree possess excitant and narcotic properties; but at present are never used internally as medicines, and in this country are scarcely employed in any manner. Their chief use is to communicate a pleasant odour to ex- ternal stimulant remedies. Dr. A. T. Thomson says that he has found an infusion of the berries useful in impetigo. PART I. Lavandula. 385 LAVANDULA. U.S. Lavender. " Lavandula spica. Flores. The flowers." U.S. Off. Syn. LAVANDULA FLORES. Lavandula Spica. Flores. Lond.; LAVANDULAE SPICJE FLORES. Ed.; LAVANDULA SPI- CA. Flores. Dub. Lavande, Fr.,- Lavendelblumen, Germ.; Lavandola, ltal.; Espliego alhucema, Span. Lavandula. Class Didynamia. Order Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. La- biatae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx ovate, somewhat toothed, supported by a bracte. Corolla resupine. Stamens within the tube. Willd. Lavandula Spica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 60; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 321. t. 114.—L. vera, De Cand. Flor. Fr. Sup. p. 398. The Lavan- dula Spica of Linnaeus includes two distinct species, which were con- sidered by him merely as varieties of the same plant, but have been separated by subsequent botanists. Of these, the officinal plant, the nar- row-leaved variety of Linnaeus, has been denominated by De Candolle L. vera, while the broad-leaved variety still retains the title of L. spica. It is the former which is intended by the Pharmacopoeias, as the latter is scarcely cultivated in Great Britain or the United States. The common lavender is a small shrub, usually rising not more than two or three feet, but sometimes attaining an elevation of six feet. The stem is woody below, and covered with a brown bark; above, is divided into numerous slender, straight, herbaceous, pubescent, glaucous branch- es, furnished with opposite, sessile, narrow, nearly linear, entire, and whitish-green leaves. The flowers are small, blue, and disposed in in- terrupted whorls around the young shoots, forming terminal cylindrical spikes. Each whorl is accompanied with two bractes. The corolla is tubular and labiate, with the lower lip divided into three segments, the upper larger and bifid. The filaments are within the tube. The plant is a native of Southern Europe, and covers vast tracts of dry and barren land in Spain, Italy, and the South of France. It is cul- tivated abundantly in our gardens, and in this country flowers in Au- gust. All parts of it are endowed with properties similar to those for which the flowers are used; but these only are officinal. The spikes should be cut when they begin to bloom. Lavender flowers have a strong fragrant odour, and an aromatic, warm, bitterish taste. They retain their fragrance a long time after drying. Alcohol extracts their virtues; and a volatile oil upon which their odour depends rises with that liquid in distillation. The oil may be procured separate by distilling the flowers with water. (See Oleum Lavandulae.) Hagen obtained from a pound of the fresh flowers some- times two drachms, sometimes only half a drachm of the oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—Lavender is an aromatic stimulant and tonic, esteemed useful in certain states of nervous debility, but very sel- dom given in its crude state. The products obtained by its distillation are much used in perfumery, and as grateful additions to other medi- cines, which they render at the same time more acceptable to the palate and cordial to the stomach. Off. Prep. Oleum Lavandulae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub; Pulvis Asari Compositus, Ed., Dub.; -Spiritus Lavandulae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Lavandulae Compositus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. 49 386 Lichen. part i. LICHEN. U.S. Iceland Moss. "Cetraria Islandica. Acharius. Lichen Islandicus. Linn. Planta. The plant." U.S. Off Syn. LICHEN. Lichen Islandicus. Lond.; LICHEN ISLANDI- CUS. Ed.; LICHEN ISLANDICUS. CETRARIA ISLANDICA. Planta. Dub. Lichen d'Islande, Fr.; Islandiches moos, Germ.; Lichene Islandico, ltal; Liquen Islandico, Span. Cetraria. Class Cryptogamia. Order Lichenes. TVi&eCoenothalami. —Nat. Ord. Algae, Juss., Lichenes, Acharius. Gen.Ch. Plant cartilagino-membranous, ascending or spreading, lobed, smooth, and naked on both sides. Apothecia shield-like, obliquely adnate with the margin, the disk coloured, plano-concave; border inflexed, de- rived from the frond. Loudon's Encyc. The genus Lichen of Linnaeus has been divided by subsequent botan- ists into numerous genera, which have been raised to the dignity of a distinct order, both in the natural and artificial systems of arrangement. The name Cetraria was conferred by Acharius on the genus to which the Iceland moss belongs. Cetraria Islandica. Acharius. Lichenog. Univ. 512.—Lichen Islandicus, Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 803. t. 271. Iceland moss is foliaceous, erect, from two to four inches high, with a dry, coriaceous, smooth, shining, laciniated frond or leaf, the lobes of which are irregularly subdivided, channeled, and fringed at their edges with rigid hairs. Those divisions upon which the fruit is borne, are dilated. The colour is olive-brown or greenish-gray above, reddish at the base, and lighter on the under than the upper surface. The fructification is in flat, shield-like, red- dish-brown receptacles, with elevated entire edges, placed upon the surface of the frond near its border. ^ The plant is found in the northern latitudes of the old and new con- tinents; and on the elevated mountains further south. It received its name from the abundance in which it prevails in Iceland. It is also abundant on the mountains and in the sandy plains of New England. The dried moss is of diversified colour, grayish-white, brown, and red in its different parts, with less of the green tint than in the recent state. It is inodorous, and has a mucilaginous bitter taste. Macerated in water it absorbs rather more than its own weight of the fluid; and if the water be warm, renders it bitter. Boiling water extracts all its soluble principles. The decoction thickens upon cooling, and acquires a gelatinous consistence, resembling that of starch in appearance, but without its viscidity. After some time the dissolved matter separates, and when dried forms semitransparent masses, insoluble in cold, but soluble in boiling water, from which it is precipitated by gallic acid. This principle resembles starch in its general characters, but differs from it in some respects, particularly in not being coloured blue by iodine. John considers it a modification of inulin. The most accurate analysis of Iceland moss is that by Berzelius. By this chemist 100 parts were found to afford 3.6 of syrup, 1.9 of bitartrate of potassa with tar- trate and phosphate of lime, 3. of a peculiar bitter principle, 1.6 of green wax, 3.7 of gum, 7. of colouring extractive matter, 44.6 of the peculiar starch-like principle, and 36.6 of insoluble matter. The bitter PART I. Lichen.—Limon. 387 principle is, when pure, pulverulent, light, yellow, inodorous, intensely bitter, slightly soluble in water, more so in alcohol, and freely soluble in the liquid alkalies. The gum and starch contained in the moss render it sufficiently nutri- tive to serve as food for the inhabitants of Iceland and Lapland, who employ it powdered and made into bread, or boiled with milk, having first partially freed it from the bitter principle by repeated maceration in water. The bitterness may be entirely extracted by macerating the powdered moss, for twenty-four hours, in twenty-four times its weight of a solution formed with 1 part of an alkaline carbonate and 375 parts of water, decanting the liquid at the end of this time, and repeating the process with an equal quantity of the solution. The powder being now dried is perfectly sweet and highly nutritive. This process was sug- gested by Berzelius. Medical Properties and Uses.—Iceland moss is at the same time demul- cent, nutritious, and tonic; and therefore well calculated for affections of the mucous membrane of the lungs and bowels, in which the local disease is associated with a debilitated condition of the digestive or- gans, or of the system generally. Hence it has been found useful in chronic catarrhs, and other pulmonary affections attended with copious and debilitating expectoration, especially when the matter discharged is of a purulent character; as also in dyspepsia, chronic dysentery, and diar- rhoea. It has, moreover, been given in cases of debility succeeding acute disease, or dependent on copious purulent discharge from external ulcers. But the complaint in the treatment of which it has acquired most repu- tation is pulmonary consumption. It had long been employed in this disease, and in haemoptysis, by the Danish physicians, before it became known to the.profession at large. In the latter half of the last century it was introduced into extensive use; and numerous cases of cures sup- posed to have been effected by it are on record. But now that the pa- thology of consumption is understood, physicians have ceased to expect material advantage from it in the genuine tuberculous form of the dis- ease; and there is reason to believe that the cases which have recovered under its use, were nothing more than chronic bronchitis or catarrh, or possibly ulceration dependent on ordinary inflammation of the pulmo- nary tissue. It can act only as a mild, nutritious, demulcent tonic; and certainly exercises no specific influence over tuberculous disease. It is usually employed in the form of decoction. (See Decoctum Li- chenis.) By some writers it is recommended to deprive it of the bitter principle by maceration in water, or a weak alkaline solution, before preparing the decoction; but we thus reduce it to the state of a simple demulcent, or mild article of diet, in which respect it is not superior to the ordinary farinaceous or gummy substances used in medicine. The powder is sometimes given in the dose of thirty grains or a drachm; and a preparation has obtained some repute, in which the ground moss is incorporated with chocolate, and used at the morning and evening meal as an ordinary beverage. Off. Prep. Decoctum Lichenis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. LIMON. U.S. Lemons. " Citrus medica. Fructus. The fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. LIMONES. Citrus medica. Baccae. LIMONUM CORTEX. 388 Limon. PART I. Earum Cortex exterior. Lond.; CITRI MEDICO CORTEX. Cortex exterior Fructus. CITRI MEDICO SUCCUS. Succus Fructus. Ed.; LIMONES. CITRUS MEDICA. Fructus, succus, et tunica exterior. Dub. Limons, Citrons, Fr.; Limonen, Citronen, Germ.; Limoni, Hal; Limones, Span. For some general remarks on the genus Citrus, see the article Auran- tii Cortex. Citrus medica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1426; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 528. t. 189. This tree closely resembles in its general aspect the C. auran- tium before described. The leaves, however, are larger, slightly in- dented at the edges, and stand upon footstalks which are destitute of the winged appendages that characterize the other species. The flowers, moreover, have a purplish tinge on their outer surface; and the fruit is entirely different in appearance from the orange. There are several va- rieties of the Citrus medica, which some botanists consider entitled to the rank of species, but which are scarcely distinguishable, except by the character of their fruit. Those which are particularly deserv- ing of notice are the citron, lemon, and lime. 1. In the citron, C. me- dica of Risso, the fruit is very large, sometimes six inches in length, ovoidal with a double rind, of which the outer layer is yellowish, thin, unequal, rugged, with innumerable vesicles filled with essential oil; the inner is white, very thick, and spongy. It is divided in the interior into nine or ten cells, filled with oblong vesicles which contain an acid juice precisely like that of the lemon, and used for the same purposes. The rind is applied to the preparation of conserves, to which it is adapted by its great thickness. This fruit is called cedrat by the French. 2. The lemon—C. medica, variety limon of Linnaeus—the Citrus limonium of Risso—is smaller than the preceding variety, with a smoother and thinner rind, a pointed nipple-shaped summit, and a very juicy and acid pulp. In other respects it bears a close resemblance to the citron, to which, however, it is usually preferred in consequence of the greater abundance of its juice. 3. The lime is still smaller than the lemon, with a smoother and thinner rind, of an oval shape, rounded at the extremity, of a pale yellow or greenish-yellow colour, and abounding in a very acid juice, which renders it highly useful for all the purposes to which the lemon is applied. It is the product of the variety C. acris of Miller. The Citrus medica, like the orange-tree, is a native of Asia. It was introduced into Europe from Persia or Media, was first cultivated in Greece, afterwards in Italy so early as the second century, and has now spread over the whole civilized world, being raised by artificial heat, where the climate is too cold to admit of its exposure with safety during winter to the open air. We are supplied with lemons and limes chiefly from the West Indies and the Mediterranean. Though the former of these fruits only are directed by the United States Pharmacopoeia, both kinds are employed indiscriminately for most medicinal purposes; and the lime affords a juice at least equal in proportional quantity, and in acidity, to that ob- tained from the lemon. Properties.—The exterior rind of the lemon has a fragrant odour, and a warm, aromatic, bitter taste, somewhat similar to that of the orange, though less agreeable. It yields by expression or distillation, an essen- tial oil which is much used for its flavour, and is recognised as officinal in all the Pharmacopoeias. (See Oleum Limonis.) The British Colleges also adopt the rind itself, and that of Edinburgh directs a distilled wa- part I. Limon. 389 ter to be prepared from it. Lemon-peel yields its virtues to water, wine, and alcohol. But the juice is the part for which this fruit is most esteemed. It is very sharply acid, with a peculiar grateful flavour, and consists chiefly of citric acid, mucilage, and extractive, dissolved in water. As lemons cannot always be obtained, the juice is often kept in a separate state; but from its liability to spontaneous decomposition, it speedily becomes unfit for medical use; and though various means have been resorted to for its preservation, it can never be made to retain for any length of lime its original flavour unaltered. The best medicinal substitute for lemon-juice, when the fresh fruit is not attainable, is a solution of crys- tallized citric acid in water, in the proportion of about an ounce to the pint, with the addition of a little oil of lemons. One of the most effectual methods of preserving the juice is to allow it to stand for a short time after expression till a coagulable matter separates, then to filter, and in- troduce it into glass bottles, with a stratum of almond oil or other sweet oil upon its surface. It may also be preserved by concentrating it, either by means of evaporation with a gentle heat, or by exposure to a freezing temperature, which congeals the watery portion, and leaves the acid much stronger than before. When wanted for use it may be diluted to the former strength; but though the acid properties are retained, the flavour of the juice is found to have been deteriorated. Medical Properties and Uses.—The rind of the lemon is sometimes used to qualify the taste and increase the power of stomachic infusions and tinctures. The juice is refrigerant, and properly diluted forms a refreshing and very agreeable beverage in febrile and inflammatory affections. It may be given with sweetened water in the shape of lemon- ade, or may be added to the mildly nutritive drinks, such as gum-water, barley-water, &c, which are usually administered in fevers. It is also much employed in the formation of those diaphoretic preparations known generally by the names of neutral mixture, and effervescing draught—'the former made by saturating the juice with carbonate of potassa, and given in the dose of half a fluidounce diluted with an equal quantity of water every hour, two, or three hours; the latter consisting of the same ingredients administered in the state of effervescence. No prepa- ration with wThich we are acquainted is equally effectual with the effer- vescing draught, in allaying irritability of stomach and producing dia- phoresis in our remittent fevers. The most convenient mode of exhi- bition, is to add to a fluidounce of a mixture consisting of equal parts of lemon-juice and water, half a fluidounce of a solution of carbonate of potassa, containing fifteen grains of the salt. Should effervescence not occur, as sometimes happens in consequence of the weakness of the lemon-juice, more of this should be added; as, unless sufficient acid is present to neutralize the potassa, part of the carbonate passes into the state of bicarbonate, and the gas is thus prevented from escaping. One of the most beneficial applications of lemon-juice is to the prevention and cure of scurvy, for which it may be considered almost a specific. For this purpose, ships destined for long voyages should always be pro- vided with a supply of the concentrated juice, or of crystallized citric acid with the oil of lemons. Lemon-juice is sometimes prescribed in connexion with opium and Peruvian bark, the effects of which it is thought in some instances to modify favourably, by substituting the citrate of their respective alkalies for the native salts. Off Prep. Of the rind, Aqua Citri Medicae, Ed.:—Of the juice, Syru- pus Limonis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. 390 Linum. PART I. LINUM. U.S. Flaxseed. " Linum usitatissimum. Semina. The seeds." U.S. Off Syn. LINI USITATISSIMI SEMINA. Linum usitatissimum. Semina. Lond.; LINI USITATISSIMI SEMINA. Ed.; LINUM USITATISSIMUM. Semina. Dub. Grains de lin, Fr.; Leinsame, Germ.; Semi di lino, Hal; Linaza, Span. Linum. Class Pentandria. Order Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Caryophyl- leae, Juss.; Lineae, Dec, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five. Capsule five-valved, ten-celled. Seeds solitary. Willd. Linum usitatissimum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1533; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 566. t. 202. Common flax is an annual plant with an erect, slender, round stem, about two feet in height, branching at top, and, like all other parts of the plant, entirely smooth. The leaves are small, lanceo- late, acute, entire, of a pale-green colour, almost erect, sessile, and scattered alternately over the stem and branches. The flowers are ter- minal and of a delicate blue colour. The calyx is persistent, and com- posed of five ovate, sharp-pointed, three-nerved leaflets, which are mem- branous on their border. The petals are five, obovate, striated, minutely scolloped at their extremities, and spread into funnel-shaped blossoms. The filaments are also five, united at the base; and the germ, which is ovate, supports five slender styles, terminating in obtuse stigmas. The fruit is a globular capsule, about the size of a small pea, having the per- sistent calyx at the base, crowned with a sharp spine, and containing ten seeds in distinct cells. This highly valuable plant, now almost everywhere cultivated, is said by some to have been originally derived from Egypt, by others from the great elevated plain of central Asia. It flowers in June and July, and ripens its seeds in August. Both the seeds, and an oil expressed from them, are officinal. The seeds are oval, oblong, flattened on the sides with acute edges, somewhat pointed at one end, about a line in length, smooth, glossy, -of a brown colour externally, and yellowish-white within. They are without smell, and have an oily mucilaginous taste. Their cuticle r abounds in a peculiar gummy matter, which is readily imparted to hot 'water, forming a thick viscid mucilaginous fluid, bearing some re- semblance to the solution of gum arabic, but differing from it in se- veral respects. It ranks among the mucilages of Berzelius. By this che- mist the term mucilage is applied to a proximate vegetable principle, distinguished from gum by being insoluble in cold, and but slightly soluble in boiling water, in which it swells up and forms a mucilagi- nous, viscid body, which loses its water when placed upon filtering paper, or other porous substance, and contracts like starch in the gelatinous state. The name, however, is unfortunate, as it is generally applied to the solution of gum, and must inevitably lead to confusion. The term Bassorin, proposed by Vauquelin, is more appropriate. This principle is found in tragacanth, Bassora gum, cherry gum, quince seeds, and various other vegetable products. The mucilaginous fluid formed by treating it with a large proportion of cold water, is not con- sidered by Berzelius as a proper solution, but as constituting an inter- mediate state between solution and mere swelling up (gonflement); part i. Linum.—Linum Catharticum. 391 for if a small proportion of water be used, a viscid mass is formed, which imparts to blotting paper on which it may be placed, a liquid in no degree mucilaginous. The mucilage of flaxseed lets fall white flakes upon the addition of alcohol, and affords a copious dense precipitate with the acetate and subacetate of lead. Like gum it yields much mucic (saclactic) acid when treated with nitric acid. By destructive distillation it affords considerable ammonia; but it is not decided whether the nitro- gen from which this is formed is an ingredient of the mucilage, or of some other principle associated with it. Vauquelin found in the mu- cilage of flaxseed free acetic acid, silica, and various salts of potassa and lime. The interior or parenchymatous part of the seeds is rich in a peculiar oil, which is separated by expression, and very extensively employed in the arts. (See Oleum Lini.) The ground seeds are kept in the shops under the name ot flaxseed meal. This is of a dark gray colour, highly oleaginous, and when mixed with hot water forms a soft adhesive mass, which is much employed for luting by practical chemists. The cake which remains after the expression of the oil still retains the mucila- ginous matter of the envelope, and affords a highly nutritious food for cattle. Medical Properties and Uses.—Flaxseed is demulcent and emollient. The mucilage obtained by infusing the entire seeds in boiling water, in the proportion of half an ounce to the pint, is much and very advanta- geously employed in catarrh, dysentery, nephritic and calculous com- plaints, strangury and other inflammatory affections of the mucous membrane of the lungs, intestines, and urinary passages. By decoction water extracts also a portion of the oleaginous matter, which renders the mucilage less fit for administration by the mouth, but superior as a laxative enema. The meal mixed with hot water forms an excellent emollient poultice. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Sinapis, Lond. Dub.; Infusum Lini, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Lini, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis pro Cataplas- mate, Dub. LINUM CATHARTICUM. Lond. Purging Flax. Lin cathartique, Fr.; Purgirflachs, Germ.,- Lino purgativo, Hal Linum. See LINUM. Linum catharticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1541; Smith, Flor. Brit. 344. This species of flax is a very small annual plant, having erect, slender stems, dichotomous near the summit, furnished with opposite, obovate lanceolate, entire leaves, and bearing minute white flowers, the petals of which are obovate and acute. It is a native of Europe, and not found within the United States, where it-is never employed as a medicine. The herbaceous part is bitter and somewhat acrid, and imparts its virtues to water, which acquires a yellow colour. It formerly enjoyed some reputation in Europe as a gentle cathartic, but has fallen into dis- use, and might very properly be expunged altogether from the officinal catalogues. 392 Liriodendron. PART I. LIRIODENDRON. U.S. Secondary. Tulip-tree Bark. " Liriodendron tulipifera. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Liriodendron. Class Polyandria. Order Polygynia.— Nat. Ord. Mag- noliae, Juss., Magnoliaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals six. Samarse sublanceolate, one or two-seeded, imbricated in a cone. Nuttall. Liriodendron tulipifera. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1254; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 107; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 92. This noble tree is both from its magnitude and beauty the pride and boast of American landscape. Rising on an erect, straight, cylindrical stem, which is often of nearly equal thickness for the distance of forty feet, it attains, in favourable situations, an elevation seldom less than fifty and sometimes more than one hundred feet, with a diameter of trunk varying from eighteen inches to three feet; and individuals are occasionally met with which greatly exceed these dimensions. The branches, though not very numerous, are thrown out in a somewhat regular order, and give the tree a symmetri- cal aspect. The bark of the stem and branches is smooth in the young trees, but in those of older growth is indented with longitudinal cracks or furrows of a depth proportioned to the age. It is of a brown or gray- ish-brown colour, except in the young branches, on which it is bluish or of a reddish tinge. The leaves, which stand on long footstalks, are alternate, somewhat fleshy, smooth, of a beautiful shining green colour, and divided into three lobes, of which the upper one is truncated and horizontally notched at its summit, so as to present a two-lobed appear- ance, and the two lower are rounded at the base and usually pointed. In the larger leaves, the lateral lobes have each a toothlike projection at some distance below their apex. This peculiar form of the leaf serves to distinguish the tree from all others inhabiting the American forests. On isolated trees the flowers are very numerous. They are large, beau- tifully variegated with different colours, among which the yellow pre- dominates, and in their general appearance bear no inconsiderable re- semblance to the tulip, which has given a name to this species of Lirio- dendron. Each flower stands on a distinct terminal peduncle. The calyx is double, the outer being two-leaved and deciduous, the inner consisting of three large, oval, concave leaves, of a pale green colour. The corolla is composed of six, seven, or more, obtuse, concave petals. The stamens are numerous, with short filaments, and long linear an- thers. The pistils are collected into the form of a cone, the upper part of which Is covered with minute stigmas. The fruit consists of numer- ous long, narrow scales, attached to a common axis, imbricated in a conical form, and containing each two seeds, one or both of which are often abortive. The tulip-tree extends from New England to the borders of Florida, but is most abundant and attains the greatest magnitude in the Middle and Western States. It delights in a rich strong soil, and luxuriates in the exhaustless fertility of the banks of the Ohio and its tributary streams. Throughout the United States it is known by the inappropri- ate name of poplar, for which that of tulip-tree is beginning to be sub- stituted. When in full bloom, about the middle of May, it presents in its profusion of flowers, its rich, shining, luxuriant foliage, its elevated stature, and elegant outline, one of the most magnificent objects which PART I. Liriodendron. —Litmus. 393 the vegetable kingdom affords. The interior or heart wood, which is yellowish, of a fine grain, and compact without being heavy, is much employed in the making of furniture, carriages, door-pannels, and for many other useful purposes. It is recommended by its property of re- sisting the influence of atmospheric moisture, and the attacks of worms. The bark is the officinal portion. It is taken for use indiscriminately from the root, trunk, and branches, though that derived from the root is thought to be most active. It is brought to the druggists in pieces of various sizes, usually five or six inches long by one or two in breadth, partially deprived of epi- dermis, of a yellowish-white colour, very light, and easily broken. The bark of the root is of a somewhat darker colour than that of the stem or branches. It has a feeble, but heavy and rather disagreeable odour, which is stronger in the fresh bark. The taste is bitter, pungent, and aromatic. These properties are weakened by age, and we have found specimens of the bark which have been long kept in the shops, almost insipid. The peculiar properties of liriodendron appear to reside in a volatile principle, which partially escapes during decoction. This prin- ciple has been isolated by Professor Emmet of the University of Vir- ginia, from whom it has received the name of liriodendrin. In the pure state it is solid, white, crystallizable, brittle, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, fusible at 180°, volatilizable and partly decom- posed at 270°, of a slightly aromatic odour, and a bitter warm pungent taste. It appears, like camphor, to hold a place between the resins and essential oils. It is incapable of uniting with alkalies, which precipitate it from the infusion or decoction of the bark, by combining with the matter which renders it soluble in the water. Neither does it unite with acids. Water precipitates it from its alcoholic solution. It is ob- tained by macerating the root in alcohol, boiling the tincture with magnesia till it assumes an olive-green colour, then filtering, concen- trating by distillation till the liquid becomes turbid, and finally pre- cipitating the liriodendrin by the addition of cold water. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. iii. 5.) The virtues of the bark are extracted by water and alcohol, but are injured by long boiling, in consequence probably of the decomposition of the liriodendrin. Medical Properties.—Liriodendron is a stimulant tonic with diapho- retic properties. It has been used as a substitute for Peruvian bark in intermittent fevers, and has proved serviceable in chronic rheumatism, dyspepsia, and other complaints, in which a gently stimulant and tonic impression is desirable. The dose of the bark in powder is from half a drachm to two drachms. The infusion and decoction are also used, but are less efficient. They may be prepared in the proportion of one ounce of the bark to a pint of water, and given in the quantity of one or two fluidounces. The dose of the saturated tincture is a fiuidrachm. LITMUS. Bub. Litmus. " Rocella Tinctoria." Dub. Turnsol, Orchill; Orseille, Fr.,- Lakmus, Germ.; Oricello, Hal.; Orchilla, Span. Various species of lichens afford, when macerated with alkaline liquors, a purple colouring matter much esteemed in dyeing. That most used at present is the cudbear, prepared from the Lichen tartareus, which grows on limestone rocks in the North of Europe. The orchill or 50 394 Litmus. —Lobelia. PART I. litmus is a similar dye-stuff prepared from the Rocella tinctoria of Acha- rius, a lichen which grows on maritime rocks, and is especially abundant in the Canary and Cape Verd Islands. Litmus is prepared by coarsely powdering the lichen and macerating and fermenting it in close wooden vessels, for several weeks, with urine and either potash or soda. The colouring matter is thus evolved, and the prepared mass is taken out, dried, and cut into small squares for use. Litmus as thus prepared, is in friable, violet coloured, finely granular pieces, from a quarter of an inch to an inch in diameter, scattered over with white saline points. It has an alkaline smell, tinges the saliva of a deep blue, and is somewhat pungent and saline to the taste. It is much used as one of the most delicate tests of uncombined acids, which change its blue colour to red; and of alkalies, which restore the original hue. The most convenient mode of preparing litmus for use as a test, is to stain paper with it. For this purpose the watery infusion made with one part of powdered litmus and four of water, is applied by means of a brush to white unsized paper. The sheets when dried must be kept in close vessels in the dark. LOBELIA. U.S. Indian Tobacco. « Lobelia inflata. Herba. The herb." U. S. Lobelia. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Campanu- laceae, Juss.; Lobeliaceae, Juss. Ann. Mus., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla irregular, five-parted, cleft on the upper side nearly to the base. Anthers united into a tube. Stigma two- lobed. Capsule inferior or semi-superior, two or three-celled, two-valved at the apex. Torrey. Lobelia inflata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 946; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 177; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 181. The Indian tobacco is an annual or biennial indigenous plant, usually a foot or more in height, with a fibrous root, and a solitary, erect, angular, very hairy stem, much branched about midway, but rising considerably above the summits of the highest branches. The leaves are scattered, sessile, oval, acute, serrate, and hairy. The flowers are numerous, disposed in leafy terminal racemes, and supported on short axillary footstalks. The segments of the calyx are linear and pointed. The corolla, which is of a delicate blue colour, has a labiate border, with the upper lip divided into two, the lower into three acute segments. The united anthers are curved, and enclose the stigma. The fruit is an oval, striated, inflated capsule, crowned with the persistent calyx, and containing, in two cells, numerous very small, brown seeds. This species of Lobelia is a very common weed, growing on the road- sides, and in neglected fields, throughout the United States. Its flowers begin to appear towards the end of July, and continue to expand in succession till the occurrence of frost. The plant when wounded or broken exudes a milky juice. All parts of it are possessed of medicinal activity; but, according to Dr. Eberle, the root and inflated capsules are most powerful. The plant should be collected in August or Sep- tember, when the capsules are numerous, and should be carefully dried. It may be kept whole, or in the state of powder. Dried lobelia has a slight irritating odour, and when chewed, though part I. Lobelia.—Lupulina, 395 at first without much taste, soon produces a burning acrid impression upon the posterior parts of the tongue and palate, very closely resem- bling that produced by tobacco, and attended, in like manner, with a flow of saliva and a nauseating effect upon the stomach. The powder is of a greenish colour. The plant yields its active properties readily to water and alcohol; and water distilled from it retains its acrid taste. It has not been accurately analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses.—Lobelia is emetic, and like other medi- cines of the same class is occasionally cathartic, and in small doses diaphoretic and expectorant. It is also possessed of narcotic properties. The leaves or capsules, chewed, for a short time, occasion giddiness, headach, general tremors, and ultimately nausea and vomiting. When swallowed in the full dose, the medicine produces speedy and severe vomiting, attended with continued and distressing nausea, copious sweating, and great general relaxation. Its effects in doses too large or too frequently repeated, are extreme prostration, great anxiety and distress, and ultimately death preceded by convulsions. Fatal results have been experienced from its empyrical use. These are more apt to occur when the poison, as sometimes happens, is not rejected by vomit- ing. In its operation upon the system, therefore, as well as in its sen- sible properties, lobelia bears a close resemblance to tobacco. It is among the medicines which were employed by the aborigines of this country; and was long in the hands of empyrics before it was intro- duced into regular practice. The Rev. Dr. Cutler of Massachusetts first attracted to it the attention of the profession. As an emetic it is too powerful, and too distressing as well as ha- zardous in its operation for ordinary use. The disease in which it has proved most useful is spasmodic asthma, the paroxysms of which it often greatly mitigates, and sometimes wholly relieves, even when not given in doses sufficiently large to promote active vomiting. It was from the relief obtained from an attack of this complaint in his own person, that Dr. Cutler was induced to recommend the medicine. It has also been used in catarrh, croup, pertussis, and other pectoral affections, but generally with no better effect than may be obtained from less unplea- sant and safer remedies. Administered by injection it produces the same distressing sickness of stomach, profuse perspiration, and uni- versal relaxation as result from a similar use of tobacco. Dr. Eberle administered a strong decoction of it successfully by the rectum, as a substitute for this narcotic in a case of strangulated hernia. It may be given in substance, tincture, or infusion. The dose of the powder as an emetic is from five to twenty grains, to be repeated if ne- cessary. The tincture is most frequently administered. The full dose of this preparation for an adult is half a fluidounce, though in asthmatic cases it is better administered in the quantity of one or two fluidrachms, repeated every two or three* hours till its effects are experienced. Off. Prep. Tinctura Lobeliae, U. S. LUPULINA. U.S. Lupulin. " Humulus lupulus. Strobilorum pollen. The powder attached to the strobiles." U.S. See HUMULUS. 396 Lycopus.—Lythrum Salicaria. part i. LYCOPUS. U.S. Secondary. Bugle-weed. " Lycopus Virginicus. Herba. The herb." U.S. Lycopus. Class Diandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Labiatas, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx tubular, five-cleft or five-toothed. Corolla tubular, four- lobed, nearly equal; the upper segment broader, and emarginate. Sta- mens distant. Seeds four, naked, retuse. Nuttall. Lycopus Virginicus. Michaux, Flor. Boreal. Americ, i. 14; Rafi- nesque, Med. Flor. vol. ii. The bugle-weed is an indigenous herb, with a perennial creeping root, which sends up an erect, nearly simple, obtusely quadrangular stem, from twelve to eighteen inches high, and furnished with opposite, sessile leaves. These are broad lanceolate, at- tenuated and entire at both extremities, remotely serrate in the middle, somewhat rough, purplish and beset with glandular dots-on their under surface. The flowers are minute, in small axillary whorls, with two small subulate bractes to each flower, and a white corolla. The seeds are longer than the calyx, which is spineless. This plant grows in shady and wet places throughout the greater part of the United States. Its flowering period is August. The whole herb is used. It has a peculiar odour, and a nauseous slightly bitter taste; and imparts these properties, as well as its medical virtues, to boiling water. The L. Europseus is said to be frequently collected and sold for the L. Virginicus. The former may be distinguished by its acutely quad- rangular stem, its narrow-lanceolate leaves of which the lower are somewhat pinnatifid, its more crowded flowers, and the acute segments of its calyx, armed with short spines. Medical Properties a/id Uses.—According to Dr. A. W. Ives, the bugle- weed is a very mild narcotic. It was introduced into notice by Drs. Pen- dleton and Rogers, of New York, who obtained favourable effects from its use in incipient phthisis and hemorrhage from the lungs. (NY. Med. andPhys. Journ. i. 179.) In these complaints it is useful by diminishing the frequency of the pulse, quieting irritation, and allaying cough. It is most conveniently taken in the form of infusion, which may be prepared by macerating an ounce of the herb in a pint of boiling water, and drank ad libitum. LYTHRUM SALICARIA. HERBA. Bub. Loosestrife. Purple Willow-herb. Salicaire, Fr.,- Rother vveiderich, Germ.; Salicaria, ltal. Lythrum. Class Dodecandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Sali- careae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx twelve-toothed. Petals six, inserted into the calyx. Capsule two-celled, many-seeded. Willd. Lythrum Salicaria. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 865. Loosestrife is an ele- gant perennial plant, two or three feet high, with an erect, quadrangu- lar or hexagonal, downy, herbaceous stem, bearing opposite, ternate, sessile, lanceolate leaves, cordate at the base, and downy on the under surface and at the margin. The flowers are axillary, forming a leafy part i. Lythrum Salicaria.—Magnesise Carbonas. 397 verticillate spike. The calyx is red, with unequal segments; the petals purple and undulate; the fruit a small elliptical capsule. The plant grows wild in all parts of Europe, and is found in New England and Canada. It prefers meadows, swamps, and the banks of streams, which it adorns in July and August, with its showy purple flowers. The whole herbaceous part is medicinal, and is dried for use. In this state it is inodorous, and has an herbaceous somewhat as- tringent taste. It renders boiling water very mucilaginous, and its de- coction is blackened by the sulphate of iron. Medical Properties and Uses.—Loosestrife is demulcent and astringent; and may be advantageously given in diarrhoea and chronic dysentery after due preparation by evacuating treatment. It has long been used in Ire- land in these complaints, and is said to be a popular remedy in Sweden. The dose of the powdered herb is about a drachm two or three times a day. A decoction of the root prepared by boiling an ounce in a pint of water may be given in the dose of two fluidounces. MAGNESLE CARBONAS. U.S. Bub. Carbonate of Magnesia. Off. Syn. MAGNESIA SUBCARBONAS. Lond.; CARBONAS MAGNESIA. Ed. Carbonate de rnagnesie, Fr.; Kohlensaure magnesia, Germ.; Carbonato di magnesia, ltal; Carbonato de magnesia, Span. Carbonate of magnesia sometimes though rarely occurs as a native mineral. That which is sold in the shops is prepared on a large scale by the manufacturer, and the article is therefore very properly placed in the list of Materia Medica of the United States Pharmacopceia. The British Colleges still retain it among the preparations, and direct it to be prepared by decomposing the sulphate of magnesia with carbonate of potassa. The Edinburgh and London Colleges use nine parts of the car- bonate to twelve of the sulphate; and the Dublin College, seven parts to twelve. The Edinburgh process is as follows. The salts are separately dissolved in twice their weight of water, the clear solutions mixed, and eight times their weight of boiling water instantly added. The liquor is boiled a short time, with constant agitation, and the precipitated car- bonate well washed and dried. The London College dissolves a pound of the sulphate in five pints of water, and nine ounces of the carbonate in three pints; two gallons of water are then added to the solution of the sulphate, the mixture is boiled, and the solution of the carbonate gradu- ally added during the ebullition, the liquid beingconstantly stirred. The precipitate is repeatedly washed with boiling water, and dried with a heat of 200°. The Dublin College dissolves twenty-four parts of sulphate and fourteen parts of carbonate, each in two hundred parts of water, mixes the solutions, boils, filters, and washes the precipitate well with boiling water. Although carbonate of potassa is thus ordered by all the Colleges, it is not as advantageously used as the carbonate of soda for the prepara- tion of carbonate of magnesia. It is difficult to separate the last por- tions of sulphate of potassa from the precipitate, and the carbonate of potassa usually contains silica, which is thrown down with the magne- sia. The consequence is, that when prepared by the officinal directions, the carbonate of magnesia is liable to be gritty to the touch and to have a saline taste. The following is said to be the method pursued by some 398 Magnesiae Carbonas. PART I. of the best manufacturers. To a saturated solution of one hundred parts of sulphate of magnesia, a solution of one hundred and twenty-five parts of crystallized carbonate of soda is gradually added, the solutions being constantly stirred. The mixture is then heated to ebullition, to complete the precipitation of the magnesia, which is then washed with tepid and finally with cold water, until the washings no longer give a precipitate with the barytic salts. When it is sufficiently washed, the carbonate is allowed to drain for one or two days on large linen filters, and is then placed in wooden moulds with a porous bottom of brick or gypsum, and subjected to pressure in order to give it the square and compact form into which it is usually wrought. The density of carbonate of magnesia is said to depend upon the strength of the solutions from which it is first precipitated, and its fine- ness and softness to the touch, upon the use of carbonate of soda in its preparation. The principal part of the carbonate of magnesia used in this country is made at home. In the New England States it is prepared from the bittern of the salt works, which consists chiefly of sulphate and muriate of magnesia; and it is manufactured on a large scale in Baltimore from the sulphate of magnesia prepared in that city. That which is imported comes chiefly from Scotland; We have spoken of the impurities which carbonate of magnesia prepared by the officinal process is apt to contain. When made from the bittern of the salt works it is contaminated with carbonate of lime, salts of that earth being contained in sea water; and when it is prepared from magnesite, or from magnesiau schist, iron is almost always pre- sent. The only way in which these impurities can be avoided, is to pre- pare pure sulphate of magnesia by repeated crystallization, and to use a pure carbonate of soda. It is also necessary that the water with which the precipitate is washed should'be free from earthy salts, which would be decomposed and contaminate the magnesia. Berzelius takes the following view of the composition of this salt. When a current of carbonic acid is passed through water in which car- bonate of magnesia is suspended, it is converted into a soluble bicar- bonate. This salt cannot be obtained in a solid form; for if the solution is evaporated, one proportional of the acid escapes with the water, and the carbonate crystallizes in small hexagonal prisms with plain summits. These crystals contain one equivalent of acid, one of base, and three of water. Cold water decomposes them, forming a soluble bicarbonate and an insoluble salt, containing less acid. Boiling water also decom- poses them, and reduces them wholly to the state of the subsalt. The precipitate thus formed is the magnesia alba of the shops. It is a com- bination of three equivalents of carbonate of magnesia with one of hy- drate of magnesia. These each contain an equivalent of water, and the composition of the salt may be thus stated;—three equivalents of car- bonate (acid 66, magnesia 60, water 27,) = 153 + one atom of hydrate (magnesia 20, water 9,) = 29 = 182. This theoretic composition is equivalent to 43.96 magnesia, 36.26 carbonic acid, and 19.78 water, which agrees very nearly with the analysis of Berzelius, who fixes it at 44.75 magnesia, 35.77 acid, and 19.48 water. The composition of this salt varies with the mode of preparation. Thus Bucholz by decomposing the sulphate of magnesia with 170 per cent, of carbonate of soda, and using only cold water throughout, ob- tained a very light, spongy, somewhat coherent magnesia, containing 32 acid, 33 base, and 35 water. By using 120 per cent, of the carbonate, part i. Magnesiae Carbonas.—Magnesiae Sulphas. 399 and boiling the water for fifteen minutes, he obtained a heavy granular precipitate containing 35 acid, 42 base, and 23 water. Carbonate of magnesia is inodorous,nearly insipid, perfectly white, very light, smooth to the touch, and nearly insoluble in water, requiring 2493 parts of cold, and 9000 parts of hot water for solution. (Turner's Chemis- try.) It is decomposed by a strong heat, by all the acids, by potassa, soda, lime, baryta, and strontia, by the sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, and mu- riate of alumina, and by acidulous and metallic salts. A solution in carbonic acid water, prepared by passing carbonic acid gas into a reservoir containing the carbonate of magnesia suspended in water, has been introduced into use as a cathartic and antacid; but is in no respect preferable to the undissolved carbonate, while it is more unpleasant to the taste. Medical Properties and Uses.—The carbonate of magnesia is antacid, and by combining with acid in the stomach, becomes gently cathar- tic. When it undergoes no change in the alimentary canal, it pro- duces no purgative, effect. Under these circumstances, it may usually be made to operate by following it with draughts of lemonade. It is useful in all cases which require a laxative antacid; and though apt to produce flatulence in consequence of the extrication of its carbonic acid in the stomach and bowels, and therefore in ordinary cases inferior to the calcined magnesia, it sometimes operates favourably, in conse- quence of this very property, in sick stomach attended with acidity. The carbonate of magnesia is also an excellent antilithic in those cases in which uric acid is secreted in too great abundance. The dose is from half a drachm to two drachms, which may be given suspended in water or milk. In order that it may be accurately diffused through water it should be previously rubbed down with simple syrup or ginger syrup.* Off. Prep. Magnesia, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. MAGNESLE SULPHAS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Sulphate of Magnesia. Off. Syn. SULPHAS MAGNESIA. Ed. Epsom salts ; Sulfate de magnesie, Fr.; Schwefelsaure magnesia, Germ.; Solfato di magnesia, Hal; Sulfato de magnesia, Span. Sulphate of magnesia is one of the constituents of sea-water, and of some saline springs. It also occurs native, either crystallized in long, slender, prismatic, adhering crystals, or as an efflorescence on certain rocks and soils, which contain magnesia and a sulphate or sulphuret. In the United States it is found abundantly in the great caverns, so numerous to the west of the Alleghany mountains. In one of these caves, near Corydon in Indiana, it forms a stratum on the bottom seve- ral inches deep; or appears in masses sometimes weighing ten pounds; or is disseminated in the earth of the cavern, one bushel of which yields from four to twenty-five pounds of this sulphate. It also appears on the walls of the cavern, and if it be removed, acicular crystals again appear in a few weeks. (Cleaveland.) * Dalby's Carminative consists of carbonate of magnesia Qij, oil of peppermint n^ j, oil of nutmeg tnjj, oil of aniseed nyij, tincture of castor TT^xxx, tincture of assafetida Tn^xv, tincture of opium, tti,v, spirit of pennyroyal rn^xv, compound tincture of carda- mom ni,xxx, peppermint water fgij. 400 Magnesiae Sulphas. t part t. The sulphate of magnesia was originally procured by evaporating the waters of some saline springs at Epsom in England. Dr. Grew pre- pared it in this manner in 1675. It was afterwards discovered that the brine remaining after the crystallization of common salt from sea-water, furnished by careful evaporation precisely the same salt; and as this was a much cheaper product it superseded the former. This residual brine or bittern consists of sulphate of magnesia and the muriates of magne- sia and lime. As the sulphate of magnesia crystallizes first, it may with proper care be obtained nearly pure, although most, frequently the salt prepared in this way is deliquescent, from being contaminated with the muriate ©f magnesia. It may be purified from this mixture by washing "the crystals with its own saturated solution. It was from this source that the gre'ater part of the Epsom salt of commerce was long obtained in Europe. The salt works of New England supplied our own markets with an impure and deliquescent sulphate. With the improvements in chemistry, other and better processes have latterly been adopted. In the neighbourhood of Genoa and of Nice, in Italy, sulphate of magnesia is prepared in large quantities frdm'a schistose rock, which contains magnesia and sulphuret of iron. The mineral is roasted and exposed in heaps for some months to the combined action of air and water. It is then lixiviated, the sulphate of iron decomposed by lime-water, and the salt is obtained pure by repeated solution and crystallization. William Henry of Manchester, whose calcined magnesia has become famous throughout the world, took out a patent for a mode of preparing magnesia and its salts from the double carbonate of magnesia and lime— the dolomite of mineralogists. His process was to drive off the carbonic acid by heat, and to convert the remaining earths into hydrates. He treated these with a sufficient quantity of muriatic acid to dissolve out the lime, and then converted the. magnesia into sulphate either by sul- phuric acid or sulphate of iron. Within a few years this salt has been extensively manufactured at Baltimore, from the siliceous hydrate of magnesia, or.magnesite. This mineral occurs in veins in the serpentine and other magnesian rocks ■which abound in the neighbourhood of that city, and in the southern 'counties of Pennsylvania. The advantage which it possesses over the dolomite, in the preparation of this salt, is the almost entire absence of lime, owing to which circumstance there is little or no waste of acid, and .the operation is much simplified. The mineral is reduced tb a fine powder, and saturated with sulphuric acid. The mass is then dried and calcined at a red heat, in order to convert the sulphate of iron which may be present into red oxide. It is then dissolved in water, and sulphu- . ret of lime added to separate'any remaining portion of iron. The salt is crystallized and dissolved a third time, in order to purify it. The sulphate prepared at the Baltimore works by this process is generally very pure and clean, although it sometimes contains sulphate of iron. Sulphate of magnesia is^a colourless transparent salt, without smell, and of a bitter, nauseous, saline taste.' It crystallizes in quadrangular prisms, terminating in a four-sided pyramid or in a dihedral summit. It usually occurs in small acicular crystals. It slowly effloresces in the air. At 32° of Fahrenheit, 100 parts of water dissolve 25.76 parts of the anhydrous salt, and for every increased degree of heat .8597 parts addi- tional are taken up. The crystals contain 51.22 per cent, of water of crystallization, and dissolve in their own weight of water at 60°, and in " three-fourths of their Weight of boiling water; they melt in their wa- ter of crystallization, and at a high temperature fuse into an enamel. part i. Magnesiae Sulphas.—Magnolia. 401 (Berzelius.) This salt consists of one equivalent of acid = 40, one of base = 20, and.seven of water = 63; and its combining number is 123. Sulphate of magnesia is completely decomposed by potassa, soda, and their carbonates; by lime, baryta, and'strontia, and their soluble salt6. Ammonia partially decomposes it, and forms with the remaining salt a triple.sulphate. The bicarbonates of potassa and sqda do not de- compose the sulphate of magnesia, except by the aid of heat. Sulphate of magnesia is liable to contain iron and muriate of mag- nesia, the former of which may be detected by ferrocyanate of potassa, and the latter by its occasioning the salt to deliquesce. Sulphate of soda, made to crystallize in "small needle-shaped crystals by constant stirring while it is cooling, was formerly substituted for this salt; but the fraud is no longer profitable, on account of the cheapness of the mag- nesian sulphate. The Baltimore works supply the whole United States with sulphate of magnesia, and furnish it at the low price of three and a half or four cents a pound. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sulphate of magnesia is a mild and safe cathartic, operating with little pain or nausea, and producing wa- tery stools. It is more'acceptable to the stomach than most medicines of its class, and will often be retained when other,s are rejected. Like many of the other neutral salts it is refrigerant, and may be made to act as a diuretic, by keeping the skin cool and walking about after it has been taken.. It is well' adapted to the treatment of fevers and inflammatory affections, especially after a previous thorough evacu- ation of the bowels by a more energetic cathartic. It is also useful in colic and obstinate constipation, and may be employed in most cases which require the use of a cathartic, without being attended with debility .or relaxation of the stomach and bowels. The medium dose is an ounce; but advantage often results from its administration in divided doses frequently repeated. It is frequently given in combination with other Medicines, especially with senna, the griping effect of which it tends to obviate. The pleasantest form of administering the salt, and that in which it usually agrees best with the stomach, is a solution in carbonic acid water with lemon syrup. Off. Prep. Enema Catharticum, Dub.; Magnesiae Carbonas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Magnesias Sulphas Purum, Dub.; Pulvis Salinus Compositus, Ed., Dub. . • V ' MAGNOLIA. U.S. Secondary. Magnolia. u Magnolia glauca, Magnolia acuminata, et Magnolia tripetala. Cor- tex. The bark." U.S. Magnolia. Class Polyandria. Orjder Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Magnoliae, Juss.; Magnoliaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved-. Petals six or more, Capsules two-valv- ed, one-seeded, imbricated in a cone. Seeds berried, pendulous. Bige- low. The medicinal properties which have rendered the bark of the Magno- lia officinal, are common to most, if not all of the species composing this splendid genus. Among the numerous trees which adorn the American landscape, these are most conspicuous for the beautiful richness of their foliage, and the magnificence as well as delicious odour of their flowers; and the M. grandiflora of the Southern States rivals in magnitude the 402 Magnolia. PART I. largest inhabitants of our forests. The Pharmacopceia designates the M. glauca, M. acuminata, and M. tripetala, each of which we shall briefly describe. 1. Magnolia glauca. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1256; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 67; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 77; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 8. This species of Magnolia, which in the Northern States is often nothing more than a shrub, sometimes attains in the South the height of forty feet. The leaves are scattered, petiolate, oval, obtuse, entire, glabrous, thick, opaque, yellowish-green on their upper surface, and of a beautiful pale glaucous colour beneath. The flowers are large, terminal, solitary, cream-coloured^ strongly and gratefully odorous, often scenting the air to a considerable distance. The calyx is composed of three leaves; the petals, from eight to fourteen in number, are obovate, obtuse, concave, and contracted at the base; the stamens are very numerous, and insert- ed on a conical receptacle; the germs ape collected into a cone, each surmounted by a linear recurved style. The fruit is conical, about an inch in length, consisting of numerous imbricated cells, each containing a single scarlet seed. This escapes through a longitudinal opening in the cell, but remains for some time suspended from the cone by a slen- der thread to which it is attached. The M. glauca extends along the seaboard of the United States, from Cape Ann in Massachusetts to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. It is abundant in the Middle and Southern States, usually growing in swamps and morasses; and is seldom met with in the interior of the country west of the mountains. It begins to flower in May, June, or July, ac- cording to the latitude. It is known by the name of magnolia simply in the Northern and Middle States; by that of white bay or sweet bay in the South; and is occasionally called swamp sassafras, beaver tree, &c. 2. M. acuminata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1257; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 12. This species is much larger than the preceding, often growing to the height of seventy or eighty feet. The leaves are six or seven inches long, by three or four in breadth, oval, acuminate, and pubes- cent on their under surface. The flowers are five or six inches in dia- meter, bluish or cream-coloured, slightly odorous, with obovate rather obtuse petals from six to nine in number. Mingled with the splendid foliage, they give a magnificent aspect to the tree when large and in full bloom. The tree grows in the mountainous regions in the interior of the United States, extending along the Alleghanies from the state of New York to their termination in Georgia, and seldom existing in the low country far either to the east or the west of this range. Wherever it is found, it is called cucumber tree, from the resemblance of its fruit in shape and size to this product of the gardens. 3. M. tripetala. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1258; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 18. This is a small tree, sometimes though rarely reaching an ele- vation of thirty feet, and almost always having an inclined trunk. It is remarkable for the size of its leaves and flowers. The former are eighteen or twenty inches long, by seven or eight in breadth, thin, obo- vate, somewhat wedge-shaped, entire, acute at both extremities, pu- bescent when young, and often disposed in rays at the extremity of the shoots, displaying a surface thirty inches in diameter. Hence has arisen the name of umbrella tree, by which this species is distinguished. The flowers are terminal, seven or eight inches in diameter, white, with from five to twelve oval acute petals, of which the three outer are re- flexed. This species extends from tfye northern parts of New York to the southern limits of the United States. It is found only in situations PART I. Magnolia. —Malva. 403 which are shady, with a strong, deep, and fertile soil. It is common in some of the islands of the Susquehanna, and still more so in the South- ern and South Western States. Michaux. The bark and fruit of all the species of Magnolia are possessed of similar medicinal properties; but the bark only is officinal; and that of the root is thought to be most efficient. It has an aromatic odour, and a bitter, pungent, spicy taste. The aromatic property, which resides in a volatile principle, is diminished by desiccation, and entirely lost when the bark is long kept. The bitterness, however, remains. The bark is destitute of astringency. Medical Properties and Uses.— Magnolia is a gently stimulant aromatic tonic and diaphoretic, useful in chronic rheumatism, and capable, if freely given, of arresting the paroxysms of intermittent fever. It has been used advantageously in these complaints, and in remittents, espe- cially of a typhoid character. The dose of the recently dried bark in powder is from half a drachm to a drachm, frequently repeated. The infusion may also be used, but is less efficient. Diluted alcohol extracts all the virtues of the medicine; and a tincture made by macerating the fresh bark or cones in brandy, is a popurar remedy in chronic rheu- matism. MALVA. Lond. Mallows. « Malva Sylvestris." Lond. Off. Syn. MALV^L SYLVESTRIS HERBA. MALVM SYLVES- TRIS FLORES. Ed. Mauve sauvage, Fr.; Waldmalve, Germ.; Malva, ltal, Span. Malva. Class Monadelphia. Order Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Malvaceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx double, the exterior three-leaved. Capsules very many, one-seeded. Willd. Malva sylvestris. Willd. Sp: Plant, iii. 787; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 554. t. 197. This is a perennial, herbaceous plant, with a round, hairy, branching, usually erect stem, from one to three feet high, bearing alternate, petiolate, cordate, roughish leaves, which are divided into five or seven crenate lobes, and on the upper part of the stem are almost palmate. The flowers are large, purplish, and placed from three to five together at the axils of the leaves, upon long slender peduncles, which as well as the petioles are pubescent. The petals are five in number, inversely cordate, and three times longer than the calyx. The capsules are disposed compactly in a circular form. This species of mallow is a native of Europe, where it grows abun- dantly on waste grounds and by the way-sides, flowering from May to August. It is sometimes cultivated in our gardens. Other species, in- digenous or naturalized in this country, are possessed of the same prop- erties, which are in fact common to the whole genus. The herb and flowers, which are the parts employed, have a weak, herbaceous, slimy taste, without any odour. They abound in mucilage, which they readily impart to water; and the solution is precipitated by acetate of lead. The infusion and tincture of the flowers are blue, and serve as an excellent test of acids and alkalies, being reddened by the former, and rendered green by the latter. Medical Properties and Uses.— Mallows are emollient and demulcent. 404 Malva.—Manganesii Oxydum. part i. The infusion and decoction are sometimes employed in catarrhal, dysen- teric, and nephritic complaints; and are applicable to all other cases which call for the use of mucilaginous liquids. They are also used as an emollient injection; and the fresh plant forms a good suppurative or re- laxing cataplasm in external inflammation. Mallows were formerly among the culinary herbs. MANGANESII OXYDUM. Dub. Oxide of Manganese. Manganese, Black oxide of manganese; Oxide noir de manganese, Fr.; Braunstein, Germ.; Manganese, ltal, Span. Of the Parmacopoeias noticed in this work, black oxide of manganese is officinal only in that of the Dublin College. It is the peroxide of a peculiar metal properly called manganese; though this name is com- monly applied to the oxide under consideration. Metallic manganese was discovered by Scheele and Gahn in 1774, and is obtained from the na- tive black oxide by intense ignition with charcoal. It is hard, brittle, granular, of a grayish-white colour, and emits a disagreeable odour in a moist atmosphere. It oxidizes readily by the action of the air, first tarnishing, then assuming a yellowish or violet colour, and finally becom- ing converted into a black powder. Its sp. gr. is 8, melting point 160° of Wedgwood, and equivalent number 28. With oxygen it forms five combinations, three oxides and two acids. The protoxide is of a light green colour, and is the oxide present in the salts of manganese. The deutoxide is black or dark brown, and the peroxide black. The two acids are formed by the action of potassa on the peroxide, and are called manganeseous and manganesic acid. Assuming one equiv. of manganese in all these combinations, the protoxide is found to contain one, the deu- toxide one and a half, the peroxide two, manganeseous acid three, and manganesic acid seven equivalents of oxygen. (Berzelius.) Besides these, there is a double oxide, of a brownish-red colour, called the red oxide, consisting of one equiv. of protoxide and two equiv. of deutoxide, and which is invariably formed when any one of the other oxides of manganese is exposed to a white heat. Metallic manganese is an occa- sional constituent of organic matter. It was detected in minute quan- tity in bones by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, and is often present in the ashes of plants. In the mineral kingdom, it occurs sometimes as a sul- phuret, rarely as a phosphate, but very abundantly as the black or per- oxide. It is this latter mineral which constitutes the officinal bxide of the Dublin College. Properties.—Peroxide of manganese, as it occurs in nature, is very variable in its appearance. Sometimes it is found crystallized in bril- liant needles; often in compact masses having the metallic lustre, but far more frequently in the form of a dull earthy looking substance of a black or brown colour. When crystallized it is the purest. As it occurs in commerce it is usually in the form of powder, of a black colour, in- soluble in water, and containing as impurities more or less oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, and argillaceous matter. When exposed to a red heat it yields a considerable quantity of oxygen, and is reduced to the state of deutoxide. It is distinguished from the sulphuret of anti- mony by its infusibility, and by the addition of muriatic acid causing the disengagement of chlorine. When of a brown colour, it is not of good quality. Its composition has been given above. part i. Manganesii Oxydum.—Manna. 405 But few mines of peroxide of manganese exist, though the metal itself is very generally diffused throughout the mineral kingdom. It occurs most abundantly in Bohemia, Saxony, the Hartz, France, and Great Britain. In England the most abundant mine is that of Upton Pine, near Exeter, which furnishes the best oxide of manganese found in Great Britain. In the United States no mines have been opened, ex- cept in Vermont, from which state an inferior brown ferruginous man- ganese is supplied through Boston. Besides this source of supply, the mineral is received from Nova Scotia, France, Germany, and England, and occasionally Scotland. It comes packed in casks or barrels, gener- ally in lumps and coarse powder, just as it is dug out of the mines, though occasionally it is received from England ready pulverised. It is a good general rule to buy it unpowdered, as its quality can be better judged of in that state. A dark shining crystalline appearance may be taken as an indication of good quality. The Nova Scotia manganese is better than the Vermont; but that received from Germany and England' is the best, and commands the highest price in the market. The Scotch manganese, which has only been latterly received in this country, is of good quality. C/ses.—-Peroxide of manganese is used in the arts for obtaining chlo- rine for the purposes of bleaching, to give a black glazing to pottery, and for the purpose of freeing glass from the colour which it derives from the peroxide of iron. According to Berzelius, a few pounds of it added to each cask of water intended for sea-voyages, will preserve it sweet. In the laboratory, it is employed to obtain oxygen and chlorine, and to form the salts of manganese. The only use made of it by the Dublin College is to procure the aqueous solution of chlorine. (See Aqua Chlorinii.) MANNA. U.S. Lond. Ed. Bub. Manna. " Fraxinus ornus. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Manne, Fr.; Manna, Germ., Hal; Mana, Span. Manna is not the product of one plant exclusively. Besides the Fraxi- nus ornus indicated by the Pharmacopoeias, it is afforded by several other species of the same genus, among which the F. rotundifolia, F. excelsior, and F. parviflora are particularly mentioned. Burkhardt states that a species of manna which exudes from the tamarisk of the North of Africa is used by the Bedouin Arabs of the neighbourhood of Mount. Sanai with their food. The manna used in India is said to be the pro- duct of the Hedysarum Alhagi of Linn., the Alhagi Maurorum of De Can- dolle, a thorny shrub, which grows abundantly in the deserts of Persia and Arabia. It is, however, much inferior to that obtained from the different species of ash. We are told by Dr. Richardson, that a sub- stance exactly resembling manna, is procured by exudation from a spe- cies of Eucalyptus growing in New South Wales. Fraxinus. Class Polygamia. Order Dioecia.—Nat. Ord. Jasmineae, Juss.; Oleaceae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Calyx none, or four-parted. Corolla none, orfour-petaled. Stamens two. Pistil one. Samarra one-seeded, terminated by a lanceolate wing. Female. Calyx none, or four-parted. Corolla none, or four-petaled. ^Pistil one. Samarra one-seeded, terminated by a lan- ceolate wing. Willd. 406 Manna. PART I. Fraxinus ornus. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1104; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 589. t. 209. The flowering ash is a tree of moderate height, usually from twenty to twenty-five feet, very branching, with opposite, petiolate, pinnate leaves, composed of three or four pairs of leaflets, and an odd one at the extremity. The leaflets are oval, acuminate, obtusely serrate, about an inch and a half in length, smooth, of a bright green colour, and stand on short footstalks. The flowers are white, and usually expand at the same time with the leaves. They grow in close panicles at the extremity of the young branches, and have a very short calyx with four teeth, and a corolla composed of four linear lanceolate petals. F. rotundifolia. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1105. This species attains about the same height with the preceding. The leaves have from nine to eleven leaflets, which are ovate, dentate, unequal, petiolate, and smooth on both sides. The flowers are small, furnished with a calyx and corolla, of a deep purple or blackish colour, and arranged in clusters. Both species are natives of Sicily, Calabria, and Apulia; and both contribute to supply the manna of commerce. During the hot months the juice exudes spontaneously from the bark, and concretes upon its surface; but as the exudation is slow, it is customary to facilitate the process by making deep longitudinal incisions on one side of the trunk. In the following season these are repeated on the other side, and thus alternately for thirty or forty years, during which the trees are said to yield manna. Straws or clean chips are frequently placed so as to receive the juice, which concretes upon them. The manna varies much in its cha- racter according to the mode of collection and nature of the season, and the period of the year in which the exudation takes place. That pro- cured in Sicily is said to be the best. Three varieties are distinguisha- ble in commerce. 1. The purest is that usually known by the name of flake manna. It exudes spontaneously or by incisions during the hottest and dryest weather in the months of July and August. It is in irregular, unequal pieces, somewhat similar in appearance to stalactites, rough, light, po- rous, brittle, of a whitish or yellowish-white colour, and frequently con- cave on the surface by which they were attached to the trunk, and which is often soiled by impurities, sometimes by adherent fragments of the bark. When broken these pieces present a crystalline or granular structure. 2. Common manna—manne en sorte of French Pharmacy—is next in quality, and is collected in September and the beginning of October, when the heat of the weather has begun to moderate. The juice does not now concrete so readily, and a portion, falling on the ground at the root of the tree, becomes more or less mixed with impurities, and forms imperfectly solid masses, which require to be further dried in the sun. The common manna consists of whitish or yellowish fragments similar to the pieces of flake manna, but much smaller, mixed with a soft, sticky, uncrystallized, brownish mass, identical with that which con- stitutes the following variety. 3. Fat manna is collected in the latter part of October and November, when the weather is cooler and rains more common. The juice is now still less disposed to concrete, and flowing down the trunk is received in a small excavation at its base. As found in commerce it is in the form of a soft, viscous mass, containing few crystalline fragments, of a brown or yellowish-brown colour, and full of impurities. Manna may be found in the shops of every grade, from the most im- pure of the third variety to the purest of the first. ^A PART I. Manna. —Maranta. 407 Attempts have sometimes been made to counterfeit it; but the facility of detection renders frauds of this kind unprofitable, and they are not often practised. Properties.—Manna has a slight, peculiar odour, and a sweet taste, which in the impure kinds is also very nauseous, but in the finest flake manna, scarcely so much so as to be disagreeable. It melts with heat, and takes fire, burning with a blue flame. When pure it is soluble in three parts of cold, and in its own weight of boiling water. From a boiling saturated aqueous solution, it separates in partially crystalline masses. Alcohol also dissolves it, and if saturated by means of heat, deposites upon cooling a large proportion of the manna in a beautifully crystalline form. Analyzed by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, manna was found to consist of, 1. a peculiar crystallizable saccharine principle, called mannite, which constitutes seventy-five per cent; 2. true sugar; 3. a yellow nauseous matter, upon which the purgative property chiefly depends; and 4. a small quantity of mucilage. It is owing to the pre- sence of true sugar that manna is capable of fermenting. Mannite is white, inodorous, crystallizable in semi-transparent needles, of a sweet- ish taste, soluble in five parts of cold water, scarcely soluble in cold alcohol, but readily dissolved by that liquid when hot, and precipitated when it cools. Unlike sugar, it is incapable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. It may be obtained by boiling manna in alcohol, allowing the solution to cool, and redissolving the crystalline precipitate. It is the pure mannite which is now thrown down. This principle has been found in numerous vegetables. It is said to act as a very gentle laxative. Manna, when long kept, acquires a deeper colour, softens, and fer- ments. That which is dryest resists this change the longest. We are told that when recently gathered it is less purgative than it afterwards becomes. Medical Properties and Uses.—Manna is a gentle laxative, usually operating pleasantly, but in some cases, producing flatulence and pain. Though peculiarly adapted to children and pregnant women, it may be given with advantage in ordinary cases of piles from constipation, un- attended with dyspeptic symptoms. It is usually, however, prescribed with other purgatives, particularly senna, rhubarb, magnesia, and the neutral salts, the taste of which it conceals, while it adds; to the purga- tive effect. The dose for an adult is from one to two ounces, for children, from one to four drachms. It is usually given dissolved in water or some aromatic infusion; but the best flake manna may be conveniently ad- ministered in substance. Off. Prep. Confectio Cassiae, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Enema Catharticum, Dub.; Syrupus Sennae, Lond. MARANTA. U.S. Arrow-root. "Maranta arundinacea. Radicis faecula. The fecula of the root." U.S. Arrow-root, Fr.,- Amerikanisches starkmehl, Arrowmehl, Germ. Maranta. Class Monandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scitami- neae, Linn.; Caunae, Juss.; Marantaceae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Jinther attached to the petal-like filament. Style petal-shap- ed. Stigma three-sided. Flowers panicled. Loudon's Encyc. Maranta arundinacea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 13; Loudon's Encyc. of 408 Maranta. PART I. Plants, p. 2. The root of this plant is perennial, tuberous, fleshy, hori- zontal, nearly cylindrical, scaly, from six inches to a foot or more in length, and furnished with numerous long, white fibres. The stems, of which several rise from the same root, are annual, slender, branched, jointed, leafy, and about three feet in height. The leaves are ovate lan- ceolate, about four inches long, alternate, and supported solitarily at the joints of the stem upon long, sheathing footstalks. The flowers are in long, loose, spreading, terminal panicles, at each ramification of which is a solitary linear bracte. The calyx consists of three small lan- ceolate leaves. The corolla is white and monopetalous, with a tube longer than the calyx, and a double border, of which the three outer- most segments are smallest, and the two inner obovate, and slightly emarginate. The arrow-root plant is a native of South America and of the West Indies, where it is largely cultivated. It grows also in Florida, and has been cultivated in our Southern States, but not very extensively, as we still derive our supplies of its product from abroad. The plant is easily propagated by cuttings of the root. In the West Indies, the fecula so well known by the name of arrow-root, is prepared in the following manner. The roots are dug up when a year old, washed, and then beat into a pulp, which is thrown into water, and agitated so as to separate the amylaceous from the fibrous portion. The fibres are removed by the hand, and the starch remains suspended in the water, to which it gives a milky colour. This milky fluid is strained through coarse linen, and allowed to stand that the fecula may subside, which is then washed with a fresh portion of water, and afterwards dried in the sun. We ob- tain arrow-root chiefly from the West Indies, and the ports of Brazil. It is probable that other plants contribute to furnish the arrow-root of commerce. Lindley states that it is procured in the West Indies from the Maranta Allouya and M. nobilis, besides the M. arundinacea. Under the name of M. lndica, Tussac describes a distinct species, which he says was originally brought from the East Indies, and is now cultivated in Jamaica. This species, however, is not admitted by any of the Bri- tish botanists whom we have consulted. Very fine arrow-root is obtain- ed in the East Indies from the root of the Curcuma angustifolia of Rox- burgh, which is abundantly cultivated in Travancore. Parcels have occasionally reached this country; but from the length of the voyage are apt to be more or less musty. The East India arrow-root is lighter than ours, and does not so quickly make a jelly. Ainslie informs us that the M. arundinacea has lately been introduced from the West Indies into Ceylon, where good arrow-root is prepared from it. A fecula closely resembling that of the Maranta, is said by Guibourt to be pre- pared in the West Indies from the root of the cassava plant, Jatropha Manihot; and it is not improbable that a portion of the arrow-root brought to the United States has a similar origin. In fact, that imported from South America often contains small lumps, as large as a pin's head, identical with tapioca, which is a product of the /. Manihot. Arrow- root has recently been advertised as coming from the Sandwich Islands. Arrow-root is in the form of a light white powder, or of small pulve- rulent masses, without smell or taste. It is a pure starch, identical in chemical properties with that of wheat and the potato. It is very apt to be musty, and should then be rejected. It is said to be sometimes adulterated with common starch, and with that of the potato. There is no certain mode of detecting these, unless the microscope may afford the means. (See Amylum.) The odour and taste are the best criteria PART I. Maranta—Marrubium. 409 of its purity. It should be perfectly free from smell, and from unplea- sant flavour. Attempts have been made to substitute finely prepared potato starch for arrow-root; and there is no doubt that, medically considered, it is quite equal; but patients complain of an unpleasant taste of the potato which it is apt to retain. Medical Properties and Uses.—Arrow-root is nutritious and demul- cent, affording a light, very mild, and easily digested article of diet, well adapted for the sick and convalescent, and peculiarly suited, from its demulcent properties, to bowel complaints and diseases of the uri- nary passages. It is much used as food for infants after weaning, or when the mother's milk is insufficient. It is prepared by dissolving it in hot water, with which it forms a pearly gelatinous solution, and, if in sufficient quantity, a jelly-like mass on cooling. A tablespoonful will communicate sufficient consistence to a pint of water. It should first be formed into a paste with a small quantity of cold water, and the boiling water then gradually added with brisk agitation. The pre- paration may be rendered more palatable by the addition of lemon-juice and sugar, or in low forms of disease by that of wine and spices, if the latter are not contraindicated. For children the arrow-root is usually prepared with milk. MARRUBIUM. U.S. Secondary. Horehound. "Marrubium vulgare. Herba. The herb." U.S. Off. Syn. MARRUBIUM. Marrubium vulgare. Lond.; MARRUBII VULGARIS HERBA. Ed.; MARRUBIUM VULGARE. Dub. Marrube blanc, Fr.; Weisser andorn, Germ.; Marrubio, Hal, Span. Marrubium. Class Didynamia. Order Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Labiatae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx salver-shaped, rigid, ten-streaked. Corolla with the upper lip bifid, linear, and straight. Marrubium vidgare. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. Ill; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 332. t. 118. The white horehound has a perennial fibrous root, and nu- merous annual stems, which are quadrangular, erect, very downy, and from twelve to eighteen inches high. The leaves are roundish ovate, dentate or deeply serrate, wrinkled, veined, hoary on the under surface, and supported in pairs upon strong footstalks. The flowers are white, and disposed in crowded axillary whorls. The calyx is tubular, and di- vided at the margin into ten narrow segments which are hooked at the end. The corolla is also tubular, with a labiate margin, of which the upper lip is bifid, the under reflected and three-cleft, with the middle segment broad and slightly scolloped. The seeds are four, and lie in the bottom of the calyx. This plant is a native of Europe, but has been naturalized in this country, where it grows on the roadsides, and flowers in July and August. It is also cultivated in our gardens. The herb has a strong rather agreeable odour, which is diminished by drying, and is lost by keeping. Its taste is bitter and durable. The bitterness is extracted by water and alcohol. Medical Properties and Uses.—Horehound is tonic, in large doses laxative, and may be so given as to increase the secretion from the skin, and occasionally from the kidneys. It was formerly considered a valu- 52 410 Marrubium.—Mastiche. fart i. able deobstruent, and recommended in chronic hepatitis, jaundice, menstrual obstructions, phthisis, and various cachectic affections. By its gently tonic powers it may undoubtedly have proved advantage- • t ous in some of these complaints; but it exerts no specific influence over any; and has now passed almost entirely from the hands of physi- cians into domestic use. It is employed chiefly in catarrh, and other chronic affections of the lungs attended with cough and copious expec- toration. The infusion made in the proportion of an ounce of the herb to the pint of boiling water, may be give in wineglassful doses. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. The medicine is also much used in the shape of syrup and candy. MASTICHE. Lond. Mastich. "Pistacia Lentiscus. Resina." Lond.0 Off. Syn. PISTACIiE LENTISCI RESINA. Ed.; MASTICHE. PISTACIA LENTISCUS. Resina. Dub. Mastic, Fr.; Mastix, Germ.; Mastice, Hal; Almastiga, Span.; Sakes, Turk.; Arab, Arab. Pistacia. Class Dicecia. Order Pentandria.—-Nat. Ord. Terebintaceae, Juss.; Anacardiaceae, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Male. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla none. Female. Calyx three- cleft. Corolla none. Styles three. Drupe one-seeded. Willd. Pistacia Lentiscus. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 753; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 26. t. 11. Tbelentisk is a shrub or small tree, seldom rising more than twelve feet in height, much branched towards the top, and furnished with petiolate, abruptly pinnate leaves. The leaflets are from eight to twelve in number, usually alternate, with the exception of the two upper which are opposite. They are ovate lanceolate, entire, obtuse, often mucronate, and sessile upon the common footstalk, which is winged, or furnished with a narrow foliaceous expansion on each side. The flowers are dioecious, and very small. The male are in an axillary ament; the female are arranged alternately upon a common peduncle, which is also axillary. This tree is a native of the countries which border upon the Mediter- ranean ; but does not yield mastich in all places. The island of Scio in the Grecian Archipelago is the place whence the drug is chiefly obtained. Incisions are made in the trunk and principal branches, from which the juice slowly exudes, and either hardens in tears upon the bark, or drops on the ground, where it is sometimes received upon cloths spread for the purpose, sometimes upon the bare earth, and concretes in irregular masses. The tears are most highly valued. They are of various sizes, oval or roundish, often compressed, smooth, semi-transparent, of a pale yellow colour, of a shining fracture, friable, and usually covered with a whitish powder, occasioned by their fric- tion against each other. The masses are composed of yellowish tears agglutinated together, with others of a darker colour and less translu- cent, and often fragments of wood, bark, or earthy matter intermingled. Mastich is nearly inodorous, unless rubbed or heated, when it becomes fragrant. Its taste is weak but agreeably terebinthinate, and after long chewing, very slightly acrid. It is at first friable under the teeth, but soon becomes soft and ductile, and acquires a white opaque appearance. It is fusible and inflammable by heat. Alcohol dissolves about four- part r. Mastiche.^-Mel. 411 fifths of it, leaving a substance which bears some analogy to caoutchouc, but becomes brittle when dried; and for which the name of maslicin has been proposed. This substance, though not dissolved by alcohol, softens and swells up in it, as gluten does in water. Mastich is wholly soluble in ether and in oil of turpentine, scarcely soluble in the fixed oils, and insoluble in water. It consists chiefly of resin, with masticin, arid a mi- nute proportion of volatile oil, which can scarcely be said to have been obtained in a separate state, though it imparts flavour to alcohol and water distilled from the mastich, especially when this has been pre- viously triturated with* an equal weight of carbonate of potassa. Medical Properties and Uses.—Mastich was formerly thought t» pos- sess properties analogous to those of the turpentines; and was used in debility of the stomach, haemoptysis from ulceration, leucorrhoea, chro- • nic diarrhoea, &c.; but its virtues were overrated; and it is at present scarcely ever given internally. It is sometimes employed to fill the cavi- ties of carious teeth, for which purpose it is well fitted by its softness. Great quantities of it are consumed in Turkey, where it is habitually chewed by the women, under the impression that it sweetens the breath and preserves the gums and teeth. Dissolved in alcohol or oil of tur- pentine, it serves for the formation of a brilliant varnish. MEL. U.S., Lond., Ed., Bub. Honey. Miel, Fr.; Honig, Germ.; Miele, ltal; Mid, Span. Naturalists have not yet determined whether honey is-a secretion of the bee, Apis mellifica, or whether it exists already formed in plants. It is certain that the nectaries of flowers contain a saccharine matter, which is extracted by the insect; and the fact is well known that the flavour and character of honey are very much affected by the nature of the plants which predominate in the vicinity of the hive; so much so, that when these plants are poisonous, the fluid sometimes partakes of their noxious qualities. Still, it prooably undergoes some change in the organs of the bee; as the saccharine matter of the nectaries, so far as it has been possible to examine it, wants some of the characteristic pro-. perties of honey. The finesjt honey is that which is allowed to drain from the comb. If obtained from hives which have never swarmed, it is called virgin ho- ney. .An inferior kind is procured by exposing the comb to pressure, and if heat be employed previously to expression, the product is still more impure. Much honey is collected in different parts of the United States; but that with which the shops of cities on the seaboard are supplied, is de- rived chiefly from Cuba. In the recent state honey is fluid; but on being kept, it forms a crys- talline deposite, and is ultimately converted into a soft granular mass. In the shops it is found of every consistence, from that of a viscid liquid like thin syrup or oil, to that of lard or soft suet. Its colour is some- times white, but usually yellowish, and occasionally of a brown or red- dish tinge. It has a peculiar agreeable odour, varying somewhat with the flowers from which it was collected, and a very sweet feebly aro- matic taste, which is followed by a slight prickling or sense of acrimony in the fauces. Its specific gravity is about 1.333. (Duncan.) Cold water dissolves it readily, alcohol with less facility. It contains crystallizable 412 Mel.—Melissa Officinalis. part i. sugar analogous to that of the cane, uncrystallizable sugar, an aromatic principle, an acid, wax, and, according to Guibourt, a small quantity of mannite. The crystalline sugar may be obtained by treating granu- lar honey with a small quantity of alcohol, which when expressed takes along with it the other ingredients, leaving the crystals nearly untouch- ed. The same end may be attained by melting the honey, saturating its acid with carbonate of lime, filtering the liquid, then setting it aside to crystallize, and washing the crystals with alcohol. Inferior honey usually contains a larger proportion of uncrystallizable sugar and vege- table acid. Diluted with water, honey undergoes the vinous fermenta- tion; and treated with nitric acid, is converted into oxalic acid. In warm weather honey, if not very pure, sometimes ferments, acquir- ing a pungent taste, and a deeper colour. Starch is said to be occasion- ally added to the inferior kinds to give them a white appearance. The adulteration may be detected by dilution with water, which dissolves the honey and leaves the starch at the bottom of the vessel. The nature of the deposite may be tested by the tincture of iodine. Water is said to be sometimes added to honey to increase its bulk. Its presence may be suspected from the greater thinness of the liquid, and its want of disposition to crystallize. Medical Properties and Uses.'—Honey possesses the same medical pro- perties with sugar, but is more disposed to run off by the bowels, and to occasion griping pain. Though largely consumed as an article of food, it is seldom employed medicinally, except as the vehicle of more active substances. Its taste and detergent qualities render it a useful ad- dition to gargles, and it is sometimes employed as an application to foul ulcers, and in the form of enema. Off. Prep. Confectio Piperis Nigri, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Rutae, Lond., Dub.; Mel Boracis, Lond, Ed., Dub.; Mel Despumatum, U.S., Lond., Dub., Ed.; Mel Rosae, Lond., Dub., Ed.; Mel Scillae Composi- tum, U.S.; Oxymel Simplex, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oxymel Colchici, Dub.; Oxymel Scillae, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Oxymel Cupri Subacetatis, Dub. MELISSA OFFICINALIS. HERBA. Bub. Balm. Off. Syn. MELISSA OFFICINALIS FOLIA. Ed. Melisse, Fr.; Garten-melisse, Germ.; Melissa, Hal; Torongil, Span. Melissa. Class Didynamia. Order Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Labia- tae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calpx dry, nearly flat above; with the upper lip sub-fastigiate. Corolla, upper lip somewhat arched, bifid; lower lip with the middle lobe cordate, Willd. Melissa officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 146; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 334. t. 119. Balm has a perennial root, which sends up annually seve- ral erect, quadrangular stems, usually branched towards the base, and a foot or two in height. The leaves are opposite, ovate or cordate, deeply serrate, pubescent; the lower on long footstalks, the uppermost nearly sessile. The flowers are white or yellowish, upon short pedun- cles, and in axillary whorls, surrounding only half the stem. The calyx is tubular, pentangular, and bilabiate, with the upper lip tridentate and flattened, the lower cut into two pointed teeth. The corolla is also tubu- part i. Melissa Officinalis.—Mentha Piperita. 413 lar and bilabiate, the upper less convex and notched, the lower three- cleft. The plant is a native of the South of Europe. It has been introduced into this country, where it is cultivated in gardens, and grows wild along the fences of our roads and lanes. For medical use the herb should be cut before the appearance of the flowers, which begin to expand in July. In the fresh state, it has a fragrant odour very similar to that of le- mons; but is nearly inodorous when dried. The taste is somewhat aus- tere and slightly aromatic. The herb contains a minute proportion of a yellowish or reddish-yellow essential oil, which has its peculiar flavour in a very high degree. Medical Properties and Uses.— Balm scarcely produces any remedial operation upon the system. The quantity of oil which it contains is not more than sufficient to communicate a pleasant flavour to the infu- sion, which forms an excellent drink in febrile complaints, and when taken warm tends to promote the operation of diaphoretic medicines. MENTHA PIPERITA. U.S., Lond., Bub. Peppermint. " Mentha piperita. Herba. The herb." U. S. Off Syn. MENTHA PIPERITA HERBA. Ed. Menthe poivree, Fr.; Pfeffermunze, Germ.; Menta piperita, Hal; Pimenta piperita, Span. Mentha. Class Didynamia. Order Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Labia- tae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla nearly equal, four-cleft; the broader segment emar- ginate. Stamens upright, distant. Willd. Mentha piperita. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 79; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 336. t. 120. Peppermint is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a creeping root, and erect, quadrangular, joinfced, channeled, purplish, somewhat hairy stems, which are branched towards the top, and about two feet in height. The leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate, serrate, pointed, smoother on the upper than the under surface, and of a dark green co- lour which is paler beneath. The flowers are small, purple, and dis- posed in terminal obtuse spikes, which are interrupted below. The calyx is tubular, furrowed, and five-toothed; the corolla is also tubular, with its border divided into four segments, of which the uppermost is broadest, and notched at its apex. The anthers are concealed within the tube of the corolla; the style projects beyond it, and terminates in a bifid stigma. The four-cleft germ is converted into four seeds, which > are lodged in the calyx. This species of mint is a native of Great Britain, whence it has been conveyed to the continent of Europe and to this country. In some parts of the United States, especially in New Jersey, it is largely cultivated for the sake of its volatile oil. We occasionally find it growing wild along the fences of our villages. The cultivators of this herb have ob- served, that in order to maintain its flavour in perfection, it is necessary to transplant the roots every three years. It should be cut for medical use in dry weather, about the period of the expansion of the flowers. These appear in August. The herb, both in the recent and dried state, has a penetrating, grate- ful odour, somewhat resembling that of camphor. The taste is aro- matic, warm, pungent, glowing, camphorous, bitterish, and attended 414 Mentha Pulegium.—Mentha Viridis. part i. with a sensation of coolness when air is admitted- into the mouth. These properties depend on a volatile oil which abounds in the herb, and may be separated by distillation with water. (See Oleum Menthse Piperitae.) Peppermint also contains camphor, which rises with the oil. The virtues of the herb are imparted to water, and more readily to al- cohol. Medical Properties and Uses.—Peppermint is a very grateful aromatic stimulant, much used for all the purposes to which medicines of this class are applied. To allay nausea, to relieve spasmodic pains of the stomach and bowels, to expel flatus, to cover the taste or qualify the nauseating or griping effects of other medicines, are among the most common of these purposes. The fresh herb, bruised and applied over the epigastrium, often allays sick stomach, and is especially useful in the cholera of children. The medicine may be given in infusion; but the volatile oil alone, or in some state of preparation, is almost always preferred. Off. Prep. Aqua Mentha Piperitae, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Menthae Piperitae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Menthae Piperitae, Ed. MENTHA PULEGIUM. Bub. European Pennyroyal. Off. Syn. PULEGIUM. Mentha Pulegium. Lond.; MENTHA PU- LEGII HERBA. Ed. Menthe-pouliot, Pouliot, Fr.; Poleymunze, Germ.; Puleggio, ltal; Poleo, Span. Mentha. See MENTHA PIPERITA. Mentha Pulegium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 82; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 342. 1.122. This species of mint is distinguished by its roundish pros- trate stems, its ovate obtuse somewhat crenate leaves, and its verticil- late flowers. It is a native of Europe, and neither cultivated nor employed in this country. Our native pennyroyal belongs to a different genus. (See Hedeoma Pulegioides.) The Pulegium possesses similar properties, and is employed for the same purposes with the other mints. Off. Prep. Aqua Pulegii, Zowc?., Ed. Dub.; Oleum Pulegii, Lond.,Dub. MENTHA VIRIDIS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Spearmint. * Mentha viridis. Herba. The herb." U. S. Menth a epi, Fr.; Griine miinze, Germ.; Menta Romana, Hal; Yerba buena puntia- guda, Span. Mentha. See MENTHA PIPERITA. Mentha viridis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 76; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 338. t. 121. Spearmint, sometimes called simply mint, differs from the M. piperita chiefly in having sessile or nearly sessile, lanceolate, naked leaves; elongated, interrupted, panicled spikes; setaceous bractes; and stamens longer than the corolla. Like the two preceding species, it is a native of England. In this country it is cultivated in gardens for do- mestic use; and in some places more largely for the sake of its oil. It also grows wild in low grounds in parts of the country which have been long settled. Its flowering season is August. According to Thomson, it should be cut in very dry weather, and, if intended for medical use, part i. Mentha Viridis.—Menyanthes. 415 just as the flowers appear; if for obtaining the oil, after they have ex- panded. The odour of spearmint is strong and aromatic, the taste warm and slightly bitter, less pungent than'that of peppermint, but considered by some as more agreeable. These properties are retained for some time by the dried plant. They depend on a volatile oil which rises on distil- lation with water, and is imparted to alcohol and water by maceration. (See Oleum Menthae Viridis.) Medical Properties.—The virtues and application of this plant are the same with those of peppermint. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthae Viridis, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Menthae Com- positum, Dub.; Oleum Menthae Viridis, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Menthae Viridis, Lond. MENYANTHES. U.S. Secondary. Buckbean. " Menyanthes trifoliata. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. MENYANTHES. Menyanthes trifoliata. Lond.; MENY- ANTHIS TRIFOLIATE FOLIA. Ed.; MENYANTHES TRIFO- LIATA. Folia. Dub. M^nyanthe, Trifle d'eau, Fr.; Bitterklee, Germ.; Trifoglio palustre, Hal; Trifolio palustre, Span. Menyanthes. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gen- tianeae. Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla hirsute. Stigma bifid. Capsule one-celled. Willd. Menyanthes trifoliata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 811; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 55. The buckbean or marsh trefoil has a perennial, long, round, jointed, horizontal, branching, dark-coloured root, about as thick as the finger, and sending out numerous fibres from its under surface. The leaves are ternate, and stand upon long stalks, which proceed from the end of the root, and are furnished at their base with sheathing stipules. The leaflets are obovate, obtuse, bluntly denticulate, very smooth, beau- tifully green on their upper surface, and paler beneath. The scape or flowerstalk is erect, round, smooth, from six to twelve, jnches high, longer than the leaves, and terminated by a conical raceme of white somewhat rose-coloured flowers. The calyx is five-parted; the corolla funnel-shaped, with a short tube, and a five-cleft, revolute border, co- vered on the upper side with numerous long, fleshy fibres. The anthers are red and sagittate; the germ ovate, supporting a slender style longer than the stamens, and terminating in a bifid stigma. The fruit is an ovate, two-valved, one-celled capsule containing numerous seeds. This beautiful plant is a native both of Europe and North America, growing in boggy and marshy places, which are always moist, and oc- casionally overflown with water. It prevails in the United States, from the northern boundary to Virginia. In this country the flowers appear in May, in England not till June or July. All parts of it are medicinal. The leaves are directed by the Edinburgh College, the whole plant by those of London and Dublin, the root by the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. The taste of buckbean is intensely bitter and somewhat nauseous; the odour of the leaves faint and disagreeable. The virtues of the plant depend on a bitter extractive matter which is dissolved by water and alcohol. 416 Menyanthes.—Mezereum. part i. Medical Properties and Uses.—With the ordinary properties of the bit- ter tonics, menyanthes unites a cathartic power, and in large doses is apt to vomit. It was formerly held in high estimation in Europe as a re- medy in numerous complaints, among which were intermittents, rheu- matism, scrofula, scurvy, dropsy, jaundice, and various cachectic and cutaneous affections. In most of these complaints it was administered under a vague impression of its alterative powers. It is scarcely ever employed in this country; but as it is a native plant, capable of useful application in cases where a combined tonic and purgative effect is de- manded, it is desirable that our country practitioners should be aware of its properties, and prepared to take advantage of them should occa- sion offer. The dose of the powdered leaves or root as a tonic is from twenty to thirty grains; of an infusion prepared with half an ounce to a pint of boiling water, from one to two fluidounces; and of the extract ten or fifteen grains, to be repeated three or four times a day. A drachm of the powder, or a gill of the strong decoction, generally purges, and often occasions vomiting. MEZEREUM. U.S. Mezereon. u Daphne mezereum. Radicis cortex. The bark of the root." U.S. Off Syn. MEZEREI CORTEX. Daphne Mezereum. Radicis cor- tex. Lond.; DAPHNES MEZEREI CORTEX. Ex radice. Ed.; ME- ZEREON. DAPHNE MEZEREUM. Cortex. Dub. Bois gentil, Fr.; Kellerhals, Germ.; Mezereo, ltal; Mecereon, Span. Daphne. Class Octandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Thymeleae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla four-cleft, withering, enclosing the sta- mens. Drupe one-seeded. Willd. All the species of Daphne are possessed of active properties; and though the D. Mezereum is the only one recognised in the Pharmaco- poeias, either of the United States or Great Britain, at least two others, the D. Gnidium and D. Laureola, probably contribute to furnish the me- zereon of commerce, and have been adopted as officinal in the French Codex. 1. Daphne Mezereum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 415; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 717. t. 245. This is a very hardy shrub, three or four feet high, with a branching stem, and a smooth gray bark, which is very easily sepa- rable from the wood. The leaves spring from the ends of the branches, are deciduous, sessile, lanceolate, entire, smooth, of a pale green colour, somewhat glaucous beneath, and about two inches long. They are pre- ceded by the flowers, which appear very early in spring, and sometimes bloom even amidst the snow. These are of a pale rose colour, highly fragrant, and disposed in clusters, each consisting of two or three flow- ers, forming together a kind of spike at the upper part of the stem and branches. At the base of each cluster are deciduous floral leaves. The fruit is oval, shining, fleshy, of a bright red colour, and contains a sin- gle round seed. Another variety produces white flowers and yellow fruit. This species of Daphne is a native of Great Britain and the neigh- bouring continent, in the northern parts of which it is particularly abundant. It is cultivated in Europe both for medicinal purposes, and PART I. Mezereum. 417 as an ornamental plant, and is occasionally found in our own gardens. It flowers in February, March, or April, according to the greater or less mildness of the climate. 2. D. Gnidium. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 420. In this species, called ga- rou or sain-bois by the French, the leaves are linear-lanceolate, acute, entire, smooth, and irregularly but closely set upon the branches. The flowers are white, downy, odoriferous, and disposed in terminal pani- cled racemes. The fruit is globular, dry, at first green, but ultimately black. The D. Gnidium grows in dry uncultivated places, in the South of Europe, and flowers in June. In France its bark is used indiscrimi- nately with that of the former species. 3. D. Laureola. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 418; Eng. Bot. t. 119. The D. Laureola or spurge laurel is a strongly, marked species, resembling the laurel, from which it derived its name. The leaves are thick-set, ever- green, lanceolate, acute, entire, coriaceous, smooth, and shining. The flowers are of a greenish colour, and disposed in axillary five-flowered racemes. The fruit is of a deep red colour, approaching to black. The plant is common in the moist woods of the southern and temperate parts of Europe. Its bark is said to be frequently substituted for that of the D. Mezereum. The bark of the root is the part of the mezereon plant directed in the Pharmacopoeias. In Great Britain the root itself is frequently kept in the shops; and it was formerly brought to a considerable extent into the United States. But the mezereon with which our markets are now sup- plied is evidently the bark of the stem, and is brought chiefly from Ger- many. There is no reason to believe it inferior in virtues to that de- rived from the root. The berries and leaves of the plant are also pos- sessed of active properties; and the former have sometimes proved fatal to children, who have been attracted by their beautiful colour. Pallas states that they are used as a purgative by the Russian peasants, and that thirty berries are required to produce this effect. The French authors observe that fifteen are sufficient to kill a Frenchman. Properties.—Mezereon, as it comes to us, is usually in strips from two to four feet long and about an inch broad, sometimes flat, sometimes partially rolled, and always folded in bundles, or wrapped in the shape of balls. It is covered externally with a grayish or reddish-brown wrinkled epidermis, very thin, and easily separable from the bark. Be- neath the epidermis is a soft greenish tissue. The inner bark is tough, pliable, fibrous, striated, and of a whitish colour. When fresh it has a nauseous smell, but in the dry state is nearly inodorous. Its taste is at first sweetish, but afterwards highly acrid, and even corrosive. It yields its virtues to water by decoction. Vauquelin ascertained the presence of a peculiar principle in the bark of the D. Alpina. This has subse- quently been discovered in other species, and has received the name o daphnin. Gmelin and Boer found it in the bark of the D. Mezereum as- sociated with wax, resin, red colouring matter, brown colouring mat- ter, an uncrystallizable and fermentable sugar, a gummy matter con- taining azote, ligneous fibre, malic acid, and several malates. Daphnin is in prismatic crystals grouped together, colourless, transparent, bril- liant, very soluble in water, ether, and alcohol, without odour, and of a permanent acrid taste. Though active, it has not been ascertained to be the principle upon which the virtues of mezereon depend. Vauquelin thinks that in the recent plant these reside in an essential oil, which by time and exposure is changed into a resin, without losing its activity. Medical Properties and Uses.—The recent bark applied to the skin 418 Mezereum.—Monarda. PART I. produces inflammation followed by vesication, and has been popularly used as an epispastic from time immemorial in some of the southern countries of Europe. The dried bark, though less active, is possessed of a similar property, and is occasionally employed in France by regu- lar practitioners for the purpose of forming issues, in cases which do not admit of the use of Spanish flies. A small-square piece of the bark, moistened with vinegar, is applied to the skin, and renewed twice a day till a blister is formed, and occasionally afterwards in order to maintain the discharge. It is slow in its operation, generally requiring from twenty-four to forty-eight hours to vesicate. An epispastic ointment is proposed by Guibourt, consisting of two drachms of the alcoholic ex- tract of mezereon, nine ounces of lard, and one of wax. He employs the bark of the D. Gnidium (garou); but that of the other species will an- swer the same purpose. This preparation would form an excellent sub- stitute for the savine ointment for maintaining the discharge from blis- tered surfaces. It may also be applied advantageously to obstinate, ill- conditioned, indolent ulcers. Internally administered mezereon is a stimulant capable of being directed to the skin or kidneys, and. in large doses apt to excite purg- ing, nausea, and vomiting. In overdoses it produces all the fatal effects of the acrid poisons. It had at one time much reputation as a remedy in the secondary stages of the venereal disease; and still enters as an in- gredient into the officinal compound decoction of sarsaparilla. It has also been thought to act favourably as an alterative in scrofulous affec- tions, chronic rheumatism, and obstinate diseases of the skin. For this purpose it is usually administered in decoction. (See Decoct. Mezerei.) Dr. Withering cured a case of difficult swallowing, arising from para- lysis, by directing the patient to chew frequently small pieces of the root. The affection, which had continued three years, was removed in a month. The dose of the bark in substance may be stated at ten grains, though it is seldom used in this way. Off Prep. Decoctum Mezerei, Dub., Ed.; Decoctum Sarsaparillae Compositum, U.S., Lond., Dub. MONARDA. U.S. Horsemint. "Monarda punctata. Herba. The herb." U.S. Monarda. Class Diandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Labiate Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-toothed, cylindric, striate. Corolla ringent, with a long cylindric tube; upper lip linear, nearly straight and entire, in- volving the filaments; lower lip reflected, broader, three-lobed, the mid- dle lobe longer. Nuttall. Monarda punctata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 126; Am. Med. Recorder, vol. ii. p. 496. This is an indigenous perennial or biennial plant, with her- baceous, obtusely angled, downy, whitish, branching stems, which rise one or two feet in height, and are furnished with oblong lanceolate, re- motely serrate, smooth, punctate leaves. The flowers are yellow, spot- ted with red or brown, and are disposed in numerous whorls, provided with lanceolate, coloured bractes, longer than the whorl. The horsemint grows in light gravelly or sandy soils from New Jer- sey to Louisiana, and flowers from June to September. The whole herb is employed. It has an aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent, bitterish parti. Monarda.—Mori Baccae.—Moschus. 419 taste; and abounds in a volatile oil, which may be separated by distil- lation with water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Horsemint is stimulant and carmina- tive; but is seldom used in regular practice. In the state of infusion it is occasionally employed in families as a remedy for flatulent colic and sick stomach, and for other purposes to which the aromatic herbs are applied. It was introduced into the primary catalogue of the United States Pharmacopoeia on account of the volatile oil which it affords. (See Oleum Monardse.) Off. Prep. Oleum Monardse, U. S. MORI BACOE. Lond. Mulberries. " Morus nigra. Baccae." Lond. Off. Syn. MORUS NIGRA. Baccae. Dub. Mures, Fr.,- Schwarze maulbeeren, Germ.; Morone, Hal; Moras, Span. Morus. Class Monoecia. OrderTetrandria.—Nat. Ord. Urticae, Juss.; Artocarpeae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx four-parted. Corolla none. Female. Calyx four- leaved. Corolla none. Styles two. Calyx berried. Seed one. Willd. Morus nigra. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 36; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 712. t. 243. This species of mulberry is distinguished by its cordate, ovate or lobed, unequally toothed, and scabrous leaves. It is a tree of middle size, supposed to have been brought originally from Persia into Italy, and thence spread over Europe and America. Its leaves afford food for the silk-worm; and the bark of the root, which is bitter and slightly acrid, has been employed as a vermifuge, especially in cases of the tape- worm, in the dose of two drachms infused in eight ounces of boiling water. But the fruit is the only portion directed by the Colleges. This is oblong oval, of a dark reddish-purple almost black colour; and consists of numerous minute berries united together and attached to a common receptacle, each containing a single seed, the succulent envelope of which is formed by the calyx. It is inodorous, has a sweet mucilaginous acidulous taste, and abounds in a deep red juice. The sourish taste is owing, according to Hermbstadt, to the presence of tar- taric acid. Medical Properties and Uses.—Mulberries are refreshing and laxative, and serve to prepare a grateful drink well adapted to febrile cases. A syrup is prepared from them, and used as a pleasant addition to gar- gles in inflammation of the throat. They are, however, more used as food than medicine. Our native mulberry, the fruit of the M. rubra, is quite equal to that of the imported species. The M. alba, originally from China, and now extensively cultivated as a source of food for the silk-worm, bears a white fruit, which is sweeter and less grateful than the others. Off. Prep. Syrupus Mori. Lond. MOSCHUS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Bub. Musk. " Moschus moschiferus. Concretum sui generis. A peculiar concrete substance." U.S. Muse, Fr.,- Bisam, Germ.; Muschio, Hal; Almizcle, Span. 420 Moschus. PART I. Mosohus. Class Mammalia. Order Pecora. Gen. Ch. Horns none. Fore teeth eight in the lower jaw. Tusks one on each side in the upper jaw, projecting out of the mouth. Moschus moschiferus. Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. 172; Rees's Cyclopsedia. This animal bears a close resemblance to the deer in shape and size. It is usually less than three feet in length, with haunches considerably more elevated than the shoulders. From its upper jaw two tusks project downwards out of the mouth, each about two inches long, curved back- wards, and serving to extract the roots which are used as food by the animal. The ears are long and narrow, and the tail very short- The fleece, which consists of strong, elastic, undulated hairs, varies in colour with the season, the age of the animal, and perhaps the place which it inhabits. The general colour is a deep iron gray. The individual hairs are whitish near the root, and fawn-coloured or blackish towards the tip. The musk is contained in an oval, hairy, projecting sac, found only in the male, situated between the umbilicus and the prepuce, from two to three inches long and from one to two broad, communicating exter- nally by a small hairy orifice at its anterior part, and marked poste- riorly by a groove or furrow which corresponds with the opening of the prepuce. It is lined internally by a smooth membrane, which is thrown into a number of irregular folds forming incomplete partitions. In the vigorous adult animal, the sac sometimes contains six drachms of musk; but in the old seldom more than two drachms; and none in the young. The musk is secreted by the lining membrane, and in the living animal forms a consistent mass, which on the outside is compact and marked with the folds of the membrane, but is less firm towards the centre, where there is sometimes a vacant space. As first secreted it is proba- bly in the liquid state, and a portion is occasionally forced out by the animal, to which it communicates its odour. The musk deer inhabits the vast mountainous regions of central Asia, extending from India to Siberia, and from the country of the Turcomans to China. It is an active and timid animal, springing from rock to rock with surprising agility, and frequenting the snowy recesses, and most inaccessible crags of the mountains. Concealing itself during the day, it chooses the night for roaming in search of food; and though said to be abundant in its native regions, is taken with difficulty. It is hunted for its hide, as well as for the musk. As soon as the animal is slain the sac is cut off, and dried with its contents; and in this state is sent into the market. Musk varies in quality with the country inhabited by the animal. That procured from the mountains on the southern borders of Siberia, and brought into the market through Russia, is comparatively feeble. The best is imported from China, and is said to be the product of Ton- quin. A variety intermediate between these is procured in the Himalaya Mountains and Thibet, and sent to Calcutta. We derive our chief sup- ply from Canton, though, when the drug is scarce, portions are occa- sionally brought hither from Europe. Two varieties are distinguished in the market, the Chinese and Rus- sian. Both come in sacs convex and hairy on one side, flat and destitute of hair on the other. The Chinese, which is the most highly valued, is in bags of a rounder shape, covered with brownish-yellow or reddish- brown hairs, and containing at most a drachm and a half of large grain- ed, dark, strong-scented musk, having an ammoniacal odour. The Russian, which is contained in longer and larger bags, is small grained, PART I. Moschus. 421 of a clear yellow-brown colour, of a weaker and more fetid odour, with less smell of ammonia. Properties.—Musk is in grains or lumps concreted together, soft and unctuous to the touch, and of a reddish-brown or ferruginous colour, resembling that of dried blood. The odour is peculiar, strong, pene- trating, and so powerfully diffusive, that one part of musk communi- cates its smell to more than 3000 parts of inodorous powder. (Fee.) In some delicate individuals it produces headach and other disagreeable symptoms, and has even given rise to convulsions. The taste is bitter, disagreeable, and somewhat acrid. The colour of the powder is reddish- brown. Musk is inflammable, burning with a white flame, and leaving a light spongy charcoal. It yields, upon analysis, a great number of proximate principles. Guibourt and Blondeau obtained water, ammo- nia, stearin, elain, cholesterin, an acid oil combined with ammonia, a volatile oil, muriates of ammonia, potassa, and lime, an uncertain acid saturated by the same bases, gelatin, albumen, fibrin, a highly carbon- ated matter soluble in water, a soluble calcareous salt with a combus- tible acid, carbonate and phosphate of lime, hair, and sand. (Annul. Phys. fy Chim. ix. 327.) According to the same chemists, it contains 47 per cent, of volatile matter, thought by some to be chiefly ammonia, by others to be a compound of ammonia and volatile oil. Theimann ob- tained only from 10 to 15 per cent. But the quantity of volatile as well as of soluble matter varies exceedingly in different specimens. Thus Theimann found from 80 to 90 per cent, of matter soluble in water, Buchner only 54.5 per cent., and other chemists intermediate propor- tions. The proportion soluble in alcohol, as ascertained by different ex- perimenters, varies from 25 to 62 per cent. Sulphuric ether is a good solvent. The watery infusion has a yellowish-brown colour, a bitterish taste, a strong smell of musk, and an acid reaction. The alcoholic tinc- ture is transparent, and of a reddish-brown colour. Dr. A. T. Thomson is mistaken in stating that it has scarcely any of the peculiar odour of the medicine. The action of potassa upon musk is accompanied with the extrication of ammonia. By the influence of heat and moisture long continued, ammonia is developed, which acts upon the fatty matter, producing a substance resembling adipocire, but, according to Guibourt, without diminishing the activity of the medicinal principles. The cor- rectness, however, of this opinion, is perhaps questionable; and it is advisable to preserve the musk as much a"s possible unaltered. When kept in glass bottles, in a situation neither moist nor very dry, it re- mains for a great length of time without material change. Adulterations.—The price of this medicine is so high, and the sources of supply so limited, as to offer strong temptations to adulteration; and it is said that little of the genuine, unmixed musk is to be found in the market. The sophistication commences with the Chinese, and is com- pleted in Europe and this country. A common practice in the East is to open the sac, and to supply the place of the musk with an adulterated mixture. Sometimes the scrotum of the animal is filled with this mix- ture, and not unfrequently the sacs are manufactured out of the skin. Dried blood, from its resemblance in appearance to musk, is among the most common adulterations; but besides this, sand, lead, iron-filings, hair, animal membrane, tobacco, the dung of birds, wax, benzoin, sto- rax, asphaltum, and other substances are introduced. These are mixed with a portion of musk, the powerful odour of which is diffused through the mass, and renders the discovery of the fraud sometimes difficult. It is said that the Chinese sometimes mix the musk of Tonquin with that 422 Moschus. —Moxa. PART I. of Siberia. The bags containing the drug should have the characters before described as belonging to the natural sac, and should present no evidence of having been opened. The slit is sometimes carefully sewed up, sometimes glued together. The former condition may be discovered by close inspection, the latter by immersion in hot water. Musk which burns with difficulty, which has a feeble odour, and a colour either pale or entirely black, which feels gritty to the finger, is very moist, or con- tains obvious impurities, should be rejected. Medical Properties and Uses.—Musk is stimulant and antispasmodic, increasing the vigour of the circulation, and exalting the nervous energy, without producing either as an immediate or secondary effect any con- siderable derangement of the purely cerebral functions. Its medical uses are such as may be inferred from its general operation. In almost all spasmodic diseases, so far as mere relaxation of spasm is desirable, it is more or less efficacious; but peculiar advantages may be expected from it in those cases in which a prostrate condition of the system, at- tended with great nervous agitation, or irregular muscular action, calls for the united.influence of a highly diffusible stimulant and powerful' antispasmodic. Such are very low cases of typhus disease, accompa- nied with subsultus tendinum, tremors, and singultus. Such also are many instances of gout in the stomach, and other spasmodic affections of th,is organ. In very obstinate hiccough we have found it more effec- tual than any other remedy; and have seen great advantage from its use in those alarming and dangerous convulsions of infants which have their origin in spasm of the intestines. It is said to have done much good combined with opium, and administered in very large doses in tetanus. Epilepsy, hysteria, asthma, pertussis, palpitations, cholera, and colic, are among the numerous spasmodic affections in which circumstances may render the employment of musk desirable. The chief obstacles to its general use are its very high price, and the great uncertainty as re- gards the degree of its purity. Musk was unknown to the ancients. Aetius was the first writer who noticed it as a medicine. It was intro- duced into Europe through the Arabians, from whose language its name was derived. It may be given in the form of pill or emulsion. The medium dose is ten grains, to be repeated every two or three hours. In the cases of children it may be given with great advantage in the form of enema. The tincture, which is an officinal preparation, is sometimes prescribed. Off. Prep. Mistura Moschi, Lond.; Tinctura Moschi, U.S., Dub. MOXA. Bub. Moxa. "Artemisia Chinensis et A. Indica. Folia." Dub. The term moxa is employed to designate small masses of combustible matter, intended, by being burnt slowly in contact with the skin, to produce an eschar. They are of various forms, and made of different materials. The Chinese moxa is in small cones, from eight to twelve lines in height; and is prepared from the leaves of the Artemisia Chinensis and A. Indica. According to some authors, the part used is the down which covers the leaves and stems; but others, with greater probability, assert that it is a fine lanuginous substance prepared from the leaves by beating them in a mortar. A coarser and a finer product are obtained, PART I. Moxa. 423 the former of which is used for tinder, the latter worked up into moxa. A similar moxa has been made in France, by a similar process, from the leaves of the A. vulgaris or common European mugwort. Various substitutes have been proposed for the Chinese moxa, all composed of some light, porous, soft, inflammable substance, which burns slowly, and thus allows the heat to be regulated according to the effect desired. Linen rolled into a cylinder, cotton formed into the same shape and enclosed in a piece of linen, cords of cotton in small masses of various shapes, and even common spunk made from the agaric of the oak, have been employed by different persons with the desired effect. But all these bodies are subject to the inconvenience of requiring to be constantly blown upon in order that their combustion maybe sustained. To remedy this defect, cotton impregnated with nitre has been re- commended; and the moxa usually employed is prepared from this sub- stance. It is important that the impregnation should be uniform, as otherwise different parts of the cylinder, burning with different degrees of rapidity, would produce unequal effects upon the skin. The follow- ing process is commonly employed in France. One pound of cotton is introduced into a vessel containing two ounces of nitre dissolved in half a gallon of water, and a moderate heat applied, till all the liquid is evapo- rated. The cotton when perfectly dry is formed into thin, narrow sheets, which are rolled round a central cord of linen, so as to form a cylinder from half an inch to an inch in diameter, and several inches long. This is enclosed in a covering of silk or linen sown firmly around it; and when used may be cut by a razor into transverse slices a few lines in length. By leaving a hole in the centre of the cylinder, the combustion will be rendered more vigorous, and a deeper eschar produced. The pith of the Helianthus annuus, or common sun-flower, has been proposed by M. Percy for the preparation of moxa, for which it is well adapted by the nitre which it naturally contains, and which enables- it to burn without insufflation. The stem is cut into tranverse sections about half an inch in thickness, which must be dried carefully, and afterwards kept in a perfectly dry place. They have this advantage in application, that, in consequence of the retention of the cortical por- tion, they may be held with impunity, while burning, between the fingers of the operator. They are, however, frequently defective in conse- quence of an insufficiency of nitre in the pith, or of the unequal inflam- mability of different parts of it. The stems of the plant employed should have attained perfect maturity. M. Robinet has perfected the preparation of moxa, by combining the advantages of the two kinds last described. He rolls cotton round a small central cylinder of pith, and envelopes the whole in a piece of muslin, which is more or less firmly applied, according to the degree of compactness required. The cylinders thus made burn without assist- ance, uniformly, and with a rapidity proportionate to their firmness. Medical Use.—Cauterization by fire, in the treatment of disease, has been commonly practised among savage and half civilized nations from the earliest periods of history; and has not been unknown as a remedy in the most polished communities. The ancient Egyptians and Greeks were acquainted with the use of moxa; and in China, Japan, and other coun- tries of Asia, it appears to have been employed from time immemorial. From these countries the early Portuguese navigators introduced it into Europe; and the term moxa is said to have been derived from their language, though supposed by some to be of Chinese origin. The true Chinese name is said to be kiew. (Percy and Laurent.) Within a 424 Moxa. —Myristica. PART I. few years the remedy has become very popular in France, and has at- tracted some attention in this country, though not yet generally em- ployed. It acts on the principle of revulsion, relieving deep seated inflammation, and local irritation whether vascular or nervous, by invit- ing the current of excitement to the skin. In some cases it may also operate advantageously by the propagation of a stimulant impression to neighbouring parts in which the natural actions are enfeebled. The idea that moxa produces a peculiar effect by the substances which result from its combustion, is probably without foundation. The celebrated Larrey is among those who have contributed most to bring this remedy into repute. The diseases in which it is recommended by this author are amaurosis, loss of taste, deafness, paralytic affections of the muscular system, asthma, chronic catarrh and pleurisy, phthisis, chronic engorgement of the liver and spleen, rachitis, diseased spine, coxalgia, and other forms of scrofulous and rheumatic inflammation of the joints. It has also been used advantageously in neuralgic affections, and is applicable to chronic complaints generally, in which powerful external revulsion is indicated. The parts of the body upon wrhich, according to Larrey, it should not be applied, are, the cranium when protected only by the skin and peri- cranium; the eye-lids, nose, and ears; the skin over .the larynx, trachea, and mammary glands, over superficial tendons, projecting points of bones, and articular prominences in which the capsular ligament might be involved; the anterior surface of the abdomen; and the privates. As a general rule it should be applied as near as possible to the seat of the disease; and, in neuralgic or paralytic cases, at the origin or over the course of the nerves proceeding to the part affected. Some advise that the cylinder be attached to the skin by some adhesive liquid; but a more, general practice is to retain it in the proper position by a pair of forceps or other instrument. Larrey recommends that the skin around it be covered with a piece of moistened lint, having a hole in its centre to admit the base of the cylinder. The moxa should be set on fire at the summit, and the combustion sustained if necessary by the breath, the blow-pipe, or the bellows. The size of the cylinder should vary, accord- ing to the effect desired, from half an inch to an inch or more in diame- ter, and from a few lines to an inch in height. Any degree of effect may be obtained, from a slight inflammation to the death of the skin, by regulating the time during which the moxa is allowed to burn. When a slough is required, it should be suffered to burn until consumed. The first sensation experienced is not disagreeable; but the operation be- comes gradually more painful, and towards the close is for a short time very severe. MYRISTICA. U.S. JYutmeg. "Myristica moschata. Nuclei. The kernels." U.S. Off. Syn. MYRISTICA NUCLEI. Myristica moschata. Nuclei et oleum eorum expressum. Lond.; MYRISTICtE MOSCHATjE NU- CLEUS. Ed.; MYRISTICA MOSCHATA. Nucleus et oleum vola- tile. Dub. Noix muscade Fr.; Muskatnuss, Germ.; Noce moscata, Hal; Nuez moscada, Span.; Nortenmoskat, Dutch. parti. Myristica.-—Macis* 425 MYRISTKLE MOSCHATA INVOLUCRUM NUCLEI. Vulgo, MACIS. Ed. Mace. Off. Syn. MYRISTICA MOSCHATA. Involucrum MACIS dictum. Dub. Macis, Fr.; Muskatbliitlie, Germ.; Macis, Hat; Macias, Span. Myristica. Class Dioecia. Order Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Lauri, Juss.; Myristiceae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Male. Calyx none. Corolla bell-shaped, trifid. Filament co- lumnar. Antliers six or ten united. Female. Calyx none. Corolla bell- shaped, trifid, deciduous. Style none. Stigmas two. Drupe with a nut involved in an arillus with one seed. Willd.. Myristica moschata. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 869; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 698. t. 238. The nutmeg-tree is about thirty feet high, with numerous branches, and an aspect somewhat resembling that of the orange tree. The leaves stand alternately on short footstalks, are oval lanceolate, pointed, entire, undulated, obliquely nerved, from two to three inches long and about an inch and a half broad, bright green on their upper surface, whitish beneath, and of an aromatic taste. The flowers are male and female upon different trees. They are minute, inodorous, and dis- posed in axillary, peduncled, solitary clusters. The fruit, which ap- pears on the tree mingled With the flowers, is round or oval, of the size of a small peach, with a smooth surface, at first pale-green, but yellow when ripe, and marked with a longitudinal furrow. The external cover- ing, which is at first thick and fleshy, and abounds in an austere, astrin- gent juice, afterwards becomes dry and .coriaceous, and separating into two valves from the apex, discloses a yellowish or reddish reticulated membrane or arillus, commonly called mace, closely investing a slender, brown, shining shell, which contains the kernel or nutmeg. Not less than eight varieties of this species are said by Crawford to be cultivated in the East Indies; but they have not been well defined. The Myristica moschata is a native of the Moluccas and other neigh- bouring islands, and abounds especially in that small cluster distin- guished by the name of Banda, whence the chief sufjplies of nutmegs have long been derived. The plant, however, is now (Cultivated in Su- matra, Java, Penang, and some other parts of the East Indies; and has been introduced into the Isle of France and Bourbon, the French colony of Cayenne, and some of the West India islands. The tree is raised from the seed. It does not flower till the eighth or ninth year, after which it bears flowers and fruit together, without in- termission; and is said to continue bearing for seventy or eighty years. Little trouble is requisite in its cultivation. A branch of the female tree is grafted into all the young plants when about two years old, so as to ensure their early fruitfulness. In the Moluccas the tree yields three crops annually. The fruit is gathered by the hand, and the outside covering is rejected as useless. The mace is then carefully separated, so as to break it as little as possible, is flattened, and dried in the sun. It is afterwards sprinkled with salt water, with the view of contributing to its preservation. The nuts are dried in the sun or by ovens, and ex- posed to smoke, till the kernel rattles in the shell. They are then broken open, and the kernels having been removed, and steeped for a short time in a mixture of lime and water, probably in order to preserve them from 426 Myristica. —Macis. PART I. the attack of worms, are next cleaned, and packed in casks or chests for exportation. Nutmegs are brought to this country either directly from the East In- dies, or indirectly through England and Holland. They are also occa- sionally imported in very small quantities from the West Indies. Properties.—The nutmeg, nux moschata, is of a roundish or oval shape, obtuse at the extremities, marked with vermicular furrows, of a grayish colour, hard, smooth to the touch, yielding readily to the knife or the grater, but not very pulverulent. When cut or broken it presents a yellowish surface, varied with reddish-brown, branching, irregular veins, which give to it a marbled appearance. These dark veins abound in oily matter, upon which the medicinal properties depend. The odour of nutmeg is delightfully fragrant, the taste warm, aromatic, and grate- ful. Its virtues are extracted by alcohol and ether. M. Bonastre ob- tained from 500 parts, 120 of a white insoluble oily substance, (stearin,) 38 of a coloured soluble oil, (ela'fn,) 30 of volatile oil, 4 of acid, 12 of fecula, 6 of gum, 270 of lignin; and 20 parts were lost. (Journ. de Pharm. ix. 281.) The volatile oil is obtained by distillation with water. It is of a pale straw colour, limpid, lighter than water, with a pungent spicy taste, and a strong smell of nutmeg, It is ranked among the offi- cinal medicines by the Dublin College. By pressure with heat an oily matter is obtained, which becomes solid on cooling, and is commonly though erroneously called oil of mace. It consists of fixed and volatile oil united. (See Oleum Myristicse.) Both the volatile and expressed oils are imported from the East Indies. It is said that nutmegs are often punctured and boiled in order to extract their essential oil, and the orifice afterwards closed so carefully as not to be discoverable unless by breaking the kernel. The fraud may be detected by their greater levity. They are also apt to be injured by worms, which, however, attack preferably those parts which are least impregnated with the volatile oil. We are told that the Dutch heat them in a stove in order to deprive them of the power of germinating, and thus prevent the propagation of the tree. The small and round nut- megs are preferred to those which are large and oval. They should be rejected when very light, with a feeble taste and smell, worm eaten, musty, or marked with black veins. A variety of nutmeg was formerly in the market, derived from the M. tomentosa of Willdenow, the M. Malabarica of Lamarck, distinguished from that just described by its much greater length, its elliptical shape, the absence of the brown veins, and its comparatively feeble odour, and disagreeable taste. It was called male or wild nutmeg, the other being designated as the female or cultivated nutmeg. Mace is in the shape of a flat membrane irregularly slit, smooth, soft, flexible, of a reddish or orange-yellow colour, and an odour and taste closely resembling those of nutmeg. It consists, according to M. Henry, of an essential oil in small quantity; a fixed oil, odorous, yellow, soluble in ether, insoluble in boiling alcohol; another fixed oil, odorous, red, soluble in alcohol and ether in every proportion; a peculiar gummy matter, analogous to amydin and gum, constituting one-third of the whole mass; and a small proportion of ligneous fibre. Mace yields a volatile oil by distillation, and a fixed oil by pressure. Neumann found the former heavier than water. The latter is less consistent than the fixed oil of nutmegs. Mace is inferior when brittle, less than usually •divided, whitish or pale yellow, with little taste and smell. Medical Properties and Uses.—Nutmeg unites with the medicinal pro- part i. Myristica.—Macis.—Myroxylon. 427 perties of the ordinary aromatics, considerable narcotic power. In the quantity of two or three drachms it has been known to produce stupor and delirium; and dangerous if not fatal consequences are said to have followed its free use in India. It is employed to cover the taste or cor- rect the operation of other medicines, but more frequently as an agree- able addition to farinaceous articles of diet, and to various kinds of drink in cases of languid appetite, and delicate stomach. It is usually given in substance, and is brought by grating to the state of a powder. Mace possesses properties essentially the same with those of nutmeg, but is less used as a medicine. The dose of either is from five to twenty grains. As the virtues of nutmeg depend chiefly if not exclusively on the volatile oil, the latter maybe substituted, in the dose of two or three drops, whenever a liquid preparation is desirable. The ancients were wholly unacquainted with this spice; and Avicenna is said to be the first author by whom it is noticed. Off. Prep. Confectio Aromatica, Lond., Dub.; Electuarium Catechu Compositum, Ed.; Pulvis Carbonatis Calcis Compositus, Ed.; Spiritus Ammoniae Aromaticus, Dub ; Spiritus Armoraceae Compositus, Dub.; Spiritus Lavandulae Compositus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Myristicae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus, U.S.; Trochisci Calcis Carbonatis, U.S., Ed.; Trochisci Magnesiae,U.S., Ed. MYROXYLON. U.S. Balsam of Peru. " Myroxylon Peruiferum. Succus. The juice." U.S. Off. Syn. BALSA MUM PERUVIANUM. Myroxylon Peruiferum. Balsamum. Lond.; MYROXYLI PERUIFERI BALSAMUM. Ed.; MYROXYLUM PERUVIANUM. Balsamum. Dub. Baume de Perou, Fr.; Peruvianischen balsam, Germ.; Balsamo del Peru, ltal.; Bal- samo negro, Span. Myroxylon. Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.-—Nat. Ord. Legumi- nosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx bell-shaped, five-toothed. Petals five, the upper one larger than the others. Germen longer than the corolla. Legume with one seed only at the point. Willd. Myroxylon Peruiferum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 546; Lambert's Illustra- tions, A.D. 1821. p. 97. This is a tall and very beautiful tree, with a straight, smooth trunk, and branches nearly horizontal. The bark is of a gray colour, compact, heavy, and highly resinous; and has the aro- matic flavour of the balsam. The leaves are alternate, and composed of two, three, four, and sometimes five pairs of leaflets which are nearly opposite, ovate lanceolate, with a lengthened but somewhat blunt and emarginate apex, entire, smooth and shining, hairy on the under sur- face, marked with numerous transparent points, and placed on short foot- stalks. Many leaves terminate unequally, consisting of five, six, or nine leaflets. The common petioles are rather thick, and hairy. The flowers are white or rose-coloured, and disposed in axillary racemes, longer than the leaves. The fruit is a pendulous, straw-coloured legume, club- shaped, somewhat curved, terminating in the curved style, and globu- lar near the extremity, where there is a single cell, containing a cres- cent-shaped seed. The tree is a native of the warmer regions of South America, grow- ing in various parts of Peru and New Granada, where it is called quin- 428 Myroxylon.—Myrrha. part i. quino by the natives. The wood is employed in building, and is valuable for its durability. The bark and fruit are used to perfume apartments. The tree yields by incision a balsamic juice, which when received in bottles maybe preserved in a liquid state for some years. This is called white liquid balsam. When this juice is deposited in mats or calibashes, as is commonly done in Carthagena and the mountains of Tolu, it be- comes concrete, and acquires the name of dry white balsam, or balsam of Tolu, by which it is known in the shops. By boiling the bark in water a dark coloured liquid is procured, which retains its fluid consist- ence, and is called black Peruvian balsam. According to Ruiz, from whose account the above details were derived, " there is no difference in these three balsams, excepting in the name, colour, and consistence." It is only the dark coloured liquid that is known with us by the name of balsam of Peru, and to this the following remarks are confined. In stating that it is procured by boiling the bark in water, Ruiz does not speak from his own knowledge. A general opinion is, that it is pre- pared by decoction from the smaller branches. As brought into the United States, it is usually in tin canisters, with a whitish scum upon its surface, and more or less deposite, which, however, is dissolved by heat. Properties.-— Balsam of Peru is viscid like syrup or honey, of a dark reddish-brown colour, a fragrant odour, and a warm bitterish taste, leav- ing when swallowed a burning or prickling sensation in the throat. Its sp. gr. is from 1.14 to 1.15. When exposed to flame it takes fire, dif- fusing a white smoke, and a fragrant odour. Consisting chiefly of re- sin, essential oil, and benzoic acid, it is properly considered a balsam, though probably altered by heat. Alcohol in large proportion entirely dissolves it. Boiling water extracts the benzoic acid. From 1000 parts of the balsam, Stoltze obtained 24 parts of a brown nearly insoluble re- sinous matter, 207 of resin readily soluble, 690 of oil, 64 of benzoic acid, 6 of extractive matter, and a small proportion of water. The oil he con- siders to be of a peculiar nature, differing from the volatile, the fixed, and the empyreumatic oils. Medical Properties and Uses.—This balsam is a warm stimulating tonic and expectorant; and has been recommended in chronic catarrhs, certain forms of asthma, phthisis, and other pectoral complaints attended with debility. It has also been used in gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, amenorrhoea, chronic rheumatism, and palsy. At present, however, it is little em- ployed by American physicians. As an external application it has been found beneficial in chronic indolent ulcers. The dose is half a fluidrachm. It is best administered diffused in water by means of sugar and the yolk of eggs or gum arabic. MYRRHA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Bub. Myrrh. " Balsamodendron myrrha. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Myrrhe, Fr., Germ.,- Mirra, Hal, Span.; Mun;Jlrab; Bowl, Hindoost. Though myrrh has been employed from the earliest periods of his- tory, the plant which yields it has not been certainly known till a very recent period. The Amyris Kataf of Forskhal, seen by that traveller in Arabia, was supposed by him to be the myrrh tree, but without suffi- cient evidence. More recently Ehrenberg, a German traveller, met on PART I. Myrrha. 429 the frontiers of Arabia Felix with a plant, from the bark of which he collected a gum-resin precisely similar to the myrrh of commerce. From specimens of the plant taken by Ehrenberg to Germany, Nees of Esen- beck referred it to the genus Balsamodendron of Kunth, and named it Balsamodendron Myrrha. This genus was formed by Kunth from the Amyris, and includes the Amyris Kataf of Forskhal, which may possibly also produce a variety of myrrh. The new genus differs from the Amy- ris, chiefly in having the stamens beneath instead of upon the germ. It is not thought by De Candolle sufficiently distinct. For the generic character of Amyris, see Elemi. Balsamodendron Myrrha. Fee, Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm. i. 641. This is a small tree, with a stunted trunk, covered with a whitish-gray bark, and furnished with rough abortive branches terminating in spines. The leaves are ternate, consisting of obovate, blunt, smooth, obtusely denti- culate leaflets, of which the two lateral are much smaller than that at the end. The fruit is oval lanceolate, pointed, longitudinally furrowed, of a brown colour, and surrounded at its base by the persistent calyx. The tree grows in Arabia Felix, in the neighbourhood of Gison, in dwarfish thickets, interspersed among the Acaciae and Euphorbiae. The juice exudes spontaneously, and concretes upon the bark. Two varieties of myrrh are distinguished in the market—the India and the Turkey myrrh—the former imported from the East Indies, the latter from the. Levant. It is said that the India myrrh is collected in Abyssinia, and thence taken to the ports of Hindostan, while that which goes under the name of Turkey myrrh, is brought from Arabia by the route of Egypt. Properties.—Myrrh is in small irregular fragments somewhat like tears, or in larger masses composed apparently of agglutinated portions differing somewhat in their shade of colour. When of good quality it is reddish-yellow, and translucent, of a strong peculiar somewhat fragrant odour, and a bitter aromatic taste. It is brittle and pulverizable, present- ing, when broken, a shining surface, which in the larger masses is very irregular. Under the teeth it is at first friable, but soon softens and be- comes adhesive. It is inflammable, but does not burn vigorously; and is not fusible by heat. Its specific gravity is stated at 1.36. Turkey myrrh, to the best of which the above description is applicable, gene- rally much excels in quality that imported from the East Indies. The latter is much darker, more opaque, less odorous, and often abounds with impurities. We have seen pieces of India myrrh enclosing large crystals of common salt, as if the juice might have fallen from the tree and concreted upon the ground, where this mineral abounds. Is not this fact confirmatory of the statement that the India myrrh is partly at least brought originally from Abyssinia, where we know that salt exists abundantly in some places upon the surface of the earth? Myrrh is partially soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Triturated with water it forms an opaque yellowish solution, which deposites the larger portion of the myrrh upon standing. The alcoholic tincture is rendered opaque by the addition of water, but throws down no precipi- tate. According to Neumann, alcohol and water severally extract the whole of its odour and taste. By distillation a volatile oil rises, having the peculiar flavour of myrrh, and leaving the residue in the retort simply bitter. The gum-resin is soluble in the liquid alkalies, and when triturated with them in a crystalline state forms a tenacious liquid. Braconnot found 23 parts of an odorous bitter resin, and 77 of a pecu- liar gummy substance in the hundred. Pelletier gives as the result of 430 Myrrha.—Nux Vomica. PART I. his analysis, 34 per cent, of resin, with a small proportion of volatile oil, and 66 per cent, of gum. According to Brandes, it contains in one hundred parts, 2.6 of volatile oil, 22.22 of soft resin, 5.4 of a resinoid substance, 54.38 of gum with traces of various salts, 9.36 of tragacan- thin (bassorin), besides a small^portion of vegeto-animal matter, with salts of potassa and lime, water, and impurities. Medical Properties and Uses.—Myrrh is a stimulant tonic, with some tendency to the lungs, and perhaps to the uterus. Hence it is employ- ed as an expectorant and emmenagogue, in debilitated states of the sys- tem, in the absence of febrile excitement or acute inflammation. The complaints in which it is usually administered are chronic catarrh, phthisis pulmonalis, humoral asthma, other pectoral affections in which the secretion of mucus is abundant but not easily expectorated, chloro- sis, amenorrhoea, and the various affections connected with this state of the uterine function. It is generally given combined with the chaly- beates or other tonics, and in amenorrhoea, very frequently with aloes. It is used also as a local application to spongy gums, the aphthous sore mouth of children, and various kinds of unhealthy ulcers. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, and may be given in the form of powder or pill, or suspended in water, as in the famous antihectic mixture of Dr. Griffith, which has been introduced into the Pharmacopoeias with the title of Mistura Ferri Composita. The watery infusion is also sometimes given, and an aqueous extract has been recommended as milder than the medicine in substance. The tincture is used chiefly as an external application. Off. Prep. Decoct. Aloes Comp., Dub.; Mistura Ferri Comp., U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pil. Aloes et Myrrhae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Assae- foetid. Comp., Ed.; Pil. Ferri Comp., U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pil. Galbani Comp., Lond., Dub.; Pil. Rhei Comp., U.S., Ed.; Tinct. Aloes iEthe- rea, Ed.; Tinct. Aloes et Myrrhae, Ed.; Tinct. Myrrhae, U.S., Lond. Ed., Dub. NUX VOMICA. U.S., Bub. JYux Vomica. "Strychnos nux vomica. Semina. The seeds." U.S. Noix vomique, Fr.; Krahenaugen, Brechnasse, Germ.; Noce vomica, ltal.; Nuez vomica, Span. Strychnos. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Apocy- neae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla five-cleft. Berry one-celled, with a ligneous rind. Willd. Strychnos Nux Vomica. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1052; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 222. t. 79. This tree is of a moderate size, with numerous strong branches covered with a smooth, dark gray bark. The young branches are long, flexuous, very smooth, dark green, and furnished with oval roundish, entire, smooth and shining leaves, having three or five ribs, and placed opposite to each other on short footstalks. The flowers are small, white, funnel-shaped, and disposed in terminal corymbs. The fruit is a round berry, about as large as an orange, covered with a smooth, yellow, or orange-coloured, hard, fragile rind, and containing numerous seeds embedded in a juicy pulp. The tree is a native of the East Indies, growing in Malabar, on the coast of Coromandel, in Ceylon, in numerous islands of the Indian part i. Nux Vomica. 431 Archipelago, in Cochin China, and other neighbouring countries. The wood and the root are very bitter, and employed in the East Indies for the cure of intermittents. The radices colubrinae, and lignum colubri- num, of the older writers, which have been long known in Europe as narcotic poisons, are ascribed by some writers to this species of Strych- nos, under the impression that it is identical with the & Colubrina, to which Linnaeus refers them. They have been ascertained by Pelletier and Caventou to contain a large quantity of strychnia. The only officinal portion of the plant is the seeds, and to these it is that the title of nux vomica is applied. They are flat, circular, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, and two or three lines in thickness, generally somewhat curved, with a depression on one side, and a corresponding prominence on the other. They are thickly covered with fine, silky, shining, ash-coloured or yel- lowish-gray hairs, attached to a thin fragile coating, which closely in- vests the interior nucleus or kernel. This is very hard, horny, usually whitish and semitransparent, sometimes dark coloured and opaque, and of very difficult pulverization. The seeds are destitute of odour, but have an acrid very bitter taste, which is much stronger in the kernel than in the investing membrane. They impart their virtues to water, but more readily to diluted alcohol. Nux vomica has been analyzed by several chemists, but- most accurately by Pelletier and Caventou, who discovered in it two alkaline principles, strychnia and brucia, united with a peculiar acid which they named igasuric. Its other constituents are a yellow colouring matter, a concrete oil, gum, starch, bassorin, and a small quantity of wax. Strychnia and brucia are its active prin- ciples, and as they have been employed in the separate state, deserve a particular consideration. Strychnia was discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, A.D. 1818, both in the nux vomica and bean of St. Ignatius, and received its name from the generic title of the plants (Strychnos), to which these two products belong. According to these chemists, it exists much more abundantly in the bean of St. Ignatius than in the nux vomica, the former yielding 1.2 per cent., the latter only .4 per cent, of the alkali. Pure strychnia crystallizes in quadrilateral prisms, terminated by quadrilateral pyra- mids. Rapidly crystallized, it is in the form of a white granular pow- der. It is permanent in the air, inodorous, but excessively bitter, with a metallic after taste. So intense is the bitterness, that-one part of strych- nia communicates a sensible taste to 600,000 parts of water. It is neither volatile nor fusible, being melted by heat only at the moment of decom- position, which takes place, however, at a comparatively low tempera- ture. It is soluble in 6667 parts of water at 50°, and about 2500 parts at the boiling point. Alcohol and the volatile oils dissolve it freely, ether very sparingly. The acids unite with it to form crystallizable salts. Its ultimate constituents are carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. It may be obtained by the following process. Prepare a decoction of nux vomica previously rasped, or; what is better, boil the alcoholic extract in water. Treat the solution with an excess of subacetate of lead, which precipitates various foreign mat- ters, leaving the strychnia and brucia dissolved. Throw down the ex- cess of lead by hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen); filter the solution; boil it in order to expel the excess of hydrosulphuric acid; then boil with magnesia, which decomposes the salts of strychnia and brucia, and precipitates these alkalies mingled with the excess of mag- nesia. Collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it with cold water, and 432 Nux Vomica. PART I. treat it with boiling alcohol, which dissolves the vegetable alkalies, leaving the magnesia. Filter the. liquor while still hot, and evaporate it to dryness. A mixture of strychnia, brucia, and colouring matter is thus obtained. Treat the mixture with cold dilute alcohol, which dis- solves the brucia and colouring matter, leaving the strychnia in the form of a powder. This may be purified by dissolving it in boiling rec- tified alcohol, which on cooling deposites the strychnia, and yields still more by evaporation; while a small quantity of brucia which had es- caped the weak alcohol, remains in the mother liquor. To purify it still further it may be dissolved in a diluted acid, the saline solution treated with animal charcoal,, and precipitated by an alkali; and the precipitated strychnia washed, dissolved in alcohol, and obtained in a crystalline state by evaporation. The salts of strychnia are very soluble, intensely bitter, and powerful in their action on the system. They are precipitated from their solu- tions by tannin. The sulphate is sometimes employed. It is soluble in less than six times its weight of cold water, and consists of 9.5 parts of acid and 90.5 of base in the hundred. The mineral acids, acetic, tar- taric, and citric acids, added to strychnia, render it more soluble, and therefore more energetic in its action on the system. Brucia was discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, first in the bark called false Angustura, (see Angustura,) and subsequently, associated with strychnia, in the nux vomica and bean of Saint Ignatius. It is crys- tallizable; without smell, but of a permanent, harsh very bitter taste; soluble in 850 parts of cold, and 500 of boiling water; and very soluble in alcohol, whether hot or cold. It is permanent in the air, but melts at a temperature a little above that of boiling water, and on cooling congeals into a mass resembling wax. It forms crystallizable salts with the acids. Concentrated nitric acid produces with brucia or its salts an intense crimson colour, which changes to yellow by heat, and upon the addition of protomuriate of tin becomes violet. These effects are pecu- liar to brucia, and if produced with strychnia, evince the presence of the former alkali. Brucia is analogous in its operation to strychnia, but pos- sesses, according to M. Andral jun., only about one-twelfth of its strength, when the latter principle is entirely pure. It is therefore seldom em- ployed; and it is unnecessary to insert a process for its preparation. It is sufficient to observe, that it may be procured from false Angustura bark, in a manner essentially the same with that in which strychnia is procured from the nux vomica, with this difference, that the alcoholic extract obtained from the magnesian precipitate should be treated with oxalic acid, and subsequently with a mixture of rectified alcohol and ether, which take up the colouring matter, leaving the oxalate of bru- cia. This is decomposed by magnesia, and the brucia separated by al- cohol, which, by spontaneous evaporation, yields it in the state of crystals. Medical Properties and Uses.—Nux vomica is very peculiar in its ope- ration upon the system. It appears to be chiefly directed to the nerves of motion, probably through the medium of the spinal marrow. When given in a quantity sufficient to bring the system under its influence, it produces involuntary contractions of the muscles, which are usually of that permanently rigid character which we observe in tetanus; but at the same time there occur frequent and sometimes violent starts or muscular spasms, alternating with intervals of relaxation, as if the pa- tient had received a shock of electricity. A sense of heat in the sto- mach, constriction of the abdomen, tightness of the chest, and reten- PART I. Nux Vomica. 433 tion of urine are also frequently experienced, to a greater or less ex- tent, according to the quantity of the medicine administered. Given to the inferior animals in fatal doses it produces great anxiety, difficult and confined breathing, retching to vomit, universal tremors, spasmodic action of the muscles, and ultimately violent convulsions. Death is sup- posed to take place from a suspension of respiration, resulting from a spasmodic constriction of the muscles concerned in the process. Upon dissection, no traces of inflammatory action are observable, unless large quantities of the nux vomica have been swallowed, when the stomach appears inflamed. A division of the spinal marrow near the occiput, does not prevent the peculiar effects of the medicine, so that the inter- vention of the brain is not essential to its action. That it enters the cir- culation and is brought into contact with the parts upon which it acts, is rendered evident by the experiments of Magendie and others. It has long been remedially employed in India, and was known as a medicine to the Arabian physicians. On the continent of Europe it has at various times been recommended as an antidote to the plague, and as a remedy in intermittents, worms, mania, hypochondriasis, hysteria, rheumatism, hydrophobia, and dysentery; but in none of these com- plaints is it now much employed. Its peculiar influence upon the nerves of motion, to which the public attention was first called by Magendie, suggested to M. Fouquier, a French physician, the application of the remedy to paralytic affections; and his success was such as to induce him to communicate to the public the result of his experience. Others have subsequently employed it with variable success; but thecxperience in its favour so much predominates, that it may now be considered a standard remedy in palsy. It is a singular fact, attested by numerous witnesses, that its action is directed more especially to the paralytic part, exciting contraction in this before it is extended to other muscles. The medicine, however, should be administered with judgment, and never given in cases depending on inflammation or organic lesion of the brain or spinal marrow, until after the removal of the primary affection by bleeding or other depletory measures. It has been found more suc- cessful in general palsy and paraplegia than in hemiplegia, and has fre- quently effected cures in palsy of the bladder, incontinence of urinefrom paralysis of the sphincter, in amaurosis, and other cases of partial palsy. Nux vomica may be given in powder in the dose of five grains, re- peated three or four times a day, and gradually increased till its effects are experienced. In this form, however, it is very uncertain; and fifty grains have been given with little or no effect. It is most readily re- duced to powder by filing or grating; and the raspings maybe rendered finer by first steaming them, then drying them by stove heat, and lastly rubbing them in a mortar. ' The alcoholic extract is more convenient and more certain in its operation. From half a grain to two grains may be given in the form of pill, repeated as before, and gradually increased. (See Extractum Nucis Vomicae.) The watery extract is comparatively feeble. Strychnia has recently been much used, and possesses the advantage of greater certainty and uniformity of action. Its effects are precisely similar. With the exception of prussic acid, it is perhaps the most violent poison with which we are acquainted, and should therefore be administered with great caution. Dr. Bardsley bears very decided tes- timony to its favourable effects in palsy. He gave it in thirty-five cases, of which twenty-two were hemiplegia, and thirteen paraplegia; of the former, twelve were cured-and eight considerably relieved; of the latter, 55 434 Nux Vomica.—Olea. PART I. eleven were cured and one relieved. The duration of the treatment was from six weeks or less to three months. The dose of strychnia is from one-twelfth to one-sixth of a grain, repeated twice or three times a day, and gradually increased. Dr. Bardsley began with one-sixth of a grain, and seldom increased the dose to half a grain, three times a day, without producing spasmodic symptoms. The system is not so soon habituated to its impression as to that of the narcotics generally, so that after its effects are experienced it is unnecessary to go on increasing the dose. Strychnia has been applied externally with advantage in amaurosis. It should be sprinkled upon a blistered surface, near the temples, in the quantity of a half a grain or a grain morning and evening, and the quantity may be gradually augmented. It has also been given internally with favourable results in the same complaint. The best form of ad- ministration is that of pill, in consequence of the excessive bitterness of the solution. Strychnia may, however, be given, dissolved in alco- hol, or in water, by the intervention of an acid. Brucia may be used for the same purposes with strychnia in the dose of one grain twice or three times a day. Dr. Bardsley found that the quantity of two grains three or four times a day, was seldom exceeded without the occurrence of the characteristic effects of the medicine. Magendie has found this alkali very useful in small doses as a tonic. He employed for this purpose, one-eighth of a grain, frequently re- peated. Off. Prep. Extractum Nucis Vomicae, Dub. OLEA. Oils. These are liquid or solid substances, characterized by an unctuous feel, inflammability, and the property of leaving a greasy stain upon paper. They are divided into two classes, the fixed and volatile, distin- guished, as their names imply, by their different habitudes in relation to the vaporizing influence of caloric. 1. OLEA FIXA. Fixed Oils. The oils thus designated by the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, are less correctly termed Olea expressa, expressed oils, by the London and Dub- lin Colleges; for they are not obtained exclusively by expression; and this process is sometimes employed in procuring the volatile oils. They are not designated as a class in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The fixed oils, though existing in greater or less proportion in various parts of plants, are furnished for use exclusively by the fruit; and, as a general rule, are most abundant in the dicotyledonous seeds. They are obtained either by submitting the bruised seeds to pressure in hempen bags, or by boiling them in water, and skimming off the oil as it rises to the surface. When pressure is employed, it is customary to prepare the seeds for the press, by exposing them to a moderate heat, so as to render the oil more liquid, and thus enable it to flow out more readily. The consistence of the fixed oils varies from that of tallow to perfect fluidity; but by far the greater number are liquid at ordinary tempera- tures. They are somewhat viscid, transparent, and usually of a yellow- ish colour, which disappears when they are treated with animal char- coal. When pure they have little taste or smell. They are lighter than water, varying in specific gravity from .913 to .936. (Berzelius.) They PART I. Olea Fixa. 435 differ very much in their point of congelation, olive oil becoming solid a little above 32° F., while linseed oii remains fluid at 4° below zero. They are not volatilizable without decomposition. At about 600° they boil, and are converted into vapour, which, when condensed, is found to contain a large proportion of oleic and margaric acids together with benzoic acid, another volatile acid, and an empyreumatic oil. Exposed to a red heat, in close vessels, they yield, among other products of the destructive distillation of vegetables, a large quantity of the combusti- ble compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Heated in the open air they take fire, burning with a bright flame, and producing water and carbo- nic acid. When kept in air-tight vessels, they remain unchanged for a great length of time; but exposed to the atmosphere, they attract oxy- gen, and ultimately become concrete. Some, in drying, lose their unc- tuous feel, and are converted into a transparent, yellowish, flexible solid. These are called drying oils. Others, especially such as contain muci- laginous impurities, become rancid, acquiring a sharp taste and un- pleasant smell. This change is owing to the formation of an acid, from which the oil may be freed by boiling it for a short time with hydrate of magnesia and water. The fixed oils are insoluble in water, but are miscible with that fluid by means of mucilage, forming mixtures which are called emulsions. They are in general very sparingly soluble in al- cohol, but readily dissolved by ether, which serves to separate them from other vegetable proximate principles. By the aid of heat they dissolve sulphur and phosphorus. Chlorine and iodine are converted by them into muriatic and hydriodic acids, which reacting upon the oils increase their consistence, and ultimately render them as hard as wax. The stronger acids decompose them, giving rise, among other products, to the oleic and margaric acids. Boiled with diluted nitric acid, they are converted into malic and oxalic acids, besides other substances usually resulting from the action of this acid upon vegetable matter. Several acids are dissolved by them without producing any sensible change. They combine with salifiable bases; but at the moment of combination undergo a change, by which they are converted into a peculiar sub- stance, called glycerin, and into the oleic, margaric, and perhaps stea- ric acids, which unite with the metallic oxide* The compounds of these acids with potassa and soda are called soaps. (See Sapo and Emplas- trum Plumbi.) The fixed oils dissolve many of the vegetable alkalies, the volatile oils, resin, and other proximate principles of plants. They have been ascertained byChevreul to consist of two distinct substances, one of which is liquid at ordinary temperatures, and therefore called elain, (from c%.regriation is more complete whe#water is distilled with the oils, or from the plants con- taining them. Trituration with niagnesia or its carbonate renders them much more soluble, probably in consequence of presenting, by their minute division, a more extensive Surface to the action of the solvent. The intervention of sugar also greatly increases their solubility, and affords a convenient method of preparing them for internal use. Most of them are very soluble in alcohol, and in a degree proportionate to its freedom from water. The oils which contain no oxygen, are scarcely soluble in diluted alcohol; and, according to Saussure, their solubility generally in this liquid is proportionate to the quantity of oxygen which they contain. They are readily dissolved by ether. • The oil of the Gaultheria procumbens, a native plant, is said to have the extraordi- nary sp. gr. of 1.17. Journ. of the Phil Col. of Pharm. iii. 199. PART I. Olea Volatilia. 437 The volatile oils dissolve sulphur and phosphorus with the aid of heat, and deposite them on cooling. By long boiling with sulphur they form brown, unctuous, fetid substances, formerly called balsams of sul- phur. They absorb chlorine, which converts them into resin, and then combines with the resin. Iodine produces a similar effect. They are decomposed by the strong mineral acids, and unite with several of those from the vegetable kingdom. With the exception of the oil of cloves, they do not combine directly with salifiable bases; but when treated with a caustic alkali, they are converted into resin, which unites with the alkali to form a kind of soap. Several of the metallic oxides, and various salts which easily part with oxygen, convert them into resin. The volatile oils dissolve many of the proximate principles of plants and animals, such as the fixed oils and fats, resin, camphor, and several of the vegetable alkalies. The volatile, like the fixed oils, consist of distinct principles, which are congealed at different temperatures, and maybe separated by com- pressing the frozen oil between the folds of bibulous paper. The solid matter remains within the folds; and the fluid is absorbed by the pa- per, from which it may be separated by distillation with water. The name of slearoptene has been proposed for the former, that of eleoplene for the latter. Certain oils deposite stearoptene upon standing. The ultimate constituents of the volatile oils are usually carbon, hy- drogen, and oxygen. Some, as the oils of turpentine and copaiba, are said to contain only carbon and hydrogen. Several, according to De Saussure, have a very minute proportion of nitrogen in their composi- tion. These oils are often sophisticated. Among the most common adul- terations are fixed oils, resinous substances, and alcohol. The fixed oils may be discovered by the permanent stain which they leave on paper, while that occasioned by a pure Volatile oil disappears entirely when exposed to heat. They may .also- in general be detected by their compa- rative insolubility in alcohol*" Both the fixed oils and resins are left behind when the adulterated otli$.distilled with water. If alcohol is present, the oil becomes m^gfoijffhen agitated with water, and after the separa- tion of the liqu^fefTBejVatej occupies more space, and the oil less than before. The^mlowin^methdd of detecting alcohol is proposed by M. Beral. Put twelve drops o1! the suspected oil in a perfectly dry watch- glass, and add a piece of potassium about as large as the head of a pin. If the potassium remain for twelve or fifteen minutes in the midst of the liquid, there is either no alcohol present, or less than four per cent. If it disappear in five minutes, the oil contains more than four per cent, of alcohol; if in less than a minute, twenty-five per cent, or more. Some- times oils of little value are mixed with those which are costly. The taste and smell afford in this case the best means of detecting the fraud. The specific gravity of the oils may also serve as a test of their purity. When oils of which one is lighter and one heavier than water are mix- ed, they are separated by long agitation with this fluid, and will take a place corresponding to their respective specific gravities. But it some- times happens that an unadulterated oil may thus be separated into two portions. When the oil of turpentine is used as the adulteration, it may be known by remaining in part undissolved when the mixture is treated with three or four times its volume of alcohol, of the sp. gr. .84. Volatile oils may be preserved without change in small well-stopped bottles, entirely filled with the oil, and excluded from the light. 438 Oleum Amygdalae.—Oleum Bubulum. part r. OLEUM AMYGDALAE. U.S. Oil of Almonds. "Amygdalus communis. Nucleorum oleum fixum. The fixed oil of fll€ JcSTWBlS ** TJ $ Off. Syn. OLEUM AMYGDALARUM, Lond., Dub.; OLEUM AMYGDALI COMMUNIS, Ed. Huile d'amandes, Fr.; Mandel-oel, Germ.; Olio di mandorle, Hal; Aceyte de al- mendras, Span. See AMYGDALA. This oil is obtained equally pure from sweet and bitter almonds. In its preparation, the almonds, after having been deprived of a reddish- brown powder adhering to their surface, by rubbing them together in a piece of coarse linen, are ground in a mill resembling a coffee-mill, or bruised in a stone mortar, and then submitted to pressure in canvass sacks between plates of iron slightly heated. The oil, which is at first turbid, is clarified by rest and filtration. The London College directs the oil to be prepared by macerating the almonds in cold water for twelve hours, bruising them, and then expressing without heat. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges employ the same process, omitting the previous maceration. Sometimes the almonds are steeped in very hot water, deprived of their cuticle, and dried in a stove previously to ex- pression. The oil is thus obtained free from colour, b.ut in no other re- spect better. Bitter almonds, when treated in this way, are said to impart a-smell of hydrocyanic acid to the oil. With regard to these, therefore, the process is objectionable. M. Boullay obtained fifty-four per cent, of oil from sweet almonds. The oil of almonds is clear and colourless, or slightly tinged of a greenish-yellow, is nearly inodorous, and has a bland sweetish taste. It remains liquid at temperatures considerably below the freezing point of water. Its sp. gr. is from .917 to .92. It may be used for the same purposes with olive oil; and when sus- pended in water by means of mucilage or the yolk of eggs and loaf sugar, forms a very pleasant emulsion, useful in catarrhal and other pulmonary affections attended with cough. From a fluidrachm to a fluidounce may be given at a dose. Off. Prep. Unguentum Aquae Rosae. U. S. OLEUM BUBULUM. U.S. JYeats-foot Oil. " Bos domesticus. Oleum ex ossibus praeparatum. The oil prepared from the bones." U.S. Huile de pied de boeuf, Fr.; Ochsenf iisse-oel, Germ. Neats-foot oil is obtained by boiling in water for a long time the feet of the ox, previously deprived of their hoof. The fat and oil which rise to the surface are removed, and introduced into a fresh portion of water heated nearly to the boiling point. The impurities having subsided, the oil is drawn off, and, if required to be very pure, is again introduced into water, which is kept for twenty-four hours sufficiently warm to en- able the fat which is mixed with the oil to separate from it. The liquid being then allowed to cool, the fat concretes, and the oil is removed and part i. Oleum Bubulum.—Oleum Cajuputi. 43i strained, or filtered through layers of small fragments of charcoal free from powder. This oil is yellowish, and when properly prepared, inodorous and of a bland taste. It thickens or congeals with great difficulty, and is there- fore very useful for greasing machinery in order to prevent friction. It was introduced into the officinal catalogue of the United States Pharmacopoeia as an ingredient of the ointment of nitrate of mercury. Off. Prep. Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis, U.S. OLEUM CAJUPUTI. U.S. Secondary. Cajuput Oil. " Melaleuca cajuputi. Oleum volatile. The volatile oil."- U.S. Off. Syn. CAJUPUTI OLEUM. Melaleuca Cajuputi. Oleum essen- tiale. Lond.; MELALEUCA LEUCADENDRI OLEUM VOLA- TILE. Ed. ; MELALEUCA LEUCADENDRON. Oleum volatile Cajeput. Dub. Huile de cajeput, Fr.; Kajeputbl, Germ.; Olio di cajeput, Hal; Kayuputieh, Malay. Melaleuca. Class Polyadelphia. Order Icosandria.—Nat. Ord. Myrti, Juss.; Myrtaceae, B. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, semi-superior. Corolla five-petalled. 'Sta- mens about forty-five, very long, conjoined in five bodies. Style single. Capsule three-celled. Seeds numerous. Roxburgh. It was long supposed that the oil of cajuput was derived from the Melaleuca leucadendron; but from specimens of the plant which really yields this medicine, sent from the Moluccas and cultivated in the *• botanical garden of Calcutta, it appears to be a distinct species, upon which the trivial name of Cajuputi has been conferred. It corresponds with the arbor alba minor of Rumphius, and is a smaller plant than the M. leucadendron. Melaleuca Cajuputi. Rumphius, Herbar. Amboinense, torn. ii. tab. 17; Roxburgh, Tr. Lond. Med. Bot. Soc, A.D. 1829; Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., vol. i. p. 193. This is a small tree, with an erect but crooked stem, and scattered branches, the slender twigs of which droop like those of the weeping willow. The bark is of a whitish-ash colour, very thick, soft, spongy, and lamellated, throwing off its exterior layer from time to time in flakes, like the birch tree. The leaves have short footstalks; are alternate, lanceolate, when young sericeous, when full grown smooth, deep green, three and five-nerved, slightly falcate, en- tire, from three to five inches long, from one half to three quarters of an inch broad; and when bruised exhale a strong aromatic odour. The flowers, which are small, white, inodorous, and sessile, are disposed in terminal and axillary downy spikes, with solitary, lanceolate, three- flowered bractes. The filaments are three or four times longer than the petals, and both are inserted in the rim of the calyx. This species of Melaleuca is a native of the Moluccas, and other neighbouring islands. The oil is obtained from the leaves by distilla- tion. It is prepared chiefly in Amboyna and Bouro, and is exported from the East Indies in glass bottles. The small proportion yielded by the leaves, and the extensive use made of it in India, render it very costly. Properties.—Cajuput oil is very fluid, transparent, of a fine bluish- green colour, a lively and penetrating odour analogous to that of cam- phor, and a warm pungent taste. It is very volatile, lighter than wa- 440 Oleum Cajuputi.—Oleum Caryophylli. part i. ter, (sp. gr. .978 at 48°,) and burns without any residue. The green colour is ascribed by some writers to the presence of a salt of copper derived from the vessels in which the distillation is performed; but neither Brande nor Gcertner could detect copper by chemical reagents. M. Lesson, who witnessed the process for preparing the oil at Bouro, attributes its colour to chlorophylle, or some analogous principle, and states that it is rendered colourless by rectification. Guibourt, more- over, obtained a green oil by distilling the leaves of a Melaleuca culti- vated at Paris. The high price of cajuput oil has led to its occasional adulteration. The oil of rosemary, or that of turpentine, impregnated with camphor and coloured with the resin of milfoil, is said to be employed for the purpose. Medical Properties and Uses.—This oil is highly stimulant, producing when swallowed a sense of heat, with an increased fulness and frequency of pulse, and exciting in some instances profuse perspiration. It is very highly esteemed by the Malays and other people of the East, who con- sider it a universal panacea. (Lesson, Journ. de Chim. Med. 1827.) They are said to employ it with great success in epilepsy and palsy. (Ainslie.) The complaints to which it is best adapted are probably chronic rheu- matism, and spasmodic affections of the stomach and bowels, uncon- nected with inflammation. Diluted with an equal proportion of olive oil, it is applied externally to relieve gouty and rheumatic pains. Like most other highly stimulating essential oils, it relieves toothach, if in- troduced into the hollow of the carious tooth. It is little used in the United States. The dose is from one to five drops, given in emulsion, or upon a lump of sugar. OLEUM CARYOPHYLLI. U.S. Oil of Cloves. " Eugenia caryophyllata. Gemmarum floralium oleum volatile. The volatile oil of the flower-buds." U. S. Off. Syn. CARYOPHYLLORUM OLEUM. Lond.; EUGENIA CARYOPHYLLATJE OLEUM VOLATILE. Ex floribus nondum explicitis. Ed.; EUGENIA CARYOPHILLATA. Oleum volatile. Dub. Huile de girofle, Fr.; Nelkenbl, Germ.; Olio di garofani, ltal; Aceyte de clavos, Span. See CARYOPHYLLUS. This oil is obtained by distilling cloves with water, to which it is customary to add common salt, in order to raise the temperature of ebullition; and the water should be repeatedly distilled from the same cloves, in order completely to exhaust them. The product of good cloves is said to be about one-sixth of their weight. The oil was for- merly brought from Holland or the East Indies; but since the intro- duction of the Cayenne cloves into our markets, the reduced price and su- perior freshness of the drug have rendered the distillation of oil of cloves profitable in this country; and the best now sold is of domestic extrac- tion. We have been informed that from seven to nine pounds of cloves yield to our distillers about one pound of the oil. Properties.—Oil of cloves, when recently distilled, is very fluid, clear, and colourless, but becomes yellowish by exposuref. and ultimately brown. As found in our shops it is frequently df a'tfefldish-brown co- part i. Oleum Caryophylli.—Oleum Cinnamomi. 441 lour, answering in appearance to the oil described by Lewis, and after him by other British writers on the Materia Medica, as derived from the Dutch. In the properties of taste and smell, the oil resembles cloves, but is comparatively less pungent. The taste of the Dutch oil of cloves is more pungent and fiery than that freshly obtained by distilla- tion, owing, as is supposed, to the presence of a portion of the resin. The sp. gr. of the oil, according to Bonastre, is 1.061. It is one of the least volatile of the essential oils; and requires for congelation a tem- perature from zero of Fahrenheit to —4°. It is completely soluble in alcohol, ether, and strong acetic acid. Nitric acid changes its colour to a deep red, and converts it by the aid of heat into oxalic acid. It combines directly with the mineral alkalies, forming soluble and crys- tallizable compounds. When long kept it deposites a crystalline stearop- tene. It is frequently adulterated Avith fixed oils, and sometimes also with oil of pimento and with copaiba. The oil of cloves should sink in pure water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Its medical effects are similar to those of cloves, and it is used for the same purposes; but its most common employment is as a corrigent of other medicines. Like other powerful irritants it is sometimes effectual in relieving toothach, when introduced into the cavity of a carious tooth. The dose is from two to six minims. Off. Prep. Alcohol Ammoniatum Aromaticum, U.S.; Confectio Scam- monii, U.S.; Pilulae Colocynthidis Compositae, Ed., Dub. OLEUM CINNAMOMI. U.S. Oil of CinnamOn. " Laurus cinnamomum. Corticis oleum volatile. The volatile oil of the bark." U.S. Off Syn. CINNAMOMI OLEUM. Lond.; LAURUS CINNAMO- MUM. Oleum volatile. Dub. Huile de cannelle, Fr.; Zimmtbl, Germ.; Olio di cannella, Hal; Aceyte de cane- la, Span. See CINNAMOMUM. This oil is prepared exclusively in the East. In Ceylon, the cinnamon which is not considered of sufficiently good quality for the East India Company's investment, is occasionally appropriated to this purpose. The following account of the method of extraction is given by Mar- shall. The bark, having been coarsely powdered, is macerated for two days in sea-water, and then submitted to distillation. A light and a heavy oil come over with the water, the former of which separates in a few hours, and swims upon the surface, the latter falls to the bottom of the receiver, and continues to be precipitated for ten or twelve days. In future distillations the saturated cinnamon water is employed in connexion with sea-water to macerate the cinnamon. Eighty pounds of the bark freshly prepared yield about two and a half ounces of the lighter oil, and five and a half of the heavier. From the same quantity of cinnamon which has been kept for several years in store, about half an ounce less of each oil is obtained. The two kinds are probably united in the oil of commerce. An oil is also distilled from the Chinese cinnamon or commercial cassia; but is inferior in flavour to that afforded by the aromatic of Ceylon, and commands a much smaller price. It is called oil of cassia. The two are said to be frequently mixed together. 442 Oleum Cinnamomi.—Oleum Euphorbias. part i. Recently prepared oil of cinnamon is of a light yellow colour, which becomes deeper by age, and ultimately reddish. It has the flavour of cinnamon in a concentrated state. When applied undiluted to the tongue it is excessively hot and pungent. Dr. Duncan states that it sometimes has a peppery taste, which he ascribes to an admixture of the leaves with the bark in the preparation of the oil. It is heavier than water, having the specific gravity 1.035. It congeals below the freezing point of water, and reassumes the liquid form at 41° F. Alcohol completely dissolves it; and as it does not rise in any considerable quantity at the boiling temperature of this liquid, it may be obtained by forming a tincture of cinnamon, and distilling off the menstruum. When very long kept it deposites a stearoptene in large, regular, colourless or yellowish crystals. The oil of cinnamon is said to be frequently adulte- rated with alcohol and fixed oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—It has the cordial and carminative pro- perties of the cinnamon, without its astringency; and is much employed as an adjuvant to other medicines, the taste of which it corrects or con- ceals, while it conciliates the stomach. As a powerful local stimulant, it is sometimes prescribed in gastrodynia, flatulent colic, and languor from gastric debility. The dose is one or two minims, which are most conveniently administered in the form of emulsion. Off.Prep. Alcohol Ammoniatum Aromaticum, U.S.; Aqua Cinnamo- mi, U.S.; Spiritus Cinnamomi, Lond. OLEUM EUPHORBLE. Oil of Euphorbia. Huile d'Epurge, Fr.; Springkbrnerbl, Germ. This is a fixed oil obtained from the seeds of the Euphorbia Lathyris. Though introduced neither into the British Pharmacopoeias nor that of the United States, it merits a brief notice from the circumstance that it has recently been considerably employed on the continent of Europe, and has attracted some attention in this country. Euphorbia. See EUPHORBIA COROLLATA. Euphorbia Lathyris. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 906. This is a biennial plant, with a white, branching, perpendicular root, and an erect, simple, round, smooth stem, from two to three feet high, of a glaucous green colour, and furnished with sessile, opposite, decussating, lanceolate, obtuse, entire, light green leaves. The flowers are at the summit of the stem, in a large umbel consisting of four dichotomous rays, which are furnished at each bifurcation with two large nearly heart-shaped bractes. The fruit is a large roundish capsule with three cells, each containing one yellowish seed. This species of Euphorbia is a native of Europe; and has been in- troduced into the United States. It is often found near gardens and in cultivated fields; and is generally called mole-plant, under the impression that moles avoid the grounds where it grows. (Pursh.) It is the caper plant of England. (Loudon's Encyc. of Plants.) Its flowers appear in July and August. Like the other species of Euphorbia it contains a milky juice, which is extremely acrid; and the whole plant possesses the properties of a drastic purge; but the oil of the seeds is the only part used in regular practice. This may be extracted by expression, or by the agency of alcohol or of ether. In the first case, the bruised seeds are pressed in a canvass or linen bag, and the oil which escapes is pu- parti. Oleum Euphorbias.—Oleum Fixum Coci Butyracex. 443 rifled by decanting it from the whitish flocculent matter which it depo- sites upon standing, and by subsequent filtration. By the latter process, the bruised seeds are digested in alcohol or macerated in ether, and the oil obtained by filtering and evaporating the solution. Three ounces of ether extract the oil from four ounces of the seeds by a maceration of twenty-four hours. When alcohol is used, the digestion should be at a temperature of from 120° to 140° F. (Chevallier?) The oil is colour- less, inodorous, and, when recent, nearly insipid; but it speedily ber comes rancid, and acquires a dangerous acrimony. From 40 to 44 parts are obtained by expression from 100 of the seeds. Medical Properties and Uses.—The oil of euphorbia is a powerful purge, operating with much activity in a dose varying from five to ten drops. It has within a few years been much used by some Italian and French physicians, who have not found it to produce inconvenient irri- tation of the stomach or bowels. Its want of taste, and the smallness of its dose, recommend it especially in the cases of infants. It is said to be less acrid and irritating than the croton oil, over which it also has the advantage of greater cheapness. Some trials which have been made with it on this side of the Atlantic have not tended to confirm these fa- vourable reports. It was found uncertain in its cathartic effect, and very liable to vomit. (Scattergood, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. iv. 124.) It may be given in pill with the crumb of bread, or in emulsion. OLEUM FIXUM COCI BUTYRACE^E. Ed. Palm Oil. Huile de palme, Fr.; Palmbl, Germ.; Aceyte de palma, Span. The Cocos butyracea belongs to the class and order Moncecia Hexan- dria, and to the family of the Palms. It grows in Brazil, and other parts of South America, and bears a nut, from the kernel of which an oil is obtained by expression, used by the natives in its recent state for dress- ing food, and when old for burning in lamps. But the Edinburgh Col- lege probably errs in ascribing the palm oil of commerce to this tree. That employed in Europe and the United States is thought to be de- rived chiefly from the Elais Guiniensis, a native of the western coast of Africa, and cultivated in the West Indies and South America. This is also a palm, and is placed by systematic writers in the class and order Dicecia Hexandria, though stated by others to be really monoecious. It is among the handsomest trees of its graceful family which flourish in the tropical regions of Africa. The oil is obtained by expression from the fruit. It is brought to this country chiefly from Liberia, and other places on the African coast, though prepared also in the West Indies, Cayenne, and Brazil. The probability is that various species of palms contribute to the supply of this article of commerce. Palm oil has the consistence of butter, a rich orange-yellow colour, a sweetish taste, and an agreeable odour, compared by some to that of violets, by others to that of the Florentine orris. By age and exposure it becomes rancid, and of a whitish colour. It melts with the heat of the hand, and when perfectly fluid passes readily through blotting pa- per. Highly rectified alcohol dissolves it at common temperatures, and in ether it is soluble in all proportions. According to M. Henry, it con- sists of 31 parts of stearin and 69 of elai'n. It is said to be frequently imitated by a mixture of lard and suet, coloured with turmeric, and scented with Florentine orris. The use to 444 Oleum Limonis.—Oleum Lini. tart i. which it is chiefly applied, is the manufacture of a toilet soap, which retains the pleasant odour of the oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—Palm oil is emollient, and has some- times been employed in friction or embrocation, though not superior for this purpose to many other oleaginous substances. OLEUM LIMONIS. U.S. Oil of Lemons. " Citrus medica. Fructus corticis oleum volatile. The volatile »il of the rind of the fruit." U. S. Off. Syn. LIMONUM OLEUM. Corticis exterioris oleum essentiale. Lond.; CITRI MEDICO OLEUM VOLATILE. Ex cortice fructus. Ed.; CITRUS MEDICA. Fructus tunicae exterioris oleum volatile. Dub. Huile de citron, Fr.; Cetronenbl, Germ.; Olio di limone, ltal; Aceyte de limon, Span. ' See LIMON. The exterior rind of the lemon abounds in an essential oil, which, as it is contained in distinct cellules, may be separated by simple expres- sion. The rind is first grated from the fruit, and then submitted to pressure in a bag of fine cloth. The oil thus obtained is allowed to stand till it becomes clear, when it is decanted, and preserved in stop- ped bottles. By a similar process, that delightful perfume, the essence of bergamot, is procured from the fruit of the Citrus bergamia vulgaris of Risso, or common bergamot tree; and the oil called by the French huile ide cedrat, from the citron, or fruit of the proper Citrus medica, of which the lemon-tree is a variety. All these oils may also be obtained by distillation; but thus procured, they have less of the peculiar flavour of the fruit, and the mode by expression is generally preferred. They are all brought originally from Italy, Portugal, or the South of France. Properties.—/The oil of lemons is a very volatile fluid, having the odour of the fruit, and a warm, pungent, aromatic taste. As ordinarily procured it is yellow, and has the specific gravity .8517; but by dis- tillation it is rendered colourless; and if three-fifths only are distilled, its sp. gr. is reduced to .847, at 71° F. In this state it is capable of absorbing almost half its weight of muriatic acid gas, by which it is converted into a crystalline substance, and a yellow, oily, fuming liquid. The crystals are analogous to the artificial camphor which results from the action of muriatic acid upon the oil of turpentine. The oil of lemons is often adulterated by the fixed oils and by alco- hol, the former of which may be detected by the permanent stain which it imparts to paper, the latter by the milkiness produced by the addi- tion of water. Medical Properties and Uses.—This oil has the stimulant properties of the aromatics; but is almost exclusively used to impart a pleasant fla- vour to other medicines. Off. Prep. Alcohol Ammoniatum Aromaticum, U.S., Ed., Dub. OLEUM LINI. U.S., Lond., Bub. Flaxseed Oil. " Linum usitatissimum. Seminum oleum. The oil of the seeds." U. S. Off. Syn. OLEUM LINI USITATISSIMI. Ed. part i. Oleum Lini.—Oleum Myristicse. 445 Linseed oil 5 Huile de lin, Fr.; Leinol, Germ.,- Olio di lino, Hal; Aceyte de linaza, Span. See LINUM. This oil is obtained by expression from the seeds of the Linum usi- tatissimum, or common flax. In the British Pharmacopoeias, direc- tions are given for preparing it by expressing the bruised seeds without heat; but as it is always in this country purchased by the druggists, it has been introduced, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, into the cata- logue of the Materia Medica. In its preparation on a large scale the seeds are usually roasted before being submitted to pressure, in order to destroy the gummy matter contained in their exterior coating. The oil is thus obtained more free from mucilage, but more acrid than that pro- cured by cold expression. Flaxseed oil is of a yellowish-brown colour, a disagreeable odour, and nauseous taste; of the sp. gr. .932; boils at 600° F.; does not congeal at zero; becomes rancid with facility, and has the property of drying or becoming solid on exposure to the air. On account of its drying property it is highly useful in painting, and the formation of printers' ink. Medical Properties and Uses.—It is laxative in the dose of a fluidounce, but on account of its disagreeable taste is seldom given internally. It is sometimes added to purgative enemata; but its most ordinary applica- tion is externally to burns, usually in combination with lime-water. Off. Prep. Linimentum Calcis, U.S., Ed., Dub. OLEUM MYRISTICJE. U.S. Oil of Nutmeg. " Myristica moschata. Nucleorum oleum expressum. The expressed oil of the kernels." U.S. See MYRISTICA. This substance, usually but erroneously called oil of mace, is obtained from nutmegs by bruising them in a heated mortar, and afterwards compressing them strongly between heated plates. A liquid oil flows out, which becomes solid when it cools. It has been admitted into the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, and that of the United States. Nutmegs are said to yield from ten to twelve per cent, of this oil. The best is imported from the East Indies in stone jars. It is solid, soft, unctuous to the touch, of a yellowish or orange-yellow colour more or less mottled, with the odour and taste of nutmeg. It is composed, according to Schrader, of a soft oily substance, yellowish or brownish, soluble in cold alcohol and ether; a-white, pulverulent, inodorous sub- stance, insoluble in these liquids; and a volatile oil, to which it owes its aromatic odour. Eighteen parts are said to furnish one part of volatile oil. An inferior kind is prepared in Holland, and sometimes found in the shops. It is in hard, shining, square cakes, of a lighter colour than that from the East Indies, with less smell and taste. It is supposed to be prepared from nutmegs, previously deprived of most of their essential oil by distillation. An artificial preparation is sometimes substituted for the genuine oil. It is made by mixing together various fatty matters, such as suet, palm oil, spermaceti, wax, lard, Sec, adding some colouring substance, and giving flavour to the mixture by the volatile oil of nutmeg. 446 Oleum Myristicas.—Oleum Olivse. part i. The expressed oil of nutmeg is never used in medicine, except as a gentle external stimulant, and seldom even for this purpose. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Picis Compositum, Lond. OLEUM OUNM. U.S. Olive oil. il Olea Europcea. Fructus oleum. The oil of the fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. OLIViE, OLEUM. Olea Europcea. Druparum oleum ex- pressum. Lond.; OLE^ EUROPCEA OLEUM FIXUM. Ex fructu. Ed.; OLEA EUROPCEA. Oleum ex fructu. Dub. Huile d'olive, Fr.; Olivenhbl, Germ.; Olio delle olive, Hal; Aceyte de olivas, Span. Olea. Class Diandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Jasmineae, Juss.; Oleaceae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla four-cleft, with subovate segments. Drupe one-seed- ed. TVilld. Olea Europcea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 44.; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 280. t. 98. This valuable tree is usually from fifteen to twenty feet in height, though it sometimes attains a much greater size, particularly in Greece and the Levant. It has a solid, erect, unequal stem, with numerous straight branches, covered with a grayish bark. The leaves, which stand opposite to each other on short footstalks, are evergreen, firm, lanceo- late, entire, two or three inches in length, with the edges somewhat re- verted, smooth and of a dull green colour on their upper surface, whitish and almost silvery beneath. The flowers are small, whitish, and disposed in opposite axillary clusters, which are about half as long as the leaves, and accompanied with small, obtuse, hoary bractes. The fruit or olive is a smooth, oval drupe, of a greenish, whitish, or violet colour, with a fleshy pericarp, and a very hard nut of a similar shape. The flowers are not all fruitful, as clusters containing not less than thirty, yield only two or three ripe olives. The olive tree, though believed by some to have been originally from the Levant, flourishes at present in all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and has been cultivated from time immemorial in Spain, the South of France, and Italy. It begins to bear fruit after the second year, is in full bearing at six years, and continues to flourish for a century. There are several varieties, distinguished by the form of the leaves, and the shape, colour, and size of the fruit. The variety longifolia of Willdenow is said to be the most esteemed. The leaves and bark of the olive tree have an acrid and bitterish taste, and have been employed as substitutes for cinchona, though with no great success. In hot countries a substance resembling the gum- resins exudes spontaneously from the bark. It was thought by the an- cients to possess useful medicinal properties;"but is not now employed. Analyzed by Pelletier, it was found to contain resinous matter, a small quantity of benzoic acid, and a peculiar principle analogous to gum, which has received the name of oliville. But the fruit is by far the most useful product of the tree. In the state in which it is gathered, it is hard and insupportably acrid; but when macerated in water, or an alkaline solution, and afterwards introduced into a solution of common salt, it loses these properties, and becomes a pleasant and highly es- teemed article of diet. The pericarp, or fleshy part of the olive, abounds in a fixed oil} which constitutes its greatest value, and for which the PART I. Oleum Olivse. 447 tree is chiefly cultivated in the South of Europe. The oil is obtained by first bruising the olives in a mill, and then submitting them to pressure. The product varies much, according to the state of the fruit and the circumstances of the process. The best oil, called virgin oil, is obtain- ed from the fruit picked before it has arrived at perfect maturity, and immediately pressed. It is distinguished by its greenish hue. The com- mon oil used for culinary purposes, and in the manufacture of the finest soaps, is procured from very ripe olives, or from the pulp of those which have yielded the virgin oil. In the latter case, the pulp is thrown into boiling water, and the oil removed as it rises to the surface. An inferior kind, employed in the arts, especially in the preparation of the coarser soaps, plasters, unguents, Sec, is afforded by fruit which has been thrown into heaps and allowed to ferment for several days, or by the marc left after the expression of the finer kinds of oil, broken up, exposed to the fermenting process, and again introduced into the press. Olive oil is imported in glass bottles, or in flasks surrounded by a peculiar kind of net-work made of grass, and usually called Florence flasks. The best comes from the South of France, where most care is exercised in the selection of the fruit. Properties.—The pure oil is an unctuous liquid, of a pale yellow or greenish-yellow colour, with scarcely any smell, and a bland slightly sweetish taste. Its sp. gr. is .9153. It begins to congeal at 38° F. At a freezing temperature its stearin becomes solid, and the elai'n, retaining its liquid consistence, may be separated by pressure, or by the agency of cold alcohol, which dissolves it, leaving the concrete principle. Olive oil when exposed to the air is apt to become rancid, acquiring a disagreeable smell, a sharp taste, a thicker consistence, and a deeper colour; and the change is promoted by heat. It is said to be frequently adulterated with the cheaper fixed oils, especially with that of poppies; but the adulteration may usually be detected by reducing the tempera- ture to the freezing point. As other oils are less readily congealed than the olive oil, the degree of its purity will be indicated by the degree of concretion. Another mode has been indicated by M. Poutet, found- ed on the property possessed by the supernitrate of mercury of solidi- fying the oil of olives, without a similar influence upon the other oils. Six parts of mercury are dissolved at a low temperature in seven parts and a half of nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1.35; and this solution is mix- ed with the suspected oil in the proportion of one part to twelve, the mixture being occasionally shaken. If the oil is pure, it is converted after some hours into a yellow solid mass; if it contain a minute pro- portion, even so small as a twentieth of poppy oil, the resulting mass is much less firm; and a tenth prevents a greater degree of consistence than oils usually acquire when they concrete by cold. Medical Properties and Uses.—Olive oil is nutritious and mildly laxa- tive, and is occasionally given in cases of irritable intestines, when the patient objects to more disagreeable medicines. Taken into the sto- mach in large quantities, it serves to involve acrid and poisonous sub- stances, and mitigate their action. It has also been recommended as a remedy for worms, and is a very common ingredient in laxative ene- mata. Externally applied, it is useful in relaxing the skin, and sheathing irritated surfaces from the action of the air; and is much employed as a vehicle or diluent of more active substances. In the countries bor- dering on the Mediterranean, it is thought, when smeared over the skin, to afford some protection against the plague; and applied warm, 448 Oleum Olivse.—Oleum Ricini. part i. by means of friction over the surface, it is said to be useful as a remedy in the early stages of that complaint. But the most extensive use of olive oil is in pharmacy, as a constituent of liniments, ointments, ce- rates, and plasters. The dose as a laxative is from one to two fluidounces. ■* OLEUM RICINI. U.S. Castor Oil. " Ricinus communis. Seminum oleum. The oil of the seeds." U.S. Off. Syn. RICINI OLEUM ET SEMINA. Ricinus communis. Oleum e seminibus expressum. Lond.; RICINI COMMUNIS OLE- UM FIXUM. Ex seminibus. Ed.; RICINUS COMMUNIS. Oleum e seminibus. Dub. Huile de ricin, Fr.; Ricinusbl, Germ.; Olio di ricino, Hal; Aceyte de ricino, Span. Ricinus. Class Moncecia. Order Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Euphor- bise, Juss.; Euphorbiaceae, Ad. de Juss., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-parted. Corolla none. Stamens numerous. Female. Calyx three-parted. Corolla none. Styles three, bifid. Capsule three-celled. Seed one. Willd. Ricinus communis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 564; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 624. t. 221. The castor oil plant, or palma christi, as it was formerly called, attains in the East Indies and Africa the character of a tree; and rises sometimes thirty or forty feet in height. In the temperate lati- tudes of North America and Europe it is an annual plant; though we are informed b»y M. Achille Richard, that in the South of France, in the vicinity of Nice, on the seacoast, he saw a small wood consisting en- tirely of this species of Ricinus. The following description applies to the plant as cultivated in cool latitudes. Its general aspect is very pecu- liar, and not inelegant. The stem is of vigorous growth, erect, round, hollow, smooth, glaucous, somewhat purplish towards the top, branch- ing, and from three to eight feet or more in height. The leaves are al- ternate; peltate or supported upon footstalks inserted into their lower disk; palmate, with seven or nine pointed serrate lobes; smooth on both sides; and of a bluish-green colour. The flowers are monoecious, stand upon jointed peduncles, and form a pyramidal terminal raceme, of which the lower portion is occupied by the male flowers, the upper by the female. Both are destitute of corolla. In the male flowers the calyx is divided into five oval, concave, pointed, reflected, purplish seg- ments, and encloses numerous stamens, which are united into fasciculi at their base. In the female, the calyx has three or five narrow lanceo- late segments; and the ovary, which is roundish and three-sided, sup- ports three linear, reddish stigmas, forked at their apex. The fruit is a roundish glaucous capsule, with three projecting sides, covered with tough spines, and divided into three cells, each containing one seed, which is expelled by the bursting of the capsule. This species of Ricinus is a native of the East Indies and Northern Africa; has become naturalized in the West Indies; and is cultivated in various parts of the world, in no country perhaps more largely than in the United States. New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, and the States upon the right bank of the Ohio, are the sections in which it is most abundant. The flowers appear in July, and the seed ripens successively in August and September. The part employed in medicine is the fixed oil extracted from the seeds j and. as this is always purchased by the PART I. Oleum Ricini. 449 apothecary, it has been very correctly placed in the United States Phar- macopoeia among the original articles of the Materia Medica. The London College gives a process for its preparation, and therefore directs the seeds in its officinal catalogue. 1. The Seeds. These are about as large as a small bean, oval, com- pressed, obtuse at the extremities, Very smooth and shining, and of a grayish or ash colour marbled with reddish-brown spots and veins. At one end of the seed is a small yellowish tubercle, from which an ob- scure longitudinal ridge proceeds to the opposite extremity, dividing the side upon which it is situated into two flattish surfaces. In its gene- ral appearance the seed is thought to resemble the insect called the tick, the Latin name of which has been adopted as the generic title of the plant. Its variegated colour depends upon a very thin pellicle, closely investing a hard, brittle, blackish, tasteless, easily separable shell, within which is the kernel, highly oleaginous, of a white colour, and a sweet- ish taste succeeded by a slight degree of acrimony. The seeds easily become rancid, and are then unfit for the extraction of the oil, which is acrid and irritating. In 100 parts of the seeds Geyer found, exclusive of moisture, 23.82 parts of envelope, and 69.09 of kernel. These 69.09 parts contained 46.19 of fixed oil, 2.40 of gum, 20.00 of starch and lignin, and .50 of albumen. Taken internally the seeds are powerfully cathartic, and often emetic. Two or three are sufficient to purge, and seven or eight act with great violence. This property depends upon an acrid principle, which has by some been thought to exist exclusively in the integuments, by others in the embryo. But it is now satisfactorily ascertained that the integu- ments are inert; and Guibourt maintains that the principle alluded to pervades the whole kernel, in connexion with the oil. This principle is volatile, and dissipated by the heat of boiling water. By a much greater heat the oil itself becomes altered, and acquires acrid properties. 2. The Oil. This may be extracted from the seeds in three ways, 1. by decoction, 2. by expression, and 3. by the agency of alcohol. The process by decoction, which is practised in the East and West Indies, consists in bruising the seeds previously deprived of their husk, and then boiling them in water. The oil rising to the surface is skim- med or strained off, and afterwards again boiled with a small quantity of water to dissipate the acrid principle. To increase the product it is said that the seeds are Sometimes roasted. The oil is thus rendered brownish and acrid; and the same result takes place in the second boil- ing, if care is not taken to suspend the process soon after the water has been evaporated. Hence it happens that the West India oil has gene- rally a brownish colour, an acrid taste, and irritating properties. The mode by expression is directed by the London College, which simply orders the seeds, previously decorticated, to be bruised, and the oil expressed without heat. But these directions are both redundant and deficient. The removal of the outer covering of the seeds is unne- cessary, as it contains no injurious principle; and something more than simple expression is requisite to obtain the oil in a state fit to be. kept in the shops. The following, as we have been informed, are the out- lines of the process usually employed by those who prepare the oil on a large scale in this country. The seeds having been thoroughly cleansed from the dust and fragments of the capsules with which they are mixed, are conveyed into a shallow iron reservoir, where they are submitted to a gentle heat insufficient to scorch or decompose them, and not greater than can be readily borne by the hand. The object of this 57 450 Oleum Ricini. PART I. step is to render the oil sufficiently liquid for easy expression. The seeds are then introduced into a powerful screw press. A whitish oily liquid is thus obtained, which is transferred to clean iron boilers, sup- plied with a considerable quantity of water. The mixture is boiled for some time, and, the impurities being skimmed off as they rise to the surface, a clear oil is at length left upon the top of the water, the mu- cilage and starch having been dissolved by this liquid, and the albumen coagulated by the heat. The latter ingredient forms a whitish layer be- tween the oil and the water. The clear oil is now carefully removed; and the process is completed by boiling it with a minute proportion of water, and continuing the application of heat till aqueous vapour ceases to rise, and till a small portion of the liquid taken out in a vial, pre- serves a perfect transparency when it cools. The effect of this last operation is to clarify the oil, and to render it less irritating by driving off the acrid volatile matter. But much care is requisite not to push the heat too far, as the oil then acquires a brownish hue, and an acrid, peppery taste, similar to those of the West India medicine. After the completion of the process the oil is put into barrels, and thus sent into the market. One bushel of good seeds yields five or six quarts, or about twenty-five per cent, of the best oil. If not very carefully pre- pared, it is apt to deposite a sediment upon standing; and the apothe- cary frequently finds it necessary to filter it through paper before dis- pensing it. Perhaps this may be owing to the plan adopted by some, of purifying the oil after expression, by merely allowing it to stand for some time, and then drawing off the supernatant liquid. We have been told that the oil in barrels occasionally deposites a copious whitish sedi- ment in cold weather, which it redissolves when the temperature rises. This substance is probably stearin, or an analogous principle. A large proportion of the drug consumed in the eastern section of the Union, is derived by way of New Orleans from Illinois and the neighbouring States, where it is so abundant that it is sometimes used for burning in lamps. The process for obtaining castor oil by means of alcohol has been practised in France; but the product is said to become rancid more speedily than that procured in the ordinary mode. Properties.—Pure castor oil is a thick, viscid, colourless fluid, with little or no odour, and a mild though somewhat nauseous taste, follow- ed by a slight sense of acrimony. As found in the shops it is often tinged with yellow, and has an unpleasant smell; and parcels are some- times though rarely met with, of a brownish colour, and hot acrid taste. It does not readily congeal by cold. When exposed to the air if slowly thickens, without becoming opaque, and it ranks among the drying oils. It is heavier than most of the other fixed oils, from which it differs also in being soluble in all proportions in cold absolute alcohol. Weaker alcohol of the sp. gr. .8425, takes up about three- fifths of its weight. Adulterations with other fixed oils may thus be detected, as the latter are but slightly soluble in this fluid. Such adul- terations, however, are not practised in this country. Castor oil is also soluble in sulphuric ether. When distilled it yields, according to MM. Bussy and Lecanu, 1. a colourless, highly odorous volatile oil, which crys- tallizes by cold, 2. two oleaginous acids,denominated ricinic and oleo-rici- nic, which are excessively acrid and nearly concrete, and 3. a solid spongy residue, amounting to two-thirds of the oil employed. Supposing these acids to be developed by heat, we can readily account for the injurious influence of too high a temperature in the preparation of the oil. Alka- part i. Oleum Ricini.—Oleum Sesami. 451 lies unite with castor oil forming soaps, and determining the formation of the margaric acid, besides the two above mentioned. Its purgative property is ascribed by MM. Bussy and Lecanu to the oil itself, and not to any distinct principle which it may hold in solution. It differs in this respect from the croton oil, though derived from a plant be- longing to the same natural family. Castor oil which is acrid to the taste may be rendered sweet by boil- ing it with a small proportion of water. If turbid, it should be clarified by filtration through paper. On exposure to the air, it is apt to become rancid, and is then unfit for use. Medical Properties and Uses.—Good castor oil is a mild cathartic, speedy in its action, usually operating with little griping or uneasiness, and evacuating the contents of the bowels without much increasing the alvine secretions. Hence it is peculiarly applicable to cases of constipa- tion from collections of indurated feces, and to those cases in which acrid substances have been swallowed, or acrid secretions have accumulated in the bowels. From its mildness it is also especially adapted to dis- eases attended with irritation or inflammation of the bowels, as colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, and enteritis. It is habitually resorted to in the cases of pregnant and puerperal women; and is decidedly, as a general rule, the best and safest cathartic for children. Infants usually require a larger relative dose than adults, probably because they digest a larger proportion of the oil. The dose for an adult is about a fluidounce, for an infant from one to three or four fluidrachms. It is sometimes of exceedingly difficult ad- ministration, not so much from any peculiarly unpleasant taste, as from the recollection of former nausea, or other uneasiness which it may have produced, and from its clamminess and unpleasant adhesiveness to the mouth. In a few cases the disgust which it excites is utterly un- conquerable by any effort of resolution. It is desirable, therefore, to ob- viate this inconvenience as far as possible by the mode of exhibition. A common method is to give it floating on the surface of mint or cinna- mon water; but that which we have found upon the whole the least offensive, is to mix it with a cup of hot sweetened coffee, by which it is rendered more fluid, and its taste considerably disguised. Some take it in wine or spirituous liquors; but these are generally contraindicated in the cases to which the medicine is applicable. When the stomach is unusually delicate, the oil may be made into an emulsion with muci- lage or the yolk of an egg, loaf sugar, and some aromatic water. To this mixture laudanum may be added in cases of intestinal irritation. Castor oil may also be beneficially used as an enema in the quantity of two or three fluidounces mixed with some mucilaginous liquid. Though apt to become rancid by itself, it loses much of this suscep- tibility when mixed with lard; and some apothecaries are said to use it as a substitute for olive oil in unguents and cerates. But the slightly irritating properties of even the mildest castor oil, render it inapplicable in those preparations which are intended rather to alleviate irritation than to produce it. OLEUM SESAMI. U.S. Secondary. Benne Oil. " Sesamum orientale. Seminum oleum. The oil of the seeds.'' U. S. See SESAMUM. 452 Oleum Terebinthinae. part i. OLEUM TEREBINTHINAE. U.S., Bub. Oil of Turpentine. " Pinus palustris et aliae. Succi oleum volatile. The volatile oil of the juice." U.S. Off. Syn, TEREBINTHINA OLEUM. Lond.; PINI OLEUM VOLATILE. Ed.; PINUS SYLVESTRIS. Oleum volatile. Dub. Huile volatile de terebenthine, Fr.; Terbinthinol, Germ.; Olio della trementina, ltal; Aceyte de trementina, Span. See TEREBINTHINA. The oil of turpentine is procured by distillation from our common turpentine, though equally afforded by other varieties. The Dublin College gives the following formula for its preparation. "Take of com- mon turpentine, [Terebinthina Vulgaris, Lond.] five pounds; water, four pints. Draw off the oil in a copper alembic." But it is at present never prepared by the apothecary, and in all the other Pharmacopoeias is placed in the catalogue of the Materia Medica. The turpentine of the Pinus palustris is said to yield about seventeen per cent, of oil; while the common turpentine of Europe affords twenty-four per cent. Large quantities of the oil are distilled in North Carolina for exportation. Pure oil of turpentine is perfectly limpid and colourless, of a strong, penetrating, peculiar odour, and a hot, pungent, bitterish taste. It is much lighter than water, having the specific gravity .86 at 72° F.; is highly volatile and inflammable; boils at a temperature somewhat higher than 300°; is very slightly soluble in water, less soluble in alco- hol than most other volatile oils, and readily soluble in sulphuric ether. Boiling alcohol dissolves it with facility, but deposites most of the oil upon cooling. One hundred parts of alcohol of .84, dissolve 13.5 parts of the oil at 72°. On exposure to the air and light, oil of turpentine de- posites a white solid matter in acicular crystals, which are without taste or smell, insoluble in cold water, but soluble in ether and alcohol. (M. Boissenot, Journ. Chim. Med. ii. 143.) White crystals of stearop- tene, heavier than water and fusible at 20°, separate from the oil at the temperature of 18° below zero. The oil of turpentine absorbs muriatic acid gas, which forms with it a white crystalline substance, usually called artificial camphor, from the strong resemblance which it bears to this substance. Exposed to the air the oil absorbs oxygen, becomes thicker and yel- lowish, and loses much of its activity. Hence the British Colleges di- rect a process for its rectification, consisting in distilling it with about four measures of water. But the process is difficult, in consequence of the great inflammability of the vapour, and its rapid formation, which causes the liquid to boil over. In this country it is scarcely necessary, as the recent and pure oil can be obtained at an expense less than that which- would be incurred by its redistillation on a small scale. Another mode of purifying the oil is to agitate it with one-eighth of alcohol, which dissolves the portion that has become resinous by the absorption of oxygen. About one-fifth of the alcohol is retained by the oil, but is readily separated by agitation with water. Medical Properties and Uses.—The oil of turpentine is stimulant, diu- retic, anthelmintic, in large doses cathartic, and externally rubefacient. When swallowed in moderate quantities it produces a sense of warmth part i. Oleum Terebintkinse. 453 in the stomach, accelerates the circulation, and increases the heat of the skin, without especially affecting the functions of the brain. In small doses frequently repeated it stimulates the kidneys, augmenting the se- cretion of urine, and often producing, especially if long continued, pain- ful irritation of the urinary passages, amounting sometimes to violent strangury. At the same time it imparts the odour of violets to the urine; and this effect is also produced by its external application, or even by breathing the air of an apartment impregnated with its vapours. In large doses it occasions slight vertigo, or a sense of fulness in the head, sometimes amounting to intoxication, attended frequently with nausea, and succeeded generally, though not always, by speedy and brisk catharsis. When this effect is experienced the oil is carried out of the bowels, and, no time being allowed for absorption, is less apt to irritate the kidneys and bladder than when taken in small and repeated doses. In some constitutions it produces, even when taken internally, an ery- thematic eruption on the skin. The oil of turpentine is employed in numerous diseases. As a stimu- lant it is useful in low forms of fever, particularly in cases where there is reason to suspect ulcerations of the mucous membranes. There is a particular state of fever usually attended with much danger, in which we have found this remedy uniformly successful. The condi- tion of things alluded to, is one which occurs in the latter stages of typhoid fevers or lingering remittents, in which the tongue having begun to throw off its load of fur in patches, has suddenly ceased to clean itself, and become dry and brownish. The skin is at the same time dry, the bowels torpid and distended with flatus, and the patient sometimes affected with slight delirium. Under the use of small doses of oil of turpentine frequently repeated, the tongue becomes moist, and again coated, the tympanitic state of the bowels disappears, and the patient goes on to recover as in a favourable case of fever. We are disposed to ascribe the effect to a healthy change produced by the oil in the ulcerated surface of the intestines. The medicine has also been recommended as a counter-irritant in yellow and puerperal fevers; and may undoubtedly be given with advantage in the latter stages of these diseases, and in other instances of gastric and enteritic inflam- mations, which require a resort to stimulation; but the highly favour- able reports which have been made of its effects in the early stages of puerperal peritonitis, have probably originated in the confounding of intestinal irritation with that formidable disease. In chronic rheuma- tism, particularly sciatica and lumbago, the oil has often been given with great benefit. It has also been much extolled as a remedy in neu- ralgia, in epilepsy and tetanus, in passive hemorrhages, particularly from the bowels, in disordered conditions of the alimentary canal at- tended with sallow countenance, foul tongue, tumid abdomen, sour or fetid eructation, and general depravation of health, in obstructions of the bowels, in some forms of chronic dysentery and diarrhoea, in obsti- nate gleets and leucorrhoea, and in chronic nephritic and calculous affections. As a vermifuge also it is very highly esteemed, especially in cases of taenia. It appears, by its poisonous operation, to destroy or debilitate the worm, which losing its hold upon the bowels is then easily discharged. In cases of worms in the stomach it is often very beneficial. The worms, in this instance, are destroyed and digested as any other dead animal matter. In dropsies with feeble action, the oil may some- times be advantageously given as a diuretic; and in amenorrhoea from torpor of the uterine vessels if is occasionally useful. As a local stimu- 454 Oleum Terebinthinoe.—Oleum Tiglii. part r. lant or carminative it may be given beneficially in some instances of flatulent colic, and gout in the stomach. The dose for ordinary purposes is from five to thirty drops, repeated every hour or two in acute, and three or four times a day in chronic diseases. In rheumatism it is recommended by some in the dose of a fluidrachm every four hours. As a remedy for the tape-worm it is given in the quantity of one or two fluidounces, and should be followed by castor oil if it do not operate in three or four hours. In ordinary cases of worms, the dose is much smaller. It may be administered dropped on sugar, or in emulsion with gum arabic, loaf sugar, and cinnamon or mint water. In the form of enema it is highly useful in cases of ascarides, obsti- nate constipation, and distention of the bowels from accumulation of air. No remedy is more effectual in tympanites than injections of the oil of turpentine. From half a fluidounce to two fluidounces may be administered in this way, suspended by the yolk of eggs in half a pint or a pint of water or some mucilaginous fluid. Externally applied the oil of turpentine irritates and speedily inflames the skin; and in low forms of fever, with coldness of the surface, is when heated one of the most efficacious rubefacients. It is also used as a liniment in rheumatic and paralytic affections, and various internal inflammations. It should generally, in mild cases, be diluted with olive oil; and in some constitutions, even in this state, produces such violent inflammation of the skin with extensive eruptions, as to render its exter- nal use in any shape improper. Mixed with some mild oil and introduced on cotton into the ear, it is sometimes beneficial in deafness arising from a deficient or unhealthy secretion of wax. Applied to recent burns it is thought by some to be highly useful in allaying the burning pain and promoting a disposition to heal. For this purpose, however, it is usually mixed with the resin cerate, (basilicon ointment,) so as to form a lini- ment capable of being spread upon linen rags. (See Linimentum Tere- binthinse.) Off. Prep. Linimentum Cantharidis, U.S.; Linimentum Terebinthinae, U.S., Lond., Dub.: Ol. Terebinth. Rectificatum, Lond, Dub., Ed. OLEUM TIGLII. U.S. Croton Oil. " Croton tiglium. Seminum oleum. The oil of the seeds." U.S. Off Syn. TIGLII OLEUM. Croton Tiglium. Oleum e seminibus ex- pressum. Lond.; CROTON TIGLIUM. Oleum e seminibus expres- sum. Dub. Huile de croton, Fr.,- Crotonbl, Germ.; Nervalum unnay, Tamool Croton. See CASCARILLA. Croton Tiglium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 543; Flor. Zeyl, 343; Rheede Malab., ii. p. 61. This species of Croton is a small tree or shrub, with a few spreading branches, bearing alternate petiolate leaves, which are ovate, acuminate, serrate, smooth, of a dark green colour on the upper surface, paler beneath, and furnished with two glands at the base. The flowers are in erect terminal racemes, scarcely as long as the leaf—the lower being female, the upper male, with straw-coloured petals. The fruit is a smooth capsule, about the size of a filbert, with three cells, each containing a single seed. The tree is a native of Hindostan, Ceylon, the Moluccas, and other PART I. Oleum Tiglii. 455 parts of continental and insular India. It is pervaded throughout by an acrid purgative principle, which is probably analogous to that found in other plants belonging to the family of the Euphorbiaceae. Rumphius says that the root is employed in Amboyna in the dose of a few grains as a drastic purge in dropsy; and, according to the same author, the leaves are so acrid that when chewed and swallowed they excite painful inflammation in the lips, mouth, throat, and along the whole course of the alimentary canal. The wood is said in small doses to be diapho- retic, in larger, purgative and emetic. But the seeds are the portion in which the active principle of the plant is most concentrated. These have been long employed throughout the whole of India as a powerful purgative, and were introduced so early as the year 1630 into Europe, where they were known by the names of Grana Molucca and Grana Ti- glia. But in consequence of their violent effects they passed into neglect, and had ceased to be ranked among medicinal substances, when at a re- cent period attention was again called to them by the writings of some English physicians in India. They are now imported for the oil which they afford, and which is the only portion of the plant considered offi- cinal. These seeds are rather larger than a grain of coffee, of an oblong form, rounded at the extremities, with two faces, the external consider- ably more convex than the internal, separated from each other by lon- gitudinal ridges, and each divided by a similar longitudinal ridge, so that the whole seed presents an irregular quadrangular figure. Some- times, as in the grain of coffee, their internal surface is flat with a lon- gitudinal groove, owing to the presence of only two seeds in the cap- sule, the groove being produced by the central column or axis. The shell is covered with a soft yellowish-brown epidermis, beneath which the surface is black and smooth; and as the epidermis is often par- tially removed by friction during their carriage, the seeds as they come to us are frequently of a mottled appearance, and sometimes nearly black. The kernel or nucleus is of a yellowish-brown colour, and abounds in oil. In India the seeds are prepared for use by submitting them to slight torrefaction, by which the shell is rendered more easily separable, and the acrid property thought to be mitigated. In the dose of one or two grains the kernel purges with great activity. The oil is obtained by expression from the seeds, in general previously roasted, and deprived of the shell. It may also be separated by decoction in water, or by the action of ether, which dissolves the oil, and leaves it behind when evaporated. According to Dr. Nimmo, 100 parts of the seeds afford 60 of oil. Properties.—Croton oil, as usually found in the shops, is of an orange or reddish-yellow colour, which is owing to the roasting of the seeds previously to expression, and varies more or less according to the greater or less duration of this process. When procured without roasting, it is very nearly colourless. Its smell is faint but peculiar; its taste hot and acrid, leaving in the mouth a disagreeable sensation which con- tinues for many hours. The oil is wholly soluble in sulphuric ether and oil of turpentine, and partially so in alcohol. Dr. Nimmo ascertained that it consists of two distinct substances, one an acrid purgative prin- ciple, amounting to forty-five per cent., soluble in cold alcohol, and hav- ing an acid reaction, the other a mild oleaginous substance like olive oil, soluble in other and the oil of turpentine, and very slightly soluble in hot alcohol, from which it is precipitated when the liquor cools. For the former, Dr. Paris proposes the name of tiglin; but this appears to 456 Oleum Tiglii. PART I. be premature, as the title of the matter in question to be considered a distinct proximate principle has not been established. It is thought that the croton oil is often adulterated with other fixed oils ; but, with the exception of castor oil, they may be detected by their less degree of solubility in alcohol, while the latter is discoverable by its greater solubility. If cold alcohol dissolve less than forty-five per cent, of a suspected sample, the presence of olive oil may be suspected; if more, that of castor oil. It would be difficult, as Dr. Duncan observes, to detect by this test a mixture of these two oils in certain proportions. We have been told by Dr. Burroughs of Philadelphia, who was for some time in India, that much of the croton oil there prepared for ex- portation, is derived from the seeds of another plant, probably a differ- ent species of Croton. From a sample of these seeds presented to us by Dr. Burroughs, the following description is drawn. They are contained in a three-celled capsule, about the size of a hickory nut, each cell hav- ing one seed. Their shape very closely resembles that of the seeds of the Croton Tiglium; but they are at least three times as large, and are covered with a black, instead of a yellowish-brown epidermis. Within this outer coat is a lighter coloured layer, surrounding a hard dark shell, which encloses a yellowish, fleshy, oleaginous kernel. The oil is obtain- ed by expression from the kernel, and, though less powerful than the genuine croton oil, is an efficient cathartic in the dose, of three or four drops. Medical Properties and Uses.— The substance under consideration is a powerful hydragogue purgative, acting, for the most part, when ad- ministered in moderate doses, with ease to the patient; but in large doses apt to excite vomiting and severe griping pain, and capable, if immo- derately taken, of producing fatal effects. It acts with very great ra- pidity, frequently evacuating the bowels in less than an hour, and gene- rally exciting a rumbling sensation in half that period. It possesses also a great advantage in the minuteness of the dose, on account of which it may frequently be given when we should fail with more bulky medicines, as in mania, coma, and the cases of children. A drop placed on the tongue of a person in a comatose state will generally operate. Though long used in India, and known a century ago to the Dutch phy- sicians, it did not attract general notice till about the year 1820, when it was introduced into England by Mr. Conwell. It is chiefly employed in cases of obstinate constipation, in which it often produces the hap- piest effects after the failure of other medicines; but it may also be ad- vantageously employed in almost all cases in which powerful and speedy purging is demanded. Dropsy, apoplexy, mania, and visceral obstruc- tions, are among the complaints in which it has been particularly re- commended. The seeds are said to have been used with great success in India in amenorrhoea. Applied externally it produces inflammation of the skin attended with a pustular eruption, and has been used in this way in rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, glandular and other indolent swellings, and in pulmonary diseases. It should be diluted with three parts of olive oil, soap-liniment, oil of turpentine, or other convenient vehicle, and applied in the way of liniment twice or oftener in the twenty- four hours. The dose for an adult is one or two drops, and is most conveniently administered in the form of pill. A very safe and convenient plan is to make two drops into four pills with crumb of bread, and give one every hour till it operates. The oil may also be given in emulsion. The form of tincture may be advantageously resorted to when a minute part I. Oleum Tiglii.-^Olibanum. 457 quantity of the medicine is required, as it affords the means of readily dividing the dose. It is said that four drops of the oil applied exter- nally by friction around the umbilicus, will produce a purgative effect, (Diet, des Drogues.) OLIBANUM. Lond. Olibanum. " Juniperus Lycia. Gummi-resina." Lond. Off. Syn. JUNIPERI LYCI^l GUMMI-RESINA. Ed.; OLIBA* NUM. BOSWELLIA SERRATA. Gummi-resina. Dub. Encens, Fr.; Weihrauch, Germ.; Olibano, Hal; Olibano, Incienso, Span.; Koondir Zuckir, Hindoo.; Cundur Looban, Arab. Olibanum, the frankincense of the ancients, was ascribed by Linnaeus to the Juniperus Lycia, which is still recognised as its source by the London and Edinburgh Colleges, though the conjecture of Linnaeus is now universally admitted to have been incorrect. There appear to be two varieties of olibanum, one derived from the countries bordering on the Red Sea, and taken to Europe by way of the Mediterranean, the other brought directly from Calcutta. The origin of the former remains yet undecided; though some writers refer it to a species of Amyris. The latter has been satisfactorily ascertained to be the product of the Boswellia serrata of Roxburgh, a large tree growing in the mountains of India, and found by Mr. Colebrook abundant in the vicinity of Nag- pur. The tree belongs to the class and order Decandria Monogynia, and to the natural order Terebinthaceae of Kunth. The Arabian or African frankincense is in the form of yellowish tears and irregular reddish lumps or fragments. The tears are generally small, oblong or roundish, not very brittle, with a dull and waxy frac- ture, softening in the mouth, and bearing much resemblance to mastich, from which, however, they differ in their want of transparency. The reddish masses soften in the hand, have a stronger smell and taste than the tears, and are often mixed with fragments of bark, and small crys- tals of carbonate of lime. The Indian frankincense, or olibanum, consists chiefly of yellowish, somewhat translucent, roundish tears, larger than those of the African, and generally covered with a whitish powder produced by friction. It has a balsamic resinous smell, and an acrid, bitterish, and somewhat aromatic taste. When chewed it softens in the mouth, adheres to the teeth, and partially dissolves in the saliva, which it renders milky. It burns with a brilliant flame, and a fragrant odour. Triturated with water it forms a milky imperfect solution. Alcohol dissolves nearly three-fourths of it, and the tincture is transparent. From 100 parts, Braconnot obtained 8 parts of volatile oil, 56 of resin, 30 of gum, and 5.2 of a glutinous matter insoluble in water or alcohol, with .8 loss. Various saline substances were found in its ashes. The oil may be separated by distillation, and resembles that of lemons in colour and smell. Medical Properties and Uses.—Olibanum is stimulant like the other gum-resins; but is now never used internally. It is chiefly employed for fumigations, and enters into the composition of some unofficinal plasters. 58 458 Opium. PART '• OPIUM. U.S. Opium. " Papaver somniferum. Succus concretus. Tlie concrete juice." U.S. Off. Syn. OPIUM. Papaver somniferum. Capsularum immaturarum succus concretus. (Turcicus.) Lond.; OPIUM. Succus concretus Pa- paveris somniferi, Ed.; OPIUM. PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM. Cap- sularum succus proprius concretus. Dub. Opium, Fr.; Mohnsaft, Germ.; Oppio, ltal; Opio, Span.; Affioni, Turk.; Ufyoon, Arab.; Sheerikhaskash, Persian; Ufeem, Hindoo. Papaver. Class Polyandria. Order Monogynia.— Nat. Ord. Papavera- cese, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla four-petaled. Calyx two-leaved. Capsule one-celled, opening by pores under the persistent stigma. Willd. Opium is at present generally believed to be derived exclusively from the Papaver somniferum, though every species of poppy is capable, of yielding it to a greater or less extent, and some authors have indicated the Papaver orientate as its real source. The British and French Phar- macopoeias unite with our own in recognising only the first mentioned species. Papaver somniferum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1147. Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 376. t. 138. There are two varieties of this species, which are distin- guished by the titles of the white and black poppy, derived from the colour of their seeds. It is the former which is usually described as the proper opium plant. 1. The white poppy is an annual plant, with a round, smooth, erect, glaucous stem, rising two or three feet in height, and sometimes attain- ing five or even six feet in favourable situations. The leaves' are large, obtuse, deeply and variously indented at their edges, and alternately disposed upon the stem which they closely embrace. The flowers, which are supported upon the summit of the stem, are very large, of a white or silver gray colour, with a tinge of violet at their base. In India they appear in February, in Europe and the United States, not earlier than June, July, or August. The calyx is smooth, and composed of two leaves, which fall when the petals expand. These are usually four in number; but there is a variety in which the flower is double. The germen, which is smooth and globular, supports a radiated stigma, and is surrounded by numerous short and slender filaments, with erect, oblong, compressed anthers. The capsule is smooth and glaucous, of a rounded shape, from two to four inches in diameter, somewhat flattened at the top and bot- tom, and crowned with the persistent stigma, the diverging segments of which are arranged in a circle upon the summit. It contains nume- rous minute white seeds, which when perfectly ripe escape through small openings beneath the stigma. 2. The black poppy differs from the preceding variety only in the cha- racter of the fruit. The capsule is somewhat smaller and more globular,- and the seeds are of a brown or blackish colour. All parts of the poppy are said to contain a white opaque narcotic juice; but the leaves, when analyzed by M. Blondeau, yielded none of those active principles by which opium is characterized. (Journ. de Pharm. vii. 214.) It is in the capsule that the juice most abounds, and the virtues of the plant chiefly reside. Hence this part is sometimes employed medicinally in Europe, where it is considered officinal. (See Papaveris Capsulse.) The seeds are PART I. Opium. 459 wholly destitute of narcotic properties, and are even used as food in many parts of the world. The Romans employed them in the prepara- tion of various dainties. They abound with a bland oil, which may be extracted by expression, and has most of the useful properties of olive oil. It is an article of much importance on the continent of Europe, par- ticularly in France, in the northern departments of which the black poppy is very extensively cultivated for the seed alone. The oil is em- ployed for culinary and pharmaceutic purposes, in painting, and the manufacture of so«p, and in other ways as a substitute for olive oil, which is said to be frequently adulterated with it. The poppy does not appear to elaborate the milky fluid in which its narcotic properties re- sidej before a certain period of its growth; for we are told that in Per- sia, the young plants which are pulled up to prevent too thick a crop, are used as pot-herbs; and the wxM> 01> tne Greeks, which is believed to be identical with the Papaver somniferum, is said by Hippocrates to be nutritive. Though generally believed to be a native of Asia, this species of poppy grows wild in the South of Europe, and even in England, whither its seeds are supposed to have been brought at a very early period. It was cultivated by the ancient Greeks, and is mentioned by Homer as a garden plant. It is at present cultivated very extensively in India, Per- sia, and Asiatic Turkey, for the opium which it affords; and in several parts of Europe, especially in France, not only for this product, but also for the seed and capsules. In this country it is found only in our gar- dens as an ornamental flower. The process for procuring opium from the poppy, as practised by the modern inhabitants of India and Persia, according to the accounts of Kerr and of Koempfer, is very nearly the same with that described by Dioscori- des as employed in his own times, about eighteen hundred years since. As the capsules abound most in the narcotic juice, it is from these that the opium is procured. The operation commences when they are about half grown. When ripe, they afford little or no juice. In the evening, near sunset, two or more longitudinal incisions are made in the capsule, so as not to penetrate its cavity; and are repeated several successive evenings, at the same time, till the whole circumference is scarified. „ The evening is preferred for the operation, as the night dews are sup. posed to favour the flow of the juice. The portion which exudes during the night, is scraped off in the morning, and put into suitable vessels, where, by exposure to the sun, and by kneading with the hand, it ac- quires a sufficient consistence to retain the shape into which it may be moulded. It is then formed into cakes, which are still further dried, then wrapped in leaves, and sent into the market. That opium is obtained by incisions in the capsule, and the collection of the juice which exudes, is evinced not only by the reports of travellers and eye-witnesses, such as Chardin, Koempfer, Olivier, and Kerr, but also by the success which has attended the employment of this method in Great Britain and France. Considerable quantities of good opium have been obtained by different individuals in England by scarifying the capsules of the poppy.* * So early as the year 1796, a premium was awarded by the society for the encou- ragement of arts, to Mr. Ball, for a specimen of British opium; and in 1823, Messrs. Cowley and Stains collected 196 pounds, which sold for nearly seven dollars a pound, from little more than twelve acres of land. This product, however, was by no means equal to that obtained in Scotland by Mr. John Young. From one acre of ground- planted with poppies and potatoes, he procured fifty-six pounds of opium, valued at 450 dollars, while the whole expense was more than repaid by the potatoes, and the 460 Opium. PART I. Similar success has been met with in France; and the drug obtained by incisions in both countries has been found nearly, if not quite equal to that imported from the East. In the Dictionnaire des Drogues it is even stated, that a specimen of opium collected in this way in the vicinity of Provins, gave sixteen per cent, of the active principle, while a good commercial specimen examined by M. Petit, afforded only eight per cent. But results equally favourable have not been generally obtained; and neither in England nor France is it probable that agriculturists will be able to stand a competition, in the culture of this*drug, with the low price of labour, united with the favourable influence of climate, in the opium countries of Asia. Another method of extracting the virtues of the capsules, is to select such as have ceased to yield their juice by exudation, to beat them with a small proportion of water, and inspissate the liquid thus obtained by artificial heat. The ancient Greeks were acquainted with both processes, as appears from the writings of Dioscorides. The term orttw, derived from 0*0$, juice, they applied to the substance procured by incision, and answering precisely to the modern opium. The inspissated expressed juice they called ^acwvtw, from pqxav, the name of the plant. Tournefort states that it is the latter preparation which is exported from Turkey as opium, the former being much more valuable, and therefore retained in the country for the use of the great and wealthy. This error has been copied by many writers on the Materia Medica; and till within a com- paratively few years, opium was generally believed to be an extract ob- tained by evaporating either the expressed juice, or a decoction of the capsules. The mistake has been corrected by the experiments of culti- vators in England and France, by whom, as before stated, a substance having all the characters of commercial opium, was procured by inci- sions ; while the inspissated expressed juice of the capsules, prepared by M. Deslongchamps, was found not to have more than half the strength. Commercial History.—Commerce is supplied with opium chiefly from Hindostan, Persia, and the Asiatic dominions of Turkey. Large quan- tities are produced in the Indian provinces of Bahar and Benares, to which the British East India Company, who exercise a monopoly of this branch of agriculture within their dominions, have restricted the cultivation of the poppy. In the interior provinces, which, though un- der the political control, are not under the immediate civil government of the Company, the natives raise an almost incredible amount of the drug; but little of this enters into maritime commerce, the greater part being consumed in the neighbourhood, or carried still further into the interior. Sir John Malcolm informs us, in his work on Central India, that 350,000 pounds are annually raised in Malwa. The opium pro- duced under the monopoly of the Company, is distributed extensively through continental and insular India, where the Mahometan popula- tion employ it habitually in the place of spirituous liquors. Great quan- tities are also sent to China, into which it finds an easy entrance not- withstanding prohibitory laws. Much was formerly imported by the Company into England, through which a small portion reached our qwn country; but at present India opium is considered so far inferior to that from Turkey, that it has been almost entirely excluded from our oil expressed from the seeds. For papers on the subject of the cultivation of the poppy in England, see Edin. Philosoph. Journ. vol. i, p. 258, and the Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. iv. p. 69, PART I. Opium. 461 market, and none is brought directly from the East. The great demand for it in the Indian Archipelago and in China, and its consequent high price, have probably contributed more even than its reputed inferiority to this result. Indeed, Ainslie explicitly states that India opium is infe- rior to none; and it is probable that the specimens from which the de- scription was drawn up that is now current among authors upon the Materia Medica, were the refuse of the Eastern market. We know that the drug was formerly very much and variously adulterated by the natives. Among the impurities mentioned by authors are the extract of the poppy procured by decoction, the powdered leaves and stems of the plant made into a paste with mucilage, the oil of sesamum, catechu, and even cow-dung. But a more careful superintendence by the officers of the Company is said to have resulted in a great improvement of the India opium; and it is possible that if now imported it might not be found to answer the description usually met with in books. Turkey opium is raised chiefly in Anatolia, and is shipped from the port of Smyrna. Much was formerly produced in Upper Egypt, espe- cially in the district of ancient Thebes, which was supposed to yield it in greatest perfection. It was in fact for a long time generally known by the name of Opium Thebaicum; and laudanum is still frequently directed in prescriptions as the Tinctura Thebaica. Its cultivation has recently been again introduced into Egypt. The drug is imported into the United States, either directly from the Levant, or indirectly through the Mediterranean ports of France. From the treasury returns for the year 1829, it appears, that the value of opium brought from the Turk- ish dominions was 92,924 dollars, from France on the Mediterranean, 12,187 dollars, and from all other parts of the world only 2,040 dollars. None was imported from India. Turkey opium comes to us in masses of irregular size arfd shape, generally more or less flattened, covered with leaves, and with the reddish capsules of some species of Rumex, which are said to be absent in the inferior kinds, and may therefore be considered as affording some indication of the purity of the drug. We may account for this circumstance upon the very probable supposition, that the capsules are removed during the operation which the masses sometimes undergo in the hands of the merchants, after leaving those of the cultivators. We are told by the French writers, that extensive frauds are practised at Marseilles in this branch of commerce. The opium brought thither from the Levant is first softened, and then adul- terated with various matters, which are incorporated in its substance. To use a strong expression of M. Guibourt, they make the opium over again at Marseilles. Our traders to the Mediterranean would do well to bear this assertion in mind. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, one* fourth part of Turkey opium generally consists of impurities. Sand, ashes, the seeds of different plants, the extracts of the poppy, Lactuca virosa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Chelidonium glaucum, gum-arabic, traga- canth, aloes, even small stones, and minute pieces of lead and iron, are mentioned among the substances employed in the sophistication of the drug. Opium is regarded as inferior when it is of a blackish colour; a weak or empyreumatic smell; a sweet or slightly nauseous and bitter taste; a soft, viscid, or greasy consistence; a dull fracture; or an irregular,hete- rogeneous texture, arising from the intermixture of foreign substances. It should not impart a deep brown colour to the saliva, nor leave a dark uniform trace when drawn over paper, nor form with water a thick vis. cid solution. 462 Opium. PART I. Properties.—Good opium has a peculiar, strong, narcotic odour, and a bitter somewhat acrid taste. When long chewed it excites much irri- tation in the lips and tongue, and even blisters the mouth of those un- accustomed to its use. Its colour is a reddish-brown or deep fawn; its texture compact and uniform; its specific gravity 1.336. When drawn over paper it leaves an interrupted trace of a clear brown colour. It is often soft in the interior of the mass, and in this state is tenacious; but when exposed to the air it gradually hardens, and ultimately be- comes brittle, breaking with a uniform shining fracture, and affording when pulverised a yellowish-brown powder, which becomes adhesive upon a slight elevation of temperature. It readily inflames upon the ap- plication of a lighted taper. It is partially soluble in water, alcohol, ether, wine, vinegar, and lemon juice, to all which it imparts a deep brown colour. We are told, that when it is triturated with hot water, five parts out of twelve are dissolved, six suspended, and one remains un- affected. This is viscid and tenacious, presenting characters strongly analogous to those of caoutchouc. Much attention has been devoted to the chemical constitution of opium; and very interesting results have been obtained. It was by their researches into the nature of this substance that chemists were led to the discovery of those vegetable alkaloids, which, as the active princi- ples of the plants in which they are found, have recently attracted so much attention among physicians, and been applied so advantageously to the treatment of disease. To Sertuerner, an apothecary at Eimbeck, in Hanover, certainly belongs the credit of having opened this new and most important field of experiment. In the year 1803, M. Derosne made known the existence of a crystallizable substance which he had discov- ered in opium, and which he erroneously believed to be the active prin- ciple. In the following year, Seguin discovered another crystallizable body, which subsequent experience has proved to be the true narcotic principle of opium; but he did not fully investigate its nature, and no immediate practical advantage was derived from his excellent analysis. About the same time, Sertuerner was engaged in a similar investiga- tion, the results of which, very analogous to those obtained by Seguin, were published in a German journal, without, however, attracting gene- ral attention. In this state the subject remained till the year 1817, when Sertuerner announced the existence of a saline compound in opium, consisting of a peculiar alkaline principle united with a peculiar acid, and clearly demonstrated the precise nature of a substance, which, though before discovered both by Seguin and by himself, had been hitherto but vaguely known. To the alkali, in which he correctly con- ceived the narcotic powers of the opium to reside, he gave the name of morphium, which has been subsequently changed to morphia by English writers, in order to rentier it analogous to the titles of the other alka- lies. The acid he called meconic, a term derived from the Greek name of the poppy. The correctness of the statements of Sertuerner was con- firmed by the experiments of Robiquet, who also satisfactorily demon- strated that the substance obtained by Derosne, and called by him the salt of opium, .was a principle altogether distinct from the morphia, though supposed to possess very considerable influence over the sys- tem. In the belief of its narcotic powers, Robiquet denominated it nar- cotin, a title which it still retains. From the investigations of the chemists above mentioned and of others, it appears, that the ingre- dients of opium are, 1. morphia; 2. narcotin; 3. meconic acid; 4. a peculiar acid, observed by Robiquet, but not yet fully investigated; 5, PART I. Opium. 463 extractive matter; 6. mucilage; 7. fecula; 8. resin; 9. fixed oil; 10. a substance resembling caoutchouc; 11. a vegeto-animal matter; 12. an odorous principle; besides a considerable quantity of vegetable remains, and a small proportion of acetic acid, sulphate of lime, sulphate of po- tassa, alumina, and iron. To these may now, perhaps, be added, two peculiar crystallizable principles, the existence of which has recently been announced; one discovered by M. Couerbe, and called me'conin, the other by Pelletier, who has given it the title of narcein. (Journ. de Pharm. Mars, 1832.)* Of these constituents morphia is by far the most important. Though generally admitted to exist in opium united with meconic acid in the state of meconate, it is also intimately associated with the extractive matter, according to the statement of M. Faure, who found that the meconic acid of opium was alone insufficient to saturate all the mor- phia. By this experimenter, the morphia, meconic acid, and extractive, are believed to exist in chemical combination; and hence the meconate cannot be obtained separate from the last mentioned principle. (Journ. de Pharm. xv. 571.) Of morphia and the mode of procuring it, and of its salts, we shall treat at large under the head of the pharmaceutic preparations. (See Morphia.) Pure narcotin is solid, white, tasteless, inodorous, crystallizable in silky flexible needles, usually larger than the crystals of morphia, fusible at a moderate elevation of temperature, insoluble in cold water, soluble in 400 parts of boiling water, in 100 parts of cold, and 24 of boiling alcohol which precipitates it upon cooling, and very soluble in ether. The fixed and volatile oils also dissolve it. It exerts no alkaline reaction upon vegetable colours, but is dissolved by most of the acids, forming with them definite compounds, some of which may be obtained in the crystalline state, and deserve to be considered as genuine salts. (Robiquet, Journ. de Pharm. xvii. 639.) Though narcotin itself is taste- less, its salts are very bitter, even more so than those of morphia. (Ber- zelius.) They are all soluble in water, and in consequence of the weak neutralizing power of the base, redden litmus paper. Narcotin is pre- cipitated by the alkalies from its solution in the diluted acids. It may be distinguished from morphia by its insipidity and its solubility in ether, by assuming a yellowish instead of a blood-red colour under the action of strong nitric acid, and by not producing, either pure or in the saline state, with the salts of iron, the blue colour which characterizes morphia and its Salts. Water extracts it from opium in consequence of the acid which the latter contains, either free or combined with the nar- cotin ; but the diluted acids extract it with greater facility. It is always obtained mixed with morphia in the processes for procuring this prin- ciple; and may be separated by the action of sulphuric ether, which dissolves it without affecting the morphia, and yields it upon evapora- tion. It may also be obtained by digesting opium or its aqueous extract in sulphuric ether, evaporating the ether, treating the residue of the evaporation with boiling water and animal charcoal, filtering, precipi- tating with ammonia, and purifying the precipitate if necessary, either by solution in hot alcohol which deposites it on cooling, or by solution in muriatic acid, digestion with animal charcoal, filtration, and pre- cipitation by ammonia. In this process the ether takes up, besides the • It has been ascertained that M. Robinet was mistaken in his annunciation of the existence of another acid in opium, which he called codeic acid, and supposed to be united with morphia, forming a codeate with that base. M. Robinet has himself admit- ted the mistake. (Diet, des Drogues.) * 464 Opium. PART 1. natural salt of narcotin, a fixed oil from the extract, and in addition, caoutchouc and resin from the opium. These are left behind by the water; and the salt of narcotin is decomposedby the ammonia. Another mode of procuring narcotin is to treat opium, which has been exhaust- ed by previous maceration in water, with boiling acetic acid, filtering the solution, precipitating by an alkali, washing the precipitate with water, and purifying it by means of boiling alcohol, as in the former in- stance. Should it still be impure, the solution in alcohol and crystalliza- tion may be repeated. Different opinions have been advanced relative to the action of narcotin on the system. Derosne believed it to be the ac- tive principle of opium; though upon experimenting with it, he obtain- ed effects but little stronger than those produced by an equal dose of opium itself. Magendie found it to exercise a powerful influence upon the system of dogs. One grain dissolved in oil was sufficient to throw the animal into a state of stupor, which terminated in death in the course of twenty-four hours. This stupor was wholly different from the com- posed sleep produced by morphia and its preparations. He inferred, that while the latter principle exercises the remedial, anodyne, and sopo- rific virtues of opium, the injurious excitant operation of the medicine is ascribable to the narcotin. Both Derosne and Magendie found its unpleasant effects to be modified or prevented by its conjunction with acetic aCid. According to Magendie, twenty-four grains, dissolved in vinegar, may be given to a dog without destroying life. M. Baily pre- scribed it in the dose of sixty grains, both in the solid state and dis- solved in muriatic acid, without observing from it any sensible effect. In the same state, Orfila found that it might be taken by man in very large doses with impunity; and thirty grains of it dissolved in acetic acid, produced no effect upon several patients to whom it was adminis- tered. Upon dogs, he informs us, that it is without action when dis- solved in nitric or muriatic acid; but held in solution by acetic or sul- phuric acid, or by olive oil, thirty or forty grains of it were sufficient to produce fatal effects. A singular circumstance noticed by the same experimenter is, that the solution in acetic or sulphuric acid occasioned violent excitement; while the contrary condition uniformly resulted from the use of that in olive oil. On the whole, we may conclude that narcotin is nearly inoperative upon the human system, either in the solid form or dissolved in acids; and that the narcotic effects which have been attributed to it, have probably arisen from the employment of a preparation not entirely freed from other principles contained in the opium. It may be considered as certain, that different substances have been obtained and described under the name of narcotin; for the most skilful analytical chemists of the age have given statements of its composition wholly irreconcilable with each other, and to be accounted for only upon the supposition that they did not experiment on precisely the same body. Thus Pelletier and Dumas found 7.21 per cent, of nitro- gen, and Liebig only 2.51 per cent. Perhaps the discovery of the new principles in opium may throw some light on this subject. Narcotin is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon. According to Robiquet it combines with sulphuric acid in the proportion of eight parts to one. (Journ. de Pharm. xvii. 639.) Meconic acid is white, solid, crystallizable, fusible at about 220° F., volatilizable without change, of a sour taste followed by bitterness, soluble in water and alcohol, with the property of reddening vegetable blues, and of striking a blood-red colour with the salts of iron. This last property is characteristic. The following is Robiquet's process for PART I. Opium. 465 obtaining the acid. An infusion of Opium is boiled, for fifteen or twenty minutes, with a quantity of caustic magnesia equal to about two per cent. of the opium employed, and then filtered; the matter deposited on the filter containing meconate of magnesia, morphia, &c, is washed with cold distilled water, and having been treated first with diluted alcohol, and afterwards with concentrated alcohol, to separate the colouring mat- ter and morphia, is submitted to the action of very weak sulphuric acid with heat; the acid liquor is precipitated with solution of muriate of baryta, which throws down the meconate and sulphate of baryta, con- taminated with colouring matter; the precipitate is washed and mace- rated with weak sulphuric acid, to separate the baryta from the meco- nic acid which is now dissolved ; the liquor is filtered and concentrated by evaporation; and lastly the acid, which separates in the form of a reddish-yellow mass, is taken from the mother waters, washed with a small quantity of cold water, dried, and freed from the colouring mat- ter by sublimation. Meconic acid is not used separately in medicine; but its natural relation with morphia requires that it should be under- stood. The meconin of M. Couerbe, which is identical with a substance dis- covered several years ago by M. Dublanc jun., but of which no account was published, is perfectly white, in the form of acicular crystals, solu- ble in boiling water, ether, and alcohol, fusible at 212°, volatilizable without change, wholly destitute of nitrogen in its composition, and possessed of a degree of acrimony which favours the supposition that it may not be without action upon the system. The method of preparing it has not yet been published. (Journ. de Pharm., Mars, 1832.) Narcein, the existence of which has been recently announced by Pel- letier, is white, in acicular crystals, inodorous, soluble in water and alcohol, more so in these liquids hot than cold, and insoluble in ether. It is rendered blue by the action of mineral acids so far diluted as not to decompose it; but does not, like morphia, become blue by the ac- tion of the salts of iron, nor red by that of nitric acid. It contains ni- trogen. (Ibid.) The remarks which have hitherto been made on the physical pro- perties and composition of opium, have reference to the variety pro- cured from Turkey. The India opium, according to Dr. A. T. Thomsonj is distinguished by the following characters. It is in round masses, co- vered with the petals of the poppy in successive layers, to the thickness of nearly one-fourth of an inch. It has a strong empyreumatic smell, with little of the peculiar heavy odour of the Turkey opium. Its taste is more bitter, and equally nauseous, but less $crid. Its colour is blacker, and its texture, though as tenacious, is less plastic. It is more friable, and when triturated with water, is wholly suspended or dis- solved, leaving none of that plastic residue which is afforded by the other variety. It yielded to Dr. Thomson more narcotin than the Turkey opium, but only about one-third the quantity of morphia. It appears to us highly probable, from the characters of India opium detailed by Dr. Thomson, that the specimens he examined were, in fact, rather the ex- tract of the poppy heads obtained by decoction, than the inspissated juice; for we cannot conceive that there should be so essential a differ- ence between the genuine opium of India and that of Turkey, while the latter agrees almost precisely with that produced in England and France. The absence of the plastic principle analogous to caoutchouc, is a strong evidence in favour of this opinion; for it is obvious that water would not extract this from the capsules, while it is hardly pro- 466 Opium. part i. bable that the juice is destitute of it. Besides, the strength of India opium, as above described, is very nearly the same with that of the ex- tract of the capsules prepared in France. The best opium used in India is undoubtedly a very different substance; and we have been thus par- ticular, in order that, should any of it reach us, we might be prepared to value it by its intrinsic merits, not by the reputation which it has acquired in books, and which is maintained by the habit among authors of copying each other's statements without due examination. Incompatibles.—All the substances which produce precipitates with opium, do not necessarily affect its medical virtues; but the alkalies, and all vegetable infusions containing tannin and gallic acid, are strictly incompatible; the former separating and precipitating the active prin- ciple, the latter forming with it an insoluble compound. The proportion of morphia which any particular specimen of opium will furnish, may be considered as the best test of its value, except that of actual trial upon the system. Good opium should yield ten or twelve per cent, of the impure morphia precipitated from the infusion by am- monia with alcohol, according to the process of the United States Pharmacopoeia. (See Morphia.) The London College judiciously directs that opium, before being used, be carefully separated from all foreign substances, especially those which are external. The College also directs that it should be kepi in two states—soft, fit to form pills; and hard, by drying it with the aid of a water-bath, so that it may be pulverised. Medical Properties and Uses.—Opium is a stimulant narcotic. Taken by a healthy person, in a moderate dose, it increases the force, fulness, and frequency of the pulse, augments the temperature of the skin, in- vigorates the muscular system, quickens the senses, animates the spi- rits, and gives new energy to the intellectual faculties. Its operation, while thus extending to all parts of the system, is directed with pecu- liar force to the brain, the functions of which it excites sometimes even to intoxication or delirium. In a short time this excitation subsides; a calmness of the corporeal actions, and a delightful placidity of mind succeed; and the individual, insensible to painful impressions, forgetting all sources of care and anxiety, submits himself to a current of unde- fined and unconnected, but pleasing fancies; and is conscious of no other feeling than that of a quiet and vague enjoyment. At the end of half an hour or an hour from the administration of the narcotic, all con- sciousness is lost in sleep. The soporific effect, after having continued for eight or ten hours, goes off, and is generally succeeded by more or less nausea, headach, tremors, and other symptoms of diminished or irregular nervous action, which soon yield to the recuperative energies of the system; and unless the dose be frequently repeated, and the powers of nature worn out by over-excitement, no injurious conse- quences ultimately result. Such is the obvious operation of opium when moderately taken; but other effects, very important in a remedial point of view, are also experienced. All the secretions, with the exception of that from the skin, are either suspended or diminished; the peristaltic motion of the bowels is arrested; pain and inordinate muscular con- traction, if present, are allayed; and general nervous irritation is com- posed, if not entirely relieved. * When large doses are taken, the period of excitement and exhilara- tion is shorter; the soporific and anodyne effects are more intense and of longer duration; and the succeeding symptoms of debility are more obvious and alarming. PART I. Opium. 467 In quantities sufficient to destroy life, opium scarcely produces any sensible increase of the general powers of the system; but almost imme- diately reduces the frequency, though not the force of the pulse, dimi- nishes muscular strength, and brings on languor and drowsiness, which soon eventuate in a deep apoplectic sleep. A stertorous respiration; a dark suffusion of the countenance ; a full, slow, and labouring pulse; an almost total insensibility to external impressions; and—when a moment of consciousness has been obtained by violent agitation, or powerfully irritating applications—a confused state of intellect, and an irresistible disposition to sink back into comatose sleep, are symptoms which, for the first few hours, attend the operation of the poison. Though not signs of an elevated condition of the bodily powers, neither do they im- ply a state of pure, unmixed debility. The pulse is, indeed, slow; but it is often so full, and so powerful in its beat, that the practitioner feels himself obliged to use the lancet. In the space, however, of a few hours, varying according to the quantity of the narcotic taken, and the powers of the patient's constitution, a condition of genuine debility ensues ; and this condition will be hastened in point of time, though it will be more under the control of remedies, if the opium be removed artificially from the stomach. Called to an individual labouring under the influence of a fatal dose of opium, at a period from six to eight hours after it has been swallowed, the practitioner will generally find him with a cool, clammy skin; cold extremities; a pallid countenance; a feeble, thread- like, scarcely perceptible pulse; a slow, interrupted, almost gasping respiration ; and a torpor little short of absolute, deathlike insensibility. With such symptoms, the patient is usually beyond the reach of assist- ance ; the poison has worked its fatal effects; and the last convulsive struggle of the system may be every moment expected. No appearances are revealed by the dissection of those who have died of the immediate effects of opium, which can be considered as affording satisfactory evidence of its mode of operation. The redness occasion- ally observed in the mucous membrane of the stomach, is by no means constantly present, and is ascribable rather to the irritating substances prescribed as remedies, or to the spirituous vehicle in which the poison has been swallowed, than to the action of the poison itself. Such at least is the inference drawn by Nysten, from his experiments and ob- servations ; and Orfila states that the stomacijs of dogs which he had killed by opium internally administered, did not present the slightest vestige of inflammation. The force of the medicine is directed to the cerebral and nervous functions; and death is produced by a suspension of respiration arising from the want of due influence from the brain. The section of the par vagum on both sides has not been found to pre- vent or retard the death of animals to which large doses of opium have been given, nor even materially to modify its narcotic effects.* It would seem, therefore, that the active principle is conveyed into the circula- tion, and operates upon the brain, and probably upon the nervous sys- tem at large, by immediate contact with their interior structure. It is an error to attribute the anodyne, sedative, and soporific effects of the medicine to the previous excitement. They are as much as this very excitement the direct results of its action upon Jhe brain. It is in the state of exhaustion and collapse which ensue after the peculiar influ- ence of the opium has ceased, that we are to look for an illustration of that principle of the system, by which any great exaltation of its ener- * Nysten, quoted by Orfila. 468 Opium. PART I. gies above the natural standard is followed by a corresponding pros- tration. We may be permitted to advance the conjecture, that the ex- citement which almost immediately supervenes upon the internal use of opium, is produced by means of nervous communication; while^ the succeeding narcotic effects are attributable to its absorption and en- trance into the circulation; and the prostration of all the powers of the system which ultimately takes place, is a necessary consequence of the agitation into which the various organs have been thrown. On some individuals opium produces very peculiar effects, totally differing from the ordinary results of its operation. In very small quan- tities it occasionally gives rise to excessive sickness and vomiting, and even spasm of the stomach; in other cases it produces restlessness, headach, and delirium; and we have known it, even in large doses, to occasion obstinate wakefulness. The headach, want of appetite, tre- mors, &c, which usually follow, in a slight degree, its narcotic opera- tion, are uniformly experienced by some individuals to such an extent, as to render the use of the medicine very inconvenient. It is possible that some of these disagreeable effects may arise not from the meco- nate of morphia contained in the opium, but from some other of its in- gredients ; and those which do result from the meconate, may not be produced by other salts of morphia. It has, in fact, been found that the operation of opium may often be favourably modified by changing the state of combination in which its active principle naturally exists. Dis- solved in vinegar or lemon-juice, it had been known to act in some in- stances more pleasantly and effectually than in substance, or in the state of tincture, long before physicians had learned to explain the phenome- non by referring it to the production of an acetate or citrate of morphia. When upon the subject of morphia, we shall take occasion to treat of the medical properties of this principle in its various combinations. An occasional effect of opium, which has not yet been alluded to, is a disagreeable itching or sense of pricking in the skin, which is some- times attended with a species of miliary eruption. We have found the effect to result equally from all the preparations of this narcotic. The general operation of opium may be obtained by injecting it into the rectum, or applying it to the surface of the body, especially upon a part denuded of the cuticle. It has appeared to us, when thus applied, to produce less general excitement, in proportion to its other effects, than when administered by the mouth; but we do not make the state- ment with entire confidence. It is said that when introduced into the cellular membrane, it acts with great energy; and when thrown into the cavity of the peritoneum speedily produces convulsions and death. Injected into the cavity of the heart, it impairs, or altogether destroys the powers of this organ. The local effects of opium are of a similar character with those which follow its general operation. An increased action of the part is first ob- servable ; then a diminution of its sensibility and contractility; and the latter effect is more speedy, more intense, and of longer continuance, the larger the quantity in which the narcotic is applied. In all parts of the world opium is habitually employed by many with a view to its exhilarating and anodyne influence. This is particularly the case among the Mahomedans and Hindoos, who find in this narcotic the most pleasing substitute for those alcoholic drinks which are inter- dicted by the precepts of their religion. In India, Persia, and Turkey, it is consumed in immense quantities; and many nations of the East smoke opium as those of the West smoke tobacco. This is not the PART I. Opium. 469 place to speak of the fearful and blasting effects of such a practice upon both the intellectual and bodily faculties. The use of opium as a medicine can be clearly traced back to Dia- goras, who was nearly contemporary with Hippocrates; and it was proba- bly employed before his time. It is at present more frequently prescribed than perhaps any other article of the Materia Medica. Its extensive ap- plicability to the cure of disease, will be rendered evident by a view of the indications which it is calculated to fulfil. 1. It is excitant in its pri- mary action. In low or typhoid complaints, requiring a supporting treat- ment, it exalts the actions of the arterial and nervous systems, and in moderate doses frequently repeated, may be employed with advantage in conjunction or alternation with other stimulants. 2. It relieves pain more speedily and effectually than any other medicine with which we are acquainted. If possessed of no other property than this, it would be entitled to high consideration. Not to mention cancer, and those other incurable affections, which, if not alleviated by opium, would render the remainder of life a scene of continued torture; we have numerous instances of painful diseases which are not only temporarily, but en- tirely cured by the remedy; and there is scarcely a complaint in the catalogue of human ailments, in the treatment of which it is not occa- sionally demanded for the relief of suffering, which, if allowed to con- tinue, might aggravate the disorder, and protract, if not prevent a cure. 3. Another very important indication, which, beyond any other narcotic, it is capable of fulfilling, is the production of sleep. For this purpose it is given in a great variety of diseases—whenever, in fact, morbid vigi- lance exists, not dependent on acute inflammation of the brain. Among the complaints in which it proves most serviceable in this way, is the delirium tremens, or mania of drunkards, in which it is frequently suf- ficient of itself to effect a cure. Opium produces sleep in two ways; first, by its direct operation on the brain, secondly, by allaying that morbid nervous irritation upon which wakefulness generally depends. In the latter case it may frequently be advantageously combined with camphor or Hoffman's anodyne. 4. Opium is powerfully antispasmodic. No medicine is so efficient in relaxing spasm, and in controlling those irregular muscular movements which depend on unhealthy nervous action. Hence its great importance asaremedy in tetanus; colic; spasm of the stomach attending gout, dyspepsia, and cholera; spasm of the ureters in nephritis, and of the biliary ducts in the passage of calculi; and in various convulsive affections. 5. Probably dependent upon a similar influence over the nervous system, is the property which it pos- sesses of allaying general and local irritations, whether exhibited in the nerves or blood-vessels, provided the action do not amount to positive inflammation; and even in this case^it is sometimes prescribed with ad- vantage. Hence its use in composing restlessness, quieting cough, and relieving nausea, tenesmus, and strangury. 6. In suppressing morbid discharges, it answers another indication which fits it for the treatment of a long list of diseases. This effect it is, perhaps, enabled to produce by diminishing the nervous energy upon which secretion and mus- cular motion depend. Upon this principle it is useful in diarrhoea, when the complaint consists merely in increased secretion into the bowels, without high action or organic derangement; in consumption, chronic catarrh, humoral asthma, and other cases of morbidly increased expec- toration ; in diabetes; and in certain forms of hemorrhage, particu- larly that from the uterus, in combination with other remedies. 7. It remains to mention one other indication—that of producing perspira- 470 Opium. PART I. tion—in which opium, conjoined with small doses of emetic medicines, is pre-eminent. No diaphoretic is so powerful as a combination of opium and ipecacuanha; and none is so extensively employed. We shall speak more fully of this application of the remedy under the head of Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii. It is here sufficient to say, that its beneficial effects are especially experienced in rheumatism, the bowel affections, and cer- tain forms of pulmonary disease. From this great diversity of properties, and the frequent occurrence of those morbid conditions to which opium affords relief, it is often prescribed in the same disease to meet numerous indications. Thus,.in idiopathic fevers, we frequently meet with morbid vigilance and great nervous irritation, combined with a low condition of the system. In typhous pneumonia, there is the same depression of the vital powers, combined with severe neuralgic pains, and much nervous irritation. In diarrhoea, besides the indications presented by the spasmodic pain and increased discharge, there is a strong call for the diaphoretic ope- ration of the opium. It is unnecessary to multiply instances. There is hardly a complaint which does not occasionally present a complication of symptoms demanding the use of this remedy. But a medicine possessed of such extensive powers may do much in- jury if improperly directed; and conditions of the system frequently occur, in which, though some one of the symptoms calls for its use, others, on the contrary, are incompatible with it. Thus, opium is con- tra-indicated by a high state of inflammatory excitement, which should be reduced before we can with propriety venture upon its employment; and when there is any doubt as to the sufficiency of the reduction, the opium should be given in combination with tartarized antimony or ipe- cacuanha, which modify its stimulant operation, and give it a more decided tendency to the skin. It is also contra-indicated by strong de- termination of blood to the head, and whenever constipation of the bowels is particularly to be avoided. When, however, the constipation de- pends upon intestinal spasm, as in colic, it is sometimes relieved by the antispasmodic action of the opium ; and the. binding effects of the medi- cine may generally be counteracted by the use of laxatives. Opium is usually administered in substance or in tincture. In the former state it is given in the shape of pill, which, as a general rule, should be formed out of powdered opium, as it is thus more readily dissolved in the liquors of the stomach, and therefore operates more speedily and effectually, than when made, as it sometimes is, immedi- ately from the plastic mass. There is no medicine of which the dose is more variable, according to the habits of the patient, the nature of his complaint, or the purpose to be effected. While in catarrh and diarrhoea, we often prescribe not more than one-fourth or one-third of a grain; in tetanus and some other nervous affections, it has been administered, without abating the violence of the symptoms, in the enormous quan- tity of two drachms in twenty-four hours; and in a case of cancer of the uterus, under the care of the late Drs. Monges and La Roche of this city, the quantity is stated to have been gradually increased, till the amount taken during one day, either in the shape of tincture or in sub- stance, was equivalent to more than three ounces. The medium dose, in ordinary cases of disease, to produce the anodyne and soporific effects of the medicine, is one grain. Opium may often be applied with great advantage by the rectum. In this way it operates most advantageously in cases of obstinate vomiting, of painful nephritic and uterine affections, of strangury from blisters, part I. Opium. 471 and of dysenteric tenesmus. It may be employed as a suppository, or in the form of enema made with laudanum and a smafl quantity of viscid liquid, as flaxseed tea, mucilage of gum arabic, or starch prepared with hot water. The quantity, as a general rule, may be three times that ad- ministered by the mouth; but the relative susceptibility of the stomach and rectum in different persons, is not always the same; and the effects produced by the narcotic given by injection, are sometimes much greater than was anticipated. The practitioner, moreover, should take into consideration the previous habits of the patient. It is possible that in an individual who has long been accustomed to take opium internally, and whose stomach will receive large doses with impunity, the rectum may not have lost, in a proportionate degree, its absorbing power or susceptibility; and that serious consequences might result by adhering, in such a case, to the general rule, as to the relative quantity to be given in the way of enema or suppository. In some one of its liquid preparations, opium is often used externally as an addition to collyria in ophthalmia, to injections in gonorrhoea, and lotions in various complaints of the skin, and external pains, as those of gout and rheumatism. It is also used as a local anodyne in the state of powder, made into a plaster or cataplasm. When opium has been taken in an overdose, the only effectual mode of relief is immediately to evacuate the stomach, either by means of the stomach-pump, or when this is not attainable, by the more active eme- tics, such as tartarized antimony, sulphate of zinc, or sulphate of cop- per, conjoined with ipecacuanha. The operation of the emetic should be promoted by a very free use of warm drinks, by irritating the fauces with a feather, by keeping the patient in motion, and, if the insuscepti- bility to the action of the medicine is very great, by dashing cold water upon the head and shoulders, thus counteracting, for a moment, the narcotic influence of the opium upon the brain, and enabling this organ to receive and transmit the necessary impressions. After the evacuation of the poison, the chief indication is to obviate the debility which gene- rally supervenes, and which, in cases where the quantity of the narcotic has been large, or has remained long in the stomach, is sometimes alarming and even fatal. For this purpose, the carbonate of ammonia or the aromatic spirit of ammonia, with wine whey, may be employed internally, and sinapisms and stimulant frictions applied to the surface. The practitioner should not despair even if called at the last moment. The stomach-tube may be applied at any period; and it is possible that even without an evacuation of the stomach, a little assistance may en- able the system to resist successfully the prostrating influence of the poison, if not taken in an overwhelming dose. Should all other mea- sures fail, resort may be had to artificial respiration,-by which the func- tions of the lungs and heart may possibly be sustained till the brain has struggled through its conflict with the narcotic, and is enabled to re- sume its natural action. Brodie has demonstrated that death from many of the narcotics results from a suspension of the cerebral influence ne- cessary to sustain the respiratory function, and that the heart ceases to act in consequence of the cessation of respiration. If this can be re- stored artificially before the contractions of the heart have entirely ceased, the circulation may continue, and life be supported for a time without the interference of the brain, which now receives a supply of arterial blood, and is thus better enabled to rise above the repressing action of the opium. As this narcotic does not produce structural de- rangement, but operates chiefly upon the nervous power, a favourable' 472 Opium. —Opopanax. PART I. result is more likely to be experienced than in cases of poisoning from some other articles of the same class. A case is on record, in which a child, apparently in the very last stage, was saved by a resort to arti- ficial respiration.* It is often desirable to ascertain the presence of opium in any suspected mixture. A test proposed by Dr. Hare, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, though not to be relied on with absolute cer- tainty, may be advantageously resorted to as an auxiliary to other means. It is founded on the fact that meconic acid forms a red salt with the per- oxide of iron. Dr. Hare precipitates the meconate of lead by the addition of a few drops of a solution of the acetate of lead to the suspected liquid; applies to the precipitated meconate by means of a dropping-tube, about thirty drops of sulphuric acid, by which the meconic acid is separated; and finally adds in the same way a solution of the red sulphate of iron, which gives the striking red colour of the permeconate of that metal. By this mode a drop of laudanum may be detected in six fluidounces of water.f Orfila states that this test may be much simplified. All that is necessary is to separate the meconic acid from its native combination, and then combine it^with the peroxide of iron. This may be accom- plished by first additfg sulphuric acid, and afterwards the ferruginous persulphate. Even the persulphate of iron alone will, according to Orfila, strike a red colour with a solution of opium, owing to its excess of acid.| It is obvious that the meconic acid only is detected; but as this has not been found in any other substance than opium, the pre- sumptive evidence afforded by the test is strong. Off. Prep. Confectio Opii, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Electuarium Catechu Comp., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Opii, Lond., Dub.; Morphia, U.S.; Pilulae Opii, U.S., Lond., Eel, Dub.; Pulvis Cornu Usti cum Opio, Lond.; Pulvis Cretse Compositus cum Opio, Lond.; Pulvis Ipecac, et Opii, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Opiatus, J£o?.; Tinctura Opii, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tr. Opii Camphorata, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tr. Opii Ammoniata, Ed.; Trochisci Glycyrrhizae cum Opio, Ed.; Vinum Opii, U. S.} Lond., Ed. OPOPANAX. Bub. Opopanax. " Pastinaca Opopanax. Gummi Resina." Dub. Off. Syn. OPOPANACIS GUMMI-RESINA. Pastinaca Opopanax. Gummi-resina. Lond. Opopanax, Fr.; Panax-gummi, Germ.; Opopanace, Hal; Opopanaco, Span.,- Jawes- heer, Arab.; Gawsheer, Pers. Pastinaca. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelli- ferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Fruit elliptical, compressed, flat. Petals involute, entire. Willd. • The infant was ten days old; had received by mistake from twenty-five to thirty drops of laudanum intended for the mother; had completely lost the power of deglu- tition; was comatose, and had had several convulsions. Artificial respiration was sus- tained two or three hours. See case by Dr. Ogilvie, in the N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. iii. p. 277. f Note by Dr. Hare in the Philad. Journ. Med. and Phys. Sciences, vol. xiv. p. 77. * Journ. de Chimie Medicale, Fevrier, 1828. part i. Opopanax.—Origanum. 473 Pastinaca Opopanax. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1466; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 122. t. 47. This species of parsnip, usually called rough parsnip, has a thick, yellow, fleshy, perennial root, which sends up annually a strong, branching stem, rough near the base, about as thick as a man's thumb, and from four to eight feet in height. The leaves are variously pinnate, with long sheathing petioles, and large, oblong, serrate leaflets, of which the terminal one is cordate, others are deficient at their base upon the upper side, and the whole are hairy on their under surface. The flowers are small, yellow, and form large flat umbels at the termi- nation of the branches. The plant is a native of the Levant, and grows wild in the South of France, Italy, and Greece. When the base of the stem is wounded, a juice exudes, which, when dried in the sun, constitutes the opopanax of commerce. Some authors state that it is obtained from the root. A warm climate appears necessary for the perfection of the juice, as that which has been collected from the plant in France, though similar to opopanax, is of an inferior quality. The drug is brought from Turkey. It is said also to come from the East Indies; but Ainslie states that he has never met with it in any Indian medicine hazard* It is sometimes in tears, but usually in irregular ramps or fragments, of a reddish-yellow colour, speckled with white on the outside, paler within, and when broken exhibiting white pieces intermingled with the mass. Its odour is strong, peculiar, and unpleasant; its taste bitter and acrid. Its sp. gr. is 1.622. It is inflammable, burning with a bright flame. In chemical constitution it is a gum-resin, with an admixture of other ingredients in small proportion. The results of its analysis by Pelletier were from 100 parts, 33.4 of gum, 42 of resin, 4.2 of starch, 1.6 of extractive, 0.3 of wax, 2.8 of malic acid, 9.8 of lignin, 5.9 of vol- atile oil and loss, with traces of caoutchouc. Water by trituration dis- solves about one-half of the gum-resin, forming an opaque milky solu- tion, which deposites resinous matter on standing, and becomes yellow- ish. Both alcohol and water distilled from it retain its flavour; but only a very minute proportion of oil can be obtained in a separate state. Medical Properties and Uses.—Opopanax was formerly employed as an antispasmodic and deobstruent, in hypochondriasis, hysteria, asthma, and chronic visceral affections, and as an emmenagogue in suppression of the menses; but it is now generally regarded as a medicine of very feeble powers, and in this country is scarcely ever used. Its dose is from ten to thirty grains. ORIGANUM. U.S. Origanum. " Origanum vulgare. Herba. The herb." U.S. Off Syn. ORIGANUM. Origanum vulgare. Lond.; ORIGANUM VULGARE. Dub. Origan, Fr.; Gemeiner dosten, Wohlgemuth, Germ.,- Origano, Hal; Oregano, Span. Origanum. Class Didynamia. Order Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. La- biatae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Strobile four-cornered, spiked, collecting the calyces- Co- rolla with the upper lip erect and flat, the lower three-parted, with the segments equal. Willd. Origanum vulgare. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 135; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 344. t. 123. Origanum or common marjoram is a perennial herb, with 60 474 Origanum.—Origanum Marjorana. part i. erect, purplish, downy, four-sided, trichotomous stems, which rise about eighteen inches high, and bear opposite, ovate, entire, somewhat hairy leaves, of a deep yellowish-green colour. The flowers are numer- ous, of a pinkish-purple or rose colour, disposed in panicles, and ac- companied with ovate reddish bractes, longer than the calyx. This is tubular, and five-toothed, with nearly equal segments. The corolla is funnel-shaped, with the upper lip erect, bifid, and obtuse, the lower trifid, blunt, and spreading. The anthers are double, the stigma bifid and reflexed. The plant is a native of Europe and America. In this country it grows in dry stony fields and woods, from Pennsylvania to Virginia, and is in flower from June to October; but it is not very abundant, and is seldom collected for use. The oil, which is the part chiefly employed, is imported from Europe. Properties.—Common marjoram has a peculiar agreeable aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent taste. These properties it owes to a vola- tile oil, which may be separated by distillation. (See Oleum Origani.) Medical Properties and Uses.—It is gently tonic and excitant, and has been used in the form of infusion as a diaphoretic and emmenagogue, and externally as a fomentation; but it is at present scarcely employed. Off. Prep. Oleum Origani, U.S., Lond., Dub. ORIGANUM MARJORANA. HERBA. Bub. Sweet Marjoram. Off. Syn. ORIGANI MARJORANA HERBA. Ed. Marjolaine, Fr.; Majoran, Germ.; Maggiorana, Hal; Mejorana, Span. Origanum. See ORIGANUM. Origanum Marjorana. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 137; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 345. t. 124. This species of Origanum has a perennial root with numerous stems, which are woody, branching, four-sided, and a foot and a half high. The leaves are sessile, in pairs, ovate, obtuse, entire, downy, and of a pale green colour. The flowers are small, white, and appear successively between the bracteal leaves, which are numerous, and form round compact spikes, of which three or four are placed at the extremity of each peduncle. The corolla is funnel-shaped, with the tipper lip erect and roundish, the under divided into three pointed seg- ments. Sweet marjoram grows wild in Portugal and Andalusia, and is culti- vated as a garden herb in other parts of Europe and in the United States. Some authors, however, consider the 0. Marjorano'ides, which is a native of Barbary, and closely allied to the O. Marjorana, as the type of the sweet marjoram of our gardens. This plant has a pleasant odour, and a warm, aromatic bitterish taste, which it imparts to water and alcohol. By distillation with water it yields a large proportion of volatile oil. It is tonic and gently excitant, but is used more as a condiment in cookery than as a medicine. In domestic practice its infusion is much employed by the vulgar to hasten the tardy eruption in measles, and other exanthematous diseases. Off. Prep. Oleum Origani Marjoranae, Ed. ; Pulvis Asari Composi- tus, Ed. PART I. 0.9. 475 OS. U.S. Bone. Off Syn. OSS A. Ed., Dub. Os, Fr.,- Knochen, Germ.; Ossa, Hal; Huesos, Span. Bones are employed in several pharmaceutical processes, and those derived from the domestic quadrupeds, especially the ox, may be as- sumed to be the kind intended for officinal use. Properties, fyc.—They are solid, white substances, of a lamellated texture, constituting the skeleton of the superior orders of animals, of which they form the hardest and densest parts. They consist of a cel- lular tissue of organic matter, the cavities of which are filled up with certain earthy salts, to be mentioned presently. When subjected to de- structive distillation, in close vessels, they are decomposed without al- teration of shape, lose about three-sevenths of their weight, become brittle, and are converted into a black matter, containing the earthy salts of the bone, and constituting the species of animal charcoal called bone-black. (See Carbo Animalis.) The portions which distil over con- sist of the usual ammoniacal products derived from animal matter. (See Ammoniae Murias.) When calcined in open vessels they lose more of their weight, and are converted into a white friable substance, consist- ing of the incombustible part, and called by the earlier chemists the earth of bones. Treated with boiling water, a small portion of the animal matter is dissolved,.vconsisting of gelatin; but when acted on by water in a Papin's digester, the whole of the animal matter is taken up, and the earthy salts, deprived of their cement, crumble into powder, and become diffused through the solution. When subjected to the action of dilute muriatic acid, the gelatin and earthy salts are dissolved, and the bone softens without losing its shape, and becomes semitransparent and flexible. The portion which remains unattacked by the acid is animal matter, having the appearance of cartilage and the chemical properties of coagulated albumen. This portion of bone is very nutritious, and has been prepared so as to form a wholesome aliment, by M. d'Arcet. His process for obtaining it consists in digesting bones in weak muria- tic acid for seven or eight days, occasionally renewing the acid, plunging them for a few moments in boiling water, and then subjecting them to a strong current of cold water. The pure animal matter thus procured is converted into cakes of gelatin, called portable soup, (tablettes de bouil- lon), by dissolving in water, concentrating the solution until it gelatinizes, and drying the matter obtained. Composition.—The bones of different animals, and of the same animal at different ages, vary somewhat in their composition. Dry ox-bones, according to Berzelius, consist of cartilage 33.3, phosphate of lime 55.45, carbonate of lime 3.85, fluate of lime 2.90, soda, chloride of so- dium, water, Sec. 2.45, phosphate of magnesia 2.05 = 100. Fourcroy and Vauquelin's results give a larger quantity of animal matter and car- bonate of lime, and a smaller of phosphate of lime. Human bones differ somewhat in the proportions of their constituents, and in containing traces of iron and manganese. Uses.—Bones are applied to numerous uses. Burnt to whiteness, they furnish phosphate of lime, employed to obtain other phosphates, phosphoric acid and phosphorus. Subjected to destructive distillation, they yield impure carbonate of ammonia, and empyreumatic oil (Dippel's 476 Os.—Ovum. PART 1. animal oil); and a carbonaceous residue is left, called bone-black. Cal- cined, pulverized, and washed, they form the material of which cupels are made. In a divided state, in the form, for instance, of bone saw- dust, they form an excellent manure. Deprived of their earthy portion by weak acids, they furnish a nutritious substance, proper as an ingre- dient in broths, or for forming portable soup. By proper treatment with water they furnish gelatin, applicable not only to the purposes of com- mon glue, but also to those of the finer sorts of gelatin, called isinglass, in making animal jellies, and for the fining of wines. (See Ichthyocolla and Cornu Cervi Elaphi.) The hoof-bones of the ox, when boiled with water, furnish a peculiar oil, called neats-foot oil. (See Oleum Bubu- lum.) Off. Prep. Calcis Phosphas Praecipitatum, Dub.; Sodse Phosphas, U.S., Ed., Dub. OVUM. Lond. "Phasianus gallus. Ova." Lond. OZuf, Fr.; Ei, Germ.; Ovo, Hal; Huevo, Span. The common dunghill fowl is supposed to have come originally from India, where it is found in a wild state. It is now domesticated in almost all parts of the globe. The egg, which is the only officinal product, consists of 1. an exte- rior covering called the shell; 2. a white, semi-opaque membrane, lin- ing the internal surface of the shell; 3. the white; 4. the yolk. Other distinct parts are recognised by the comparative anatomist, but they have no peculiar interest for the practical physician or pharmaceutist. 1. The shell consists, according to Vauquelin, chiefly of carbonate of lime, with animal matter, and a minute proportion of phosphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, oxide of iron, and sulphur. When exposed to a high degree of heat in the open air, the carbonic acid is driven off, the animal matter consumed, and lime is left nearly pure. 2. The membrane lining the shell appears to be of an albuminous na- ture. 3. The white—albumen ovi—is a glairy viscid liquid contained in very delicate membranes, without odour or taste, readily soluble in water, coagulable by the stronger acids, by alcohol, and by a heat of 160° F. Exposed in thin layers to a current of air it becomes solid, retaining its transparency and solubility in water. By coagulation it is rendered sapid, white, opaque, and insoluble. At a temperature of 212°, one part of it renders one thousand parts of water in which it has been dissolved opaque. It contains, according to Dr. Bostock, in one hundred parts, 85 of water, 12 of pure albumen, 2.7 of mucus or uncoagulable matter, and 0.3 of saline substances, including soda with traces of sulphur. The white of egg is precipitated by muriate of tin, muriate of gold, subace- tate of lead, corrosive sublimate, and tannin. When kept in the fluid state it soon putrefies; but if carefully dried without coagulation it may be long preserved without change, and may be applied in a state of so- lution to the same purposes as in its original condition. 4. The yolk—vitellus ovi—is inodorous, of a bland oily taste, and forms a milky emulsion when agitated with water. It contains water, albumen, a mild fixed oil, and a colouring matter. By heat it is coagu- lated into a granular solid, which yields the oil by expression. part I. Ovum.—Panax Quinquefolium. 477 Medical Properties and Uses.—Eggs are applied to various purposes in medicine and pharmacy. The shells powdered and levigated may be used beneficially as an antacid in diarrhoea. In common with oyster shells, they possess the advantage of uniting intimately animal matter with the carbonate of lime, the particles of which are thus more tho- roughly isolated, and prove more acceptable to the stomach, than chalk in the finest state of division to which the latter can be brought by me- chanical means. The dose and mode of preparation are the same with those of the oyster shell. (See Testa.) The white of the egg is used chiefly for the clarification of liquids, which it effects by involving, during its. coagulation, the undissolved particles, and carrying them with it to the surface. It is also the best antidote for corrosive sublimate, producing with that substance an inert compound of albumen and calomel. It is sometimes also used for the suspension of insoluble substances in water, but is inferior for this pur- pose to the yolk, and even to mucilage of gum arabic. Agitated briskly with a lump of alum it coagulates, at the same time dissolving a por- tion of the alum, and thus forming an astringent poultice, which may be advantageously applied between folds of gauze over the eye, in some states of ophthalmia. (See Cataplasma Aluminis.) The yolk in its raw state is thought to be laxative, and is a popular remedy in jaundice. If beneficial in this complaint, it is probably in consequence of affording a mild nutritious diet, acceptable to the sto- mach, and easily digested. In dyspepsia it is, from this cause, highly useful. Dr. Parrish, of Philadelphia, has found much advantage from recommending to his dyspeptic patients, the habitual use of the yolk of egg beat up with water and a little ginger. In pharmacy, the yolk is highly useful as an intermedium between water and insoluble substances, such as the balsams, turpentine, oils, &c. It is a mistake in our practi- tioners to recommend the white, instead of the yolk of eggs, in the pre- paration of emulsions. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Aluminis, Dub.; Enema Terebinthinae, Dub. PANAX QUINQUEFOLIUM. U.S. Ginseng. Ginseng, Fr., Germ., Span.; Ginsen, Hal; Ginseng, though not included in any of the Pharmacopoeias, is de- serving of a brief notice on account of its commercial importance, and from the circumstance that it is usually kept in the shops. It is the root of the Panax quinquefolium of Linnaeus. Panax. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia. (Polygamia Dioecia, Linn.) —Nat. Ord. Araliae, Juss.; Araliaceae, A. Richard, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Flowers polygamous. Umbel simple. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla of five petals. Berry inferior, subcordate, two, sometimes three- seeded. Calyx in the male flower entire. Nuttall. Panax quinquefolium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1124; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 149. t. 58; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 82. The ginseng has a peren- nial root, which sends up annually a smooth, round stem, about a foot in height, dividing at the summit into three leafstalks, each of which supports a compound leaf, consisting of five, or more rarely of three or seven petiolate, oblong obovate, acuminate, serrate leaflets. The flowers are small, greenish, and arranged in a simple umbel, supported by a 478 Panax Quinquefolium.—Papaveris Capsulse. part i. peduncle, which rises from the top of the stem in the centre of the pe- tioles. The fruit consists of kidney-shaped, scarlet berries, crowned with the styles and calyx, and containing two, and sometimes three seeds. The plant is indigenous, growing in the hilly regions of the Northern, Middle, and Western States, and preferring the shelter of thick, shady woods. It is a native also of Chinese Tartary. The root is the part em- ployed. This is collected in considerable quantities in Ohio and Western Virginia, and brought to Philadelphia and other cities on the sea-board for tfhe purpose of exportation to China, where it is highly valued. While supplied exclusively from their own native sources, which fur- nished the root only in small quantities, the Chinese entertained the most extravagant notions of its virtues, considering it as a remedy for all diseases, and as possessing almost miraculous powers in preserving health, invigorating the system, and prolonging life. It is said to have been worth its weight in gold at Pekin; and the first shipments made from North America to Canton, after the discovery of the root in this country, were attended with enormous profits. But the subsequent abun- dance of supply has greatly diminished its value, and though it still oc- casionally forms a part of the investments for Canton, it has become an object of less importance than formerly. Properties.—The root is fleshy, somewhat spindleshaped, from one to three inches long, about as thick as the little finger, and terminated by several slender fibres. Frequently there are two portions, sometimes three or more, connected at their upper extremity, and bearing a sup- posed though very remote resemblance to the human figure, from which circumstance it is said that the Chinese name ginseng originated. When dried, the root is yellowish-white and wrinkled externally, and within consists of a hard hornlike substance, surrounded by a whitish softer cortical portion. It has a feeble odour, and a sweet, slightly aromatic taste, somewhat analogous to that of liquorice root. It has not been accurately analyzed, but is said to be rich in gum and starch. Medical Properties and Uses.—The extraordinary medical virtues for- merly ascribed to ginseng, had no other existence than in the imagina- tions of the Chinese. It is little more than a demulcent; and in this country is not employed as a medicine. Some persons, however, are in the habit of chewing it, having acquired a relish for its taste; and it is chiefly to supply the wants of these that it is kept in the shops. PAPAVERIS CAPSULE. Lond. Poppy Capsules. " Papaver somniferum. Capsulse maturae." Lond. Off. Syn. PAPAVERIS SOMNIFERI CAPSULE. Ed.; PAPA- VER SOMNIFERUM. Capsulse maturae. Dub. Poppy heads ; Capsules des pavots, Fr.,- Kupseln des weissen mohns, Germ.; Capi del papavero, ltal; Cabezas de amapola, Span. See OPIUM. In England the poppy is cultivated chiefly for its capsules, which are gathered as they ripen, and taken to market enclosed in bags. They are occasionally imported into this country; but as no effect is produced by them, whioh cannot be as readily obtained from opium, or some one of its preparations, they are little employed; and the framers of the parti. Papaveris Capsulse.—Petroleum. 479 United States Pharmacopceia did not consider them entitled to a place among the articles of the Materia Medica. The dried poppy capsules vary in size from the dimensions of a small egg to those of the fist. They are of a spheroidal shape, flattened below, and surmounted b,y a crown-like expansion—the persistent stig- ma—which is marked by numerous diverging rays that rise somewhat above its upper surface, and appear to be prolongations of partial septa or partitions, proceeding along the interior circumference of the cap- sule from the top to the bottom. In the recent state, the seeds, which are very numerous, adhere to these septa; but in the dried capsule they are loose in its cavity. The capsules of the black poppy are smaller and more globular than those of the white; and contain dark instead of light-coloured seeds. There appears to be no essential difference in their properties. Both kinds, when fresh, are glaucous, but when dry, as directed in the Pharmacopoeias, are of a dirty white or purplish-brown colour, have a consistence somewhat like that of paper, are without smell, and have little taste, unless long chewed, when they are decidedly bitter. Submitted to analysis, they are found to contain principles simi- lar to those of opium, which they yield to water by decoction. They have been employed in France for procuring morphia. Medical Properties and Uses.—Dried poppy heads, though analogous to opium in medical properties, are exceedingly feeble. They are some- times employed in the form of decoction, as an external emollient and anodyne application; and in the shape of emulsion, syrup, or extract, are often used internally by European practitioners to calm irritation, promote rest, and produce generally the narcotic effects of opium. Off. Prep. Decoctum Papaveris, Lond.; Extractum Papaveris, Lond., Ed.; Syrupus Papaveris, Lond., Ed., Dub. PETROLEUM. Lond. Petroleum. Off. Syn. BITUMEN PETROLEUM. Ed. BITUMEN PETRO- LEUM. PETROLEUM BARBADENSE. Dub. Barbadoes tar; P£trole, Huile de Gabian, Fr.; Steinb'l, Germ.; Petroleo, ltal, Span. Petroleum belongs to a class of native inflammable substances, called bitumens. These are liquids or readily fusible solids, which emit when heated a peculiar smell, burn easily, and leave a very small carbonaceous residue. They are of two kinds, one liquid, called naphtha, the other solid, denominated asphaltum. Naphtha is a transparent, yellowish- white, very light and inflammable, limpid liquid, which is found abun- dantly in Persia. It consists exclusively of hydrogen and carbon. Oxy- gen not entering into its composition, it is advantageously employed for preserving potassium. During the formation of coal gas, an artificial naphtha is obtained, which by rectification is rendered equally light and limpid with the natural substance. Thus purified, it was discovered by Mr. James Syme of Edinburgh to possess the property of dissolving caoutchouc, and the solution has been usefully applied to the purpose of forming various surgical instruments of that material. It has also been employed by Mr. Mackintosh of Glasgow for giving a thin coat- ing of caoutchouc to cloth, to render it impermeable to moisture. As- phaltum is black, solid, dry, friable, and insoluble in alcohol. These two varieties of bitumen often exist in a state of mixture in nature. When 480 Petroleum.—Petroselinum. PART i. the asphaltum predominates it takes the name of maltha or mineral tar; when the naphtha is in the larger proportion it is called petroleum. Localities.—Petroleum is found principally at Amiano in the Dutchy of Parma, at Gabian in France, upon the borders of the Caspian Sea, in the kingdom of Ava, and in Barbadoes, Trinidad, and other West India islands. The wells of petroleum in Ava are said to produce four hundred thousand hogsheads annually. The petroleum from Barbadoes is designated as the officinal variety by the Dublin College. In the United States petroleum is found in various localities, the prin- cipal of which are, on the Kenhawa in Virginia; near Scottsville in Kentucky; in Western Pennsylvania; on Duck Creek in Ohio; and on the shores of Seneka Lake in New York. That found in the latter locality is usually called in this country Seneka oil, and similar varieties of petroleum from other native sources are known by the same name. Properties.—Petroleum is a black, rather thick, nearly opaque, in- flammable liquid, unctuous to the touch, and possessing a bituminous taste, and strong and tenacious odour. Its sp. gr. varies from .730 to .878. When subjected to distillation, it yields naphtha, and leaves a solid residue of asphaltum. The petroleum from Ava yielded to Dr. Christison half its bulk of very fine naphtha. It has not been analyzed; but probably consists of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. Medical Properties and C/ises.—Petroleum is accounted a stimulating antispasmodic and sudorific. It is given occasionally in disorders of the chest, when not attended with inflammation ; but is seldom employed as an internal remedy except in the West Indies. In Germany it has been extolled as a remedy for tape-worm. Schwartz's formula in such cases was a mixture of petroleum with one and a half parts of tincture of assafetida, of which forty drops were given three times a day. Exter- nally petroleum is empjoyed as a stimulating embrocation in chilblains, chronic rheumatism, affections of the joints, and paralysis. Mixed with twice its weight of oil of turpentine, and one-eighth of oil of rosemary, it forms the nostrum called British oil. The dose of petroleum is from ten to thirty minims, given in any convenient vehicle. That variety of native petroleum called Seneka oil is used to a con- siderable extent in domestic practice as an external application. It is lighter coloured, thinner in consistence, and less sapid and odorous than the Barbadoes petroleum, and probably contains more naphtha than the latter. PETROSELINUM. U.S. Secondary. Parsley Root. " Apium petroselinum. Radix. The root." U.S. Persil, Fr.; Petersilie, Germ.; Prezzemolo, Hal; Perexil, Span. Apium. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate, striated. Involucre one-leafed. Petals equal. Willd. Apium Petroselinum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1475; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 118. t. 45. Parsley has a biennial root, with an annual, round, furrowed, jointed, erect, branching stem, which rises about two feet in height. The radical leaves are compound, pinnated in ternaries, with the leaflets smooth but not shining, divided into three lobes, and notched at the margin. In the cauline leaves, the segments of the leaflets are linear PART I. Petroselinum.—Phosphorus. 481 and entire. The flowers are small, pale yellow, and disposed in terminal compound umbels, usually without any general involucre, and with the partial one composed of six or eight leaflets. The petals are five, round- ish, and inflexed at their apex. The seeds are small, ovate, flat on one side, convex on the other, of a dark green colour, and marked with five longitudinal ridges. They have a strong, terebinthinate odour, and a warm aromatic taste. The plant is a native of Sardinia and other parts of southern Europe, and is cultivated every where in gardens. All parts of it contain an essential oil, to which it owes its medicinal virtues, as well as its use in seasoning. The root is the part directed by the Pharmacopoeia, though the seeds are at least equally efficient. The root is spindle-shaped, about as thick as the finger, externally white and marked with close annular wrinkles, internally fleshy and white, with a yellowish central portion. It has a pleasant smell, and a sweetish slightly aromatic taste; but loses these properties by long boil- ing, and by the action of time. It should be employed in the recent state. Medical Properties and Uses.—Parsley root is said to be aperient and diuretic, and is occasionally used in nephritic and dropsical affections, in connexion with more active medicines. It is highly recommended ' by Professor Chapman. The usual form of administration is that of strong infusion. PHOSPHORUS. Phosphorus. Phosphore, Fr.; Phosphor, Germ.; Fosforo, Span. Phosphorus, though not officinal in the United States or British Pharmacopoeias, is occasionally used in medicine, and therefore appears deserving of some notice in the present work. It was discovered in 1669 by Brandt, an alchemist of Hamburg, and the process by which it was made remained a secret until 1737, when it was made public. At first it was obtained from putrid urine, and was exceedingly scarce and costly; but in 1769, Gahn discovered it in bones, and shortly afterwards published a process by which it might be obtained from them; and his method has continued to be followed,, with but slight modifications, up to the present time. Preparation.—Calcined bones, which consist principally of phosphate of lime, are digested for twenty-four hours with two-thirds of their weight of strong sulphuric acid, previously diluted with twelve times its weight of water. The sulphuric acid detaches half the lime from the phosphoric acid, and precipitates as sulphate of lime; while a bi- phosphate of lime remains in solution. The mixture is then strained through a linen cloth to separate the sulphate of lime, and afterwards submitted to evaporation, which causes a fresh precipitation of sul- phate, to be separated by a new filtration. The filtered solution of biphosphate is next evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and thoroughly mixed with half its weight of powdered charcoal, so as to form a soft mass, which is dried by being heated to dull redness in an iron pot. The mass when cool is quickly transferred to a coated earthenware re- tort, furnished with an adapter of copper, bent downwards at right angles so as to enter a bottle with a large neck, containing water, which should rise about two lines above the orifice of the adapter. The bottle 61 482 Phosphorus.—Phytalaccse Baccx. parti. is closed round the adapter by a cork, which is traversed by a small glass tube, to give exit to the gaseous products. The retort is heated in a furnace, furnished with a dome, in the most gradual manner, so as to occupy about four hours in bringing it to a red heat. Afterwards the heat is pushed vigorously, so long as any phosphorus drops into the water; and this takes place generally for from twenty-four to thirty hours. During this part of the process the excess of acid in the biphos- phate is expelled, and becomes immediately decomposed; its oxygen combining with the charcoal, and the liberated phosphorus distilling over. A quantity of the materials sufficient to fill a quart retort will yield about a pound of phosphorus. Properties.—Phosphorus is a semitransparent solid, without taste, but possessing an alliaceous smell. When perfectly pure it is colourless; but as usually prepared it is yellowish or reddish-yellow. It is flexible, sectile, and exhibits a waxy lustre. It is insoluble in Water, but dissolves spar- ingly in alcohol and the oils, and more readily in ether. Its sp. gr. is 1.77, and its equivalent number 12 according to Thomson, 15.71 according to Berzelius. It takes fire at 100°, melts at 105°, and boils at 550°, air being excluded. During its combustion, it combines with the oxygen of the air, and forms phosphoric acid. On account of its great inflamma- bility it requires to be kept under water. When exposed to the air, it undergoes a slow combustion, emitting white vapours, which are lumin- ous in the dark. It forms three acids with oxygen, the hypo-phosphor- ous, phosphorous, and phosphoric, and two compounds with hydrogen, phosphuretted hydrogen and subphosphuretted hydrogen. The only medicinal combinations containing phosphorus are the phosphates of mercury, lime, and soda, the two latter of which are officinal. Medical Properties and Uses.—Phosphorus, exhibited in small doses, acts as a powerful general stimulant; in large doses, as a violent irri- tant poison. Its action seems particularly directed to the kidneys and genital organs, producing diuresis, and excitation of the venereal appe- tite. The latter effect has been conclusively proved by the experiments of Alphonse Leroy, Chenevix, and Pelletier. From its peculiar physio- logical action, it is considered to be applicable as a remedy to diseases attended with an extreme prostration of the vital powers. It has been recommended in dropsy, impotency, typhus fever, phthisis, marasmus, chlorosis, paralysis, gutta-serena, mania, Sec. The best mode of exhibit- ing it is in saturated ethereal solution, as directed by the Paris Codex, under the title of JEdher Phosphoratus. The solution contains about three grains of phosphorus in the ounce, and may be given in the dose of ten drops, repeated every two or four hours according to circumstances. Great caution however is requisite in the exhibition of so powerful a remedy, and its effects should be closely watched. It ought never to be given in substance, as, in this mode of exhibition, it is apt to produce violent irritation of the stomach. PHYTOLACCA BACXLE. U.S. Secondary. Poke Berries. " Phytolacca decandra. Baccae. The berries." U.S. PHYTOLACCA RADIX. U.S. Secondary. Poke Root. "Phytolacca decandra. Radix. The root." U.S. PART I. Phytolaccse Radix. 483 Phytolacca. Class Decandria. Order Decagynia.—Nat. Ord. Atri- plices, Juss. Phytolacceae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five, calycine. Berry superior, ten-celled, ten-seeded. Willd. Phytolacca decandra. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 822; Bigelow, Am,. Med. Bot. i. 39; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 213. This is an indigenous plant with a very large perennial root, often five or six inches in diameter, divided into two or three principal branches, soft, fleshy, fibrous, whitish with- in, and covered with a brownish cuticle. The stems, which are annual, frequently grow to the height of six or eight feet, and divide into nu- merous spreading branches. They are round, very smooth, of a green colour when young, but purple after the berries have ripened. The leaves are scattered, ovate oblong, entire, pointed, smooth, ribbed be- neath, and supported on short footstalks. The flowers are numerous, small, and grow in long racemes, which are sometimes erect, some- times drooping. The corolla consists of five ovate, concave petals, fold- ing inwards, and of a whitish colour. The germ is green. There are ten stamens, and the same number of pistils. The raceme of flowers be- comes a cluster of dark purple, almost black, shining berries, flattened above and below, and divided into ten cells, each of which contains one seed. The poke is abundant in all parts of the United States, flourishing along fences, by the borders of woods, and especially in newly cleared and uncultivated fields. It also grows spontaneously in the North of Af- rica and the South of Europe, where, however, it is supposed to have been introduced from America. Its flowers begin to appear in July, and the fruit ripens in autumn. The magnitude of the poke-weed, its large rich leaves, and its beautiful clusters of purple berries, often mingled upon the same branch with the green unripe fruit, and the flowers still in bloom, render it one of the most striking of our native plants. The young shoots are much used as food early in the spring, boiled in the manner of spinage. The ashes of the dried stems and leaves contain a very large proportion of potassa, yielding, according to Braconnot, not less than forty-two per cent, of the pure caustic alkali. In the plant the potassa is neutralized by an acid closely resembling the malic, though differing from it in some respects. The leaves, berries, and root are used in medicine, but the two latter only are mentioned in the Pharmacopoeia. The root abounds most in the active principles of the plant. It should be dug up late in November, cut into thin transverse slices, and dried with a moderate heat. As its virtues are diminished by keeping, a new sup- ply should be procured every year. The berries should be collected when perfectly ripe, and the leaves about the middle of summer, when the footstalks begin to redden. The berries contain a succulent pulp, and yield upon pressure a large quantity of fine purplish-red juice. They have a sweetish, nauseous, slightly acrid taste, with little odour. The colouring principle of their juice is evanescent, and cannot be applied to useful purposes in dyeing, from the difficulty of fixing it. Alkalies render it yellow; but the origi- nal colour is restored by acids. The juice contains saccharine matter, and after fermenting, yields alcohol by distillation. The dried root is of a light yellowish-brown colour externally, very much wrinkled, and when in transverse slices, exhibits on the cut sur- face numerous concentric rings, formed by the projecting ends of fibres, between which the intervening matter has shrunk in the drying process. The structure internally in the older roots is firm and almost ligneous; 484 Phytolacca Radix.—Pimento. part i. the colour yellowish-white, alternating with darker circular layers. There is no smell; the taste is slightly sweetish, and at first mild, but followed by a sense of acrimony. The active matter is imparled to boil- ing water and alcohol. Medical Properties and Uses.—Poke is emetic, purgative, and some- what narcotic. As an emetic it is very slow in its operation, frequently not commencing in less than one or two hours after it has been taken, and then continuing to act for a long time upon both the stomach and bowels. The vomiting produced by it is said not to be attended with much pain or spasm; but narcotic effects have been observed by some physicians, such as drowsiness, vertigo, and dimness of vision. In over- doses it produces excessive vomiting and purging, attended with great prostration of strength, and sometimes with convulsions. It has been proposed as a substitute for ipecacuanha; but the slowness and long continuance of its action, and its tendency to purge, wholly unfit it for the purposes which that emetic is calculated to fulfil. In small doses it acts as an alterative, and has been highly recommended in the treat- ment of chronic rheumatism. The dose of the powdered root, as an emetic, is from ten to thirty grains; as an alterative, from one to five grains. A saturated tincture of the berries prepared with diluted alco- hol may be given in rheumatic cases, in the dose of a fluidrachm three times a day. A strong infusion of the leaves or roots has been recom- mended in piles. An ointment prepared by mixing a drachm of the powdered root or leaves with an ounce of lard, has been used with advantage in psora, tinea capitis, and some other forms of cutaneous disease. It occasions at first a sense of heat and smarting in the part to which it is applied. An extract made by evaporating the expressed juice of the recent leaves has been used for the same purpose, and acquired atone time consider- able repute'as a remedy in cancer. PIMENTA. U.S. Pimento. "Myrtus pimenta. Baccse. The berries." U.S. Off Syn. PIMENTiE BACCAE. Myrtus Pimenta. Baccae. Lond.; MYRTI PIMENTO FRUCTUS, Ed.; PIMENTA. MYRTUS PI- MENTA. Fructus. Dub. Allspice, Jamaica pepper; Piment, Poivre de la Jamaique, Fr.; Nelkenpfeffer, Germ.; Pimenti, Hal; Pimienta de la Jamaica, Span. Myrtus. Class Icosandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Myrti, Juss.; Myrtaceje, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, superior. Petals five. Berry two to five- celled, many-seeded. Willd. By Professor Lindley, of London, the pimento tree has been with- drawn from the Myrtus, and erected into a new genus, by the title of Pimenta, of which the following character is given. " Calyx five-cleft; petals five; ovary two-celled ; ovules solitary apense; style straight; stigma somewhat capitate." (Loudon's Encyc. of Plants.) This genus contains but a single species, which is named Pimenta vulgaris. We adhere, however, to the officinal title. Myrtus Pimenta. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 973; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 541. t. 194. This species of myrtle is a beautiful tree, about thirty feet high, with a straight trunk, much branched above, and covered with a very smooth gray bark. Its dense and ever-verdant foliage gives it at PART I. Pimenta. —Piper. 485 all times a refreshing appearance. The leaves, which are petiolate, vary in shape and size; but are usually about four inches long, elliptical, entire, pointed, veined, and of a deep shining green colour. The flow- ers are small, without show, and disposed in panicles upon trichotomous stalks, which usually terminate the branches. The fruit is a spherical berry, crowned with the persistent calyx, and when ripe is smooth, shining, and of a black or dark purple colour. The tree exhales an aro- matic fragrance, especially during the summer months, when it is in flower. It is a native of the West Indies, Mexico, and South America, and is particularly abundant in Jamaica, whence its fruit received the name of Jamaica pepper. The berries are the officinal portion of the plant. They are gathered after having attained their full size, but while yet green, and are carefully dried in the sun. When sufficiently dry, they are put in bags and casks for exportation. Properties.—The berries, as they reach us, are of different sizes, small, round, wrinkled, umbilicate at the summit, of a brownish colour, and when broken present two cells, each containing a black hemisphe- rical seed. They have a fragrant odour, thought to resemble that of a mixture of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg; hence the name of allspice, by which they are best known in this country. Their taste is warm, aromatic, pungent, and slightly astringent. They impart their flavour to water, and ail their virtues to alcohol. The infusion is of a brown colour, reddens litmus paper, and affords a black precipitate with the salts of iron. They yield a volatile oil by distillation. (See Oleum Pi- mentse.) Neumann ascertained that their aromatic flavour depends on the volatile oil, their pungency in great measure upon a substance solu- ble in alcohol and insoluble in water. By a minute analysis, M. Bonastre obtained from them a volatile oil, a green fixed oil, a.flaky substance, tannin, gum, resin, uncrystallizable sugar, colouring matter, malic and gallic acids, saline matters, moisture, and lignin, besides a red substance insoluble in water, and brown flakes, both exclusively from the seeds. The green oil is supposed to be the acrid principle. Upon this, there- fore, together with the volatile oil, the medical properties of the berries depend; and as these two principles exist most largely in the shell or cortical portion, this part is most efficient. According to M. Bonastre, the shell contains 10 per cent, of the volatile, and 8 of the fixed oil, the seeds only 5 per cent, of the former, and 2.5 of the latter. Medical Properties and Uses.—Pimento is a warm, aromatic stimulant, used in medicine chiefly as an adjuvant to tonics and purgatives, the taste of which it serves to cover, while it increases their warmth and renders them more acceptable to the stomach. -It is particularly useful in cases attended with much flatulence. It is, however, much more largely employed as a condiment than as a medicine. The dose is from ten to forty grains. Off. Prep. Aqua Pimentae, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Pimentae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulae Opiatae, Ed.; Spiritus Pimentae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rhamni, Lond., Dub. PIPER. U.S. Black Pepper. " Piper nigrum. Baccae. The berries." U.S. Off Syn. PIPERIS NIGRI BACCJE. Piper nigrum. Baccae. Lond.; PIPERIS NIGRI FRUCTUS. Ed.; PIPER NIGRUM. Semina. Dub. 486 Piper. PART I. Poivre, Fr.; Schwarzer pfeffer, Germ.; Gemeine peper, Dutch.; Pepe nero, 7/a/.; Pimienta negra, Span.; Filfil uswud, Aral.; Lada, Malay; Maricha, Javan ; baiian, Falembang. Piper. See CUBEBA. Piper nigrum. Willd. ^. P/an*. i. 159; Woodv. Merf. /«*. p. <2i. t. 246. The pepper vine is a perennial plant, with a round, smooth, woodv, articulated stem, swelling near the joints, branched, and irom eight'to twelve feet or more in length. The leaves are entire, broad, ovate, acuminate, seven-nerved, coriaceous, very smooth, of a dark green colour, and attached by strong, sheath-like footstalks to the-joints of the branches. The flowers are small, whitish, sessile, covering thickly a cylindrical spadix, and succeeded by globular berries, which are of a red colour when ripe. The vine grows wild in Cochin-china and various parts ol India. It is cultivated on the coast of Malabar, in the peninsula of Malacca, in Siam, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, and many other places in the East. We are told by Crawford, that the best pepper is raised in Malabar; but Europe and America derive their chief supplies from Sumatra and Java. The vine is propagated by cuttings, and is support- ed by props, or by trees of various kinds planted for the purpose, upon which it is trained. In three or four years from the period of planting, it begins to bear fruit. The berries are gathered before they are all perfectly ripe, and upon being dried, become black and wrinkled. White pepper is the ripe berry deprived of its skin by maceration in water and subsequent friction, and afterwards dried in the sun. It has less of the peculiar virtues of the spice than the black pepper, and is seldom employed in this country. Properties.—The dried berries are about as large as a small pea, ex- ternally blackish and wrinkled, internally whitish, of an aromatic smell, and a hot, pungent, almost fiery taste. They yield their virtues partially to water, entirely to alcohol and ether. Pelletier found them to contain a peculiar crystalline matter called piperin, an acrid concrete oil of a green colour, a balsamic volatile oil, a coloured gummy substance, an extractive matter like that found in leguminous plants capable of being precipitated by infusion of galls, a portion of bassorin, uric and malic acids, lignin, and various salts. Of these principles the piperin and the acrid concrete oil are those which have attracted most attention. Piperin was discovered by professor CErsted of Copenhagen, who considered it a vegetable alkali, and the active principle of pepper. Pelletier, how- ever, utterly denies its alkaline nature and medical activity, and ascribes all the effects supposed to have been obtained from it to a portion ol the acrid concrete oil with which it is mixed when not very carefully prepared. He considers it a resin analogous to that which Vauquelin found in cubebs. When perfectly pure, piperin is in colourless transpa- rent crystals, without taste, fusible at 212°, insoluble in cold water, slightly soluble in boiling water which precipitates it upon cooling, soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, decomposed by the concen- trated mineral acids, with the sulphuric becoming of a blood-red co- lour, with the nitric, first of a greenish yellow, then orange, and ulti- mately red. It is obtained by treating pepper with alcohol, evaporating the tincture to the consistence of an extract, submitting the residue to the action of an alkaline solution by which the oleaginous matter is con- verted into soap, washing the undissolved portion with cold water, se- parating the liquid by filtration, treating the matter left on the filter with alcohol, and allowing the solution thus obtained to evaporate spon- PART I. Piper.—Piper Longum. 487 taneously, or by a gentle heat. Crystals of piperin are deposited, and may be purified by alternate solution in alcohol or ether, and crystalli- zation. The taste of pepper depends on the peculiar concrete oil before alluded to, and probably also on the volatile oil. The former is of a deep green colour, the latter is limpid, colourless, becoming yellow by age, of a strong odour, and of a taste less acrid than the pepper. The medicinal activity of pepper probably depends on these two ingre- dients. Medical Properties and Uses.— Black pepper is a warm carminative stimulant, capable of producing general arterial excitement, but acting with greater proportional energy on the part to which it is applied. From the. time of Hippocrates it has been employed as a condiment and medicine. Its culinary uses at present are too well known to require notice. Its chief medicinal application is to excite the languid stomach, and correct flatulence. It was long since occasionally administered for the cure of intermittents; but its employment for this purpose had passed from the hands of the profession into those of the vulgar, till recently revived by an Italian physician, to be again consigned to for- getfulness. Piperin has also been employed in the same complaint; and lias been recommended as superior even to the sulphate of quinia; but experience has not confirmed the first reports in its favour. That in its impure state, when mixed with a portion of the acrid principle, it will occasionally cure intermittents, there can be no doubt; but it is not com- parable to the preparations of bark, and is probably less active than the alcoholic extract of pepper. When perfectly pure it is inert. In those cases of intermittents in which the stomach is not duly susceptible to the action of quinia, as in some instances of drunkards, pepper may be found a useful adjuvant to the more powerful febrifuge. The dose of pepper is from five to twenty grains. It may be given in the state of the berry or in powder; but is more energetic in the latter. Piperin has been given in doses varying from one to six or eight grains. Off. Prep. Confectio Piperis Nigri, Lond., Dub. ; Confectio Rutae, Lond., Dub.; Emplast. Cantharidis Vesicatoriae Comp., Ed.; Unguen- tum Piperis Nigri, Dub. PIPER LONGUM. SEMINA. Bub. Long Pepper. Off Syn. PIPERIS LONGI FRUCTUS. Piper longum. Fructus immaturus exsiccaius. Lond.; PIPERIS LONGI FRUCTUS. Ed. Poivre longue, Fr.,- Langer pfeffer, Germ.; Pepe lungo, Hal; Pimienta larea, Span. Piper. See PIPER. S e Piper longum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 161; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 724. t. 247. This species of piper differs from its congeners in having its lower leaves cordate, petiolate, seven-nerved, its upper oblong, cordate sessile and five-nerved, its flowers in dense, short, terminal, and nearly cylindrical spikes, and its fruit, which consists of very small one-seeded berries or grains, embedded in a pulpy matter. It is a native of South Eastern Asia, and is produced abundantly in Bengal and many parts of Hindostan. The fruit is green when immature, and becomes red as it ripens. It is gathered in the former state, as it is then hotter than when perfectly ripe. The whole spike is taken from the plant and dried in the sun. Long pepper is cylindrical, an inch or more in length, indented on its surface, of a dark gray colour, a weak aromatic odour, and a pungent 488 Piper Longum.—Pix Mietis. part i. fiery taste. M. Dulong found its chemical composition to be closely analogous to that of black pepper as ascertained by Pelletier. Like that it contains piperin, a concrete oil upon which its burning acrimony de- pends, and a volatile oil to which it probably owes its odour. Its medi- cal virtues are essentially the same with those of the black pepper; but it is considered inferior to that spice, and is seldom used. Off. Prep. Confectio Opii, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Aromaticus, Dub.; Pulvis Cretae Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Tinct. Cinnamom. Comp., Lond., Ed. PIX ABIETIS. U.S. Burgundy Pitch. " Pinus abies. Succus concretus praeparatus. The prepared concrete juice." U.S. Off. Syn. PIX ABIETINA. Pinus Abies. Resina praeparata. Lond.; PINI RESINA SOLIDA sponte concreta, vulgo, PIX BURGUN- DICA. Ed. PINUS ABIES. Resina. Thus. Dub. Poix de Bourgogne, Poix jaune, Poix blanche, Fr. Pinus. See TEREBINTHINA. Pinus Abies. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 506; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 4. t. 2.— Abies communis. Lindley in Loudon's Encyc. of Plants. The Norway spruce is a very lofty tree, rising sometimes one hundred and fifty feet in height, with a trunk from three to five feet in diameter. The leaves, which stand thickly upon the branches, are short, obscurely four-cor- nered, often curved, of a dusky green colour, and shining on the upper surface. The male aments are purple and axillary, the female of the same colour, but usually terminal. The fruit is in pendent, purple, nearly cylindrical strobiles, the scales of which are oval, pointed, and ragged at the edges. This tree is a native of Europe and Northern Asia. Though desig- nated as the source of Burgundy pitch, it probably furnishes little of the substance sold under that name by the druggists. Tingley asserts that the real Burgundy pitch is obtained from the Pinus picea, or Eu- ropean silver fir tree; and the same fact is stated by Fee, who makes no mention of the Pinus Abies. (Hist. Nat. Pharm. ii. p. 655.) It is cer- tain that the former of these trees is abundant in the neighbourhood where the drug is collected. To obtain the pitch, portions of the bark are removed so as to lay bare the wood, and the flakes of concrete resinous matter which form upon the surface of the wound, having been detached by iron instruments, are melted with water in large boilers, and then strained through coarse cloths. It is called Burgundy pitch from the province of that name in the East of France. We are told that the greater portion is collected in the neighbourhood of Neufchatel. From other species of pine in different parts of Europe, a similar pro- duct is obtained, and sold by the same name. It is prepared by remov- ing the juice which concretes upon the bark of the tree or upon the sur- face of incisions, called galipot by the French, and purifying it by melt- ing and straining, either through cloth or a layer of straw. A fictitious Burgundy pitch is also made by melting together common pitch, resin, and turpentine, and agitating the mixture with water, which gives it the requisite yellowish colour. Its odour is different from that of the genuine. As brought to this country, Burgundy pitch is generally mixed with parti. Fix JLbietis.—Pix Canadensis. 489 impurities, which require that it should be melted and strained before being used. In its pure state it is hard, brittle, quite opaque, of a yel- lowish or brownish-yellow colour, and a weak terebinthinate taste and odour. It is very fusible,' and at the heat of the body softens and be- comes adhesive. It differs from turpentine in containing a smaller pro- portion of essential oil. Under the name of Abietis Resina the London College directs the concrete juice of the spruce fir as taken immediately from the bark of the tree, without any preparation. It is the Thus or Frankincense of the former London and present Dublin Pharmacopoeia. " Ic is in the form of solid brittle tears, of a brownish-yellow colour on the outside, and internally white, and emits a very agreeable odour upon burning." (Thomson's Dispensatory.) Though ascribed to the Pinus Abies, it is probably obtained also from other species; and we have been told by an apothecary from London, that an article exactly resembling our common white turpentine when perfectly dried, is sold as frankincense in the shops of that city. Medical Properties and Uses.—Applied to the skin in the shape of a plaster, Burgundy pitch acts as a gentle rubefacient, producing a slight degree, of inflammation and serous effusion without separating the cuti- cle. Sometimes it excites a papillary or vesicular eruption; and we have known it to act upon the surface as a violent poison, giving rise to excessive pain, tumefaction, and redness, followed by vesication and even ulceration. It is used chiefly in cases of slight chronic pains of a rheu- matic character, or in chronic affections of the chest or abdominal vis- cera, which call for a gentle but long continued revulsive action upon the skin. The Resina Abietis, or Frankincense, is used only as an ingredient of plasters. Off. Prep. Emplast. Cantharidis Vesicatoriae Comp., Ed.; Emplast. Cumini, Lond.; Emplast. Galbani Comp., U.S.; Emplast. Opii, Dub.; Emplast. Picis cum Cantharide, U.S., Dub. Off. Prep, of the Resin of the Spruce Fir. Emplast. Aromatic. Dub.; Emplast. Galbani Comp., Lond.; Emplast. Opii, Lond., Ed.; Emplast. Picis Comp., Lond. PIX CANADENSIS. U.S. Hemlock Pitch. " Pinus Canadensis. Succus concretus praeparatus. The prepared con- crete juice." U.S. Pinus. See TEREBINTHINA. Pinus Canadensis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 505.—Abies Canadensis. Mi- chaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 185. This is the hemlock spruce of the United States and Canada. When of full growth it is often seventy or eighty feet high, with a trunk two or three feet in diame er, and of nearly uni- form dimensions for two-thirds of its length. The branches are slender, and dependent at their extremities. The leaves ere very numerous, six or eight lines long, flat, denticulate, and irregularly arranged in two rows. The strobiles are ovate, little longer than the leaves, pendulous, and situated at the ends of the branches. The tree is abundant in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the more northern parts of New England; and is found in the elevated and mountainous 62 490 Fix Canadensis.—PixLiquida. parti. regions of the Middle States. Its bark abounds in the astringent prin- ciple, and is much used for tanning in the northern parts of the United States. It contains much less juice than some other species of pine; and very little flows from incisions made into its trunk. But in the trees which have attained their full growth, and are about or have begun to decay, the juice exudes spontaneously, and hardens upon the bark in consequence of the partial evaporation or oxidation of its essential oil. The bark thus incrusted is stripped from the tree, broken into pieces of convenient size, and boiled in water. The pitch melts, rises to the sur- face, is skimmed off, and is still further purified by a second boiling in water. It is brought to Philadelphia from the North of Pennsylvania, in dark coloured brittle masses, which on being broken exhibit numer- ous minute fragments of bark, interspersed through their substance. From these it is purified in the shops by melting and straining through linen or canvass.* Thus prepared it is hard, brittle, quite opaque, of a dark yellowish- brown colour which becomes still darker by exposure to the air, of a weak peculiar odour, and scarcely any taste. It softens and becomes adhesive with a moderate heat, and melts at 198° F. Its constituents are resin and a minute proportion of essential oil. The name by which it is most generally known is hemlock gum. Medical Properties and Uses.—Hemlock pitch is a gentle rubefacient, closely analogous to Burgundy pitch in its properties, and employed for precisely the same purposes. PIX LIQUIDA. U.S. Tar. " Pinus palustris et aliae. Terebinthina empyreumatica. The impure turpentine procured by burning." U. S. Off. Syn. PIX LIQUIDA. Pinus sylvestris. Resina praeparata liqui- da. Lond.; PINI RESINA EMPYREUMATICA, vulgo, PIX LI- QUIDA. Ed.; PIX LIQUIDA. E speciebus pini diversis. Dub. Gondron, Fr.; Theer, Germ.; Pece liquida, ltal; Alquitran, Span. The tar used in this country is prepared from the wood of various species of pine, particularly the Pinus palustris of the Southern States, the P. australis of Michaux. (See Terebinthina.) The dead wood is usu- ally selected, because, when vegetation ceases, the resinous matter be- comes concentrated in the interior layers. The wood is cut into billets of a convenient size, which are placed together so as to form a large stack or pile, and are then covered with earth as in the process for mak- ing charcoal. The stack is built upon a small circular mound of earth previously prepared, the summit of which gradually declines from the circumference to the centre, where a small cavity is formed communicat- ing by a conduit with a shallow ditch surrounding the mound. Fire is ap- plied through an opening in the top of the pile, and a slow combustion is maintained, so that the resinous matter may be melted by the heat. This runs into the cavity in the centre of the mound, and passes thence by the conduit into the ditch, whence it is emptied into barrels. Im- mense quantities of tar are thus prepared in North Carolina and the * See a paper by Mr. Charles Ellis in the Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., vol. ii. p. 18. part i. Pix Liquida.—Pix Nigra.—Plumbum. 491 south-eastern parts of Virginia, sufficient, after supplying our own con- sumption, to afford a large surplus for exportation. Considerable quantities of tar are also prepared in the lower parts of New Jersey, in some portions of New England, and in Pennsylvania west of the Alleghany mountains, from the Pinus rigida, or pitch pine, and perhaps from some other species. Properties.—Tar has a peculiar empyreumatic odour, a bitterish re- sinous somewhat acid taste, a colour almost black, and a tenacious consistence intermediate between that of a liquid and solid. In consists chiefly of resin, united with acetic acid and empyreumatic oil, and co- loured with charcoal. It yields a small proportion of its constituents to water, which is thus rendered medicinal, and is employed under the name of tar water. By long boiling the liquid parts are evaporated, and the tar is converted into pitch, the Pix Nigra of the London College. Medical Properties and Uses.—The medical properties of tar are essen- tially those of the turpentines. It is sometimes used in chronic coughs, and when the disease depends on chronic bronchial inflammation, with occasional advantage. Little benefit can be expected from it in genuine phthisis, in the treatment of which it was formerly highly recommend- ed. Dr. Bateman employed it advantageously as an internal remedy in ichthyosis. Its vapour, inhaled into the lungs, has been found service- able in numerous cases of bronchial disease. Externally applied, in the state of ointment, it is a very efficient remedy in some cases of tinea capitis, or scald head; and has been used with advantage in foul or in- dolent ulcers, and some other affections of the skin. It may be used in the form of tar water, Aqua Picis Liquidse, or in substance made into pills with wheat flour, or mixed with sugar in the form of an electuary. The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm, and may be repeated so as to amount to three or four drachms daily. Off. Prep. Aqua Picis Liquidae, Dub.; Unguentum Picis Liquidae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. PIX NIGRA. Lond. Black Pitch. " Pinus Sylvestris. Resinaprseparata solida." Lond. This is the solid black mass left after the evaporation of the liquid parts of tar. (See Pix Liquida.) It is employed only as an external re- medy. Off. Prep. Unguentum Picis Nigrae, Lond. PLUMBUM. Lead. Plomb, Fr.; Blei, Germ.,- Lood, Dutch; Piombo, Hal.; Plomo, Span.; Chumbo, Port. Lead is not officinal in its metallic state; but enters into a number of important medicinal preparations. It occurs in nature in three princi- pal states—as an oxide; as a sulphuret called galena ; and as a salt, forming the native sulphate, phosphate, carbonate, chromate, molyb- date, and arseniate of lead. The oxide is rare, but galena is exceedingly abundant and diffused, and is the ore from which all the lead of commerce is extracted. The process of extraction consists merely in melting the 492 N Plumbum. PART I. ore in contact with charcoal. Mines of galena occur in different parts of the world, but the richest and most extensive are found in our own country. The lead region of the United States extends in length from the Wisconsin in the north, to the Red river of Arkansas in the south, and in breadth about one hundred and fifty miles. It is only of latter years that these mines have been extensively worked ; and they are stated at present to yield ten millions of pounds annually. Properties.—Lead is a soft, bluish-white, and very malleable metal, presenting a bright surface when newly melted or cut. It has a per- ceptible taste, and a peculiar smell when rubbed. It undergoes but little change in the air, but is corroded by the combined action of air and water. Its sp. gr. is 11.4, melting point about 600°, and equivalent number 104. Exposed to a stream of oxygen on ignited charcoal, it burns with a blue flame, throwing off dense yellow fumes. The best solvent of lead is nitric acid; but the presence of sulphuric acid destroys, and that of muriatic acid lessens its solvent power, on account of the compounds which these acids form being nearly insoluble. Lead forms two regular oxides, a protoxide and a peroxide, and an intermediate oxide composed of them, called the deutoxide of lead. The protoxide, called in commerce massicot, may be formed by calcining the nitrate of lead in a platinum crucible. On a large scale it is manufactured by ex- posing melted lead to the action of the air. Its surface becomes en- crusted with a gray pellicle, which being scraped off, is quickly suc- ceeded by another; and the whole of the metal, being in this way successively presented to the air, becomes converted into a greenish gray powder, consisting of protoxide and metallic lead. This, by a moderate exposure to heat, absorbs move oxygen, and is converted en- tirely into protoxide. It has a yellow colour, and is the oxide pre- sent in the salts of lead. It consists of one equiv. of lead 104, and one of oxygen 8 = 112. A variety of this oxide, called litharge, is very much used in pharmacy, and is officinal in all the Pharmacopoeias. (See Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum.) The peroxide, called also puce oxide, from its ^ea-brown colour, may be obtained by treating red lead with nitric acid. The protoxide is dissolved, and the peroxide being left, may be purified by washing with boiling water. It is a tasteless pow- der, of a dark-brown colour. When heated to redness it loses half its oxygen, and becomes protoxide. It consists of one equiv. of lead 104, and two equiv. of oxygen 16 = 120. The deutoxide, called in commerce minium, or red lead, is officinal with the Edinburgh College, and is de- scribed under another head. (See Oxidum Plumbi Rubrum.) Lead combines also with chlorine, forming a sparingly soluble chloride. This combination is precipitated whenever a muriate is added to a so- luble salt of lead. The salts of lead are numerous and important. The nitrate is in the form of white crystals, and the sulphate in that of an insoluble white powder. The best tests of this metal are sulphuretted hydrogen, and a solu- tion of hydriodate of potassa. The former produces a black precipitate of sulphuret of lead, and the latter a yellow one of Iodide of lead. Medical Properties and Uses.—The effects of lead in its various com- binations, are those of a sedative and astringent.. It is used internally for the purpose of reducing vascular action, and of restraining inordi- nate discharges; and externally as an abater of inflammation. When introduced into the system by imperceptible degrees, it acts peculiarly and injuriously on the nervous system, producing palsy, which is almost always partial and incomplete. When its soluble salts are taken in over- PART I. Plumbum.—Plumbi Jlcetas. 493 doses, it acts as an irritant poison. The best antidote in such cases is the sulphate of magnesia or of soda, which by forming an insoluble sulphate of lead, renders the poison inert. The peculiar effects of lead, as modified in its several medicinal combinations, will be noticed under the heads of the individual preparations. Pharmaceutical Uses.—The principal preparations of lead used in me- dicine, are the semivitrified and red oxides, and the acetate, subacetate, and carbonate. The acetate only is employed for internal exhibition; while this, as well as the other preparations, are variously prepared as solutions, ointments, cerates, and plasters for external use. —»«*e@»««'— PLUMBI ACETAS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Acetate of Lead. Off. Syn. ACETAS PLUMBI. Ed. Sugar of lead; Saccharum saturni, Cerussa acetata, Lai; Acetate de plomb, Sucre de plomb, Sel de Saturne, Fr.,- Essigsaures bleioxyd, Bleizucker, Germ.,- Zucchero di saturno, Hal; Azucar de plomo, Span. Directions are given by the three British Colleges for preparing ace- tate of lead; but as it is seldom or never prepared by the apothecary, and may be obtained in the greatest perfection, and at a cheap rate, from the manufacturing chemist, it is more properly placed in the United States Pharmacopoeia in the Catalogue of the Materia Medica. Preparation.—Sugar of lead is obtained by two methods. By one me- thod, thin plates of lead are placed in shallow vessels filled with distilled vinegar, in such a manner as to have a part of each plate rising above the vinegar; and they are turned from time to time, so as to bring dif- ferent portions of the metallic surface in contact with the air. The me- tal becomes protoxidized, and dissolves in the vinegar to saturation, and the solution is evaporated to the point of crystallization. This pro- cess is a slow one, but furnishes a salt which is perfectly neutral. The other method consists in dissolving, by the assistance of heat, litharge, or the protoxide of lead obtained by calcination, in an excess of distilled vinegar or purified pyroligneous acid, contained in leaden boilers. The oxide is quickly dissolved, and when the vinegar has become saturated, the solution is transferred to other vessels to cool and crystallize. The crystals having formed, the mother waters are decanted, and, by a new evaporation, made to yield a new crop. These are generally of a yellow colour, but may be purified by repeated solutions and crystallizations. The processes of the British Colleges for preparing this salt, agree in directing the solution of carbonate of lead (white lead) in dilute acetic acid, or distilled vinegar; but we do not deem it expedient to copy them, as they are ineligible and expensive. Sugar of lead is extensively manufactured in Germany, Holland, France, and England; its principal consumption being caused by the arts of dyeing and calico printing, in which it is employed to form with alum the acetate of alumina, which is used as a mordant. By far the larger part consumed in the United States is imported from France and England, a comparatively small portion only being made in our own laboratories. The importation in 1829 amounted to nearly one hundred thousand pounds. Properties.—Acetate of lead is a white salt, crystallized in brilliant needles, which have the shape of long prisms, terminated by dihedral summits. Its taste is at first sweet and afterwards astringent. Exposed to the air, it effloresces slowly. It dissolves in four times its weight of 494 Plumbi Jlcetas. part i. cold, and in a much smaller quantity of boiling water. It is soluble also in alcohol. Carbonic acid water, as well as common water, which uniformly contains this acid, produces a slight precipitate of carbonate of lead, in the commercial acetate, an occurrence which seems to de- pend upon the presence of a slight excess of base in the latter, and which may be prevented by the addition of a small portion of vinegar, or of dilute acetic acid. With pure distilled water, free from carbonic acid, it ought to dissolve entirely, forming a clear solution. Sulphuric acid or a soluble sulphate, when added to a solution of the acetate of lead, produces instantly a precipitate of sulphate of lead ; but the most important property of sugar of lead is its power of dissolving a large quantity of protoxide of lead. (See Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis.) It con- sists of one equiv. of acetic acid 50, one equiv. of protoxide of lead 112, and three equiv. of water 27 = 189. Incompalibles.—-Acetate of lead is decomposed by all acids, or the soluble salts formed from them, which form with protoxide of lead insoluble or sparingly soluble salts. Acids of this character are the sul- phuric, muriatic, citric, and tartaric. It is also decomposed by lime water, and by ammonia, potassa, and soda, the two last, if added in ex- cess, dissolving the precipitate at first formed. It is decomposed by hard water, in consequence of the sulphate of lime and common salt, which such water usually contains. With sulphuretted hydrogen, it gives a black precipitate of sulphuret; and with the solution of acetate of ammonia, a white one of carbonate, in consequence of the carbonic acid diffused through this acetate as ordinarily prepared. Medical Properties and Uses.—Acetate of lead in medicinal "doses, is a powerful astringent and sedative, and in large doses, of a drachm or more, an irritant poison, producing inflammation of the alimentary ca- nal, if the patient survive for some time; but if the quantity taken be large, the stomach is aj5t to present a peculiar blanched appearance. The danger, however, from over-doses of sugar of lead is not so great as is generally believed. It has sometimes been given in pretty large doses in regular practice, without any bad effects, and cases are on re- cord where a quarter of an ounce has been swallowed without prov- ing fatal. The principal diseases in which it has been exhibited, are hemorrhages, particularly from the lungs, intestines, and uterus. Its effect in restraining the discharge of blood is admitted to be very power- ful. It has also been used with advantage in certain forms of dysen- tery and diarrhoea, and has been recommended in particular stages of cholera infantum. But the practitioner ought always to bear in mind, that this medicine, when long continued in small doses, is liable to produce dangerous constitutional effects; and hence its use should not be long continued. These effects are of two kinds, 1. an affection of the alimentary canal, characterized by violent and obstinate colic, and called Colicapictonum, or lead colic; 2. a chronic affection of the muscles, es- pecially of the extensors of the upper extremities, characterized by an excessive wasting of these organs, and denominated lead palsy. Both these affections are very apt to be excited in those artizans who work in lead. Acetate of lead, when combined with opium, is less apt to pro- duce these deleterious effects, and, accordingly, this mode of exhibition is generally preferred. Its solution is frequently used as a collyrium ; and applied by means of cloths, or mixed with crumb of bread, it forms a common application to superficial inflammation. For the latter pur- pose, the subacetate of lead is better. (See Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus.) The dose of sugar of lead is from one to two grains, in the part i. Plumbi Acetas.—Plumbi Carbonas. 495 form of pill, repeated every two or three hours. The solution for exter- nal use may be made by dissolving from two drachms to half an ounce of the salt in a pint of water; and if it be wanted clear, a fluidrachm of vinegar or dilute acetic, acid may be added, which immediately dis- solves the carbonate of lead, to which its turbidness is owing. The usual strength of the solution as a collyrium is from one to two grains to the fluidounce of water. Off. Prep. Ceratum Plumbi Acetatis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, U.S., Lond., Dub. PLUMBI CARBONAS. U.S., Bub. Carbonate of Lead. Off. Syn. PLUMBI SUBCARBONAS. Lond.; CARBONAS PLUMBI. Ed. White lead; Cemse, Carbonate de plomb, Blanc de plomb, Blanc de ceruse, Fr.; Bleiweiss, Germ.; Cerussa, Lat.t Hal; Albayalde, Span. Preparation.—Carbonate of lead is prepared by two principal me- thods. By one method it is obtained by passing a stream of carbonic acid, proceeding from a fire of charcoal, through a solution of subace- tate of lead. The carbonic acid combines with the excess of protoxide and precipitates as carbonate of lead, while a neutral acetate remains in solution. This, by being boiled with a fresh portion of protoxide of lead, is again brought to the state of subacetate, when it is treated with carbonic acid as at first. In this way the same portion of acetate repeatedly serves the purpose of being converted into subacetate, and of being decomposed by carbonic acid. The carbonate obtained is washed, dried by a gentle heat, and thrown into commerce. This process, which produces white lead of the first quality, was invented and made public byThenard, about the year 1802, and is that which is pursued in France and Sweden. The other method, which consists in exposing lead to the vapours of vinegar, originated in Holland, and is pursued in England, and, for the most part, in the United States; but, in the former coun- try, with some modifications, which are kept secret. We shall de- scribe the process as pursued by our own manufacturers. The lead is cast into thin sheets, made by pouring the melted metal over a kind of long sheet-iron shovel, with a flat bottom and raised edges on its sides, which is held in a slanting direction over the melting-pot. As many of these sheets are then loosely rolled up as may be sufficient to form a cylinder, five or six inches in diameter, and seven or eight high, which is placed in an earthen pot containing about half a pint of vinegar, and having within, a few inches from the bottom, three equidistant projecting portions in the earthenware, on which the cylinder of lead is designed to rest, in order to keep it from contact with the vine- gar. The pots thus prepared, are placed side by side, in horizontal layers, in a building roughly constructed of boards, with interstices between them. The first layer is covered with boards, on which a stratum of refuse straw from the stables is strewed; and fresh layers of pots, boards, and straw, are successively placed, until the whole build- ing is filled. The sides also are enclosed with straw. The pile of pots, called a bed, is allowed to remain undisturbed for about six weeks, at the end of which time, it is taken down; and the cylinder of lead in each pot, though still retaining its shape, is found almost entirely con- verted into a flaky, white, friable substance, which is the white lead. 496 Plumbi Carbonas. part i. This is separated from the lead yet remaining in the metallic state, ground in water, whereby it is washed and reduced to fine powder, and finally dried in long, shallow reservoirs, usually heated by steam. The theory of the above process is not well understood. It is gene- rally supposed that the vinegar by its decomposition furnishes the oxy- gen and part of the carbonic acid to the lead; the remainder of the acid being supplied by the decomposition of the straw, which is found to undergo a kind of fermentation. This fermentation maintains the re- quisite degree of heat, which should be about 115°. If the temperature falls below 95°, part of the lead escapes corrosion, and if it rises above 122°, the product is yellow. According to Berzelius, the white lead made by this process is of better quality, the more perfectly the air is excluded, a fact, which, if well founded, proves that the metal is not oxidized at the expense of the oxygen of the air. It is never perfectly white; for the fermentation of the straw generating a little sulphuretted hydrogen prevents it from being so. It would be an improvement in the process if the requisite temperature could be applied without the use of straw; and it is probable that a mode of effecting this object is one peculiarity of the English process. The form of the acetic acid usually employed is common vinegar, as has been already stated; but the variable nature of this liquid as to strength and purity is an objec- tion to its use; and, accordingly, other forms of this acid have been substituted for it with advantage, as the purified acetic acid from wood, sufficiently diluted, and potato vinegar. Comparatively little white lead is at present (1832) imported into the United States, the consumption being nearly supplied from our own manufactories. Its importation fell off particularly in 1829, as a conse- quence of the tariff of 1828. In the latter year about three millions of pounds of white and red lead were received from abroad; but in 1829, but little more than a third of a million. Properties.—Carbonate of lead is a heavy, insoluble, opaque sub- stance, in powder or friable lumps, of a fine white colour, inodorous and nearly insipid. Its beauty as a pigment depends in a great measure on the purity of the lead from which it is manufactured, as well as on the process. It is sometimes adulterated with chalk, or sulphate of ba- ryta in fine powder. The former is detected by dissolving the suspected white lead in vinegar, and adding oxalate of ammonia, which will cause a white precipitate; and if sulphate of baryta be present, it will remain undissolved on the addition of nitric acid. Carbonate of lead is an anhy- drous salt, and consists of one equivalent of carbonic acid 22, and one equiv. of protoxide of lead 112 = 134. It hence appears that the Lon- don College is in error, in calling it a sw&carbonate. Medical Properties and Uses.—White lead is ranked in the Materia Medica as an astringent and sedative. It is employed externally only, being used as an application to ulcers, and to inflamed and excoriated surfaces. It is used either by sprinkling the powder on the part, or in the form of cerate or ointment. (See Ceratum and Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis.) Its external use, however, is viewed by many practitioners as extremely dangerous, on account of the risk of absorption; but the danger is certainly overrated, as we have the testimony of respectable physicians that they frequently use it in this way, without the least un- pleasant result. Carbonate of lead, being very extensively manufactured for the pur- poses of the arts, is that preparation of lead which most frequently produces the peculiar spasmodic colic, called colica pictonum. This dis- parti. Plumbi Carbonas.—Oxidum Plumbi Rubrum. 497 ease is characterized by pain about the region of the navel, and obstinate constipation, attended with a frequent desire to evacuate the bowels, and is supposed to depend upon a spasmodic constriction of the intes- tinal tube, particularly of that portion called the colon. The principal indications in the treatment are, first to allay the spasm, and then to evacuate the bowels by the gentlest means. Opium and mild aperients are accordingly the best remedies, and among the latter castor oil and sulphate of magnesia are to be preferred. Indeed this latter appears peculiarly well adapted to the case; for while it acts as an aperient, it operates as a counterpoison, by forming the inert sulphate of lead with any preparation of the metal which it may meet with in the bowels. Calomel is often useful in particular states of the disease, and if it hap- pen to induce ptyalism, the disease immediately yields. Carbonate of lead is used pharmaceutically by the British Colleges for obtaining acetate of lead. Off. Prep. Ceratum Plumbi Carbonatis, U.S.; Emplastrum Plumbi Carbonatis, U.S.; Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis, U.S., Ed., Dub. OXIDUM PLUMBI RUBRUM. Ed. Red Oxide of Lead. Deutoxide of lead, Red lead, Minium; Deutoxide de plomb, Minium, Fr.,- Mennige, Germ.; Minio, Hal, Span. Preparation.—Red lead is prepared on the large scale in a furnace, with the floor slightly concave and the roof arched, so as to present a gene- ral resemblance to a baker's oven. The lead is placed on the floor, and gradually raised to a red heat, whereby it melts and becomes covered with a pellicle of protoxide, which is removed by means of a long iron scraper; and the pellicles, as they successively form, are scraped off, until the whole of the metal has been converted into them. The pro- duct is subjected to further calcination with occasional stirring, for some time, with a view to oxidize any particles of metallic lead. It is thus rendered yellow, and constitutes the protoxide of lead, or massicot. This is taken out of the furnace and thrown upon an even pavement, and cooled by being sprinkled with water. It is next reduced to nne powder by trituration and levigation, and dried; and in its dry state in- troduced into large, shallow, square tin boxes, which are placed in an- other furnace, closed from the air, and heated nearly to redness; the heat being allowed gradually to fall during a period of from twenty-four to thirty hours. At the end of this time the protoxide of lead will have combined with an additional quantity of oxygen, and become the red oxide. This is taken out, and having been passed through a fine wire sieve, is packed in barrels for the purposes of commerce. The above is an outline of the French process for making red lead. In England and the United States, the calcination of the protoxide is not performed in tin boxes, but by replacing it in the furnace in which it was first calcined. To save the first calcination, litharge is generally used for making the red lead of commerce, which consequently con- tains the impurities of that substance, consisting of iron, copper, a little silver and silica. The presence of copper is hurtful in red lead, when used for making glass, to which this metal communicates colour. In order to have red lead of good quality, it is necessary that it be made in large quantities at a time. It is also important that it be slowly cooled; 498 Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum. part i. for the absorption of oxygen by which it is formed, taking place during a particular interval of temperature only, it is necessary that the heat within that interval should be maintained long enough to allow all the protoxide to absorb its appropriate dose of oxygen. Properties, fyc.—Red lead is in the form of a heavy, scaly powder, of a bright red colour, with a slight shade of orange. Its sp. gr. is about 9. When exposed to heat it gives off oxygen, and is reduced to the state of protoxide. It is sometimes adulterated with red oxide of iron, or red bole, substances which may be detected by dissolving the sus- pected red lead in nitric acid, and testing with tincture of galls. This reagent will produce a black precipitate, in consequence of the iron present in the substances mentioned. If powdered brick be present, it will be left undissolved upon treating the suspected article with muri- atic acid. When perfectly pure, it is completely reduced on charcoal, by means of the blowpipe, into a globule of metallic lead. When treat- ed by nitric acid, it is resolved into protoxide which dissolves, and per- oxide which remains insoluble, a fact which makes it probable that it is a double oxide. It consists of one equiv. of lead 104, and one and a half equiv. of oxygen 12 = 116; or on the supposition that it is a dou- ble oxide, of one equiv. of protoxide 112, and one equiv. of peroxide 120 = 232. Medical Properties and Uses.—Red lead is officinal only with the Edin- burgh College, and is employed exclusively as an external application, entering into the composition of some ointments and plasters. It, how- ever, forms an ingredient in no officinal preparation of the British or United States Pharmacopoeias. Its chief use is in the arts, as a paint and as an ingredient in flint glass. PLUMBI OXIDUM SEMIVITREUM. U.S. Semivitrified Oxide of Lead. Off Syn. PLUMBI OXYDUM SEMIVITREUM. Lond., Dub.; OXIDUM PLUMBI SEMIVITREUM, Ed. Oxide de plomb fondu, Litharge, Fr.; Lithargyrus, Lot.; Bleiglatte, Germ.; Litar- girio, Hal; Almartaga, Span. When the protoxide of lead is rendered crystalline by fusion, it be- comes the semivitrified oxide or litharge. Almost all the litharge of commerce is obtained in the process for extracting silver from argenti- . ferous galena. After extracting the argentiferous lead from the ore, the alloy is calcined in the open air; whereupon the lead becomes oxidized, and by fusion passes into the state of litharge, while the silver remains behind. The following is an outline of the process. Preparation.—The lead containing the silver is placed upon an oval slightly excavated dish, about three feet long and twenty inches wide, called a test, made by beating pulverised bone-earth formed into a paste with water, into a mould, the sides of which are formed of an elliptical band of iron, and the bottom, of strips of sheet iron, placed a little distance apart. The test is of such a size as exactly to fit an opening in the floor of a reverberatory furnace, where it is placed, and adjusted at the level of the floor. On one side of the test the fire-place is situated, and exactly opposite, the chimney; while at one extremity of it the pipe of a strong bellows is placed, and at the other a vertical hole is made, communicating with a gutter leading from the centre of the test. The furnace is now lighted, and shortly after the bellows is put part i. Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum.—Podophyllum. in motion. The lead fuses and combines with oxygen, and the resulting oxide melting also, forms a stratum which swims on the surface, and which is driven by the wind of the bellows along the gutter, and through the vertical hole, into a recipient below, where, upon solidifying, it crystallizes in small scales, which are the litharge. In proportion as the lead is oxidized and driven off the test, fresh portions are added, so as to keep it always sufficiently full. The process is continued for eight or ten days, after which no more lead is added. The operation is now confined to the metal remaining on the test; and the oxidizement pro- ceeding, a period at last arrives when the whole of the lead has run off as litharge, and the silver, presenting a very brilliant appearance, alone remains. This is then removed, and the process repeated on a fresh portion of argentiferous lead. Properties.—Litharge is in the form of small, brilliant, vitrified scales, some presenting a red, and some a yellow colour. It is devoid of taste or smell. It slowly attracts carbonic acid from the air, and contains more of this acid the longer it has been prepared. It is on this account that it effervesces with the stronger acids. As it occurs in commerce, it usually contains iron, copper, and a little silver and silica. The English litharge is most esteemed; that from Germany being generally conta- minated with iron and copper. In choosing litharge, samples should be selected which are free from fragments of vegetable matter, and from copper. This metal is detected, if upon adding ferrocyanate of potassa to a nitric solution of the litharge, a brown, instead of a white precipi- tate is produced. Two varieties of litharge are distinguished in com- merce, named from their colour, and dependent on differences in the mode of manufacture. Sometimes it has a pale yellow colour and silvery ap- pearance, and is then denominated litharge of silver, or yellow litharge; at other times it is of a red colour, and is known under the name of litharge of gold, or red litharge. In composition, litharge is essentially identical with the protoxide of lead. (See Plumbum.) The carbonic acid which it contains is variable, dependent on the length of time it has been prepared; but its average amount is about four per cent. Pharmaceutical Uses, SfC.—Litharge is never used internally, but is employed in several pharmaceutical operations, and forms an ingredient in various external applications, which are used for abating inflamma- tion, and with other intentions. Combined with olive oil it forms the Emplastrum Plumbi, which is the basis of a majority of the prepara- tions technically called Plasters. (See Emplastra.) In the arts it is ex- tensively employed in the glazing of pottery, by painters to render oils drying, and as an ingredient in flint glass. Off. Prep. Ceratum Saponis, U.S., Lond.; Emplastrum Plumbi, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, U.S., Lond., Dub. PODOPHYLLUM. U.S. May-apple. " Podophyllum peltatum. Radix. The root." U.S. Podophyllum. Class Polyandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Ra- nunculi, Juss.; Podophylleae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Corolla nine-petaled. Berry one-celled, crowned with the stigma. Willd. Podophyllum peltatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1141; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 34; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 9. The may-apple, known also 500 Podophyllum. part i. by the name of mandrake, is an indigenous herbaceous plant, and the only species belonging to the genus. The root is perennial, creeping, usually several feet in length, about one quarter of an inch thick, of a brown colour externally, smooth, jointed, and furnished with radicles at the joints. The stem is about a foot high, erect, round, smooth, divid- ed at top into two petioles, and supporting at the fork a solitary one- flowered peduncle. Each petiole bears a large peltate, palmate leaf, with six or seven wedge-shaped lobes, irregularly incised at the extre- mity, yellowish-green on their upper surface, paler and slightly pubes- cent beneath. The flower is nodding. The calyx is composed of three oval, obtuse, concave, deciduous leaves. The corolla has from six to nine white, fragrant petals, which are obovate, obtuse, concave, with delicate transparent veins. The stamens are from thirteen to twenty, shorter than the petals, with oblong yellow anthers of twice the length of the filaments. The stigma is sessile, and rendered irregular on its surface by numerous folds or convolutions. The fruit is a large oval berry, crowned with the persistent stigma, and containing a sweetish fleshy pulp, in which about twelve ovate seeds are embedded. It is, when ripe, of a lemon-yellow colour, interrupted by round brownish spots. The plant is extensively diffused throughout the United States, grow- ing luxuriantly in moist shady woods, and in low marshy grounds. It is propagated by its creeping root, and is often found in large patches, The flowers appear about the end of May and beginning of June; and the fruit ripens in the latter part of September. The leaves are said to be poisonous. The fruit has a subacid, sweetish, peculiar taste, agree- able to some palates, and may be eaten freely with impunity. From its colour and shape it is sometimes called wild lemon. The root is the offi- cinal portion; and is said to be most efficient when collected after the falling of the leaves. It shrinks considerably in drying, Properties:—The dried root is in pieces about two lines in thickness, with swelling, broad, flattened joints at short intervals, much wrinkled lengthwise, of a yellowish or reddish-brown colour externally, and fur- nished with fibres of a similar appearance, but somewhat paler colour at the joints. The fracture is short and irregular, and the internal co- lour whitish. The powder is light yellowish-gray, resembling that of jalap. The root in its aggregate state is nearly inodorous; but in pow- der has a sweetish not unpleasant smell. The taste is at first sweetish, afterwards bitter, nauseous, and slightly acrid. The decoction and tincture are bitter. A peculiar bitter principle has been discovered in the root by William Hodgson jun. of Philadelphia. It is in pale brown shining scales, unalterable in the air, very sparingly soluble in cold water, much more soluble in boiling water, soluble also in ether, and freely so in boiling alcohol. It has neither acid nor alkaline properties. Nitric acid dissolves it with effervescence, producing a rich deep red colour. Its taste, at first not very decided in consequence of its feeble solubility, becomes at length very bitter and permanent; and its alco- holic solution is intensely bitter. Should it be found to be the purgative principle of the plant, it would be entitled to the name of podophyllin. It may be obtained by boiling the root with quicklime in water, strain- ing the decoction, precipitating the lime with sulphate of zinc, evapo- rating the clear solution to the consistence of an extract, treating this with cold alcohol of .817, filtering and evaporating the alcoholic solu- tion, and treating the residue with boiling distilled water, which preci- part I. Podophyllum.—Poly gala Rubella.—Porri Radix. 501 pitates the bitter principle on cooling. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. iii. 273.) Medical Properties and Uses.—Podophyllum is an active and certain cathartic, producing copious liquid discharges without much griping or other unpleasant effect. In some cases it has given rise to nausea and even vomiting, but the same result is occasionally experienced from every active cathartic. Its operation resembles that of jalap; but is ra- ther slower, and is thought by some to be more drastic. It is applicable to most inflammatory affections which require brisk purging; and is much employed in various parts of the country, especially combined with calomel, in bilious fevers and hepatic congestions. It is also fre- quently used in connexion with the supertartrate of potassa in dropsi- cal, rheumatic, and scrofulous complaints. The dose of the powdered root is about twenty grains. An extract is prepared from it possessing all its virtues in a smaller bulk. (See Ex- tractum Podophylli.) In minute doses frequently repeated, podophyllum is said to diminish the frequency of the pulse, and to relieve cough; and for these effects is sometimes used in haemoptysis, catarrh, and other pulmonary affections. Off Prep. Extractum Podophylli, U.S. POLYGALA RUBELLA. U.S. Secondary. Bitter Poly gala. " Polygala rubella. Planta. The plant." U.S. Polygala. See SENEGA. Polygala rubella. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 875; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 129.—P. polygama, Walter. Flor. Car. 179; Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. 465. This species of Polygala is an indigenous, perennial plant, with a branching, somewhat fusiform root, which sends up annually numerous simple, smooth, and angular stems from four to eight inches in height. The leaves are scattered, sessile, obovate or linear lanceolate, attenuat- ed towards the base, obtuse, and mucronate. The flowers are purple, and in elongated terminal racemes. From the base of the stem proceed other racemes, which lie upon the ground, or are partially buried under it, and bear incomplete but fertile flowers, the calyx of which is with- out wings. This plant is found in many parts of the United States, preferring a dry sandy or gravelly soil, and flowering in June and July, The whole plant is officinal. It has a strong and permanent bitter taste, which it yields to water and alcohol. Medical Properties and Uses.—In small doses it is tonic, in larger lax- ative and diaphoretic. The infusion of the dried plant has been usefully employed to impart tone to the digestive organs. (Bigelow.) It appears to be closely analogous in medical virtues to the Polygala amara of Eu- rope, which is used for a similar purpose. PORRI RADIX. Lond. Leek Root. " Allium Porrum. Radix." Lond. Poireau, Fr.; Gemeinerlauch, Germ.; Porro, Hal; Puerro, Span. Allium. See ALLIUM. 503 Porri Radix.—Potassium.—Potassae Jlcetas. part i. Allium Porrum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 64. " Stem flat-Jeaved, umbel- liferous. Stamens tricuspidate. Root tunicated." The leek is a biennial bulbous plant, growing wild in Switzerland, and cultivated in the gardens of Europe and this country for culinary purposes. All parts of it have an offensive pungent odour, and an acrid taste, dependent on an essential oil, which is in great measure dissipated by decoction, and may be obtained separate by distillation. The bulb, which is the officinal portion, consists of concentric layers, like the onion, which it resembles in medical properties, though somewhat milder. It is gently stimulant, with a peculiar direction to the kidneys. The expressed juice may be given in the dose of a fluidrachm, mixed with syrup. This species of Allium is not used medicinally in the United States. POTASSIUM. Potassium. \ Potassium, Fr.; Potassium, Kalimetall, Germ.,- Potassio, Hal; Potasio, Span. Potassium is a peculiar metal forming the basis of a number of im- portant medicinal preparations. It was discovered in 1807 by Sir H. Davy, who obtained it by the agency of galvanic electricity; but it is procured more readily by heating the hydrate of potassa to whiteness in contact with iron or charcoal, whereby the alkali is decomposed, yielding up its oxygen to the iron or charcoal, while its metallic radical js set free. Potassium is solid, softer and more ductile than wax, easily cut with a knife, and of a silver-white colour. A newly cut surface is exceedingly brilliant; but the metal quickly tarnishes by combining with the oxygen of the air, and assumes the appearance of lead. It possesses a remark- ably strong affinity for oxygen, and is capable of taking that element from all other substances. On account of this property it requires to be kept in fluids, such as naphtha, which are devoid of oxygen as a constituent. Its sp. gr. is between 0.8 and 0.9, its melting point 136°, and its equivalent number 40. When thrown upon water it swims, takes fire, and burns with a rose-coloured flame, combining with oxygen, and generating potassa which dissolves in the water. It forms numerous combinations, uniting with most of the non-metallic bodies, and several of the metals. It com- bines in two proportions with oxygen, forming a protoxide (dry potassa) of a gray, and a peroxide, of a yellowish-brown colour; the former con- taining one, and the latter three equivalents of oxygen. It combines also with chlorine and iodine, forming the chloride and iodide of potassium, the latter of which is officinal. Its protoxide (dry potassa) is a very strong salifiable base, existing in nature always in a state of combination, and forming with acids a numerous and important class of salts. Of these, the acetate, carbonate, bicarbonate, hydrate (caustic potassa), nitrate, sulphate, supersulphate, tartrate, and supertartrate are officinal, and will be described under their respective titles, to which, for their properties, the reader is referred. POTASS^ ACETAS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Jicetate of Potassa. Off. Syn. ACETAS POTASSiE. Ed. Diuretic salt, Foliated earth of tartar, Digestive salt of Sylvius; Acetate de potasse, Fr.,- Essigsaures kali, Germ.; Acetato di potassa, Hal PART I. Potassae Jlcetas. 503 Acetate of potassa is included among the preparations in the Phar- macopoeias of the British Colleges; but is perhaps more properly placed in the catalogue of the Materia Medica in the United States Pharma- copoeia. Preparation, #c—'-This salt is prepared by saturating a filtered solu- tion of carbonate of potassa with distilled vinegar or acetic acid, and heating the mixture, to assist the disengagement of the carbonic acid. An excess of acid is now added, which prevents the potassa from co- louring the solution by acting on any small portion of vegetable matter which may exist in the acid. The solution is then evaporated to three- fourths, care being taken to maintain its excess of acid. It is now somewhat coloured, and being allowed to cool, and to remain at rest for some hours, is afterwards decanted. The decanted liquid is next mixed with a fifth of its weight of animal charcoal, boiled for a few mo- ments and filtered; after which it is evaporated to a pellicle. The con- centrated solution is next evaporated to dryness, in separate small por- tions, in a shallow silver capsule, with a moderate fire. As the pellicles form on the surface, they are constantly scraped off to the edges of the capsule, and the heat is continued until the whole is converted into these pellicles. The desiccation being completed, the capsule is covered with paper; and its contents, when cool, are transferred to a perfectly dry bottle, which must be well stopped. The above process is merely a case of single elective affinity, the acetic acid combining with the potassa, and expelling the carbonic acid, which causes the effervescence. This salt may be obtained also, by double decomposition between acetate of lead and sulphate of po- tassa. When thus procured, it is very white and pure, but liable to the objection, for medical use, that it may possibly contain lead. Another method by double decomposition is between the acetate of lime and sul- phate of potassa; but when thus prepared, the salt is apt to contain some of the sulphate of potassa. It is not our intention to give the processes of the British Colleges for obtaining this salt in extenso; but an outline of them maybe useful. The London College uses the stronger acetic acid, obtained by purify- ing pyroligneous acid, for decomposing the carbonate of potassa, and directs the evaporation of the solution to be conducted in such a man- ner as to convert the whole into successive pellicles. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges direct distilled vinegar and the carbonate of po- tassa from tartar, for making the salt; and after subjecting it to exsic- cation and cautious fusion, redissolve it in water, filter the solution, and evaporate it to such an extent that it may concrete into a crystalline mass upon cooling. Properties.—Acetate of potassa when pure, is a white salt, possess- ing a pungent saline taste, which diffuses a peculiar warmth over the palate. When unskilfully prepared, it is apt to be more or less coloured; and as there is some difficulty in obtaining it free from colour, the dif- ferent processes for preparing it are particularly directed to attaining this object. Its state of aggregation differs with the manner in which it has been prepared. When obtained by removing the pellicles from the solution of the salt as it evaporates, it is in the form of light, white, spongy masses; when by concretion upon the cooling of the concen- trated solution, it presents a flaky or foliated texture. The latter form is that in which it is generally found in our shops. This salt is ex- tremely deliquescent, and if exposed to the air becomes converted into a liquid of an oleaginous appearance. It is on account of this property 504 Potassx Jlcetas.—Potassae Carbonas Impurus. part i. that it must always be preserved in well stopped bottles. It dissolves in about half its weight of water, and twice its weight of alcohol. Ex- posed to a high temperature if fuses, and, upon slow cooling, assumes the form of a foliated mass. If* the heat be continued, it is decomposed, and resolved into water, oil, and ammonia, which are volatilized, and carbonate of potassa with charcoal, which remains as a fixed residue. When treated with sulphuric acid, it yields acetic acid, and sulphate of potassa is formed. The most usual impurities which it contains are the sulphate and tartrate of potassa, and the salts of lead and copper. The presence of a soluble sulphate will be shown by nitrate of baryta producing a precipitate. If tartrate of potassa be present, the salt will not be entirely soluble in alcohol; and lead and copper may be detected by sulphuretted hydrogen and ferrocyanate of potassa, the former test producing with the lead a black, and the latter with the copper a brown precipitate. Acetate of potassa is not unfrequently a constituent in organic sub- stances. According to Vauquelin, it is present in the sap of nearly all trees; and it has been detected in some animal fluids, as in milk. Incompatibles.—This salt is decomposed by sulphuric, muriatic, and nitric acids, acetic acid being expelled. It is incompatible also with the sulphates of soda and magnesia, the muriates of ammonia and magne- sia, the tartrate of potassa and soda (Rochelle salt), the corrosive chlo- ride of mercury, nitrate of silver, and several other metallic and earthy salts. Composition.—It consists of one equivalent of acetic acid 51, one equiv. of potassa 48, and two equiv. of water 18 = 117. Medical Properties and Uses.—Acetate of potassa acts as a diuretic in doses of from a scruple to a drachm, and as a mild cathartic when given to the extent of two or three drachms. It is employed in dropsies, and often with good effect. Dr. Duncan considers it to be a medicine of great efficacy, and one of the best saline deobstruents which we pos- sess. We have ourselves used it in dropsical affections, and can bear testimony to its powers. The acetate, ready prepared, being an expen- sive preparation, the salt, equally efficacious, may be made extempo- raneously in the liquid form by saturating distilled vinegar with the carbonate of potassa. Two drachms of the carbonate saturated with vinegar, will sometimes produce in hydropic cases ten or twelve stools, and a copious discharge of urine. (Duncan.) Acetate of potassa, like the other alkaline salts containing a vegetable acid, may be given in the uric acid diathesis, to alkalize the urine; for the experiments of Wohler have shown that the acid undergoes decomposition in the digestive and assimilating processes, while the alkali enters the current of the circu- lation. Acetate of potassa is used pharmaceutically in obtaining acetic acid by the Dublin College, and in the preparation, by double decomposi- tion, of the acetates of mercury, iron, and zinc. It enters into no offici- nal preparation. POTASS^ CARBONAS IMPURUS. U.S. Impure Carbonate of Potassa. Off. Syn. POTASSA IMPURA. Lond.; SUB-CARBONAS PO- TASS^ IMPURUS. Ed.; LIXIVUS CINIS. Dub. Pearlash, Pearlashes, Impure potassa, Impure subcarbonate of potassa; Potasse du PART I. Potassa; Carbonas Impurus. 505 commerce, Fr.; Kohlensaures kali, Pottasche, Germ.,- Potasch, Dutch; Potaske, Dan.; Polaska, Swed.; Potassa del commercio, Hal; Cenizas claveladas, Span. The alkali potassa, using this term in its strict sense, is the protox- ide of a metal called potassium. (See Potassium.) It exists in various states of combination and of purity. In its most impure state, it is the common potashes of commerce. These, subjected to calcination, be- come somewhat purer, and are called pearlashes. It is this latter form of the alkali which is intended to be designated by the officinal name at the head of this article. Natural Stale and Preparation.—Potashes and pearlashes of commerce are procured from the ashes of wood, by lixiviation and the subsequent evaporation of the solution obtained. The alkali exists in the wood, principally in the state of acetate, but being of a fixed and incombusti- ble nature, is left behind after the incineration. The wood is burnt on the ground, in a place sheltered from the wind. The ashes which are left consist of a soluble and insoluble portion. The soluble part is made up of carbonate of potassa, together with the sulphate, phosphate, and silicate of potassa,and the chlorides of potassium and sodium; and the insoluble portion, of carbonate and subphosphate of lime, alumina, si- lica, the oxide of iron and manganese, and a little carbonaceous mat- ter that had escaped incineration. They are lixiviated in barrels, with the addition of a portion of lime, and the soluble substances above men- tioned are taken up. The lixivium is then evaporated in iron kettles, which for several days are constantly kept full. The evaporation is con- tinued until the mass has become of a black colour, and of the consist- ence of brown sugar. It is now subjected to as powerful a heat as can be raised by the best wood fire, for a number of hours. During the pro- gress of the fusion, the combustible impurities are for the most part destroyed, and a gaseous matter is emitted, which agitates the more fluid part. When the fusion is complete, the liquid becomes quiescent, and looks like melted iron. It is now poured, by means of large iron ladles, into iron pots, where it congeals in cakes. These are broken up into fragments and packed in tight barrels, and constitute the potashes of commerce. (Dr. G. A.Rogers, in Silliman's Journ.) If it be intended to make pearlashes, the process is different. In this case the black mat-- ter of the consistence of brown sugar, (called black salts by our manu-; facturers,) instead of being fused, is transferred from the kettles to a' large oven-shaped furnace, so constructed that the flame is made to play over the alkaline mass, which in the meantime is stirred by means of an iron rod. The ignition is in this way continued, until the. combusti- ble impurities are burnt out, and the mass, from being black, becomes of a white colour. (Rogers.) The ashes of plants amount generally to* not more than a few parts in the hundred; and of these, only a portion consist of carbonated potassa. The different parts of the same vegetable, and, for a stronger reason, different plants, furnish variable quantities of ashes. Ligneous plants furnish less than herbaceous, the trunk less than the branches, and the branches less than the leaves. The bark yields more ashes than the interior portions; and the leaves of trees which drop their leaves in winter, more than those of evergreens. The dried stems of potatoes have been said to yield the impure carbonate of potassa, to the extent of five and a half per cent.; but this statement has not been confirmed. The pine, on the contrary, contains nearly no potash. Commercial History.—Pot and pearl ashes are made in those countries in which forests abound. Accordingly the alkali is extensively manufac- 64 506 Potassae Carbonas Impurus. part i. tured in Canada and the United States, and constitutes a very important export of our country. It is prepared particularly in the state of New York, which is supposed to furnish three-fourths of our export of this article. It is also produced in considerable quantities in the northern countries of Europe, especially in Russia, and on the shores of the Bal- tic. It is of different qualities as it occurs in commerce, being more or less pure; and is generally distinguished by the country or place of ma- nufacture ; as American, Russian, Dantzic potashes, 8cc. Properties.-—Potashes are in the form of fused masses of a stony ap- pearance and hardness, and caustic burning taste. Their colour is variegated; but reddish and dark brown are the predominant hues. When exposed to the air they absorb moisture, and deliquesce; and if sufficiently long exposed finally become liquid. Pearlash is of a white colour, with a tinge of blue. As it occurs in commerce, it is in tight casks, containing about three hundred and fifty pounds, in which it forms one entire hard concrete mass. In the shops it is found in coarse powder, intermingled with lumps, as dug out of the casks, presenting an opaque granular appearance, like salt, or Havana sugar. It is a deliquescent salt, and has a burning alkaline taste, but no smell. It is soluble in water, with the exception of impurities, which are more or less in quantity, according to the quality of the article, of which three. sorts exist in the market. It differs from potashes principally in con- taining less combustible impurities, and in being less caustic and deli- quescent, and commands in the market from five to fifteen dollars per ton more than potashes. The colouring matter of both these forms of alkali is derived from carbonaceous impurities, and small portions of iron and manganese. Composition.—The basis of both pot and pearlashes is carbonate of potassa; but this is associated with certain salts, the principal of which are sulphate of potassa and chloride of potassium, and with insoluble impurities. The different varieties of potash found in commerce were analyzed by Vauquelin, whose results are contained in the following table. The quantity examined of each kind was 1152 parts. Caustic Sulphate Chloride Insoluble Carbonic Kinds of Potash. Hydrate of Potas- of Potas- Residue. Acid and of Potas-sa. sa. sium. Water. American potashes, 857 154 20 2 119 Russian potashes, - 772 65 5 56 254 Pearlashes, ... 754 80 4 6 i 308 Potashes of Treves, 720 165 44 24 199 Dantzic potashes, - 603 152 14 79 304 Potashes of Vosges, 444 148 510 34 16 By the above table it is perceived that the American potashes contain the most alkali, and next those of Russia. The pearlashes, it is seen, are more rich in carbonic acid than potashes; and this result of analysis corresponds with the qualities of the two articles as prepared in the United States; potash being known to be far more caustic than pearl- ash. The greater causticity of the American potash, compared with most of the varieties of Europe, probably depends upon the use of lime with us, which is not mentioned as being employed in the preparation part i. Potassae Carbonas Impurus.—Potassae Nitras. 507 of the commercial alkali in the best European works. The usual saline impurities are shown by the table to be sulphate of potassa and chloride of potassium. The insoluble residue consists principally of carbona- ceous matter, which has escaped incineration. Sometimes, however, in- soluble matters are added by design, such as brick-dust, sand, and other substances. As the potash of commerce is valuable in the arts in proportion to the quantity of real alkali which it contains, it becomes very important, in so variable a substance, to possess an easy method of ascertaining its quality in that respect. The process by which this is accomplished is called alkalimetry, and the instrument used an alkalimeter. The best mode of conducting the assay, which is applicable to the commercial forms of soda as well as potassa, is that proposed by Mr. Faraday, and described by Dr. Turner as follows. Take a cylindrical tube, sealed at one end, nine and a half inches long, and three-quarters of an inch in diameter, pour into it one thousand grains of water, and mark with a file the point at which the water stands. Divide the space occupied by the water into one hundred equal parts; and opposite to the numbers 23.44, 48.96, 54.63, and 65, severally, write the words soda, potassa, carbonate of soda, and carbonate of potassa. Then prepare a dilute sulphuric acid, having the specific gravity of 1.127, which may be form- ed by adding to the strong acid, about eight times its volume of distilled water. An acid of this strength, if added so as to reach to any one of the heights denoted by the above numbers, will be just sufficient for neutralizing one hundred grains of the alkali written opposite to it. Suppose, for example, that the dilute acid be added until it stands op- posite to the word carbonate of potassa, it is evident that we have, the exact quantity necessary to neutralize one hundred grains of that car- bonate ; and if we add pure water, until the liquid reaches to 0, or the beginning of the scale, it is evident that the acid has been brought to the bulk of a hundred measures, each of which would be competent to neutralize one grain of the carbonate in question. All that is now ne- cessary in order to ascertain the quality of any sample of commercial carbonate, is to dissolve one hundred grains of it in warm water, filter the solution to remove insoluble impurities, and add by degrees the di- lute acid from the tube until the solution is exactly neutralized, as shown by litmus paper. The number of divisions of acid expended in attaining this point, may be read off from the tube; and for each divi- sion one grain of real carbonate is indicated. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Pearlash is never used as a medicine in regular practice; being considered as too impure; but it is employed pharma- ceutically in several processes. The Dublin College uses it for obtaining the solution of caustic potassa, and for depriving rectified spirit of wa- ter, in the process for strengthening it; and it is directed to be purified, in all the Pharmacopoeias, to form the carbonate of potassa. Off. Prep. Potassae Carbonas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. POTASS^ NITRAS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Nitrate of Potassa. Off. Syn. NITRAS POTASS^. Ed. Nitre, Saltpetre; Nitrum, Lat.,- Nitrate de potasse, Nitre, Salpetre, Fr.; Salpeter- saures kali, Salpeter, Germ., Duieh, Dan., Swed.,- Nitro, Hal, Span., Port. Nitre or saltpetre is both a natural and artificial production. It is 508 Potassae Nitras. part i. found ready formed in many countries, existing in the soil, on which it forms a saline efflorescence, in the fissures of calcareous rocks, and in caves. It has been found in different parts of Europe, in Egypt, and in Peru; but the country in which it is most abundantly produced is India, from which the principal part is furnished for the demands of com- merce. In the United States it is found in Georgia, Tennessee, Virgi- nia, Maryland, Ohio, and Kentucky. It exists, in these States, for the most part in caverns situated in limestone rock, called saltpetre caves, and is associated with nitrate of lime. The earths contained in them are lixiviated, and furnish, according to their richness, from one to ten pounds of crude nitre. These caves are particularly numerous in Ken- tucky, and furnished a large portion of the nitre consumed in the United States during the late war. It exists also in the vegetable kingdom, having been found in borage, tobacco, bugloss, parietaria, hemlock, and the sunflower. The artificial sources of nitre are certain mixtures of ani- mal and vegetable substances, with wood-ashes, and calcareous matter, called nitre beds; and certain materials, impregnated with saltpetre, made up principally of old plaster, derived from the demolition of old buildings. Preparation from its Natural Sources.—In India the soil of the nitre districts is lixiviated, and the lixivium obtained evaporated in shaded shallow pits, until it crystallizes. Where the material is less rich in nitre, and contains nitrate of lime, as is the case with the earths from our saltpetre caves, it is necessary to convert the latter salt into nitrate of potassa by wood-ashes. Artificial Preparation.-—The plan of forming saltpetre in artificial ni- tre-beds is principally practised in Germany; while the method of ob- taining it from old plaster rubbish is followed in France. Artificial p,itre-beds are formed of animal and vegetable remains, together with ashes and calcareous earth, which are mixed up with a portion of loose soil and placed under sheds, to shelter them from the rain, while the sides are left open to permit the free access of air. The matter is dis- posed in little ranges or heaps, which are frequently turned over with a spade, and sprinkled with urine, as a substance containing a large quan- tity of nitrogen. At the end of two or three years the nitrogen is con. verted into nitric acid, and this uniting with the potassa existing in the vegetable remains, forms nitre. When the contents of the bed contain about four ounces of the salt for every cubic foot of the materials, they are deemed fit to be lixiviated. The lixiviation is performed with boiling water, which is repeatedly thrown upon fresh portions of the mass, until the solution obtained is sufficiently strong. The lixivium is of a brown colour, and contains chiefly the nitrate of potassa, but at the same lime more or less of the nitrates of lime and magnesia, and of common salt. The earthy nitrates are then decomposed by a solution of wood-ashes, which, by furnishing potassa, converts them into nitre, and precipitates the earths. The solution being further evaporatefl, the common salt rises to the surface as a scum, and is removed. The solu- tion is then allowed to cool, and the nitre crystallizes in dirty white crystals, called crude nitre. When obtained from old plaster rubbish, the material is reduced to powder and lixiviated, in order to obtain from it every thing soluble. The solution is found to contain the nitrates of potassa and lime, and common salt, and is treated with wood-ashes, which converts the nitrate of lime into nitrate of potassa, with precipitation of the earth as a car- bonate. The liquor is separated from the precipitate and concentrated PART I. Potassae Nitras. 509 by heat; and the common salt as it rises to the surface is skimmed off. When the solution is so strong as to mark 45° of Beaume's areometer, it is allowed to cool and crystallize; and the crystals form the crude nitre of this process. The salt obtained in this way generally contains from 85 to 88 per cent, of pure nitre; the remainder being made up of chloride of sodium, and certain deliquescent salts. The details of the above process as practised in Paris, are given with minuteness by The- nard. (Traite de Chimie, tome iii. p. 252.) Purification.—Nitrate of potassa, as first obtained, either from its natural or artificial sources, is called in commerce crude saltpetre, and re- quires to be purified or refined before it can be used in medicine or in most of the arts. The process, which is founded principally on the solu- bility of nitre being greater than that of common salt in hot water, is conducted in the following manner in France. Thirty parts of the salt- petre are boiled with six parts of water, and the portion which remains undissolved, or is deposited, consisting of common salt, is carefully re- moved. As the ebullition proceeds, a little water is added from time to time, to hold the nitre in solution. When the common salt ceases to be formed, the solution is clarified with glue, and more water is added at intervals, until the whole amounts, including that previously added, to ten parts. The clear solution is now transferred to large, shallow, cop- per coolers, where it is agitated with wooden instruments, to hasten the cooling and to cause the nitre to crystallize in small grains. The purification is completed by washing the salt with water, or a saturated solution of nitre, in a kind of wooden hopper, with holes in its bottom stopped with pegs. The liquid employed is allowed to remain in con- tact with the nitre for several hours, at the end of which time it is per- mitted to drain off by taking out the pegs. The salt being now dried, its purification is completed. In Sweden, the process of purification is somewhat different. The solution of the crude, nitre is boiled, until a saline crust (common salt) forms on its surface, and until it is so far concentrated that a small por* tion of it crystallizes upon cooling. The crust being removed, the solu- tion is filtered, and diluted with -^ of water, with a view to retain in solution the common salt, which, being somewhat less soluble in cold than in boiling water, would otherwise be in part precipitated on refri- geration. The solution is now allowed to cool, and, at the moment crys- tals begin to form, is stirred constantly to cause the salt to crystallize in small grains. The granular salt is then washed after the French me- thod, as above described, dried, and being fused, is cast in sheet iron moulds, so as to form masses, each weighing from ten to twenty pounds, The preparation of nitre in this manner by fusion is, according to Ber- zelius, attended with several advantages; such as its occupying less space, its losing nothing by waste in transportation, and its presenting in this state an obvious index of its quality. This index is the charac- ter of its fracture. When the salt is perfectly pure, this is radiated, the radii being generally large. The presence of fo of common salt ren- ders the radii smaller; and of -^, or a larger quantity, produces a zone in the substance of the mass, devoid of the radiated structure, or causes this structure to disappear altogether. On the other hand, the process by fusion has the disadvantages of converting the salt in part into a nitrite, when heated too high, and of rendering it difficult to pulverise. Commercial History.—Nitre is received in this country from Calcutta in the state of crude saltpetre, packed in grass cloth bags, containing from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five pounds. It 510 Potassae Nilras. PART I. generally comes direct, but occasionally through the port of London. A great portion of it arrives at Boston, which city carries on a very brisk trade with Calcutta. Its quality varies considerably. That which comes in dirty yellow crystals is called crude saltpetre; while the finer lots, in small, comparatively clear crystals, approaching to white, are called East India refined. No crude saltpetre is at present prepared in the United States, the cost of its extraction being greater than the price for which the East India may be imported, which for the average of the few last years has been only seven and a half cents per pound. The refined saltpetre is exclusively prepared by our own chemists. As connected with the subject of saltpetre, it seems proper, in this place, to mention wfiat is called South American saltpetre, considerable quantities of which have been received within a few years from Peru. This substance is the nitrate of soda, and comes in bags containing about two hundred and seventy pounds of the salt in the crude state. This salt is coming into use with our manufacturing chemists, and is better suited than nitre for preparing nitric and sulphuric acid, from the greater proportional quantity of the former acid which it contains. It is, however, not applicable to the purpose of making gunpowder, being apt to absorb moisture. Properties.—Nitre is a white salt, possessing a sharp, cooling, and slightly bitterish taste, and generally crystallized in long, striated, semi- transparent, six sided prisms, with dihedral summits. It dissolves in four or five times its weight of cold, and in about two-fifths of its weight of boiling water; but is insoluble in absolute alcohol. It undergoes no alteration in the air, unless this be very moist. It contains no water of crystallization; but is apt to hold a portion of this liquid, mechanically lodged within the substance of the crystals. This is particularly the case with the large crystals, and, according to Berzelius, is a source of impurity; as the liquid contained in them is a solution of the mother- waters in which they were formed. It is on this account that Berzelius recommends that the solution of the purified salt should be made by agitation to shoot into small crystals. When exposed to heat, nitre fuses at 662°. The fused mass, when cast in moulds, or formed into little circular cakes, constitutes that form of nitre kept in the shops under the name of crystal mineral or sal prunelle* If the heat be in- creased, the salt is decomposed, evolves pure oxygen, and is reduced to the state of a nitrite. Upon a further continuance of the heat, the ni- trous acid itself is decomposed, and a large additional quantity of oxy- gen is evolved, contaminated, however, with more or less nitrogen. The residuum, after gaseous matter has ceased to come over, is, ac- cording to Berzelius, a compound of potassa with nitric oxide; but, sometimes at least, it is a peroxide of potassium, as was observed about the same time by Mr. Phillips of London and Dr. Bridges of Phila- delphia. On account of the large quantity of oxygen which it con- tains, nitre increases the combustion of many substances in a remark- able manner. When thrown on burning coals, it deflagrates with bright * The salprunelle, as made in France, is a mixture of nitrate and sulphate of potas- sa. It is prepared by fusing a pound of pure nitre in a Hessian crucible, and throwing into the fused salt a drachm of pulverised sulphur. The sulphur immediately takes fire, and by combining with oxygen from the nitre, becomes sulphuric acid, which then combines with the potassa of this salt, and forms sulphate of potassa. The mixed salts are then poured*into a heated silver basin, where they are allowed to congeal in thin layers. This preparation is said to be called sal prunelle, because formerly it was the custom to give it a purple colour, resembling that of the plum. PART I. Potassae Nitras. 511 scintillations. Mixed with half its weight of sulphur, and two-thirds of its weight of pearlash, it forms a compound, powerfully detonating when struck with a hammer. Nitre may be readily recognised by its effect in increasing the combustion of live coals, when thrown upon them, and by evolving white or reddish vapours on the affusion of sulphuric acid. When fused, its radiated structure is a test of its pu- rity. Its most usual impurity is common salt, which injures its quality for the-manufacture of gunpowder. The presence of this contaminating salt is readily detected by nitrate of silver. The refined or purified salt- petre of commerce maybe deemed the officinal nitre, and is sufficiently pure for medical use. Nevertheless, the Dublin College, with useless refinement, have given a formula for its purification. (See Potassse Nitras Purum, Dub.) Composition.—Nitrate of potassa is composed of one equiv. of nitric acid 54, and one equiv. of potassa 48 = 102. Medical Properties and Uses.—Nitre is considered refrigerant and an- tiphlogistic, and is much used in inflammatory diseases. It is known to be a powerful antiseptic. It generally promotes the secretion of urine and sweat, lessens the heat of the body and the frequency of the pulse, and has a tendency to keep the bowels in a soluble condition. It is very fre- quently prescribed with tartar emetic and calomel, forming a combina- tion usually called the nitrous powder, which promotes most of the secre- tions, particularly those of the liver and skin, and which in many cases is advantageously employed in lessening and modifying febrile excitement. The formula usually preferred is eight or ten grains of nitre, the eighth of a grain of tartar emetic, and from a fourth to half of a grain of calo- mel, exhibited every two or three hours. Nitre is frequently given in ac- tive hemorrhages, particularly haemoptysis, and is used as an ingredient in gargles, in certain stages of inflammatory sore-throat. In the form of sal prunelle, it is rubbed with advantage on chapped lips. The dose is from five to fifteen grains, dissolved in water or some mucilaginous fluid, and repeated every two or three hours. From one to three drachms may, in this manner, be exhibited in the course of the day. If given too freely, or for too long a period, it is apt to excite pains of the stomach. In an over-dose, (half an ounce to an ounce or more,) some- times taken by mistake for sulphate of soda, it causes violent symptoms; such as intense pain at the stomach, vomiting and purging of blood, great prostration, convulsions, and sometimes death. On dissection, the stomach and intestines are found violently inflamed. The treatment in such cases consists in the administration of mucilaginous and demul- cent drinks; laudanum to allay pain and irritation, and cordials in the sinking condition of the system. Pharmaceutical Uses, #-c.—In pharmacy nitre is employed to form crocus of antimony, (see Ed. process for tartar emetic,) and to obtain nitric acid, (see Acidum Nitricum,) sweet spirit of nitre by the Uni- ted States formula, and purest carbonate of potassa, (salt of tartar.) It enters into the composition of moxa, (see Moxa, Dub.,) and is employ- ed in preparing the sulphate of potassa with sulphur of the Edinburgh College. In the laboratory it is used as an oxidizing agent, and to yield oxygen at a red heat: one pound of it will furnish twelve hundred cubic inches of oxygen, sufficiently pure for experiments of illustration. In the arts, it is employed in the production of aquafortis, the manufac- ture of sulphuric acid, (see Acidum Sulphuricum,) and the fabrication of gunpowder. It is this last use which causes its principal consump- tion. In domestic economy, it is applied to the purpose of preserving 512 Potassse Nitras.—Potassse Sulphas. PART I. meat, especially beef, to the fibre of which it communicates a red colour, and considerable firmness. Off. Prep. Potassse Nitras Purum, Dub.; Trochisci Nitratis Potassse, Ed.; Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, U.S., Lond. POTASS^ SULPHAS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Sulphate of Potassa. Off Syn. SULPHAS POTASSiE. Ed. Vitriolated tartar; TarUrum vitriolatum, Arcanum duplicatum, Sal de duobus, Lat.; Sulfate de potasse, Potabse vitriolee, Fr.; Schwefelsaures kali, Vitriolisirtir weinstein, Germ.; Solfato di potassa, ltal. This salt is placed among the Preparations by the Dublin College; in the Materia Medica, as well as among the Preparations, by the London and Edinburgh Colleges; and in the Materia Medica only, in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The latter position is its proper one, as this salt ' is manufactured for the most part on the large scale. Preparation.—Several chemical processes give rise to sulphate of potassa as a secondary product. Thus it is produced in the distillation of nitric acid, from a mixture of nitre with sulphuric acid or the sul- phate of iron; in the decomposition of sulphate of magnesia by car- bonate of potassa, in forming carbonate of magnesia; and during the combustion of the mixture of nitre and sulphur in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. (See Acidum Nitricum, and Acidum Sulphuricum.) When nitric acid is obtained by calcining a mixture of nitre and sul- phate of iron, the residue consists of peroxide of iron and sulphate of potassa, the latter of which being alone soluble, is separated by means of water and crystallized from its solution. The residue of the combus- tion of sulphur and nitre, in making sulphuric acid, is an impure sul- phate of potassa mixed with sulphur, and is not purified for use in medicine, but sold to the makers of alum, the sulphate of potassa being one of the saline ingredients of that double salt. The British Colleges agree in obtaining sulphate of potassa from the salt which remains after the distillation of nitric acid. This salt is a supersulphate of potassa, and must be so prepared as to be brought to the neutral state. The London and Dublin Colleges effect this pur- pose by saturating the excess of acid with carbonate of potassa; the Edinburgh College, by removing it by the addition of carbonate of lime, which converts it into an insoluble sulphate of lime. The direc- tions of the London College, which are the most precise, are to dissolve two pounds of the acidulous salt in two gallons of boiling water, to add sufficient carbonate of potassa to saturate the excess of acid, to boil the solution to a pellicle, and after filtration, to set it aside to form crystals, which, being separated by pouring off the mother water, are to be dried on blotting paper. Mr. Phillips considers the Edinburgh process to be the best, as it gets rid of the excess of acid; while, by the London and Dublin processes, the additional quantity of sulphate of potassa is ob- tained by the expenditure of carbonate of potassa, which is' of more value than the sulphate. Mr. Brande, however, objects to the Edinburgh formula, that the separation of the sulphate of lime renders it more troublesome, while the saying, by adopting it, would be trifling. Properties.—Sulphate of potassa is a white, anhydrous salt, in the form of small, aggregated, transparent, very hard crystals, permanent in the air, having the shape usually of short six-sided prisms, ter- minated by six-sided pyramids, and possessing a nauseous, somewhat -fffl;^r" part i. Potassae Sulphas. 513 bitter taste. It is soluble slowly in about nine times its weight of cold, and four times its weight of boiling water; but is insoluble in alcohol. When thrown upon burning coals it decrepitates, and exposed to a strong red heat it undergoes fusion. It exists naturally in ligneous ve- getables, and hence is present in their ashes. Added to a solution of sulphate of alumina, it generates alum, recognised by the octohedral shape of its crystals. It is decomposed by tartaric acid, which forms bitartrate of potassa, and by the soluble salts of baryta, strontia, lime, silver, and lead, foming insoluble, or sparingly soluble sulphates. It consists of one equiv. of sulphuric acid 40, and one equiv. of potassa 48 = 88. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sulphate of potassa is deobstruent and cathartic. In small doses, from a scruple to half a drachm, it operates as an aperient, and is useful in removing obstructions; in larger doses, of four or five drachms, it acts slowly as a gentle purge. Combined with rhubarb, in the proportion of about a drachm of the salt to ten grains of the root, Dr. Fordyce found it an excellent alterative cathartic in the visceral obstructions of children, characterized by a tumid abdo- men and defective digestion and nutrition; and we can bear testimony to its efficacy in these cases from our own experience. Dr. A. T. Thom- son states that this salt, in combination either with rhubarb or aloes, has proved in his hands "more useful than any of the other saline pur- gatives, in jaundice and dyspeptic affections." In the arts it is employ- ed in making alum, and by the refiners of saltpetre for converting ni- trate of lime into nitrate of potassa. Off. Prep. Pilulae Colocynthidis Compositae, Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Ipe- cacuanhae et Opii, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dubr, Pulvis Salinus Compositus, Ed., Dub. SUPER-TARTRAS POTASS^ IMPURUS. Ed. Impure Supertartrate of Potassa. Off. Syn. TARTARUM. Lond. Tartar, Argol; Tartre, Fr.; Weinstein, Germ.; Tartaro volgare, Hal; Tartaro, Span. During the fermentation of acidulous wines, a peculiar matter is de^ posited on the bottom and sides of the casks, forming a Crystalline crust, called tartar. That deposited from red wine is of a reddish colour, and is called in commerce red tartar, while that derived from white wines is of a dirty white colour, and is denominated white tartar. Both kinds are essentially the same, consisting of potassa united with an excess of tartaric acid, forming supertartrate (bitartrate) of potassa, mixed with tartrate of lime, more or less colouring matter, together with lees and other matters which are deposited during the clarification of the wine* The substance in question is, therefore, an impure supertartrate of po- tassa, as called by the Edinburgh College; but both this College and the London have very unnecessarily introduced it into the Materia Me- dica; as it is neither employed as a medicine, nor used directly in form' ing any of the " preparations." When purified it forms the cream of tartar of the shops, the bitartrate of potassa of the chemist, which pro* perly enters into the lists of the Materia Medica, and is described in the next article. This acidulous salt exists naturally, in the tamarind and grape. In the juice of the latter, it is held in solution by means of the saccha* 65 514 Potassae Supertartras. part i. rine and mucilaginous matter of the fruit. But when the juice is sub- mitted to fermentation in the process for converting it into wine, the sugar disappears, and is replaced by alcohol, which, not being compe- tent to dissolve the salt, allows it to precipitate. In this way, the depo- sition of tartar during the fermentation of wine is explained. POTASSAE SUPERTARTRAS. U.S., Lond. Supertartrate of Potassa. Off. Syn. SUPER-TARTRAS POTASS^. Ed.; POTASSJE Br- TARTRAS. Dub. Cream of tartar, Crystals of tartar; Cremor tartari, Lat.; Tartrate acide de potasse, Creme de tartre, Fr.; Weinstein-rahm, Germ.; Cremore di tartaro, Hal; Cremor de tartaro, Span. Cream of tartar is obtained from tartar, the substance described in the last article, by subjecting it to a process of purification. The pro- cess is conducted on a large scale at Montpelier in France, and is found- ed upon the property which cream of tartar possesses, of being much more soluble in hot than in cold water. The tartar, previously pulveris- ed, is boiled with water in copper boilers. The solution, when satu- rated, is transferred to earthen pans, where it deposites, on cooling, a crystalline layer, nearly free from colour. This is redrssolved in boiling water; and the solution, having been mixed with four or five per cent. of argillaceous earth, is evaporated to a pellicle. The clay precipitates with the colouring matter, and the clear solution, as it cools, deposites white crystals in crusts, which, upon being exposed to the open air on linen for several days, acquire an increased degree of whiteness. These constitute the crystals of tartar or cream of tartar of pharmacy. The salt, however, as met with in the shops, is generally, for greater conve- nience, in the form of powder; and it is to the substance in this state, that we are accustomed to apply the name of cream of tartar. Properties.—Supertartrate of potassa occurs in commerce in white crystalline crusts, or masses of aggregated crystals, and is received in that state from France by our wholesale druggists, who procure its pulverization for the use of the apothecaries. In crystals, it is hard and gritty under the teeth, and dissolves slowly in the mouth; in powder it has a white colour. It is a permanent salt, having an acid, not ungrate- ful taste, soluble in sixty parts of cold, and fifteen of boiling water, but insoluble in alcohol. When exposed to heat it is decomposed, exhales a peculiar odour, and gives rise to an acid, called pyrotarlaric, and the usual products of the destructive distillation of vegetable matter. It is precipitated by solutions of baryta, strontia, and lime, which form in- soluble tartrates, and by acetate of lead, forming tartrate of lead. With salifiable bases which form soluble tartrates, it gives rise to double salts, consisting of neutral tartrate of potassa, and the tartrate of the base added. Several of them are important in medicine, and will be described under their respective heads. Cream of tartar, though spar- ingly soluble in water, becomes abundantly so by the addition "of borax. The combination thus formed is sometimes used in medicine, and will be described under borax. (See Sodae Boras.) The cream of tartar of commerce is not a pure supertartrate of potassa. It uniformly contains tartrate of lime, amounting on an average to six per cent., but occasionally even to fourteen per cent. It is sometimes adulterated with sand, clay, and similar substances. The fraud may be PART I. Potassae Supertartras.—Prinos. 515 easily detected, by treating the suspected salt with a warm alkaline so- lution, which will dissolve the cream of tartar, and leave the adultera- ting substances. According to Mr. Brande, purified tartar is sometimes mixed with white siliceous pebbles, bruised into small fragments. Composition.—Cream of tartar consists of two equiv. of tartaric acid 132, and one equiv. of potassa 48. It is, therefore, in precise chemical language, a bitartrate of potassa. When crystallized it contains one equivalent of water, which cannot be expelled without decomposing the salt. Medical Properties and Uses.—Supertartrate of potassa is cathartic, diuretic, and refrigerant. In small doses it acts as a cooling aperient, in large ones as a hydragogue cathartic, producing copious watery stools; and from this latter property, as well as its tendency to excite the action of the kidneys, it is very much used in dropsical affections. When exhibited in these diseases, it is frequently prescribed in com- bination with jalap. (See Pulvis Jalapse Compositus.) Its solution in boil- ing water, sweetened with sugar, and allowed to cool, forms an acid, not unpleasant, refrigerant drink, advantageously used in some febrile affections, and very much employed as a domestic remedy. The beve- rage called imperial is a drink of this kind, and is made by dissolving half an ounce of the salt in three pints of boiling water, and adding to the solution four ounces of white sugar, and half an ounce of fresh le- mon peel. The dose of cream of tartar is a drachm or two as an ape- rient; and from half an ounce to an ounce as a hydragogue cathartic, generally mixed with molasses. As a diuretic in dropsical cases, it is best given in divided doses to the amount of an ounce or more in twenty- four hours, largely diluted with water. In pharmacy, cream of tartar is employed in obtaining the neutral tartrate of potassa (soluble tartar), tartrate of potassa and soda (Ro- chelle salt), tartrate of potassa and antimony (tartar emetic), and the tartrate of potassa and iron. Saturated by means of chalk, it forms tartrate of lime, which, decomposed by sulphuric acid, furnishes tar- taric acid. Deflagrated with nitre, it is converted into a pure form of carbonate of potassa, called salt of tartar. (See Potassse Carbonas Pu- rissimus.) In the laboratory it is used to procure potassa in a pure state, and in making black and white flux. Black flux is prepared by deflagrating cream of tartar with half its weight of nitre; and white flux, by a similar process, using twice its weight of the latter salt. Off. Prep. Acidum Tartaricum, Lond., Dub.; Antimonii et Potassae Tartras, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Ferri ct Potassae Tartras, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassae Carbonas Purissimus, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Potassae Tartras, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Jalapae Compositus, Ed., Dub.; Sodas et Potassae Tartras, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. PRINOS. U.S. Secondary. Black Alder. " Prinos vcrticillatus. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Prinos. Class Hexandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rhamni, Juss.; Ilicineae, Brongniart, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx small, six-cleft. Corolla monopetalous,.subrotate, six- parted. Berry six-seeded ; seeds nuciform, Nuttall. Prinos verticillatus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 225; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 141; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 203. The black alder is an indige- 516 Prinos.—Prunum. part i. nous shrub, with a stem six or eight feet high, furnished with alternate, spreading branches, and covered with a bluish-gray bark. The leaves, which stand alternately or irregularly on short petioles, are oval, point- ed, tapering at the base, acutely serrate, of a dark green colour, smooth on their upper surface, but downy on the veins beneath. The flowers are small, white, nearly sessile, and grow three or four together at the axils of the leaves. They are often dioecious. The calyx is persistent; the segments of the corolla obtuse; the stamens usually six in number, and furnished with oblong anthers; the germ large, green, roundish, and surmounted by a short style, terminating in an obtuse stigma. The fruit when ripe consists of glossy, scarlet, roundish berries, about the size of a pea, containing six cells and six seeds. Several of these ber- ries are clustered together so as to form little bunches at irregular in- tervals on the stem. In the latter part of autumn, after the leaves have fallen, they still remain attached to the stem, and render the shrub a striking object in the midst of the general nakedness of vegetation. Hence the plant has received the name of winter-berry, by which it is frequently designated. It grows in all parts of the United States, from Canada to Florida, frequenting low wet places, such as swamps, and the borders of ponds, ditches, and streams. Its flowers appear in June. The berries, which have a bitter, sweetish, somewhat acrid taste, are sometimes used me- dicinally for the same purposes with the bark, which is the proper offi- cinal portion. The dried bark is in slender pieces, more or less rolled, brittle, green- ish-white internally, and covered with a smooth epidermis which is easily separable, and of a whitish-ash colour,-alternating or mingled with brown. There is no smell. The taste it bitter and slightly astrin- gent. Boiling water extracts the virtues of the bark. Medical Properties and Uses.—Black alder is usually considered tonic and astringent; and is among the remedies which have been proposed as substitutes for Peruvian bark, with which, however, it has very lit- tle analogy. It has been recommended in intermittent fever, diarrhoea, and other diseases connected with a debilitated state of the system, es- pecially gangrene and mortification. It is a popular remedy in gangre- nous or flabby and ill-conditioned ulcers, and in chronic cutaneous eruptions, in which it is given internally, at the same time that it is ap- plied locally in the form of a wash or poultice. Any favourable influence which it may exert over these affections must be ascribed rather to a peculiar alterative property, than to its tonic and astringent powers, which are very feeble. It may be used in substance or decoction. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm to be repeated several times a day. The decoction, which is usually preferred both for internal and external use, may be prepared by boiling two ounces of the bark with three pints of water to a quart, and given in the dose of two or three fluidounces. A saturated tincture as well of the berries as of the bark is sometimes employed. PRUNUM. U.S. Prunes. " Prunus domestica. Fructus siccatus. The dried fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. PRUNA. Prunus domestica. Drupae exsiccatae. Lond.; i"£. j^pr parti. Prunum.—Prunus Lauro-Cerasus. 517 PRUNI DOMESTICS FRUCTUS. Fructus siccatus. Ed.; PRU- NUS DOMESTICA. Fructus siccatus. Dub. Pruneaux, Fr.; Pflaumen, Germ.; Pruni, Hal; Ciruelas secas, Span. Prunus. Class Icosandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae, Sect. Amygdaleae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Petals five. Nut of the drupe with sutures somewhat prominent. Willd. Prunus domestica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 995; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 520. t. 187. The cultivated prune or plum tree is so Avell known as to render a minute description unnecessary. We merely give the specific character. "Peduncles subsolitary; leaves lanceolate,ovate,con- volute; branches not spiny." The varieties of the tree produced by cul- tivation are very numerous. Nearly one hundred are to be found in the British gardens. Though at present growing wild in various parts of Europe, it is thought to have been brought originally from Asia Minor and Syria. It is the dried fruit only that is officinal. The prunes brought to our market come chiefly from the South of France, the best from the port of Bordeaux. They are derived from the variety of the tree named Juliana by Linnaeus. The fresh fruit, called prune de Saint Julien by the French, is of an oval shape, nearly an inch in length, and of a deep violet colour. It is prepared by drying in the sun after having been exposed to the heat of an oven. The finest prunes, used on the tables in France, are prepared from the larger kinds of plums, such as the Saint Catharine and Reine-Claude or green- gage. An inferior sort is brought from Germany. Prunes have a feeble odour, and a sweet mucilaginous taste, which is' generally also somewhat acid. They contain uncrystallizable sugar, malic acid, and mucilaginous matter. In Germany they obtain from this fruit a kind of brandy, which in some districts is much employed. M. Bonneberg, a German chemist, has succeeded in extracting crystal-. lizable sugar, equal to that of the cane. Medical Properties and Uses.—Prunes are laxative and nutritious, and stewed with water form an excellent diet in cases of costiveness, espe- cially during convalescence from febrile and inflammatory diseases. As they impart their laxative property to water in which they are boiled, they serve as a pleasant and useful addition to purgative decoctions. Their pulp is also used in the preparation of laxative confections. Too largely taken in a debilitated state of the digestive organs, they are apt to occasion flatulence, and griping pain in the stomach and bowels. Off. Prep. Confectio Sennae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. PRUNUS LAURO-CERASUS. FOLIA. Bub. Leaves of Cherry-Laurel. Laurier cerise, Fr.,- Kirschlorbeer, Germ.,- Laurp-ceraso, ltal Prunus. See PRUNUM. Prunus Lauro-cerasus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 988; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 513. t. 185.—Cerasus Lauro-cerasus, De Cand. Prod. ii. 540. This is a small evergreen tree, rising fifteen or twenty feet in height, with long spreading branches, which, as well as the trunk, are covered with a smooth blackish bark. The leaves, which stand alternately on short strong footstalks, are oval oblong, from five to seven inches in length, acute, finely toothed, firm, coriaceous, smooth, beautifully green and phining, with oblique nerves, and yellowish glands at the base. The ~m 51S PrunusLauro-Cerasus.—Prunus Virginiana. parti. flowers are small, white, strongly odorous, and disposed in simple axil- lary racemes. The fruit consists of oval drupes, very similar to small black cherries, both in their shape and internal structure. The cherry-laurel is a native of Asia Minor, but has been introduced into Europe, throughout which it is cultivated, both for medical use, and for the beauty of its shining evergreen foliage. Almost all parts of it are more or less impregnated with the odour supposed to indicate the presence of hydrocyanic acid. The leaves only are officinal. In their recent and entire state they have scarcely any smell, but when bruised they emit the characteristic odour of the plant in a high degree. Their taste is somewhat astringent and strongly bitter, with the peculiar flavour of the peach kernel. By drying they lose iheir sensible properties and become inert. They contain a peculiar volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid, both of which are separated by distillation with water, which they strongly impregnate with their flavour. The oil resembles that of bitter almonds, for which it is said to be sometimes sold in the shops in Europe, where it is employed to flavour liquors and various culinary preparations; but as it is highly poisonous, dangerous consequences may result from its careless use. It has not been deter- mined how much of its action is dependent on the oil itself, and how much on the hydrocyanic acid which is combined with it. The fresh leaves are occasionally used to flavour milk, cream, &c. ; and more safely than the oil; though they also are poisonous when too largely employed. Medical Properties and Uses.—The leaves of the cherry-laurel possess properties similar to those of hydrocyanic acid ; and the water distilled from them is much employed in various parts of Europe for the same pur- poses with that active medicine. But it is deteriorated by age; and there- fore as kept in the shops must be of variable strength. Hence, while Hufeland directs only twenty drops for a dose every two hours, to be gradually increased to sixty drops, M. Fouquier has administered seve- ral ounces without effect. Another source of inequality of strength must be the variable quality of the leaves, according to the time they have been kept after separation from the tree, and probably also to their age and degree of development. It is not, therefore, to be regretted, that the want of the plant in this country has prevented the introduc- tion of the distilled water into our shops. Off. Prep. Aqua Laurocerasi, Dub. PRUNUS VIRCxINIANA. U.S. Wild-cherry Bark. " Prunus Virginiana. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Prunus. See PRUNUM. Pmnus Virginiana. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 985.—Cerasus Virginiana. Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 205. The wild-cherry tree is, according to Michaux, one of the largest productions of the American forest. Indi- viduals were seen by that botanist on the banks of the Ohio from eighty to one hundred feet high, with trunks from twelve to fifteen feet in cir- cumference, and undivided to the height of twenty-five or thirty feet. But as usually met with in the Atlantic States, the tree is of much smaller dimensions. In the open fields it is less elevated than in forests, but sends out more numerous branches, which expand into an elegant oval sum- mit, The trunk is regularly shaped, and covered with a rough blackish part i. Prunus Virginiana. 519 bark, which detaches itself semi-circularly in thick narrow plates, and by this peculiar character serves as a distinguishing mark of the tree when the foliage is too high for inspection. The leaves are oval-oblong, acuminate, unequally serrate, smooth on both sides, of a beautiful bril- liant green, and supported alternately upon petioles, which are furnished with from two to four reddish glands. The flowers are small, white, and collected in long erect racemes. They appear in May, and are fol- lowed by globular drupes about the size of a pea, and when ripe of a shining blackish-purple colour. This species of Prunus grows throughout the Union, flourishing most in those parts where the soil is fertile and the climate temperate, and abounding in the Middle Atlantic States, and in those which bor- der on the Ohio. In the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, it affects open situations, growing solitary in the fields and along the fences, and sel- dom aggregated in woods or groves. It is highly valued by the cabinet- makers for its wood, which is compact, fine-grained, susceptible of polish, and of a light red tint, which deepens with age. The fruit h&s a sweetish, astringent, bitter taste; and is much employed in some parts of the country to impart flavour to spirituous liquors. The inner bark is the part employed in medicine, and is obtained indiscriminately from all parts of the tree, though that of the roots is most active. It should be preferred recently dried, as it deteriorates by keeping. Properties.—Wild-cherry bark as kept in the shops is in pieces of various sizes, more or less curved laterally, usually destitute of epi- dermis, of a lively cinnamon colour, brittle, and pulverisable, present- ing a reddish-gray fracture, and affording a fawn-coloured powder. In the fresh state, or when boiled in water, it emits an odour resembling that of peach leaves. Its taste is agreeably bitter and aromatic, with the peculiar flavour of the bitter almond. It imparts its sensible properties to water, either cold or hot, producing a clear reddish infusion closely resembling Madeira wine in appearance. Its peculiar flavour is injured by boiling, in consequence of the volatilization of the principle upon which it depends. From its taste and odour it has been supposed to contain hydrocyanic acid; but the presence of this principle has not, we believe, been demonstrated. Medical Properties and Uses.—This bark is among the most valuable of our indigenous remedies. Uniting with a tonic power, the property of calming irritation and diminishing nervous excitability, it is admira- bly adapted to the treatment of diseases in which a debilitated condi- tion of the stomach, or of the system at large, is united with general or local irritation. When largely taken it is said to diminish the action of the heart, an effect which has been ascribed to the hydrocyanic acid supposed to be contained in it. Dr. Eberle states that copious draughts of the cold infusion, taken several times a-day, and continued for nearly two weeks, had the effect of reducing his pulse from seventy-five to fifty strokes in the minute. The remedy is highly useful in the hectic fever of scrofula and consumption, in the treatment of which it has long been a favourite with many American practitioners. In the general debility which often succeeds inflammatory diseases, it has also' been found ad- vantageous, and is well adapted to many cases of dyspepsia. It has been used successfully in intermittent fever, but in this complaint is much inferior to cinchona. It may be used in powder or infusion. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. The infusion is properly directed by '?W 520 Prunus Virginiana.—Pyrethrum.— Quassia. fart i. our national Pharmacopoeia to be prepared with cold water. (See Infu- sum Pruni Virginiande.) Off. Prep. Infusum Pruni Virginianae, U. S. PYRETHRUM. Bub. Pellitory Root. "Anthemis Pyrethrum. Radix." Dub. Off. Syn. PYRETHRI RADIX. Anthemis Pyrethrum. Radix. Lond.; ANTHEMIDIS PYRETHRI RADIX. Ed. Pyrethre, Fr.; Bertram wurtzel, Germ.; Piretro, Hal; Pelitre, Span. Anthemis. See ANTHEMIS. Anthemis Pyrethrum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2184; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 50. t. 20. The root of this plant is perennial, and sends up numerous stems, which are usually trailing at the base, erect in their upper por- tion, eight or ten inches high, and terminated by one large flower. The leaves are doubly pinnate, with narrow nearly linear segments, of a pale green colour. The florets of the disk are yellow; the rays are white on their upper surface, and reddish or purple beneath and at their edges. The plant is a native of the Levant, Barbary, and the Mediterranean coast of Europe. The root is the only part used under the name of pel- litory. According to Hayne, the pellitory of the shops is derived from the Anacyclus officinarum, a plant cultivated in Thuryngia for medical purposes. This remark, however, can apply only to Germany. Properties.—The dried root of the A. Pyrethrum is about the size of the little finger, cylindrical, straight or but slightly curved, wrinkled longitudinally, of an ash-brown colour externally, whitish within, hard and brittle, sometimes furnished with a few radicles. It is destitute of odour, though when fresh, of a disagreeable smell. Its taste is peculiar, slight at first, but afterwards acidulous, saline, and acrid, attended with a burning and tingling sensation over the whole mouth and throat, which continues for some time, and excites a copious flow of saliva. Its con- stituents, according to M. Gauthier, are a fixed oil, a yellow colouring matter, gum, inulin, lignin, with traces of volatile oil and of muriate of lime. The pungency depends on the fixed oil, which, however, is consi- dered by M. Boullay to be more closely allied to the resins than to the principles among which it is placed. Medical Properties and Uses.—Pellitory root is a powerful irritant, used almost exclusively as a sialagogue in certain forms of headach, rheuma- tic and neuralgic affections of the face, toothach, Sec, or as a local stimulant in palsy of the tongue or throat, and in relaxation of the uvula- For these purposes it may be chewed, or employed as a gargle in de- coction or vinous tincture. It is seldom prescribed by medical practi- tioners in this country. QUASSIA. U.S. Quassia. " Quassia excelsa. Willd.; Simaruba excelsa. De Candolle. Lignum. The wood." U.S. Off Syn. QUASSLE LIGNUM. Quassia excelsa. Lignum. Lond.; QUASSIA EXCELS^ LIGNUM. Ed.; QUASSIA EXCELSA. Lignum. Dub. part I. Quassia. 521 Bois de quassie, Fr.; Quassienholz, Germ.; Legno della quassia, ltal; Leno de quassia, Span. >-,,,» Quassia. Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Magnoleas, Juss.; Simarubaceae, Richard, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five. Nectary five-leaved. Drupes five, distant, bivalve, one-seeded, inserted into a fleshy receptacle. Willd. Of the species included by Linnaeus in this genus, some, as the Quas- sia amara, are hermaphrodite; others, as the Q. excelsa and Q. Simaruba, are polygamous. The latter have been associated together by De Can- dolle in a distinct genus, with the title Simaruba; and the Simaruba ex- celsa of this author has been recognised, in the United States Pharma- copoeia, as a synonyme of the officinal quassia plant. The medicine was formerly thought to be obtained from the Quassia amara; but more than twenty years since, Lamarck stated that in con- sequence of the scarcity of this tree, the Quassia excelsa had been re- sorted to as a substitute; and the Pharmacopoeias at present agree in ac- knowledging the latter as the officinal plant. It is, however, the opinion of Martius, who is supported by Hayne, that the genuine quassia of Surinam is the Q. amara; and we shall, therefore, give a brief descrip- tion of both species. Quassia excelsa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 569; Trans, of the Roy. Soc. of Edin. ii. 73. As its name imports, this is a lofty tree, attaining some- times not less than one hundred feet in height, with a straight smooth tapering trunk, which is often three feet in diameter near its base, and covered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are pinnate, with a naked petiole, and oblong pointed leaflets standing upon short footstalks, in opposite pairs, with a single leaflet at the end. The flowers are small, of a yellowish-green colour, and disposed in panicles. They are poly- gamous and pentandrous. The fruit is a small black drupe. This spe- cies inhabits Jamaica and the Caribbean islands, where it is called bitter ash. The wood is the officinal portion. Quassia amara. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 567; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 574. t. 204. The bitter quassia is a small branching tree or shrub, with alternate leaves, consisting of two pairs of opposite pinnae, with an odd one at the end. The leaflets are elliptical, pointed, sessile, smooth, of a deep green colour on their upper surface, and paler on the under. The common footstalk is articulated, and edged on each side with a leafy membrane. The flowers, which are hermaphrodite and decandrous, have a bright red colour, and terminate the branches in long racemes. The fruit is a two-celled capsule, containing globular seeds. The Q. amara is a native of Surinam, and is said also to grow in some of the West India islands. Its root, bark, and wood were formerly officinal. They are all excessively bitter, as are also the leaves, flowers, and fruit, and in fact the whole plant. It is uncertain whether any of the produce of this tree reaches our markets. Quassia comes in cylindrical billets of various sizes, from an inch to near a foot in diameter, and several feet in length. These are frequently invested with a whitish smooth bark, brittle and but slightly adherent, and possessing in at least an equal degree the virtues of the wood. Their shape and structure clearly evince that they are derived from the branches or trunk, and not, as some suppose, from the root of the tree. In the shops they are usually kept split into small pieces, or rasped. Properties.—The wood is at first whitish, but becomes yellow by ex- posure. It is inodorous, and has a purely bitter taste, which is surpass- 66 1^^ 522 Quassia.—Quercus Mba.—Quercus Tinctoria. parti. ed by that of few other substances in intensity and permanence. It im- parts all its active properties, with its bitterness and yellow colour, to water and alcohol. The extract obtained by gently evaporating the aqueous infusion, is ranked by Dr. Thomson among the proximate ve- getable principles under the name of quassin. It is a brownish-yellow substance, to a certain degree transparent, very soluble in water and alcohol, and remarkable for the very narrow circle of its chemical affi- nities. Of all the reagents in common use as medicines, nitrate of sil- ver and acetate of lead alone produce precipitates with its solution. These, therefore, are the only salts incompatible with the infusion of quassia. Medical Properties and Uses.—Quassia has in the highest degree all the properties of the simple bitters. It is purely tonic, invigorating the digestive organs, with little excitement of the circulation, or increase of animal heat. It has not been very long known as a medicine. About the middle of the last century, a negro of Surinam, named Quassi, ac- quired considerable reputation in the treatment of the malignant fevers of that country, by a secret remedy, which he was induced to disclose to Mr. Rolander, a Swede, for a valuable consideration. Specimens were taken to Stockholm by this gentleman in the year 1756; and the medicine soon became popular in Europe. The name of the negro has been perpetuated in the generic title of the plant. Quassia is useful in all cases in which a simple tonic impression is desirable. It is particu- larly adapted to dyspepsia from debility of stomach, and to that weak- ened state of the digestive organs which sometimes succeeds acute dis- ease. It may also be given with advantage in the remission of certain fevers in which tonics are demanded. No one at present would expect from it any peculiar controlling influence over malignant fevers. It is said to be largely consumed in England by the brewers, who employ it to impart bitterness to their liquors. It is most conveniently administered in infusion. (See Infusum Quas- sise.) The watery extract, made by evaporating the decoction, is a very convenient preparation, and may be given in the form of pill, in the dose of five grains. The difficulty of reducing the wood to powder, is an objection to its use in substance. It may, however, be employed in a dose varying from a scruple to a drachm, repeated three or four times a day. Off. Prep. Infusum Quassiae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Quas- siae, U.S., Ed., Dub. QUERCUS ALBA. U.S. White-oak Bark. "Quercus alba. Cortex. The bark." U.S. QUERCUS TINCTORIA. U.S. Black-oak Bark. " Quercus tinctoria. Cortex. The bark." U. S. Off. Syn. QUERCUS CORTEX. Quercus pedunculata. Cortex. Lond.; QUERCUS ROBORIS CORTEX. Ed.; QUERCUS ROBUR. Cortex. Dub. Ecorce de chene, Fr.; Eichenrinde, Germ.,- Corteccia della quercia, Hal; Corteza de roble, Span. jjtiT.-:'* ' W'^Jf ' ■ part I. Quercus Alba. 523 Quercus. C7Bacche del spino cervino, Hal; Bay- as de ramno catartico, Span. Rhamnus. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rhamni, Juss.; Rhamnese, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx tubular. Corolla scales defending the stamens, in- serted into the calyx. Berry. Willd. Rhamnus catharticus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1092; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 594. t. 210. The purging buckthorn is a shrub seven or eight feet high, with alternate branches, terminating in a sharp spine. The leaves are in fascicles, on short footstalks, ovate, serrate, veined. The flowers are usually dioecious, in clusters, small, greenish, peduncled, with a four-cleft calyx, and four very small scale-like petals, placed, in the male flower, behind the stamens, which equal them in number. The fruit is a four-seeded berry. The shrub is a native of Europe, and is said to have been found grow- ing wild in this country. It was first discovered in the Highlands of New York by Dr. Barratt. (Eaton's Manual.) It flowers in May and June, and ripens its fruit in the latter part of September. The berries are the officinal portion. When ripe they are about the size of a pea round, somewhat flattened on the summit, black, smooth, shining, with four seeds surrounded by a green, juicy parenchyma. Their odour is unpleasant, their taste bitterish, acrid, and nauseous. The expressed juice has the colour, odour, and taste of the parenchyma. It is redden- ed by the acids, and from deep green is rendered light green by the alkalies. Upon standing it soon begins to ferment, and becomes red in consequence of the formation of acetic acid. Evaporated to dryness with the addition of lime or an alkali, it forms the colour called by painters sap-green. The dried berries of another species, R. infectorius, yield a 528 Rhamni Baccse.—Rheum. part i. rich yellow colour, for which they are much employed in the arts under the name of French berries. Medical Properties and Uses.—Both the berries and the expressed juice are actively purgative; but, as they are apt to occasion nausea, and se- vere griping pain in the bowels, with much thirst and dryness of the mouth and throat, they are now little employed. They formerly enjoyed considerable reputation as a hydragogue cathartic in dropsy; and were given also in rheumatism and gout. The only shape in which they are used in this country is that of the syrup, which is sometimes, though rarely, added to hydragogue or diuretic mixtures. (See Syrupus Rhamni.) The dose of the recent berries is about a scruple, of the dried berries a drachm, and of the expressed juice a fluidounce. Off. Prep. Syrupus Rhamni, Lond., Dub. RHEUM. U.S. Rhubarb. " Rheum palmatum, et alia. Radix. The root." U. S. Off Syn. RHEI RADIX. Rheum palmatum. Radix. Lond.; RHEI RADIX. Ed.; RHEUM PALMATUM et RHEUM UNDULA- TUM. Radix. Dub. Rhubarbe, Fr.; Rhabarber, Germ.; Rabarbaro, Hal; Ruibarbo, Span.; Hai-houng, Chinese; Schara-modo, Tibet. Rheum. Class Enneandria. Order Trigynia.—Nat. Orel. Polygoneae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla six-cleft, persistent. Seed one, three- sided. Willd. Notwithstanding the length of time that rhubarb has been in use, and the attention which it has received from naturalists, the question yet remains unsettled from what precise plant it is derived. The remote- ness of the region where it is collected, and the jealous care with which the monopoly of the trade in this drug is guarded, have prevented any accurate information on the -subject. All that we certainly know, is that it is the root of one or more species of Rheum. It is true that the Phar- macopoeias undertake to designate the particular species. Thus, the London College recognises the R. palmatum, the Dublin both this and the R. undulatum, and in the United States Pharmacopoeia the drug is referred to the R. palmatum and other species not particularized. But the evidence in favour of either of these species is by no means unequiv- ocal, as will appear from the following brief history. The rhabarbarum of the ancients, from which the modern name rhu- barb was derived, is supposed to have been the root of the Rheum Rha' ponticum, which grows on the banks of the Caspian sea and the Wolga; and this species was formerly believed to be the source of the medicine now in use. But the true rhubarb has long been known to be wholly distinct from the Rhapontic, and derived from a different source. It was not till the year 1732 that any probable information was obtained as to its real origin. At that time plants were received from Russia by Jussieu in France and Rand in England, which were said to be of the species which afforded the genuine rhubarb, and were named by Lin- naeus, under this impression, Rheum Rhabarbarum, a title which has since given way to Rheum undulatum. At a subsequent period, Kauw Boer- haave obtained from a merchant who dealt in the rhubarb of Tartary, PART I. Rheum. 529 some seeds which he said were those of the plant which produced the root he sold. These seeds having been planted, yielded two species of Rheum, the R. undulatum, and another which Linnaeus pronounced to be distinct, and named R. palmatum. Seeds transmitted by Dr. Mounsey from St. Petersburg to Dr. Hope, and planted in the botanic garden at Edinburgh, produced the latter species; and the same was also raised at Upsal from a root received by Linnaeus from De Gorter, and was described A.D. 1767 by the younger Linnaeus, two years after the ap- pearance of Dr. Hope's paper in the Philosophical Transactions. Thus far the evidence appears equally in favour of the R. palmatum and R. undulatum. The claims of another species were afterwards presented. Pallas, upon exhibiting the leaves of the R. palmatum to some Bucha- nan merchants, of whom he was making inquiries relative to the rhu- barb plant, was told that the leaves of the latter were entirely different in shape; and the description he received of them corresponded more closely with those of the R. compactum, than of any other known species. Seeds of this plant were moreover sent to Miller from St, Petersburg, as those of the true Tartarian rhubarb. Within a few years the atten- tion of naturalists has been called to a fourth species, for which the same honour is claimed. Dr. Wallich, superintendent of the botanical garden at Calcutta, received seeds which were said to be those of the plant which yielded the Chinese rhubarb, growing on the Himalaya mountains and the highlands of Tartary. These produced a species not hitherto described, which Dr. Wallich named R. Emodi, from the native title of the plant. It is the R. australe of Mr. Don and of Cole- brooke. From what has been said, it is obvious that no species yet men- tioned can be considered as the undoubted source of commercial rhu- barb, the plant having, in no instance, been seen and examined by na- turalists in its native place. Sievers, an apothecary sent to Siberia in the reign of Catharine II. with the view of improving the cultivation of the native rhubarb, asserts, from information given him by the Bucha- rians, that all the seeds procured under the name of true rhubarb are false, and pronounces "all the descriptions in all the Materia Medicas to be incorrect." This assertion, however, has no relation to the R. australe which has been subsequently described; but of this plant it is said that the roots dried by the medical officers of the British army in India differ from true rhubarb in appearance and power. Still, however, it is possible that the medicine is derived from one or more, or even from all the species alluded to, and if it should be objected that their roots, as cultivated in Europe, have not the precise qualities or composition of the Asiatic rhubarb, the answer is obvious, that the product of the same plant is often known to vary exceedingly with diversities of soil, climate, and culture. All the plants of this genus are perennial and herbaceous, with large branching roots, which send forth vigorous stems from four to eight feet or more in height, surrounded at their base with numerous very large petiolate leaves, and terminating in lengthened branching pani- cles composed of small and very numerous flowers resembling those of the Rumex or dock. Without describing the several species minutely, we shall mention those particulars with regard to them by which they are respectively characterized. Rheum palmatum, Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 489; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 662, t. 231. The root of this species is large, divided into thick branches, brittle, externally brown, internally of a deep yellow colour. The leaves are palmate, with five or seven deeply sinuated pointed segments, are. 67 530 Rheum. part i. somewhat rough, and stand on long smooth footstalks, which are slight- ly furrowed on their upper surface, and rounded on the sides. It is said to inhabit China, in the vicinity of the great wall. R. undulatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 489; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 335. The root of the R. undulatum is large, roundish, externally brown, internally yellow, and divided into numerous ramifications which penetrate deeply into the soil. The leaves are long, pointed, wavy, and somewhat villous, have at their base on each side a deep sinus, and are supported upon footstalks flat on their upper surface, with acute edges. This species is a native of Siberia, and probably also of Tartary. R. compactum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 489; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 336. This is distinguished by the leaves being very smooth, shining, somewhat lobed, very obtuse, and finely denticulate. The root is thick, divided into many long branches, and internally of a fine reddish-yellow colour. The plant is said to be a native of Tartary and China. R. australe. Don, Prod. Flor. Nepal, p. 75; Sprengel, Syst. Veg. iv. 156. "The leaves of this species are roundish cordate, obtuse, rough beneath and on the margin, with the sinus at the base dilated, and with furrowed roundish footstalks. The branches and peduncles are papil- lose-scabrous ; the leaflets of the perianth oval oblong, finely crenate at the apex." The plant grows in the highlands of Chinese Tartary and in the Himalaya mountains. R. Rhaponticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 488; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 335. The leaves are very large, cordate, obtuse, smooth, with the veins on the under surface hairy, the sinus at the base dilated, and the footstalks furrowed above and rounded at the edge. The root is large, fleshy, often branching, of a yellow colour diversified with red inter- nally, and reddish-brown on the outside. The Rhapontic rhubarb grows on the banks of the Caspian sea, in the deserts between the Wolga and the Oural, and on the mountains of Krasnojar in Siberia. The leafstalks of the different species of Rheum have a pleasant acid taste, and are used for making tarts and pies, which are not unlike those made with gooseberries. It is for this purpose only that the plants are cultivated in the United States. The R. Rhaponticum is the common pie-rhubarb. The R. palmatum is sometimes found in our gardens. In relation to the culture and preparation of rhubarb, our information is almost as uncertain as on the subject of its natural history. The ac- counts received from the Bucharian merchants are very discordant; and few intelligent travellers have penetrated into the country where the medicine is collected. We shall present, however, a brief abstract of what we have been able to collect upon the subject fronvthe authorities we have consulted. Rhubarb is produced abundantly in the elevated lands of Tartary about the lake Koko Norr, and is said to be cultivated in the neighbouring Chinese province of Shen-see. From these sources it is generally sup- posed that our supplies of Russian and Chinese rhubarb are exclusively derived; but the root is also collected in Boutan and Thibet, on the north of the Himalaya mountains; and it is probable that the plant per- vades the whole of Chinese Tartary. It flourishes best in a light sandy soil. We are told by Mr. Bell, who, on a journey from St. Petersburg to Pekin, had on opportunity of observing it in a growing state, that it is not cultivated by the Tartars, but springs up spontaneously in tufts at uncertain distances, wherever the seeds have fallen upon the heaps of loose earth thrown up by the marmots. In other places the thickness of the grass prevents their access to the soil. The root is not consider- PART I. Rheum. 531 ed sufficiently mature for collection till it has attained the age of six years. It is dug up twice a year in Tartary, in the spring and autumn; in China not till the winter. After removal from the ground it is clean- ed, deprived of its cortical portion and of the smaller branches, and then divided into pieces of a convenient size. These are bored with holes, and strung upon cords to dry, according to Mr. Bell, about the tents and on the horns of the sheep, according to Sievers, under sheds, by which the rays of the sun are excluded, while the air has free ac- cess. The Chinese are. said first to place the pieces on a stone slab heated by fire beneath, and afterwards to complete the drying process by exposing them to the sun and air. In Boutan, the roots are hung up in a kind of drying room, in which a moderate and regular heat is maintained. Much time and attention are devoted to the preparation of the root; and Sievers states, that a year sometimes elapses from the period of its collection before it is ready for exportation. A very large proportion of its weight is lost in drying, according to some accounts four-fifths, to others not less than seven-eighths. It is probably in order to favour the drying that the bark is removed. The trade in rhubarb centers in the Chinese town of Si-nin, where a Bucharian company or family is established, which possesses a monopoly of this trade, in con- sideration of a certain tribute paid to the government. To this city the rhubarb is brought from the various places of its collection, and having been duly assorted and undergone further preparation, is transmitted partly to Russia, partly to the coast of China; so that the drug which reaches us through St. Petersburg, is procured from the same neigh- bourhood with that imported from Canton. But it will soon be seen that there are differences between the Russian and Chinese rhubarb, which would seem to indicate a different origin, and might authorize doubts as to the entire accuracy of the above accounts. Besides the two commercial varieties just mentioned, a third occasionally comes to us from Europe, where the cultivation of rhubarb has been carried on for some time with success, especially in France, Belgium, and Great Bri- tain. Of these three varieties we shall treat under different heads, and shall add a brief account of the Rhapontic, which is entirely distinct from the others. 1. Chinese Rhubarb. Rheum Sinense vel Indicum. Ed. Much the largest proportion of rhubarb consumed in this country is brought from Canton. Though somewhat inferior to the Russian, its comparative cheapness gives it a decided preference in our markets ; and when of good quality it does not disappoint the expectations of phy- sicians. It is in cylindrical or roundish pieces, sometimes flattened on one or both sides, of a dirty yellow colour externally, appearing as if the cortical portion of the root had been removed by scraping, and the surface render- ed smooth and somewhat powdery by attrition. It is heavier than the Rus- sian rhubarb, has a texture rather close and compact, and when broken presents a ragged uneven surface, variegated with intermingled shades of red, yellow, and white, Which are sometimes diversified or interrupted by darker colours. The pieces are generally perforated with small holes, intended for convenience of suspension during the drying process; and portions of the suspending cord are not unfrequently found remaining in 532 Rheum. part i. the holes.* Chinese rhubarb has a peculiar somewhat aromatic smell, and a bitter astringent taste, feels gritty when chewed, imparts a yellow colour to the saliva, and affords a yellowish powder with a tinge of orange. With the pieces of good quality others often come mingled, which are defective from decay or improper preparation. These are usually lighter, and of a dark or russet colour. Like all the other varie- ties of rhubarb, this is liable to be attacked by worms; and in almost every large parcel pieces may be found which have suffered from this cause. The want of proper care in its selection by the Chinese mer- chants, and the exposure incident to along sea voyage, are causes which contribute to its inferiority to the following variety. 2. Russian Rhubarb. Rheum Russicum vel Turcicum. Ed. The rhubarb taken to Russia from Tartary, undergoes a peculiar pre- paration in conformity with the stipulations of a contract with the Bucfiarian merchants who furnish the supply. The best is selected, and each piece perforated in order to ascertain whether it is sound in the centre. From Si-nin it is conveyed by the Bucharian merchants to the frontier town of Kiachta, where it undergoes a rigid inspection by an apothecary stationed at that place by the Russian government. All those pieces which do not pass examination are committed to the flames; and the remainder is sent to St. Petersburg. This variety is sometimes called Turkey rhubarb, from the circumstance that it was formerly de- rived from the Turkish ports, whither it is said to have been brought from Tartary by caravans through Persia and Natolia. The circum- stance of the identity of the Russian and Turkey rhubarb, and their de- cided difference from the Chinese, would appear to indicate a distinct origin for the two varieties. The pieces of Russian rhubarb are irregular, and somewhat angular, appearing as if the bark had been shaved off longitudinally by succes- sive strokes of a knife, and a portion of the interior substance removed with each shaving. They have a cleaner and fresher appearance than the Chinese, and their colour both internally and externally, though of the same general character, is somewhat more lively. They are less compact and heavy, and are cut with less facility, owing to their giving way before the knife. Another distinction is in the character of the perforations, which in the Russian rhubarb are large, frequently reach- ing only to the centre, and evidently made for the purpose of inspection, while in the Chinese they are small, penetrate completely through the pieces, and Were intended for the passage of a suspending cord. The taste and smell of the former closely resemble those of the latter, except that the Russian is rather more aromatic. There is the same crackling under the teeth, and the same yellow stain imparted to the saliva; but the colour of the powder in this variety is a bright yellow, without the orange tinge exhibited by the Chinese. The care which renders the Russian rhubarb so free from defects, tends greatly to enhance its price, and consequently to limit its con- sumption. Its great comparative value in the market has led to frequent attempts at adulteration; and the pieces of Chinese rhubarb are said to • Thomson and Duncan state in their respective Dispensatories, that the pieces of Chinese rhubarb are seldom perforated. We have examined many specimens, and find, as regards the drug imported into this country, that their statement is incorrect. f part i. Rheum. 533 be sometimes cut down and prepared, so as to resemble the Russian. The fraud, however, may be detected by adverting to the peculiarities in texture, colour, and weight, by which the varieties are distinguished. Sometimes the worm-eaten pieces are made to resemble the sound, by filling up the holes with a mixture of pulverised rhubarb and mucilage, and covering over the surface with the powder. By removing this the fraud is at once revealed. 3. European Rhubarb. Rheum Britannicum. Ed. * In various parts of Europe, particularly in England, France, Bel- gium, and Germany, the rhubarb plant has been cultivated for many years; and considerable quantities of the root are annually brought into the market. The R. palmatum was first introduced, is most largely cul- tivated, and is said by M. Guibourt to afford a root, which, when of sufficient age, approaches most nearly, in sensible and chemical quali- ties, to the rhubarb from China. The R. undulatum, and R. compactum, are also cultivated. The following account of an establishment for the culture of these plants may prove interesting to those who may be dis- posed to attempt its introduction into the United States. This establish- ment is in the department of the Morbihan in France, and is conducted by M. Genthon, a pharmaceutist of Lorient. The quantity of rhubarb which it annually furnishes is fifteen hundred pounds. The mode of proceeding is essentially the same with that formerly pointed out by Baume. The seeds of the several officinal species are sown in the spring in a light soil. The young shoots are transplanted in the following spring, and placed regularly at the distance of three feet from each other. The roots are not dug up till the autumn of the fifth or sixth year, when they weigh from fifteen to twenty-five pounds. In the fresh state they are more spongy than fibrous, and very difficult to dry, in consequence of the great quantity of mucilaginous and extractive mat- ter they contain. They are first washed in water, and having been de- prived of their small branches and radical fibres, are again steeped in fresh water, and cut into pieces of convenient size. The brown bark is then scraped off, and the pieces, having been soaked for three or four hours in cold water, are placed upon bundles of rods to drain, when a gummy, gelatinous matter exudes. The drying is effected in drying rooms heated to 120° or 140° of the centigrade thermometer. The rhu- barb by this process loses from seventy to seventy-two per cent, of its weight, and becomes wrinkled on the surface. It is deprived of the wrin- kles by grating, and is then introduced into a barrel which is made to re- volve upon its axis for half an hour. The pieces are thus covered with a yellow powder arising from their friction against each other; and are made to present an appearance similar to that of the Chinese rhubarb. Whether from the difference in species, or from the influence of soil and climate, none of the European rhubarb is equal in purgative power to that brought from Russia and China. It is usually in pieces longer than they are thick, sometimes flat, sometimes irregularly cylindri- cal, and in the latter case often little more than an inch in diameter. Its texture is more ligneous than that of the Asiatic varieties, its co- lours more compactly arranged, and its powder more strongly tinged with red. It has a nauseous odour and astringent taste, scarcely feels gritty when chewed, and but slightly colours the saliva. Duncan says that the British rhubarb is commonly pasty under the pestle. This effect 534 Rheum. PART I. is probably attributable to imperfect drying. The roots of the different species are not distinguished in commerce. 4. Rhapontic Rhubarb. In the French works on pharmacy, two kinds of rhubarb are de- scribed under the name of Rhapontic, both derived from the 7?. Rha- ponticum, but one the growth of France, the other of the native country of this species of Rheum. The former is in pieces of the size of the fist, ligneous in their appearance, of a reddish-gray colour on the outside, internally marbled with red and white arranged in the form of rays pro- ceeding from the centre to the circumference, of a disagreeable odour, a mucilaginous and very astringent taste, not crackling under the teeth, but tinging the saliva yellow, and affording a reddish powder. The pieces of the latter are three or four inches long by two or three in thickness, and present characters very similar to those of the French, though less ligneous in their texture, and externally of a pale or brownish-yellow colour less inclining to redness. The Rhapontic rhubarb, though formerly in great repute, is little used at present, and seldom brought to this country: but as it is said to be sometimes employed in Europe to adul- terate the better kinds, it may possibly be applied to the same purposes here; and our apothecaries should be able to distinguish it. Choice of Rhubarb.—In selecting good rhubarb, without reference to the commercial variety, those pieces should be preferred which are mo- derately heavy and compact, of a lively yellowish colour, brittle, pre- senting when broken a fresh appearance, with reddish and yellow veins intermingled with white, of an odour decidedly aromatic, of a bitter and astringent not mucilaginous taste, feeling gritty and staining the saliva yellow when chewed, and affording a powder either bright yellow, «or yellow mingled with orange. When very light, rhubarb is usually rotten or worm-eaten; when very heavy and compact, it is of inferior ispecies, culture, or preparation. Chemical Properties.—Rhubarb yields all its active properties to water and alcohol. The infusion is of a dark reddish-yellow colour, with the taste and odour of rhubarb; and the residue, after sufficient maceration, is whitish, inodorous, and insipid. By boiling, the virtues of the medi- cine are diminished, in consequence probably of the evaporation of a volatile ingredient in which they partly reside. Many attempts have been made to analyze this important root, with various results. The most recent are those of the elder Henry and Caventou of Paris, Brande of London, and Peretti of Rome. From the analysis of M. Henry, it ap- pears that rhubarb contains, 1. a peculiar yellow colouring matter; 2. a fixed oil which becomes rancid by heat, and is soluble in alcohol and ether; 3. starch; 4. gum; 5. tannin; 6. lignin; 7. oxalate of lime; 8. supermalate of lime, sulphate of lime, a salt of potassa, and oxide of iron, all in minute proportion. To these Peretti adds sugar, a volatile oil, and gallic acid. The extractive of Brande is probably a mixture of other principles, among which is the yellow colouring matter ol Henry. This last appears to be the most interesting ingredient. It is yellow, of the odour of rhubarb, of a bitter harsh taste, but slightly soluble in cold water, volatilizable by heat in yellow odorous vapours, dissolved and reddened by solutions of potassa and ammonia, precipi- tated yellow by acids and metallic salts generally, but green by the sul- phate of iron, and converted by the action of nitric acid into artificial tannin. The name of caphopicrite has been proposed for it. It un- doubtedly either contains, or is identical with the yellow matter obtain- ■w part I. Rheum. 535 ed by Caventou, to which he has given the appropriate name of rhabar- barin, and which may be considered the distinctive principle of rhubarb in a pure state. Rhabarbarin, as procured by this chemist, is crystalliz- able; of a yellow colour, harsh bitter taste, and the odour of rhubarb; in- soluble in cold water; soluble in hot water, alcohol, and ether; and ca- pable of forming insoluble compounds with all the acids. It does not, however, possess alkaline properties. It is probably the purgative prin- ciple of rhubarb. The oxalate of lime is another interesting ingredient, though possessed of no medicinal power. It is the substance which im- parts the gritty feel to the Russian and Chinese rhubarb, of which, ac- cording to Scheele and Henry, it constitutes nearly one-third. It is very singular that Brande discovered none of this salt in the specimens which he examined. The proportion just mentioned does not agree with that of the soluble matter of rhubarb as given below; but the difference in the results may have been owing to difference in the quality of the drug submitted to experiment. The European rhubarb contains but a small proportion of the oxalate, and has therefore little of the gritty feel when chewed. It contains, however, much more tannin and fecula than the Asiatic varieties. The existence of volatile oil in rhubarb, though high- ly probable, has not been satisfactorily demonstrated; at least it has not been obtained separate in a state of purity. The rheumic acid has prov- ed to be the oxalic; and the sulphate of rhabarbarin of M. Nani, to be sulphate of lime coloured with extractive matter. As all the active principles of rhubarb are extracted by alcohol and, water, it is desirable to know the proportion of soluble matter in the different varieties. Chinese rhubarb is said to yield 70 parts out of 100 to these fluids; the European, from the R. palmatum 64 parts, from the R. compactum 50 parts, from the R. undulatum 32 parts, and from the R. rhaponticum 30 parts. (Diet, des Drogues.) Water at 212° takes up 40 per cent, of the Russian, and one-half of the Chinese: alcohol extracts 27 per cent, of the former, and 40 of the latter. (London Dispensatory.) Medical Properties and Uses."—The medical properties of rhubarb are peculiar and valuable. Its most remarkable singularity .is the union of a cathartic with an astringent power; the latter of which, however, does not interfere with the former, as the purgative effect precedes the as- tringent. It is also tonic and stomachic; invigorating, in small doses, the powers of digestion. It is not probable that these properties reside in a single proximate principle; and, as rhubarb owes its chief value to their combination, it is not to be expected that chemical analysis will be productive of the same practical advantages in this, as in some other medicines, the virtues of which are concentrated in one ingredient. In its purgative operation rhubarb is moderate, producing fecal rather than watery discharges, and appearing to affect the muscular fibre more than the secretory vessels. It sometimes occasions griping pain in the bowels. Its colouring principle is absorbed, and may be detected in the urine. The circumstances of disease to which it is applicable may be infer- red from its peculiar properties. When the stomach is enfeebled and the bowels relaxed, at the same time that a gentle cathartic is required, rhubarb, as a general rule, is preferable to all others. Hence its use in dyspepsia attended with constipation, in diarrhoea when purging is in- dicated, in the secondary stages of cholera infantum, in chronic dysen- tery, and in almost all typhoid diseases when fecal matter has accumu- lated in the intestines, or the use of cathartic medicine is necessary to prevent such accumulation. When employed in cases of habitual con- 536 Rheum.—Rhododendri Chrysanthi Folia. stipation, its astringent tendency should be counteracted by combining it with soap. Magnesia is also an excellent associate in disorders ol the stomach and bowels. By combination with other cathartics, rhubarb frequently acquires additional activity, while it gives increased effi- ciency to the substance with which it is associated. A mixture of calo- mel and rhubarb is a brisk and powerful cathartic, much used in the commencement of our bilious fevers. As a general rule, rhubarb is not applicable to cases attended with much inflammatory action. Its griping effect may be counteracted by combining it with aromatics.^ The dose of rhubarb as a purgative is from twenty to thirty grains, as a laxative and stomachic from five to ten grains. European rhubarb must be given in double or treble the dose to produce an equal effect. Few medicines are used in a greater variety of forms. It is most effectual in substance. It is frequently given in the shape of pill, combined with an equal proportion of soap, when its laxative effect is desired. The infusion is much used in cases of delicate stomach, and is peculiarly adapted to children. The syrup and tincture are also highly useful pre- parations. They are all officinal. # # By the roasting of rhubarb its purgative property is diminished, while its astringency remains unaffected. This mode of treatment has, there- fore, been sometimes resorted to in cases of diarrhoea. By long boiling the same effect is produced. . Off. Prep. Extractum Rhei, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Rhei, U.S., hd.; Pilulse Rhei Comp., U.S., Ed.; Syrupus Rhei, U.S.; Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus, U.S.; Syrupus Rhei et Sennas, U.S.; Tinctura Rhei, U.b., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei et Aloes, U.S., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei et Gentianae, U.S., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennae, U.S.; Vinum Rhei, U.S., Ed. RHODODENDRI CHRYSANTHI FOLIA. Ed. Leaves' of the Yellow-flowered Rhododendron. Rosage, Fr.; Gelb bluhender alpenbalsam, Germ.; Rhododendro aureo, Hal; Sabi- na, Russian. . ,., n , Rhododendrum. Class Decandna. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ura. Erics, Juss.; Ericese, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla nearly funnel-shaped. Stamens de- clined. Capsule five-celled. Willd. Rhododendrum chrysanthum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 605; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 299. t. 103. This is a beautiful evergreen shrub, about a foot high, with spreading branches, and oblong, obtuse, thick leaves, nar- rowed towards their footstalks, reflexed at the margin, much veined, rugged and deep green upon their upper surface, ferruginous or glau- cous beneath, and surrounding the branches upon strong petioles. The flowers are large, yellow, on long peduncles, and arranged in terminal umbels. The corolla is wheel-shaped, with its border divided into five roundish, spreading segments. The plant is a native of Siberia, delight- ing in mountainous situations, and flowering in June and July. The leaves are the part used in medicine. When fresh they have a feeble odour, said to resemble that of rhu- barb. In the dried state they are inodorous, but have an austere, astrin- gent* bitterish taste. They yield their virtues to water and alcohol. Medical Properties and Uses.—The leaves of this species of Rhododen* m? part 1. Rhozados Petala.—Rhus Glabrum. 537 dron are stimulant, narcotic, and diaphoretic, producing when first taken increase of heat and arterial action, subsequently a diminished frequency of the pulse, and in large doses, vomiting, purging, and deli- rium. They have been long employed by the natives of Siberia as a re- medy in rheumatism, and their use has extended to various parts of Europe. Their action is said to be accompanied with a sensation of creeping or pricking in the affected part, which subsides in a few hours, leaving the part free from pain. They have been recommended also in gout, lues venerea, and palsy. In Siberia they are prepared by infusing two drachms of the dried leaves in about ten ounces of water, in a close earthen vessel, and keeping the liquid near the boiling heat during the night. The strained liquor is taken in the morning; and a repetition of the dose three or four days successively generally effects a cure. The remedy is not used in this country. RHCEADOS PETAL A. Lond, Petals of the Red Poppy. « Papaver Rhoeas. Petala." Lond. Off. Syn. PAPAVER RHCEAS. Petala. Dub. Coquelicot, Fr.; Wilder mohn, Klapperose, Germ.; Rosolaccio; Hal; Amapola, Span. Papaver. See OPIUM. Papaver Rhoeas. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1146; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 387; t. 139. The red or com poppy is distinguished by its hairy stem, which is branched and rises about' a foot in height, by its incised pinnatifid leaves, by its urn^shaped capsule, and by the full* bright, scarlet colour of its petals* It is a native of Europe, where it grows wild in great abundance, adorning especially the fields of grain with its brilliant flower. It has been introduced and naturalized in this country. Its capsules contain the same kind of milky juice as that found in the P. somniferum, and an extract has been prepared from them having the properties of opium; but the quantity is too small to repay the trouble of its preparation. The petals are the officinal portion. They have a narcotic smell, and a mucilaginous slightly bitter taste. Chevallier has detected a very minute proportion of morphia in an extract obtained from them (Diet, des Drogues); but their operation on the system is exceedingly feeble, and they are valued more for the beautiful scarlet colour which they communicate to water, than for their medical virtues; They are rejected by the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and of Edinburgh, but are recognised as officinal by those of London and Dub- lin, and by the French Codex. A syrup is prepared from them, which was formerly prescribed as an anodyne in catarrhal affections; but is now little esteemed, except for the beauty of its colour. Off. Prep. Syrupus Rhceados, Lond.; Syrupus Papaveris Rhoeadis* Dub. V RHUS GLABRUM. U.S. Secondary. Sumach. " Rhus glabrum. Baccae. The berries." U.S. Rhus. Class Pentandria. Order Trigynia.-*-iVak Ord. Terebintaceae, Juss.; Anacardiaceae, Lindley. 68 -rW^* 538 Rhus Glabrum.—Rosa Centifolia. part i. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Petals five. Berry small, with one nuci- form seed. Nuttall. Of this genus there are several species which possess poisonous pro- perties, and should be carefully distinguished from that here described. For an account of them the reader is referred to the article Toxicoden- dron. Rhus glabrum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1478.' This species of Rhus, call- ed variously smooth sumach, Pennsylvania sumach, and upland sumach, is an indigenous shrub from four to twelve feet high, with a stem usu- ally more or less bent, and divided into straggling branches, covered with a smooth light gray or somewhat reddish bark. The leaves are upon smooth petioles, and consist of many pairs of opposite leaflets, with an odd one at the extremity, all of which are lanceolate, acuminate, acutely serrate, glabrous, green on their upper surface, and whitish be- neath. In the autumn their colour changes to a beautiful red. The flowers are greenish-red, and disposed in large, erect, terminal, com- pound thyrses, which are succeeded by clusters of small crimson ber- ries covered with a silky down. The shrub is found in almost all parts of the United States, growing in old neglected fields, along fences, and on the borders of woods. The flowers appear in July, and the fruit ripens in the early part of autumn. The bark and leaves are astringent, and said to be used in tanning leather and in dyeing. Excrescencies are produced upon the. leaves re- sembling galls in character, and containing large quantities of tannin and gallic acid. These have been used as a substitute for the imported galls by Dr. Walters of New York, who thinks them, in every respect, preferable. They may be collected at little expense, as they are produced very abundantly, especially in the Western States. (A. W. Ives' edition of Paris's Pharmacologia.) But the only officinal part of the plant is the berries. These have a sour, astringent, not unpleasant taste, and are often eaten by the country people with impunity. According to Mr. Cozzens of New York, the acid to which they owe their sourness is the malic, and is contained in the pubescence which covers their surface, as, where it is washed away by warm water, the berries are wholly free from acidity. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sumach berries are astringent and re- frigerant; and their infusion has been recommended as a cooling drink in febrile complaints, and a pleasant gargle in inflammation and ulcer- ation of the throat. By Dr. Fahnestock of Lancaster, an infusion of the inner bark of the root, employed as a gargle, is considered almost as a specific in the sore mouth attending inordinate mercurial salivation*. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences, v. 61.) ROSA CENTIFOLIA. U.S. Hundred-leaved Roses. " Rosa centifolia. Petala. The petals." U.S. Off Syn. ROSA CENTIFOLIA PETALA. Lond., Ed.; ROSA CENTIFOLIA. Petala. Dub. Roses k cent feuilles, Fr.; Hunderblatterige rose, Germ.; Rosa pallida, Hal; Rosa de Alexandria, Span. Rosa. Class Icosandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Petals five. Calyx urceolate, five-cleft, fleshy, contracted a* part i. Rosa Centifolia.—Rosa Gallica. 539 the neck. Seeds numerous, hispid, attached to the inner side of the calyx. Willd. Rosa centifolia. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1071; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 495. t. 178. This species of rose has prickly stems, which usually rise from three to six feet in height. The leaves consist of two or three pairs of leaflets, with an odd one at the end, closely attached to the common footstalk, which is rough," but without spines. The leaflets are ovate, broad, serrate, pointed, and hairy on the under surface. The flowers are large, with many petals, usually of a pale red colour, and support- ed upon peduncles beset with short bristly hairs. The germ is ovate, and the segments of the calyx semi-pinnate. The varieties of the R. cen- tifolia are very numerous, $ut may be indiscriminately employed. The plant is now cultivated in gardens all over the world; but its original country is not certainly known. It has sometimes been mistaken for the damask rose, which is a distinct species. The petals are the officinal portion. They are extremely fragrant, and have a sweetish, slightly acidulous, somewhat bitterish taste. Their odour depends on a volatile oil, which may be separated by distillation with water, and is sold at a very high price, under the title of essence or attar of roses. It is furnished in very minute proportion, not more than three drachms having been obtained by colonel Polier, in Hindostan, from one hundred pounds of the petals without the calyxes. It is pre- pared on a large scale in Egypt, Persia, Cashmire, India, and other countries of the East. In cool weather it is concrete; and adulterations with other volatile oils, which are very common, may thus be detected. The water which is distilled with the oil, has in a high degree the fra- grance of the flower. The petals are slightly laxative, and are sometimes administered in the form of syrup combined with cathartic medicines; but their chief use is in the preparation of rose-water. Off.Prep. Aqua Rosae, U.S., Lond., Ed.,Dub.; SyrupusRosae, Lond., Ed., Dub. ROSA GALLICA. U.S. Red Roses. " Rosa Gallica. Petala. The petals." U.S. Off. Syn. ROSA GALLICA PETALA. Lond., Ed.; ROSA GAL- LICA. Petala. Dub. Roses rouges, Fr.; Essig-rosen, Germ.; Rosa domestica, ltal; Rosa rubra 6 Castil- lara, Span. Rosa. See ROSA CENTIFOLIA. Rosa Gallica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1071; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 498. t. 179. This species is smaller than thei?. centifolia, but resembles it in the character of its foliage. The stem is beset with short bristly prickles. The flowers are very large, with obcordate widely spreading petals, which are of a rich crimson colour, and less numerous than in the pre- ceding species. In the centre is a crowd of yellow anthers on thread- like filaments, and as many villose styles bearing papillary stigmas. The fruit is oval, shining, and of a firm consistence. The red rose is a native of the South of Europe, and is cultivated in gardens throughout the United States. The petals, which are the part employed, should be gathered before the flower has blown, separated from their claws, dried in a warm sun 540 Rosse Caninse Pulpa.—Rosmarinus. part i. or by the fire, and kept in a dry place. Their odour, which is less fra- grant than that of the R. centifolia, is improved by drying. They have a pleasantly astringent and bitterish taste; and contain, according to M. Cartier, tannin, gallic acid, colouring matter, a volatile oil, a fixed oil, albumen, soluble salts of potassa, insoluble salts of lime, silica, and oxide of iron. (Journ. de Pharm. vii. 531.) Their sensible properties and medical virtues are extracted by boiling water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Red roses are slightly astringent and tonic, and were formerly thought to possess peculiar virtues. They are at present chiefly employed in infusion, as an elegant vehicle for tonic and astringent medicines. Off. Prep. Confectio Rosae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Rosae Compositum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mel Rosas, Lond., Dub.; Syru- pus Rosae Gallicae, Ed. WSM CANINE PULPA. Lond. Pulp of the Bog Rose. ^'Rosacanina. Baccarumpulpaexpressa." Lond. Off Syn. ROSA CANINA FRUCTUS. Ed.; ROSA CANINA, Fructus. Dub. Rosa. See ROSA CENTIFOLIA. Rosacanina. Willd. Sp, Plant, ii. 1077; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 493. t. 177. The dog rose, wild briar, or heptree, is a native of Europe, dis- tinguished as a species by its glabrous ovate germs, its smooth pedun- cles, its prickly stem and petioles, and its ovate, smooth, rigid leaves. It rises eight or ten feet in height, and bears white or pale red flowers, having usually five obcordate fragrant petals. The plant has been intro- duced into this country, but is not much cultivated. The fruit is a fleshy, smooth, oval, red berry, of a pleasant, sweet, acidulous taste, and contains sugar and uncombined citric acid. The pulp, separated from the seeds and the silky bristles in which they are embedded, is employed in Europe for the preparation of a ponfection, intended chiefly as a pleasant vehicle for other medicines, Off] Prep. Confectio Rosae Caninae, Lond., Ed. ROSMARINUS. U.S. Rosemary. " Rosmarinus officinalis. Cacumina. The tops." U.S. Off. Syn. ROSMARINI CACUMINA. Lond.; RQRISMARINI OFFICINALIS CACUMINA. Ed.; ROSMARINUS OFFICINA- LIS. Cacumina. Dub. Romarin, Fr.; Rosmarin, Germ.; Rosmarino, Hal; Romero, Span. Rosmarinus. Class Diandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Labiatae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla unequal, with the upper lip two-parted. Filaments long, curved, simple, with a tooth. Willd. Rosmarinus officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 126; Woodv. Med. Bot, p. 329. t. 117. Rosemary is an evergreen shrub, three or four feet high, with an erect stem, divided into many long, slender, ash-coloured branches. The leaves are numerous, sessile, opposite, more than an inch long, about one-sixth of an inch broad, linear, entire, obtuse at the part I. Rosmarinus—Rubia. 541 summit, turned backward at the edges, of a firm consistence, smooth and green on the upper surface, whitish and somewhat downy beneath. The flowers are pale blue or white, of considerable size, and placed in opposite groups at the axils of the leaves, towards the end of the branches. The seeds are four in number, of an oblong shape, and naked in the bottom of the calyx. The plant grows spontaneously in the countries which border on the Mediterranean, and is cultivated in the gardens of Europe and this country. The flowering summits are the officinal portion. These have a strong balsamic odour, which is possessed, though in a less degree, by all parts of the plant. Their taste is bitter and camphor- ous. These properties are imparted partially to water, completely to alcohol, and depend on a volatile oil which may be obtained by distilla- tion. (See Oleum Rosmarini.) The tops lose a portion of their sensible properties by drying, and become inodorous by age. Rosemary is gently stimulant, and has been considered emmena- gogue. In the practice of this country it is scarcely used; but in Eu- rope, especially on the continent, it enters into the composition of sev- eral syrups, tinctures, &c, to which it imparts its agreeable odour and excitant property. It is sometimes added to sternutatory powders, and is used externally in connexion with other aromatics in the form of fo- mentation. In some countries it is employed as a condiment; and its flowers, which are much sought after by the bees, impart their peculiar flavour to the honey of the districts in which the plant abounds. Off. Prep. Oleum Rosmarini, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Ros* marini, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. RUBIA. U.S. Secondary, Madder. " Rubia tinctorum. Radix. The root." U.S, Off Syn. RUBIA RADIX. Lond.; RUBIA TINCTORUM RA* DIX. Ed.; RUBIA TINCTORUM. Radix. Dub. Garance, Fr.,- Krappwurzel, Germ.; Robbia, Hal; Rubia de tintoreros, Granza, Span. Rubia. Class Tetrandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceje, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla one-petaled, bell-shaped. Berries two, one-seeded. Willd. Rubia tinctorum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 603; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 173. t. 67. The root of the dyers' madder is perennial, and consists of nume- rous long, succulent fibres, varying in thickness from the size of a quill to that of the little finger, and uniting at top in a common head, from which also proceed side-roots that run near the surface of the ground, and send up many annual stems. These are slender, quadrangular, jointed, procumbent, and furnished with short prickles by which they adhere to the neighbouring plants upon which they climb. The leaves are elliptical, pointed, rough, firm, about three inches long and nearly one inch broad, having rough points on their edges and midrib, and standing at the joints of the stem in whorls of four, five, or six together. The branches rise in pairs from the same joints, and bear small yellow flowers at the summit of each of their subdivisions. The fruit is a round, shining, black berry. The plant is a native of the South of Europe, and is cultivated in 542 Rubia.—Rubus Trivialis.—Rubus Villosus. part i. France and Holland. It is from the latter country that commerce de- rives its chief supply. The root, which is the part used, is dug up in the third summer, and having been deprived of its cuticle, is dried by artificial heat, and then reduced to a coarse powder. In this state it is packed in barrels, and sent into the market. The root is invested with a brown epidermis, but is internally throughout its whole substance of a deep-red colour. The powder, as kept in the shops, is brownish-red. Madder has a weak peculiar odour, and a bitterish astringent taste; and imparts these properties, as well as a red colour, to water and alco- hol. Among its constituents are two colouring principles, one of which, named by Robiquet and Collin alizarin, is of an orange-red colour, in- odorous, insipid, crystallizable, capable of being sublimed without change, scarcely soluble in cold water, soluble in boiling water, and very readily so in alcohol, ether, the fixed oils, and liquid alkalies. The alcoholic and watery solutions are rose-coloured; the ethereal, golden- yellow; the alkaline, violet and blue when concentrated, but violet-red when sufficiently diluted. A beautiful rose-coloured lake is produced by precipitating a mixture of the solutions of alizarin and alum. The other colouring principle is yellow, and named xanthin by Kuhlmann. It is very soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, scarcely so in ether. Its so- lution is made orange-red by the action of the alkalies; and citron-yel- low by that of the acids. It has a sweetish bitterish taste. Madder also contains sugar; and Dobereiner succeeded in obtaining alcohol from it by fermentation and distillation, without affecting its colouring pro- perties. It is much used by the dyers. Medical Properties and Uses.—Madder was formerly thought to be em- menagogue and diuretic; and was used in amenorrhoea, dropsy, jaundice, and visceral obstructions. It is still occasionally prescribed in suppressed menstruation; but physicians generally have no confidence in its efficacy in this or any other complaint. When taken into the stomach it imparts a red colour to the milk and urine, and to the bones of animals, without sensibly affecting any other tissue. The effect is observable most quick- ly in the bones of young animals, and in those nearest the heart. Under the impression that it might effect some change in the osseous-system, it has been prescribed in rachitis; but without any favourable result. The dose is about half a drachm, repeated three or four times a day. RUBUS TRIVIALIS. U.S. Secondary. Bewberry-root. il Rubus trivialis. Radix. The root." U.S. RUBUS VILLOSUS. U.S. Secondary. Blackberry-root. "Rubus villosus. Radix. The root." U.S. Rubus. Class Icosandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosacese, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five. Berry compound, with one- seeded acini. Willd. Of this extensive genus not less than twenty species are indigenous in the United States, where they are called by the various names of PART I. Rubus Trivialis.—Rubus Villosus. 543 raspberry, blackberry, dewberry, cloudberry, &c. Most of them are shrubby or suffruticose briers, with astringent roots and edible berries; some have annual stems without prickles. The only officinal species are the R. trivialis and R. villosus, which, so far as relates to their medical pro- perties, are so closely alike, as not to require a separate description. 1. Rubus trivialis. Michaux, Flor. Americ. i. 296. The dewberry, some- times also called low-blackberry, or creeping blackberry, has a slender, prickly stem, which runs along the ground, and occasionally puts forth roots. The leaves are petiolate, and composed of three or five leaflets, which are oblong, oval, acute, unequally serrate, and somewhat pubes- cent. The stipules are awl-shaped. The flowers are large, white, and nearly solitary, with elongated pedicels, and peduncles which like the leafstalks are armed with recurved, hispid prickles. The petals are ge- nerally obovate, and three times longer than the calyx. In one variety they are orbicular. The plant grows abundantly in old fields and ne- glected grounds in all parts of the United States. Its fruit is large, black, of very pleasant flavour, and ripens somewhat earlier than that of the R. villosus. 2. R. villosus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1085; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 160; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 151. The stem of the blackberry is some- what shrubby, from three to seven feet high, branching, more or less furrowed and angular, and armed with strong prickles. The smaller branches and young shoots are herbaceous. The leaves are ternate or quinate; the leaflets ovate, acuminate, unequally and sharply serrate, and pubescent on both sides; the footstalk and midrib usually armed with short recurved prickles. The flowers are large, white, and in erect racemes, with a hairy, prickly stalk. The calyx is short, with acumi- nate segments. The fruit is first green, then red, and when perfectly ripe, of a shining black colour, and very pleasant taste. It is a com- pound berry, consisting of numerous pulpy one-seeded globules or acini attached to the receptacle. This species of Rubus is, perhaps, the most abundant of those indigenous in the United States, growing in neglect- ed fields, along fences, on the borders of woods, in forest glades, and wherever tillage, or too much shade and moisture, does not interfere with it. Its flowers appear from May to July, and its fruit is ripe in August. The berries of both these species of Rubus are much used as food; and a jelly made from them is in great esteem as an article of diet, and even as a remedy in dysenteric affections. The roots only are officinal. These are branching, cylindrical, of various-dimensions, from nearly an inch in thickness down to the size of a straw, ligneous, and covered with a thin bark, which is externally of a light brownish or reddish- brown colour. The root is inodorous. The bark has a bitterish strongly astringent taste, the ligneous portion is nearly insipid, and compara- tively inert. The smaller roots, therefore, should be selected for use; or if the thicker pieces are employed, the cortical part should be sepa- rated, and the wood rejected. The virtues of the root are extracted by boiling water, and by diluted alcohol. They depend chiefly, if not ex- clusively, upon tannin, which experiment has proved to be an abundant constituent. Medical Properties and Uses.—Dewberry and blackberry roots are to- nic and strongly astringent. They have long been a favourite domestic remedy in bowel affections; and from popular favour have passed into regular medical use. Given in the form of decoction, they are usually acceptable to the stomach, without being offensive to the taste; and may 544 Rumex Jlquaticus.—Rumex Britannica. PART l. be employed with great advantage in cases of diarrhoea from relaxation of the bowels, whether in children or adults. We can add our own de- cided testimony to that of others who have spoken favourably of their use in this complaint; and there is no doubt that they are applicable to all other cases in which the vegetable astringents are found serviceable. The decoction may be prepared by boiling an ounce of the smaller roots, or of the bark of the larger, in a pint and a half of water down to a pint; of which from one to two fluidounces may be given to an adult three or four times, or more frequently, during the twenty-four hours. The dose of the powdered root is twenty or thirty grains. RUMEX AQUATICUS. RADIX. Bub. Water Bock Root. RUMEX BRITANNICA. U.S. Secondary. Water Bock. " Rumex Britannica. Radix. The root." U.S. RUMEX OBTUSIFOLIUS. U.S. Secondary. Blunt-leaved Bock. " Rumex obtusifolius. Radix. The root." U.S. Rumex. Class Hexandria. Order Trigynia.—Nat. Ord, Polygoneae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals three, converging. Seed one, three-sided. Willd. Calyx six-parted, persistent, the three interior divisions petaloid, conj nivent. Seed one, three-sided, superior, naked. Stigmata multifid. Nut- tall. We have placed together the three officinal species of dock, because their virtues are so nearly alike that a separate consideration would lead to unnecessary repetition. The roots of several other species have been medicinally employed. Those of the R. Patientia, and R. alpinus, Euro- pean plants, and of the R. crispus, R. acutus, and R. sanguineus, which belong both to Europe and the United States, are recognised by the French Codex, and may be used indiscriminately with those which are considered officinal with'us. Several species of Rumex have acid leaves, which are sometimes used in medicine. Such are the R. Acetosa, R. Ace- tosella, and R. scutatus. These are more particularly noticed in another place. (See Acetosse Folia.) The docks are herbaceous plants with perennial roots. Their flowers are in terminal or axillary panicles. Some of the species are dioecious; but all those here described have perfect flowers. 1. Rumex aquaticus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 255; Woodv. Med. BoL p< 658. t. 229. The water dock has a large thick root, externally black, in- ternally whitish, with an erect stem from three to five feet high* furnish- ed with smooth, lanceolate, pointed leaves, of which the lower are cor- date at their base. The three petals, or as some botanists consider them* the three interior divisions of the calyx, approach each other so as to assume a triangular shape, and in this state are called valves. These are large, ovate, entire, and are each furnished with a small, linear, often obscure grain, extending down the middle. This plant is a native of part I. Rumex Obtusifolius. 545 Europe, but naturalized in America. It grows in this country in small ponds and ditches, and flowers in July and August. It is thought to be the Herba Britannica of the ancients, celebrated for the cure of scurvy and diseases of the skin. 2. R. Britannica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 250. This species is distin- guished in the vernacular language by the name of yellow-rooted water dock. The root is large, dark on the outside, and yellow within. The stem is two or three feet high, and bears broad lanceolate, smooth, flat leaves, with the sheathing stipules slightly torn. The spikes of the panicle are leafless; the valves entire and all graniferous. The plant is indigenous, inhabiting low, wet places, and flowering in June and July. 3. R. obtusifolius. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 254; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 293. The root of the blunt-leaved dock is externally brown, internally yellow; the stem two or three feet high and somewhat rough; the radical leaves ovate cordate, obtuse, and very large; the valves dentate and one of them conspicuously graniferous. It is a common weed in our rich grounds and pastures, but is supposed to have been introduced from Europe. Its flowers appear in June and July. 4. R. crispus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 251. This common species, though not officinal, is perhaps equally entitled to notice with those which are so. It has a yellow, spindle-shaped root, with a smooth furrowed stem two or three feet high, and lanceolate, waved, pointed leaves. The valves are ovate, entire, and all graniferous. It is a native of Europe, and grows wild in this country. It is common in our dry fields and pas- tures, and about barn yards, and flowers in June and July. Dock-root, from whatever species derived, has an astringent bitter taste, with little or no smell. It readily yields its virtues to water by decoction. It has not been accurately analyzed; but, according to M. Deyeux, the root of the common European dock (R. Patientia) contains, among other ingredients, sulphur, starch, and acetate of lime. The leaves of most of the species are edible, and are occasionally used as spinage. They are somewhat laxative, and form an excellent diet in scorbutic cases. The roots are used to dye a yellow colour. Medical Properties and Uses.—The medical properties of dock-root are those of an astringent and mild tonic. It is also supposed to possess an alterative property, which renders it useful in scorbutic disorders, and cutaneous eruptions, particularly the itch, in the cure of which it enjoyed at one time considerable reputation. It is said to have proved useful also in syphilis. Dr. Thomson found a decoction of the root-of the R. Patientia very efficacious in obstinate ichthyosis. (London Dispen- satory.) The R. aquaticus, and R. Britannica. are the most astringent. The roots of some species unite a laxative with the tonic and astringent property, resembling rhubarb somewhat in their operation. Such are those of the R. crispus and R. obtusifolius; and the R. alpinus has in some parts of Europe the common name of mountain rhubarb. (Paris Codex.) This resemblance of properties is not singular, as the two ge- nera belong to the same natural family. Dock-root is given in powder or decoction. Two ounces of the fresh root bruised, or one ounce of the dried, may be boiled in a pint of water, of which two fluidounces may be given at a dose, and repeated as the stomach will bear it. The root has often been applied externally in the shape of ointment, cataplasm, and decoction, to the various cutaneous eruptions and ulcerations for which its internal use is recommended. The powdered root is recom- mended as a dentifrice, especially when the gums are spongy. 546 - Rutae Folia.—Sabbatia. part i. RUT^ FOLIA. Lond. Rue Leaves. u Ruta graveolens. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. RUTA GRAVEOLENTIS HERBA. Ed.; RUTA GRA- VEOLENS. Folia. Dub. Rue odorante, Fr.,- Garten-raute, Germ.; Rula, ltal; Ruda, Span. Ruta. Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Ruta:, Juss.; Rutaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Petals concave. Receptacle surrounded by ten melliferous points. Capsule lobed. Willd. Ruta graveolens. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 542; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 487. t. 174. Common rue is a perennial plant, usually two or three feet high, with several shrubby branching stems, which, near the base, are woody and covered with a rough bark, but in their ultimate ramifications are smooth, green, and herbaceous. The leaves are doubly pinnate, glau- cous, with obovate, sessile, obscurely crenate, somewhat thick .and fleshy leaflets. The flowers are yellow, and disposed in a terminal branched corymb upon subdividing peduncles. The calyx is persistent, with four or five acute segments; the corolla consists of four or five concave petals somewhat sinuate at the margin. The stamens are usu- ally ten, but sometimes only eight in number. The plant is a native of the South of Europe, but cultivated in our gardens. It flowers in June and September. The whole herbaceous part is active; but the leaves are usually employed. These have a strong disagreeable odour, especially when rubbed. Their taste is bitter, hot, and acrid. In the recent state, and in full vi- gour, they have so much acrimony as to inflame, and even blister the skin, if much handled; but the acrimony is diminished by drying. Their virtues depend chiefly on a volatile oil which is very abundant, and is contained in glandular vesicles, apparent over the whole surface of the plant. Both alcohol and water extract their active properties. Medical Properties and Uses.—Rue is stimulant and antispasmodic, and like most other substances which excite the circulation, occasion- ally increases the secretions, especially when they are deficient from debility. It is sometimes used in hysterical affections, flatulent colic, and amenorrhoea, particularly in the last complaint. It has also been given in worms. The ancients employed it as a condiment, and believed it to possess, besides other valuable properties, that of resisting the ac- tion of poisons. Its excitant and irritating properties require that it should be used with caution. The dose of the powder is from fifteen to thirty grains two or three times a day. The medicine is also given in infusion and extract. Off. Prep. Confectio Rutae, Lond., Dub.; Extractum Rutae Graveo- lenus, Ed., Dub.; Oleum Rutae, Dub. SABBATIA. U.S. American Centaury. "Sabbatia angularis. Herba. The herb." U.S. This is the Chironia angularis of Linnaeus, but as it wants some of the essential characters of the genus Chironia, it has been separated part i. Sabbatia. 547 \ from it by subsequent botanists, and now ranks in the genus Sabbatia of Adanson. Sabbatia. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Gentianeae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five to twelve-parted. Corolla rotate, five to twelve- parted. Stigmas two, spiral. Anthers at length revolute. Capsule one- celled, two-valved, many-seeded. Nuttall. Sabbatia angularis. Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. 137; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 147; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 255. The American centaury is an annual or biennial herbaceous plant, with a fibrous root, and an erect, smooth, four-sided stem, winged at the angles, simple below, sending off opposite axillary branches above, and rising one or two feet in height. The leaves, which vary considerably in length and width, are ovate, entire, acute, nerved, smooth, opposite, and sessile, embracing half the circumference of the stem at their base. The flowers are numerous, growing on the ends of the branches, and forming altogether a large terminal corymb. The calyx is divided into five lanceolate segments, considerably shorter than the corolla. This is deeply five-parted, with obovate segments of a beautiful delicate rose-colour, which is paler and almost white in the middle of their under surface. The anthers are yel- low, and after shedding their pollen become revolute. The style, which is bent downward and longer than the stamens, terminates in two linear stigmas, which become spirally twisted together. The plant is widely diffused through the Middle and Southern States, growing in low meadow grounds, and in wet seasons upon uplands, in woods and neglected fields. It flowers in July and August. In its gene- ral aspect as well as medical properties, it bears a close resemblance to the Erythrxa, formerly Chironia Centaurium, or European centaury, for which it was mistaken by the earlier settlers. The whole herb is em- ployed, and should be collected when in flower. All parts of it have a strongly bitter taste, without any admixture of astringency or other peculiar flavour. Both alcohol and water extract its bitterness, together with its medical virtues. Medical Properties and Uses.—American centaury has the tonic prop- erties of the simple bitters, and is very analogous in its action to the other plants belonging to the same natural family. It has long been pop- ularly employed as a prophylactic and remedy in our autumnal inter- mittent and remittent fevers; and has found much favour with the medical profession in the latter of these complaints. The state of the fever to which it is particularly applicable, is that which exists in the intervals between the paroxysms, when the remission is such as to call for the use of tonics, but is not sufficiently decided to justify a resort to the preparations of Peruvian bark. It is also occasionally useful during the progress of a slow convalescence, by promoting appetite and invigo- rating the digestive function; and may be employed for the same pur- pose in dyspepsia and diseases of debility. The most convenient form of administration is that of infusion. A pint of boiling water poured on an ounce of the herb and ailowed to cool, may be given in the dose of two fluidounces, repeated every hour or two during the remission of fevers, and less frequently in chronic affections. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. The decoction, extract, and tincture, are also efficient preparations. 548 Sabina. PART I. SABINA. U.S. Savine. u Juniperus sabina. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Off. Syn. SABINA FOLIA. Lond.; JUNIPERI SABINA FOLIA. Ed.; JUNIPERUS SABINA. Folia. Dub. Sabine, Fr.; Swenbaum, Germ.,- Sabina, ltal, Span. Juniperus. See JUNIPERUS. Juniperus Sabina. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 852; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 10. t. 5. This is an evergreen shrub, rising from three or four feet to fifteen feet in height, with numerous erect, pliant branches, very much subdivided. The bark of the young branches is light green, that of the trunk, rough and reddish-brown. The leaves are numerous, small, erect, firm, smooth, pointed, of a dark green colour, glandular in the middle, opposite, imbricated in four rows, and completely invest the^ younger branches. The flowers are male and female on different trees. The fruit is a blackish-purple berry, of an ovoid shape, marked with tubercles, the remains of the calyx and petals, and containing three seeds. The savine is a native of the South of Europe and the Levant. It is said also to grow wild in the neighbourhood of our North-western lakes. The ends of the branches, and the leaves by which they are in- vested, are collected for medical use in the spring. When dried they fade very much in colour. There is reason to believe that the Juniperus Virginiana, or common red cedar, is sometimes substituted in the shops for the savine, to which it bears so close a resemblance as to be with difficulty distin- guished. The two species, however, differ in their taste and smell. In the /. Virginiana, moreover, the leaves are sometimes ternate. The tops and leaves of savine have a strong heavy disagreeable odour, and a bitter, acrid taste. These properties are owing to a volatile oil which is obtained by distillation with water. (See Oleum Sabinse.) They impart their virtues to alcohol and water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Savine is highly stimulant, increasing most of the secretions, especially those of the skin and uterus, to the latter of which organs it is supposed to have a peculiar direction. It has been much used in amenorrhoea, and occasionally as a remedy for worms. Dr. Chapman strongly recommends it in chronic rheumatism. At present, however, it is not generally employed; and in no case should be given when much general or local excitement exists. In pregnancy it should always be avoided. It is most conveniently administered in the form of powder, of which the dose is from five to fifteen grains, repeated three or four times a day. As an external irritant it is very useful, in the form of cerate, for maintaining a discharge from blistered surfaces; but as the prepara- tion sold in this country under the name of savine ointment, is often deficient in power, either from the age of the drug or the substitution of red cedar, it has in some measure fallen into disrepute. (See Ceratum Sabinse.) In the state of powder or infusion, savine is used in Europe as an application to warts; indolent, carious, and gangrenous ulcers; psora and tinea capitis: and the expressed juice of the fresh leaves, di- luted with water, is sometimes applied to similar purposes. Off. Prep. Ceratum Sabinae, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Oleum Sabinae, Dub., Ed.; Unguentum Sabinae, Dub. PART I. Saccharum. 549 SACCHARUM. U.S. Sugar. " Saccharum officinarum. Saccharum purificatum. The refined su- gar." U.S. Off. Syn. SACCHARUM PURIFICATUM. Lond., Ed.; SACCHA- RUM OFFICINARUM. Succus concretus purificatus. Dub. White sugar; Sucre pur, Sucre en pains, Fr.; Weisser zucker, Germ.; Zucchero en pane, Hal; Azucar de pilon, Azucar refinado, Span. SACCHARUM NON PURIFICATUM. Ed. Brown Sugar. Off. Syn. SACCHARUM. Lond.; SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM. Succus concretus non purificatus. Dub. Raw or Muscovado sugar; Sucre brut, Cassonade rouge, Moscouade, Fr.; Gemeiner zucker, Germ.,- Zucchero bnttto, Hal; Azucar negro, Span. SYRUPUS EMPYREUMATICUS. Ed., Bub. Molasses. Melasse, Fr., Germ.,- Melazzo, Hal; Melaza, Span. Sugar is a peculiar organic principle, neither acid nor alkaline, which is derived principally from vegetables, though occasionally from animal matter. As obtained from different sources, it presents shades of differ- ence in its properties; and this circumstance has given rise to a num- ber of varieties of this organic principle, distinguished by names de- rived from their source or mode of preparation. According to strict definition, no substance is considered a sugar, unless it be susceptible of the vinous fermentation; but we shall not use the term in this restrict- ed sense, but call every substance a species of sugar which has more or less of the saccharine taste. Sugar is found in the fruit, roots, and sap of many vegetables. All the sweet fruits contain it, especially the grape, which furnishes a distinct variety of sugar; and it is present, in larger or smaller amount, in the turnip, the onion, and the beet. This latter root is cultivated extensively in France for the purpose of yielding sugar; and it was supposed in 1830 that one-twentieth of the immense consumption of that country was fur- nished from this source alone, and the proportion of the domestic sup- ply to the foreign is annually increasing. In the north-western parts of the United States, as well as in Canada, considerable quantities of su- gar are manufactured from the sap of the sugar maple (Acer saccha- rinum). The process pursued is described by Dr. Rush in a paper pub- lished in the third volume of the Trans, of the Amer. Phil. Soc. But the supply of sugar from the above sources is insignificant compared with that obtained from the sugar cane, which is extensively cultivated in the East and West Indies, Brazil, and in some of our Southern States, particularly Louisiana, for the purpose of being manufactured into su- gar. This plant is the Saccharum officinarum of botanists, and is the source of the officinal sugars of the Pharmacopoeias. Saccharum. Class Triandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Graminae, Juss.; Gramineae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx two-valved, involucred, with long down. Corolla two- valved. ffllhf. 550 Saccharum. part r. Saccharum officinarum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 321; Phil. Trans, lxix. 207. The sugar cane is an herbaceous plant, possessing a jointed, suc- culent root, from which arise several shining, jointed stems, from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter and eight or ten feet high, and containing a white and juicy pith. The joints are about three inches apart, and give origin to the leaves, Avhich embrace the stem at their base, are three or four feet long, and about an inch wide, flat, acumi- nate, longitudinally striated, furnished with a white midrib, glabrous, finely dentate, and of a green colour inclining to yellow. The flowers are whitish, surrounded by a long silky down, and disposed in a large, terminal, nearly pyramidal panicle, composed of subdivided spikes, and two or three feet in length. The plant may be said to have a ge- neral resemblance to the Indian corn. There are two varieties, the common and the Otaheitan, the latter of which was introduced into the West Indies from the island of Tahiti (Otaheite) by Bougainville and Bligh. It is distinguished by its greater height, the longer intervals between its joints, and by the greater length of the hairs^which surround the flowers. The sugar cane is a native of the tropical regions of both the old and new continents. It is cultivated by cuttings, which are planted in rows, and which, by giving rise to successive shoots, furnish five or six crops before the plants require to be renewed. At the end of a year the plant generally flowers, and in four or five months afterwards, the canes are completely ripe, at which time they have a yellowish colour, and con- tain a sweetish viscid juice. The quantity of sugar which they yield is very variable, ranging from six to fifteen per cent. Its separation is founded upon its property of crystallization, which is possessed by the sugar alone of all the substances present in the juice. Preparation and Purification.—The canes being ripe, are cut down close to the earth, topped, and stripped of their leaves, and then crush- ed between iron rollers in a kind of mill. The juice, as it runs out, is received in suitable vessels, and being quickly removed, is immediately mixed with lime in the proportion of one part to eight hundred of the juice, and heated in a boiler to 140°. The gluten and albumen com- bine with the lime, and form a thick scum, from underneath which the liquid is drawn off by a cock into a copper boiler, where it is con- centrated by ebullition, the froth being carefully skimmed off as it forms. When sufficiently concentrated, it is transferred to shallow ves- sels called coolers, from which, before it is quite cool, it is drawn off into wooden vessels, with perforated bottoms, the holes in which are temporarily plugged. At the end of twenty-four hours, the liquid is strongly agitated with wooden stirrers, in order to accelerate the granu- lation of the sugar, which is completed in six hours. The stoppers are now removed, and the syrup allowed to drain off" from the sugar, which in this state is granular, of a yellowish colour, and moist. It is next dried in the sun, and being introduced into hogsheads, forms the brown sugar of commerce. The syrup, by a new evaporation, furnishes an ad- ditional portion of sugar; and the portion which remains, incapable of yielding more sugar, is the liquid called molasses. Sometimes the brown sugar undergoes an additional preparation, consisting in boiling it with lime-water, and, after sufficient concentration, allowing the syrup to crystallize in large inverted conical vessels, pierced at the apex and plugged. The surface of the crystalline mass being covered with a mixture of clay and water, the plug is removed, and the water from the clay penetrating the mass, removes the coloured syrup, which flows out PART I. Saccharum. 551 at the hole. The sugar in this state approaches to the white state, and constitutes the clayed sugar of commerce, usually called in this country Havana sugar. It is still, however, far from being pure. The purification of brown sugar constitutes a distinct branch of busi- ness, and the methods pursued have undergone many changes and im- provements. By the original process, the sugar was boiled with lime- water, and clarified by means of bullocks' blood. These agents have the effect of combining with the impurities, which, rising to the surface, are removed. The clarified syrup is then strained through a woollen cloth, whereby it is rendered limpid. It is next transferred to a boiler, where it is subjected to ebullition, until it is brought to a proper con- centration, when it is allowed to cool in conical moulds, and to drain for the separation of the molasses. This last boiling requires to be con- tinued so long, that the action of the fire and air frequently decomposes the sugar to such an extent as to cause a loss of twenty-five per cent, in molasses. This disadvantage has caused the process above described to be very generally abandoned since the year 1812; and now, for the most part, the sugar refiners boil the syrup in shallow boilers, which are suspended in such a way as to admit of their being emptied with the greatest quickness, without putting out the fire. By this arrange- ment, ten minutes are a sufficient time for boiling, and thus any con- siderable decomposition of the sugar is avoided. The process of refining has been still further improved by Messrs. Philip Taylor and Howard. The former introduced the improvement of heating the syrup with great rapidity by means of steam, made to pass through a series of tubes traversing the boiler; and the latter devised the plan of causing the syrup to boil under a diminished pressure, created by a suction pump, set in motion by a steam engine, while it was heated by steam, circulating round the boiler. In this way, the syrup was made to boil at a low temperature, and without contact with the air, the two conditions most favourable for forming crystallizable sugar. After the syrup is sufficiently boiled by any of these methods, it is transferred into a large vessel to cool, and afterwards poured into un- glazed earthenware moulds of a conical shape, with a hole in the apex, which is stopped with a plug of linen. The moulds are placed, with the apex downwards, above stone-ware pots, intended to receive the uncrys- tallizable syrup. While the mass is cooling it is stirred, to cause the sugar to granulate, and when it has completely concreted, the moulds are unstopped, to allow the syrup to drain off; and fhis constitutes sugar house molasses. To remove the remains of the coloured syrup, the ope- ration called claying is performed. This consists in removing from the base of the cones, a layer of the sugar, about an inch thick, and replac- ing it by pure sugar in powder, which is covered with a mixture of pipe clay and water. The water gradually leaves the clay, dissolves the pure sugar, and percolates the mass as a pure syrup, removing in its progress the coloured syrup. When this is all removed, the loaf is taken out of the mould and placed in stoves to dry. It now constitutes white or puri- fied sugar. Latterly bullocks' blood has gone very much out of use, and animal charcoal has been substituted in its place, in the proportion of from four to fourteen per cent, of the weight of the sugar. The sugar purified in this way is perfectly white. Sometimes heat is applied by means of whale oil, contained in serpentine tubes, which traverse it, and into which the oil is drawn by a suction pump. This plan affords the means 552 Saccharum. PART I. of heating the syrup rapidly without the risk of burning it, and of with- drawing the heat in an instant, by stopping the action of the pump. Of the several forms of sugar above indicated, as resulting from the various steps for its preparation, three only, white and brown sugar, and molasses, are officinal in the British and United States Pharmaco- poeias; and these are designated by the scientific names placed at the head of this article. The United States Pharmacopoeia recognises re- fined sugar only, which it names Saccharum; the uses of brown sugar and molasses being replaced by the employment of a prepared syrup of known strength. (See Syrupus.) The three British Colleges adfriit both purified and brown sugar, and the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, molasses, under the appropriate name of Syrupus Empyreumaticus; but unfortunately the United States Pharmacopoeia calls purified sugar Sac- charum, the same name employed by the London College to denote the unpurified. Commercial History.—Sugar has been known from the earliest ages, and was originally obtained from Asia. About the period of the Cru- sades, the Venetians brought it to Europe; but at that time it was so scarce as to be exclusively used as a medicine. Subsequently, upon the discovery of the Cape of Good-Hope and the maritime route to the East Indies, the commerce of sugar passed into the hands of the Por- tuguese. Subsequently the cultivation of the cane was extended to Ara- bia, Egypt, Sicily, Spain, and the Canaries, and finally, upon the disco- very of the new world, to America, where it was carried on with the greatest success, and continues to be so up to the present day. After this time, sugar became comparatively so cheap and abundant, that, from being used as a medicine and costly luxury, it came into almost universal use among civilized nations, as an article of food. In America it is produced most abundantly in the West Indies, which supply the greater part of the consumption of Europe, little comparatively being brought from the Brazils or the East Indies. The consumption of the United States, which in the year 1829 was estimated at one hundred and fifty millions of pounds, is more than half supplied by Louisiana and some of the neighbouring States, the remainder being received principally from the West Indies. It is not unlikely, that before many .years, all the sugar consumed in the United States will be furnished by the sugar-growing States. Within a few years, our planters have in- troduced into Louisiana the variety of cane called the Otaheite or ribbon cane, which is hardier and more productive than the common cane, and better suited to the climate of our Southern States. Properties and Varieties.—Sugar, in a pure state, is a solid of a pecu- liar grateful taste, permanent in the air, phosphorescent by friction, and of the sp. gr. 1.6. It dissolves readily in half its weight of cold water, and to almost an unlimited extent in boiling water. The solution, when thick and ropy, is called a syrup, and forms, by spontaneous evaporation, white, semitransparent crystals, having the shape of oblique four-sided prisms, and called sugar-candy. Sugar is nearly insoluble in absolute alcohol, but dissolves in four times its weight of boiling alcohol of the sp. gr. 0.83. Exposed to heat it swells, undergoes fusion, is decompos- ed, and exhales a peculiar odour, called caromel. Subjected to destruc- tive distillation, it yields an acid water mixed with empyreumatic oil, and as gaseous products, a mixture of hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid ; and there remains in the retort one- fourth of its weight of charcoal, which burns without residue. Dissolved in water and mixed with a ferment, it undergoes the vinous fermenta- PART I. Saccharum. 553 tion, and is converted into carbonic acid and alcohol. (See Alcohol.) By the action of strong sulphuric acid it is blackened and decomposed; and by a prolonged ebullition with the same acid in a dilute state is converted into a sugar, identical with the sugar of grapes. Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid. (See Acidum Oxalicum.) Sugar has the pro- perty of combining with some salifiable bases, as potassa, ammonia, lime, protoxide of lead, and forming with them definite compounds called saccharates. It renders the fixed and volatile oils to a certain ex- tent miscible with water, and forms with the latter oils a kind of com- bination, called in pharmacy oleo-saccharum. When in solution it is not precipitated by subacetate of lead—a negative property by means of which it may be separated from most other organic principles. Besides cane sugar, chemists distinguish four other kinds; namely, the sugars severally obtained from grapes, manna, mushrooms, and liquor* ice. (See Manna and Glycyrrhiza.) Maple and beet sugar are the same as that of the cane. The artificial sugars, obtained by the action of di- lute sulphuric acid severally on starch and ligneous fibre, are identical with the sugar of grapes. Besides these varieties, there are several saccharine substances of animal origin, such as honey, sugar of milk, and sugar of diabetes. The three officinal forms of the saccharine principle, while and brown sugar, and molasses, are mere varieties of cane sugar, the two former in the crystallizable, and the latter in the uncrystalliza- ble state. Purified or white sugar, as obtained in the arts, is in concreted some. what porous masses, consisting of an aggregate of small crystalline grains, and possessing the general properties of sugar, as already de- scribed. When pure it is brittle and pulverulent, perfectly white, ino-- dorous, and possessed of the pure saccharine taste, ' It may be viewed as the type of the class of saccharine substances. Unpurified or brown sugar is in the form of a coarse powder, more or less moist and sticky, consisting of shining crystalline grains, inter- mixed with lumps, having a brownish-yellow colour more or less deep, a sweet, cloying taste, and a heavy and peculiar smell. It differs very much in quality. The best sort is nearly dry, in large sparkling grains of a clear yellow colour, and possesses much less smell than the infe- rior kinds. It consists of the pure crystallizable sugar, combined with variable quantities of colouring and extractive matter. Molasses is a black ropy liquid of a peculiar odour, and a sweet em- pyreumatic taste. When fermented it forms rum. It consists princi- pally of uncrystallizable sugar. Composition.—Pure sugar from the sugar cane consists, according to Prout, of one equiv. of hydrogen 1, one equiv. of carbon 6, and one equiv. of oxygen 8 = 15. The theory of its conversion, during the vi- nous fermentation, into carbonic acid and alcohol, has been explained under another head. (See Alcohol.) According to Berzelius, however, cane sugar is a hydrate, consisting of one equiv. of dry sugar and one equiv. of water. He founds this opinion on the fact that his analysis of dry saccharate of lead, gives for the composition of sugar the same ele- ments as for cane sugar, minus one equiv. of oxygen and one equiv. of hydrogen, that is, one equiv. of water. Pharmaceutical Uses, 38. an. 1830. PART I. Sarsaparilla. 571 Little is certainly known of the chemical composition of sarsaparilla. It is admitted to contain a large proportion of starch and lignin, and extractive matter is afforded by the cortical portion; but the active prin- ciple has probably not yet been isolated. The smilacin of Professor Fol- chi, and the pariglin of Dr. Palotti, cannot be admitted to this rank until further examination shall have confirmed the claims advanced for them. The sarsaparilla of the shops is very apt to be nearly if not quite in- ert, either from age, or from having been obtained from an inferior spe- cies of Smilax. This inequality of the medicine, together with the improper modes of preparing it which have been long in vogue, have probably contributed to its variable reputation. The only criterion of good sarsaparilla which can be relied on is the taste. If it leave a deci- dedly acrid impression in the mouth after having been chewed for a short time, it may be considered efficient; if otherwise, it is probably inert.' Medical Properties and Uses.—Few medicines have undergone greater changes of reputation. About the middle of the sixteenth century it was introduced into Europe as a remedy for the venereal complaint, in the treatment of which it had been found very useful in the recent Span- ish settlements in the West Indies. After a time it fell into disrepute; and was little employed till nearly a century ago, when it was again brought into notice by Sir William Fordyce and others, as a useful ad- juvant and corrigent of mercury in lues venerea. Since that period very different opinions have been entertained of its efficacy. Some, among whom was Dr. Cullen, considered it wholly inert; others, on the con- trary, have had the most unbounded confidence in its powers. The pro- bable cause of much of this discrepancy has been already mentioned. Experience both among regular practitioners and empyrics would seem to have placed its efficiency beyond reasonable doubt; and at this mo- ment its reputation is probably higher than at any former period. Its most extensive and useful application is to the treatment of secondary syphilis and syphiloid diseases, and of that shattered state of the system which sometimes follows the imprudent use of mercury in these affec- tions. It is also employed, though with less obvious benefit, in chronic rheumatism, scrofulous affections, certain cutaneous diseases, and other depraved conditions of the general health to which the physician may find it difficult to apply a name. Its mode of action is less evident than its ultimate effects. It is said to increase the secretion of perspiration and urine; but allowing it to possess this power, the amount of effect is too trifling to explain its influence over disease; and the diaphoretic and diuretic action which it appears to evince, may perhaps be as justly ascribed to the medicines with which it is generally associated, or to the liquid in which it is exhibited. In this ignorance of its precise modus operandi we may call it an alterative, as we call all those medicines which change existing morbid actions, without an obvious influence over any of the functions. Sarsaparilla may be given in powder in the dose of half a drachm or a drachm three or four times a day; but it is more conveniently admin- istered in the form of infusion, decoction, syrup, or extract. (See the several officinal preparations in Part II.) A beer made by fermenting an infusion of the drug with molasses, is said to be a popular remedy in South America.* * The following is a formula recommended by Hancock. " Take of Rio Negro sarsa, bruised, 2 lb; bark of guaiacum, powdered, 8 oz.; raspings of guaiac wood, anise seeds, and liquorice root, each 4 oz.; mezereon, bark of the, root, 2 oz.; treacle [molasses] 2 Jb i 572 Sarsaparilla.—Sassafras Medulla. part i. Off. Prep. Decoctum Sarsaparillae, Lond., Dub., Ed.; Decoctum Sar- saparillae Compositum, U.S., Lond.; Extractum Sarsaparillae, Lond., Dub.; Extractum Sarsaparillae Fluidum, Dub.; Infusum Sarsaparillae Compositum, Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillae, U.S., Lond., Dub, SASSAFRAS MEDULLA. U.S. Sassafras Pith. " Laurus sassafras. Stipitum medulla. The pith of the stems." U.S. SASSAFRAS RADICIS CORTEX. U.S. Bark of Sassafras Root. "Laurus sassafras. Radicis cortex. The bark of the root." U.S. Off. Syn. SASSAFRAS LIGNUM ET RADIX. Laurus Sassafras. Lignum et Radix. Lond.; LAURI SASSAFRAS LIGNUM. LAURI SASSAFRAS RADIX. Ed.; LAURUS SASSAFRAS. Lignum. Ra- dix. Dub. Sassafras, Fr., Germ.; Sassafras, Sassafrasso, Hal; Sasafras, Span. Laurus. See CAMPHORA. Laurus Sassafras. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 485; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 142; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 144. This is an indigenous tree of middling size, rising in favourable situations from thirty to fifty feet in height, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter. In the Southern States it is sometimes larger, and in the northern parts of New England is little more than a shrub. The bark which covers the stem and large branches is rough, deeply furrowed, and grayish; that of the extreme branches or twigs, is smooth and beautifully green. The leaves, which, are alternate, petiolate, and downy when young, vary much in their form and size even upon the same tree. Some are oval and entire, others have a lobe on one side; but the greater number are three-lobed. Their mean length is four or five inches. The flowers, which are frequently dioecious, are small, of a pale yellowish-green colour, and disposed in racemes which spring from the branches below the leaves, and have linear bractes at their base. The corolla is divided into six oblong seg- ments. The male flowers have, nine stamens; the hermaphrodite, which are on a different plant, have only six, with a simple style. The fruit is an oval drupe, about as large as a pea, of a deep blue colour when ripe, and supported on a red pedicel, which enlarges at the extremity into a cup for its reception. The sassafras is common throughout the United States, and extends into Mexico. It is said also to grow in Brazil and Cochin-china. In this country it is found both in woods and open places, and is apt to spring up in the neighbourhood of cultivation, and in neglected or aban- doned fields. In Pennsylvania and New York it blooms in the beginning of May; but much earlier at the South. The fresh flowers have a slightly fragrant odour, and almost all parts of the plant are more or less aromatic. The wood and root are directed by the British Pharma- copoeias, the bark of the root, and the pith of the twigs or extreme and a dozen bruised cloves ; pour upon these ingredients about four gallons of boiling water, and shake the vessel thrice a day. When a fermentation has well begun, it is fit for use, and may be taken in the dose of a small tumblerful twice or thrice a day." This formula is worthy of attention ; but the bark of guaiacum, which is not kept in the shops, might be omitted without materially affecting the virtues of the preparation. parti. Sassafras Radicis Cortex.—Scammonium. 573 branches, by that of the United States. The wood is porous, light, fra- gile, whitish in the young tree, reddish in the old, and but feebly en- dowed with aromatic properties. It is sent to Europe in billets invested with the bark; but is not employed in this country. The root is more commonly exported, and is the part chiefly used in British pharmacy. It consists of a brownish-white wood, covered with a spongy bark di- visible into layers. The latter portion is by far the most active, and is usually kept in our shops in a separate state. 1. Sassafras Pith. This is in slender cylindrical pieces, very light and spongy, with a mucilaginous taste, having in a slight degree the characteristic flavour of the sassafras. It abounds in a gummy matter which it readily imparts to water, forming a limpid mucilage, which, though ropy and viscid, has much less tenacity than that of gum arabic, and will not answer as a substitute in the suspension of insoluble sub- stances. It differs also from solutions of ordinary gum, in remaining perfectly limpid when added to alcohol. This mucilage is much em- ployed as a mild and soothing application in inflammation of the eyes; and forms a pleasant and useful drink in dysenteric, catarrhal, and ne- phritic diseases. It may be prepared by adding a drachm of the pith to a pint of boiling water. 2. Bark of Sassafras Root. As found in the shops, this is usually in small irregular fragments, sometimes invested with a brownish epider- mis, sometimes partially or wholly freed from it, of a reddish or rusty cinnamon hue, very brittle, and presenting when freshly broken a lighter colour than that of the exposed surfaces. Its odour is highly fragrant, its taste sweetish, and gratefully aromatic. These properties are ex- tracted by water and alcohol. They reside in a volatile oil which may be obtained separate by distillation with water. (See Oleum Sassafras.) Medical Properties and Uses.—The bark of sassafras root is stimulant, and perhaps diaphoretic, though its possession of any peculiar tendency to the skin, independently of its mere excitant property, is quite doubt- ful. It is used almost exclusively as an adjuvant to other more efficient medicines, the flavour of which it improves, while it renders them more cordial to the stomach. The complaints for which it has been particu- larly recommended, are chronic rheumatism, cutaneous eruptions, and scorbutic and syphiloid affections. As a remedy in lues venerea, in which it formerly had a high reputation, it is now universally consider- ed as in itself wholly inefficient. It is most conveniently administered in the form of infusion. The oil may also be given. As the active prin- ciple is volatile, the decoction and extract are useless preparations. Off. Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Decoctum Guaiaci Com- positum, Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Sarsaparillae Compositum, U.S.,Lond., Dub.; Oleum Sassafras, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. SCAMMONIUM. U.S. Scammony. * Convolvulus scammonia. Radicis succus concretus. The concrete juice of the root." U.S. Off. Syn. SCAMMONE^ GUMMI-RESINA. Convolvulus Scam- monea. Gummi-resina. Lond. ; CONVOLVULI SCAMMONLE GUMMI-RESINA. Ed. ; SCAMMONIUM. CONVOLVULUS SCAMMONIA. Gummi-resina. Dub. Scammon£e, Fr.,- Scammonium, Germ.; Scamonea, Hal; Escamonea, Span. 574 Scammonium. part i. Convolvulus. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Con- volvuli, Juss.; Convolvulaceae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla bell-shaped, plaited. Stigmas two. Capsule two-celled, cells two-seeded. Willd. Convolvulus Scammonia. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 845; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 243. t. 86. This species of Convolvulus has a perennial, tapering root, from three to four feet long, from nine to twelve inches in circum- ference, branching towards its lower extremity, covered with a light gray bark, and containing a milky juice. The stems are numerous, slender, and twining, extending sometimes to the distance of fifteen or twenty feet upon the ground or on neighbouring plants, and furnished with smooth, bright green, arrow-shaped leaves, which stand alternately upon long footstalks. The flowers are placed in pairs, or three together upon the pedicels, which are round, axillary, solitary, and of nearly twice the length of the leaf. The plant is a native of Syria, and the neighbouring countries. No part is medicinal except the root, which when dried, was found by Dr. Russel to be a mild cathartic. Scammony is the concrete juice of the fresh root, and is collected, according to Russel, in the following man- ner. In the month of June the earth is cleared away from about the j'oot, the top of which is cut off obliquely about two inches from the origin of the stems. The milky juice which exudes is collected in shells or other convenient receptacle, placed at the most depending part of the £ut surface. A few drachms only are collected from each root. The juice from several plants is put into any convenient vessel, and con- cretes by time. In this state it constitutes genuine scammony, but is very seldom exported. It is generally prepared for the market by ad- mixture, while it is yet soft, with the expressed juice of the stalks and leaves, with wheat flour, ashes, fine sand, &c; and there is reason to believe that scammony sometimes consists wholly or in great part of the expressed juice of the root evaporated to dryness by exposure to the sun, or by artificial heat. The drug produced in Syria is called Aleppo scam- mony, from the place whence it is sent out of the country. There is an- other variety called Smyrna scammony, which is of uncertain origin, but supposed by some to be derived from the Periploca Scammone, and named from its place of export. In the South of France, a substance prepared from the expressed juice of the Cynanchum Monspeliacum, is sold by the name of Montpellier scammony, and is said to be brought into this country from Marseilles. Each of these varieties deserves a separate notice. 1. Aleppo scammony. This seldom or never reaches us in its purest State. It is described as in small masses, often porous, sometimes uni- form, of a reddish or whitish-gray colour, breaking with a dull waxy fracture, forming when rubbed with the saliva a greenish-yellow emul- sion, and possessing a strong disagreeable odour. The Aleppo seam- mony brought to our market is contained in drums, in large irregular rather heavy masses, breaking with a faintly shining fracture, and ex- hibiting when broken a structure generally somewhat porous, sometimes cavernous, occasionally almost compact. The colour externally is usually a dark ash or olive; internally it is lighter and sometimes slightly tinged with yellow, but speedily deepens on exposure. The small fragments are somewhat translucent at the edges. The mass is easily pulverised, and yields a light gray powder. It imparts to water with which it is triturated a greenish milky appearance. The smell is PART I. Scammonium.—Scilla. 575 rather disagreeable, but said to resemble that of old cheese made from ewe's milk. The taste is bitterish and slightly acrid. 2. Smyrna scammony. This is in flat cakes, darker, more compact, heavier, and harder than the preceding variety, less easily pulverised, of a dull and earthy fracture, a bitter acrid taste, and an odour which though disagreeable is different from that of genuine scammony. Its watery solution is opaque and of a dirty white colour. It is much infe- rior to Aleppo scammony; but is scarcely known as a distinct variety in our market. Under the name, however, of Smyrna scammony, a sub- stance is found in some of our drug stores, said to be imported from Marseilles, which is evidently factitious, and may be considered as nearly or altogether worthless. It is in circular cakes or fragments of such cakes, rather more than half an inch thick, very light, almost black externally, penetrated with small holes as if worm eaten, and when broken exhibiting an irregular cellular, spongy texture. 3. The Montpellier scammony is black, hard, compact, and when rub- bed with the moistened finger, becomes dark gray, unctuous, and tena- cious. Its smell is weak and disagreeable, and its taste nauseous. We are not aware that it is imported; but as scammony is sometimes brought from the South of France, our druggists should be on their guard against it. It is said to be more irritating and less purgative than the Aleppo scammony, which it is sometimes employed to adul- terate. Scammony is ranked among the gum-resins. It is partially dissolved by water, more largely by alcohol, and entirely, with the exception of impurities, by diluted alcohol. Its chief constituent is resin, which con- stitutes more than two-thirds of the weight of Aleppo scammony. Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel obtained from 100 parts of Aleppo scam- mony 60 of resin, 3 of gum, 2 of extractive, and 35 of insoluble mat- ter ; from the same quantity of Smyrna scammony 29 parts of resin, 8 of gum, 5 of extractive, and 58 of vegetable remains and earthy sub- stances. Medical Properties and Uses.—Scammony is an energetic cathartic, apt to occasion griping, and sometimes operating with harshness. It was known to the ancient Greek physicians, and was much employed by the Arabians, who not only gave it as a purgative, but also applied it externally for the cure of various cutaneous diseases. It may be used in all cases of torpid bowels, when a powerful impression is desired; but on account of its occasional violence is seldom administered, except in combination with other cathartics, the action of which it promotes, while its own harshness is mitigated. It should be given in emulsion with mucilage, sugar, almonds, liquorice or other demulcent; and its disposition to gripe may be counteracted by the addition of an aroma- tic. The dose is from five to ten grains. Off Prep. Confectio Scammoneae, Lond.; Electuarium Scammonii, Dub.; Extractum Colocynthidis, Lond., Dub.; Extract. Colocynthidis Comp., U.S., Lond.; Pilulae Catharticae Comp., U.S.; Pilulae Colo- cynthidis Comp., Dub.; Pulvis Scammonii Comp., Lond., Dub. Ed. SCILLA. U.S. Squill. u Scilla maritima. Bulbus. The bulb." U.S. Off. Syn. SCILLjE RADIX. Scilla maritima. Radix. Lond.; SCIL- 576 Scilla. PART I. L.E MARITIME RADIX. Ed.; SCILLA MARITIMA. Bulbus. Dub. Scille, Fr.; Meerzwiebel, Germ.; Scilla, ltal; Cebolla albarrana, Span. Scilla. Class Hexandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Orel. Asphodeli, Juss.; Asphodeleae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla six-petaled, spreading, deciduous. Filaments thread- like. Willd. Scilla maritima. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 125; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 745. t. 255. This is a perennial plant, with fibrous roots proceeding from the bottom of a large bulb, which sends forth several long, lanceolate, point- ed, somewhat undulated, shining, deep-green leaves. From the midst of the leaves a round, smooth, succulent flower-stem rises, from one to three feet high, terminating in a long, close spike of whitish flowers. These are destitute of calyx, and stand on purplish peduncles, at the base of each of which is a linear, twisted, deciduous floral leaf. The squill grows on the seacoast of Spain, France, Italy, Greece, and all other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The bulb is the officinal portion. It is generally dried for use; but is sometimes im- ported into this country in the recent state, packed in sand. Properties.—The fresh bulb is pear-shaped, usually larger than a man's fist, sometimes as large as the head of a child, and consisting of fleshy scales, attenuated at their edges, closely applied over each other, and invested by exterior scales so thin and dry as to appear to consti- tute a membranous coat. In the variety generally employed, this exte- rior coating is of a deep reddish-brown colour, and the inner scales have a whitish rosy or very light pink epidermis, with a yellowish-white pa- renchyma. In another variety the whole bulb is white. They do not differ in their medicinal virtues. The bulb abounds in a viscid, very acrid juice, which causes it to inflame and even excoriate the skin when much handled. By drying, this acrimony is very much diminished, with little loss of medicinal power. The bulb loses about four-fifths of its weight in the process. Vogel found 100 parts of fresh squill to be reduced to 18 by desiccation. The process is somewhat difficult, in consequence of the abundance and viscid character of the juice. The bulb is cut into thin transverse slices, and the pieces dried separately by artificial or solar heat. The outer and central scales are rejected, the former being dry and destitute of the active principle, the latter too fleshy and mucila- ginous. The British Colleges give directions in relation to the drying of squill; and the Dublin College orders it to be reduced to powder, and kept in phials with ground stoppers. Dried squill, as found in our shops, is in irregular oblong pieces, often more or less contorted, of a dull yellowish-white colour with a reddish or rosy tint, sometimes entirely white, slightly diaphanous, brittle and pulverisable when perfectly dry, but generally flexible from the presence of moisture, for which they have a great affinity. The odour is very feeble, the taste bitter, nauseous, and acrid. The virtues of squill are extracted by water, alcohol, and vinegar. According to Vogel, it contains a peculiar very bitter principle named by him scillitin, gum, tannin, traces of citrate of lime and saccharine matter, lignin, and an acrid principle which he was unable to isolate. Water distilled from it had neither taste nor smell, and was drank by Vogel to the amount of six ounces without producing any effect. From the experiments of Duncan and Buchner it appears, that tannin, if it exists in squill, is in very small proportion. The scillitin of Vogel is soluble in water, alcohol, and vinegar; but it is considered by M. Tilloy part i. Scilla.—Scrophularia Nodosa. 577 of Dijon, whose analysis is more recent, as a compound of the proper active principle of squill with gum and uncrystallizable sugar* The scillitin obtained by the latter experimenter* was insoluble in water and in dilute acids* soluble in alcohol, exceedingly acrid and bitter to the taste, and very powerful in its influence on the animal system. A single grain produced the death of a strong dog. M. Chevallier, however, thinks that the active principle has not yet been entirely isolated. It ap- pears that the acrimony of squill, if diminished, is not destroyed by drying, as the powder made into a cataplasm with water produced Ve- sication. When kept in a dry place, squill retains its virtues for a long time j but if exposed to moisture, it soon becomes mouldy* Medical Properties and Uses.—-Squill is expectorant, diuretic, and in large doses emetic and purgative. In overdoses it has been known to occa- sion hypercatharsis, strangury, bloody urine* and fatal inflammation of thestomachand bowels. The Greek physicians employed it as a medicine; and it has retained to the present period a deserved popularity. As an expectorant, it is used both in cases of deficient and of superabundant secretion from the bronchial mucous membrane, in the former case usu- ally combined with tartar emetic or ipecacuanha, in the latter frequent- ly with the stimulant expectorants. In both instances, it operates by stimulating the vessels of the lungs ; and where the inflammatory action in this organ is considerable, as in pneumonia and severe catarrh, the use of squill should be preceded by the lancet. In dropsical diseases it is very much employed, especially in connexion with calomel, which is supposed to excite the absorbents, while the squill increases the secre- tory action of the kidneys* In these complaints also it is thought to suc- ceed best in the absence of general inflammatory excitement* On ac- count of its great uncertainty and occasional harshness as an emetic, it is very seldom prescribed, except in infantile croup or catarrh, in which it is usually given in the form of syrup or oxymel. When given in sub- stance, it is most conveniently administered in the form of pill. The dose, as a diuretic or expectorant, is one grain, repeated two or three times a day, and gradually increased till it produces slight nausea, or evinces its action upon the kidneys or lungs. From six to twelve grains will generally vomit* Off. Prep. Acetum Scillas, U.S.,Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mel Scillae Compo- situm, U.S.; Oxymel Scillae, U.S., Lond. Dub.; Pilulae Scillae Compo- sitae, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Scillae, Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Scillae, U.S., Ed.; Tinctura Scillae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. SCROPHULARIA NODOSA* FOLIA. Bub. Figwort Leaves. Scrophulaire noucuse, Ft.; Braunwurzel, Germ.; Scrofolaria nodosa, ltal; Escro- fularia, Span. Scrophularia. Class Didynamia. Order Angiospermia.—Nat. Ord. Scrophulariae, Juss.; Scrophularineae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla subglobular, resupine. Capsule two- celled. Willd. Scrophularia nodosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 270; Smith, Flor. Brit. 663. The root of the knotty rooted figwort is perennial, tuberous, and knotty; the stem is herbaceous, erect, quadrangular, smooth, branch- ing, and from two to three feet high; the leaves are opposite, petiolate, 73 578 Scrophularia Nodosa.—Secale Cornutum. part i. cordate, pointed, sharply toothed, three-nerved, and of a deep-green colour; the flowers are small,dark purple, slightly drooping, and borne on branching peduncles in erect terminal bunches. The plant is a native of Europe, where it grows in shady and moist places, and flowers in July. The leaves, which are the part used, have when fresh a rank fetid odour, and a bitter somewhat acrid taste; but these properties are di- minished by drying. Water extracts their virtues, forming a reddish infusion, which is blackened by the persulphate of iron. Medical Properties and Uses.—Figwort leaves are said to be anodyne and diuretic, and to have repellent properties when externally applied. They were formerly considered tonic, diaphoretic, discutient, anthel- mintic, &c; and were thought to be useful in scrofula. They are at present very little employed, and never in this country. In Europe they are sometimes employed in the form of ointment or fomentation to piles, painful tumours and ulcers, and cutaneous eruptions. Off. Prep. Unguentum Scrophulariae, Dub. SECALE CORNUTUM. U.S. Spurred Rye. Ergot. " Secale cereale. Semen morbo affectum. The diseased seed. Vel, Scle- rotium clavus. De Candolle." U.S. Seigle ergot£, Fr.,- Mutterkorn, Germ. In several of the grains the place of the seed is occupied by a morbid excrescence, which, from its resemblance to the spur of a cock, has re- ceived the name of ergot, adopted from the French. This excrescence occurs most frequently in the rye, Secale cereale of botanists, and having been found, as produced by this plant, to possess valuable medicinal properties, has been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, under the previously recognised title of Secale cornutum, or spurred rye. In the late edition of the Pharmacopoeia it was transferred to the primary from the secondary list, in which it was first placed. Considerable difference of opinion has prevailed in relation to the nature of this singular substance. At one time it was thought to be merely the seed altered by disease; and the opinion was maintained, that the morbid action depended on the puncture of an insect and the deposi- tion of its egg, which by irritating the neighbouring parts gave rise to this excrescence, as the gall is produced in the oak. De Candolle, how- ever, considers it a parasitic plant, belonging to the natural family of the Fungi, and the genus Sclerotium, and denominates it Sclerotium Clavus. An intermediate opinion is advocated by M. Leveille, who, after careful observation of the development of the ergot, published the result of his inquiries in the Annals of the Linn. Society of Paris for the year 1826. According to this author, a soft viscid tubercle may be seen at the ear- liest stage of the flower, surmounting the germ, the character of which it changes, without preventing its growth. The germ becomes of a dark colour, and increasing in size pushes the tubercle before it, which also expands, and exudes a viscid matter, which spreads over the germ, and drying upon its surface, gives it a thin yellowish coating. This tubercle M. Leveille considers a parasitic fungus, for which he pro- poses the name Sphacelia segetum; and the ergot is thus composed of the diseased grain incorporated with, a distinct and independent vegetable PART I. Secale Cornutum. 579 production. It is in the coating given by the latter to the enlarged seed that he supposes the virtues of the spurred rye to reside; and very dry or very wet seasons are equally unfavourable to the full development of the medicine, the former because the coating breaks into scales and falls off, the latter because it is washed away by the rain. These state- ments need confirmation before they can be implicitly received. Rye is most subject to this disease in poor and wet soils, and in rainy seasons. Intense heat succeeding continued rains is said to favour its development. The ergot usually projects out of the glume or husk be- yond the ordinary outline of the spike or ear. In some spikes the place of the seeds is wholly occupied by the ergot, in others only two or three spurs are observed. Properties.—Ergot is in solid, brittle yet somewhat flexible grains, from six lines to an inch and a half long, from half a line to two lines in thickness, usually curved like a spur, tapering from near the middle, obtuse at the extremities, marked with a deep longitudinal furrow on one or both sides, of a violet-brown colour externally, yellowish-white within, of an unpleasant smell when in mass resembling that of putrid fish, and of a taste which is at first scarcely perceptible, but ultimately disagreeable and slightly acrid. It imparts its virtues to water and to alcohol. Vauquelin obtained from it—1. a yellowish fawn-coloured mat- ter soluble in alcohol, 2. a violet colouring matter insoluble in alcohol but soluble in water, 3. a sweetish oleaginous substance in great abun- dance, 4. a fixed acid, probably the phosphoric, 5. an azotized substance in large proportion which easily became putrid, and 6. free ammonia, which escaped at the temperature of boiling water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Given in small doses, ergot produces, in the system of the male, no obvious effects; but in the female, exhi- bits a strong tendency to the uterus, upon the contractile property of which it operates' with great energy. It is perhaps the only medicine which specifically promotes contraction in this organ. In the quantity of half a drachm or a drachm it often occasions nausea or vomiting, and in still larger doses excites headach and febrile symptoms. Its long continued use is highly dangerous, even when no immediate effects are perceptible. Terrible and devastating epidemics in different parts of the continent of Europe, particularly in certain provinces of France, have long been ascribed to the use of bread made from rye contaminated with this degenerate grain. Dry gangrene, typhus fever, and disorder of the nervous system attended with convulsions, are the forms of disease which have been observed to follow the use of this unwholesome food. It is true that ergot has been denied to be the cause; but accurate investiga- tions made by competent men upon the spot where the epidemics have prevailed, together with the result of experiments made upon inferior animals, leave no room for reasonable doubt upon the subject. The most important remedial application of ergot is founded on its power of promoting the contraction of the uterus. On the continent of Europe, in various parts of Germany, France, and Italy, it has long been empyrically employed by midwives for this purpose; and its Ger- man name of mutterkorn implies a popular acquaintance with its pecu- liar powers. But the attention of the medical profession was first called to it by a letter from Dr. Stearns of Saratoga county, in the state of New York, addressed to Dr. Ackerly, A.D. 1807, and published in the eleventh volume of the New-York Medical Repository. Since that pe- riod the journals have teemed with communications attesting its effi- cacy in facilitating parturition; and though it has failed in the hands of 580 Secale Cornutum.—Senega. part i. some physicians, the general opinion of the profession is so decidedly in its favour, that it may now be considered among the established arti- cles of the Materia Medica. When it has proved wholly inefficient, the result is probably ascribable to the inferior character of the particular parcel employed. In its operation upon the pregnant uterus it produces a constant unremitting contraction and rigidity, rather than that alter- nation of spasmodic effort and relaxation which is observable in the natural process of labour. Hence, unless the os uteri and external parts are sufficiently relaxed, the medicine would be likely to produce injury to the child by the incessant pressure which it maintains. Such in fact has been the observation of numerous practitioners, and the death of the infant is thought not unfrequently to result from the injudicious em- ployment of the medicine. The cases to which it is thought to be espe- cially adapted are those of lingering labour, when the os uteri is suffi- ciently dilated, and the external passages sufficiently relaxed, when no mechanical impediment is offered to the passage of the child, and the delay is ascribable solely to want of energy in the uterus. Other cases are those in which the death of the foetus has been ascertained, and when great exhaustion or dangerous constitutional irritation imperi- ously call for speedy delivery. The remedy may also be given to pro- mote the expulsion of the placenta, to restrain inordinate hemorrhage after delivery, and to hasten the discharge of the foetus in protracted cases of abortion. In women subject to dangerous flooding, a dose of ergot given immediately before delivery is said to have the happiest effects. In monorrhagia and uterine hemorrhage, unconnected with pregnancy, the medicine has long been empyrically employed; and is now found highly useful in the hands of regular practitioners. Its use has even been extended to hemorrhages from other organs, and with reputed good effect. Cases of hemorrhage from the lungs are recorded in which ergot has proved highly beneficial. It has also been employed in amenorrhoea, but not with encouraging success. Ergot is given in substance, infusion, or decoction. The dose of the powder to a woman in labour is fifteen or twenty grains, to be repeated every twenty minutes, till its peculiar effects are experienced, or till the amount of a drachm has been taken. Of an infusion made in the pro- portion of one drachm of the ergot to four fluidounces of water, one- third may be given for a dose, and repeated with the same interval. For other purposes the dose of the medicine is ten or fifteen grains, repeated three times a day, and gradually increased, but not continued for a great length of time. Ergot should be powdered only when wanted for use, SENEGA. U.S, Seneka, " Polygala senega. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. SENEGtE RADIX. Polygala Senega. Radix. Lond.f POLYGALA SENEGA RADIX. Ed.; POLYGALA SENEGA, Radix. Dub. Polygale de Virginie, Fr.; Klapperschlangenwurzel, Germ.; Poligala Virginiana, ltal. Polyoala. Class Diadelphia, Order Octandria.-—Nat. Ord. Pedicu- lares, Juss,; Polygaleae, Juss. Ann. Mus., Lindley. PART I. Senega. 5S1 Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved, with two leaflets wing-shaped, and colour- ed. Legume obcordate, two-celled. Willd. Polygala Senega. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 894; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 97; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 111. This unostentatious plant has a pe- rennial branching root, from which several erect, simple, smooth, round, leafy stems annually rise, from nine inches to a foot in height. The stems are occasionally tinged with red or purple in their lower portion, but are green near the top. The leaves are alternate or scattered, lan- ceolate, pointed, smooth, bright green on the upper surface, paler be- neath, and sessile or supported on very short footstalks. The flowers are small, white, and arranged in a close spike at the summit of the stem. The calyx is the most conspicuous part of the flower. It consists of five leaflets, two of which are wing-shaped, white, and larger than the others. The corolla is small and closed. The capsules are small, much compressed, obcordate, two-valved, two-celled, and contain two oblong ovate, blackish seeds, pointed at one extremity. This species of Polygala, commonly called Seneka snakeroot, grows wild in ail parts of the United States, but most abundantly in the southern and western sections, Avhere the root is collected in great quantities for sale. It is brought into market in bales weighing from two hundred to four hundred pounds. Properties.,—As the root occurs in commerce, it is of various sizes from that of a small quill to that of the little finger, presenting a thick knotty head, which exhibits traces of the numerous stems. It is taper- ing, branched, variously twisted, often marked with crowded annular protuberances, and with a projecting keel-like line, extending along its whole length. The epidermis is corrugated, transversely cracked, of a yellowish-brown colour in the young roots, and brownish-gray in the old. In the smaller branches the colour is a lighter yellow. The bark is hard and resinous, and contains the active principles of the root. The central portion is ligneous, white, and quite inert, and should be rejected in the preparation of the powder. The colour of this is gray. The odour of seneka is peculiar, strong in the fresh root, but faint in the dried. The taste is at first sweetish and mucilaginous, but after chewing becomes somewhat pungent and acrid, leaving a peculiar irri- tating sensation in the fauces. These properties as well as the medical virtues of the root are extracted by boiling water. They are also yield- ed to alcohol, though the tincture has been observed to be less acrid than the crecoction. Diluted alcohol is an excellent solvent. The root does not impart either taste or smell to water distilled from it. M. Pes- chier of Geneva obtained from it a substance which he supposed to be alkaline and to exist combined with a peculiar acid. The former he denominated polygalin, the latter polygalinic acid; but his experiments require confirmation. M. Fenouille of Cambray obtained 1. a pale yellow colouring matter, 2, a bitter substance, 3. gum, 4. pectic acid, 5. albu- men, 6. volatile oil, 7. fixed oil, 8. saline and earthy matters. To M. Dulong d'Astafort, the root yielded a peculiar alkaline principle, resin, gummy matter, a colouring matter analogous to wax, a yellow colour- ing matter, a substance reddened by the action of sulphuric acid, pec- tic acid, and salts. Still more recently an analysis by M. Folki present- ed the following results;—viz. a thick oil in part volatile, free gallic acid, wax, an acrid principle, a yellow colouring matter, an azotized matter, and various salts. The active principle does not yet appear to have been satisfactorily isolated. The roots of the Panax quinquefolium or ginseng are frequently mix- 5S2 Senega. —Senna. PART I. ed with the seneka, but are easily distinguishable by their shape and taste. Medical Properties and Uses.—Seneka is a stimulating expectorant and diuretic, and in large doses proves emetic and cathartic. It appears in- deed to excite more or less all the secretions, proving occasionally dia- phoretic and emmenagogue, and increasing the flow of saliva. Its action, however, is more especially directed to the lungs; and its expectorant virtues are those for which it is chiefly employed. It was introduced into practice about a century ago by Dr. Tennant of Virginia, who re- commended it as a cure for the bite of the rattlesnake and in various pectoral complaints. As an expectorant it is employed in cases not attended with inflammatory action, or in which the inflammation has in great measure been subdued. It is peculiarly useful in chronic ca- tarrh, humoral asthma, the secondary stages of croup, and in peripneu- monia notha after sufficient depletion. By Dr. Archer of Maryland it was recommended in the early stages of croup; but under these circum- stances it is now seldom given unless in combination with squill and an antimonial, as in the Mel Scillse Compositum. Employed so as to purge and vomit it has proved useful in rheumatism; and some cases of dropsy are said to have been cured by it. Amenorrhoea also is among the com- plaints for which it has been recommended. The dose of powdered seneka is from ten to twenty grains; but the form of decoction is that in which the medicine is most conveniently administered. (See Decoctum Senegx). There is an officinal syrup; and an extract and tincture may be prepared, though neither is much em- ployed. Off. Prep. Decoctum Senegae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mel Scillae Compositum, U.S.; Syrupus Senegae, U.S. SENNA. U.S. Senna. u Cassia acutifolia, Cassia obovata, et Cassia elongata. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Off. Syn. SENNJ* FOLIA. Cassia Senna. Folia. Lond.; CASSIA SENN^ FOLIA. Ed.; SENNA. CASSIA SENNA. Folia. Dub. Sene1, Fr.; Sennesblatter, Germ.,- Senna, Hal, Port.; Sen, Span. Cassia. See CASSIA FISTULA. The plants which yield senna belong to the genus Cassia, of which several species contribute to furnish the drug. These were confounded together by Linnaeus in a single species, which he named Cassia Senna. Since his time the subject has been more thoroughly investigated, es- pecially by Delile, who accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, and had an opportunity of examining the plant in its native country. Botanists at present distinguish at least three species, the C. acutifolia, the C. obovata, and the C. elongata, on each of which we shall offer a few observations. 1. Cassia acutifolia. Delile, Flore d'Egypte, lxxv. tab. 27. f. 1. This is a small undershrub, from two to three feet high, with a straight woody, branching, whitish stem. The leaves are pinnate, alternately placed upon the stem, and have at their base two small narrow pointed stipules. The leaflets, of which four or five pairs belong to each leaf, are almost sessile, oval lanceolate, acute, oblique at their base, nerved, PART I. Senna. 583 from half an inch to an inch in length, and of a yellowish-green colour. The flowers are yellow, and arranged in axillary spikes. The fruit is a flat, elliptical, obtuse, membranous, smooth, grayish-grown, bivalvular legume, about an inch long and half an inch broad, scarcely if at all curved, and divided into six or seven cells, each containing a hard, heart-shaped, ash-coloured seed. The C. acutifolia grows wild in great abundance in Upper Egypt near Sienne, in Nubia, Sennaar, and proba- bly in other parts pf Africa having similar qualities of soil and climate. It is this species that furnishes the Tripoli senna, and the greater part of that variety known in commerce by the title of Alexandria senna. 2. Cassia obovata. Colladon, Monographic des Casses, p. 92. tab. 15. fig. a.; De Cand., Prodrom., ii. 492. The stem of this species is rather shorter than that of the C. acutifolia, rising to the height of only afoot and a half. The leaves have from five to seven pairs of leaflets, which are obovate, very obtuse, sometimes mucronate, in other respects simi- lar to those of the preceding species. The flowers are in axillary spikes, of which the peduncles are longer than the leaves of the plant. The legumes are very much compressed, curved almost into the kidney form, of a greenish-brown colour, and covered with a very short down, which is perceptible only by the aid of a magnifying glass. They con- tain from eight to ten seeds. This plant, which according to M. Merat is annual, grows wild in Syria, Egypt, and Senegal; and is said to have bedh cultivated successfully in Italy, Spain, and the West Indies. It yields the variety of senna called in Europe Aleppo senna, and contri- butes to the packages of the Alexandrian. 3. Cassia elongata. Lemaire, Journ. de Pharm., vii. 345; Fee, Journ de Chim. Med., vi. 232. This name was conferred by M. Lemaire upon the plant from which the India senna of commerce is derived. The bo- tanical description was completed by M. Fee, from dried specimens of the leaves and fruit found by him in unassorted parcels of this variety of senna. Each leaf has five pairs of leaflets. These are elongated acute, thin, and flexible, obscurely mucronate, oblique, and with very short petioles, which are somewhat swollen, but not glandular The most striking characteristic of the leaflet is its length, which varies from an inch to twenty lines. Its breadth is from three to five lines 1 he legumes are thin, shining, smooth, a little curved, mucronate and very obtuse at the summit, of a greenish-olive colour towards the edges, and blackish in the centre. They contain from five to seven irre- gular heart-shaped seeds. This species has not yet been examined bv botanists in its native state. It is inferred, however, from the sources whence the variety of senna which it furnishes is brought, that it stows in the southern parts of Arabia, and perhaps in India. m Besides the three species of the senna plant above described, a fourth is mentioned by some authors—the C. lanceolala-so named by Forsk hal, who found it growing in the deserts of Arabia. Some difference" however, of opinion exists as to the justice of its claims to the rank of a distinct species. De Candolle considers it only a varietv of tho C. acutifolia, from the ordinary form of which it differs chiefly in hav- ing leaflets with glandular petioles. It has been supposed by some to be the source of the India and Mocha senna; but theleafletsT this variety are much longer than those of the d lanceolata,torn wlich hey differ also in having norlands. Niebuhr informs us that he found the Alexandria senna growing m the Arabian territo of Muari™ IheTlanc^ro^Vor^afS * ^ "* *«* ™* is ^ 5S4 Senna. PART I. Commercial History.—Several varieties of this valuable drug are known in commerce. Of these we receive three only in America, the Alexan- dria, the Tripoli, and the India senna. 1. Alexandria Senna. Though the name of this variety is derived from the Egyptian port at which it is shipped, it is in fact gathered very far in the interior of the country. The Alexandria senna does not consist exclusively of the product of one species of Cassia. The history of its preparation is not destitute of interest. The senna plants of Upper Egypt yield two crops annually, one in spring and the other in autumn. They are gathered chiefly in the country beyond Sienne. The natives cut the plants, and having dried them in the sun, strip off the leaves and pods which they pack in bales, and send to Boulac, in the vicinity of Cairo, the great entrepot for this article of Egyptian commerce. This senna from Upper Egypt, consisting chiefly though not exclu- sively of the product of the C. acutifolia, is here mixed with the leaf- lets of the C. obovata, brought from other parts of Egypt, and even from Syria, and with the leaves of the Cynanchum oleaefolium, known commonly by the name of argel or arguel. A small portion of Mocha or Arabian senna is also probably added; and it is said that the leaves of the Colutea arborescens and Coriaria myrtifolia have been occasion- ally found in the parcels which reach the European market. According to M. Royer, the proportions in which the three chief constituents of this mixture are added together, are five parts of the C. acutifolia, three of the C. obovata, and two of Cynanchum. Thus prepared, the senna is again packed in bales, and transmitted to Alexandria. It is by no means improbable that a similar mixture is effected in this place of the C. acutifolia from Tripoli with the C. obovata from Syria. The Alex- andria senna is often called in the French pharmaceutic works Send de lapalthe, a name derived from an impost formerly laid upon it by the Ottoman Porte. If a parcel of this commercial variety of senna be care- fully examined, it will be found to consist of the following ingredients:— 1. The leaflets of the C. acutifolia, characterized by their acute pointed form, and their length always less than an inch; 2. the leaflets of the C. obovata, known by their rounded very obtuse summit, which is sometimes furnished with a small projecting point, and by their gradual diminution in breadth towards their base; 3. the pods, broken leaf- stalks, and fine fragments of other parts of one or both of these species; 4. the leaves of the Cynanchum oleaefolium, which are distinguishable by their length, almost always more than an inch, their greater thick- ness and firmness, the absence of any visible lateral nerves on their un- der surface, their somewhat lighter colour, and the regularity of their base. In this last character they strikingly differ from the genuine senna leaflets, which, from whatever species derived, are always mark- ed by obliquity at their base, one side being inserted in the petiole at a point somewhat lower than the other, and at a different angle. The discrimination between this and the other ingredients is a mat- ter of some consequence, as the cynanchum must be considered an adulteration. It is said by the French writers to occasion hyperca- tharsis and much irritation of the bowels. Besides the above con- stituents of Alexandria senna, it occasionally contains leaflets of genu- ine senna, much longer than those of the acutifolia or obovata, equal- ling in this respect the cynanchum, which they also somewhat re- semble in form. They may be distinguished however by their greater thinness, the distinctness of their lateral nerves, and the irregularity of their base. They are probably, as before stated, the product of the C. PART I. Senna. 585 elongata, and are brought to Egypt from Mocha in Arabia. The other leaves sometimes found in the Alexandria senna, some of which are said to be noxious, are so different from those described, that there can be no difficulty in detecting them. 2. Tripoli Senna. It has been customary in England and this country to consider the Tripoli senna as very impure ; and Paris expressly states, that it contains a much larger proportion than the Alexandrian of cynanchum and other adulterations. This, however, is a mistake, which has probably arisen from the inferior price commanded by this variety; and it is not uncommon to class indiscriminately together under this name all the least valuable parcels of the drug. The fact is, that the genuine Tripoli senna consists exclusively of the product of the C. acu- tifolia, containing neither the obovate senna nor the leaves of cynan- chum, and generally free even from the pods of the first mentioned spe- cies. The leaflets however are much broken Up; and it is probably on this account that the variety is less esteemed than the Alexandrian. The aspect given to it by this state of comminution, and by the uni- formity of its constitution, enables the eye at once to distinguish it from the other varieties of senna. The leaflets of the Tripoli senna, though undoubtedly derived from the C. acutifolia, differ in some respects from those of the same species contained in the Alexandrian. They are shorter, less acute, thinner, and more fragile; and their nerves are much less'distinct. From these characters of the Tripoli senna there is good reason to believe, that the plant from which it is derived grows in a different region from the Egyptian, and in one less favourable to its full development. The general opinion is, that it is brought from Sennaar and Nubia in caravans across the desert, and receives its name from Tripoli simply as its place of export; but it is reasonably asked by M. Fee, how it could be afforded at a cheaper price than the Alexandrian, if thus brought on the backs of camels a distance of eight hundred leagues through the desert; and why, moreover, it should be Unmixed with the obovate senna, if gathered in regions neighbouring to those from which the other variety is transmitted, which is known even when first gathered to contain a portion of this species. This author is of the opinion that the Tripoli senna grows upon the Mediterranean coast of Africa, in the vicinity of that city. 3. India Senna. This variety is in Europe sometimes called Mocha senna, and is identical with an article recently introduced into French commerce under the name of Senegambia senna, said to be derived from the western coast of Africa. It usually contains besides the leaflets, considerable quantities of the pod, and of the petioles or leafstalks. The leaflets are all of the same character, and are evidently the product of the same plant. The eye is at once struck by their great length and comparative narrowness, so that no difficulty can be experienced in dis- tinguishing this variety. The pike-like shape of the leaflet has given rise to the name of sene de la pique, by which it is known in French phar- macy. It has been already stated that the title of C. elongata has been conferred upon the species from which it is derived. Though denomi- nated India senna, and certainly imported from Calcutta and perhaps other ports of Hindostan, it appears not to be the growth of that coun- try. Ainslie informs us that senna grows abundantly in India; but that it is of the spedes with obtuse leaves, and is not held in high estima- tion. A better sort, distinguished by its pointed leaves, is taken to India from Mocha, and extensively consumed. This is undoubtedly identical with that which we obtain from India, and of which the native country 74 586 Senna. PART I. is Arabia Felix. It is said by Ainslie that the Arabian senna plant has been recently introduced into the south of India and promises to succeed. The senna of the Mediterranean is brought to our markets chiefly from Marseilles. The India or Mocha variety comes either directly from Calcutta, or by the route of London, where it is purchased at the East India Company's sales. Commercial senna is prepared for use by picking out the leaflets, and rejecting the leafstalks, the small fragments, and the leaves of other plants. The pods are also rejected by some apothecaries; but they ap- pear to possess the cathartic virtue to a considerable extent, if not equally with the leaves; and, though not adopted by the American or British Pharmacopoeias, are recognised as officinal in the Paris Codex. Properties.—The odour of senna is faint and sickly; the taste slightly bitter, sweetish, and nauseous. Water and alcohol extract its active principles. The leaves yield about one-third of their weight to boiling water, one pint of which is requisite to exhaust the strength of an ounce of the medicine. The infusion is of a deep reddish-brown colour, and preserves the odour and taste of the leaves. When exposed to the air for a short time, it deposites a yellowish insoluble precipitate, supposed to result from the union of extractive matter with oxygen. The nature of this precipitate, however, is not well understood. Decoction also produces some change in the principles of senna, by which its medici- nal virtues are impaired. To diluted alcohol it imparts the samecred- dish-brown colour as to water; but rectified alcohol and ether digested ■upon the powdered leaves become of a deep olive-green.. The analysis of senna by MM. Lassaigne and Feneulle furnishes the following results. The leaves contain—1. a peculiar principle called cathartin;, 2 chloro- phylle or the green colouring matter of leaves; 3. a fixed oil;. 4. a small quantity of volatile oil; 5. albumen; 6. a yellow colouring matter; 7. mucilage; 8. salts of the vegetable acids, viz. malate and tartrate of lime and acetate of potassa; and 9. mineral salts. The pods are com- posed of the same principles, with the exception of the chlorophylle, the place of which is supplied by a peculiar colouring matter. (Journ. de Pharm. vii. 548. et ix. 58.) Of these constituents, the most interesting and important is the cathartin, which is said to be the active principle of senna, and derived its name from this circumstance. It is an uncrys- tallizable substance, having a peculiar smell, a bitter, nauseous taste, and a reddish-yellow colour; is soluble in every proportion in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether; and in its dry state attracts moisture from the air. It is prepared in the following manner. To a filtered decoction of senna the solution of acetate of lead is added; and the precipitate which forms is separated. A stream of hydrosulphuric acid (sulphu- retted hydrogen) is then made to pass through the liquor in order to precipitate, the lead, and the sulphuret produced is removed by filtration. The liquid is now evaporated to the consistence of an extract; the pro- duct is treated with rectified alcohol; and the alcoholic solution is eva- porated. To the extract thus obtained sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol is added, in order to decompose the acetate of potassa which it contains; the sulphate of potassa is separated by filtration; the excess of sulphuric acid by the acetate of lead; the excess of acetate of lead by hydrosul- phuric acid; and the sulphuret of lead by another filtration. The liquid being now evaporated yields cathartin. Incompatibles.—Many substances afford precipitates with the infusion of senna; but it by no means follows that they are all medicinally incom>- patible; as they may remove ingredients which have no influence upon. PART I. Senna.—Serpentaria. 587 the system, and leave the active principles unaffected. Cathartin is precipitated by the infusion of galls and probably other astringents, and by the solution of subacetate of lead. The acetate of lead and tartarized antimony, which disturb the infusion of senna, have no effect upon the solution of this principle. Medical Properties and Uses.—Senna was first used as a medicine by the Arabians. It was noticed in their writings so early as the ninth cen- tury; and the name itself is Arabic. It is a prompt, efficient, and very safe purgative, well calculated for fevers and febrile complaints, and other cases in which a decided but not violent impression is desired. An objection sometimes urged against it is that it is apt to produce se- vere griping pain in the bowels. This effect, however, may be obviated by combining with the senna some aromatic and some one of the alka- line salts, especially the supertartrate of potassa, tartrate of potassa, or sulphate of magnesia. The explanation which attributes the griping property to the oxidized extractive, and its prevention by the neutral salts to their influence in promoting the solubility of this substance, is not entirely satisfactory. The purgative effect of senna is considerably increased by combination with bitters; a fact which was noticed byCul- len, and has been abundantly confirmed by the experience of others. The decoction of guaiac is said to exert a similar influence. The dose of senna in powder is from half a drachm to a drachm; but its bulk renders it of inconvenient administration; and it is not often prescribed in this state. Besides, the powder is said to undergo decomposition, and to become mouldy on exposure to a damp air. The form of infusion is almost universally preferred. (See Infusum Sennas.) The medicine is sometimes used in the form of confection and of tincture. Off. Prep. Confectio Sennae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Cas- siae Sennae, Ed.; Infusum Sennae, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Infusum Tamarindi cum Senna, Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Sennae Compositus, Lond.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennae, U.S.; Tinctura Sennae, Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Sennae Composita, Ed.; Tinctura Sennae et Jalapae, U.S.; Syrupus Rhei et Sen- nae, U.S.; Syrupus Sennae, Dub. « SERPENTARIA. U.S. Virginia Snakeroot. " Aristolochla serpentaria. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. SERPENTARIA RADIX. Aristolochia Serpentaria. Radix. Lond.; ARISTOLOCHIA SERPENTARIA RADIX. Ed., ARISTOLOCHIA SERPENTARIA. Radix. Dub. Serpentaire de Virginie, Fr.; Virginianische schlangcnwurzel, Germ.; Serpentaria Virginiana, ltal, Span. Aristolochia. Class Gynandria. Order Hexandria.—Nat. Ord. Aris- tolochiae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla one-petaled, ligulate, ventricose at the base. Capsule six-celled, many seeded, inferior. Willd. Numerous species of Aristolochia have been employed in medicine. The roots of all of them are tonic and stimulant, and, from their sup- posed possession of emmenagogue properties, have given origin to the name of the genus. The A. Clematitis, A. longa, A. rotunda, and A- Pis- tolochia, are still retained in many officinal catalogues of the continent of Europe, where they are indigenous. The root of the A. Clematitis is composed of a tuft of long cylindrical fibres, about as thick as a goose 588 Serpentaria. PART I. quill, of a brown colour, a strong odour, and an acrid bitter taste; that of the A. longa is spindleshaped, from a few inches to a foot in length, of the thickness of the thumb or more, fleshy, very brittle, grayish ex- ternally, brownish-yellow within, bitter, and of a strong disagreeable odour when fresh; that of the A. rotunda is tuberous, roundish, heavy, fleshy, brownish on the exterior, grayish-yellow internally, and similar to the preceding in odour and taste; that of the A. Pistolochia consists of numerous slender yellowish or brownish fibres attached to a common head, and possessed of an agreeable aromatic odour, with a taste bitter and somewhat acrid. Many species of Aristolochia growing in the West Indies, Mexico, and South America, have attracted attention for their medicinal properties; and some, like our own snakeroot, have acquired the reputation of antidotes for the bites of serpents. In the East Indies, the A. Indica is employed for similar purposes with the European and American species; and the Arabians are said by Forskhal to use the leaves of the A. sempervirens as a counter-poison. We have within the limits of the United States four species, of which three—the A. Serpen- taria, A. tomentosa, and A. hastata—contribute indiscriminately to fur- nish the snakeroot of the shops, though one only, the A. Serpentaria, is admitted into the Pharmacopoeia. Aristolochia Serpentaria. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 159; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. Hi. 82; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 41. This species of Aristolochia is an herbaceous plant with a perennial root, which consists of numerous slender fibres proceeding from a short horizontal caudex. Several stems usually rise from the same root. They are about eight or ten inches in height, slender, round, flexuose, jointed at irregular distances, and fre* quently of a reddish or purple colour at the base. The leaves are oblong, cordate, acuminate, entire, of a pale yellowish-green colour, and sup^ ported on short petioles at the joints of the stem. The flowers proceed from the joints near the root, and 6tand singly on long, slender, round, jointed peduncles, which are sometimes furnished with one or two small scales, and bend downward so as nearly to bury the flower in the earth or decayeel leaves. There is no calyx. The corolla is of a purple co- lour, monopetalous, tubular, swelling at the base, contracted and curved in the middle, and terminating in a labiate border with lanceolate lips, The anthers—six or twelve in number—are sessile, attached to the under part of the stigma, which is roundish, divided into six parts, and supported by a short fleshy style upon an oblong, angular, hairy, inferior germ. The fruit is an hexangular, six-celled capsule, containing several small flat seeds. The plant grows in rich, shady woods, throughout the Middle, Southern, and Western States, abounding in the valley of the Ohio, and in the mountainous regions of our interior. It flowers in May and June, The root is collected in Western Pennsylvania and Virginia, in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, and is brought to the eastern markets chiefly by the route of Wheeling and Pittsburg. As it reaches Philadelphia, it is usually in bales containing from two to five hundred weight, and is often mixed with the leaves and stems of the plant, and with dirt from which jit has not been properly cleansed at the time of collection. A. tornentosa. Nuttall, Gen. of N. Am. Plants, p. 199.—A. hirsuta, Muhl. Catal. p. 81. The stem of this species is twining, and ascends to the summit of the tallest trees. Its leaves are roundish cordate, and villous on the under surface; the peduncles solitary and without bractes; the corolla densely villous, with a three-cleft, greenish-yellow border, and an oblique gaping orifice, the margin of which is elevated, rugose, PART I# Serpentaria. and dark purple, while the interior of the tube is white spotted with purple. The stigmas are three, and the anthers immersed in the style. The plant grows abundantly throughout Louisiana, on the banks ot the Mississippi, on the mountains of South Carolina, and probably in other Darts of the Western and Southern States. A. hastata. Nuttall, Gen. of N. Am. Plants, p. 200—.fl. sagittata. Muhl. Catal. This species, if indeed it can be considered a distinct spe- cies, differs from the A. Serpentaria in having hastate, acute, somewhat cordate leaves, radical peduncles, and the lip of the corolla ovate. It flourishes on the banks of the Mississippi, in Carolina, and elsewhere. The roots of the two latter species scarcely differ from those ot the officinal plant, and are frequently mixed with them, as is evinced by the presence of the characteristic leaves of the A. tomentosa and A. hastata in the parcels brought into market. (See Journ. Phil. Col. of Pharm. vol. i. p. 264.)...... . Properties.—Virginia snakeroot, as found in the shops, is in tults ot long, slender, frequently interlaced and brittle fibres, attached to a short, contorted, knotty head or caudex. The colour, which in the recent state is yellowish, becomes brown by time. That of the powder is grayish. The smell is strong, aromatic, and camphorous; the taste warm, very bitter, and also camphorous. The root yields all its virtues to water and to alcohol, producing with the former a yellowish-brown infusion, with the latter a bright greenish tincture, which is rendered turbid by the addition of water. Chevallier found in the root, volatile oil, a yellow bitter principle soluble in water and alcohol, resin, gum, starch, albu- men, lignin, and various salts. Bucholz obtained from 1000 parts, 5 of a green fragrant volatile oil, 28.5 of a yellowish-green resin, 17 of extractive matter, 181 of gummy extract, 624 of lignin, and 144.5 of water. The active ingredients are probably the volatile oil, and the yel- low bitter principle of Chevallier, which that chemist considers analo- gous to the extract of quassia called quassin by Dr, Thomson. The volatile oil passes over with water in distillation, rendering the liquid milky, and impregnating it with the peculiar odour of the root. Dr. Bigelow states that the liquid on standing deposites round the edges of its surface small crystals of camphor. Dr. A. T. Thomson in his Dispensatory informs us that the roots of the Collinsonia prsecox, the C. scabra of Pursh, are often mixed with those of the A. Serpentaria. This is not the case with the drug as brought to the Philadelphia market; but the roots of the Spigelia Marilandica are sometimes found associated with it. They may be distinguished by the absence of the bitter taste, and when the stem and foliage are attached, by the peculiar character of these parts of the plant. (See Spigelia.) Medical Properties and Uses.—Serpentaria is a stimulant tonic, acting also as a diaphoretic or diuretic, according to the mode of its applica- tion. Too largely taken, it occasions nausea, griping pains in the^ bow- els, sometimes vomiting and dysenteric tenesmus. It is admirably adapted to the treatment of typhoid fevers, whether idiopathic or symp- tomatic, when the system begins to feel the necessity for support, but is unable to bear active stimulation. In exanthematous diseases in which the eruption is tardy or has receded, and the grade of action is low, it is thought to be useful by promoting the cutaneous affection. It has also been highly recommended in intermittent fevers; and though itself generally inadequate to the cure of the complaint, often proves service- able as an adjunct to Peruvian bark or the sulphate of quinia. With the same remedies it is frequently associated in the treatment of typhous 590 Serpentaria.—Sesamum. part i. diseases. It is sometimes given in dyspepsia, and is employed as a gargle in malignant sore throat. The dose of the powdered root is from ten to thirty grains; but the infusion is almost always preferred. (See Infusum Serpentarise.) The decoction or extract would be an improper form, as the volatile oil, upon which the virtues of the medicine partly depend, is dissipated by boiling. Off. Prep. Electuarium Opiatum, Ed.; Infusum Serpentariae, U.S.; Tinctura Cinchonae Composita, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Ser- pentariae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. SESAMUM. U.S. Secondary. Benne. " Sesamum orientale. Folia. The leaves." U.S. OLEUM SESAMI. U.S. Secondary. Benne Oil. " Sesamum orientale. Seminum oleum. The oil of the seeds." U.S. Sesame, Fr.; Sesam, Germ.; Sesamo, Hal; Ajonjoli, Span. Sesamum. Class Didynamia. Order Angiospermia.—Nat. Ord. Big- noniae, Juss.; Pedalineae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla bell-shaped, five-cleft, with the lower lobe largest. Stamens five, the fifth a rudiment. Stigma lanceo- late. Capsule four-celled. Willd. Though the Sesamum orientale has been indicated by the United States Pharmacopoeia as the medicinal plant, there is reason to believe that the S. Indicum is that cultivated in our Southern States; at least we have found plants raised in Philadelphia from seeds obtained from Georgia, to correspond more closely with the description of the latter, as given by Willdenow. We give the specific character of both. Sesamum orientale. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 358; Rheed. Horl. Malab. ix. 54. "Leaves ovate, oblong, entire." Sesamum Indicum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 359; Curtis, Bot. Mag. vol. xli. t. 1688. " Leaves ovate-lanceolate, the inferior three-lobed, the su- perior undivided. Stem erect." The benne plant of our Southern States is annual, with a branching stem, which rises four or five feet in height, and bears opposite, petio- late leaves, varying considerably in their shape. Those on the upper part of the plant are ovate-lanceolate, irregularly serrate, and pointed; those near the base three-lobed and sometimes ternate; and lobed leaves are not uncommon at all distances from the ground. The flowers are of a reddish-white colour, and stand solitarily upon short peduncles in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is an oblong capsule, containing small, oval, yellowish seeds. These two species of Sesamum are natives of the East Indies, and have been cultivated from time immemorial in various parts of Asia and Af- rica. From the latter continent it is supposed that seeds were brought by the Negroes to our Southern States, where, as well as in the West Indies, one or both species are now cultivated to a considerable extent. It has been found that the plant above described will grow vigorously in the gardens so far north as Philadelphia. The seeds are employed as food by the negroes, who parch them over PART I. Sesamum.—Sevum. —Simaruba. 591 the fire, boil them in broths, make them into puddings, and prepare them in various other modes. By expression they yield a fixed oil, which, as well as the leaves of the plant, has been introduced into the second- ary catalogue of our national Pharmacopoeia. 1. Oil of Benne. This is inodorous, of a bland sweetish taste, and will keep very long without becoming rancid. It bears some resemblance to olive oil in its properties, and may be used for similar purposes. It was known to the ancient Persians and Egyptians, and is highly esteemed by the modern Arabs, and other people of the East, both as food, and as an external application to promote softness of the skin. Like olive oil, it is laxative in large doses. 2. Leaves. These abound in a gummy matter, which they readily im- part to water, forming a rich bland mucilage, much used in the Southern States as a drink in various complaints to which demulcents are appli- cable, as in cholera infantum, diarrhoea, dysentery, catarrh, and affec- tions of the urinary passages. The remedy has begun to attract atten- tion further northward, and has been employed with favourable results by physicians in Philadelphia. One or two fresh leaves stirred about in half a pint of cool water, will soon render it sufficiently viscid. In their dried stale they should be introduced into hot water. The leaves also serve for the preparation of emollient cataplasms. SEVUM. U.S. Suet. "Ovisaries. Sevum curatum. The prepared suet." U.S. Off. Syn. SEVUM PRAPARATUM. Lond.; ADEPS OVILLUS. Ed.; ADEPS OVILLUS PRAPARATUS. Dub. Suif, Graisse de mouton, Fr.; Hammeltalg, Germ.; Grasse duro, ltal; Sebo, Span. Suet is the fat of the sheep taken chiefly from about the kidneys. The London and Dublin Colleges direct it to be prepared by cutting the fat into pieces, melting it with a moderate heat, and straining it through linen or flannel. In order to avoid too great a heat, the crude suet is sometimes purified by boiling it in a little water. Mutton-suet is of a firmer consistence, and requires a higher tempera- ture for its fusion than any other animal fat. It is very white, somewhat brittle, inodorous, of a bland taste, insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol. Boiling alcohol, however, dissolves it, and deposites it upon Cooling. It consists, according to Chevreul, of stearin, elain, and a small proportion of hircin. For an account of the two first mentioned princi- ples, the reader is referred to the article Adeps. Hircin is a liquid like elain, from which it differs in being much more soluble in alcohol, and in being converted into hircic acid by saponification. (See Sapo.) Suet acquires by time an unpleasant ffell, and becomes unfit for phar- maceutic purposes. It is employed excKmvely to give a proper consist- ence to ointments and plasters. SIMARUBA. U.S. Simaruba. " Quassia simaruba. Willd. Simaruba officinalis. De Candolle, Sima- ruba Guyanensis. Richard. Cortex. Thebark." U.S. Off. Syn. SIMAROUBA CORTEX. Quassia Simarouba. Cortex. 592 Si?naruba. PART I. Lond.; QUASSIA SIMARUBA CORTEX. Ed.; QUASSIA SIMA- RUBA. Cortex radicis. Dub. Ecoice de simarouba, Fr.,- Simarubenrinde, Germ.; Corteccia di simaruba, Hal.; Corteza de simaruba, Span. Quassia. See QUASSIA. Quassia Simaruba. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 568; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 569. t. 203. As this plant is polygamous, it belongs properly to the genus Simaruba, separated by De Candolle from the Quassia (see Quas- sia); but we follow the Pharmacopoeias in considering it under its for- mer title. It is a tree of considerable height and thickness, having alternate branches, with a bark, which in the old tree is black and somewhat furrowed, in the young is smooth, gray, and marked here and there with broad yellow spots. The leaves are alternate and abruptly pinnate, with a naked petiole to which the leaflets are alternately at- tached by short footstalks. The leaflets are nearly elliptical, on the up- per surface smooth and of a deep green colour, on the under whitish. The flowers are of a yellow colour, and are placed on long axillary panicles. In some descriptions they are stated to be monoecious, in others dioecious. According to Dr. Wright, the female flowers are ne- ver found at Jamaica on the same tree with the male. In the Simaruba amara of Aublet, which grows in Guyana, and has generally been con- sidered identical with the Q. Simaruba, the male and female flowers are on the same plant. From this difference, Hayne has been led to the conclusion that the two trees are of different species. The number of stamens is ten. The tree is found in the West Indies and Guyana. In Jamaica it is called the mountain damson. Dr. A. T. Thomson is mistaken in stat- ing that it is a native of Carolina. The bark of the root is the part em- ployed, the wood itself being nearly tasteless and inert. Simaruba bark is in long pieces, some inches in breadth, folded lengthwise, light, flexible, tenacious, very fibrous, externally of a light brownish-yellow colour, rough, warty, and marked with transverse ridges, internally of a pale yellow. It is without smell, and of a bitter taste. It readily imparts its virtues at ordinary temperatures to water and alcohol. The infusion is at least equally bitter with the decoction, which becomes turbid as it cools. Its constituents, according to M. Morin, are a bitter principle, supposed by him to be identical with quassin, a resinous matter, a volatile oil having the odour of benzoin, malic acid, gallic acid in very minute proportion, an ammoniacal salt, malate and oxalate of lime, some mineral salts, oxide of iron, silica, ulmin, and lignin. Medical Properties and Uses.—Simaruba possesses the same tonic pro- perties as other simple bitters, and may be employed for the same pur- poses. It was introduced into France in the year 1713 from Guyana, where it had previously beenj^ed as a remedy for dysentery. In the treatment of this disease anaf obstinate diarrhoea it afterwards ob- tained much credit in Europe; but Cullen was right in denying to it any specific control over these complaints. It operates simply as a tonic; and, though it may be occasionally beneficial in relaxed and de- bilitated states of the alimentary canal, it would do much harm if in- discriminately prescribed in dysenteric cases. On account of its difficult pulverisation, it is seldom given in sub- stance. The best mode of administration is by infusion. (See Infusum Simarubse.) The dose is from a scruple to a drachm. Off. Prep. Infusum Simaroubae, Lond., Dub. PART I. Sinapis. 593 SINAPIS. U. S. Mustard. " Sinapis nigra et sinapis alba. Semina. The seeds." U.S. Off. Syn. SINAPIS SEMINA. Sinapis nigra. Semina. Lond.; SI- NAPIS ALBA SEMINA. Ed.; SINAPIS ALBA. Semina. SINAPIS NIGRA. Seminum pulvis. Dub. Moutarde, Fr.; Senfsamen, Germ.; Senapa, Hal; Mostaza, Span. Sinapis. Class Tetradynamia. Order Siliquosa.—Nat. Ord. Cruciferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx spreading. Corolla with straight claws. Glands be- tween the shorter stamens and pistil, and between the longer stamens and calyx. Willd. Sinapis nigra. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 555; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 403. t. 146. Common or black mustard is an annual plant, with a stem three or four feet in height, divided and subdivided into numerous spreading branches. The leaves are variously shaped. Those near the root are large, rugged, irregularly heart-shaped, and lobed at the base; those higher on the stem are smooth ; and the uppermost are entire, narrow, smooth, and dependent. The flowers are small, yellow, with a coloured calyx, and stand closely together upon peduncles at the upper part of the branches. The pods are smooth, erect, nearly parallel with the branches, quadrangular, furnished with a short beak, and occupied by numerous seeds. Sinapis alba. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 555; Smith, Flor. Brit. 721. The white mustard is also an annual plant. It is rather smaller than the pre- ceding species. The lower leaves are deeply pinnatifid, the upper sub- lyrate, and all irregularly toothed, rugged with stiff hairs on both sides, and of a pale green colour. The flowers are in racemes, with yellow petals, and linear, green, calycine leaflets. The pods are spreading, bristly, rugged, roundish, swelling in the position of the seeds, ribbed, and provided with a very long ensiform beak. Both plants are natives of Europe and cultivated in our culinary gar- dens ; and the S. nigra has become naturalized in Some parts of this country. Their flowers appear in June. The seeds are kept in the shops both whole and in the slate of very fine powder, as prepared by the manufacturers for the table. The black mustard seeds are small, globular, of a deep brown colour, slightly rugose on the surface, and internally yellow. In the entire state they are inodorous, but have a distinct smell in powder, and when rubbed with water or vinegar exhale a strong pungent odour, sufficient in some instances to excite a flow of tears. Their taste is bitterish, hot, and pungent, but not permanent. Thoifc^/s of the white mustard are much larger, of a yellowish colour, and Wm pungent taste. Both afford a yellow powder, which has a somewhat unctuous appearance, and cakes when compressed. Their skin contains a mucilaginous substance, which is extracted by boiling water, and abounds most in the white. When bruised or powdered they impart their active properties wholly to wia- ter, but in a very slight degree to alcohol. They yield upon pressure a fixed oil, of a greenish-yellow colour, little smell, and a mild not unplea- sant taste; and the portion which remains is even more pungent than the Unpressed seed. When black mustard seeds are distilled with water they afford a yellow volatile oil, soluble in alcohol and water, of an ex- 75 594 Sinapis. PART I. ceedingly pungent odour, an acrid and burning taste, containing a por- tion of sulphur, and capable, when applied to the skin, of producing very speedy vesication. Guibourt conjectured, and the recent experi- ments of Robiquet and Boutron have proved, that this oil does not exist ready formed in the seeds, but is produced by the action of water. Hence the absence or very slight degree of odour in the seeds when bruised in a perfectly dry state, and their great pungency when water is added. It will probably be found that a principle exists in black mus- tard seed, containing sulphur as a constituent, which is converted into volatile oil by the agency of this fluid. MM. Robiquet and Boutron were unable to procure any volatile oil from the white mustard seeds. The active properties of these they found to depend on a fixed principle, not existing in the seeds, but developed, as the volatile oil in the former case, by the action of water or other agent. The ingredient of the seeds which is converted into this acrid principle, they believe to be the sul- pho-sinapisin discovered originally by MM. Henry the younger and Ga- rot in the oil of white mustard, afterwards found in the seeds themselves. Their reason for this belief is that mustard which has been previously deprived of this ingredient, is incapable of developing the acrid princi- ple. As the white mustard contains none of that substance which affords the volatile oil when water is applied, so the black mustard contains little or none of the sulpho-sinapisin which in the former is converted by similar means into the active principle. The two varieties, therefore, differ essentially in their constitution, though it is probable that their respective characteristic ingredients are closely analogous, as they both contain sulphur. Sulpho-sinapisin is an interesting compound, as af- fording an instance of a proximate vegetable principle having sulphur as a constituent. Its other elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. It was at first thought by MM. Henry and Garot to be an acid, but has since been acknowledged to be a neutral substance. It is white, crystallizable, soluble in water and alcohol, producing a yellow solution, without smell, and of a taste analogous to that of mustard. {Journ. de Pharm. Janv. 1831.) From the experiments of MM. Troupeau and Blanc it appears, that vinegar diminishes the irritating property of black mustard; and that a mixture of the powder with concentrated acetic acid in certain propor- tions is quite inert when applied to the skin, though either separately is capable of exciting severe inflammation. The same result does not ap- pear to have been obtained with the white mustard seed. [Archives Gen- erates, Sept. 1830.) Medical Properties and Uses.—Mustard seeds swallowed whole operate as a laxative, and have recently enjoyed great popularity as a remedy in dyspepsia, and in other complaints attended with torpid bowels and deficient excitement. The whit^^eeds are preferred, and are taken in the dose of a tablespoonful onceJjp twice a day, mixed with molasses, or previously softened and rendered mucilaginous by immersion in hot wa- ter. They probably act by mechanically stimulating the bowels. The bruised seeds or powder, in the quantity of a large teaspoonful, operate as an emetic. Mustard in this state is applicable to cases of great tor- por of stomach, especially that resulting from narcotic poisons. It rouses the gastric susceptibility and facilitates the action of other emet- ics. In smaller quantities it is useful as a safe stimulant of the diges- tive organs; and, as it is frequently determined to the kidneys, has been usefully employed in dropsy. Whey made by boiling half an ounce of the bruised seeds or powder in a pint of milk, and straining, is a conve- PART I. Sinapis. —Sodium. 595 nient form for administration. It may be given in the dose of a wine- glassful repeated several times a day. But mustard is most valuable as a rubefacient. Mixed with water in the form of a cataplasm, and ap- plied to the skin, it very soon produces redness with a burning pain which in less than an hour usually becomes insupportable. When a speedy impression is not desired, especially when the sinapism is ap- plied to the extremities, the powder should be diluted with an equal portion of rye meal or wheat flour. Care should be taken not to allow the application to continue too long, as vesication with obstinate ulcera- tion, and even sphacelus may result. This caution is particularly neces- sary in cases where the patient is insensible, and the degree of pain can afford no criterion of the sufficiency of the action. Off. Prep. Infusum Armoraciae Compositum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Ca- taplasma Sinapis, Lond., Dub.; Emplastrum Cantharidis Vesicatoriae Comp., Ed. SODIUM. Sodium. Sodium, Fr.; Natronmetall, Natrium, Germ.; Sodio, ltal, Span. Sodium is a peculiar elementary body of a metallic nature, forming the basis of the alkali soda. It was discovered by Sir H. Davy in 1807, who obtained it in minute quantity by decomposing the alkali by the agency of galvanic electricity. It was afterwards procured in much larger quantities by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, by bringing the alkali in contact with iron turnings heated to whiteness. The iron became oxi- dized, and the metallic matter called sodium was liberated. Sodium is a soft, malleable, sectile solid, of a silver-white colour. It possesses the metallic lustre in a high degree when protected from the action of the air, by which it is quickly tarnished and oxidized. Its sp. gr. is 0.97, fusing point about 200°, and equivalent number 24. Its chemical affinities resemble those of potassium, but are by no means sd energetic. Like potassium it has a strong attraction for oxygen. When thrown upon cold water it instantly fuses into a globule without inflam- ing, and traverses the surface in different directions with rapidity; on hot water it inflames. In both cases water is decomposed, hydrogen is liberated, and a solution of soda generated. It combines also with a larger proportion of oxygen than exists in soda, forming the peroxide of sodium. This oxide is always formed when the metal is burnt in the open air. Sodium is present in a number of important medicinal preparations, and is briefly described in this place as an introduction to these com- pounds. Its protoxide only is salifiable, constituting the alkali soda, which, united to acids, gives rise to the numerous class of salts, called salts of sodium, or of soda. This oxide consists of one equiv. of sodium 24, and one equiv. of oxygen 8 = 32. United with one equiv. of water it forms hydrate of soda (caustic soda), weighing 41. Sodium unites also with chlorine, forming chloride of sodium, or common salt, and with most of the other non-metallic bodies. The offi- cinal combinations containing sodium, are the chloride of sodium, the acetate, borate, carbonate, bicarbonate, phosphate, sulphate, and sul- phuret of soda, and the tartrate of potassa and soda. The description of most of these compounds will immediately follow, and that of the remainder, being included among the " Preparations," will be noticed, under their respective titles, in the second part of this work. 596 Sodas Acetas. PART I. SODjE ACETAS. U.S., Bub. Acetate of Soda. Ace'tate de soude, Fr.,- Essigsaures natron, Germ.; Acetato di soda, ltal. Acetate of soda is officinal only in the Dublin and United States Phar- macopoeias. In the former work it is included among the " Prepara- tions ;" in the latter, with greater propriety, in the catalogue of the Materia Medica; as the salt is made in considerable quantities by the manufacturing chemist in the process for purifying pyroligneous acid. Preparation.—The Dublin College obtain this salt by saturating car- bonate of soda with distilled vinegar, and evaporating the filtered solu- tion until it attains the sp. gr. 1.276. As the solution cools crystals will form, which must be cautiously dried and kept in well stopped bottles. In conducting the process, the crystallized carbonate of soda will be found to require, about eleven times its weight of distilled vinegar for saturation. The acetate of soda is prepared in large quantities by the manufacturers of pyroligneous acid, for the purpose of being decomposed, so as to yield strong acetic acid by the action of sulphuric acid. See Acidum Aceticum Empyreumaticum. The first step is to add to the impure acid as much chalk as it is capable of decomposing at common temperatures, and then to boil the liquor, and complete the saturation with slaked lime. During the saturation a quantity of blackish scum will rise, which must be carefully removed. In this way an acetate of lime is formed, which must be decomposed by the requisite quantity of sulphate of soda. By double decomposition there become formed acetate of soda, which re- mains in solution, and sulphate of lime, which precipitates, carrying down with it more or less of the tarry impurities. After the sulphate of lime has completely subsided, the solution of acetate of soda is decant- ed, and concentrated to a pellicle; when it is transferred to crystallizers, in which it cools and crystallizes in mass. This mass is very impure, being black and impregnated with much tar. It is purified by drying, submitting it to the igneous fusion, re-solution in water, filtration, and repeated crystallizations. Sometimes animal charcoal is used to free the crystals from colour. Properties, fyc.t—Acetate of soda is a white salt, crystallizing in long striated prisms, and possessing a sharp, bitterish, not disagreeable taste. Exposed to the air it effloresces slowly, and loses about forty per cent, of its weight. It is soluble in about three parts of cold water, and in twenty-four parts of alcohol. Subjected to heat, it undergoes first the aqueous and then the igneous fusion, and is finally decomposed. By the affusion of sulphuric acid it is decomposed, the acetic acid being separated, and sulphate of soda formed. It consists, when crystallized, of one equiv. of acetic acid 51, one equiv. of soda 32, and six equiv. of water 54 = 137. Medical Properties and Uses.—Acetate of soda is diuretic, and pos- sesses generally the same medical properties as the acetate of potassa, to which article the reader is referred. It is, however, more convenient for exhibition than the latter salt, as it is not deliquescent. The dose is from one to four scruples. Its only pharmaceutical use is to yield strong acetic acid by the action of sulphuric acid, and for this purpose it is, employed in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Off. Prep. Acidum Aceticum, U. S. PART I. Sodse Boras. 597 SODjE BORAS. U.S., Bub. Borate of Soda. Off Syn. SODA SUBBORAS. Lond.; SUB-BORAS SODA. Ed. Borax; Borate de soude, Borax, Fr., Boraxsaures natron, Borax, Germ.; Borace, ltal; Borrax, Span.; Boorak, Arab. Borax was known to the ancients, but its chemical nature was first ascertained by Geoffroy in 1732. It exists native, and may be obtained by artificial means. It occurs in small quantities in several localities in Europe, and in Peru in South America; but the demands of commerce are supplied almost exclusively by certain lakes, existing in Thibet and Persia, from which it is obtained by spontaneous evaporation. On the margins of these lakes the impure borax concretes, and is dug up in lumps, called in commerce tincal or crude borax. In this state it is in the form of crystalline masses, which are sometimes colourless, some- times yellowish or greenish, and always covered with an earthy coating, greasy to the touch, and having the odour of soap. The greasy appear- ance is derived from a fatty matter, with which the excess of soda ap- pears to be united. The crude borax, thus obtained in the interior, is transferred to the seaports of India, from which it is imported into this country, packed in chests. Besides tincal, there is another commercial variety of borax, which comes from China, and which is partially re- fined. Both these kinds of borax require to be refined, before they are fit for use in medicine or the arts. Purification,-—The method of refining borax was originally possess- ed as a secret by the Venetians and Dutch, but is now practised in sev- eral European countries. The process pursued in France, as reported by Robiquet and Marchand, is as follows. The tincal is placed in a large wooden vessel, and covered to the depth of three or four inches with water; in which state it is allowed to remain for five or six hours, agitating it from time to time. Slaked lime is now added, in the pro- portion of one part to four hundred of the impure salt; and the whole being mixed thoroughly, is allowed to remain at rest until the next day. The salt is next separated by means of a sieve, the crystals being crum- bled between the hands, and placed so as to drain. The object of this treatment is to separate the greasy matter, which is effected by the lime forming an insoluble soap with it. The borax being drained, is next dissolved, by the assistance of heat, in two and a half times its weight of water, and the solution treated with one-fiftieth of its weight of muriate of lime, and allowed to strain through a coarse bag. The filtration be- ing completed, the liquor is concentrated by heat, and then run into inverted quadrangular pyramids of wood, lined with lead. If care be taken that the cooling proceeds extremely slow, distinct crystals will be obtained, such as are found in commerce: otherwise, crystalline crusts will be formed. The washing with water in this process causes the loss of a minute portion only of the borax, the substances removed being a soapy matter, together with the sulphate and muriate of soda. The Chinese borax is purified in a similar manner, but being less im- pure than the common tincal, does not require to be washed. According to Berzelius, tincal, in the process of purification, loses half its weight; but according to Robiquet and Marchand, a much less quantity. Preparation of Artificial Borax.—Of latter years in France, borax has been made to a considerable extent by the direct combination of boracic acid with soda; and the same process is beginning to be employed by a 598 Sodas Boras. PART I. few of our own manufacturing chemists. The acid employed is import- ed from Italy, where it exists in solution in certain lakes, particularly in Tuscany. It is heated with water and carbonate of soda in excess, and the solution, after proper concentration, is allowed to crystallize in vessels lined with lead, as above described. Properties.—Borax is a white salt, generally crystallized in flattened hexahedral prisms terminated by triangular pyramids, and possessing a sweetish, feebly alkaline taste, and an alkaline reaction with test pa- per. It dissolves in twelve times its weight of cold, and twice its weight of boiling water. Exposed to the air, it effloresces slowly and slightly at the surface of the crystals, which become covered with a white powder. Subjected to a moderate heat it undergoes the aqueous fusion, swells considerably, and finally becomes a dry porous mass, with loss of half its weight. Above a red heat it melts into a limpid liquid, called glass of borax, which is very much used as a flux in assays with the blow- pipe. According to Dr. Duncan, borax possesses the singular property of converting the mucilage of gum arabic, Iceland moss, or salep, into a gelatinous mass, without any adhesive property. It is decomposed by a majority of the acids, \by potassa, and by the earthy and ammoniacal sulphates, muriates, phosphates, and fluates. Borax has the property of rendering cream of tartar very soluble, and forms a combination with it, called soluble cream of tartar, which is sometimes used in medicine. This preparation is made by boiling 6 parts of cream of tartar and 2 parts of borax in 16 parts of water for five minutes, allowing the solution to cool, and then filtering to sepa- rate some tartrate of lime. Soluble cream of tartar attracts moisture from the air, and is soluble in its own weight of cold, and half its weight of boiling water. A similar preparation may be made by substi- tuting boracic acid for the borax; the proportions being 4 parts of cream of tartar to I of the acid. This combination is even more soluble than the other. It has not been well ascertained what is the nature of these compounds. Thenard has thrown out the suggestion, that the former consists of the tartrate of potassa and soda (Rochelle salt), and a combination of cream of tartar with boracic acid; and Berzelius inclines to the opinion, that in the latter the boracic acid acts the part of a base, and that the compound is a double salt, consist- ing of the tartrate of potassa and -tartrate of boracic acid. Applying Berzelius's view to the former salt, it would consist of two double salts united together, namely the tartrate of potassa and soda, and the tar- trate of potassa and boracic acid. According to the formula of the Paris Codex, soluble cream of tartar is made with boracic acid. Three parts of this acid are mixed with two parts of distilled water and heated in a silver vessel, the mixture being stirred with a spatula. Twenty-one parts of cream of tartar are then added by small portions at a time, the mixture being constantly stirred. The whole completely liquefies, and by continuing the heat until dryness is produced, passes into the state of powder. This is next thoroughly dried by the heat of a stove, and after having been reduced to a very fine powder, is preserved in well stopped bottles. Composition.—Borax consists of two equiv. of boracic acid 48, and one equiv. of soda 32 = 80. As ordinarily crystallized it contains ten equiv. of water; but a variety of the salt exists, which crystallizes in octohedrons, and which contains only five equiv. of water. From the composition of borax in equivalents, it is evidently a fo'borate, though generally called a sw&borate, on account of its possessing an alkaline re- part i. Sodse Boras.—Sodas Carbonas Venale. 599 action. This latter property arises from the feeble neutralizing power of boracic acid, which prevents it from overcoming the alkaline nature of so strong a base as soda. Medical Properties and cTses.—Borax is considered to be diuretic and emmenagogue; but is seldom used internally. Dr. Duncan quotes Wurzer for asserting that it is the best remedy that can be used in ne- phritic and calculous complaints, dependent on an excess of uric acid. It acts in such cases as an alkali, the boracic acid being displaced by the acid which may be met with in the stomach or urinary passages. The dose is from thirty to forty grains. Cream of tartar, rendered solu- ble by borax or boracic acid, is a convenient preparation, where it is desirable to administer large quantities of the former salt. The chief medical use, however, of borax, is as a detergent in aphthous affections of the mouth in children. When thus employed, it is generally applied in powder mixed with seven parts of sugar, or rubbed up with honey. See Mel Boracis. Off. Prep. Mel Boracis, Lond., Ed., Dub. SOD^ CARBONAS VENALE. Bub. Commercial Carbonate of Soda. Off. Syn. SODA IMPURA. Lond.; SUB-CARBONAS SODA IMPURUS, Ed. Barilla; Soude du commerce, Fr.; Rohe soda, Germ.; Soda impura, ltal.; Barilla, Span. The impure carbonate of soda of commerce, or barilla, is introduced into the British Pharmacopoeias, as the substance from which the pure carbonate is to be obtained by solution and crystallization. It has not a place in our national Pharmacopoeia, as the purified carbonate, obtained by artificial means on a large scale by the manufacturing chemist, is sufficiently pure for medicinal use, and is the preparation found in our shops, the apothecary seldom or never resorting to any process for the purification of barilla. The sources of the alkali soda are either natural or artificial. The natural sources are certain minerals which contain it in a carbonated state, and certain marine vegetables, which yield it by incineration; and the artificial, are particular salts of soda which yield the alkali by chemical decomposition. Native soda is found in different parts of the world; but chiefly in Egypt, in Hungary, and near Merida in the Republic of Colombia. It exists in these localities in solution in small lakes, from which it is ex- tracted in consequence of the drying up of the water during the heats of summer. Native soda is called in commerce by the name of natron, and was formerly imported from Egypt for the use of the arts; but for a number of years, the demands of commerce for this alkali have been supplied from other sources. The native soda of Egypt, called trona by the natives, proves on analysis to be a sesquicarbonate; while the South American is intermediate in the proportion of its acid, between the Egyptian and artificial carbonate. None of these native sodas are im- portant to the American chemist or druggist, as they are never import- ed into this country. Soda of vegetable origin is derived from certain plants which grow on the surface or bonders of the sea, and is denominated either barilla or kelp, according to the particular character of the marine plants from 600 Sodas Carbonas Venale. PART I. which it is derived. Barilla is obtained from several vegetables, princi- pally belonging to the genera Salicornia and Salsola; and the Salsola soda and Salsola kali are the species preferred. In Spain, Sicily, and some other countries, these plants are regularly cultivated for the pur- pose of yielding soda by their combustion. The plants, when mature, are cut down, dried, and burnt in excavations in the ground, about three feet deep, and four feet in diameter. The combustion is continued by the fresh addition of bundles of the dried plant, until the pit is filled with the ashes. These are found in the state of a semifused, hard, and compact saline mass, which is broken up into fragments by means of pickaxes, and thrown into commerce. Kelp is procured by the incine- ration of various kinds of sea-weeds, principally the algae and fuci, which grow on the rocky coasts of many countries. The Orkney Islands, and the rocky coasts of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, furnish large quantities of these weeds. The plants are allowed to ferment in heaps, then dried, and'afterwards burnt to ashes in ovens, roughly made with brick or stone, and built in the ground. The alkali in the ashes melts, and forms the whole into one solid mass. When cold, it is broken up with iron instruments into large heavy masses, in which state it is found in commerce. Many thousand tons of kelp are thus annually made in Great Britain for the purposes of the arts. An impure soda is obtained in a similar manner in France, where it is called vareck. Properties.—Barilla, when of good quality, is in hard, dry, porous, sonorous, grayish-blue masses, which become covered with a saline efflorescence after exposure to the air. It possesses an alkaline taste, but is inodorous, and'should not emit any unpleasant smell on solution. That which is most esteemed comes from Spain, and is distinguished, according to its particular source, as the barilla, either of Alicante, Carthagena, or Malaga. It contains from twenty-five to forty per cent. of real carbonated alkali, the residue being made up of sulphate of soda, sulphuret of sodium, common salt, carbonate of lime, alumina, silica, oxide of iron, and a small portion of charcoal which had escaped incineration. Kelp is in hard compact masses, of a dark blue colour, and possessing a sulphurous odour, and an acrid, caustic taste. It is still less pure than barilla, containing only from three to eight per cent, of carbonated soda, the rest being made up of a large proportion of the sulphates of soda and potassa and the chlorides of potassium and sodium, and a small quantity of the iodide either of potassium or sodium. It is from this substance that iodine is most readily obtained. (See lodinum.) Preparation of the Artificial Soda of Commerce. Soda is obtained by che- mical means, principally from the sulphate of soda, and the chloride of sodium or common salt. The methods pursued in Scotland for decom- posing these salts are very well described by Mr. Steele, lecturer on chemistry in Glasgow, in a communication made to Dr. Duncan, from which we derive the following account. When the sulphate of soda is employed, 5 cwt. of the salt, 2 cwt. of saw-dust, 50 lbs. of lime, and a small quantity of iron-filings or borings are ground together, and then exposed to heat in a reverberatory furnace, until the mixture becomes pasty. During the calcination the sulphuric acid is decomposed; its oxygen combines with the carbon derived from the saw-dust, and forms carbonic acid, which unites with the soda; while the sulphur forms sulphurets with the lime and iron. The matter in this state is then transferred to large cisterns with double bottoms, where it is lixiviated to separate the soluble matter from the insoluble impurities. The ley PART I. Sodas Carbonas Venale. 601 obtained, consisting of a solution of carbonate of soda with a little sul- phate of soda, is evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass subjected to a new treatment, precisely similar to that above described, with a view of decomposing the remains of the latter salt. The dry mass re- maining after the second treatment consists of the soda, but is deficient in carbonic acid, in consequence of the strong heat to which it has been exposed. To supply this deficiency, the product is heated in a re- verberatory furnace with a quantity of saw-dust, which, during its com- bustion, furnishes the necessary carbonic acid to the soda. The car- bonate being thus completely formed, the matter from the furnace is again lixiviated, and the solution crystallized at a temperature which should not exceed 55°. When soda is obtained from common salt, the process pursued is as follows. Saturated solutions of equal weights of common salt and pot or pearlashes are mixed together and boiled to a pellicle. The com- mon salt by solution in water becomes a muriate of soda, which, by double decomposition with the carbonate of potassa, generates carbon- ate of soda and muriate of potassa in solution. This reaction having taken place, the solution is run into a cooler, and the muriate of potassa separates as chloride of potassium by priority of crystallization. The supernatant liquid containing the soda, somewhat deficient in carbonic acid, owing to the deficiency of this acid in the potash, is now evapo- rated to dryness, and the dry mass calcined at a low red heat with saw-dust, to supply the deficient acid. It is then withdrawn from the furnace and lixiviated, and the solution crystallized at a temperature not exceeding 55°. Sometimes soda is obtained from what are called soaper's salts, which are the saline matters remaining after the separation of carbonate of soda from kelp by the makers of hard soap. These salts consist of the sulphates and muriates of soda and potassa. They are treated in the same way as the unmixed sulphate of soda. This latter salt is of course converted into carbonate of soda, and by the operation of similar affi- nities, the sulphate of potassa also passes into the state of a carbonate. The carbonate of potassa, as soon as formed, reacts upon the muriate of soda, and produces an additional portion of carbonate of soda. The muriate of potassa is consequently the only salt present in the soaper's salts, which remains unchanged in this process, and its quantity is some- what increased by the decomposition of the common salt. (Duncan, Edinb. Disp.) The method of obtaining carbonate of soda by the decomposition of the salts of soda was first put in practice in France by Leblanc and Dize, and has since been improved by other chemists. The process above detailed is that practised in Scotland, in which country large quantities of artificial carbonate of soda are made. The alkali, as obtained after the first calcination of the materials, is very impure, containing only from thirty-two to thirty-three per cent, of pure carbonate of soda, and may be considered as corresponding in quality to the barilla of commerce; but after being subjected to all the steps of the process, as above described, it may be considered as a pure carbonate of soda. The carbonate of soda used in this country is chiefly imported from Scotland, and comes packed in hogsheads. The impure carbonate, in the form of barilla, is imported from Spain, and is consumed by the soap manufacturers. The different kinds of impure carbonate of soda of commerce, whether ba- rilla or kelp, are exceedingly variable in composition; and as their value depends entirely on the quantity of real carbonated alkali which they 76 602 Sodx Carbonas Venale.—Sodas Carbonas. part i. contain, it becomes important to have a ready method of determining this quantity. The mode in which this is ascertained, by means of an instrument called an alkalimeter, is explained under another head. (See Potassse Carbonas Impurus.) Pharmaceutical Uses, fyc.—Barilla is never used in medicine, but is directed by the British Colleges for the purpose of obtaining from it the pure carbonate of soda. It is largely consumed in the arts, in the manufacture of soap and glass, and in some of the processes of dyeing. Off. Prep. Sodae Subcarbonas, Lond., Ed., Dub. SOBM CARBONAS. U.S., Bub. Carbonate of Soda. Off Syn. SODA SUBCARBONAS. Lond.; SUB-CARBONAS SODA. Ed. Carbonate de soude, Fr.; Kohlensaures natron, Germ.; Carbonato di soda, ltal.; Carbonato de soda, Span. . The different British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt from barilla by solution and crystallization; but the framers of the United States Pharmacopoeia have placed it more properly in the list of the Materia Medica, as a product obtained on a large scale by the manufacturing chemist, and not made by the apothecary. The directions of the British Colleges for the purification of the ba- rilla do not materially differ. The London College takes a pound of the impure salt, boils it with four pints of distilled water for half an hour, and filters. The solution is then evaporated to two pints, and set aside to crystallize. The Edinburgh process is the same, with the exception that the quantity of water to be used is not specified. The Dublin College exhausts the barilla by boiling it with twice its weight of water for two or three successive times; and having mixed the several solutions, eva- porates to dryness. The dry mass is then dissolved in boiling water, and the solution evaporated until it acquire the sp. gr. of 1.22; when it is exposed to a temperature about freezing, in order that it may crystal- lize. The crystals are then dried and kept in close bottles. These processes for the purification of barilla are almost entirely su- perseded, in consequence of the great perfection to which the artificial production of the carbonate of soda has been brought. It is this pro- duct, made on a large scale, that supplies our apothecaries with the carbonate of soda which they vend. The manner in which it is prepar- ed is fully detailed under the preceding article. (See Sodse Carbonas Venale.) Properties.—Carbonate of soda is a white efflorescent salt, possessing an alkaline, slightly caustic taste, and crystallizing usually in large rhomboidal prisms, which are opaque and powdery on the surface, but semitransparent within. It is exceedingly soluble in water, and displays an alkaline reaction with tests. When heated it undergoes the aqueous fusion at a low temperature; and if the heat be continued it dries, and finally suffers the igneous fusion. The most usual impurities which it contains are sulphate of soda and common salt, which may be detected by converting the salt into a nitrate, and testing separate portions of this severally with the nitrates of baryta and of silver. Carbonate of soda is incompatible with acids, acidulous salts, lime-water, muriate of ammonia, and earthy and metallic salts. It consists of one equiv. of carbonic acid 22, and. one equiv. of soda 32 = 54. When fully crystal- part I. Sodas Carbonas.—Sodas Chloridum. 603 lized it contains ten equivalents of water 90, giving as the number re- presenting the crystallized salt 144. It is thus perceived that this salt, when perfectly crystallized, contains nearly two-thirds of its weight of water; but the actual quantity present in the salt as found in the shops, is very variable, dependent on the extent to which it may have under- gone efflorescence. Medical Properties and Uses.—Carbonate of soda is antacid and de- obstruent It is given principally in diseases attended with acidity of the stomach; as certain forms of dyspepsia, gout, and uric acid gravel. It is more frequently exhibited than carbonate of potassa, as it is more easily taken, its taste being less acrid. It has also been recommended in hooping-cough, scrofula, and bronchocele. In the latter disease, Dr. Peschier of Geneva considers it more efficacious than the iodine itself. It is given in doses of from ten grains to half a drachm, either in powder, or in solution in some bitter infusion. In consequence of the variable state in which it exists in the shops, as to the amount of water of crystallization which it contains, it is not easy to regulate the dose with much precision. It is on this account, that the most conve- nient form of the salt for administration is in the dried state. (See Sodae Carbonas Exsiccatus.) It is used in preparing the precipitated car- bonate of iron. Off. Prep. Aqua Super-Carbonatis Sodae, Ed., Dub.; Pilulae Ferri Compositae, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Sodae Bicarbonas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Sodae Carbonas Exsiccatus, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Sodae et Potassae Tartras, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Sodae Phosphas, U.S., Ed., Dub. SODjE CHLORIDUM. Chloride of Soda. Labarraque's disinfecting soda liquid ; Chlorure de soude, Fr.; Chlornatron, Germ. This combination, though not officinal, is so important in many re- spects as a medicinal agent, as to deserve a separate consideration in this work. It was first brought into notice as a disinfecting agent by Labarraque, an apothecary of Paris, who announced it to be a combi- nation of chlorine with soda, bearing in composition an analogy to the chloride of lime. Its nature has since been investigated by Mr. Philips and Mr. Faraday, especially the latter, who considers it not to be ex- clusively a chloride of soda; but this combination, which is its active ingredient, associated with a certain portion of carbonate of soda. Preparation.—In preparing the chloride of soda, it is necessary, in order to have a good preparation, to follow exactly the proportions re- commended by Labarraque. In imitating these, Mr. Faraday dissolved 2800 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda in 1.28 pints of water, and through the'solution, contained in a Wolfe's apparatus, he trans- mitted the chlorine evolved from 967 grains of sea-salt, by the action of 750 grains of peroxide of manganese, and 967 grains of sulphuric acid, diluted with 750 grains of water. The chlorine, before it reached the soda, was passed through water, to free it from muriatic acid; and the quantity of it disengaged from the above materials, was found suf- ficient for the due saturation of the soda. During the continuance of the process no carbonic acid is evolved; whereas, when the chlorine is pass- ed through the solution in excess, the whole of this acid is expelled. Another process for obtaining the chloride of soda, more easy of ex- 604 Sodas Chloridum. PART I. ecution than the above, is that proposed by M. Payen. It consists in decomposing the chloride of lime by carbonate of soda. By double decomposition, chloride of soda and carbonate of lime are formed, the latter of which separates in consequence of its insolubility. The proportions prescribed by M. Payen are, a pound of dry chloride of lime, two pounds of crystallized carbonate of soda, and eighteen pounds of water. The chloride is dissolved in twelve pounds of water, which is added by small successive portions, and the solution obtained allowed to settle for three hours in a covered vessel; after which it is decanted clear, and filtered. The insoluble portion is now thrown upon the filter, and exhausted by two successive additions of water of two pounds each. The carbonate of soda is now dissolved, by the assistance of heat, in two pounds of water, and the solution having been allowed to grow cold, is mixed with that of the chloride of lime. An abundant precipitate of carbonate of lime is immediately formed, from which the solution of chloride of soda, simultaneously generated, is decanted. This is then filtered and introduced into bottles, which should be carefully stopped. The quantities of the materials above indicated, yield about two gallons and a half of the liquid chloride of soda. Properties.—Labarraque's soda liquid has a pale yellow colour, and a slight odour of chlorine. Its taste is sharp, saline, and but feebly alka- line, producing a persisting biting impression on the tongue. It pos- sesses an alkaline reaction. When boiled, chlorine is not given off, nor is its bleaching property sensibly impaired; and if carefully evapo- rated, a mass of damp crystals will be obtained, which, when redis- solved in water, will possess the properties of the original liquid. When long kept it undergoes alteration, from the generation of chloric acid and chloride of sodium. By slow evaporation the chlorine is entirely evolved, and crystals of carbonate of soda are left. Composition.—The nature of Labarraque's liquid is still involved in doubt. It seems to be conceded, however, that it is not a pure chloride of soda, as it contains carbonic acid as well as the constituents of that combination. Berzelius takes the same view of it as he does of the chlo- ride of lime; namely, that it is a compound of chlorous acid (tritoxide of chlorine) and soda. He accordingly calls it chlorite of soda. (See Calcis Chloridum.) Dr. Turner has thrown out the probable conjecture that the chlorine, in this preparation, combines with half the soda; while the other half, with all the carbonic acid, constitutes a bicarbonate. On this view of its composition, Labarraque's liquid is a combination of chloride and bicarbonate of soda. Medical Properties and Uses.—Chloride of soda is a powerful disin- fectant, possessing in this respect the same general properties as the chloride of lime. It is, however, much better suited for employment as a remedy than the latter chloride. It was first introduced to the notice of the French practitioners by Labarraque; and the experience already had of its powers in various affections, has been sufficient to establish its remedial value. Its principal medical use is as an external applica- tion, though occasionally it is given internally. The external affections in which it lias been found useful are, generally, all those attended with fetor; such as gangrenous and ill-conditioned ulcers, carbuncle, cancer, ozoena, mortification, putrid sore throat, &x. It is applied, in such cases, in a more or less dilute state, as a wash, mixed with poultices, or imbibed by lint. In the sore mouth from ptyalism, it forms a good • mouth-wash, when diluted with eight parts or more of water. In fetid discharges from the uterus and bladder, it has been employed with ad- part I. Sodas Chloridum.—Sodas Sulphas. 605 vantage as an injection, diluted with from fifteen to thirty parts of wa- ter for the uterus, and with sixty parts when the object is to wash out the bladder by means of a double cannula. The chloride has also been applied successfully to burns, and to cutaneous eruptions, particularly tinea capitis, and obstinate herpetic affections. Internally it has been exhibited in scarlatina maligna, in dysentery attended with peculiarly fetid stools, in those forms of dyspepsia attended with putrid eructa- tions, and in asphyxia produced by sulphuretted hydrogen. The dose is from fifteen to twenty-five drops in a cupful of water, repeated every two or three hours. As a disinfecting agent, chloride of soda is even more valuable than the chloride of lime; but its comparative expensiveness will restrict its use to disinfecting operations on a small scale. In the bed chambers of the sick, especially with infectious diseases, it will be found highly use- ful, sprinkled on the floor or bed, and added to the vessels intended to receive the excretions. In short, it is applicable to most of the disinfect- ing purposes detailed under the head of chloride of lime, to which article, to save repetition, the reader is referred. SOBM SULPHAS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Sulphate of Soda. Off Syn. SULPHAS SODA; Ed. Vitriolated soda, Glauber's salt; Sulfate de soude, Fr.; Schwefelsaures natron, Glau- bersalz, Germ.; Solfato di soda, Hal; Sulfato de soda, Sal de Glaubero, Span. This salt is included among the Preparations by the three British Colleges, a formula for obtaining it being given; and is placed also in the catalogue of the Materia Medica by the London and Edinburgh Colleges. In the United States Pharmacopoeia, it is inserted only in the Materia Medica, where it properly stands as an article obtained on a large scale. Sulphate of soda, in small quantities, is extensively diffused in na- ture, and is obtained artificially in several chemical operations. It exists in solution in many mineral springs, among which may be mentioned those of Cheltenham and Carlsbad; its ingredients are present in sea- water; and it is found combined with sulphate of lime, constituting a distinct mineral production. As an artificial product, it is formed in the processes for obtaining muriatic acid and chlorine, and in the prepara- tion of muriate of ammonia, from sulphate of ammonia and common salt. (See Acidum Muriaticum, Aqua Chlorinii, and Ammonise Murias.) It may also be procured, under favourable circumstances, from sea- water. Preparation.—The British Colleges agree in obtaining sulphate of soda from the salt left after the distillation of muriatic acid. This resi- duary salt, as is explained under muriatic acid, is sulphate of soda; but it generally contains a slight excess of sulphuric acid, which must be neutralized or removed. The London College dissolves two pounds of the salt in two pints and a half of boiling water, and saturates the excess of acid with carbonate of soda. The solution is then evaporated to a pellicle, filtered, and set aside to crystallize. The supernatant liquor being poured off, the crystals are dried on blotting paper. The Edin- burgh College dissolves the salt in water, the quantity not being speci- fied, and adds to the solution powdered carbonate of lime to neutralize the excess of acid. The solution, after being allowed to stand until the 606 Sodas Sulphas. part i. precipitate subsides, is poured off clear, filtered through paper, and evaporated to the point of crystallization. In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, the salt is directed to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of boiling water, and the solution, after filtration and due evaporation, is allowed to crystallize by slow cooling. In the above processes, it is perceived that the London College con- verts the excess of acid in the residuary salt into an additional portion of sulphate of soda, while the Edinburgh College gets rid of it, by con- verting it into the insoluble sulphate of lime. The latter plan is consi- dered the best, as the London process implies the expenditure of a more valuable, to obtain a less valuable salt. The Dublin process makes no provision for removing the excess of acid, and hence the sulphate of soda obtained is slightly acid. The residuum of the process for obtaining chlorine by the action of sulphuric acid, water, and peroxide of manganese on common salt, is a mixture of sulphate of soda and protosulphate of manganese. We have not been able to find any detailed process for separating the sulphate of soda from this mixture; but we are informed by Mr. Parkes, that an establishment for this purpose in England was attended with complete success, and was only discontinued in consequence of the Government having forbidden the sale of the residuum in question. Considering the large quantities of this residuum, which are necessarily formed in pre- paring chloride of lime and other bleaching agents, it would seem well worth the while of our manufacturing chemists to attempt its purifica- tion. The object would not be to furnish a salt for use in medicine, but to convert the sulphate of soda which might be obtained into the car- bonate. (See Sodx Carbonas Venale.) For this purpose, it would proba- bly not require to be carefully purified. In the process for obtaining muriate of ammonia from the sulphate and common salt, water is decomposed, and a double decomposition takes place, resulting in the formation of muriate of ammonia and sulphate of soda. The mode in which the two salts are afterwards separated is ex- plained under the head of muriate of ammonia. Since the chemical method of making carbonate of soda from the sulphate has been generally practised in France and England, the con- sumption of Glauber's salt has considerably increased, and its prepara- tion has been an object of importance. In France it is usually made by decomposing common salt by sulphuric acid, and in most instances the muriatic acid is allowed to escape. This is the same process as that of the British Colleges, only performed on a large scale. In Sweden sul- phate of soda is made by double decomposition between sulphate of iron and common salt. In some of our Northern States, particularly Massa- chusetts, a portion of Glauber's salt is made from sea-water in the winter season. The circumstances under which it is formed, have been explained in a paper "On the preparation of Glauber's and Epsom Salt and Magnesia from Sea-water," published in the first number of the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. The constituents of a number of salts exist in sea-water; and in what binary order they may precipitate during evaporation, depends on the temperature. During the prevalence of rigorous cold, sulphate of soda is the least soluble salt which can be formed out of the acids and bases present, and ac- cordingly separates in the form of crystals. Properties.—Sulphate of soda is a white salt, possessing a cooling, nauseous, and bitter taste, and crystallizing with great facility in four- sided striated prisms, with dihedral summits. When recently prepared, PART I. Sodas Sulphas.—Sodii Chloridum. 607 it is beautifully transparent; but by exposure to the air it effloresces, and the crystals become covered with an opaque white powder. By long exposure it undergoes complete efflorescence, and falls to powder with loss of more than half its weight. It is soluble in about twice its weight of cold water, and in less than one-third of its weight at 91.5°, above which temperature, up to the boiling point, its solubility dimi- nishes. Subjected to heat, it melts in its water of crystallization, then dries, and afterwards, by the application of a pretty strong heat, under- goes igneous fusion. Occasionally it contains an excess of acid or alkali, which may be discovered by the use of litmus or turmeric paper. The presence of common salt may be detected by sulphate of silver, that of iron by ferrocyanate of potassa or tincture of galls. It is incompatible with carbonate of potassa, muriate of lime, the salts of baryta, nitrate of silver if the solutions be strong, and the acetate and subacetate of lead. It consists of one equiv. of sulphuric acid 40, one equiv. of soda 32, and ten equiv. of water 90 = 162. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sulphate of soda, in doses of from half an ounce to an ounce, is an efficient cathartic; in smaller doses, largely diluted, an aperient and diuretic. When in an effloresced state, the dose must be reduced one-half. It is much less used than formerly, having been almost entirely superseded by sulphate of magnesia, which is less disagreeable to the palate. Its nauseous taste, however, may be readily disguised by the admixture of a little lemon-juice or cream of tartar. Sulphate of soda is the principal ingredient in the artificial Cheltenham salts. These consist of 120 grs. of sulphate of soda, 66 grs. of sulphate of magnesia, 10 grs. of muriate of soda, and half a grain of sulphate of iron, and constitute, according to Dr. Paris, a very effica- cious purgative. The only uses of sulphate of soda in the arts are to make carbonate of soda, and as an ingredient in some kinds of glass. It has no officinal preparations. SODII CHLORIDUM. U.S. Chloride of Sodium. Off. Syn. SODA MURIAS. Lond., Dub.; MURIAS SODA. Ed. Muriate of soda, Common salt; Chlorure de sodium, Hydro-chlorate de soude, Sel marin, Fr.; Salzsaures natron, Kochsalz, Germ.; Salt, Ban., Swed.; Sal commune, Hal; Sal, Span. This mineral production, so necessary to the wants of mankind, is universally distributed over the globe, and is the most abundant of the native soluble salts. Most animals have an instinctive relish for it; and from its frequent presence in the solids and fluids of the animal econo- my, it may be viewed as performing an important part in nutrition and assimilation. Natural State. Common salt exists in nature, either in the solid state or in solution. In the solid state, called rock salt, it is often found form- ing extensive beds, and even entire mountains, from which the salt is extracted in blocks or masses by mining operations. Its geological po- sition is very constant, occurring almost invariably in secondary forma- tions, associated with clay and gypsum. In solution it occurs in certain lakes and springs, and in the waters of the ocean. The principal salt- mines in the world are found in Poland, Hungary, and Russia; in vari- ous parts of Germany, particularly the Tyrol; in England, in the county of Cheshire; in Spain; in various parts of Asia and Africa j and 608 Sodii Chloridum. part i. in Peru, and other countries in South America. In the United States there are no salt-mines, but numerous saline springs, which either flow naturally, or are produced artificially by sinking wells in places where salt is known to exist. These are found principally in Missouri, Virgi- nia, Kentucky, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. In the latter State the springs are the most productive; the chief ones being situated at Salina, Montezuma, and Galen. The whole quantity of salt extracted from saline springs in the United States, is supposed to exceed a mil- lion of bushels, of which more than half is furnished by the New York salines. Rock salt is always transparent or translucent; but it often exhibits various colours, such as red, yellow, brown, violet, blue, 8cc, which are supposed to be derived from iron and manganese. Extraction.—Mines of salt are worked in two ways. When the salt is pure, it is merely dug out of the mine in blocks and thrown into com- merce. When impure, it is dissolved in water and extracted afterwards from the solution by evaporation. When the salt is naturally in solution, the mode of extraction depends upon the strength of the brine, and the temperature of the place where it is found. When the water contains from fourteen to fifteen per cent, of salt, it is extracted by evaporation in large iron boilers. If, however, it contains only two, three, four, or five per cent., the salt is extracted in a different manner. If the climate be warm it is procured by spontaneous evaporation, effected by the heat of the sun; if temperate, by a peculiar mode of spontaneous evapora- tion, and the subsequent application of artificial heat. Sea-water is a weak saline solution, from which salt is often extracted by the agency of solar heat in warm countries. Salt thus obtained, is called bay salt. The extraction is conducted in Europe principally on the shores of the Mediterranean, the waters of which are salter than those of the open ocean. The mode in which it is performed is by let- ting in the sea-water into a kind of shallow dikes, lined with clay, and capable, after being filled, of being shut off from the ocean. In this situation the heat of the sun gradually concentrates the water, and the salt is deposited. In temperate climates, weak brines are first concentrated in buildings, called graduation houses. These are rough wooden structures, open on the sides, ten or eleven yards high, five or six wide, and three or four hundred long, and containing an oblong pile of faggots somewhat smaller than the building itself. The brine is pumped up into troughs full of holes, placed above the faggots, upon which it is allowed to fall; and in its descent it becomes minutely di- vided. This operation, by greatly increasing the surface of the brine, promotes its evaporation, and being repeated several times, the solution is at last brought to the requisite degree of strength, to permit of its final concentration in iron boilers by artificial heat. Sometimes, to save fuel, the last concentration is performed by allowing the brine to trickle down a number of vertical ropes, on the surface of which the salt is deposited in the form of a crust. Properties.—Chloride of sodium is white, without odour, and of a peculiar taste, called saline. It is usually crystallized in cubes; but by hasty evaporation it often assumes the form of hollow quadrangu- lar pyramids. When pure it undergoes no change in the air; but when contaminated with muriate of magnesia, as not unfrequently happens, it is rendered deliquescent. It dissolves in somewhat less than three times its weight of cold water, and is scarcely more soluble in boiling water. In weak alcohol it is very soluble, but sparingly so in absolute alcohol. Exposed to a gradually increasing heat, it first PART I. Sodii Chloridum. 609 decrepitates from the presence of interstitial moisture, next melts, and finally volatilizes in white fumes without decomposition. It is decom- posed by several of the acids, particularly the sulphuric and nitric, which disengage vapours of muriatic acid; by carbonate of potassa with the assistance of heat; and by the nitrate of silver and protoxide of mercury. Several varieties of common salt are distinguished in commerce; as stoved salt, fishery salt, bay salt, 8cc; but they are characterized by modifications in the size and compactness of the grains, rather than by any essential difference in composition. Composition.—Common salt, in its pure state, consists of one equiv. of chlorine 36, and one equiv. of sodium 24 = 60. It contains no water of crystallization. When in solution it is supposed to become a muriate of soda in consequence of the decomposition of water, the hydrogen and oxygen of which severally convert the chlorine and sodium into mu- riatic acid and soda. In aqueous solution, therefore, it may be said to consist of one equiv. of muriatic acid 37, and one equiv. of soda 32 == 69. The common salt of commerce, besides pure chloride of sodium, contains, generally speaking, insoluble matter, and more or less of the muriates and sulphates of lime and magnesia. The muriate of lime is generally present in very small amount; but the muriate of magnesia sometimes amounts to 28 parts in 1000. Sulphate of lime is usually present, constituting variously from 1 part to 23 in the 1000; and sul- phate of magnesia is sometimes present and sometimes absent. To separate the earths, a boiling solution of carbonate of soda must be added, as long as any precipitate is formed. The earths will fall as car- bonates, and must be separated by filtration; and muriate and sulphate of soda will remain in solution. The sulphate of soda may then be decomposed by the cautious addition of muriate of baryta, which will generate muriate of soda, and the insoluble sulphate of baryta. Medical Properties and Uses.—Chloride of sodium, in small doses, act3 as a stimulant tonic; in larger doses, as a purgative. It certainly pro- motes digestion, and the almost universal animal appetency for it, proves it to be a salutary stimulus in health. When taken in larger quantities than usual with food, it is useful in some forms of dyspepsia, and by giving greater tone to the digestive organs in weakly children, may correct the disposition to generate worms. On the sudden occurrence of haemoptysis, it is usefully resorted to as a styptic, in the dose of a teaspoonful, taken dry, and often proves successful in stopping the flow of blood. Externally applied in solution it is stimulant, and may be used either locally or generally. Locally it is sometimes employed as a fo- mentation in sprains and bruises; and as a general external application, it forms the salt water bath, a valuable remedy as a tonic and excitant in depraved conditions of the system, occurring especially in children, and supposed to be dependent on the scrofulous diathesis. It is fre- quently used as an ingredient in stimulating enemata. The dose, as a tonic, is from ten grains to a drachm; as a cathartic, though seldom used for this purpose, from half an ounce to an ounce. When employed as a clyster, it may be used in the amount of from one to two table- spoonfuls dissolved in a pint of water. The uses of common salt in domestic economy as a condiment and antiseptic are well known. In agriculture it is sometimes used as a ma- nure, and in the arts it is employed to prepare artificial soda and muri- ate of ammonia. In pharmacy it is used in obtaining muriatic acid, chlorine, calomel, and corrosive sublimate. 77 610 Sodii Chloridum.—Solidago.—Spartium. part i. Off. Prep. Acidum Muriaticum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Aqua Chlorinii, Dub.; Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum, U.S., Lond,, Ed., Dub.; Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Salinus Com- positus, Ed., Dub.; Sub-Murias Hydrargyri Praecipitatus, Ed., Dub. SOLIDAGO. U.S. Secondary. Golden-rod. " Solidago odora. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Solidago. Class Syngenesia. Order Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Corymbi- ferae, Juss.; Compositae Corymbiferae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx imbricated, scales closed. Radial florets about five, yellow. Receptacle naked, punctate. Pappus simple, pilose. Nuttall. This is a very abundant genus, including, according to Eaton's enu- meration, upwards of sixty species belonging to this country. Of these the S. odora only is officinal. The S. Virgaurea, which is common to the United States and Europe, was formerly directed by the Dublin College; but has been omitted in the late edition of their Pharmacopoeia, It is astringent, and has been supposed to possess lithontriptic virtues, Solidago odora. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2061; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot, i. 187. The sweet-scented golden-rod has a perennial creeping root, and a slender, erect, pubescent stem, which rises two or three feet in height. The leaves are sessile, linear lanceolate, entire, acute, rough at the mar- gin, elsewhere smooth, and, according to Bigelow, covered with pellu^ cid dots. The flowers are of a deep golden-yellow colour, and are arranged in a terminal, compound, panicled raceme, the branches of which spread almost horizontally, are each accompanied by a small leaf, and support the flowers on downy pedicels, which put forth from the upper side of the peduncle, and have small linear bractes at their base. The florets of the ray are ligulate, oblong, and obtuse; those of the disk funnel-shaped, with acute segments. The plant grows in woods and fields throughout the United States, and is in flower from August to October. The leaves, which are the pfficinal portion, have a fragrant odour, and a warm, aromatic, agree- able taste. These properties depend on a volatile oil, which may be se- parated by distillation with water. It is of a pale greenish-yellow colour, and lighter than water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Golden-rod is aromatic, moderately stimulant and carminative, and like other substances of the same class, diaphoretic when given in warm infusion. It may be used to relieve pain arising from flatulence, to allay nausea, and to cover the taste or correct the operation of unpleasant or irritating medicines. For these purposes it may be given in infusion. The volatile oil dissolved in alco- hol is employed in the Eastern States. According to Pursh, the dried flowers are used as a pleasant and wholesome substitute for common tea, SPARTIUM. U.S. Secondary. Broom. *'Spartium scoparium. Cacumina. The tops." U.S. Off Syn. SPARTII CACUMINA. Spartium scoparium. Cacumina, Lond.; SPARTII SCOPARII SUMMITATES. Ed.; SPARTIUM SCOPARIUM. Cacumina. Dub. PART I. Spartium. —Spigelia. 611 Genet a balais, Fr.; Gemeine besenginster, Pfriemen, Germ.; Scoparia, ltal; Reta- ma, Span. Spartium. Class Diadelphia. Order Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Legumi- liosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Stigma longitudinal, villous above. Filaments adhering to the germen. Calyx produced downwards. Willd. Spartium scoparium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 933; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 413. t. 150. This is a common European shrub, cultivated in our gardens, from three to eight feet high, with numerous straight, pentan- gular, bright-green, very flexible branches, and small, oblong, downy leaves, which are usually ternate* but on the upper part of the plant are sometimes simple. The flowers are numerous* papilionaceous, large, showy, of a golden-yellow colour, and supported solitarily upon short axillary peduncles. The seeds are contained in a compressed legume, which is hairy at the sutures. The whole plant has a bitter nauseous taste, and when bruised, a strong peculiar odour. The tops of the branches are the officinal por- tion ; but the seeds are also used, and possess similar virtues. Water and alcohol extract their active properties. Medical Properties and Uses.—Broom is diuretic and cathartic, and has been employed with some advantage in dropsical complaints, in which it was recommended by Mead, Cullen, and others. Cullen pre- scribed it in the form of decoction, made by boiling half an ounce of the fresh tops in a pint of water down to half a pint, of which he gave' a fluidounce every hour till it operated by stool or urine. It is a do- mestic remedy in Great Britain, but is seldom used in this country. Off. Prep. Extractum Spartii Scoparii, Dub. SPIGELIA. U.S. Pink-rooti " Spigelia Marilandica. Radix; The root." U.Si Off. Syn. SPIGELIA RADIX. Spigelia Marilandica. Radix. Lond.; SPIGELIA MARILANDICA RADIX. Ed.; SPIGELIA MARILAN^ DICA. Radix. Dub. Spig€lie du Maryland, Fr.; Spigelie, Germ.; Spigelia, ltal Spigelia. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianae* Juss.; Spigeliaceae, Martius, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla funnel-shaped, border five-cleft, equal. Capsule didymous, two-celled, four-valved, many-seeded. Nuttall. There are two species of Spigelia which have attracted attention as anthelmintics, the S. anthelmintica of South America and the West In- dies, and the S. Marilandica of this country. The former is an annual plant, used only in the countries where it grows; the latter is much employed both in this country and in Europe. Spigelia Marilandica. Willd. Sp. Plant. L 825; Bigelow, Am. Medi Bot. i. 142; Barton, Med. Bot. ii; 75. The Carolina pink is an herba- ceous plant with a perennial root, which sends off numerous fibrous branches. The stems, several of which rise from the same root, are simple, erect, four-sided, nearly smooth, and from twelve to twenty inches high. The leaves are opposite, sessile, ovate-lanceolate, acumi- nate, entire, and smooth, with the veins and margins slightly pubes- cent. Each stem terminates in a spike, which leans to one side, and 612 Spigelia. PART I. supports from four to twelve flowers with very short peduncles. The calyx is persistent, with five long, subulate, slightly serrate leaves, re- flexed in the ripe fruit. The corolla is funnel-shaped, and much longer than the calyx, with the tube inflated in the middle, and the border di- vided into five acute, spreading segments. It is of a rich carmine colour externally, becoming paler at the base, and orange-yellow within. The edges of the segments are slightly tinged with green. The stamens, though apparently very short, and inserted into the upper part of the tube between the segments, may be traced down its internal surface to the base. The anthers are oblong, heart-shaped; the germ superior, ovate; the style about the length of the corolla, and terminating in a linear fringed stigma projecting considerably beyond it The capsule is double, consisting of two cohering, globular, one-celled portions, and containing many seeds. The plant is a native of our Southern States, being seldom if ever found North of the Potomac. It grows in rich soils on the borders of woods, and flowers from May to July. The root is the part recognised as officinal by the United States Pharmacopceia, although the whole plant is gathered and dried for sale. It is collected by the Creek and Cherokee Indians, who dispose of it to the white traders. By these it is packed in casks, or more commonly in large bales, weighing from three hundred to three hundred and fifty pounds. That contained in casks is to be preferred, as less liable to be damp and mouldy. Owing to the imperfect manner in which the plant is dried, it seldom happens that packages of it reach the market free from dirt and mouldiness, and having the stalks of a bright colour. Some parcels have recently been brought free from the stalks, and have commanded more than double the price of the drug prepared in the usual way. Properties.—Pink-root consists of numerous slender, branching, crook- ed, wrinkled fibres, from three to six inches long, attached to a knotty head or caudex, which exhibits traces of the stems of former years. It is of a brownish or yellowish-brown colour externally, of a faint smell, and a sweetish, slightly bitter, not very disagreeable taste. Its virtues are extracted by boiling water. The root, analyzed by M. Feneulle, yielded a fixed and volatile oil, a small quantity of re&in, a bitter sub- stance supposed to be the active principle, a mucilaginous saccharine matter, albumen, gallic acid, the malates of potassa and lime, &c, and woody fibre. The principle upon which the virtues of the root are thought to depend, is brown, of a bitter nauseous taste like that of the purgative matter of the leguminous plants, and when taken internally produces vertigo and a kind of intoxication. The stalks, which, with the leaves, are usually attached to the root, are oval below the first pair of leaves, and then become obscurely four- sided. The leaves, when good, have a fresh greenish colour, and an odour somewhat like that of tea. In taste they resemble the root, and afforded to M. Feneulle nearly the same principles. The quantity, how- ever, of the bitter substance was less, corresponding with their inferior efficacy. This circumstance should cause their rejection from the shops, as the inequality in power of the two portions of the plant would lead to uncertainty in the result, when they are both employed. The root alone is wisely directed by the Pharmacopoeias. The roots are sometimes mixed with those of other plants, particu- larly of a small vine which twines round the stem of the spigelia. These are long, slender, crooked, yellowish, thickly set with short capillary PART I. Spigelia. —Spirasa. 613 fibres, and much smaller and lighter coloured than the pink-root They should be separated before the latter is used. The activity of spigelia is somewhat diminished by time. Medical Properties and Uses.—Pink-root is generally considered among the most powerful anthelmintics. In the ordinary dose it usually pro- duces little sensible effect on the system; more largely given it acts as a cathartic, though unequal and uncertain in its operation; in overdoses it excites the circulation, and determines to the brain, giving rise to vertigo, dimness of vision, dilated pupils, spasm of the facial muscles, and sometimes even to general convulsions. Spasmodic movements of the eyelids have been observed among the most common attendants o£ its narcotic action. The death of two children who expired in convul- sions was attributed by Dr. Chalmers to the influence of spigelia. The narcotic effects are said to be less apt to occur when the medicine purges, and to be altogether obviated by combining it with cathartics. The danger from its employment cannot be great, as it is in very gene- ral use in the United States, both in regular'and domestic practice, and we never hear at present of serious consequences. Its effects upon the nervous system have been erroneously conjectured to depend on other roots sometimes mixed with the genuine. The vermifuge properties of spigelia were first learned from the Cherokee Indians. They were made known to the medical profession by Drs. Lining, Garden, and Chalmers of South Carolina. The remedy stands at present in this country at the head of the anthelmintics. It has also been recommended in infantile remittents and other febrile diseases; but is entitled to little confidence in these complaints. It may be given in substance or infusion. The dose of the powdered root for a child three or four years old, is from ten to twenty grains, for an adult from one to two drachms, to be repeated morning and even- ing for several days successively, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. The practice of preceding its use by an emetic has been generally aban- doned. It is frequently given in combination with calomel. The infu- sion, however, is the most common form of administration. (See Infusum Spigeliae.) It is usually combined with senna or some other cathartic, to ensure its action on the bowels. A preparation generally kept in the shops and much prescribed by physicians, under the name of worm tea, consists of pink-root, senna, manna, and savine, mixed together, in various proportions, to suit the views of different individuals. Off. Prep. Infusum Spigeliae, U. S. SPIR^A. U.S. Secondary. Hardhack. "Spiraea tomentosa. Radix. The root." U.S. SpirjEa. Class Icosandria. Order Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae, Juss. Gen.Ch. Calyx spreading, five-cleft, inferior. Petals five, equal, round- ish. Stamens numerous, exserted. Capsules three to twelve, internally bivalve, each one to three-seeded. Nuttall. Spiraea tomentosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1056; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. vol. ii. This is an indigenous shrub, two or three feet high, with nu- merous simple, erect, round, downy, and purplish stems, furnished with alternate leaves closely set upon very short footstalks. The leaves are ovate lanceolate, unequally serrate, somewhat pointed at both ends, 614 Spirasa. —Spongxa. part i. dark green on their upper surface, whitish and tomentose beneath. The flowers are of a beautiful red or purple colour, and disposed in terminal* compound, crowded spikes or racemes. The hardhack flourishes in low grounds, from New England to Ca- rolina, but is most abundant in the Northern States. It flowers in July and August. All parts of it are medicinal. The root, though designated in the Pharmacopceia, is, according to Dr. A. W. Ives, the least valu- able portion. The taste of the plant is bitter and powerfully astringent. Among its constituents are tannin, gallic acid, and bitter extractive. Water extracts its sensible properties and medicinal virtues. Medical Properties and Uses.—Spiraea is tonic and astringent; and may be used in diarrhoea, cholera infantum, and other complaints in which astringents are indicated. In consequence of its tonic powers it is peculiarly adapted to cases of debility; and, from the same cause, should not be given during the existence of inflammatory action, or fe- brile excitement It is said to have been employed by the aborigines of our country; but was first brought before the notice of the medical pro- fession by Dr. Cogswell of Hartford, in Connecticut It is said to be less apt to disagree with the stomach than most other astringents. The form in which it is best administered is that of an extract, pre- pared by evaporating the decoction of the leaves, stems, or root. The dose is from five to fifteen grains, repeated several times a day. A de- coction prepared by boiling an ounce of the plant in a pint of water, may be given in the dose of one or two fluidounces. SPONGIA. U.S., Lond. Sponge. " Spongia officinalis." U.S. Of. Syn. SPONGIA OFFICINALIS. Ed., Dub. Eponge, Fr.; Badeschwamm, Germ.; Spugna, ltal.; Esponja, Span., Portug.; lsfung, Arab. The sponge is now universally admitted to be an animal, belonging to the class of Zoophites. It is characterized as " a flexile, fixed, torpid, polymorphous animal, composed either of reticulate fibres, or masses of small spires interwoven together, and clothed with a gelatinous flesh full of small mouths on its surface, by which it absorbs and rejects wa- ter." More than two hundred and fifty species have been described by naturalists, of which several are probably employed, though the Spongia officinalis is the only one designated in the Pharmacopoeias. They inha- bit the bottom of the sea, where they are fixed to rocks or other solid bodies; and are most abundant within the tropics. They are collected chiefly in the Mediterranean and Red seas, and in those of the East and West Indies. In the Grecian Archipelago many persons derive their support altogether from diving for sponges. When first collected they are enveloped by a gelatinous coating, which forms part of the animal* and is separated by washing with water. Large quantities of the coarser kinds are imported from the Bahamas; but the finest and most esteemed are brought from the Mediterranean. Sponge, as found in commerce, is in yellowish-brown masses of vari- ous shape and size, light, porous, elastic, and composed of fine, flexible, tenacious fibres, interwoven in the form of cells and meshes. It usually contains numerous minute fragments of coral or stone, or small shells,- from which it must be freed before it can be used for ordinary purposes. PART I. Spongia.—Stannum. 615 Sponge is prepared by macerating it for several days in cold water, beating it in order to break up the concretions which it contains, and dissolving what cannot thus be separated of the calcareous matter by muriatic acid diluted with thirty parts of water. By this process it is rendered perfectly soft, and fit for surgical use. It may be bleached by steeping it in water impregnated with sulphurous acid, or by exposure in a moist state to the action of chlorine. When intended for surgical purposes, the softest, finest, and most elastic sponges should be selected; for forming burnt sponge, the coarser will answer equally well. According to Mr. Hatchet, the chemical constituents of sponge are gelatin, albumen, common salt, and carbonate of lime. The presence of magnesia, silica, iron, and phosphorus, has also been detected; and iodine, in the state of hydriodate of soda, is among the ingredients. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sponge, in its unaltered state, is not employed as a medicine; but in consequence of its softness, porosity, and property of imbibing liquids, it is very useful in surgical operations. From the same qualities it may he advantageously applied over certain ulcers, the irritating sanies from which it removes by absorption. Com- pressed upon a bleeding vessel, it is sometimes useful by promoting the coagulation of the blood, especially in hemorrhage from the nostrils. In the shape of sponge tent it is also useful for dilating sinuses. This is prepared by dipping sponge into melted wax, compressing it between two flat surfaces till the wax hardens, and then cutting it into pieces of a proper form and size. By the heat of the body the wax becomes soft, and the sponge expanding by the imbibition of moisture, gradually dilates the wound or ulcer in which it may be placed. Reduced to the state of charcoal by heat, sponge has long been used as a remedy in goitre. (See Spongia Usta.) Its efficacy in this complaint, which was formerly con- sidered very doubtful by many physicians, has been generally admitted since the discovery of iodine. Off. Prep. Spongia Usta, U.S., Lond., Dub. STANNUM. U.S., Lond., Bub. Tin. Off. Syn. STANNI LIMATURA. Ed. Etain, Fr.; Zinn, Germ.; Stagno, Hal; Estanno, Span. Tin is one of those metals which has been known from the earliest ages. It exists in the earth generally as an oxide, rarely as a sulphuret; and is by no means generally diffused. It is found in England, Spain, Germany, Bohemia, and Hungary, in Europe; in the island of Banca and the peninsula of Malacca in Asia; and in Chili and Mexico in Ame- rica. It has not been discovered in the United States. The English mines are the most productive, but those of Asia furnish the purest tin. The metal is extracted exclusively from the native oxide. When this occurs in its purest state, under the form of detached roundish grains, called stream tin, the reduction is effected simply by heating with char- coal. When the oxide is extracted from mines, it requires to be freed, by pounding and washing, from the adhering gangue, after which it is roasted to drive off the sulphur, arsenic, and antimony, and finally re- duced in furnaces by means of stone coal. The metal, as thus obtained, is not pure, and requires to be subjected to a gentle heat, whereby the pure tin enters first into fusion, and is thus separated from the impuri- ties, which consist of tin united with copper, arsenic, iron, and antj* 616 Stannum.—Staphisagrias Semina. part i. mony. The pure metal, thus obtained, is the grain-tin of the English; while the impure residue, after being fused, constitues ordinary or block tin. Properties.—Tin is a malleable, rather soft metal, of a silver-white colour, and possessing considerable brilliancy. It undergoes but a slight tarnish in the air. Its taste is slight, and when rubbed it exhales a pe- culiar smell. Its ductility and tenacity are small, and when bent to and fro, it emits a crackling noise, which is characteristic of this metal. Its sp. gr. is 7.29, melting point 442°, and equiv. number 58. It forms two oxides, a protoxide and deutoxide. The protoxide is of a grayish-black colour, and consists of one equiv. of tin 58, and one equiv. of oxygen 8 = 66. The peroxide is of a white colour, and constitutes the native oxide. It consists of one equiv. of tin 58, and two equiv. of oxygen 16 = 74. The tin of commerce is often impure, being contaminated with other metals, either by fraud, or in consequence of the mode of extraction from the ore. When its colour has a bluish or grayish cast, the pre- sence of copper, lead, iron, or antimony, may be suspected. Arsenic renders it whiter, but at the same time harder than natural, and lead, copper, and iron, cause it to become brittle. Pure tin, dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, gives a white precipitate with ferrocyanate of po- tassa. A blue precipitate with this test indicates iron; a purple one, cop- per; and a violet-blue one, both iron and copper. If lead be present, a precipitate will be produced by sulphate of soda. The Malacca and Banca tin, and the English grain-tin, are the purest kinds found in com- merce. Block tin and the metal obtained from Germany are always of inferior quality. Uses.—Tin enters into the composition of bronze, bell-metal, pewter, and plumber's solder. It is used also in making tin-plate, in silvering looking-glasses, and in forming the muriate of tin, a combination essen- tial to the perfection of the scarlet dye. It is employed in fabricating various vessels and instruments, useful in domestic economy and the arts. Being unaffected by weak acids, it forms a good material for ves- sels intended for boiling operations in pharmacy. For its medical pro- perties, see Pulvis Stanni. Off. Prep. Pulvis Stanni, U.S., Ed., Dub. STAPHISAGRI.E SEMINA. Lond. Stavesacre seeds. " Delphinium Staphisagria. Semina." Lond. Off. Syn. DELPHINII STAPHISAGRIA SEMINA. Ed.; DEL- PHINIUM STAPHISAGRIA. Semina. Dub. Staphisaigre, Fr.; Stephanskraut, Lausekraut, Germ.; Stafisagria, Hal; Abarraz, Span. Delphinium. See DELPHINIUM. Delphinium Staphisagria. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1231.; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 471. t. 168. Stavesacre is a handsome annual or biennial plant, one or two feet high, with a simple, erect, downy stem, and palmate, five or seven-lobed leaves supported on hairy footstalks. The flowers are bluish or purple, in terminal racemes, with pedicels twice as long as the flower, and bracteoles inserted at the base of the pedicel. The nectary is four-leaved and shorter than the petals, which are five in number, the uppermost projected backward so as to form a spur which part I. Stuphisagrise Semina.—Statice. 617 encloses two spurs of the upper leaflets of the nectary. The seeds are contained in straight, oblong capsules. The plant is a native of the South of Europe. Properties.—Stavesacre seeds are large, irregularly triangular, wrin- kled, externally brown, internally whitish and oily. They have a slight but disagreeable odour, and an extremely acrid, bitter, hot, nauseous taste. Their virtues are extracted by water and alcohol. Analyzed by MM. Lassaigne and Feneulle, they yielded a brown and a yellow bitter principle, a volatile oil, a fixed oil, albumen, an azotized substance, a mu- cilaginous saccharine matter,mineral salts, and a peculiar vegetable alkali called delphin or delphinia, which exists in the seeds combined with an excess of malic acid. It is white, pulverulent, inodorous, of a bitter acrid taste, fusible by heat and becoming hard and brittle upon cooling, slightly soluble in cold water, very soluble in alcohol, and capable of forming salts with the acids. It is obtained by boiling a decoction of the seeds with magnesia, collecting the precipitate, and treating it with alcohol, which dissolves the delphinia and yields it upon evaporation. Medical Properties and Uses.—The seeds were formerly used as an emetic and cathartic, but have been abandoned in consequence of the violence of their action. Powdered and mixed with lard they are em- ployed in some cutaneous diseases, and to destroy lice in the hair. An infusion in vinegar has been applied to the same purpose. In some countries the seeds are used to intoxicate fish in the same manner with the Cocculus Indicus. Delphinia is highly poisonous in small doses, exerting its effects chiefly on the nervous system. STATICE. U.S. Secondary. Marsh Rosemary. " Statice Caroliniana. Radix. The root" US* Statice. Class Pentandria. Order Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Plumba-' gines, Juss.; Plumbagineae, P. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx one-leaved, entire, plaited, scariose-i Petals five. Seed one, superior. Nuttall Statice Caroliniana. Walt. Flor. Car. 118; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 51. This is considered by Nuttall, Torrey, and some other botanists, as a mere variety of the Statice Limonium of Europe. Pursh, Bigelow, and others, follow Walters, in considering it as a distinct species. It is an indigenous maritime plant, with a perennial root, sending up annually tufts of leaves, which are obovate or cuneiform, entire, obtuse, mucroj nate, smooth, and supported on long footstalks. They differ from the leaves of the S. Limonium in being perfectly flat on the margin, while the latter are undulated. The flower-stem is round, smooth, from a few inches to a foot or more in height, sending off near its summit numerous alternate subdividing branches, which terminate in spikes, and form altogether a loose panicle. The flowers are small, bluish-purple, erect, upon one side only of the common peduncle, with a mucronate scaly bracte at the base of each, a five-angled five-toothed calyx, and spatulate, obtuse petals. The marsh rosemary grows in the salt marshes along the seacoast, from New England to Florida, and flowers in August and September.' The root, which is the officinal portion, is large, spindle-shaped or.. branched, fleshy, compact, rough, and of a purplish-brown colour. To the taste it is bitter and extremely astringent, but is without odour. It 618 Statice.—Stillingia.—Stramonii Folia. parti. contains abundance of tannin and gallic acid, with extractive matter and some common salt. Water extracts its virtues. Medical Properties and Uses.—Statice is powerfully astringent, and in some parts of the United States, particularly in New England, ismuch employed. It may be used for all the purposes for which kino and cate- chu are given; but its chief popular application is to aphthous and ulcerative affections of the mouth and fauces. Dr. Baylies of Massachu- setts found it highly useful in cynanche maligna, both as an internal and local remedy. It is employed in the form of infusion or decoction. STILLINGIA. U.S. Secondary. Queers-root. "Stillingia sylvatica. Radix. The root." U.S. Stillingia. Class Moncecia. Order Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Euphor- biae, Juss.; Euphorbiaceae, Ad. de Juss., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Involucre hemispherical, many-flowered, or wanting. Calyx tubular, eroded. Stamens two and three, exserted. Female. Calyx one-flowered, inferior. Style trifid. Capsule three-grained. Nuttall. Stillingia sylvatica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 588. This is an indigenous, perennial plant, with herbaceous stems, and alternate, sessile, oblong or lanceolate-oblong, obtuse, serrulate leaves, tapering at the base, and accompanied with stipules. The male and female flowers are distinct upon the same plant. They are yellow, and arranged in the form of a spike, of which the upper part is occupied by the male, the lower by the female flowers. The male florets are scarcely longer than the brac- teal scales. The plant grows in pine barrens, from Virginia to Florida, flowering in May and June. When wounded, it emits a milky juice. The root, which is the part used, is large, thick, and woody. We are not acquaint- ed with its precise properties; but understand that it is much employed in the Southern States. It is said to be purgative and alterative; and probably possesses more or less of the acrid quality common to the Euphorbiaceae. It is used in lues venerea, obstinate cutaneous affections, and other complaints which are usually treated with sarsaparilla. STRAMONII FOLIA. U.S. Thorn-apple Leaves. STRAMONII SEMEN. U.S. Thorn-apple Seed. " Datura stramonium. Folia. Semina. The leaves and seeds." U.S. Off. Syn. STRAMONII SEMINA ET FOLIA. Datura Stramo- nium. Semina et Folia. Lond.; DATURA STRAMONII HERBA. Ed.; STRAMONIUM. DATURA STRAMONIUM. Herba. Semina. Dub. Stramoine, Pomme epineuse, Fr.; Stechapfel, Germ.; Stramonio, Hal; Estramonio, Span. Datura. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Solaneae, Juss. part i. Stramonii Folia.—Stramonii Semen. 619 Gen. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped, plaited. Calyx tubular, angular, de- ciduous. Capsule four-valved. Willd. Datura Stramonium. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1008; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 17; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 197. t. 74. The thorn-apple is an an- nual plant, of rank and vigorous growth, usually about three feet high, but in a very rich soil sometimes rising six feet or more. The root is large, whitish, and furnished with numerous fibres. The stem is erect, round, smooth, somewhat shining, simple below, dichotomous above, with numerous spreading branches. The leaves, which stand on short round footstalks in the forks of the stem, are five or six inches long, of an ovate triangular form, irregularly sinuated and toothed at the edges, unequal at the base, of a dark-green colour on the upper surface, and pale beneath. The flowers are large, axillary, solitary, and peduncled; having a tubular, pentangular, five-toothed calyx, and a funnel-shaped corolla with a long tube, and a waved plaited border, terminating hi five acuminate teeth. The upper portion of the calyx falls with the decidu- ous parts of the flower, leaving its base, which becomes reflexed, and remains attached to the fruit. This is a large, fleshy, roundish ovate, four-valved, four-celled capsule, thickly covered with sharp spines, and containing numerous seeds attached to a longitudinal receptacle in the centre of each cell. It opens at the summit Dr. Bigelow describes two varieties of this species of Stramonium, one with green stems and white flowers; the other with a dark reddish stem, minutely dotted with green, and purplish flowers striped with deep purple on the inside. There are other varieties; but the medical virtues are the same in all. It is doubtful to what country this plant originally belonged. Many European botanists refer it to North America, while we in return trace it to the old continent. Nuttall considers it as having originated in South America or in Asia; and it is probable that its native country is to be found in some portion of the East. Its .seeds being retentive of life and easily germinating, are taken in the earth put on shipboard for ballast from one country to another, not unfrequently springing up upon the passage, and thus propagating the plant in all regions which have any commercial connexion. In the United States it is found everywhere in the vicinity of cultivation, frequenting dung-heaps, the road-sides and commons, and .other places where a rank soil is created by the de- posite of the refuse of towns and villages. Its flowers appear from May to July or August, according to the latitude. Where the plant grows abundantly, its vicinity may be detected by the rank odour which it diffuses to some distance around. All parts of it possess medicinal pro- perties. The herbaceous portion is directed by the Edinburgh College; the herb and seeds by that of Dublin; and the leaves and seeds by the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and of London. The leaves may be gathered at any time from the appearance of the flowers till the autumnal frost. In the common language of this country, the plant is most known by the name of Jamestown weed, derived probably from its having been first observed in the neighbourhood of that old settlement in Virginia. 1. The fresh leaves when bruised emit a fetid narcotic odour, which they lose upon drying. Their taste is bitter and nauseo.us. These pro- perties, together with their medical virtues, are imparted to water and alcohol. Water distilled from them, though possessed of their odour in a slight degree, is destitute of their active properties. They contain, according to Promnitz, 58 parts of gummy extractive, 6 of extractive, 620 Stramonii Folia.—Stramonii Semen. part i. 64 of starch, 15 of albumen, 12 of resin, 23 of saline matters, and 315 of lignin. The alkali discovered by Brandes in the seeds, is no doubt also among the ingredients of the leaves and stalks. 2. The seeds are small, kidney-shaped, flattened on the sides, of a dark brown almost black colour, inodorous, and of the bitter nauseous taste of the leaves, with some degree of acrimony. They were minutely ana- lyzed by Brandes, who found, besides a peculiar alkaline principle called daturia, a glutinous matter, albumen, gum, a butyraceous substance, green wax, fixed oil, tragacanthin (bassorin), sugar, gummy extractive, orange-coloured extractive, and various saline and earthy substances. Daturia exists in the seeds combined with an excess of malic acid. In its pure state it is crystallizable, in the form of acicular prisms, nearly insoluble in water and cold alcohol, soluble in boiling alcohol, and ca- pable of neutralizing the acids. Its salts are very soluble; and the sul- phate, muriate, and nitrate are crystallizable. It is said to produce upon the system narcotic effects similar to those of stramonium, but has hitherto been little used. To obtain it, the seeds are boiled in alcohol, the alcoholic solution treated with magnesia, and the precipitate sub- mitted to the action of boiling alcohol, which yields the daturia upon cooling, and still further by evaporation. Medical Properties and Uses.—Stramonium is a powerful narcotic. When taken in quantities sufficient to affect the system moderately, it usually produces more or less cerebral disturbance, indicated by vertigo, headach, dimness or perversion pf vision, and confusion of thought, sometimes amounting to slight delirium or a species of intoxication. At the same time peculiar deranged sensations are experienced about the fauces, oesophagus, arid trachea, increased occasionally to a feeling of suffocation, and often attended with nausea. A disposition to sleep is sometimes, but not uniformly produced. The pulse is not materially affected. The bowels are rather relaxed than confined; and the secre- tions from the skin anjl kidneys not unfrequently augmented, These effects pass off in five or six hours, or in a shorter period, and no incon- venience is subsequently experienced. (Marcet, Greding, fyc.) Taken in poisonous closes, the narcotic produces cardialgia, excessive thirst, nausea and vomiting, a sense of strangulation, anxiety and faintness, partial or complete blindness with dilatation of the pupil, vertigo, deli- rium sometimes of a furious sometimes of a whimsical character, tre- mors of the limbs, palsy, and ultimately stupor and convulsions. From all these symptoms the patient may recover; but in numerous instances they have terminated in death. To evacuate the stomach by emetics or the stomach pump is the most effectual means of affording relief. Though long known as a poisonous and intoxicating herb, stramo- nium was first introduced into regular practice by Baron Storck of Vi- enna, who found some advantage from its use in mania and epilepsy. Subsequent observation has confirmed his estimate of the remedy; and numerous cases are on record in which benefit has accrued from it in these complaints. It can be of use, however, only in those cases which depend solely on irregular nervous action. Other diseases in which it has been found beneficial are neuralgic and rheumatic affections, syphi- litic pains, cancerous sores, and spasmodic asthma. In the last complaint it has acquired considerable reputation. It is employed only during the paroxysm, which it very often greatly alleviates or altogether subverts. The practice was introduced into Great Britain from the East Indies,' where the natives are in the habit of smoking the dried root and lower part of the stem of the Datura ferox, in the paroxysms of this distressing part i. Stramonii Folia.—Stramonii Semen.—Styrax. 621 complaint The same parts of the D. Stramonium were substituted and found equally effectual. To prepare the roots for use, they are quickly dried, cut into pieces, and beat so as to loosen the texture. The dried leaves answer the same purpose. They are smoked by means of a com- mon tobacco-pipe. The smoke produces a sense of heat in the lungs, followed by copious expectoration, and attended frequently with tem- porary vertigo or drowsiness, and sometimes by nausea. The remedy should never be used in plethoric cases, unless preceded by ample de- pletion. Dangerous and even fatal consequences are said to have re- sulted from its incautious or improper use. Stramonium has sometimes been given by the stomach in the same complaint. Externally the medicine is used advantageously as an ointment or cataplasm in irritable ulcers, inflamed tumours, swelling of the mammae, and painful hemorrhoidal affections. By American surgeons it is very frequently applied to the eye, in order to produce dilatation of the pupil, previously to the operation for cataract; and is found equally efficacious with belladonna. For this purpose the extract, mixed with lard, is ge- nerally rubbed over the eyelid, or a solution of it dropped into the eye. Of the parts of the plant employed, the seeds are the most powerful. They may be given in the dose of a grain twice a day; and an extract made by evaporating the decoction, in one quarter or half of the quantity. The dose of the powdered leaves is two or three grains. The inspis- sated juice of the fresh leaves, which is the officinal extract, is more commonly prescribed than any other preparation, and may be adminis- tered in the quantity of one grain. (See Extractum Stramonii.) There is also an officinal tincture to which the reader is referred. Whatever preparation is used, the dose should be gradually increased till-the nar- cotic operation becomes evident, or relief from the symptoms of the dis- ease is obtained. The quantity of fifteen or twenty grains of the pow- dered leaves, and a proportionate amount of the other preparations, have often been given daily without unpleasant effects. OffPrep, Extractum Stramonii, U.S., Dub.; Tinctura Stramonii, U.S. STYRAX. U.S. Storax. li Styrax officinale. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Off. Syn. STYRACIS BALSAMUM. Styrax officinale. Balsamum. Lond.; STYRACIS OFFICINALIS BALSAMUM. Ed.; STYRAX OFFICINALE. Resina. Dub. Storax, Fr., Germ.; Storace, Hal; Estoraque, Span. Styrax. See BENZOINUM. Styrax officinale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 623; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 291. t. 101. This species of Styrax is a tree which rises from fifteen to twenty-five feet in height, sends off many branches, and is covered with a rough gray bark. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, entire, oval, pointed, of a bright-green on their upper surface, white with a cotton- like down upon the under, about two inches in length, and an inch and a half in breadth. The flowers are united in clusters of three or four at the extremities of the branches. They are white, and bear considerable resemblance to those of the orange. This tree is a native of Syria and other parts of the Levant, and has become naturalized in Italy, Spain, and the South of France, where, however, it does not yield balsam. This circumstance has induced some 622 Styrax. PART I. naturalists to doubt whether the Styrax officinale is the real source of storax; and as the Liquidambctr styraciflua of this country affords a bal- sam closely'analogous to that under consideration, Bernard de Jussieu conjectured that the latter might be derived from another species of the same genus, the L. orientale of Lamarck, which is more abundant in Syria than the Styrax. Storax is obtained in Asiatic Turkey by making incisions into the trunk of the tree. Several kinds are mentioned in the books. The purest is the storax in grains, which is in whitish, or yellowish-white, or reddish-yellow tears, about the size of a pea, opaque, soft, adhesive, and capable of uniting so as to form a mass. Another variety, formerly call- ed storax calamita, from the circumstance, as is supposed, that it was brought wrapped in the leaves of a kind of reed, consists of dry and brittle masses, formed of yellowish agglutinated tears, in the interstices of which is a brown or reddish matter. The French writers call it storax amygdalo'ide. Both this and the preceding variety have a very pleasant odour like that of vanilla. Neither of them, however, is brought to our markets. A third variety, which is sometimes sold as the storax calamita, is in brown or reddish-brown masses of various shapes, light, friable, yet possessing a certain degree of tenacity, and softening under the teeth. It evidently consists of saw-dust, united either with a portion of the balsam, or with other analogous substances. As found in the shops of this country, it is usually in the state of a coarse, soft, dark-coloured powder, mingled with occasional light friable lumps of various magni- tude, and containing very little of the balsam. When good, it should yield upon pressure between two hot plates, a brown, resinous fluid, having the odour of storax. Another variety found in our market, is a semi-fluid adhesive matter, called liquid storax, which is brown or almost black upon the surface ex- posed to the air, but of a light slightly greenish gray colour within, and of an odour somewhat like that of the Peruvian balsam. It is kept in jars, and is the kind most employed. What is the source of liquid storax is not certainly known. Some suppose it to be derived by decoction from the young branches of the Liquidambar styraciflua ; but some of the ge- nuine juice of this plant, brought from New Orleans, which we have had an opportunity of inspecting, has an odour entirely distinct from that of the substance under consideration. General Properties.—Storax has a fragrant odour and aromatic taste. It melts with a moderate heat, and when the temperature is raised takes fire, and burns with a white flame, leaving a light spongy carbonaceous residue. It imparts its odour to water, which it renders yellow and milky. With the exception of impurities, it is wholly dissolved by alcohol and ether. Newman obtained from 480 grains of storax 120 of watery ex- tract; and from an equal quantity 360 grains of alcoholic extract. It yields benzoic acid by distillation, and is therefore entitled to the rank of a balsam. It contains also resin and volatile oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—This balsam is a stimulant expectorant, and was formerly recommended in phthisis, chronic catarrh, asthma, and amenorrhoea; but it is very seldom used at present, except as a con- stituent of the compound tincture of benzoin. Off. Prep. Pilulae e Styrace, Dub.; Styrax Purificata, U.S.; Tinctura Benzoini Composita, U. S.y Lond., Ed., Dub. PART I. Succinurn. 623 SUCCINUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Bub. Amber. Succin, Ambre jaune, Karabe", Fr.,- Bernstein, Germ.; Ambra, Hal; Sucino, Span. Amber is a kind of fossil resin of vegetable origin, occurring gene- rally in small detached masses, in alluvial deposites, in different parts of the world. It is found chiefly in Prussia, either on the seashore, where it is thrown up by the Baltic, or underneath the surface, in the alluvial formations along the coast. It occurs, also, in considerable quantities near Catania, in Sicily. It is most frequently associated with bituminous wood and lignite, and sometimes encloses twigs of vegeta- bles, and insects. In the United States, it was found in Maryland, at Cape Sable, near Magothy river, by Dr. Troost. In this locality it is associated with iron pyrites and lignite. It has also been discover- ed in New Jersey. The amber consumed in this country, however, is brought from the ports of the Baltic. Properties.— Amber is a brittle solid, generally in small irregular masses, permanent in the air, having a homogeneous texture and vitre- ous fracture, and susceptible of a fine polish. Its colour is generally yellow, either light or deep; but occasionally it is reddish-brown, or even deep brown. It has no taste, and is inodorous unless when heated, when it exhales a peculiar, aromatic, not unpleasant smell. It is usually translucent, though occasionally transparent or opaque. Its sp. gr. is 1.078. Water and alcohol scarcely act on it. When heated in the open air, it softens, melts, swells, and at last inflames, leaving, after combus- tion, a small portion of ashes. Subjected to distillation in a retort fur- nished with a tubulated receiver, it yields, first, a sour yellow liquid; and afterwards a thin yellowish oil, with a yellow crystalline sublimate, which is deposited in the neck of the retort and the upper part of the receiver. In the mean time a considerable quantity of combustible gas is given off, which must be allowed to escape from the tubulure of the receiver. By continuing the heat the oil gradually deepens in colour, until, towards the end of the distillation, it becomes black and of the consistence of pitch. The oil obtained is called oil of amber; the crys- talline sublimate is of an acid nature, and is denominated succinic acid. As thus obtained it is impure, being contaminated with the oil. Amber is sometimes fraudulently mixed with resinous substances, par- ticularly copal, which may be detected by the difference in their colour and fracture, and by their not emitting the peculiar odour of amber when thrown upon a hot iron. Composition.—According to Berzelius, amber consists of 1. a volatile oil of an agreeable odour in small quantity; 2. a yellow resin, intimate- ly united with a volatile oil, very soluble in alcohol, ether, and the alka- lies, easily fusible, and resembling ordinary resins; 3. another resin, also combined with volatile oil, soluble in ether and the alkalies, spa- ringly soluble in cold alcohol, but more soluble in boiling alcohol; 4. succinic acid; 5. a principle, insoluble in alcohol, ether, and the alkalies, having some analogy to the lac resin of John. It also contains a strongly odorous, bright yellow balsam, which hardens by time, but preserves in part its odour. The ultimate constituents of amber are hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. Pharmaceutical Uses, fyc.—Amber was held in high estimation among the ancients as a medicine; but at present it is only employed in phar- 624 Succinum.—Sulphur. PART I. macy and the arts. In pharmacy it is used to prepare succinic acid and oil of amber. (See Acidum Succinicum and Oleum Succini.) In the arts, it is turned into ornaments, and employed in making varnishes. When put to the latter use, it requires to be subjected to roasting, whereby it is rendered soluble in alcohol and the fat oils. Off. Prep. Acidum Succinicum, Ed., Dub.; Oleum Succini, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. SULPHUR. U.S. Sulphur. " Sulphur sublimatum et lotum. Sulphur sublimed and washed." U. S. Off. Syn. SULPHUR. SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM. SULPHUR LOTUM. Lond.; SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM. SULPHUR SUB- LIMATUM LOTUM. Ed.; SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM. SUL- PHUR LOTUM. Dub. Brimstone; Soufre, Fr.; Schwefel, Germ.; Zolfo, Hal; Azufre, Span. The officinal names placed at the head of this article designate the several forms in which uncombined sulphur is used in pharmacy and medicine. The London College alone admits the common roll brimstone, which it designates by the officinal name of Sulphur, while the three British Colleges agree in recognising both sublimed sulphur and washed sulphur. The latter only is admitted in the United States Pharmaco- poeia, being designated by the appellation Sulphur, a name injudiciously applied in this sense, as it had previously been used in another accep- tation by the London College. After these explanations, it is perceived, that the names given from the British Colleges, are not strictly syno- nymes of "sulphur" in the sense of the United States Pharmacopoeia; but the preparations designated by them are so analogous, as to render it expedient to notice them under one head. We shall accordingly first treat of sulphur in a general way, and afterwards, under the seve- ral forms of roll, sublimed, and washed sulphur. Natural States.—Sulphur is very generally disseminated throughout the mineral kingdom, and is almost always present, in minute quantity, in animal and vegetable matter. Among vegetables, it is particularly abundant in the cruciform plants. It occurs in the earth, either native or in a state of combination. When native it is found in masses, trans- lucent or opaque, or in the powdery form, mixed with various earthy impurities. In combination, it is usually united with certain metals, such as iron, lead, mercury, antimony, copper, and zinc, forming com- pounds called sulphurets. Native sulphur is most abundant in vol- canic countries. The most celebrated mines of it are found at Solfa- terra in the kingdom of Naples, in Sicily, and in the Roman states. It occurs also, in small quantities, in different localities in the United States. Extraction, fyc.—Sulphur is obtained either from native sulphur earths, or from the natural sulphurets of iron and copper, called iron and cop- per pyrites. The sulphur earths are placed in earthen pots, set in oblong furnaces of brick-work, and surmounted by a horizontal tube, which communicates with another pot with a hole in its bottom, underneath which a vessel is placed, containing water. Fire being applied, the sul- phur rises in vapour, leaving behind the impurities; and being con- densed again, drops from the perforated pot into the water beneath. PART I. Sulphur. 625 Sulphur, as thus obtained, is called crude sulphur, and contains about one-twelfth of its weight of earthy matter. For purification, it is gene- rally melted in a cast iron vessel. When the fusion is complete, the impurities subside, and the purer sulphur is dipped out and poured into cylindrical wooden moulds, which give it the form of solid cylinders, called in commerce roll sulphur, or cane brimstone. The dregs of this process constitute a very impure kind of sulphur, known by the name of sulphur vivum in the shops. The above process purifies the sulphur but imperfectly, and at the same time causes a considerable loss; as the dregs, above alluded to, contain a large proportion of sulphur. A more eligible mode of purifi- cation consists in distilling the crude sulphur in a large cast iron vessel, surmounted with a capital, built of masonry and communicating late- rally with a chamber of brick-work, furnished with stop-cocks even with its floor, and with a valve in its roof to allow the escape of rare- fied air. Besides the opening by which the capital communicates with the chamber, it has another, through which the iron vessel may be charged, and freed from the residue after each distillation. By this apparatus, the sulphur may be obtained either sublimed or in roll. If the distillation be rapidly performed, the chamber will become heated above the melting point of the sulphur, which, consequently, will con- dense in the liquid state, and may be «irawn off by the cocks, and cast into sticks. If, however, the chamber be comparatively large, and the distillation be suspended during the night, its temperature will fall so low that the vapour of the sulphur will be condensed on its surface in the form of an extremely fine powder, known in commerce under the name of sublimed sulphur, or flowers of sulphur. The extraction of sulphur from sulphuret of iron is performed by distillation in stone-ware cylinders. Half the sulphur contained in the sulphuret is volatilized by the heat, and is conducted by means of an adapter into vessels containing water, where it condenses. The resi- due is employed for the purpose of being converted into sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, by exposure to air and moisture. In the Island of Anglesea, large quantities of sulphur are obtained from copper py- rites in the process for extracting the metal. The furnaces in which the ore is roasted, are connected by horizontal flues with chambers, in which the volatilized sulphur is condensed. Each chamber is furnish- ed with a door, through which the sulphur is withdrawn once in six weeks. According to Berzelius, a very economical method of extracting sul- phur from iron pyrites is practised in Sweden, which saves the expen- diture of fuel. The pyrites is introduced into furnaces with long hori- zontal chimneys, of which the part connected with the furnace is of brick-work, while the rest is formed of wood. The pyrites is kindled below, and continues to burn by itself; and the heat generated causes the stratum immediately above the part kindled, to give off half its sulphur, which becomes condensed in flowers in the wooden chimney. As the fire advances, the iron and the other half of the sulphur enter into combustion; and, by the increase of heat thus generated, cause the volatilization of a fresh portion of sulphur. In this manner, the process continues until the whole of the pyrites is consumed. The sulphur thus obtained is pulverulent and very impure, and requires, for purification, to be distilled in iron vessels. Crude sulphur is employed by the manufacturers of sulphuric acid, and as it is very variable in quality, it becomes important to ascertain 79 626 Sulphur. PART I. its exact value. This may be done by drying a given weight of it, and submitting it to combustion. The weight of the incombustible residue, added to the loss by desiccation, gives the amount of impurity. Crude sulphur comes to this country principally from the port of Mes- sina in Sicily; being imported for the us"e of the sulphuric acid manu- facturers. Roll sulphur and the flowers are usually brought from Mar- seilles. Properties.—Sulphur is an elementary non-metallic brittle solid, of a pale yellow colour, permanent in the air, and exhibiting a crystalline texture and shining fracture. It has a slight taste, and a perceptible smell when rubbed. When pure, its sp. gr. is about 2; but occasionally, from impurity, it is as high as 2.35. Its equiv. number is 16. It is a bad conductor of heat, and becomes negatively electric by friction. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alkaline solutions, petroleum, fat oils, and, provided it be in a finely divided state, in alcohol and ether. When heated, it begins to volatilize at about 180°, and its peculiar odour is perceived; it melts at 225°, and at 600°, in close vessels, boils, and rises in the form of a yellow vapour, and may be condensed again either in the liquid or pulverulent state, according as the temperature of the recipient is above or below the melting point of the sulphur. If the heating be conducted in open vessels, sulphur takes fire at about the temperature of 300°, and burns with a blue flame, combining with the oxygen of the air, and giving rise to a peculiar gaseous acid called sul- phurous acid. As a chemical element, it is exceedingly important, its combinations being numerous, and among the most powerful agents of chemistry. With oxygen, it forms four acids, the hyposulphurous, sul- phurous, hyposulphuric, and sulphuric; with hydrogen, hydrosulphuric acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, and with the metals, various sulphurets. Many of its combinations are analogous to acids and bases, and are sus- ceptible of combining with each other, forming compounds analogous to salts, and called by Berzelius sulpho-salts. The minerals which are roasted to obtain sulphur occasionally con- tain arsenic ; and hence sulphur is occasionally contaminated with this metal, and thereby rendered poisonous. The common English roll sul- phur is said often to contain as much as a fifteenth of orpiment; but the accuracy of this assertion may be deemed very doubtful. The above description applies to sulphur generally; but in its several pharmaceutical states, of roll, sublimed, and washed sulphur, it presents modifications which we shall next proceed to notice. Boll sulphur is in cylindrical sticks about an inch in diameter, and of various lengths. Though one of the purest forms of sulphur, it still contains about four parts in a thousand of hydrogen. The way in which it is obtained has already been described. Sublimed sulphur, usually c&Ued flowers of sulphur, is in the form of a very fine crystalline powder of a fine yellow colour. It is always, con- taminated with a little sulphuric acid, which is formed during its sub- limation, at the expense of the oxygen of the air, contained in the sub- liming chambers. It is on this account that sublimed sulphur always reddens litmus; and if the acid is present in considerable quantity, it sometimes cakes. It may be freed from all acidity by ablution with hot water, when it becomes washed sulphur. Washed sulphur is the only form of sulphur officinal in the United States Pharmacopoeia, in which it is designated by the simple name, sul- phur. It was considered by the framers of that work to be the best medi- cinal form of this substance; and, therefore, the only one which should PART I. Sulphur.— Tabacum. 627 be used for internal exhibition. It is placed in the list of the Materia Medica in our national work, but the British Colleges give directions for preparing it The process of the Dublin College, which appears to be the most eligible, is to pour warm water on sublimed sulphur, and to continue the washing as long as the water, when poured off, continues to be impregnated with acid, which may be known by the test of lit- mus. The sulphur is then dried on bibulous paper. The directions of the London and Edinburgh Colleges do not materially differ from those of the Dublin. Washed sulphur has the general appearance of sublimed sulphur; but if properly prepared it does not affect litmus, and under1- goes no change by exposure to the atmosphere. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sulphur is laxative and diaphoretic. It evidently passes off by the pores of the skin; as is shown by the fact, that silver worn in the pockets of patients under a course of it, becomes blackened with a coating of sulphuret. As a laxative it is gentle in its operation, unless it contain a good deal of acid, when it will cause grip- ing; and the liability of the sublimed sulphur to contain acid, renders it less eligible for exhibition than the washed sulphur, from which all acidity is removed. The diseases in which sulphur is principally used, are hemorrhoidal affections, chronic rheumatism and catarrh, atonic gout, asthma, and other affections of the respiratory organs unattended with acute inflammation. It is also very much employed both internally and externally, in cutaneous affections, especially in scabies, for the cure of which it is considered a specific. The dose is from one to three drachms, mixed with syrup or molasses, or taken in milk. It is very often com- bined with supertartrate of potassa, or magnesia. Sulphur is consumed in the arts, principally in the manufacture of gunpowder and sulphuric acid. Off. Prep. Ferri Sulphuretum, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Hydrargyri Sulphu- retum Nigrum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Hydrargyri Sulphuretum Ru- brum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Oleum Sulphuratum, Lond., Ed.; Potassae Sulphuretum, U.S., Ijond., Ed., Dub.; Sodae Sulphuretum, U.S.; Sul- phur Praecipitatum, U.S., Lond.; Unguentum Sulphuris, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, U.S., Lond. TABACUM. U.S. Tobacco. " Nicotiana tabacum. Folia. The leaves." U.S. Off. Syn. TABACI FOLIA. Nicotiana Tabacum. Folia exsiccata. Lond.; NICOTIANA TABACI FOLIA. Ed.; NICOTIANA TA- BACUM. Folia. Dub. Tabac, Fr.; Tabak, Germ.; Tabacco, Hal; Tabaco, Span. Nicotiana. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Solaneas, Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped, with the border plaited. Stamens in- clined. Capsules two-valved, two celled. Willd. Nicotiana Tubacum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1014; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 171; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 208. t 77. The tobacco is an annual plant, with a large fibrous root, and an erect, round, hairy, viscid stem, which branches near the top, and rises from three to six feet in height. The leaves are. numerous, alternate, sessile and somewhat decurrent, very large, ovate lanceolate, pointed, entire, slightly viscid, and of a pale green colour. The lowest are often two feet long, and four inches 628 Tabacum. PART I. broad. The flowers are disposed in loose terminal panicles, and are furnished with long, linear, pointed bractes at the divisions of the pe- duncle. The calyx is bell-shaped, hairy, somewhat viscid, and divided at its summit into five pointed segments. The tube of the corolla is twice as long as the calyx, of a greenish hue, swelling at top into an oblong cup, and ultimately expanding into a five-lobed, plaited, rose- coloured border. The whole corolla is very viscid. The filaments in- cline to one side, and support oblong anthers. The pistil consists of an oval germ, a slender style longer than the stamens, and a cleft stig- ma. The fruit is an ovate, two-valved, two-celled capsule, containing numerous reniform seeds, and opening at the summit. Although the original locality of this plant is not settled to the satis- faction of all botanists, there is good reason to believe that it is a native of tropical America, where it was found by the Spaniards upon their arrival. It is at present cultivated in most parts of the world, and no- where more abundantly than within the limits of the United States. We seldom, however, see it north of Maryland. Virginia is, perhaps, the region of the world most celebrated for its culture. The young shoots, produced from seeds thickly sown in beds, are transplanted into the fields during the month of May, and set in rows with an interval of three or four feet between the plants. Through the whole period of its growth, the crop requires constant attention. The development of the leaves is promoted by removing the top of each plant, and thus prevent- ing it from running into flower and seed. The harvest is in August. The ripe plants having been cut off above their roots, are dried under cover, and then stripped of their leaves, which are tied in bundles, and packed in hogsheads. Two varieties of this species are mentioned by authors, one with narrow, the other with broad leaves; but they do not differ materially in properties. Great diversity in the quality of tobacco is produced by difference of soil and mode of cultivation; and several varieties are re- cognised in commerce. Other species of Nicotiana are also cultivated, especially the N. rustica and N. paniculata, the former of which is said to have been the first introduced into Europe, and is thought to have been cultivated by the aborigines of this country, as it is naturalized near the borders of some of our small northern lakes. The N quadrivalvis of Pursh, affords tobacco to the Indians of the Missouri and Columbia rivers; and the N. fruticosa, a native of China, was probably cultivated in Asia before the discovery of this continent by Columbus. Properties.—Tobacco, as it occurs in commerce, is of a yellowish- brown colour, a strong narcotic penetrating odour which is less ob- vious in the fresh leaves, and a bitter nauseous and acrid taste. These properties are imparted to water and alcohol. They are destroyed by long boiling; and the extract is therefore feeble or inert. An elaborate analysis by Vauquelin furnished the following results : 1. a large quan- tity of albumen; 2. a red matter, soluble in alcohol and in water, and swelling considerably when heated ; 3. an acrid, volatile, colourless prin- ciple, slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, and supposed to possess in a concentrated form the virtues of the leaves; 4. green resin or chlorophylle; 5. lignin; 6. acetic acid; 7. nitrate of potassa, and salts of lime and ammonia, with silica and the oxide of iron. The acrid principle was called nicotin, and was separated by a very complicated process. An analogous substance was procured by M. Hermstadt, by simply distilling water from tobacco, and allowing the liquor to stand for several days. A white crystalline.matter rose to the surface, which, PART I. Tabacum. 629 upon being removed, was found to have the odour of tobacco, and its influence on the system. In solubility it agreed with the nicotin of Vauquelin, and like it was neither alkaline nor acid. Acetate of lead and nitrate of mercury precipitated it from its aqueous solution, infusion of galls from its solution in alcohol. It melted at a moderate heat, and was slowly volatilized. In the close of a grain it produced nausea, retch- ing, and vertigo; and excited sneezing when applied in minute quantity to the nostrils. It was called nicotianin by M. Hermstadt, and appears to partake of the nature of the volatile oils. More recently two German chemists, MM. Posselt and Reimann, have advanced claims to the dis- covery of an alkaline principle in tobacco, which, however, need con- firmation. (See N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. ix. p. 439.) When distilled at a temperature above that of boiling water, tobacco affords an empyreumatic oil, which Mr. Brodie has proved to be a most virulent poison, and which probably holds the volatile acrid principle of this narcotic in solution. A single drop of the oil injected into the rectum of a cat occasioned death in about five minutes, and double the quantity administered in the same manner to a dog was followed by the same result. This oil is of a dark brown colour, of an acrid taste, and has a very peculiar smell, exactly resembling that of tobacco pipes, which have been much used. . Medical Properties and Uses.—Tobacco unites with the powers of a sedative narcotic, those of an emetic and diuretic; and produces these effects to a greater or less extent to whatever surface it maybe applied. In addition, when snuffed up the nostrils, it excites violent sneezing and a copious secretion of mucus; when chewed, it irritates the mucous mem- brane of the mouth, and increases the flow of saliva; and when injected into the rectum, it operates as a cathartic. Very moderately taken, it quiets restlessness, calms mental and corporeal inquietude, and pro- duces a state of general langour or repose, which has great charms for those habituated to the impression. In larger quantities, it gives rise to confusion of the head, vertigo, stupor, faintness, nausea, vomiting, and general debility of the nervous and circulatory functions, which, if in- creased, eventuates in alarming and even fatal prostration. The symp- toms of its excessive action are severe retching, with the most distress- ing and continued nausea, great feebleness of pulse, coldness of the skin, fainting, and sometimes convulsions. It probably operates both through the medium of the nervous system, and by entering the circu- lation. As its local action is stimulant, we can thus account for the fact, that it excites the function of the kidneys at the same time that it reduces the nervous and secondarily the arterial power. The experi- ments of Brodie lead to the inference that the function of the heart is affected by tobacco, through the medium of the nervous system; for in a decapitated animal in which the circulation was sustained by artificial respiration, the infusion injected into the rectum did not diminish the action of the heart; while on the contrary this organ almost imme- diately ceased to contract when an equal close of the poison was admi- nistered to a healthy animal. Mr. Brodie observed a remarkable differ- ence between the operation of the infusion and that of the empyreumatic oil. After death from the former the heart was found completely quies- cent, while it continued to act with regularity for a considerable time after apparent death from the latter. We may infer from this fact, either that there are two poisonous principles in tobacco, or that a new narcotic product is formed during its destructive distillation. The use of tobacco was adopted by the Spaniards from the American 630 Tabacum. PART I. Indians. In the year 1560 it was introduced into France, by the ambas- sador of that country at the court of Lisbon, whose name—Nicot—has been perpetuated in the generic title of the plant. Sir Walter Raleigh is said to have introduced the practice of smoking into England. In the various modes of smoking, chewing, and snuffing, the drug is now ex- tensively consumed in every country on the globe. It must have proper- ties peculiarly adapted to the propensities of our nature, to have thus surmounted the first repugnance to its odour and taste, and to have be- come the passion.of so many millions. When employed in excess, it enfeebles the digestive powers, produces emaciation and general debility, and lays the foundation of serious disorders of the nervous system. Its remedial employment is less extensive than would naturally be in- ferred from the variety of its powers. The excessive and distressing nausea which it is apt to occasion, interferes with its internal use; and it is very seldom administered by the stomach. As a narcotic it is em- ployed chiefly to produce relaxation in spasmodic affections. For this purpose, the infusion, or smoke of tobacco, or the leaf in substance, in the shape of a suppository, is introduced into the rectum in cases of strangulated hernia, obstinate constipation from spasm of the bowels, and retention of urine from a spasmodic stricture of the urethra. For a similar purpose, the powdered tobacco, or common snuff, mixed Avith simple cerate, as recommended by the late Dr. Godman, is sometimes applied to the throat and breast in cases of croup; and Dr. Chapman has directed the smoking of a cigar in the same complaint, with decid- ed benefit. One of the worst cases of spasm of the rima glottidis which we have seen, and which resisted powerful depletion by the lancet, yield- ed to the application of a tobacco cataplasm to the throat. Tetanus is said to have been cured by baths made with the decoction of the fresh leaves. The relaxation produced by smoking, in a person unaccustomed to it, has been very happily resorted to by Dr. Physick, in a case of ob- stinate and long continued dislocation of the jaws; and the same remedy has frequently been found useful in the paroxysm of spasmodic asthma. As an emetic, tobacco is seldom or never employed, unless in the shape of a cataplasm to the epigastrium, to assist the action of internal me- dicines, in cases of great insensibility of stomach. As a diuretic it was used by Fowler in dropsy and dysury, but the practice is not often imitated. There is no better errhine than tobacco, for the ordinary pur- poses for which this class of medicines is employed. As a sialagogue, it is beneficial in rheumatism of the jaws, and often relieves toothach by its anodyne action. It is also used externally in the shape of cataplasm, infusion, or ointment, in cases of tinea capitis, psora, and some other cutaneous affections. The empyreumatic oil, mixed with simple oint- ment, in the proportion of twenty drops to the ounce, has been applied with advantage, by American practitioners, to indolent tumours and ulcers; but in consequence of its liability to be absorbed, and to produce unpleasant effects on the system, it should be used with great caution. This remark is applicable to all the modes of employing tobacco; par- ticularly to the injection of the infusion into the rectum, which has in more than one instance caused the death of the patient. It is even more dangerous than a proportionate quantity introduced into the stomach, as, in the latter case, the poison is more apt to be rejected. Five or six grains of powdered tobacco will generally act as an emetic; but the remedy is not given in this shape. The infusion used in dropsy by Fowler, was made in the proportion of an ounce to a pint of boiling water, and given in the dose of sixty or eighty drops. The officinal in- PART I. Tabacum.— Tamarindus. 631 fusion, which is employed for injection, is much weaker. (See Infusum Tabaci.) A wine and an ointment of tobacco are directed by the United States Pharmacopoeia. Off. Prep. Infusum Tabaci, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Vinum Tabaci, U.S., Ed.; Unguentum Tabaci, U.S. TAMARINDUS. U.S. Tamarinds. " Tamarindus Indica. Fructus conditus. Tfie preserved fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. TAMARINDI PULPA. Tamarindus Indica. Leguminis pulpa. Lond.; TAMARINDI INDICA FRUCTUS. Ed.; TAMA- RINDUS INDICUS. Leguminis pulpa. Dub. Tamarins, Fr.; Tamarinden, Germ.; Tamarindi, ltal,- Tamarindos, Span. Tamarindus. Class Monadelphia. Order Triandria.—Nat. Ord. Le- guminosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx four-parted. Petals three. Nectary with two short bristles under the filaments. Legume filled with pulp. Willd. Tamarindus Indica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 577; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 448. t 161. The tamarind tree is the only species of this genus. It rises to a great height, sends off numerous spreading branches, and has a beautiful appearance. The trunk is erect, thick, and covered with a rough, ash-coloured bark. The leaves are alternate and pinnate, com- posed of many pairs of opposite leaflets, which are almost sessile, en- tire, oblong, obtuse, unequal at their base, about half an inch long, a sixth of an inch broad, and of a yellowish-green colour. The flowers are in lateral clusters, each Composed of five or six, having a yellowish calyx, and petals which are also yellow, but beautifully variegated with red veins. The fruit is a broad, compressed, reddish ash-coloured pod, very much curved, from two to six inches long, and with numerous brown, flat, quadrangular seeds, contained in cells formed by a tough membrane. Exterior to this membrane is a light-coloured acid pulpy matter, between which and the shell are several tough ligneous strings, running from the stem to the extremity of the pod, the attachment of which they serve to strengthen. The shells are very fragile, and easily separated. The Tamarindus Indica appears to be a native of the East and West Indies, of Egypt, and Arabia, though believed by some authors to have been imported into America. De Candolle is doubtful whether the East and West India trees are of the same species. The pods of the former are much larger than those of the latter, and contain a greater number of seeds. At least such is the statement made by authors, who inform us that East India tamarinds contain six or seven seeds, those from the West Indies rarely more than three or four. We have found, however, in a parcel of the latter which we have examined, numerous pods with from eight to ten seeds, and the number generally exceeded four. The fruit is the officinal portion. Tamarinds are brought to us chiefly, if not exclusively,from the West Indies, where they are prepared by placing the pods, previously depriv- ed of their shell, in layers in a cask, and pouring boiling syrup over them. A better mode, sometimes practised, is to place them in stone jars, with alternate layers of powdered sugar. They are said to be oc- casionally prepared in copper boilers. Properties.—Fresh tamarinds, which are sometimes, though rarely 632 Tamarindus.— Tanacetum. parti. brought to this country, have an agreeable sour taste, without any mix- ture of sweetness. As we usually find them, in the preserved state, they form a dark-coloured adhesive mass, consisting of syrup mixed with the pulp, membrane, strings, and seeds of the pod, of a sweet acidulous taste. The seeds should be hard, clean, and not swollen, the strings tough and entire, and the smell without mustiness. From the analysis of Vauquelin it appears, that in 100 parts of the pulp of tamarinds, in- dependently of the sugar added to them, there are 9.40 parts of citric acid, 1.55 of tartaric acid, 0.45 of malic acid, 3.25 of supertartrate of potassa, 4.70 of gum, 6.25 of jelly, 34.35 of parenchymatous matter, 27.55 of wa- ter ; so that the acidity is chiefly owing to the presence of citric acid. It is said that copper may sometimes be detected in preserved tamarinds, derived from the boilers in which they are occasionally prepared. Its presence may be ascertained by the reddish coat which it imparts to the blade of a knife immersed in the tamarinds. Medical Properties and Uses.—Tamarinds are laxative and refrigerant, and infused in water form a highly grateful drink in febrile diseases. Convalescents often find the pulp a pleasant addition to their diet, and useful by preserving the bowels in a loose condition. It is sometimes prescribed in connexion with other mild cathartics, and is one of the ingredients of the confection of senna. Though frequently prescribed with the infusion of senna to cover the taste of that medicine, it is said to weaken its purgative power; and the same obvervation has been made of its influence upon the resinous cathartics in general. From a drachm to an ounce or more may be taken at a dose. Off. Prep. Confectio Cassiae, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Confectio Sennae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Sennae cum Tamarindis, Dub., Ed. TANACETUM. U.S. Secondary. Tansy. " Tanacetum vulgare. Herba. The herb." U.S. Off Syn. TANACET1 VULGARIS FLORES, FOLIA. Ed.; TA* NACETUM VULGARE. Folia. Dub. Tanaisie, Fr.; Gemeiner rheinfarm, Wurmkraut, Germ.; Tanaceto, ltal, Span. Tanacetum. Class Syngenesia. Order Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Corym- biferae, Juss.; Compositae Corymbiferae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Pappus somewhat marginate. Calyx imbri- cate, hemispherical. Corolla rays obsolete, trifid. Willd. Tanacetum vulgare. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1814; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 66. t. 27. This is a perennial herbaceous plant, rising two or three feet in height. The stems are strong, erect, obscurely hexagonal, striated, often reddish, branched towards the summit, and furnished with alter- nate, doubly pinnatifid leaves, the ^divisions of which are notched or deeply serrate. The flowers are yellow, and in dense terminal corymbs. Each flower is composed of numerous florets, of which those constitut- ing the disk are perfect and five-cleft, those of the ray very few, pis- tillate, and trifid. The calyx . consists of small, imbricated, obtuse leaflets, having a dry scaly margin. The seeds are small, oblong, with five or six ribs, and crp.wned by a membranous pappus. Tansy is cultivated in our gardens, and grows wild in the roads and old fields; but was introduced from Europe, where it is indigenous. It is in flower from July to September. The leaves are ordered by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges; but the flowers and seeds are not less PART I. Tanacetum.—Tapioca. 633 effectual, and all are included in the directions of the United States Phar- macopoeia. There is a variety of the plant with curled leaves, which is said to be more grateful to the stomach than that above described, but has less of the peculiar sensible properties of the herb, and is probably less active as a medicine. The odour of tansy is strong, peculiar, and fragrant, but much dimi- nished by drying; the taste is warm, bitter, somewhat acrid, and aro- matic. These properties are imparted to water and alcohol. The medical virtues of the plant depend on a bitter extractive and a volatile oil. The latter* when separated by distillation, has a greenish-yellow colour, and deposites camphor upon standing. The seeds contain the largest proportion of the bitter principle, and the least of volatile oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—Tansy has the medical properties com- mon to the aromatic bitters; and has been recommended in inter- mittents, hysteria, amenorrhoea, and as a preventive of the arthritic paroxysm; but at present it is chiefly used as an anthelmintic, and in this country is scarcely employed, for any purpose, in regular practice. The seeds are said to be most effectual as a vermifuge. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm two or three times a day; but the infusion is more frequently administered^ TAPIOCA. U.S. Tapioca. " Jatropha manihot. Radicis faecula. The fecula of the root." U.S. Jatropha. Class Moncecia. Order Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Euphor- biae, Juss.; Euphorbiaceae, Ad. de Juss., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx none, or five-leaved. Corolla monopetalous, fun- nel-shaped. Stamens ten* alternately shorter. Female. Calyx none. Co- rolla five-petaled, spreading; Styles three* bifid. Capsule three-celled. Seed one. Willd. Most if not all of the species of Jatropha are impregnated, like other plants of the natural family of Euphorbiaceae, with an acrid, purg- ing, poisonous principle. The seeds of the J. Curcas, which are known in Europe by the name of purging nuts, or Barbadoes nuts, have proper- ties closely similar to those of the Croton Tiglium and Ricinus com- munis. They are blackish, ovah; about eight lines long, flat on one side, convex on the other; and the two sides present a slight longitudinal prominence. Four or five of these seeds slightly roasted, and deprived of their envelope, are sufficient to purge actively; and in a large dose they are capable of producing fatal consequences. Their active principle is said to reside exclusively in the embryo. Upon pressure they yield an oil which has all the properties of the croton oil. We are not aware that they are employed in this country. The only species of Jatropha acknowledged as officinal in our Pharmacopoeia is the /. Manihot, which yields the tapioca of the shops. Jatropha Manihot. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 562. This is the cassava plant of the West Indies* the mandioca or tapioca of Brazil. It is a shrub about six or eight feet in height, with a very large, white, fleshy, tuber- ous root, which often weighs thirty pounds. The stem is round, jointed, and furnished at its upper part with alternate petiolate leaves, deeply divided into three, five, or seven oyal lanceolate, very acute lobes, which 80 634 Tapioca.—Taraxacum. parti. are somewhat wavy upon their borders, of a deep green colour on their upper surface, glaucous and whitish beneath. The flowers are in axil- lary racemes. The Jatropha Manihot is a native of South America, and is cultivated extensively in the West Indies and Brazil for the sake of its root, which is much employed as an article of food. The plant is of quick growth, and the root arrives at perfection in about eight months. This consists chiefly of starch, but abounds also in a milky acrid juice, which renders it highly poisonous if eaten in the recent state. It is prepared for use by washing, scraping, and grating or grinding it into a pulp^ which is submitted to pressure so as to separate the deleterious juice. It is now in the state of meal or powder, which is made into bread, cakes, or puddings. As the acrid principle is volatile, the portion which may have remained in the meal is entirely dissipated by the heat employed in cooking. The preparation denominated tapioca among us is obtained from the expressed juice. This, upon standing, deposites a powder, which, after repeated washings with cold water, is nearly pure fecula.. It is dried by exposure to heat, which converts it partly into amydine, and enables it to assume the consistence by which it is characterized. When dried without heat, it is pulverulent, and closely resembles the fecula of arrow root. Tapioca is in the form of irregular, hard, white, rough grains, pos- sessing little taste, partially soluble in cold water, and,affording a fine blue colour when iodine is added to its filtered solution. Being nutri- tious, and at the same time easy of digestion, and destitute of all irri- tating properties, it forms an excellent diet for the sick and convales- cent. It is prepared for use by boiling it in water. Lemon juice and sugar will usually be found grateful additions; and in low states of dis- ease or cases of debility, it may be advantageously impregnated with wine and nutmeg or other aromatic. A fictitious tapioca is found in the shops, consisting of very small, smooth, spherical grains, and supposed to be prepared from potato starch. It is sold under the name of pearl tapioca. TARAXACUM. U.S. Bandelion. " Leontodon taraxacum. Radix. The root." U. S. Off. Syn. TARAXACI RADIX. Leontodon Taraxacum. Radix. Lond.; LEONTODI TARAXACI HERBA et RADIX. Ed.; LE- ONTODON TARAXACUM. Herba. Radix. Dub. Pissenlit, Dent de lion, Fr., Lbwenzahn, Germ.; Tarassaco, Hal; Diente de leon, Span. Leontodon. Class Syngenesia. Order Aqualis.—Nat. Ord. Cicho- raceae, Juss.; Compositae Cichoraceae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx double. Seed-down stipitate, hairy* Willd. Leontodon Taraxacum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1544; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 39. t. 16. The dandelion is an herbaceous plant, with a perennial* fusiform root. The leaves, which spring immediately from the root, are long, pinnatifid, generally runcinate, with the divisions toothed, smooth, and. of a fine green colour. The common name of the plant was derived from the fancied resemblance, of its leaves to the teeth of a lion. The flower-stem rises from the midst of the leaves, six inches or PART I. Taraxacum. 635 more in height. It is erect, simple, naked, smooth, hollow, fragile, and terminated by a large golden-coloured flower, which closes in the evening, and expands with the returning light of the sun. The calyx is smooth and double, with the outer scales bent downwards. The florets are very numerous, ligulate, and toothed at their extremities. The receptacle is convex and punctured. The seed-down is stipitate, and at the period of maturity, is disposed in a spherical form, and so light and feathery as to be easily borne away by the wind, with the seeds attached. This species of Leontodon grows spontaneously in most parts of the globe. It is abundant in this country, adorning our grass-plats and pasture grounds with its bright yellow flowers, which, in moist places, show themselves with the first opening of spring, and continue to appear till near the close of summer. All parts of the plant contain a milky bitterish juice, which exudes when they are broken or wounded. The leaves, when very young, and blanched by the absence of light during their growth, are tender and not unpleasant to the taste, and on the continent of Europe are sometimes used as a salad. When older and of their natural colour, they are medicinal, and have been adopted as offi- cinal by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges. The United States and London Pharmacopoeias recognise only the root, which is by far the most efficacious part of the plant. It should be full grown when col- lected, and should be employed in the recent state, as it is then most active. It does not, however, as stated by Duncan, lose nearly all its bitterness by drying; and the root dug up in the warmer seasons might, if dried with care, be employed with propriety in the succeeding winter. The fresh full-grown root of the dandelion is several inches in length, about as thick as the little finger, round and tapering, somewhat branch- ed, of a light brownish colour externally, whitish within, having a yel- lowish ligneous cord running through its centre, and abounding in a milky juice. In the dried state it is much shrunk, wrinkled longitudinally, brittle, and when broken presents a shining somewhat resinous fracture. It is without smell, but has a sweetish, mucilaginous, bitterish, herba- ceous taste. Its active properties are yielded to water by boiling, and do not appear to be injured in the process. The milky juice, examined by John, was found to contain bitter extractive, gum, caoutchouc, saline matters, a trace of resin, and a free acid. Besides these ingredients, starch and saccharine matter exist in the root. Medical Properties and Uses.*—Taraxacum is slightly tonic, diuretic* and aperient; and is thought to have a specific action upon the liver, exciting it when languid to secretion, and resolving its chronic en- gorgements. It has been much employed in Germany, and is a very popular remedy with many practitioners in this country. The diseases to which it appears to be especially applicable, are those connected with derangement of the hepatic system, and of the digestive organs gene- rally. In congestion and chronic inflammation of the liver and spleen, in cases of suspended or deficient biliary secretion, and in dropsical affections dependent on obstruction of the abdominal viscera, it is capa- ble of doing much good, if applied with a due regard to the degree of excitement: Our own experience is decidedly in its favour. An irritable condition of the stomach and bowels, and the existence of acute inflam- mation, contra-indicate its employment. It is usually given in the form of extract or decoction. (See Extractum Taraxaci.) Two ounces of the fresh root, or an ounce of the dried, pre- viously bruised or sliced, may be boiled with a pint of water down to half a pint, and two fluidounces of the preparation given twice or three 636 Taraxacum.— Terebinthina. part i. times a day. Supertartrate of potassa is sometimes added when an aperient effect is desired; and aromatics will occasionally be found use- ful in correcting a tendency to griping or flatulence. Off. Prep. Decoctum Taraxaci, Dub.; Extractum Taraxaci, U.S.) Lond., Dub. TEREBINTHINA. U.S. Turpentine. li Pinus palustris, et aliae, Succus. The juice." U.S. TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS. U.S., Lond. Canada Balsam. t. ^ Pinus balsamea. Siccus. The juice." U.S. Off Syn. PINI BALSAMEA RESINA, Resina liquida. Ed.; PINUS BALSAMEA. Resina liquida. Dub. TEREBINTHINA CHIA. Lond., Bub. Chian Turpentine. ** Pistacia Tprebinthus. Resina liquida." Lond. TEREBINTHINA VENETA. Bub. Venice Turpentine* "Pinus Larix. Resina liquida." Dub. Off. Syn. PINI R*ESINA LIQUIDA, vulgo TEREBINTHINA VENETA. Ex variis Pinis. Ed. TEREBINTHINA VULGARIS. Lond. Common Turpentine. *' Pinus sylvestris. Resina liquida." Lond. Off. Syn. PINI RESINA LIQUIDA, vulgo TEREBINTHINA VULGARIS. Ex variis Pinis. Ed.; PINUS SYLVESTRIS. Resina liquida. Dub. Ter^benthine, Fr.; Terpentin, Germ.; Trementina, ltal, Span. The term turpentine is now generally applied to certain vegetable juices, liquid or concrete, which consist of resin combined with a pecu- liar essential oil, called the oil of turpentine. They are generally pro- cured from different species of pine, though other trees afford products which are known by the same general title, as for instance, the Pistacia Terebinthus, which yields the Chian turpentine. Some of the French writers extend the name of turpentine to other juices consisting of re'sin and essential oil, as Copaiba, Balm of Gilead, &c. We shall describe particularly, in this place, only the officinal turpentines. A brief botanical view of the plants from which'they are respectively derived, will he in accordance with the plan of the work. Pinus. Class Monoecia. Order Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Coniferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx four-leaved. Corolla none. Stamens many. Jlnthers naked. Female. Calyx strobiles; scales two-flowered. Corolla none. Pistil one. Nut with a membranous wing. Willd. 1. Pinus palustris. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 499.—P.Australis. Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 133. "Leaves in threes, very long; stipules pin- natifid, ramentaceous, persistent; strobiles sub-cylindrical, armed with sharp prickles." part I. Terebinthina. 637 This is a very large indigenous tree, growing in dry sandy soils from the southern part of Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico. I.ts mean elevation is sixty or seventy feet, and the diameter of its trunk about fifteen or eighteen inches for two thirds of this height. The leaves are about a foot in length, of a brilliant green colour, and united in bunches at the ends of the branches. The names by which the tree is known in the Southern States, are long-leaved pine, yellow pir\e, and pitch pine; but the first is most appropriate, as the last two are applied- also to other spe- cies. This tree furnishes by far the greater proportion of turpentine, tar, &c, consumed in the United States, or sent from this to other coun- tries. (Bee Pix Liquida.) 2. Pinus Tseda. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 498; Michaux, -iV. Am. Sylv. iii. 156. "Leaves in threes, elongated, with elongated sheaths; stro- biles oblong-conical, deflexed, shorter'than the leaf; spines inflexed." This is the loblolly, or old field pine of the Southern States. It is abun- dant in Virginia where it occupies the lands which have been exhausted by cultivation. It exceeds eighty feet in height, has a trunk two or three feet in diameter, and expands into a wide-spreading top. The leaves are about six inches long, and of a light green colour. It yields turpentine in abundance, but less fluid than that which flows from the preceding species. 3. Pinus sylvestris. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 494; W°°dv. Med. Bot. p, 1. t 1; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. p. 125. "Leaves in pairs, rigid; strobiles ovate-conical, of the length of the leaves; scales echinate." This species of pine, when of full size, is eighty feet high', with a trunk four or five feet in diameter. It inhabits the northern and mountainous parts of Europe. In Great Britain it is called the wild pine, or Scotch fir; the latter name having»been derived from its abundance in the mountains of Scotland. It yields most of the common European turpen? tine. 4. Pinus Balsamea. Willd; Sp. Plant, iv. 504.—Abies Balsamifera, Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. p. 191. "Leaves solitary, flat, emarginate or entire, glaucous beneath, somewhat pectinate, sub-erect above, re- curved spreading; cones cylindrical, erect; bractes abbreviate, obovate, conspicuously mucronate, sub-serrulate." This is the American silver fr, inhabiting Canada, Nova-Scotia, Maine, andth'e mountainous regions further to the south. It is an elegant tree seldom rising more than forty feet in height with a tapering trunk, and' numerous branches which diminish in length in proportion to their height, and form an almost perfect pyramid. The leaves are six or eight lines long, inserted in rows on the sides and tops of the branches, narrow, flat, rigid, bright green on their upper surface, and of a silvery Whiteness beneath. The cones are large, erect, nearly cylindrical, of a purplish colour, and covered with a resinojus exudation which gives them a glossy, rich, and beautiful appearance. It is from this tree that the Canada balsam is obtained. 5. Pinus Larix. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 503; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 7. t. 4.—Larix Europsea. De Cand.—Larix communis. Lindley. "Leaves fasicled, deciduous; cones ovate-oblong; margins of the scales reflexed, lacerated; bracts panduriform." The European larch is a large tree inhabiting the mountains of Switzerland, Germany, and the East of France. It yields the Venice tur- pentine of commerce, and a peculiar sweetish substance, called in France Briangon manna, which exudes spontaneously, and concretes upon its bark. 638 Terebinthina. PART I, Pistacia. See MASTICHE. Pistacia Terebinlhus. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 752; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 29. t. 12. This is a small tree, with numerous spreading branches, bear- ing alternate, pinnate leaves, which consist of three or four pairs of ovate lanceolate, entire, acute, smooth, and shining leaflets, with an odd one at the end. The male and female flowers are dioecious, small, and in branching racemes. This is a native of Barbary and Greece, and flourishes in the islands of Cyprus and Chio, the latter of which has given its name to the turpentine obtained from the tree. We shall treat of the several varieties of turpentine under distinct heads. 1. White Turpentine. Terdbenthine de Boston, Fr. The common American or white turpentine, (Terebinthina of the United States Pharmacopceia,) is procured chiefly from the Pinus pa- lustris, partly also from the Pinus Tseda, and perhaps some other spe- cies inhabiting the Southern States. In former times, large quantities were collected in New-England; but the turpentine trees of that sec- tion of the Union are said to be nearly exhausted; and our commerce is almost exclusively supplied from North Carolina, and the south- eastern parts of Virginia.. The following is the process for obtaining the turpentine as described by Michaux. During the winter months, excavations of the capacity of about three pints are made in the trunk of the tree three or four inches from the ground. Into these the juice begins to flow about the middle of March, and continues to flow throughout the warm season, slowly at first, rapidly in the middle of summer, and more slowly again in the autumnal months. The liquid is removed from these excavations as they fill, and transferred into casks, where it gradually thickens, and ultimately acquires a soft solid consist- ence. Very large quantities are thus annually procured, sufficient not only to supply the whole consumption of this country, but also to fur- nish a valuable export to Europe. White turpentine, as found in our shops, has a peculiar somewhat aromatic odour, a warm pungent bitterish taste, and a white colour tinged with yellow. It is somewhat translucent, and of a consistence which varies with the temperature. In the middle of summer it is almost semi-fluid and very adhesive, though brittle; in the winter it is often so firm and hard, as to be incapable of being made into pills without heat, Exposed to the air, it ultimately becomes perfectly hard and dry. In the recent state it affords about seventeen per cent, of essential oiL 2, Common European Turpentine. Tere'benthine de Bordeaux, Terebenthine commune, Fr.; Gemeiner terpentin, Germ.; Trementina comune, ltal.; Trementina comun, Span. This is the Terebinthina Vulgaris of the British Pharmacopoeias. It is furnished by several species of pine; but most abundantly by the Pinus sylvestris. In the maritime districts of the South-west of France, espe- cially in the department of the Landes, it is obtained largely from the Pinus maritima. The process consists simply in making incisions into the trunk, or removing portions of the bark, and receiving the juice which flows out in small troughs or in holes dug at the foot of the tree. It is purified by heating and filtering it through straw, or by exposing it to the sun in a barrel, through holes in the bottom of which, the melted turpentine escapes. Thus prepared it is whitish, turbid, thickish, and PART I. Terebinthina. 639 separates, upon standing, into two parts, one liquid and transparent, the other of a consistence and appearance like those of thickened honey. It is scarcely ever given internally, but furnishes large quantities of oil of turpentine and resin. We do not import it into this country. The sub- stance which the French call galipot or barras, is that portion of the turpentine which concretes upon the surface of the wounds, and is re- moved during the winter. (Thenard.) This, when purified by melting with water and straining, takes the name of yellow or white pilch, or Burgundy pitch. When turpentine has been deprived of its oil by dis- tillation, the resin which remains is called rosin, and sometimes colopho- ny, from the Ionian city of that name, where it was formerly prepared. It is the yellow resin, Resina Flava, of the London Pharmacopoeia. White resin, Resina Alba, is prepared by incorporating this, while in fusion, with a certain proportion of water. Tar, Pix Liquida, is the turpentine extracted from the wood by a slow combustion, and chemically altered by the heat. Common pitch, Pix Nigra or Resina Nigra, is the solid re- sidue left after the evaporation by boiling of the liquid parts of tar. (See these titles respectively.) 3. Canadian Turpentine. Canada balsam; Baume de Canada, Fr.; Canadischer balsam, Canadischer terpen- tin, Germ.; Trementina del Canada, ltal This is the product of the Pinus Balsamea, and is collected in Canada and the State of Maine. It is procured either by making incisions through the bark of the tree, or by breaking the vesicles which naturally form upon the trunk and branches, and receiving their liquid contents in a bottle. That obtained by incision is a slightly coloured, transparent, thick, and very tenacious liquid, of a strong agreeable odour, and a bitterish somewhat acrid taste. It is the kind usually kept in the shops under the name of Canada balsam. The juice which has spontaneously exuded, and has been collected by bursting the vesicles, is thinner, more colourless, and of a sweeter odour. It has received the name of balm of Gilead from its supposed resemblance to that celebrated medicine. The term balsam, as at present understood, is not applicable to the liquid in either of these forms, as it contains no benzoic acid, and is in fact a proper turpentine, consisting of resin and essential oil. 4. Venice Turpentine. Teie'benthine de meleze, Te>£benthine de Venise, Fr.,- Venetianische terpentin, Germ.; Trementina di Venezia, Hal; Trementina de Venecia, Span. This turpentine received its name from the circumstance that it was formerly an extensive article of Venitian commerce. It is procured in Switzerland, and the French province of Dauphiny, from the Pinus La- rix or larch, which grows abundantly upon the Alps and the Jura moun- tains. The peasants bore holes into the trunk about two feet from the ground, and conduct the juice by means of wooden gutters into small tubs, placed at a convenient distance. It is afterwards purified by fil- tration through a leather sieve. Genuine Venice turpentine is more fluid than the other varieties, of a yellowish or slightly greenish colour, a strong not disagreeable odour, and a warm bitterish and acrid taste. As found in our shops it is usually quite brown, and is said to be a fac- titious substance, prepared by dissolving resin in oil of turpentine. Dr. A. T. Thomson states that much of the Venice turpentine of the shops of London is obtained from America. It is probably the same preparation as that which passes under the name in this country. 640 Terebinthina. part h 5. Chian Turpentine. Terebenthine de Chio, Fr.,- Cyprischer terpentin, Germ.; Trementina Cipria, ltd. This variety of turpentine is collected chiefly in the Island of Chio or Scio, hy incisions made during the summer in the bark of the Pista- cia Terebinthus. The juice flowing from the wounds, falls upon smooth stones placed at the foot of the tree, from which it is scraped with small sticks, and allowed to drop into bottles. The annual product of each tree is very small; and the turpentine, therefore, commands a high price even in the place where it is procured. Very little of it reaches this country. It is said to be frequently adulterated with the other tur- pentines. It is a thick, tenacious, pellucid liquid, of a slightly yellowish colour, a peculiar penetrating odour more agreeable than that of the other substances of the same class, and a mild taste with little bitterness. On exposure to the air it speedily thickens, and ultimately becomes con- crete and hard, in consequence of the loss of its volatile oil. Besides the turpentines mentioned, various others are noticed in books on the Materia Medica, though not found in the shops of this country. There is the Strasburg turpentine, much used in France, and obtained from the Pinus Picea, Abies pectinata of De Candolle, or European silver fir, which grows on the mountains of Switzerland and Germany, and bears a close resemblance, as well in its appearance as its product, to the Pinus Balsamea of Canada; the Damarra turpentine which speedily concretes into a very hard resin, and is derived from the Pinus Damarra of Lambert, the Agathis Damarra of Richard, growing in the East India islands; and the Dombeya turpentine, a glutinous milky looking fluid of a strong odour and taste, derived from the Dombeya excelsa, the Arau- caria Dombeyi of Richard, which inhabits Chili, and is said to be iden- tical with the Norfolk Island pine. These, with one or two others scarcely known or having a doubtful claim to the title, are all that belong properly to this class of vegetable products. General Properties.—The turpentines resemble each other in odour and taste, though distinguished by shades of difference. Liquid at first, they become thick and gradually solid by exposure, in consequence partly of the volatilization, partly of the oxidation of their essential oil. They are rendered more liquid or softened by heat, and at a high tem- perature take fire, burning with a white flame and much smoke. Water extracts only a minute proportion of their volatile oil. They are wholly soluble in alcohol and ether, and readily unite with the fixed oils. They yield by distillation a volatile oil, well known as the oil of turpentine, and leave a residue consisting exclusively of resin. (See Oleum Terebin- thinee and Resina.) A minute proportion of succinic acid passes over with the oil. From the experiments of M. Faure of Bordeaux it ap- pears, that some of the liquid turpentines, like copaiba, may be solidified by the addition of magnesia. (.Journ. de Chim. Med. 1830, p. 94.) Medical Properties and Uses.—The effects of the turpentines upon the system are dependent entirely on their essential oil. They are stimu- lant, diuretic, anthelmintic, and in large doses laxative. Whether taken internally, or applied to the skin, they communicate a violet odour to the urine, and if continued for some time produce an irritation of the mu- cous membrane of the urinary passages, amounting frequently to stran- gury. The last effect is less apt to be experienced when they operate upon the bowels. Externally applied they act as rubefacients. Their medical virtues were known to the ancients. At present they are less used than formerly, having b^en superseded by their volatile oil. They are however, occasionally prescribed in Ieucorrhcea, gleet, and other part i. Terebinthina. — Testa.— Tolutanum. 641 chronic diseases of the urinary passages; in piles and chronic inflam- mations or ulcerations of the bowels; in chronic catarrhal affections; and in various forms of rheumatism, especially sciatica and lumbago. The white turpentine is usually employed in this country. They may be given in the shape of pill made with powdered liquorice root; or in emulsion with gum Arabic or yolk of egg, loaf sugar, and water; or in electuary formed with sugar or honey. Their dose is from a scruple to a drachm. In the quantity of half an ounce or an ounce, triturated with the yolk of an egg, and mixed with half a pint of muci- laginous liquid, they form an excellent injection in cases of ascarides, and of constipation attended with flatulence; Off. Prep. Oleum TerebinthinaB, Dub. TESTA. U.S. Oyster-shelt. Off. Syn. TESTAE. Lond. Ecailles des huitres, Fr.; Austerschalen, Germ.; Gusci delle ostriche, Hal; Casca- ras, Span. The common oyster is the Ostrea edulis of naturalists, an animal be- longing to the class Vermes, order Testacea. It is found in many parts of the world, and is particularly abundant on our own coast, and in the bays of our large rivers. It consists of a soft pulpy portion, comprising the vital organs of the animal, enclosed in a hard bivalve shell* of the nature of mother-of-pearl. The meat of the oyster forms a very digesti- ble and nutritious article of food, particularly suited to convalescents j but the shell only is officinal. Properties.—Oyster-shells are too familiarly known to require descrip- tion. They consist* like other mother-of-pearl shells, of alternate layers of carbonate of lime, and animal matter of the nature of coagulated albumen. According to Vauquelin, the carbonate of lime is associated with a little phosphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and oxide of iron. When calcined or burnt, the animal matter and carbonic acid are dissipated, and the shells are converted into very good lime, called* in the arts, oyster-shell lime. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Oyster-shells require to be reduced to an im- palpable powder, before they are fit for medicinal employment; and their preparation in this way constitutes their sole pharmaceutical use. When thus prepared, they form the Testa Prasparata, under which head their medicinal properties will be noticed. Off. Prep. Testa Praeparata, U.S., Lond. TOLUTANUM. U.S. Tolu. " Myroxylon Toluiferum. Richard. Myroxylot, Peruiferum. Willdi Succus. The juice." U.S. Off Syn. BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM. Toluifera Balsamum. Bal-> samum. Lond.; TOLUIFERA BALSAMI BALSAMUM. Ed.; TO- LUIFERA BALSAMUM. Resina. Dub. Balsam of Tolu ; Baume de Tolu, Fr.; Tolubalsam, Germ.; Balsamo del Tolu, Hali Balsamo de Tolu, Span. Myroxylon. See MYROXYLON. Till recently, the tree from which this balsam is derivedj retained the 81 642 Tolutanum. part i. name of Toluifera Balsamum, given to it by Linnaeus; but it is now admit- ted that the genus Toluifera was formed upon insufficient grounds; and botanists agree in referring the Tolu balsam tree to the Myroxylon. Ruiz, one of the authors of the Flora Peruviana* considers it identical with the Myroxylon Peruiferum; and his opinion has been adopted by some other writers. M. Achille Richard, however, thinks it a distinct species, and has appropriately denominated it Myroxylon Toluiferum, a title which is recognised in the Pharmacopceia of the United States. Sprengel and Humboldt also consider it a distinct species of Myroxylon. According to Richard, who had an opportunity of examining specimens brought from South America by Humboldt, the leaflets of the M. Pe- ruiferum are thick, coriaceous, acute, and blunt at the apex, and all equal in size; while in the M. Toluiferum the leaflets are thin* membranous, obovate, with a lengthened and acuminate apex, and the terminal one is longest. The M. Peruiferum is found in Peru and the southern parts of New Granada; the M. Toluiferum grows in Carthagena, and abounds especially in the neighbourhood of Tolu. The wood of the latter species, according to Humboldt, is of a deep red colour, has a delightful bal- samic odour, and is much used for building. It is not improbable, that the two balsams known in the shops by the respective names of Peru and Tolu, differ more in the mode by which they are procured, than in the character of the trees which afford them. The balsam of Tolu is procured by making incisions into the trunk of the tree. The juice as it exudes is received in vessels of various kinds, in which it is allowed to concrete. It is brought from Carthagena in calabashes, or baked earthen jars of a peculiar shape, and sometimes in glass vessels. Properties.—As first imported, it has a soft, tenacious consistence, which varies considerably with the temperature. By age it becomes hard and brittle like resin. It is shining, translucent, of a reddish or yellowish-brown colour, a highly fragrant odour, and a warm, somewhat sweetish and pungent, but not disagreeable taste. Exposed to heat, it melts, inflames, and diffuses while burning, its own peculiar smell, unit- ed with that of benzoic acid. It is entirely dissolved by alcohol, and the essential oils, and is capable of uniting with the fixed oils. Boiling water extracts its benzoic acid. Distilled with water it affords a small proportion of volatile oil; and if the heat be continued, benzoic acid sublimes. Mr. Hatchet states, that when dissolved in the smallest quan- tity of solution of potassa, it loses its own characteristic odour, and acquires that of the Clove-pink. Its ingredients are resin, benzoic acid,. and volatile oil, the proportions of which vary in different specimens. Guibourt observed that it contains more benzoic acid, and is less odor- ous in the solid form; and thinks that the acid is increased at the expense of the oil. Trommsdorff obtained 88 per cent, of resin, 12 of acid, and only 0.2 of volatile oil. Medical Properties and Uses.—The balsam of Tolu is a stimulant tonic, with a peculiar tendency to the pulmonary organs. It is given with some advantage in chronic catarrh and other pectoral complaints, in which a> gently stimulating expectorant is demanded; but should not be prescribed until after the reduction of inflammatory action. Independently of its medical virtues, its pleasant flavour renders it a popular ingredient of expectorant mixtures. Old and obstinate coughs are said to be some- times greatly relieved by the inhalation of the vapour proceeding from an ethereal solution of this balsam. From ten to thirty grains may be given at a dose, and frequently re- part r. Tormentilla.— Toxicodendron. 643 peated. The best form of administration is that of emulsion, made by triturating the balsam with mucilage of gum Arabic and loaf sugar, and afterwards with water. Off. Prep. Syrupus Tolutani, Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Benzoini Com- posita, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Tolutani, U.S., Ed., Dub. TORMENTILLA. U.S. Secondary. Tormentil. " Tormentilla erecta. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. TORMENTILLA RADIX. Tormentilla officinalis. Ra- dix. Lond.; TORMENTILLiE ERECTS RADIX. Ed.; TORMEN- TILLA OFFICINALIS. Dub. Tormentille, Fr.; Tormentilwurzel, Germ.; Tormentilla, Zta/./Tormentila, Span. Tormentilla. Class Icosandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ro- saceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx eight-cleft. Petals four. Seeds roundish, naked, affix- ed to a small, juiceless receptacle. Willd. By some modern writers this genus is united with the Potentilla, from which it differs only in having eight instead of ten divisions of the calyx, and four instead of five petals. Tormentilla erecta. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1112; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 503. t 181.—T. Officinalis. Smith, Flor. Brit.; Pharm. Lond.—Poten- tilla Tormentilla. Nestler, Monograph, des Potenlilles. The tormentil, or septfoil, is a small perennial plant, very common throughout Europe. The stems, which rise about six or eight inches in height, from a woody root, are slender, more or less erect, branching towards the top, and furnished with sessile leaves, which on the stalk usually consist of seven, on the branches of five, digitate, elliptical, villous, deeply serrated leaflets, three of which are larger than the others. The flowers are small, yellow, and solitary upon axillary peduncles. All parts of the plant are astringent, especially the root, which is the part employed. It is gathered in spring. Properties.—The root of tormentil is cylindrical or roundish, rather larger above than at the lower extremity, an inch or two in length, about the thickness of the finger, knotty, sometimes contorted, brown or black- ish externally, and reddish within. It has a slight aromatic oclour, and a very astringent taste. Tannin is an abundant constituent. There is also a red colouring principle, soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water. The root is said to be used for tanning leather in the Orkneys and Western Islands of Scotland, and for staining leather red by the Laplanders. It yields all its medical virtues to boiling water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Tormentil is a simple and powerful astringent, applicable to all cases of disease in which this class of medi- cines is indicated. We seldom, however, employ it in this country, hav- ing indigenous plants of equal virtue. It may be given in substance, decoction, or extract. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. TOXICODENDRON. U.S. Secondary. Poison-oak. " Rhus toxicodendron. Folia. The leaves." U.S. 644 Toxicodendron. PART I. Off. Syn. TOXICODENDRI FOLIA. Rhus Toxicodendron. Folia. Lond.; RHOIS TOXICODENDRI FOLIA. Ed,; RHUS TOXICO- DENDRON. Folia. Dub. Sumac v£neneux, Fr.; Gift-sumach, Germ.,- Albero del veleno, ltal Rhus. See RHUS GLABRUM. Admitting, as appears generally to be done at present, that the Rhus Toxicodendron and Rhus radicans of Linnaeus, are mere varieties of the same plant, there are three indigenous species of Rhus which possess poisonous properties—the one above mentioned, the R. Vernix, common- ly known by the name of swamp sumach, or poison sumach, and the R. pumilum of the Southern States. Though the first only is designated in the Pharmacopoeia* we shall briefly describe the three species, as their medical effects are probably similar, and their operation upon the system such that the plants should be known to every practitioner. 1. Rhus radicans; Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1481; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 17.—R,* Toxicodendron. Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept, p. 205. Though Elliott and Nuttall consider the R. radicans and R. Toxicodendron as distinct species, the weight of botanical authority is on the other side, and Biger low declares that he has *' frequently observed individual shoots from the same stock, having the characters of both varieties." The differ- ence, however, in their appearance, is sufficiently striking to have led to the adoption of different common names, the R. radicans being usually called poison vine, and the R. Toxicodendron, poison oak. The former has a climbing stem, rising to a great height upon trees, rocks, and other objects, to which it adheres by strong rooting fibres, which it throws out from its sides. The leaves, which stand upon long footstalks, are ter- nate, with broad ovate or rhomboidal, acute leaflets, smooth and shining on both sides, sometimes slightly hairy on the veins beneath, entire, or irregularly lobed and toothed. The flowers are small, greenish-white, dioecious, and grow in lateral, usually axillary panicles, or compound racemes. The male flowers have five stamens, and the rudiments of a style; the female, which are of only half the size and on a different plant, have abortive stamens, and a short erect style, standing on a roundish germ, and terminating in three stigmas. The fruit consists of roundish, pale-green or whitish berries. The R. Toxicodendron, or poison oak, has the form of a shrub from one to three feet high, with leaflets angularly indented, and pubescent beneath. But this character of the foliage is probably not constant; and the stunted growth may be owing to peculiarities of situation. Dr. Bige- low states that the young plants of the R. radicans do not put forth root- ing fibres until they are several years old, and that they are influenced in this respect by the contiguity of supporting objects. This species of Rhus grows in woods, fields, and along fences, from Canada to Georgia. It flowers in June and July. When wounded, it emits a milky juice, which becomes black on exposure to the air, and leaves upon linen or other cloth a' stain, which cannot afterwards be removed by washing with soap and water, or by alcohol either hot or pold, but deepens by age. It has been proposed as an indelible ink. Ether dissolves it. The juice applied to the skin frequently produces inflammation and vesication; and the same poisonous property is possessed by a volatile principle which escapes from the plant itself, and produces in persons who come into its vicinity an exceedingly troublesome erysipelatous affection, particularly of the face. Itching, redness, a sense of burning, tumefaction, vesication, and ultimate desquamation, are some of the PART I. Toxicodendron. 645 attendants of this poisonous action. The swelling of the face is some- times so great as almost entirely to obliterate the features. The effects are experienced soon after exposure, and usually begin to decline within a week. A light cooling regimen, with saline purgatives, and the local use of cold lead-water, are the best remedies. All persons are not equally liable to the affection, and the great majority are wholly unsusceptible of it from any ordinary exposure. 2. Rhus Vernix. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1479; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 96. The swamp sumach is a beautiful shrub or small tree, usually ten or fifteen feet high, but sometimes rising thirty feet. The bark of the trunk is dark gray, of the branches lighter, of the extreme twigs and petioles beautifully red. The leaves are pinnate, with four or five pairs of oppo- site leaflets, and an odd terminal one. These are oblong or oval, entire or slightly sinuated, acuminate, smooth, and except that at the end, nearly sessile. The flowers, as in the preceding species, are dioecious, They are very small, greenish, and arranged in loose axillary panicles, The berries are small, roundish, and greenish-white. The tree grows in swamps and low grounds, from Canada to Caro? lina, and flowers in June and July. It is thought to be identical with a species of Rhus which grows in Japan, and furnishes a fine black varnish, much used in that country. Dr. Bigelow found that the opaque whitish juice which exudes from our native plant when wounded, and which ber comes permanently black on exposure, may be made to afford a brilliant, glossy, durable varnish, by boiling it sufficiently before applying it. The Rhus Vernix produces much more powerfully than the R. radicans, the poisonous effects already described. Persons coming within its in* fluence are much more apt to be affected with the poison, and generally suffer more severely. The whole body is sometimes enormously swollen, and the patient for many days scarcely able to move; but the complaint almost always spontaneously subsides without destroying life. As in the former instance, the susceptibility to the influence of the poison is ex- ceedingly various, and some persons may handle the plant with perfect impunity. 3. Rhus pumilum. Michaux, Flor. Arfteric. i. 182- This is a southern species, growing in Upper Carolina, and not more than afoot in height. It is characterized by its pubescent branches and petioles; its pinnate leaves, with many pairs of oval, nearly acuminate, incised dentate leaflets, downy beneath; and by its silky fruit. According to Pursh it is the most poisonous of the genus. It is probable that all parts of the Rhus radicans (R. Toxicodendron) are possessed of active properties; but it is the leaves only which are directed in the Pharmacopoeia, under the title of Toxicodendron. These are inodorous, have a mawkish acrid taste, and yield their virtues to water. The presence of tannin and gallic acid has been detected in them; but they have not been accurately analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses.—These leaves appear to be stimulant and narcotic, producing when swallowed more or less irritation of the stomach and bowels, and promoting the secretory function of the skin and kidneys. Orfila found them to act in the manner of the acrid poisons, and to produce a stupifying effect upon the nervous system. They were successfully used by Du Fresnoy, in France, in the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases. Dr. Anderson, of Hull in England, effect- ed cures with the medicine in several cases of palsy. A sense of heat and pricking, with irregular twitchings, were excited by it in the affect- ed parts. Dr. Horsfield, and other physicians of this country, have 646 Toxicodendron.— Tragacantha. part i. used it in consumption and dropsy, but not with any very encouraging success. The dose of the leaves recommended by Dr. Anderson, was half a grain or a grain three times a day; but this is much too small. Dr. Dun- can gave it in larger doses, with little other than a laxative effect. Dr. Horsfield administered a teacupful of the strong infusion without dis- advantage. In France the extract is recommended in doses of fifteen or twenty grains, repeated two or three times a day, and gradually increas- ed to one or two drachms. Some of Du Fresnoy's patients took an ounce without effect. The probability is, that the active principle is volatile, and that the extract is less efficient than the leaves themselves. The risk - of experiencing the poisonous effects of the plant upon the system, will probably prevent its extensive employment as a remedy, unless it should prove much more useful than the trials hitherto made give us reason to expect. TRAGACANTHA. U.S. Tragacanth. 44 Astragalus verus. Succus concretus. The concrete juice." U.S. Off. Syn. TRAGACANTHA. Astragalus verus. Gummi. Lond.; ASTRAGALI TRAGACANTHA GUMMI. Ex variis Tragacanthae speciebus.^rf.; TRAGACANTHA GUMMI. ASTRAGALUS CRE- TICUS. Gummi. Dub. Gomme Adraganthe, Fr.; Tragant, Germ.; Dragante, ltal,• Gomo tragacanto, Span. Astragalus. Class Diadelphia. Order Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Legu- minosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Legume two-celled, more or less gibbous, with the lower su- ture turned inwards. Carina blunt. Loudon's Encyc. of Plants. Numerous species belonging to this genus yield a gummy matter hav- ing the properties of tragacanth. The drug known in commerce by that name has been ascribed, on the authority of Tournefort, to the A. Tragacantlia of Linnaeus (A. Creticus of Lamarck), which grows in Crete and Ionia; and on that of Olivier, to the A. verus which inhabits Asia Minor, Armenia, and Northern Persia. Labillardiere described a spe- cies by the name of A. gummifer, which he found growing on Mount Libanus in Syria* and from which tragacanth exudes, though not that of commerce. Sieber denies that any one of these species yields the officinal tragacanth, which he ascribes to the A. aristatus growing in Anatolia, especially upon Mount Ida, where the gum is most abundantly collected. This plant, however, is not the A. aristatus of Villars, which, accord- ing to Sibthorp, furnishes tragacanth in Greece. (Merat and De Lens.) The fact seems to be, that the commercial drug is collected from various sources; and it is affirmed that all the species of Astragalus with thorny petioles are capable of producing it. These form a natural group, and so closely resemble each other, that botanists have found some difficulty in distinguishing them. As the A. verus is designated in the Pharma- copoeia of the United States and that of the London College, we shall briefly describe it. Astragalus verus. Olivier, Voy. dans I'Empire Ottoman, v. 342. pi. 44. This is a small shrub, not more than two or three feet high, with a stem an inch in thickness, and numerous very closely crowded branches, co- vered with imbricated scales, and spines which are the remains of former petioles. The leaves, which are little more than half an inch long, con- part i. Tragacantha.—Triosteum. 647 sist of several pairs of opposite, villous, stiff, pointed leaflets, with a midrib terminating in a sharp yellowish point. The flowers are papili- onaceous, small, yellow, axillary, aggregate, and furnished with cottony bractes. This species yields the gum collected in Persia, and thence transmitted southward to India through Bagdad and Bassora, north- ward to Russia, and westward to Aleppo. Tragacanth exudes spontaneously during the summer from the stems and branches, hardening as it exudes, and assuming various forms, ac- cording to the greater or less abundance of the juice. Properties.—It is in tortuous* vermicular filaments* rounded or flatten- ed, rolled up or extended, of a whitish or yellowish-white colour, some- what translucent, resembling horn in appearance. Sometimes the pieces are irregularly oblong or roundish, and of a slightly reddish colour. It is hard, and more or less fragile, but difficult of pulverization, unless exposed to a freezing temperature, or thoroughly dried and powdered in a heated mortar. The powder is very fine and white. Tragacanth has no smell, and very little taste. Introduced into water it absorbs a certain proportion of that liquid, swells very much* and forms a soft adhesive paste* but does not dissolve. If agitated with an additional quantity of water this paste forms a uniform mixture; but in the course of one or two days separates and is deposited, leaving but a small proportion dissolved in the supernatant fluid. Tragacanth is wholly insoluble in alcohol. Though generally classed with the gums, it differs very materially from them in its properties, particularly in its relations with water. One part of it communicates to this fluid as great a degree of viscidity as twenty-five parts of gum Arabic. Besides, according to Duncan, it is precipitated by sulphate of copper, acetate of lead, and nitrate of mercury. It ap- pears to be composed of two different parts, one soluble in water and* resembling though not identical with gum Arabic, the other capable of swelling in water, but not dissolving. The latter, which, according to Bucholz* constitutes 43 per cent, of tragacanth, is ranked by some among the peculiar proximate principles with the title of tragacan- thin. It is closely analogous to bassorin, and may, perhaps, be con- sidered as identical with that principle. It has the property of becom- ing blue with iodine, which is ascribed by some to the presence of a small cjuantity of insoluble starch. When boiled for some time with a large proportion of water, it is said to undergo a change by which it becomes soluble in that liquid. It is dissolved by dilute muriatic acid. Berzelius considers tragacanth as a variety of mucilage. (See Linum.) Medical Properties and Uses.—Tragacanth is demulcent, but on ac- * count of its difficult solubility, is not often given internally. The great viscidity which it imparts to water* renders it useful for the suspension of heavy insoluble powders; and it is also employed in pharmacy to impart consistence to troches* for which it ansVvers better than gum Arabic. Off. Prep. Mucilago Astragali Tragacanthae, Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Tra- gacanthae Compositus* Lond. TRIOSTEUM. U.S. Secondary. Fever-root. " Triosteum perfoliatum. Radix. The root." U. S. Triosteum. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Capri- foliae, Juss.; Caprifoliacese, De Cand., Lindley. 648 Triosteum.— Tritici Farina. PART I. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, persistent, nearly the length of the corolla; segments linear, acute. Corolla tubular, five-lobed, subequal, base nec- tariferous, gibbous. Stigma somewhat five-lobed, capitate. Berry three- celled, three-seeded, crowned with the calyx. Nuttall. Triosteum perfoliatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 990; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 90; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 59. This plant is indigenous and pe- rennial. Several stems usually rise from the same root. They are sim- ple, erect, round, hairy, fistulous, herbaceous, and from one to four feet high. The leaves are opposite, large, mostly connate, oval, acuminate* entire, abruptly narrowed at the base, and pubescent on their under sur- face. The flowers are of a dull purple colour, axillary, sessile, rarely solitary, sometimes in pairs, generally in triplets or five together in the form of whorls. The germ is inferior, and the style projects beyond the corolla, into the tube of which the stamens are inserted. The berry is oval and of a deep orange colour, containing three hard, bony seeds. The fever-wort, fever-root, or wild ipecac, as this plant is variously called, though not very abundant, is found in most parts of the United States, preferring a limestone soil and shady situations. Its flowers ap- pear in June. The whole plant has a bitter taste; but the root is most active, and is the only officinal part. It is horizontal, long, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, thicker and tuberculated near the origin of the stem, of a yellowish or brownish colour externally, whitish within, and furnished with fibres Which may be considered as branches of the main root. When dry it is brittle and easily pulverised. It has a sickening odour and a bitter nau- seous taste. Both water and alcohol take up its active properties, which are retained in the extract. Medical Properties and Uses.—Fever-root is cathartic, and in large doses emetic. The late Professor Barton observed it also to produce a diuretic effect. The bark of the root is the part which has been usually employed. In the quantity of twenty or thirty grains it ordinarily acts upon the bowels ; and may be given alone or in combination with calo- mel at the commencement of fevers. The extract may be given in half the dose. TRITICI FARINA. Wheat-flour. Off. Syn. FARINA. Triticum hybernum. Farina. Lond.; TRITI- CUM HYBERNUM. Seminum Farina. Dub. Farine de froment, Fr.; Waizenmehl, Germ.; Farina di frumento, Hal; Flor del trigo, Acemite, Span. Triticum. Class Triandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Gramina, Juss.; Gramineae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Calyx two-valved, solitary, transverse, many-flowered* on a flexuose, toothed receptacle. Rees's Cycloped. Triticum hybernum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 477. The common winter wheat has a fibrous root* and one or more erect, round, smooth, jointed stems, which rise from three to five feet in height, and are furnished with linear, pointed, entire, flat, many-ribbed, rough, somewhat glau- cous leaves, and jagged bearded stipules. The flowers are in a solitary, terminal, dense* smooth spike, two or three inches long. The calyx is four-flowered, tumid, even, imbricated, abrupt, with a short compressed point. In the upper part of the spike it is more elongated; and in this part I. Tritici Farina. 649 situation the corolla is more or less awned. The grain is imbricated, in four rows. The native country of wheat is unknown; but its cultivation is sup- posed to have spread from Sicily over Europe. It is now an object of culture in almost all countries which enjoy a temperate climate. Sown in the autumn, it stands the winter, and ripens its seed in the following summer. Numerous varieties have been produced by cultivation, some of which are usually described as distinct species. Among these may perhaps be ranked the T.sestivum,or spring wheat, distinguished by its long beards, and the T. compositum, or Egyptian wheat, by its com- pound spikes. It is asserted that the latter changes in Great Britain into the common single-spiked wheat. (Loudon's Encyc.) The seeds are too well known to need description. They are prepared for use by grinding and sifting, by which the interior farinaceous part is separated from the husk. The former is divided according to its fineness into different portions, but so far as regards its medical relations may be considered under one head, that of farina or flour. The latter is called bran, and constitutes from 25 to 33 per cent according to the variety of wheat. Flour is white, inodorous, and nearly insipid. Its chief constituents are starch, gluten, and a saccharine gummy matter, the proportions of which are by no means constant. Vogel obtained from 100 parts, 68 of starch, 24 of moist gluten, 5 of gummy sugar, and 1.5 of albumen, be- sides earthy phosphates and other salts. The same quantity yielded to Proust 74.5 parts of starch, 12.5 of gluten, 12 of gummy and saccharine extract, and 1 of yellow resin. The starch, which is by far the most abundant ingredient, is much employed in a separate state. (See Amy- lum.) The gluten, however, is not less important, as it is to the large proportion of this principle which it contains, that wheat flour owes its superiority over that of other grains for the preparation of bread. Gluten may be obtained separate, by exposing a paste of flour en- closed in a linen bag to the action of a stream of water, and pressing it with the fingers till the liquor comes away colourless. What remains is gluten, in a moist state. It is grayish, soft, elastic, viscid, fibrous, almost insipid, and putrescible upon exposure to a warm damp air. Dried by a gentle heat it contracts, becomes hard and brittle, and may now be kept without change. It is insoluble in water, ether, the oils, and in cold alcohol; but is soluble in the acids and liquid alkalies. By M. Tad- dey, an Italian chemist, it has been separated into two distinct sub- stances—1. gliadine, soluble in hot alcohol, and obtained by boiling gluten in that liquid, filtering and evaporating the solution; 2. zymome, insoluble in alcohol, and constituting the residue after the former has been removed. The same chemist has ascertained that powdered guaiac produces with zymome a beautiful blue colour; and that a similar result is obtained when the guaiac is kneaded with the dough of good wheat flour. As this owes its property of forming bread to the gluten, which is sometimes diminished by spontaneous decomposition, or is originally more or less deficient, and as the intensity of the colour produced is pro- portionate to the quantity of this principle present, an approximate esti- mation of the value of the flour may be formed by observing the degree of colour which it produces with the reagent. Gluten yields ammonia both by spontaneous decomposition and by the agency of heat. It there- fore contains nitrogen among its ultimate constituents, and approaches to the nature of animal matter. Its proportion in flour is very variable. The wheat grown in southern climates is said to be richer in this prin- 82 650 Tritici Farina. — Tussilago. part i. ciple than that of cold countries. Davy found in good wheat flour from 19 to 24 per cent. It is scarcely necessary to state, that bread is formed by making flour into a paste with the addition of yeast, setting it aside to ferment, and then exposing it to the heat of an oven. The fermentation ex- cited by the yeast, is accompanied with the extrication of carbonic acid gas, which being retained by the tenacity of the gluten, forms innumer- able little cells through the mass, and thus renders the bread light It is important to recollect that common salt is always added; as this in- gredient is incompatible with some of the substances which are occa- sionally directed to be made into pills with the crumb of bread. Medical Properties and Uses.—Wheat flour in its unaltered state is seldom used in medicine. It is sometimes sprinkled on the skin in ery- sipelatous inflammation, and various itching or burning eruptions, par- ticularly the nettle-rash; though rye flour is generally preferred for this purpose. In the state of bread it is much more employed. An infusion of toasted "bread in water is a pleasant, somewhat nutritive drink, very well adapted to febrile complaints. Within our experience, no drink has been found more grateful in such cases than this infusion, sweetened with a little molasses, and flavoured by lemon-juice. Boiled with milk, bread con- stitutes the common suppurative poultice, which may be improved by the addition of a small proportion of perfectly fresh lard. Slices of it steeped in lead-water, or the crumb mixed with the fluid and confined within a piece of gauze, afford a convenient mode of applying this pre- paration to local inflammations. The crumb—micapanis—is, moreover, frequently used to give bulk to minute doses of very active medicines administered in the form of pill. It should be recollected, however, that the common salt which it contains is wholly incompatible with the ni- trate of silver, which is frequently prescribed in this way, and the dose of which is so minute that no loss can be afforded. Bran is sometimes used in decoction, as a demulcent in catarrhal affec- tions and complaints of the bowels. It has, when taken in substance, laxative properties, and is used by some persons habitually and with great advantage to prevent costiveness. Bran bread, made from the unsifted flour, forms an excellent laxative article of diet in some dyspeptic cases. The action of the bran is probably altogether mechanical, consisting in the irritation produced upon the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels by its coarse particles. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Fermenti, Lond., Dub. TUSSILAGO. Lond. Coltsfoot. "Tussilago Farfara." Lond. Off Syn. TUSSILAGINIS FARFARA FLORES et FOLIA. Ed.; TUSSILAGO FARFARA. Folia. Flores. Dub. Tussilage, Pas d'ane, Fr.; Gemeiner huflattig, Germ.; Tossilagine, Hal.,- Tusilago, Span. Tussilago. Class Syngenesia. Order Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Corym- biferae, Juss.; Compositae Corymbiferae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Pappus simple. Calyx scales equal, as long as the disk, submembranaceous. Florets of the ray ligulate or toothless- Willd. part i. Tussilago. — Ulmi Cortexr 651 Tussilago Farfara. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1967; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 45. t. 18. Coltsfoot is a perennial herb, with a creeping root, which early in the spring sends up several leafless, erect, simple, tomentose, unifloral scapes or flower-stems, five or six inches high, and furnished with appressed scale-like bractes of a brownish-pink colour. The flower, which stands singly at the end of the scape, is large, yellow, compound, with hermaphrodite florets in the disk, and female florets in the ray. The latter are numerous, linear, and twice the length of the former. The leaves do not make their appearance until after the flowers have blown. They are radical, petiolate, large, cordate, angular and toothed at the margin, bright green upon their upper surface, white and downy beneath. The plant grows spontaneously both in Europe and North America. In this country it is found upon the banks of streams in the Middle and Northern States, and flowers in April. The whole of it is directed by the London College, the leaves and flowers only by those of Edinburgh and Dublin. The leaves are most frequently employed. They should be gathered after their full expansion, but before they have attained their greatest magnitude. (London Dispensatory.) The flowers have an agreeable odour, which they retain after desic- cation. The dried root and leaves are inodorous, but have a rough bit- terish mucilaginous taste. Boiling water extracts all their virtues. Medical Properties and Uses.—Coltsfoot exercises little sensible influ- ence upon the human system. It is, however, demulcent, and is some- times used in chronic coughs, consumption, and other affections of the lungs. The expectorant properties which it was formerly thought to possess are not obvious. The leaves were smoked by the ancients in pulmonary complaints; and in some parts of Germany they are at the present time said to be substituted for tobacco. Cullen states that he found the expressed juice of the fresh leaves, taken to the extent of some ounces every day, beneficial in several cases of scrofulous sores; and a decoction of the dried leaves, as recommended by Fuller, answered a similar purpose, though it often failed to effect a cure. The usual form of administration is that of decoction. An ounce or two of the plant may be boiled in two pints of water to a pint, of which a teacupful may be given several times a day. ULMI CORTEX. Lond. Elm Bark. " Ulmus campestris. Liber. The inner bark." Lond. Off. Syn. ULMI CAMPESTRIS CORTEX. Cortex interior. Ed.; ULMUS CAMPESTRIS. Cortex interior. Dub. Ecorce d'orme, Fr.; Ulmrinde, Germ.,- Scorza del olmo, Hal; Corteza de olmo, Span. Ulmus. Class Pentandria. Order Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Amentaceae, Juss.; Ulmaceae, Mirbel, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla none. Capsule (Samara) compressed, membranaceous. JVUld. Ulmus campestris. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1324; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 710. t. 242. This species of elm is characterized by its doubly serrate leaves, unequal at their base, by its nearly sessile, clustered, pentandrous flowers, and its smooth fruit. It is a large tree, with strong spreading 652 Ulmi Cortex.—Ulmus. part i. branches, and a rough, cracked bark. It is a native of Europe, where the wood is highly esteemed for certain purposes in the arts. The inner bark of its young branches, which is the officinal portion, is thin, tough, of a brownish-yellow colour, inodorous, and of a muci- laginous bitterish taste. It imparts to water its taste and mucilaginous properties. The tincture of iodine indicates the presence of starch. A peculiar vegetable principle called ulmin, now believed to be a constitu- ent of most barks, was first discovered in the matter which spontaneously exudes from the bark of the European elm. It is a dark-brown almost black substance, without smell or taste, insoluble in cold water, spar- ingly soluble in boiling water which it colours yellowish-brown, solu- ble in alcohol, and readily dissolved by alkaline solutions. Medical Properties and Uses.—The bark of the European elm is de- mulcent, and said to be diuretic. It has been recommended in cutaneous affections of the leprous and herpetic character; but is not at present very highly esteemed. It is usually given in the form of decoction, and must be long continued to produce beneficial results. Off. Prep. Decoctum Ulmi, Lond., Dub. ULMUS. U.S. Slippery Elm Bark. " Ulmus fulva. Liber. The inner bark." U. S. Ulmus. See ULMI CORTEX. Ulmus fulva. Michaux, Flor. Americ. i. 172.—Ulmus rubra. F.Andrew Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 89. The slippery elm, called also red elm, is a lofty tree, rising fifty or sixty feet in height, with a stem fifteen or twenty inches in diameter. The bark of the trunk is brown, that of the branches rough and whitish. The leaves are oblong ovate, acumi- nate, nearly equal at the base, unequally serrate, pubescent and very rough on both sides, four or five inches in length by two or three in breadth, and supported on short footstalks. The buds, a fortnight before their development, are covered with a dense russet down. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are sessile, and in clusters at the extre- mity of the young shoots. The bunches of flowers are surrounded by scales, which are downy like the buds. The calyx also is downy. There is no corolla. The stamens are five in number, short, and of a pale rose colour. The fruit is a membranaceous capsule or samara, enclosing in the middle one round seed, destitute of fringe. This species of elm is indigenous, growing in all parts of the United States north of Carolina, but most abundantly west of the Alleghany mountains. It flourishes in open, elevated situations, and requires a firm dry soil. From the white elm, A. Americana, it is distinguished by its rough branches, its larger, thicker, and rougher leaves, its downy buds, and the character of its flowers and seeds. Its period of flowering is in April. The inner bark is the part used in medicine, and is brought to the shops separated from the epidermis. It is in long, nearly flat pieces* from one to two lines in thickness, of a fibrous texture, a tawny colour which is reddish on the inner surface, a peculiar sweetish not unpleasant odour, and a highly mucilaginous taste when chewed. By grinding, it is reduced to a light, grayish fawn- coloured powder. It abounds in mucilaginous matter, which it readily imparts to water. Medical Properties and Uses.—Slippery elm bark is an excellent demul- PART I. Ulmus.—Uva Passa. 653 cent, applicable to all cases in which this class of medicines is employ- ed. It is especially recommended in dysentery, diarrhoea, and diseases of the urinary passages. Like the bark of the common European elm, it has been employed in leprous and herpetic eruptions; but neither in these nor in any other complaints does it probably exert any greater powers than such as belong to the demulcents generally. Its mucilage is highly nutritious; and we are told that it has proved sufficient for the support of life in the absence of other food. The instance of a soldier is men- tioned, who lived for ten days in the woods on this bark and sassafras; and the Indians are said to resort to it for nutriment in extreme emer- gencies. It is usually employed as a drink in the form of infusion. (See In- fusum Ulmi.) The powder maybe used, stirred in hot water, with which it forms a mucilage, more or less thick according to the proportion added. The bark also serves as an emollient application, in cases of external inflammation. For this purpose the powder may be formed into a poultice with hot water, or the bark itself may be applied, pre- viously softened by boiling. Off. Prep. Infusum Ulmi, U. S. UVA PASSA. U.S. Raisins. " Vitis vinifera. Fructus siccatus. The dried fruit." U.S. Off. Syn. \JN& PASS^L. Lond.; VITIS V1NIFERJL FRUCTUS. Fructus siccatus. Ed.; VITIS VINIFERA. Fructus siccatus. Dub. Raisins sees, Fr.; Rosinen, Germ.; Uve passe, ltal; Pasas, Span. Vitis. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Vites, Juss. Gen. Ch. Petals cohering at the apex, withering. Berry five-seeded, superior. Willd. Vitis vinifera. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1180; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 144. t. 57. The vine is too well known to require description. This particular species is distinguished by the character of its leaf, which is lobed, sinuated, and naked or downy. The leaves and tendrils are somewhat astringent, and were formerly used in diarrhoea, hemorrhages, and other morbid discharges. The juice which flows from the stem was also thought to be possessed of medicinal virtues, and the prejudice still lingers among the vulgar in some countries. The unripe fruit has a harsh sour taste, and yields by expression a very acid liquor, called ver- juice, which was much esteemed by the ancients as a refreshing drink, when diluted with water. It contains malic and tartaric acids. The grape, when quite ripe, is among the most pleasant and grateful fruits brought upon the table, and is admirably adapted, by its refreshing pro- perties, to febrile complaints. If largely taken, it proves diuretic and gently laxative. The ripe fruit differs from the unripe in containing more sugar and less acid, though never entirely destitute of the latter. The plant is supposed to have been derived originally from Asia; but it has been cultivated in Europe and Northern Africa from the remotest antiquity; and is now spread over all the temperate civilized regions of the globe. The fruit is exceedingly influenced by soil and climate; and the varieties which have resulted from culture or situation are innume- rable. Those which yield the raisins of commerce are confined to the basin of the Mediterranean. Raisins are prepared either by partially cutting the stalk of the bunches 654 Uva Passa. — Uva Ursi. PART I. before the grapes are perfectly ripe, and allowing them to dry upon the vine; or by picking them m their mature state, and steeping them for a short time previous to desiccation in an alkaline ley. Those cured by the first method are most highly esteemed. Several varieties of raisins are known in commerce. The best of those brought to this country are the Malaga raisins, imported from Spain. They are large and fleshy, of a purplish-brown colour, and sweet agree- able taste. Those produced in Calabria are similar. The Smyrna raisins are also large, -but of a yellowish-brown colour, slight musky odour, and less agreeable flavour. They are originally brought from the coast of Syria. The Corinthian raisins, or currants as they are commonly called in this country, are small, bluish-black, of a fatty appearance, with a vinous odour, and a sweet slightly tartish taste. Their name was derived from the city in the vicinity of which they were formerly cultivated; at present they are procured chiefly from Zante, Cephalonia, and the other Ionian Islands. In the older Pharmacopoeias they are distinguished by the title of uvm passse minores. Raisins contain a larger proportion of sugar than recent grapes. This principle, indeed* is often so abundant that it effloresces on the surface, or concretes in separate masses within the substance of the raisin. The sugar of grapes differs slightly from that of the cane, and is said to be identical with that produced by the action of sulphuric acid upon starch. Medical Properties and Uses.—The chief medical use of raisins is to flavour demulcent beverages. Taken in substance they are gently laxa- tive; but are also flatulent and difficult of digestion; and when largely eaten sometimes produce unpleasant effects, especially in children. Off. Prep. Decoctum Altheae, Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Guaiaci Com- positum, Ed.; Decoctum Hordei Compositum, Lond,, Dub.; Tinctura Cardamomi Composita, Lond.; Tinctura Rhei et SennaB, U.S.; Tinctura Sennae, Lond. UVA URSI. U.S., Bub. Uva Ursi. " Arbutus uva ursi. Folia. The'leaves." U.S. Off. Syn. UVM URSI FOLIA. Arbutus Uva Ursi. Folia. Lond.; ARBUTI UVjE URSI FOLIA. Ed. Busserole, Raisin d'ours, Fr.; Barentraube, Germ.; Corbezzolo, Uva ursina, Hal.; Gayuba, Span. Arbutus, Class Decandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Ericae, Juss.; Ericeae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla ovate, with a mouth, pellucid at the base. Berry five-celled. Willd. Arbutus Uva Ursi. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 618; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 66.—Arctostaphylos Uva Ursi. Adanson; Sprengel.—The uva ursi, or bearberry, is a low evergreen shrub, with trailing stems, the young branches of which rise obliquely upwards for a few inches. The leaves are scattered, upon short petioles, obovate, acute at the base, entire, with a rounded margin, thick, coriaceous, smooth, shining, and of a deep green colour on their upper surface, paler and covered with a net- work of veins beneath. The flowers, which stand on short reflexed pe- duncles, are collected in small clusters at the ends of the branches. The calyx is small* obscurely five-toothed, of a reddish colour, and persistent. PART I. Uva Ursi. 655 The corolla is ovate or urceolate* reddish-white* or white with a red lip, transparent at the base, contracted at the mouth, and divided at the margin into five short reflexed segments. The stamens are ten, with short filaments and bifid anthers; the germ round, with a style longer than the stamens, and a simple stigma. The fruit is a small, round, depressed, smooth, glossy, red berry, containing an insipid mealy pulp, and five cohering seeds. This humble but hardy shrub inhabits the northern latitudes of Eu- rope, Asia, and America. It is also found in the lofty mountains of Southern Europe, such as the Pyrennees and the Alps; and, on the Ame- rican continent, extends from Hudson's Bay as far southward as New- Jersey, in some parts of which it grows in great abundance. It prefers a barren soil, flourishing on gravelly hills, and elevated sandy plains. The leaves are the only part used in medicine. They were formerly im- ported from Europe; but are now collected chiefly within our own limits; and the market of Philadelphia is supplied exclusively from New- Jersey. They should be gathered in autumn, and the green leaves only selected. In Europe the uva ursi is often adulterated with the leaves of the Vaccinium Vitis Idsea, which are wholly destitute of its peculiar proper- ties, and may be distinguished by their rounder shape, their revolute edges which are sometimes slightly toothed, and the appearance of their under surface, which is dotted, instead of being reticulated as in the genuine leaves. These distinguishing characters are given, as par- cels of the drug may sometimes reach this country from abroad. The fresh leaves of the uva ursi are inodorous, but when dried and powdered, acquire a smell not unlike that of hay. Their taste is bit- terish, strongly astringent, and ultimately sweetish. They afford a light brown, greenish-yellow powder. Water extracts their active principles, which are also soluble in officinal alcohol. Among their ingredients are tannin, bitter extractive, resin, gum, and gallic acid; and the tannin is so abundant that they are used for tanning in some parts of Russia. Neither this principle nor gallic acid exists in the leaves of the Vaccinium Vitis Idsea. Medical Properties and Uses.—Uva ursi is astringent and tonic, and is thought by some to have a specific direction to the urinary organs, for the complaints of which it is chiefly used. Others deny that it possesses any peculiar tendency of this kind, and ascribe all its effects to its astrin- gent and tonic action. Though known to the ancients, it had passed into almost entire neglect, till its use was revived by De Haen about the mid- dle of the last century. It has acquired some reputation as an antilithic, and has undoubtedly been serviceable in gravel, probably by giving tone to the digestive organs, and preventing the accumulation of principles calculated to produce a secretion or precipitation of calculous matter. In chronic nephritis it is also a popular remedy, and is particularly re- commended when there is reason to conjecture the existence of ulcera- tion in the kidneys, bladder, or urinary passages. Diabetes, catarrh of the bladder, incontinence of urine, gleet, leucorrhoea, and menorrhagia, are also among the diseases in which it has occasionally proved ser- viceable; and testimony is not wanting to its beneficial effects in phthisis pulmonalis. The dose of the powder is from a scruple to a drachm, to be repeated three or four times a day; but the form of decoction is usually preferred. (See Decoctum Uvse Ursi.) Off. Prep. Decoctum Uvae Ursi, U. S. 656 Valeriana. PART I. VALERIANA. U.S. Valerian. "Valeriana officinalis. Radix. The root." U.S. Off. Syn. VALERIANAE RADIX. Valeriana officinalis (sylvestris). Radix. Lond.; VALERIANA OFFICINALIS RADIX. Ed.; VALE- RIANA OFFICINALIS. Radix. Dub. Vaienane, Fr.; Wilde baldrianwurzel, Germ.; Valeriana silvestre, Hal; Valerian silvestre, Span. Valeriana. Class Triandria. Order Monogynia.— Nat. Ord. Dipsaceas, Juss.; Valerianeae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx very small, finally enlarged into a feathery pappus. Corolla monopetalous, five-lobed, regular, gibbous at the base. Capsule one-celled. (Loudon's Encyc. of Plants.) Stamens exserted, one, two, three, and four. (Nuttall.) Valeriana officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 177; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 77. t. 32. The officinal, or great wild valerian, is a large handsome herba- ceous plant, with a perennial root, and an erect, round, channeled stem, from two to four feet high, furnished with opposite pinnate leaves, and terminating in flowering branches. The leaves of the stem are attached by short broad sheaths, the radical leaves are larger and stand on long footstalks. In the former the leaflets are lanceolate and partially den- tate, in the latter elliptical and deeply serrate. The flowers are small, white or rose-coloured, odorous, and disposed in terminal corymbs, interspersed with spear-shaped pointed bractes. The number of stamens in this species is three. The fruit is a capsule containing one oblong, ovate, compressed seed. The plant is a native of Europe, where it grows either in damp woods and meadows, or on dry elevated grounds. As found in these different situations, it presents characters so distinct as to have induced some botanists to make two varieties. That which affects a dry soil is not more than two feet high, and is distinguished by its narrow leaves. It is superior to the other variety in medicinal virtue. The root, which is the officinal portion, is collected in spring before the stem begins to shoot, or in the autumn when the leaves decay. It should be dried quickly, and kept in a dry place. It consists of nume- rous long, slender, cylindrical fibres, issuing from a tuberculated head. As brought to this country it frequently has portions of the stems at- tached. The best comes from England. Properties.—The colour of the root is externally yellowish or brown, internally white. The powder is yellowish-gray. The odour, which in the fresh root is slight, in the dried is strong and highly characteristic, and though rather pleasant to many persons, is very disagreeable to others. Cats are said to be strongly attracted by it. The taste is at first sweetish, afterwards bitter and aromatic. Valerian yields its active properties to water and alcohol. From one pound of the dried root Trommsdorff obtained two drachms of starch; two ounces of a peculiar principle soluble in water, insoluble in ether and alcohol, and precipi- tated by metallic solutions; an ounce and a half of gummy extract; an ounce of a black resin; a scruple of volatile oil, and eleven ounces two scruples of lignin. Of these constituents the most important is the essential oil, in which the virtues of the root chiefly reside. It is of a pale greenish colour, of the sp. gr. .934, with a pungent odour of vale- rian, and an aromatic taste. It becomes yellow and viscid by exposure. PART I. Valeriana.— Veratrum Jllbum. 657 The roots of the Valeriana Phu anff V. dioica are said to be sometimes mingled with those of the officinal plant; but the adulteration is attended with no serious consequences, as, though much weaker than the genu- ine valerian, they possess similar properties. The same cannot be said of the roots of several of the Ranunculacese, which, according to Eber- mayer, are sometimes fraudulently substituted in Germany. They may be readily detected by their want of the peculiar odour of the officinal root. Medical Properties and Uses.—Valerian is gently stimulant, with an especial direction to the nervous system, but without narcotic effect. In large doses it produces a sense of heaviness and dull pain in the head. It is useful in cases of irregular nervous action, when not connected with inflammation or an excited condition of the system. Among the com- plaints in which it has been particularly recommended, are hysteria, hy- pochondriasis, epilepsy, hemicrania, and low forms of fever attended with restlessness, morbid vigilance, or other symptoms of nervous de- rangement. It has also been used in intermittents combined with Peru- vian bark. At best, however, it is an uncertain remedy. It may be given in powder or infusion. In the latter form, it is said by Professor Joerg of Leipsic, who has experimented with it, to be less apt to ir- ritate the alimentary canal than when administered in substance. The dose of the powder is from thirty to ninety grains, repeated three or four times a day. The tincture is also officinal. As the virtues of valerian1 reside chiefly in the essential oil, the medicine should not be given in decoction or extract. Off. Prep. Infusum Valerianae* U.S., Dub.; Tinctura Valerianae, U.S.f Lond., Dubt; Tinctura Valerianae Ammoniatae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. VERATRUM ALBUM. U.S. White Hellebore. " Veratrum album. Radix. The root." U.S. Off Syn. VERATRI RADIX. Veratrum album. Radix. Lond.; VERATRI ALBI RADIX. Ed.; VERATRUM ALBUM. Radix. Dub; Elle'bore blanc, Fr.; Weisse niesswurzel, Germ.; Elleboro bianco, Hal; veratro bianco, Span. Veratrum. Class Polygamia. Order Monoecia.—Nat. Ord. Junci, Juss.'x Melanthaceae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Calyx none. Corolla six-petaled. Stamens six. Pistils three. Capsules three, many-seeded. Male. Calyx none; Corolla six-petaled. Stamens six. Pistils a rudiment. Willd. Botanists who reject the class Polygamia of Linnaeus, place this genus in the class and order Hexandria Trigynia, with the following charac- ter. " Polygamous. Corolla six-parted, spreading, segments sessile, and without glands. Stamens inserted upon the receptacle. Capsules three united, many-seeded." Nuttall. Veratrum album. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 895; Woodv. Med, Bot. p. 754. t. 257. This is an herbaceous plant, with a perennial, fleshy, fusiform root* yellowish-white externally, pale yellowish-gray within, and beset With long Cylindrical fibres of a grayish colour. The stem is three or four feet high, thick, round, erect, and furnished with alternate leaves,- which are oval, acute, entire, plaited longitudinally, about ten inches long by five in breadth, of a yellowish-green Colour, and embrace the 83 658 Veratrum Album. PART I. stem at their base. The flowers are greenish, and arranged in a termi- nal panicle. The white hellebore is a native of the mountainous regions of conti- nental Europe, and abounds in the Alps and Pyrennees. All parts of the plant are said to be acrid and poisonous; but the root only is officinal. This is brought to us from Germany in the dried state, in pieces from one to three inches long by an inch or less in mean diameter, cylindri- cal or in the shape of a truncated cone, internally whitish, externally blackish, wrinkled, and rough with the remains of the fibres which have been cut off near their origin. Sometimes the fibres continue attached to the root. They are numerous, yellowish, and of the size of a crow's quill. Properties.—The fresh root has a disagreeable odour, which is lost by drying. The taste is at first sweetish, afterwards bitterish, acrid, burning, and durable. The powdered root is grayish. Analyzed by Pelletier and Caventou, white hellebore was found to contain an oily matter consisting of elain, stearin, and a volatile acid; supergallate of veratria; a yellow colouring matter; starch; gum; lignin; silica, and various salts of lime and potassa. The medicinal properties of the root reside in the veratria, which has acquired great additional importance from the discovery that it is also the active principle of colchicum. It was first discovered in the seeds of the Veratrum Sabaclilla, and proba- bly exists in other plants belonging to the same family. It is combined in the native state with an excess of gallic acid. As it may possibly come into use as a substitute for the more or less uncertain remedies of which it is the active ingredient, it deserves a particular notice in this place. Veratria is white, pulverulent, inodorous, extremely acrid, scarcely soluble in cold water, soluble in a thousand parts of boiling water which it renders sensibly acrid, dissolved freely by alcohol, less so by ether, capable of neutralizing the acids when added in excess, and forming salts, of which none but the sulphate is crystallizable. It is not reddened by the contact of concentrated nitric acid. The following is the process for preparing it. To a filtered decoction of the substance containing it, a solution of acetate of lead is gradually added so long as any precipitate is afforded. The acetate of veratria is thus formed, which remains in solution with a portion of undecomposed acetate of lead. The liquid is filtered, the lead precipitated by means of hydrosulphuric acid (sulphu- retted hydrogen), and the excess of this acid driven off by heat. After filtration and concentration, the liquor is boiled with magnesia, which unites with the acetic acid, and precipitates the veratria with a portion of the uncombined earth. The precipitate is washed with cold water, dried, and treated with boiling alcohol. This dissolves the veratria, and yields it in a solid state by evaporation. Medical Properties and Uses.—White hellebore is a violent emetic and cathartic, capable of producing dangerous and fatal effects when incau- tiously administered. Even in small doses it has sometimes occasioned severe vomiting, hypercatharsis with bloody stools, and alarming symp- toms of general prostration. Applied externally upon a portion of the surface denuded of the cuticle, as upon ulcers for example, it gives rise to griping pain in the bowels, and sometimes violent purging. When snuffed up the nostrils, it occasions great irritation with violent sneezing, and its use in this way is not free from danger. It was employed by the ancients in dropsy, mania, epilepsy, leprosy, elephantiasis, and other obstinate disorders, not without occasional advantage; but the severity parti. Veratrum Album.—Veratrum Viride. 659 of its operation has led to its general abandonment as an internal reme- dy. It is sometimes used as an errhine, diluted with some mild powder, in cases of gutta serena and lethargic affections; and in the shape of de- coction, or of ointment prepared by mixing the pulverised root with lard, has been found beneficial as an external application in the itch, and in other cutaneous eruptions. From the resemblance of its operation to that of the eau medicinale d'Husson, so celebrated for the cure of gout, it has been conjectured to be the chief constituent of that remedy—a re- putation which has also been enjoyed by colchicum; and the existence of veratria in the two medicines, accounts for this coincidence. A mixture of the wine of white hellebore and the wine of opium, in the pro- portion of three parts of the former to one of the latter, was introduced into use by Mr. Moor of London as a substitute for the eau medicinale, and has been considerably employed in gouty and rheumatic affections. In whatever way white hellebore is used, it requires cautious ma- nagement. It has been given in doses varying from one grain to a scru- ple. Not more than two grains should be administered at first. When employed as an errhine it should be mixed with five or six parts of pul- verised liquorice root or other inactive powder. Ten or twelve grains of the mixture may be snuffed up the nostrils at one time. Veratria acts in a similar manner with the white hellebore, but is much more powerful. One twelfth of a grain may be given in the form of pill or alcoholic solution, and repeated three or four times in the twenty-four hours, till it purges. Off. Prep. Decoctum Veratri, Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Veratri Albi, Ed.; Unguentum Veratri Albi, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Unguentum Sulphu- ris Compositum, Lond.; Vinum Veratri Albi, U.S., Lond. VERATRUM VIRIDE. U.S. American Hellebore. "Veratrum viride. Radix. The root." U.S. Veratrum. See VERATRUM ALBUM. Veratrum viride. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 896; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 121. The American hellebore, known also by the names of Indian voke,poke root, and swamp hellebore, has a perennial, thick, fleshy root, the upper portion of which is tunicated, the lower solid and beset with nu- merous whitish fibres or radicles. The stem is annual, round, striated, pubescent, and solid, from three to six feet in height, furnished with bright green leaves, and terminating in a panicle of greenish-yellow flowers. The leaves gradually decrease in size as they ascend. The lower are from six inches to a foot long, oval, acuminate, plaited, nerved, and pubescent; and embrace the stem at their base, thus affording it a sheath for a considerable portion of its length. Those on the upper part of the stem, at the origin of the flowering branches, are oblong lan- ceolate. The panicle consists of numerous flowers distributed in ra- cemes with downy peduncles. Each flower is accompanied with a downy pointed bracte much longer than its pedicel. There is no calyx, and the corolla is divided into six oval acute segments, thickened on the in- side at their base, with the three alternate segments longer than the Others. The six stamens have recurved filaments, and roundish two- lobed anthers. The germs are three, witr/recurved styles as long as the stamens. Some of the flowers have only the rudiments of pistils. Those 660 Veratrum Viride.— Verbascum Thapsus. part i. on the upper end of the branchlets are barren, those on the lower por- tion fruitful. The fruit consists of three cohering capsules, separating at top, opening on the inner side, and containing flat imbricated seeds. This indigenous species of Veratrum is found from Canada to Caro- lina, inhabiting swamps, wet meadows, and the banks of mountain streamlets. Early in the spring, before the stem rises, it bears a slight resemblance to the Ictodes fcetidus, with which it is very frequently as- sociated; but the latter sends forth no stem. From May to July is the season of flowering. The root of the American hellebore has a bitter acrid taste, leaving a permanent impression in the mouth and fauces. Though not hitherto chemically analyzed, it probably contains veratria. In sensible proper- ties and medical effect, it bears so close a resemblance to the white hellebore, that a separate description is unnecessary. It may be safely substituted for the European root, in all cases in which the latter is em- ployed, may be given in the same close, and administered in a similar manner. It is, however, very little used in regular practice. (See Ve- ratrum Album.) Off. Prep. Unguentum Veratri Viridis. U. S. VERBASCUM THAPSUS. FOLIA. Bub. Mullein Leaves. Verbascum. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Solaneae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla rotate, five-lobed, unequal. Sta- mens declined, bearded. Stigma simple. Capsule two-celled, valves in- flected, many-seeded. Nuttall. Verbascum Thapsus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1001; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 202. t. 75. This is a biennial plant, -with an erect, round, rigid, hairy stem, which rises from three to six feet in height, and is irregularly beset with large sessile, oblong or oval, somewhat pointed leaves, in- dented at the margin, woolly on both sides, and decurrent at the base. The flowers are yellow, and disposed in a long, close, cylindrical, ter- minal spike. The mullein is common throughout the United States, growing along the road-sides and in neglected fields, and springing up abundantly in newly cleared places, at the most remote distance from cultivation. It is nevertheless considered by many botanists as a naturalized plant, in- troduced originally from Europe, where it is also abundant It flowers from June to August. The leaves and flowers have been employed; but the former only are directed by the Dublin College. Both have a slight* somewhat narcotic smell, which in the dried flowers becomes agreeable. Their taste is mucilaginous, herbaceous, and bitterish, but very feeble. They impart their virtues to water by infusion. Medical Properties and Uses.—They are demulcent and emollient, and are thought to possess anodyne properties, which render them useful in pectoral complaints. On the Continent of Europe, an infusion of the flowers strained, in order to separate the rough hairs, is considerably used in mild catarrhs. Dr. Home found a decoction of the leaves useful in diarrhoea. The leaves are also employed externally* steeped in hot water, as a feebly anodyne emollient. PART I. Veronica.—Vinum 661 VERONICA. U.S. Secondary. Veronica. " Veronica Virginica. Radix. The root." U. S. Several species of Veronica, common to Europe and this country, have been medicinally employed, under the impression that they pos- sessed alterative and antiscorbutic properties. Among these are the Veronica officinalis or speedwell, and the V. Beccabunga or brooklime, the latter of which has but recently been discharged from the officinal cata- logue of the Dublin College. None of them are now employed. The Veronica Virginica of Linnaeus, the root of which is the officinal Veroni- ca, has been separated from this genus by Mr. Nuttall, and erected into a new one with the title of Leptandra, which is now generally acknow- ledged. The proper name, therefore* of the plant under consideration, is Leptandra Virginica. Leptandra. Class Diandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scrofula- riae, Juss.; Scrofularineae, R. Brown, Lindley; Antirrhineae, De Cand. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, segments acuminate. Corolla tubular-cam- panulate, border four-lobed, a little ringent, unequal, the lower lamina nar- rower. Stamens and at length the pistil much exserted; filaments below, and tube of the corolla pubescent. Capsule ovate* acuminate, two-celled* many-seeded, opening at the summit. Nuttall. Leptandra Virginica. Nuttall, Gen. of N.Am. Plants, i. 7; Rafinesque Med. Flor. vol. ii. This plant, sometimes called Culver's physic, has a perennial root, with an herbaceous stem three or four feet high, fur- nished with leaves in whorls, and terminating in a long spike of white flowers. A variety was seen by Pursh with purple flowers. This is de- scribed and figured as a distinct species by Rafinesque, under the title of L. purpurea. The plant grows throughout the United States, affecting particularly calcareous hills and sunny exposures, and flowering in August. The root, which is the part used, is bitter and nauseous, and yields its active properties to boiling water. Medical Properties and Uses.—-When recent it is said to act violently as a cathartic, and sometimes as an emetic. In the dried state it is more uncertain. The dose of the powder is from twenty grains to a drachm. It is one of the medicines which will probably be omitted on a future revision of the Pharmacopceia. VINUM. U.S. Wine. "Vinum album Teneriffe dictum. The white wine called Teneriffe." U.S. Of. Syn. VINUM ALBUM HISPANUM. Anglice, Sherry, Ed.; VINUM ALBUM HISPANUM, Dub. Vin, Fr.; Wein, Germ.; Vino, Hal, Span. Wine is the fermented juice of the grape, the fruit of the Vitis vini- fera of botanists, an important plant, the description of which will be found under another head. (See Uva Passa). The juice consists of a considerable quantity of sugar, a peculiar matter of the nature of fer- ment or yeast, and a small portion of mucilage, tannin, supertartrate of potassa, tartrate of lime, common salt, and sulphate of potassa, the 662 Vinum. part r. whole dissolved or suspended in a large quantity of water. It contains, therefore, all the ingredients essential to the production of the vinous fermentation, and requires only the influence of the atmosphere and a proper temperature to convert it into wine. The theory of the vinous fermentation, and the agency of sugar in the process, have been explain- ed under Alcohol. Preparation.—The art of making wine varies in different countries; but, nevertheless, is regulated by general rules which must always be ob- served. When the grapes are ripe, they are gathered and trodden under foot in wooden vessels with perforated bottoms, through which the juice, called the must, runs into a vat placed beneath. The temperature of the air being about 60°, the fermentation gradually takes place in the must, and becomes fully established after a longer or shorter period. In the mean time, the must becomes sensibly hotter, and emits a large quantity of carbonic acid, which, creating a kind of effervescence, causes the more solid parts to be thrown to the surface in a mass of froth having a hemispherical shape called the head. The liquor, from being sweet, becomes vinous, and assumes a deep red colour if the product of red grapes. After a while the fermentation slackens, and it becomes ne- cessary to accelerate it by thoroughly mixing the different contents of the vat. When the liquor has acquired a strong and vinous taste, and become perfectly clear, the wine is considered as made, and is racked off into casks. But even at this stage of the process, the fermentation is not completed, but continues for several months longer. During the whole of this period, a frothy matter is formed, which, for the first few days, collects round the bung* but afterwards precipitates along with colouring matter and tartar, forming a deposite which constitutes the wine-lees. Division and Nomenclature.—Wines, according to their colour, are di- vided into the red and white; and according to their taste and other qualities, are either spirituous, sweet, dry, light, sparkling, still, rough, or acidulous. Red wines are derived from the must of black grapes, fer- mented with their husks; white wines, from white grapes, or from the juice of black grapes fermented apart from their skins. The other qualities of wines above enumerated, depend upon the relative propor- tions of the constituents of the must, and the mode in which the fermen- tation has been conducted. The essential ingredients of the must as a fermentable liquid, are water, sugar, and a ferment. If the juice be very saccharine, and contain sufficient ferment to sustain the fermen- tation, the conversion of the sugar into alcohol will proceed until check- ed by the production of a certain amount of the latter, and there will be formed a spirituous or generous wine. If, while the juice is highly sac- charine, the ferment be deficient in quantity, the production of alcohol will be less and the redundancy of sugar proportionably greater, and a sweet wine will be formed. When the sugar and ferment are in con- siderable amount, and in the proper relative proportions for mutual de- composition, the wine will be strong-bodied and sound, without any sweetness or acidity, and of the kind called dry. A small portion of sugar can give rise only to a small portion of alcohol, and consequently the less saccharine grapes will generate a comparatively weak, or light wine, which will be sound and stable in its constitution, in case the fer- ment is not in excess, but otherwise liable to pass into the acetous fer- mentation and become ascescent In case the fermentation is check- ed, and the wine bottled before it is fully completed, the process will slowly continue in the bottles, and the carbonic acid generated, not hav- PART I. Vinum. 663 ing vent, will impregnate the wine, and render it effervescing and spark- ling when drawn. The rough or astringent wines owe their flavour to a portion of tannin derived from the husks of the grape; and the acidulous wines, to the presence of carbonic acid or an unusual proportion of tartar. Several of the above qualities are often combined. Thus a wine may be spirituous and sweet, spirituous and rough, rough and sweet, light and sparkling, &c. Wines are made in many countries, and are known in commerce by va- rious names according to their source. Thus, Portugal produces port and lisbon; Spain, sherry, St. Lucar* malaga, and tent; France, cham- pagne, burgundy, hermitage, vin de grave, sauterne, and claret; Germany, white rhenish, hock, and moselle; Hungary, tokay; Sicily, marsala or Sicily madeira, and lissa; the Cape of Good Hope, constantia; Madeira and the Canary Islands, madeira and teneriffe. In the United States, very little wine is made, and that little is, for the most part, of inferior quality. The best is manufactured near Vevay, a French settlement on the banks of the Ohio. The consumption of this country is accordingly supplied almost entirely from abroad; and the wines most extensively imported are madeira and teneriffe, sherry and port* and the claret wines of France. The aggregate value of wines imported for 1829, ex- ceeded a million and a half of dollars. Properties.—Wine, considered generically, can be characterized only as a spirituous liquid, the result of the fermentation of grape-juice, and containing mucilage, aroma, and some other substances, which are either combined or intimately blended with the spirit. All its other qualities vary with the nature of each particular wine. It will not be necessary to describe all the wines which have been enumerated; but only such as are commonly used for medicinal purposes. Under this denomination may be included the officinal wines teneriffe and sherry, together with madeira, port, and claret. Teneriffe, the officinal wine of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, is a white wine, of a slightly acid taste, and when of good quality, of a fine aromatic flavour. It ranks among the stronger white wines, and contains between 19 and 20 per cent, by measure of alcohol, of sp. gr. .825. It is made from the same grape as madeira, to which it bears a general resemblance in qualities. Sherry is of a deep amber colour, and when good possesses a dry aro- matic flavour and fragrancy, without any acidity. Its average strength is about the same as that of Teneriffe. This is the officinal wine of the Edinburgh College, and is probably the " Spanish white wine" intend- ed by the Dublin College. It is prepared in the vicinity of Xeres in Spain, and hence its English name, sherry. This wine is supposed to have been the sack of Shakespeare, so called from the word sec (dry), in allusion to its being a dry wine. Its dryness or freedom from acidity is said to arise from the use of lime in its manufacture. Madeira is the strongest of the white wines in general use. Like ten- eriffe, it is a slightly acid wine; and when of proper age, and in good condition, it has a nutty, rich, aromatic flavour. As it occurs in the market, however, it is of very variable quality, on account both of the less care taken in its manufacture than formerly, and of the adulterations and mixtures to which it is subjected after importation. Nevertheless, the madeira consumed in this country is generally much better than that used in England, its adulteration being practised to a less extent with us, and our climate being more favourable to the improvement of the wine. Port is of a deep purple colour, and in its new state, is a 664 Vinum. PART I. rough, strong, and slightly sweet wine. When kept a certain length of time in bottle, it deposites a considerable portion of its astringent mat- ter, loses the greater part of its sweetness, acquires more flavour, and retains its strength. If too long kept, it deposites the whole of its as- tringent and colouring matter, and becomes deteriorated. Considerable quantities of brandy are almost always added to it, which causes its heating quality on the palate. It is the strongest of all the wines in com- mon use. Claret, called in France vin de Bordeaux, is also a red wine, and from its inferior strength is ranked as a light wine. It has a deep purple colour, and a delicate taste, in which the vinous flavour is blend- ed with those of slight acidity and astringency. It is the only French wine Avhich is extensively consumed in the United States. It is made in large quantities in the country around Bordeaux, from which port it is shipped. Adulterations.—Wines are very frequently adulterated, and counter- feit mixtures are often palmed upon the public as genuine wine. For- merly the wine dealers were in the habit of putting litharge into wines that had become ascescent. The oxide of lead formed with the acetic acid acetate of lead, which, being sweet, corrected the defect of the wine, but at the same time rendered it poisonous. At the present day, however, this criminal practice is wholly abandoned, on account of the facility with which the adulteration is detected by chemical reagents, particularly by sulphuretted hydrogen, which causes a black and floccu- lent precipitate. Mr. Brande assures us, that among the numerous sam- ples of wine of suspected purity which he had examined, he had not found one containing any poisonous ingredient fraudulently introduced. Lead, in minute quantity, according to this writer, may often be detect- ed in wines; but it will be found to be derived invariably from shot in the bottle, or some analogous source. Spurious mixtures* frequently containing very little of the fermented juice of the grape, which are sold for particular wines, may not be poisonous; but are notwithstanding highly pernicious in their effects upon the stomach; and always produce mischief and disappointment, when depended on as medicinal agents. The wines most frequently imitated are port and madeira; and cider is generally the chief ingredient in the spurious mixtures. English port is sometimes made of a small portion of real port mixed with cider, juice of elder berries, and brandy, and coloured and rendered astringent with logwood and alum. In the United States, of latter years, the cheapness of genuine wines has left very little motive for manufacturing these fac- titious imitations. Composition.—Wine, throughout all its varieties, has the same general composition. It consists of a large quantity of water* a variable por- tion of alcohol, a little mucilage, tannin, a blue and a yellow colouring matter, acetic acid, supertartrate of potassa (tartar), tartrate of lime* and occasionally other salts, such as common salt and sulphate of po- tassa. There is also present in wine a peculiar aroma, which is suppos- ed by some to depend upon the presence of an oil, but which has never been isolated. The different kinds of wine derive their various flavours and qualities from this aroma, as well as from the mode of fermentation, the nature of the grape, and the soil and climate in which it may have grown. The alcohol in pure wine is that which results from the vinous fermentation, and is intimately united with the other ingredients of the liquor; but with almost all the wines of commerce a certain portion of brandy has been mixed, the state of union of which is different from that of the natural alcohol of the wine. This seems to be proved by the ex- PART I. Vinum. 665 periments of Fabroni, who found, upon adding a large portion of carbo- nate of potassa to wine containing extraneous brandy, that the latter was thrown up to the surface in the form of a stratum; whereas from a pure wine, a similar treatment had no effect in separating the natural alcohol which it contained. The intoxicating ingredient in all wines is the alcohol which they contain; and hence their relative strength depends upon the quantity of this substance entering into their composition. The alcohol, however, naturally in wine, is so blended with its other constituents, as to be in a modified state, which renders it less intoxicating and less deleterious than the same quantity of alcohol separated by distillation and diluted with water. Mr. Brande has published a very interesting table, giving the percentage by measure of alcohol of sp. gr. .825 in different kinds of wine. The following abstract contains his principal results. Alcohol Alcohol per cent. per cent. Lissa, average - - 25.41 Cape muschat 18.25 Raisin wine, average - 25.12 Cape madeira, average - 20.51 Marsala, [Sicily madeira], Grape wine - - - 18.11 average - - 25.09 Calcavella, average 18.65 Port - - 25.83 Vidonia - 19.25 Ditto - . - 24.29 Alba Flora - 17.26 Ditto - . - 23.71 Malaga - - - - 17.26 Ditto - . - 23.39 White hermitage - 17.43 Ditto - - - 22.30 Rousillon, average 18.13 Ditto . - 21.40 Claret - 17.11 Ditto . - 19.00 Ditto .... 16.32 Average - - - 22.96 Ditto - 14.08 Madeira . - 24.42 Ditto - 12.91 Ditto - - 23.93 Average 15.10 Ditto (Sercial) - - 21.40 Malmsey madeira - 16.40 Ditto - - 19.24 Lunel - 15.52 Average - - - 22.27 Shiraz - 15.52 Sherry - - - 19.81 Syracuse ... 15.28 Ditto - - 19.83 Sauterne - 14.22 Ditto - - 18.79 Burgundy, average 14.57 Ditto - - 18.25 Hock, average 12.08 Average - - - 19.17 Nice .... 14,63 Teneriffe - - 19.79 Barsac - - - - 13.86 Colares - - - 19.75 Tent .... 13.30 Lachryma Christi - - 19.70 Champagne, average 12.61 Constantia, white - - 19.75 Red hermitage 12.32 Ditto, red - - 18.92 Vin de grave, average 13.37 Lisbon - - - 18.94 Frontignac ... 12.79 Bucellas - - 18.49 Cote rotie - 12.32 Red Madeira, average - 20.35 Tokay - 9.88 Besides the grape, a number of other fruits yield a juice susceptible of the vinous fermentation. The infusion of malt, also, is capable of under- going this process, and becomes converted into the different kinds of por- ter and ale. The product in all these cases, though not commonly called a wine, is nevertheless a vinous liquor, and may be classed among the wines properly so called. The following is a list of these vinous liquors, to- gether with the percentage of alcohol which they contain, as ascertained by Mr. Brande:—-Currant wine, 20.55; gooseberry wine, 11.84; orange 84 666 Vinum. PART I. wine, 11.26; elder wine, 8.79; cider, from 5.21 to 9.87; perry, 7.26; mead, 7.32; Burton ale, 8.88; Edinburgh ale, 6.20; brown stout, 6.80; London porter, 4.20; small beer, 1.28. Medical Properties and Uses.—Wine is consumed in most civilized countries as an article of daily beverage; but in a state of health it is at least useless, if not absolutely pernicious. The degree of mischief which it produces, depends very much on the character of the wine. Thus, the light wines of France are comparatively innocuous; while the habitual use of the stronger ones, such as port, madeira, sherry, &c, even though taken in moderation, is always injurious, as having a tend- ency to induce gout and apoplexy, and other diseases dependent on ple- thora and over-stimulation. All wines, however, when used habitually in excess, are productive of the worst consequences. They weaken the stomach, produce diseases of the liver, and give rise to dropsy, gout, apoplexy, tremors, and not unfrequently mania. Nevertheless, wine is an important medicine, productive of the best effects in certain dis- eases and states of the system. As an article of the Materia Medica, it ranks as a stimulant and antispasmodic. In the convalescence from protracted fever, and in sinking of the vital powers, wine is frequent- ly the best remedy that can be employed. In certain stages of typhoid fevers* and in extensive ulceration and gangrene* this remedy, either alone* or conjoined with bark or opium, is often our main depend- ance. In low febrile affections, if it increases the fulness and lessens the frequency of the pulse, mitigates delirium, and produces a tendency to sleep, its further use may be deemed proper; but on the contrary, if it render the pulse quicker, augment the heat and thirst, produce restless- ness, or increase delirium, it should be immediately laid aside. In some convulsive diseases, as for example tetanus, wine, liberally given, has been found useful. Wine, when used medicinally, ought always to be sound, and of good quality; for otherwise it will disagree with the stomach, and prove rather detrimental than useful. The individual wine selected for internal exhibition* must be determined by the nature of the disease, and the par- ticular object in view. Teneriffe is a very good variety of white wine for medicinal use, being about a medium strength, and agreeing very well with most stomachs. Sherry, when in good condition, is also a very fine wine, and, being free from all acid, is to be preferred whenever the sto- mach is delicate* or a tendency exists to dyspeptic acidity. Unfortunately, however* it is of very fluctuating quality. Good madeira is the most generous of the white wines, particularly adapted to resuscitate debili- tated constitutions, and to sustain the sinking energies of the system in old age. The slight acidity, however, of pure madeira, causes it to dis- agree with certain stomachs, and renders it an improper wine for gouty persons. Port is generally used in cases of pure debility, especially when attended with a loose state of the bowels unaccompanied by inflammation. In such cases, it often acts as a powerful tonic as well as stimulant, giv- ing increased activity to all the functions, especially digestion. Claret is much less heating, and is often useful on account of its aperient and diu- retic qualities. All the acid and acidulous wines are contra-indicated in the gouty and uric acid diathesis, as they are very apt to convert the existing predis- position into disease. They are useful, however, in what is called the phosphatic diathesis, their acidity tending to prevent the deposition of the earthy phosphates. The quantity of wine which may be given with advantage in disease, PART I. Vinum.— Viola. 667 is necessarily very variable. In low fevers, it may be administered to the extent of a bottle or more in twenty-four hours, either pure, or in the form of wine-whey. This is made by adding from a gill to half a pint of wine to a pint of boiling milk, straining to separate the curd which is formed, and sweetening the whey with loaf sugar. Wine-whey forms a peculiarly safe and grateful stimulus in typhoid fevers and other febrile affections, which, after depletion, may tend to a state of deficient action and be attended with a dry skin. Under these circumstances, it often acts as a diaphoretic, and if used of moderate strength, without stimulating the system in any marked degree. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Wine is employed as a menstruum to extract the virtues of several plants, and the preparations thus formed are called vinous tinctures or medicated wines. Tartar emetic is the only mineral substance prepared in a similar manner. (See Vinum Antimonii.) The London College has superseded the use of wine altogether as a pharma- ceutical agent, on account of its variable quality, and substituted spirit of equivalent strength. It is on this account that wine has latterly been expunged from their officinal list. Nevertheless, they have a class of preparations called "Vina," which name, by a solecism in language, is applied to medicines prepared with proof spirit and water, without the aid of a particle of wine. For the peculiar powers of wine, as a men- struum for medicinal substances, see Vina Medicata. VIOLA. U.S. Secondary. T iolet. " Viola pedata. Planta. The plant." U.S. VIOL^ ODORAT^E FLORES. Ed. Flowers of the Sweet Violet. Off Syn. VIOLA ODORATA. Flores. Dub. Violette odorante, Fr.; Wohlriechende veilchen, Germ.; Violetta, ltal; Violeta, Span. Viola. Class Pentandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Cisti, Juss.; Violaceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Corolla five-petaled, irregular, horned at the back. Anthers cohering. Capsule superior, tliree-valved, one-celled. This genus includes numerous species, of which, though perhaps all or nearly all are possessed of analogous properties, two only are recog- nised as officinal, the V. odorata, by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, and the V. pedata by our National Pharmacopoeia. Viola odorata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1163; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 251. t. 89. This is a small, pretty, creeping plant, the runners of which are furnished with fibrous roots, and send up annually tufts of leaves and flowers. The leaves are heart-shaped, crenate, and supported on long petioles. The flowers are at the summit of delicate, quadrangular, chan- neled, radical peduncles. The leaves of the calyx are shorter than the petals, which are obovate, obtuse, unequal, and of a bluish-purple or deep violet colour, except at the claws which are whitish. The two lateral petals are spreading and bearded towards the base, the inferior furnished with a large spur, and the two upper reflected. In the centre are the stamens with very short filaments, and anthers slightly cohering by an orange-coloured membranous expansion. 668 Viola.— Violse Odoratae Flores. part i. The sweet violet is a native of Europe, growing in woods, hedges, and other shady places. It is cultivated in gardens both for its beauty and for medical use; and has been introduced into this country. It is valued chiefly for its flowers, which appear in April and May. The flowers of this species of violet, besides their beautiful colour, have a peculiar agreeable odour, and a very slightly bitter taste. These properties they yield to boiling water; and their infusion affords a very delicate test for acids and alkalies, being reddened by the former, and rendered green by the latter. Their odour is destroyed by desiccation; and the degree to which they retain their fine colour, depends upon the care used in collecting and drying them. They should be gathered be- fore being fully blown, deprived of their calyx, and rapidly dried, either in a heated room, or by exposing them to a current of very dry air. The flowers of other species are often mingled with them, and, if of the same colour, are equally useful as a chemical test. In the roots, leaves, flowers, and seeds of the V. odorata, M. Boulay has discovered a peculiar alkaline principle, bearing some resemblance to emetia, but possessing distinct properties. He calls it violine; but violia is its proper title* in accordance with the nomenclature adopted in this work. It is white, scarcely aoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and forms salts with the acids. It exists in the plant combined with malic acid, and may be obtained by treating with distilled water the alcoholic extract of the dried root, decomposing by means of magnesia the malate of violia contained in the solution* and extracting the alkali from the precipitated matters by alcohol, which yields it on evaporation. To obtain it entirely pure, a more complicated process is necessary. Orfila has ascertained that it is exceedingly active and even poisonous. It is probably contained in most other species of Viola. Viola pedata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1160. Curtis, Bot. Mag. 89. This is an indigenous species, without stems, glabrous, with many-parted often pedate leaves, the segments of which are linear lanceolate, obtuse, and nearly entire. The flowers are large and of a beautiful blue colour. The divisions of the calyx are linear and acute. The stigma is large, com- pressed at the sides, obliquely truncate and perforate at the apex. The plant grows in dry sandy hills and fields, and rocky woods, from New- England to Carolina; and flowers in May and June. Medical Properties 8fC. of the Violets.—The herbaceous parts of differ- ent species of violet are mucilaginous, emollient, and slightly laxative; and have been used in pectoral, nephritic, and cutaneous affections. Much was formerly thought of the Viola tricolor or pansy, as a remedy in the crusta lactea. A decoction in milk of a handful of the fresh or half a drachm of the dried herb was taken morning and evening, and a poul- tice made with the same decoction was applied to the affected part. Cures in numerous instances are said to have been effected by this treat- ment persevered in for some time. Our own Viola pedata is considered a useful expectorant and demulcent in pectoral complaints. (Bige- low.) In Europe a syrup prepared from the fresh flowers of the Viola odo- rata is much employed as an addition to demulcent drinks, and as a lax- ative for infants. (See Syrupus Violse.) The seeds were formerly con- sidered useful in gravel; but are not now employed. The root, which has a bitter, nauseous, slightly acrid taste, acts in the close of thirty grains or a drachm as an emetic and cathartic. It is probable that the ame property is possessed by the roots of all the violets, as it is known parti. Viola.—Violse Odoratx Flores.—Wintera. 669 to be by several species of Ionidium, which belong to the same natural family. The existence in small proportion of the emetic principle, upon which the powers of the root probably depend, in the leaves and flowers, accounts for the expectorant properties long attributed to these parts of the plant. WINTERA. U.S. Secondary. Winter's Bark. " Drymis Winteri. De Candolle. Wintera aromatica. Willd. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Off Syn. WINTERS AROMATIC^ CORTEX. Ed.; WINTERA AROMATICA. DRYMIS AROMATICA. Cortex. Dub. Ecorcede Winter, Fr.; Wintersche rinde, Germ.; Corteccia Vinterana, Hal; Corteza Winterana, Span. Drymis. Class Polyandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Magnoliaceae, Juss.; Wintereae, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx with two or three deep divisions. Corolla with two or three petals, sometimes more numerous. Stamens with the filaments thickened at the summit, and anthers having two separated cells. Ovaries from four to eight, changing into the same number of small, many-seed- ed berries. A. Richard, Elem. Hist. Nat. Med. Drymis Winteri. De Cand. Prod. ii. 78; Forster, Gen. p. 84. t. 42.— Wintera Aromatica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1239; Woodv. Med. Bot. v. 647. t. 226. This is an evergreen tree, varying very much in size, some- times rising forty or fifty feet in height, sometimes not more than six or eight feet. The bark of the trunk is gray, that of the branches green and smooth. Its leaves are alternate, petiolate, oblong, obtuse, some- what coriaceous, entirely smooth, green on their upper surface, of a pale bluish colour beneath, with two caducous stipules at their base. The flowers are small, sometimes solitary, but more frequently in clusters of three or four, upon the summit of a common peduncle about an inch in length, simple, or divided into as many pedicels as there are flowers. The tree is a native of the southern part of South America, growing along the Straits of Magellan, and extending as far north as Chili. Ac- cording to Martius it is found also in Brazil. The bark of the tree was brought to England in the latter part of the sixteenth century, by Cap- tain Winter, who attended Drake in his voyage round the world, and while in the Straits had learned its aromatic and medicinal properties. Since that period it has been occasionally employed in medicine. It is in quilled pieces, usually a foot in length, and an inch or more in diameter, appearing as if scraped or rubbed on the outside, where the colour is pale yellowish or reddish-gray, with red elliptical spots. On the inside the colour is that of cinnamon, though sometimes black- ish. The pieces are sometimes flat and very large. The bark is two or three lines in thickness, hard and compact, and when broken exhibits on the exterior part of the fracture a grayish colour, which insensibly passes into reddish or yellowish towards the interior. The powder re- sembles in colour that of Peruvian bark. The odour is aromatic, the taste spicy, pungent, and even burning. Winter's bark was found by M. Henry to contain resin, volatile oil, colouring matter, tannin, several salts of potassa, malate of lime, and oxide of iron. The presence of tannin and oxide of iron serves to dis- 670 Wintera.—Xanthorhiza.—Xanthoxylum. part x. tinguish it essentially from the canella alba, with which it is often con- founded. Medical Properties and Uses.—It is a stimulant aromatic tonic* and was employed by Winter as a remedy for the scurvy. It may be used for similar purposes with cinnamon or canella alba* but is scarcely known in the medical practice of this country. The dose of the powder is about half a drachm. XANTHORHIZA. U.S. Secondary. Yellow-root. " Xanthorhiza apiifolia. Radix. The root." U.S. Xanthorhiza. Class Pentandria. Order Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranun- culi, Juss.; Ranunculaceae, De Cand., Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five. Nectaries five* pedicelled. Capsules five to eight, one-seeded, semibivalve. Nuttall. Xanthorhiza apiifolia. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1568; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 203.—X. tinctoria. Woodhouse, N. Y. Med. Repos. vol. v. This is an indigenous shrub, two or three feet in height, with a horizontal root* which sends off numerous suckers. The stem is simple, rather thicker than a goose-quill, with a smooth bark, and bright yellow wood. The leaves, which stand thickly at the upper part of the stem, are compound* consisting of several ovate lanceolate, acute* doubly serrate leaflets, sessile upon a long petiole, which embraces the stem at its base. The flowers are small, purple, and disposed in long, drooping, divided racemes, placed immediately below the first leaves. The nectaries are obovate and bilobed, the styles usually about six or eight in number. The yellow-root grows in the interior of the Southern and in the Western States. Nuttall says that it is abundant on the banks of the Ohio. It flowers in April. The root is the part directed by the Pharr macopoeia; but the bark of the stem possesses the same virtues. The root is from three inches to a foot in length, about half an inch in thickness, of a yellow colour, and of a simple but extremely bitter taste. It imparts its colour and taste to water. The infusion is not affected by a solution of the sulphate of iron. By the late Professor Barton the bark of the root was considered more bitter than its ligneous portion. Medical Properties and Uses.—Xanthorhiza possesses properties closely analogous to those of columbo, quassia, and the other simple tonic bit- ters ; and may be used for the same purposes and in the same manner. Dr. Woodhouse employed it in the dose of two scruples, and found it to lie easily upon the stomach. XANTHOXYLUM. U.S. Secondary. Prickly Ash. " Xanthoxylum fraxineum. Cortex. The bark." U.S. Xanthoxylum. Class Dioecia. Order Pentandria.—Nat. Ord. Terebin- taceae, Juss.; Xanthoxyleae, Nees and Martius, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-parted. Corolla none. Female. Calyx five- parted. Corolla none. Pistils five. Capsules five, one-seeded. Willd. part i. Xanthoxylum. 671 Xanthoxylum fraxineum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 757; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 156. The prickly ash is a shrub from five to ten feet in height, with alternate branches, which are covered with strong, sharp, scatter- ed prickles. The leaves are alternate and pinnate, consisting of four or five pairs of leaflets, and an odd terminal one, with a common footstalk, which is sometimes prickly on the back, sometimes unarmed. The leaflets are nearly sessile, ovate, acute, slightly serrate, and somewhat downy on their under surface. The flowers, which are small and greenish, are disposed in sessile umbels near the origin of the young shoots. The plant is polygamous, some shrubs bearing both male and perfect flowers, others only female. The number of stamens is five, of the pistils three or four in the perfect flowers, about five in the pistillate. Each fruitful flower is followed by as many capsules as it had germs. These capsules are stipitate, oval, punctate, of a greenish-red colour, with two valves, and one oval blackish seed. This species of Xanthoxylum is indigenous, growing in woods and in moist shady places, throughout the Northern, Middle, and Western States. The flowers appear in April and May, before the foliage. The leaves and capsules have an aromatic odour recalling that of the oil of lemons. The bark is the officinal portion. This, as found in the shops, is in pieces more or less quilled, from one to two lines in thickness, of a whitish colour, internally somewhat shining, with an ash-coloured epidermis, which in some specimens is partially or wholly removed, and in those derived from the small branches is armed with strong prickles. The bark is very light, brittle, of a farinaceous fracture, nearly or quite inodorous, and of a taste which is at first sweetish and slightly aromatic, then bitterish, and ultimately acrid. The acrimony is imparted to boiling water and alcohol, which extract the virtues of the bark. Its constituents, according to Dr. Staples, besides fibrous substance, are volatile oil, a greenish fixed oil, resin, gum, colouring matter, and a peculiar crystallizable principle which he calls xanthoxylin, but of which the properties are not desig- nated. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. i. 165.) Dr. Bigelow informs us, that the Aralia spinosa, or angelica tree, which grows in the Southern States, is occasionally confounded with the X fraxineum, in consequence, partly, of being sometimes called like the latter prickly ash. Its bark, however, in appearance and flavour, is en- tirely different from the xanthoxylum. Medical Properties and Uses.—Xanthoxylum is stimulant, producing when swallowed a sense of heat in the stomach, with more or less gene- ral arterial excitement, and a tendency to diaphoresis. It is thought to resemble mezereum and guaiacum in its remedial action, and is given in the same complaints. As a remedy in chronic rheumatism, it enjoys considerable reputation in this country. The dose of the powder is from ten grains to half a drachm, to be repeated three or four times a day. A decoction prepared by boiling an ounce in three pints of water down to a quart, may be given in the quantity of a pint, in divided doses, during the twenty-four hours. The powder has sometimes been employed as a topical irritant, and the bark is a popular remedy for toothach. 672 Zincum. PART I. ZINCUM. U.S. Lond., Ed., Bub. Zinc. Speltre; Zinc, Fr.,- Zink, Germ.; Zinco, ltal.; Span. Zinc occurs in nature in two principal states; as a sulphuret, called blende, and as a carbonate or silicate, denominated calamine. It is found in various parts of the world, but most abundantly in England, from which country the United States are supplied. The metal is extracted principally from calamine. This is roasted, and mixed with charcoal in powder. The mixture is then heated in iron cylinders placed hori- zontally over a furnace. When the reduction of the zinc commences, iron receivers are adapted to the. opening of the cylinder to receive the volatilized metal as it condenses. The metal is then melted and run into moulds, and forms speltre, or the zinc of commerce. In this state it is not pure, as it contains iron, lead, arsenic, copper, and char- coal. To purify it from these substances, it must be subjected to a se- cond distillation in a crucible, furnished with a tube passing through its bottom and open at both ends; its upper extremity reaching a little more than half way up the interior of the crucible, and its lower end terminating above a vessel of water. The impure zinc being placed in the crucible, the cover luted on, and the fire applied, the pure zinc is volatilized, and passing down the tube by a descending distillation, con- denses in the water below. Properties.'—Zinc has a bluish-white colour, a peculiar taste, and a perceptible smell when rubbed. Its texture is laminated and its frac- ture crystalline. Its malleability and ductility are not very great. When perfectly pure, it may be reduced to thin leaves at ordinary tempera- tures, but the zinc of commerce requires a heat of about 300° to render it laminable; at which temperature it may be conveniently reduced to the form of sheets, when it is applicable to many important uses in the arts. The softness of zinc is peculiar, as is shown by the circumstance of its clogging the file when the attempt is made to reduce it to filings; and hence if it be desired to have it in the divided form, it is necessary to submit it to fusion and to triturate it at the moment of solidification. Its sp. gr. is about 7.1, and its equivalent number 34. Subjected to heat, it fuses at 680°. At full redness it boils, and in close vessels may be distilled over; but in open ones it takes fire, and burns with a dazzling white flame, giving off dense white fumes. It dissolves in most of the acids with disengagement of hydrogen, and precipitates all the metals either in the metallic state or in that of oxide. It forms but one well cha- racterized oxide, and but one sulphuret The oxide is officinal, both in its pure and impure state, and will be described under other heads. See Zinci Oxidum, U.S., and Oxidum Zinci Impurum, Ed. Zinc is extensively employed in the arts. It is the best metal that can be used, in conjunction with copper, for galvanic combinations. Com- bined with tin and mercury, it forms the amalgam for electrical ma- chines. Its solution in dilute sulphuric acid furnishes the readiest me- thod for obtaining hydrogen. With copper it forms the useful alloy called brass. In the form of sheet zinc it is sometimes employed to cover the roofs of houses. It should never be used for culinary vessels, as it is soluble in the weakest acids. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Zinc is never used in medicine in the metallic state; but in combination, it forms the basis of a number of important medicinal preparations, a list of which, with the synonymes,is subjoined. PART I. Zincum.—Zinci Carbonas. 673 Zinc is employed medicinally,— I. Oxidized. Oxidum Zinci Impurum, Ed.; Anglice, Tutty. Oxidum Zinci Impurum Praeparatum, Ed. Unguentum Oxidi Zinci Impuri, Ed. Zinci Oxidum, U.S.; Zinci Oxydum, Lond., Dub.; Oxidum Zin-< ci, Ed. Unguentum Zinci Oxidi, U.S.; Unguentum Zinci, Lond.; Un- guentum Oxidi ZinCi, Ed.; Unguentum Zinci Oxydi* Dub. II. Oxidized and combined with acids. Zinci Acetas, U.S. Solutio Acetatis Zinci, Ed. Tinctura Zinci Acetatis, Dub. Zinci Carbonas, U.S.; Calamina, Lond.; Carbonas Zinci Im- purus, Ed.; ZinCi Carbonas Impurum, Dub.; An-1 glice, Calamine. Zinci Carbonas Praeparatus, U. S.; Calamina Praeparata, Lond.; Carbonas Zinci Impurus Praeparatus, Ed.; Zinci Car- bonas Impurum Praeparatum* Dub. Ceratum Zinci Carbonatis, U.S.; Ceratum Calaminae, Lond.j Ceratum Carbonatis Zinci Impuri, Ed.; Unguentum Calaminae, Dub.; Anglice, Turner's cerate. Zinci Sulphas, U.S., Lond., Dub*; Sulphas Zinci, Ed. Solutio Sulphatis Zinci, Ed. ZINCI CARBONAS. U.S. Carbonate of Zinc. Off. Syn.— CALAMINA, Lond.; CARBONAS ZINCI IMPURUS* Ed.; ZINCI CARBONAS IMPURUM, Dub. Calamine; Lapis calaminaris, Lat.j Carbonate de zinc, Calamine, Fr.; Galmei, Germ.; Pietra calaminare, Hal; Calamina, Span. The term calamine is applied by mineralogists indiscriminately to two minerals, scarcely distinguishable by their external characters, the car- bonate and silicate of zinc. The term, however, in the pharmaceutical sense, refers to the native carbonate only. Properties, fyc.—Carbonate of zinc is found in various localities. It occurs in Carinthia, Hungary, and other parts of the continent of Eu- rope, and is particularly abundant in England. It has been found also in the United States* It usually occurs in compact or earthy masses or concretions, of a dull appearance, readily scratched by the knife, and breaking with an earthy fracture; but sometimes it is found crystallized. Its colour is very variable; being in different specimens, grayish, gray- ish-yellow, reddish-yellow, and when impure, brown, or brownish-yel- low. Its sp. gr. varies from 3.4. to 4.4. Before the blow-pipe, it does not melt, but becomes yellow and sublimes. It is distinguished from the other variety of calamine (silicate) by dissolving in warm nitric acid without gelatinizing, and by not being rendered electric by heat In composition, it is essentially a carbonate of zinc; this being associated with more or less of foreign impurities. The crystallized variety is an- hydrous, and consists of one equiv. of carbonic acid 22, and one equiv. of oxide of zinc 42=64. The compact and earthy varieties are stated to contain one equiv. of water* 85 674 Oxidum Zinci Impurum.—Zingiber. part i. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Calamine is usually calcined before it is re- ceived in the shops, to render it more pulverizable. It requires to be brought to a state of impalpable powder before it is used in medicine, and in this state it forms the Prepared Carbonate of Zinc, under which head its medical properties will be noticed. Off. Prep.—Zinci Carbonas Praeparatus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. OXIDUM ZINCI IMPURUM. Ed. Impure Oxide of Zinc. Tutty, Cadmia; Tutia, Lat.; Tuthie, Cadmie des fourneaux, Fr.; Tutia, Germ.; Tu- zia, Hal; Tucia, Spun. This oxide is officinal only in the Edinburgh Pharmacopceia. It is formed during the smelting of lead ores containing zinc. During their calcination, the oxide of zinc is deposited in the form of incrustations in the chimneys of the furnaces, from which it is detached and thrown into commerce. Tutty is in the form of moderately hard and ponderous pieces, stud- ded over with small protuberances, of a brownish colour on the outside, and yellowish within. Some pieces occasionally present a bluish cast, from the presence of small particles of metallic zinc. Sometimes a spu- rious article is sold for tutty, consisting of a mixture of blue clay and copper filings, made into a paste with water, and dried on an iron rod. It is distinguished from the genuine substance by its diffusing in water, and exhaling an earthy smell, and by its greater friability. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Tutty is not used in medicine in the state here described, but requires to be levigated, when it becomes the Oxidum Zinci Impurum Praeparatum of the Edinburgh College, under which head its medical properties will be mentioned. Off. Prep.—Oxidum Zinci Impurum Praeparatum, Ed. ZINGIBER. U.S. Ginger. "Zingiber officinale. Radix. The root." U.S. Off Syn. ZINGIBERIS RADIX. Zingiber officinale. Radix. Lond.; AMOMI ZINGIBERIS RADIX, Ed.; ZINGIBER. AMOMUM ZIN- GIBER. Radix. Dub. Gingembre, Fr.,- Ingwer, Germ.; Zenzero, Hal; Gengibre, Span. Zingiber. Class Monandria. Order Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scita- mineae, Linn., R. Brown, Lindley. Cannae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Flowers spathaceous. Inner limb of the corolla with one lip. Anther double, with a simple recurved horn at the end. Germen inferior. Style enclosed in the furrow formed by the anther. Loudon's Encyc. of Plants. This genus was separated by Mr. Roscoe from the Amomum, and is recognised by the United States and London Pharmacopoeias; though the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges adhere to the former arrangement, and still denominate the plant which yields ginger, Amomum Zingiber. Zingiber officinale. Roscoe, Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. 348; Amomum Zingiber. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 6; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 731. t. 250. The ginger plant has a perennial, creeping, tuberous root, and an annual stem, which rises two or three feet in height, is solid, round, erect, and PART I. Zingiber. 675 enclosed in an imbricated membranous sheathing. The. leaves are lan- ceolate, acute, smooth, five or six inches long by about an inch in breadth, and stand alternately on the sheaths of the stem. The scape or flower- stalk rises by the side of the stem from six inches to a foot high, like it is clothed with oval acuminate sheaths, but is without leaves, and ter- minates in an oval, obtuse, bracteal, imbricated spike. The flowers are of a dingy yellow colour, and appear two or three at a time between the bracteal scales. The plant is a native of Hindostan, and is cultivated in all parts of In- dia. It is also cultivated in the West Indies, whither it was transplanted from the East. The flowers have an aromatic smell, and the stems, when bruised, are slightly fragrant; but the root is the portion in which the virtues of the plant reside. This is fit to be dug up when a year old. In the West Indies the ginger crop is gathered in January and February after the stems have withered. After having been properly cleansed, the root is scalded in boiling water, in order to prevent germination, and is then rapidly dried. Thus prepared, it constitutes the ordinary ginger of commerce, or black ginger, as it is sometimes called, from the darkish colour which it acquires in the process. It is imported into this country almost exclusively from Calcutta, and is known to the druggists by the name of East India ginger. In Jamaica another variety is prepared by selecting the best roots, depriving them of their epidermis, and drying them separately and carefully in the sun. This is called in the books white ginger, and is most highly valued. It reaches us from England, where it is said to undergo some further preparation, by which its ap- pearance is improved. It is usually called in our markets Jamaica gin- ger. The root is also brought immediately from the West Indies in a recent state and sold by the confectioners. A preserve is made from ginger by selecting the roots while young and tender, depriving them of their cortical covering, and boiling them in syrup. This is occasionally imported from the East and West Indies. When good it is translucent and tender. The recent root is an inch or more in length, somewhat flattened on its upper and under surface, knotty, obtusely and irregularly branched or lobed, externally of a light ash colour, and marked with circular rugae, internally fleshy, and yellowish-white. It sometimes germinates when kept in the shops. The common, East India, or black ginger, is of the same general shape, but has a dark ash-coloured wrinkled epidermis, which being re- moved in some places, exhibits patches of an almost black colour, ap- parently the result of exposure. Beneath the epidermis is a brownish, resinous, almost horny cortical portion. The interior parenchyma is whitish and somewhat farinaceous. The powder is of a light yellowish- brown colour. This variety is most extensively used throughout the country. The Jamaica or white ginger differs in being entirely deprived of epi- dermis, and white or yellowish-white on the outside. The pieces are rounder, and thinner, in consequence of the loss of substance in their preparation. They afford when pulverised a beautiful yellowish-white powder, which is brought from Liverpool in jars. This variety is firm and resinous, and has more of the sensible qualities of ginger than the black. General Properties.—The odour of ginger is aromatic and penetrating, the taste spicy, pungent, hot, and biting. These properties gradually diminish* and ultimately disappear when the root is long exposed. The 676 Zingiber. PART I. virtues of ginger are extracted by water and alcohol. Its constituents, according to M. Morin, are volatile oil of a greenish-blue colour; a re- sinous matter, soft, acrid, aromatic, and soluble in ether and alcohol; a sub-resin insoluble in ether; a little osmazome ; gum; starch ; a vegeto- animal matter; sulphur; acetic acid; acetate of potassa; and lignin. The peculiar flavour of the root appears to depend on the essential oil* its pungency partly on the resinous or resino-extractive principle. A con- siderable quantity of very pure white starch may be obtained from it. Those pieces of ginger which are very fibrous, light and friable, or worm-eaten, should be rejected. Medical Properties and Uses.—Ginger is a grateful stimulant and car- minative ; and is often given in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, and the feeble state of the alimentary canal attendant upon atonic gout. It is an excel- lent addition to bitter infusions and tonic powders, imparting to them an agreeable, warming, and cordial operation upon the stomach. When chewed it produces much irritation of the mouth, and a copious flow of saliva; and when snuffed up the nostrils, in the state of powder, excites violent sneezing. It is sometimes used as a local remedy in relaxation of the uvula, and paralysis of the tongue and fauces. Externally ap- plied, it acts as a rubefacient. It may be given in powder or infusion. The dose of the former is from ten grains to a scruple or more. The infusion may be prepared by adding half an ounce of the powdered or bruised root to a pint of boiling water, and may be given in the dose of one or two fluidounces. Off. Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Con- fectio Opii, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Scammonii, U.S., Lond., Dub.; In- fusum Sennas Compositum, Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Gambogiae Composite, Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Scillae Compositae, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Aromaticus* U.S., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Cinnamomi Compositus, Lond.; Pulvis Scam- monii Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Sennae Compositus, Lond.; Syrupus Rhamni, Lond.; Syrupus Zingiberis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinnamomi Composita, U. S.,Lond.; Tinctura Zingiberis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Vinum Aloes, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub, PART II. PREPARATIONS. The preparation of medicines, which constitutes the art of Phar- macy, comes within the peculiar province of the apothecary. It is for his guidance that the various.formulae of the Pharmacopoeia have been arranged, and to him that their directions are especially addressed. A few general observations, therefore, of an explanatory nature, cal- culated to facilitate the progress of the pharmaceutic student, will not be misplaced under the present head. The business of the apothecary is to obtain a supply of good medicines, to preserve them with care, to prepare them properly for use, and to dispense them. Our remarks will embrace each of these points. The substances obtained from the mineral and animal kingdoms, and those furnished by the chemical manufacturer, are of a nature to admit of no general precepts as to their proper condition, which would not be suggested by the common sense of the purchaser. He must receive them as offered, and judge of their fitness for his purposes by his know- ledge of the peculiar properties of each. The same remark applies to vegetable substances from abroad; but with respect to indigenous plants, the apothecary is frequently called upon to exercise his judgment in re- lation to their collection and desiccation, and will derive advantage from some brief practical rules upon the subject. Collecting and Drying of Plants.—The proper mode of proceeding va- ries according to the nature of the part used. Annual and biennial roots are to be collected in the autumn, and perennial roots in the spring, before vegetation has commenced. They should be washed, and the small fibres, unless they are the part employed, should be separated from the fleshy solid part, which is to be cut in slices previously to being dried. Bulbs are to be gathered after the new bulb is perfected, and before it has begun to vegetate, which is at the time the leaves decay. Barks, whether of the root, trunk, or branches, should be gathered in the autumn or early in the spring. The dead epidermis, and the decayed parts, are to be sepa- rated. Of some trees* as the slippery elm, it is the inner bark only that is preserved. Leaves are to be gathered after their full development, be- fore the fading of the flower. The leaves of biennial plants do not attain their perfect qualities until the second year. Flowers should in general be gathered at the time of their expansion, before or immediately after they have fully opened; and some* as the Rosa Gallica, while in the bud. Aromatic herbs are to be gathered when in flower. Leaves, flowers, and herbs, are to be gathered in clear dry weather, in the morning, after the dew is exhaled. Stalks and twigs are collected in autumn ; seeds at the period of their full maturity. Vegetables should be dried as rapidly as is consistent with their per- fect preservation. Fibrous roots may be dried in the sun or in a room in which a heat of from 65° to 80° is maintained. Fleshy roots may be cut in transverse slices, dried in the open air till the moisture is nearly eva? 678 Collecting and Drying of Plants. PART II. porated, and then placed in a stove heat not exceeding 100°, till perfectly dry and hard. Bulbs must have the outer membranes peeled off, and be cut in transverse slices and dried in a heat not exceeding 100°. Barks, woods, and twigs, readily dry in thin layers in the open air. Leaves which are dry and thin do not require a heat exceeding 60° or 70°; those which are succulent may be exposed by carefully and slowly raising the heat to a temperature of 100°. Flowers must be dried carefully and rapidly in the shade; those of the most delicate texture and odour requiring the greatest care. The following table, taken from the Edinburgh Dispensatory, presents the amount yielded by 1000 parts of the vegetables respectively men- tioned, after being dried. Roots of Angelica Archangelica 263 Aspidium Filix Mas 500 Inula Helenium - 187 Valeriana sylvestris 316 BarK of the Oak - - 410 Elder - - 292 Elm - - 375 Twigs of Solanum Dulcamara 308 Leaves of Atropa Belladonna 140 Conium maculatum 185 Datura Stramonium 110 Leaves of Digitalis purpurea 180 Hyoscyamus niger 135 Melissa officinalis 220 Salvia officinalis 220 Tops of Mentha piperita 215 Flowers of Anthemis nobilis 338 Borago officinalis 96 Lavandula vera 510 Sambucus ebulus 250 Petals of Papaver Rhoeas 84 Rosa rubra - 330 Preservation of Medicines.—The proper preservation of medicines is an art of the greatest importance to the apothecary. The aromatic gums and resins, and in general all the parts of vegetables, should be kept secluded from the light, and as much as possible from the air, in perfectly dry rooms. Boxes or barrels, with close covers, will serve for roots and barks. Roots which are to be preserved fresh should be buried in dry sand. Leaves and flowers should be kept in tin canisters, or boxes lined with lead or tin. They should be frequently examined, as they are liable to mouldiness, to the attacks of insects, and to a greater or less deterioration by age. The London College directs that vegetables should be collected annually, and that those which have been kept longer than a year should be thrown away. Drugs frequently require to be garbled, as it is termed, before they are in a proper state for use. Senna is to be separated from the stalks and legumes; lichen from moss, leaves, and sticks; myrrh from bdellium, &c; gum Senegal from Bassora gum and a terebinthinate resin; flaxseed from clover seed; seneka from ginseng; spigelia from the stems, and both it and serpentaria from the adhering dirt. Seroons of cinchona should be examined, and the barks assorted before they are put by for use. Gums and gum-resins should be garbled, and the clear transparent tears preserved separately. Weights and Measures.—A precise acquaintance with the recognised measures of weight and capacity is essential to the operations of the apothecary. The weights used by him in compounding medicines, are the troy pound and its divisions; those by which he buys and sells, the pound avoirdupois and its divisions. The former contains 5760 grains, the latter 7000 grains, so that 11 troy pounds are nearly equivalent to 9 pounds avoirdupois. The troy pound contains 12 ounces of 480 grains; the avoirdupois pound 16 ounces of 437s grains, eleven of the former being nearly equal to twelve of the latter. The troy ounce is divided for the use of the apothecary, into 8 drachms of 60 grains each, and the part ii. Weights and Measures.—Specific Gravity. 679 drachm into 3 scruples of 20 grains each. The United States and Bri- tish Pharmacopoeias all recognise the troy weights, and whenever in this work any term is used expressive of weight, it is to be understood as being of this denomination. The measures used by the apothecary are the wine pint and the gallon. The wine pint contains 28.875 cubic inches. The weight of a pint of distilled water at 62° Fahrenheit and 30° of the barometer, is 7289.7 grains, or 1 pound 3 ounces 1 drachm 29.7 grains troy, or 1 pound 289.7 grains avoirdupois. The gallon is divided into 8 pints, the pint into 16 fluidounces, the fluidounce irrto 8 fluidrachms, and the fluidrachm into 60 minims. The weight of a fluidounce of water is 455§ grains, being 18 grains more than an avoirdupois ounce. A drop is generally though incorrectly considered as equivalent to the minim. Drops vary in size according to the nature of the fluid, and the size and shape of the lip from which they fall. A drop of water nearly equals a minim. A fluidrachm of antimonial wine will make, on an average, about 72 drops, one of laudanum 120 drops, and one of alcohol 138 drops. For a table showing the relative value of minims and drops, see the Appendix. Measures are employed by the United States, London, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, with a few exceptions, to express the quantity of li- quids in all their formulae. The Edinburgh College employs weights ex- clusively. This should be borne in mind in comparing the formulae of the different Pharmacopoeias. Fluids are to be dispensed from graduated measures, of which those holding from a fluidounce to a pint are hollow inverted cones; and those holding a fluidrachm, and graduated to every five minims, are cylindrical. For smaller quantities than five minims, a slender tube holding a flui- drachm may be used, having the aliquot parts divided off and marked with a diamond. Care should be taken to verify these instruments. The fol- lowing measures are used in prescribing medicines, viz., a wineglass- ful cbntaining two fluidounces, a tablespoonful containing half a fluid- ounce, a dessertspoonful two fluidrachms, and a teaspoonful containing a fluidrachm. Specific Gravity.—The specific gravity of fluids affords one of the best tests of their purity. The instrument commonly used by the apothecary for ascertaining this is Baume's hydrometer. This is a glass bulb load-' ed at one end and drawn out at the other into a tube on which the scale is marked. That used for alcohol is graduated by loading it until it sinks to the foot of the stem (which is marked zero) in a solution of one part of salt in nine parts of water. It is then put into water, and the place to which it sinks marks 10° of the scale, which is constructed from these data. The hydrometer for liquids heavier than water is made by loading it, so that in distilled water it shall sink to nearly the top of the stem. The place to which it sinks in a solution of 15 parts of salt in 85 parts of water is then marked as 15°, and the scale divided off. For a table exhibiting the value of these scales in specific gravities, see the Appendix. The hydrometers commonly imported are so carelessly made that scarcely any two will agree, and little dependence is to be placed on their accuracy. A more certain method consists in weighing the liquid at a uniform temperature in a bottle, the capacity of which, in grains of distilled water, has been previously ascertained. If a bottle is selected which will hold exactly 1000 grains of water at 60°, the weight in grains of the quantity of any liquid which it will hold will be the specific gravity of the liquid. Such bottles are sold in the shops. If one is not attainable. 680 Specific Gravity.—Mechanical Bivision. part il an ordinary vial may be used, and the specific gravity obtained by di- viding the weight of the liquid examined by the weight of the water. Gay Lussac's centesimal alcoholmeter is a very useful instrument, being graduated so as to indicate the percentage of absolute alcohol in any mixture of spirit and water. The specific gravity of a solid is ascertained by first weighing it in air and then in water, and dividing the former weight by the difference between the two. Mechanical Division.—One of the simplest means of preparing medi- cines, is their reduction, by mechanical means, to a state of minute di- vision. This includes the various operations of pulverisation, leviga- tion, grinding, filing, rasping, sifting, bruising, slicing, 8cc. The principal drugs which are sold in the state of powder, are pul- verised by persons who pursue that occupation for a livelihood. The apothecary, therefore, is chiefly interested in knowing the loss sustained in this process. The following statement has been abbreviated from a table prepared by MM. Henry and Guibourt. One thousand parts of the substances mentioned yielded, when pulverised— Roots. Cinnamon Jalap - - 940 Angustura Rhubarb - - 920 Leaves. Columbo - - 900 Hemlock Liquorice - - 900 Savine - Valerian - - 860 Digitalis Elecampane - 850 Belladonna - Gentian - - 850 Senna - Florentine Orris - 850 Henbane Rhatany - - 850 Flowers. Calamus - - 840 Chamomile - Virginia Snakeroot 800 Saffron - Ipecacuanha - 750 Fruits. Squill (bulb) - 820 Mustard Barks. Black pepper Cinchona, pale - 875 Nux Vomica -------, red - 880 Colocynth - -------, yellow - 900 For the greater part of those drugs that are powdered in the shops, an iron, brass, glass, or Wedgwood mortar is to be used; the two for- mer for hard substances requiring repeated blows; the latter for those which are friable and can be reduced to powder by trituration. The interior surface of the mortar should be concave and nearly spherical, and care should be taken not to impede the operation by overloading and clogging the pestle. In powdering acrid substances, the mortar should be covered with a board perforated in the centre for the pestle, or with a large piece of pliable leather tied round the top of the mortar and the handle of the pestle, so as to allow of the free motion of the lat- ter. The operator should guard himself against the fine particles of very acrid substances, by standing with his back to a current of air, and co- vering his nostrils with a wet cloth. Various means are used to facili- tate the operation of powdering. All vegetable substances must be care- fully and thoroughly dried. Resins, gum-resins, and gums, must be powdered in cold frosty weather. Tragacanth and nux vomica must be dried in a stove heat, and powdered while hot. The fibrous roots, as liquorice and althea, should be previously shaved into thin transverse slices. Agaric is to be powdered by beating into a paste with water, then drying and triturating it. Cloves and the aromatic seeds may be ground in a hand mill and afterwards triturated. Squill and colocynth, 890 Vegetable Products 825 Aloes ... 960 Tragacanth - 940 800 Opium - 930 800 Gum Arabic - 925 790 Scammony 915 785 Catechu 900 720 Liquorice (extract) 810 530 Jlnimal Substances Castor - 900 850 Spanish Flies 850 800 Mineral Substances Red Oxide of Mercury 980 950 Red Sulphuret of Mer- 900 cury - 950 850 Arsenious Acid 950 500 Sulphuret of Antimony 950 Tin 825 part u. Separation of Solids from Liquids. 681 the comminution of which is sometimes aided by soaking them in mu- cilage of tragacanth and then drying—are best powdered in* a dry'atmo- sphere, after being thoroughly dried in a stove heat. Camphor requires the addition of a few drops of alcohol. The efflorescent salts may be obtained in the state of fine powder by exsiccation, and those which are insoluble in alcohol, maybe precipitated by it, in an impalpable powder, from their aqueous solutions. Care should be taken in powdering, previously to separate the inert portions and impurities, and to mix intimately the whole of the powder which is reserved for use. The central woody fibre of ipecacuanha and other roots, the virtues of which reside in the bark, is to be rejected. The first portions of those barks to which lichens and the dead epider- mis adhere, are inert, as are also the last particles of the fibrous roots and barks. The outer coat of the aromatic seeds is to be reserved, and the inner albuminous part rejected as inodorous. The fine particles in powdering are to be separated from time to time by sifting. Fine sieves should be made of that sort of raw silk called bolting cloth; coarser ones of wire, hair cloth, or gauze. Valuable or aromatic powders should be passed through box sieves, which are sieves provided with covers for the top and bottom, that shut up so as to pre- vent all waste. Ivory, horn, nux vomica, wood, and iron, are prepared for pharma- ceutic purposes by filing or rasping; guaiacum wood by turning in a lathe; roots, stalks, and leaves by cutting with a large pair of shears, such as is used by the tinplate workers; or with a large knife fixed in a frame at one end, with a long handle at the other. Tin and zinc are granulated by melting them and strongly agitating whilst they are cool- ing; carbonate of potassa by stirring with a rod as it hardens. Earthy insoluble substances are conveniently reduced to powder by levigating them; which is performed by moistening them with alcohol or water, and rubbing them on a hard flat stone with a muller or rubber of the same material. The powder may be rendered impalpable by agi- tating it with a large quantity of water, and pouring off the liquid to settle, after the coarser particles have subsided. The fineness of the pow- der depends on its specific gravity and the length of time which elapses before the liquid from which it subsides is drawn off. This last opera- tion is termed elutriation, and the thick pasty mass which remains, is usually dropped on an absorbent surface, and dried in the shape of small cones. Vanilla, mace, and other oily aromatic substances, may be rub- bed to powder with sugar; magnesia and white lead, by friction on a wire or hair sieve. Separation of Solids from Liquids.—This is another mechanical opera- tion which is frequently resorted to in practical pharmacy. It includes the processes of decantation, filtration, straining, expression, clarification,&c. Solids may be separated from fluids when there ex- ists no chemical action between them, by allowing them to subside. The supernatant liquid may then be carefully poured off; or it may be drawn off by a syphon; or se- parated by filtering. The last operation, or expression by a stronger force, is necessary to separate the whole of the liquid. Precipitating jars of the shape figured in the margin, are sold in the shops, and will be found very useful. When the powder subsides slowly, or remains suspended, the liquid must be filtered. 86 682 Separation of Solids from Liquids. part ii. The most convenient material for a filter is un- sized paper. This is to be folded into a cone of the shape of the annexed figure, and placed in a glass funnel. It will serve for filtering tinctures, wines, saline solutions, watery infusions, and essential oils. In some cases it may be necessary to place a small cone of the same material outside of the large one, in order to strengthen it. When the liquid is too viscid to pass readily through paper, a cotton or woollen bag of a conical shape may be used. Acids may be filtered through a layer of fine siliceous sand, sup- ported in the neck of a glass funnel by pieces of glass gradually decreas- ing in size. Castor oil, syrups, and oxymels, may be readily filtered through a coarse paper made entirely of woollen shreds. Melted fats, plasters, resins, and wax, may be strained through muslin stretched over a square frame or a hoop. Small sieves of fine bolting cloth serve for straining emulsions, decoctions, and infusions, and a temporary strainer for these purposes may be made by fastening a piece of muslin between the upper and lower parts of a common pill box, and then cutting off the ends so as to leave the rim only of the box around the muslin. The filtration of viscid substances is facilitated by heat. Filtration through bone black, is practised for muddy or dark coloured liquids. Much inconve- nience is often experienced in the filtra- tion of hot saturated saline solutions, by the cooling of the liquid and con- sequent crystallization of the salt in the filter and neck of the funnel. To obvi- ate this, the tin apparatus represented in the wood cut, has been contrived by Professor Hare. The vessel is fill- ed with hot water, which is kept at a boiling heat by a spirit lamp placed under the cavity having the shape of an inverted funnel. A glass fun- nel with a filter is placed in the other cavity, and the liquid passes through rapidly. In filtering alcoholic solu- tions, it is necessary to protect the li- quid from the flame of the lamp, and for this purpose the partition under- neath has been added. No apothecary should be without this useful apparatus. Frames of various sizes for holding funnels and filters will be found very useful; the wood cut re- presents the one commonly used. The efflores- cence of saline solutions on the edge of the filtering paper may be prevented by dipping it in melted tallow or lard. The filtration of liquids, which are altered by exposure to the air, requires much caution. A very simple method of accomplishing this, is to insert a slender tube of glass into the fun- nel, long enough to reach below the neck, while the upper part is nearly as high as the top of the funnel. The space between the tube and the neck, must be filled with bits of glass and fine sand, so as to form a good filtering bed} the liquid is to be poured in, and the top of the funnel co- k <=> o ^ part ii. Separation of Liquids.—Application of Heat. 683 vered with a plate of glass. If this be luted on, and the funnel luted into the neck of the bottle, the process will be performed with perfect accuracy. Expression is required to separate the last portions of tinctures or in- fusions from the dregs. A screw press is used for this purpose. The substance to be pressed is put into a cylinder of strong sheet tin, the sides of which are pierced with small holes. This is placed on a square tray of tin having a lip for pouring. A block of wood fits into the cylin- der and is placed on top, and the whole is put under the screw press, the pressure of which is gradually brought to bear upon it. This press is to be used for expressing the juices of fresh plants and the mother liquor from precipitates or soft fibrous crystals. Previously to being pressed, plants must be well beaten in a mortar, and water added to those which are hard and dry. The expressed oils are obtained by bruising the seeds which contain them, and enclosing the bruised mass in strong bags which are placed in a firm hollow frame and subjected to strong sudden pressure by driv- ing up a wedge. Expressed oils are clarified from mucilage by boiling them with water. Liquids in general are rendered clear by the addition of some coagu- lable substance, such as milk or an aqueous infusion of ichthyocolla. The white of an egg beaten up with water, will coagulate by a gentle heat and clarify any liquid with which it has been mixed. The vege- table acids will clarify many of the expressed juices of plants. Separation of Liquids.—Liquids which have no chemical affinity, and differ in spe- cific gravity, may be separated by allowing them to remain at rest in the separating fun- nel represented in the annexed figure, and then drawing off the heavier fluid. A very convenient method of separat- ing fluids is by means of the separatory figured in the wood cut. The last drop of the heavier fluid may be drawn off by means of this instrument. Application of Heat.-~The most efficient and economical means of obtaining heat is a subject of great importance to the pharmaceutist, on account of the variety of processes in which it is required. With the small furnaces, which are now made of fire p clay, of various patterns and sizes, almost all the opera- tions of the laboratory which require heat, can be perform- ed. The fuel used is charcoal, although anthracite will burn in those of a larger size, and is to be preferred where a uniform heat is necessary for several hours. The apothe- cary should be provided with a complete set of these use- ful utensils, including one with a dome for a reverberatory furnace. By adding a pipe several feet in length to this, and urging the fire with a pair of double bellows, the heat may be raised to that of an air furnace. A small pipe of (4flnf\ft$) sheet iron with a cone at the lower end, as in the figure, to ^~*=*=*' fit on the furnace, will be found an excellent means of ob- taining an intense heat in those of the smallest size. For /^====:=>s operations on a smaller scale, the most convenient means ^==^7 of" obtaining heat is by an alcoholic lamp. Alcohol burns \ / without smoke or smell, and is almost as cheap a fuel as \ rr—3 / oil, to which it is on every other account preferable. The **------*** annexed figures represent the usual forms of spirit lamps, A 684 Application of Heat. part ii. The larger one will be found very useful for heating spatulas for spreading plasters. For regulat- ing the temperature and support- ing the substance to be heated, iron tripods of various heights and sizes must be provided. These should be furnished with sets of concentric rings as in the figure, fitting into each other for vessels of different sizes. A very convenient support is the stand and ring figured in the wood cut, which will answer either for a spirit lamp, or a small furnace made from a black lead crucible as in the figure. The operations which re- quire the aid of heat are fu- sion, solution, and evapora- tion. The temperature required for fusion, in pharmaceutical processes, seldom exceeds a red heat; and the vessels used are crucibles of silver, porcelain, Wedgwood ware, black lead, and fire clay (Hessian crucibles). Silver is used for the fusion of potassa, porcelain for nitrate of silver, and black lead and Hessian crucibles for the metals, glass of antimony, sulphuret of potassium, and the ordinary operations which require a great heat. They are each liable to objections; silver fuses too readily; porcelain and Wedgwood ware do not bear sudden changes of temperature; black lead, which bears these changes, is destroyed by sa- line substances and burns in a current of air; and the Hessian crucibles are so porous as to absorb and waste much of the fused substance. The crucibles should be covered with a lid or an inverted crucible, and should be supported at a little distance from the bottom of the grate, and sur- rounded and covered with ignited coals. The fusion of substances which soften and melt at a lower degree of heat, as wax, fat, plasters, 8cc, is called liquefaction. This operation is performed in open earthen, cop- per, or iron vessels, and care must be taken not to raise the heat so as to char or inflame the substance. A sand bath is an indispensable part of the pharmaceutic apparatus. It is usually an iron pot or a shallow vessel of sheet iron capable of hold- ing sand to the depth of four or six inches. It serves to regulate the action of the heat on vessels which do not bear a rapid change of temperature. It is sometimes heated to a red heat, as in prepar- ing the mineral acids, though more frequently used for the evaporation of saline solutions and vegetable juices. The water bath is to be used in all cases in which a heat above that of boiling water would be injurious. A very convenient one, figured in the wood cut, consists of two copper vessels, the upper one of which is well tinned. part ii. Application of Heat. 6S5 The common still and worm, the vessels in general use for distillation, are too well known to need description. A convenient still or alembic for small operations, which may be heated by a spi- rit lamp, is figured in the wood cut. The top of the head is kept filled with cold water, and all escape of vapour is pre- vented by filling the space in which the head fits with water. The con- densation of all the va- pour is secured by adapt- ing a worm or a long tube to the apparatus. The boiler of this still may hold one or two gal- lons, and it will be found a very useful means of preserving the alcohol in making alcoholic ex- tracts. It may easily be converted into a water bath by fitting on the top of the boiler a vessel of convenient form. For the extrication and condensation or absorption of gaseous fluids, a retort and series of three necked (or Wolfe's) bottles are used. The bot- tles are partly filled with water and become saturated in succession. As the tubes which convey the gas are plunged nearly to the bottom of the liquid in the bottles, there is danger, when the operation is complete, and a vacuum formed in the retort, of the water being driven by the atmospheric pressure in the last bottle, back through the whole series, so as to fill the retort. To prevent this, safety tubes must be fitted to the retort and the bottles. Those for the bottles are straight tubes, dipping a small depth into the liquid; that for the retort, is the com- mon Welter's tube of safety. When the common glass retort and re- ceiver are used for the distillation of fluids, care should be taken not to apply the luting until the atmospheric air is expelled. The chief objects to be aimed at are to keep the body of the retort hot and the neck and receiver cool. A hood of pasteboard or tin, as represented in the figure, will much accelerate the former, and the latter will be gained by keeping the neck and receiver wrapt in wet cloths, on which a jet of cold water is kept playing. When the object of distillation is to preserve the residuum, and this is liable to injury from heat, as is the case with vegetable extracts, the operation is best performed in vacuo. For this purpose the still and re- cipient are made so as to form an air tight apparatus, and the latter is furnished with a stop cock, which is kept open until the whole of the atmospheric air is expelled by the vapour. It is then closed, and a va- cuum formed and maintained in the recipient by surrounding it with cold 686 Application of Heat.—Lutes. part ii. water. The distillation is carried on in this manner at a much lower temperature than ordinary. The vapours of some volatile solids have the property of condensing into the solid form, either in mass, or in a state of the most minute di- vision. The operation in which this occurs, is called sublimation. When the product is compact, it is called a. sublimate, when slightly adhering, it is called flowers. The operation is generally performed in a sand bath, and the apparatus consists of two vessels fitting each other, one being inverted .over the other. The shape, size, and depth of the vessels, and the degree of heat to be applied, are regulated by the nature of the sub- stance operated on. Lutes.—The most precious material for the chemist is glass, the trans- parency, insolubility, and hardness of which, fit it for almost every pur- pose. It is often necessary to strengthen it by means of lutes, which will bear a heat at which glass would soften; and the application of lutes for this purpose, and for securing the junctures of tubes and ves- sels, is also an important part of the pharmaceutic art Those lutes which are required for coating vessels exposed to a great heat, are made of Stourbridge clay. The clay is made into a paste with water mixed with chopped straw, and successive coats applied as they become dry. Earthenware vessels may be rendered impervious to air or vapours, by brushing over them a thin paste made of slaked lime and a solution of borax containing an ounce to the half pint. This is allowed to dry, and the vessel is then coated with slaked lime and linseed oil beaten till the mixture becomes plastic. Earthenware retorts thus coated, may be safe- ly used more than once, the coating being renewed every time. Fat lute is applied to the joinings of apparatus to prevent the escape of corrosive vapours. It is made like glazier's putty, pipe clay being substituted for whiting. It will bear a considerable heat, and great care must be taken that the part where it is applied be perfectly dry. If it is to be exposed to heat, slips of moistened bladder must be wrapped round it and secured with twine. Roman cement and plaster of Paris may be applied in the same man- ner as fire clay; when used for securing the joinings of apparatus, a coat- ing of oil or wax will render them air tight. A very useful lute is formed by beating the white of an egg thorough- ly with an equal quantity of water, and mixing with it some slaked lime in the state of fine powder, so as to form a thin paste. This must be spread immediately on slips of muslin and applied to the cracks or join- ings intended to be luted. It soon hardens, adheres strongly, and will bear a heat approaching to redness without injury. A leak in this lute is readily stopped by the application of a fresh portion. Solution of glue, or any liquid albuminous matter, may be used in place of the white of eggs. An excellent cement for surfaces of iron, consists of one part of sul- phur, two of sal ammoniac, and eighty of iron filings, mixed together and slightly moistened. It is rammed or caulked into the joints, and solidifies perfectly in time. White lead ground in oil, is an excellent cement for broken glass; spread upon linen, it forms a good coating for a cracked surface, but dries slowly. Strips of bladder macerated in water, adhere well to glass, and are very useful. A mixture of whiting and paste or gum water, spread upon strips of paper, forms an excellent luting for joinings not exposed to acrid vapours or a great heat. part ii. Lutes.—Chemical Operations. 687 A useful lute is formed by spreading a solution of glue on strips of cloth, and coating them, after they are applied, with drying oil. Linseed meal beaten into a uniform mass with milk, lime-water, rye paste or thin glue, and applied in thick masses, adheres well; and when dry, will resist most vapours. Cap cement is made of six parts of resin, one part of yellow wax, and one of Venetian red. It is a very useful cement for fastening metals or wood to glass, and for rendering joints impervious to water. Soft cement is used for the same purposes, and is made of yellow wax melted with half its weight of turpentine, and coloured with a little Venetian red. It is very useful for rendering the stoppers of bottles perfectly air tight. Chemical Operations.—Some of the chemical processes conducted by the apothecary, have been explained in the former part of this intro- duction. It remains to notice some others in constant or frequent use. Infusion is the subjecting of a substance containing soluble principles to the action of a menstruum, which is usually water. Hot infusions are made by pouring boiling water on the substance, and allowing it to re- main in a covered vessel till cold. Cold infusions are made with cold water, and require several hours to attain their full strength. Macera- tion is the term employed to denote the action of liquids upon medicines, when allowed to remain upon them for several days, at a heat of from 60° to 90°. Digestion is the name given to the same operation, when conducted at a temperature of between 90° and 100°. It is commonly performed in glass bottles or flasks, and a common fire or stove heat is employed. Decoction, or boiling, is sometimes employed in extracting the virtues of plants, but is often disadvantageous, as most of the proxi- mate principles of vegetables are altered by it, especially when long con- tinued. Where it is practised, the ebullition should generally be continu- ed for a few minutes only, and the liquid be allowed to cool slowly in a close vessel. From the solutions of vegetable principles obtained by these different processes, extracts are prepared by slow evaporation, so as to inspissate the liquid. This process should, as has already been mentioned, be al- ways conducted at a heat not exceeding that of boiling water. Evapora- tion at a gentle heat is also performed for the concentration of saline so- lutions, in order to promote their crystallization. The proper degree of concentration is attained if a drop of the liquid on a cold glass plate deposites crystals. The slower the evaporation and the cooling, and the greater the quantity operated on, the larger will be the crystals. Water which is saturated with any salt is still capable of dissolving other salts. It is in this way, by washing crystals of impure salts with their own saturated solutions, that the crystals are purified. Fine silky crystals, which retain their mother water by capillary attraction, must be dried by strong expression in a linen bag. The finest silky crystals may be entirely freed from their adhering liquid by placing them in a funnel which fits closely to one of the necks of a double mouthed bottle and fitting a tube to the other, through which air is drawn. The cur- rent of air, in passing through the funnel, carries the water with it and dries the crystals perfectly. Lixiviation is a process used for separating a soluble from a porous insoluble body. It consists in placing the substance to be lixiviated in a vessel, the bottom of which is covered with straw, &c, pouring wa- ter upon it, allowing the water to remain until saturated, and then draw- ing it off through an opening at the bottom of the vessel. 688 Chemical Operations. part ii. Precipitation is sometimes mechanical, as in the process of levigating and elutriating the* carbonate of lime, and sometimes chemical, as in the preparation of this article by decomposing the muriate of lime. When a precipitant is directed to be added until no further precipi- tation takes place, the fact may be ascertained by taking a drop of the liquid on a glass plate, and trying it with the precipitant. The forma- tion of a precipitate is often much assisted by agitation or by heat. The separation of a precipitate from the supernatant liquid is most effectually accomplished by means of a syphon. When the liquid is a saline solu- tion, it is necessary to wash the precipitate until the water exhibits no trace of the salt. In doing this, great care must be taken to select the purest and clearest water, and the ultimate drying of the precipitate must be performed in a filter, or on a porous stone. The operations which require a heat greater than that used in digest- ing, are liquefaction, fusion, calcination, usiulation, distillation, and subli- mation. Liquefaction is the melting of those substances that become soft pre- viously to fusion, as wax, tallow, plasters, Sec. The heat employed is always below that at which charring takes place. Fusion is employed in pharmacy in preparing the nitrate of silver and caustic potassa for casting into cylinders. The former must be melted in a porcelain, the latter in an iron crucible. The moulds in which they are cast are formed of two thick plates of cast iron, with semicylindrical grooves that fit accurately to each other. Fusion is also used in prepar- ing the glass of antimony. Calcination is strictly synonymous with oxidation, and usiulation is a term restricted to the metallurgic operations of roasting ores, to drive off the volatile matters, as arsenic, £cc. Calcination is often used to ex- press the ustulation or burning of carbonate of magnesia. This is to be performed in an earthen vessel at a red heat. Exposure to the hottest part of a potter's furnace during the burning of the kiln, is an excellent mode of performing the operation. More commonly, the magnesia is burnt in an iron pot, which is objectionable, as the heat soon oxidates the iron, and the oxide scales off and mixes with the magnesia, which is seldom free from iron when prepared in this way. Incineration, as the name expresses, is the operation of burning sub- stances for the sake of their ashes. It is performed in obtaining the phosphate of lime—the cornu ustum of the London Pharmacopoeia. The bones are burnt in an open fire until all the inflammable matter is consumed. Distillation and sublimation have already been spoken of. The former is used for separating a more volatile liquid, as ether or alcohol, from one less so; for impregnating a liquid with the volatile principles of plants, to the exclusion of other principles, as in the preparation of aromatic spirits and waters; and for separating, by mear\s of aqueous vapour, the essential oils and volatile proximate principles of the vege- table kingdom. The first process is termed rectification. When the se- cond process is repeated with the same liquid and a fresh quantity of the plant, the operation is termed cohobation. In submitting the solid parts of vegetables to distillation in the two latter processes, it will be found advisable to expose them to the action of vapour on a grate or in a basket, so as to preserve them from touching the bottom of the still, where they would be liable to be heated so as to become empyreumatic. Distillation is also used for obtaining the volatile products which result from the decomposition by heat of substances of animal or vegetable part ii. Dispensing of Medicines. 689 origin. The oils which are obtained in this manner are called empyreu- matic oils. Sometimes the result is an acid, as the succinic acid, and sometimes the volatile alkali, as in the destructive distillation of ani- mal substances. Dispensing of Medicines.—A large portion of the operations of the apo- thecary is performed in the shop extemporaneously. In dispensing med- icines from the counter, he is continually called upon to put his pre- vious knowledge in practice, and often to substitute extemporaneous for the regular officinal formulae. There is no part of his business which requires for its proper performance so much ready judgment, and such accurate knowledge. A few directions, suggested by running the eye over the list of preparations of the Pharmacopceia may be found useful. It may sometimes be necessary for the apothecary to make extempo- raneously an aromatic water, which is not usually kept in the shops. In this case, he is to prepare it by rubbing a drop of essential oil with one or two grains of carbonate of magnesia, for every fluidounce of water, and filtering. It is sometimes desirable to apply plasters prepared from the narcotic herbs. These may be made extemporaneously by mixing the soft extracts of the plant with about an equal weight of melted adhesive plaster, keep- ing the mixture soft and stirring it until the moisture is evaporated. The most suitable material on which to spread plasters is soft white leather. A margin of half an inch should be allowed to remain around the plaster. The plaster iron or spatula may be heated in the large spirit lamp, figured in page 684. A skilful apothecary will be able to spread the plaster uniformly and evenly, without overheating it so as to penetrate or corrugate the leather. A con- venient instrument for determining the size and preserving a straight edge, consists of two squares made of tin and graduated to inches, as in the annexed figure. For plas- ters of irregular shapes, pieces of paper may be cut out and pasted on the leather, so as to enclose a space of the required di- mensions. The plaster should first be melt- ed on a piece of brown paper, and then trans- ferred to the leather, in order to prevent its being applied at too great a heat. Decoctions and infusions are often or- dered in prescriptions in the quantity of a few ounces. A very conve- nient vessel for preparing them in, is the common nursery lamp, which consists of a cylindrical vessel, open at the side for a spirit lamp, and at the top to receive a tea pot or tin boiler. The neutral mixture is known to be saturated perfectly, when it does not affect litmus paper, either in its blue state or when reddened by acid. For preparing this and the effervescing draught, it is advisable to keep in the shop a solution of carbonate of potassa, containing an ounce to the pint. The silica which this salt contains, subsides on exposure, and leaves a perfectly clear solution, whereas that prepared at the time it is to be used, always becomes turbid after being saturated. The carbonic acid which is extricated on preparing the neutral mixture, combines at first without effervescence with the remaining carbonate and forms a bi- salt. This circumstance may lead, unless the solution be tested, to the supposition that the mixture is saturated. 87 - rm| 690 Bispensing of Medicines. part ii. Powders are often mixed together with difficulty, by means of a pes- tle and mortar, on account of their differing greatly in weight, or of their softness and compressibility. In these cases, frequent stirring with a pallet knife becomes necessary to produce a per- fect mixture. In dividing powders into doses, it is very desirable to fold the packages neatly and of a uniform size; the powder folder represented in the figure is very useful for this purpose. It may be made of mahogany or other hard wood. It is important to the apothecary to ascertain the best means of combining substances which have no affinity for each other. This can often be done by means of a third substance. Water can be saturated with camphor by means of magnesia, and an aqueous mixture of any strength may be made with it, by tritu- rating the camphor with magnesia and shaking the mixture before using it. Camphor softens the gum-resins and solid fats and oils, and may be rendered permanently soluble in water in considerable quantity, by tri- turation with a fifth part of myrrh. In preparing oily emulsions in which gum Arabic or gum and sugar are the medium, a sufficient quantity of water must be added to convert them into a thick mucilage before add- ing the oil, which must then be thoroughly mixed with it and the re- maining water added gradually with great care. Sulphuric ether is ren- dered more soluble in water by trituration with spermaceti. The mix- ture should be filtered to separate the superfluous spermaceti. Mixtures that contain the resinous tinctures, should also contain syrup, with which the tinctures should first be mixed, and the water then added very gradu- ally. If a mixture contains laudanum and a fixed oil, the former should be first mixed with the syrup, and the oil afterwards incorporated, and lastly the water; the mixture will not otherwise be uniform. In ordering pills, care must be taken to avoid the use of deliquescent salts, and to deprive those which are used, of their water of crystalliza- tion. The mass must be thoroughly incorporated previously to being divided; and this is particularly important when extracts of different de- grees of hardness enter into the composition. A section of the mass should be throughout of uniform colour and consistency. Pills are to be rolled and preserved in liquorice powder, which ought to be kept for use in a tin box with a perforated lid, like a pepper box. When pills are of too soft a consistence, a little liquorice powder may be incorporated with them to render them more firm. Pills into the composition of which gum Arabic enters, should be softened with syrup and not with water; the latter renders the mass difficult to roll. The proper cleanliness of his vessels, is an object of great importance to the apothecary. Open vessels, as mortars and measures, are easily cleansed, and should be wiped dry immediately after being washed. Fats and resins are easily removed by pearl ash, or tow and damp ashes, or sand. Red precipitate and other metallic substances, may be removed by a little nitric or muriatic acid. Bottles may be cleansed from most kinds of impurity, by well shaking them with shreds of coarse grocers' paper and a little clean water. They may be freed from oil by means of a little strong nitric acid, after the action of which water will thorough- ly clean them. Long sticks with sponges or dry cloths at the end should be provided for wiping dry the interior of flasks and bottles. A wire, bent at the end into a sort of hook, will be found useful for getting corks out of bottles. A loop of twine will also be found a very convenient means of effecting the same object. When the glass stopper of a bottle I part n. Dispensing of Medicines. 691 is fast, it may often be loosened by gently tapping its sides alternately with the handle of a pallet knife. Sometimes a drop or two of oil, alco- hol, or water, will soften or dissolve the cementing substance. It will sometimes answer to wrap the stopper in a cloth, insert it in a cre- vice or hole in a table or door, and twist the bottle gently and dexter- ously. Sometimes the stopper may be loosened by quickly expanding the neck in the flame of a lamp, and tapping the stopper before the heat has reached it. The apothecary should be provided with pallet knives of wood, bone, and horn, as well as steel. It should be an invariable rule to clean every knife and graduated measure immediately after they are used, and to put the dirty mortars apart from those which are clean. Too much particularity and order in all the minute details of the shop cannot be practised. The counters and scales should be cleaned once a day, and brushed as often as they become dirty. The bottles should be replaced as soon after being taken down and used as possible, and should on no account be changed from their accustomed place on the shelf. For the proper preservation of leaves, flowers, aromatic powders, calomel, and other medicines to which light is injurious, the bottles should be coated with tin foil or black varnish. No apothecary should be destitute of a set of troy weights; as with- out them he will be utterly unable to comply with the officinal direc- tions for the preparation of his medicines. In dispensing medicines, no vial or parcel should be suffered to leave the shop without its appro- priate label, and this, in the case of prescriptions, should always be the physician's direction as to the manner of taking it, and not the name of the medicine, unless it be so directed by him. The prescription or a copy of it should be retained and numbered, and the same number marked on the bottle or parcel. Every thing connected with the shop, and the dispensing and putting up of medicines and parcels, should be characterized by neatness, accuracy, system, and competent knowledge. The apprentice who desires to qualify himself for his business should carefully study Turner's Elements of Chemistry, and Faraday's invalu- able treatise on Chemical Manipulation, which maybe termed the hand books of his profession. As all the processes of the British Colleges are either described or fully detailed in the following pages, it is proper that the prefatory ex- planations of the several Pharmacopoeias should be introduced in this place, in order that the reader may be prepared to understand the pre- cise signification of the terms employed. The Pharmacopoeias recognised in this work unite in the use of the troy pound, and its divisions of ounces, drachms, scruples, and grains, for the expression of weights; and the Edinburgh College employs no other measure of quantity, whether of solids or liquids. In the United States Pharmacopceia, and in those of London and Dublin, the quantity of fluids is generally indicated by the liquid measure, consisting of the wine gallon and its divisions of pints, fluidounces, fluidrachms, and minims. (See tables of weights and measures in the Appendix.) It is highly necessary that the apothecary should understand that this dis- tinction is rigidly observed in all the details which follow, and that whenever the simple terms pound, ounce, and drachm, are employed, they must be considered as belonging to the denomination of troy weight, 692 Aceta. part ii. This caution is the more necessary, as these terms are often confounded with the corresponding divisions of liquid measure, viz. the pint, fluid- ounce, and fluidrachm. The London College, in giving the specific gravity of bodies, considers them at the temperature of 55° Fahrenheit, the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges at 60° ; and the latter is the degree intended by the United States Pharmacopceia, though notexpressly stated. The London College explains the tevm-gentle heat as signifying a tem- perature between 90° and 100°; the Edinburgh College, between 90° and 110°. The Dublin College employs the terms superior, medium, and in- ferior heat, the first signifying a temperature between 200° and 212°, the second between 100° and 200°, and the third between 90° and 100°. Maceration, according to the Edinburgh College, is performed at ordi- nary temperatures; according to the Dublin, at a temperature between 60° and 90°. Digestion is performed by the latter College at an " infe- rior heat;" by the former, at about 100°, when not otherwise expressed. The London and Dublin Colleges direct that mortars, measures, fun- nels, and other vessels in which medicines are prepared, should be made of materials containing neither copper nor lead. Earthen vessels, there- fore, glazed with lead, are improper. The former College also directs that acid, alkaline, earthy, and metallic preparations, and salts of every kind, be kept in stopped glass bottles. ACETA. Vinegars. Under this title, in the United States Pharmacopceia, are included both Distilled Vinegar and those preparations usually denominated Med- icated Vinegars. The latter are infusions or solutions of various medi- cinal substances in vinegar or acetic acid. The advantage of vinegar as a menstruum is, that in consequence of the acetic acid which it contains, it will dissolve substances not readily soluble or altogether insoluble in water alone. It is an excellent solvent of the vegetable alkalies, which it converts into acetates, thereby modifying in some measure, though not injuriously, the action of the medicines of which they are ingre- dients. As ordinary vinegar contains principles which promote its de- composition, it should be purified by distillation before being used as a solvent. Infusions prepared with it, even in this state, are apt to spoil in a short time; and a portion of alcohol is usually added to contribute to their preservation. A small quantity of acetic ether is said to result from this addition; and, on the continent of Europe, the place of the al- cohol is frequently supplied by an equal amount of concentrated acetic acid. In consequence of their liability to change, the medicated vinegars should be made in small quantities, and kept but for a short time. ACETUM DESTILLATUM. U.S. Acidum Aceticum Dilu- tum. Lond.; Acidum Aceticum Tenue. Ed.; Acetum Distilla- thm. Bub. Bistilled Vinegar. "Take of Vinegar a gallon. Distil the Vinegar by means of a sand- bath, from a glass retort into a glass receiver. Reject the first pint, and preserve the five pints which next come over." U. S. The London process for distilled vinegar differs from the above, in directing six pints instead of five to be preserved after the rejection of the first pint, and in ordering a cooled receiver, The Edinburgh Col' PART II. Aceta. 693 lege also rejects the first eighth in the distillation, and preserves the succeeding five-eighths; but it continues the distillation afterwards, so long as colourless acid is obtained; and this last portion, being mixed with the first rejected portion, is kept to be applied to various chemical purposes. The Dublin College distils wine-vinegar. The first tenth which comes over is rejected, the next eight-tenths are the distilled vin- egar, having the sp. gr. of 1.005, and one-tenth is left behind in the retort. Vinegar is a very heterogeneous liquid, containing colouring matter, mucilage, alcohol, 8cc; and the object of its distillation is to purify it. (See Acetum.) The first portion which comes over contains alcohol and pyroacetic spirit, these being the most volatile ingredients; next the acetic acid comes over much purified, but weaker than it exists in the vinegar, on account of its being less volatile than water; and there re- mains in the retort a liquid of a deep brown colour, very sour and em- pyreumatic, and containing free tartaric and malic acids, bitartrate of potassa, and extractive. This statement explains why the first portion which comes over is rejected, and why the last portion is not distilled, or, if drawn off as directed by the Edinburgh College, is reserved for other than medical purposes. The proportion preserved by the Phar- macopoeias is different. According to those of the United States and Edinburgh, it is five-eighths of the vinegar employed, according to the London six-eighths, and according to the Dublin eight-tenths. The dis- tillation should certainly be continued as long as the product is free from empyreumatic taste; and we are assured by Dr. Barker that eight-tenths of the vinegar may be distilled without empyreuma. If this statement is correct, the Dublin process is the best, as being the most productive, without any sacrifice of the quality of the distilled vinegar. The resi- duary liquid in the retort, if diluted with an equal bulk of hot water, and mixed with pure animal charcoal in the proportion of half an ounce to the pint, may be made to yield by a fresh distillation an additional quan- tity of weak acetic acid, equally strong and pure with the officinal dis- tilled vinegar. (See Carbo Animalis.) The different Pharmacopoeias direct the distillation of vinegar to be conducted in glass vessels; but it is generally distilled in a copper alem- bic furnished with a pewter worm as a refrigerator. The use of these metals, however, is hazardous, on account of the danger of metallic im- pregnation. Mr. Brande has suggested that the refrigerator might be made of very thin silver, a metal not acted on by acetic acid of any strength. Empyreuma is effectually prevented by distilling by means of steam. In Great Britain the purification of vinegar by distillation is al- most superseded by the use of purified pyroligneous acid in a dilute state. One pound of this acid mixed with five pounds of water, furnishes a dilute acid of the sp. gr. of 1.009, which is about the strength, of dis- tilled vinegar. Properties.— Distilled vinegar is a limpid and colourless liquid, of a weak acid taste and smell, less agreeable than those of common vinegar. Its sp. gr. varies from 1.007 to 1.009. A fluidounce of the former spe- cific gravity will saturate 28 grains of carbonate of ammonia, 35 grains of carbonate of potassa, and 58| grains of crystallized carbonate of soda. It is not a perfectly pure solution of acetic acid in water; but contains a certain portion of mucilage which rises in the distillation. It is on account of the partial decomposition of this impurity, that distilled vi- negar, when saturated with an alkali, is liable to become of a reddish or brownish colour. When distilled in metallic vessels, it is apt to contain 694 Aceta. part u. traces of copper, lead, and tin. Copper is easily detected by the addi- tion of ferrocyanate of potassa, which produces a brown cloud; lead, by sulphate of soda, which occasions a white precipitate, and tin, by a solution of muriate of gold, which causes a purplish appearance. The two latter metals are discovered also by sulphuretted hydrogen, which occasions a dark-coloured precipitate. Distilled vinegar should not have an empyreumatic taste nor sulphureous smell. Malt vinegar con- tains a small portion of sulphuric acid, but when it is distilled, this acid does not come over. If, however, sulphuric acid should be acci- dentally present in distilled vinegar, it may be detected by muriate of baryta. Distilled vinegar is not of uniform strength. When of the sp. gr. of 1.007, it contains 3.42 per cent, of anhydrous acid; and 4.73 per cent, of the same acid, when its density is 1.009. Medical Properties and Uses. The medical properties of distilled vine- gar are the same as those of common vinegar, (See Acetum); but the former being purer, and not liable to spontaneous decomposition, is pre- ferred for pharmaceutical purposes. It is employed as the basis, with but few exceptions, of the two classes of preparations called "Vinegars" and " Oxymels." Off. Prep. Emplastrum Ammoniaci, Lond., Ed.; Hydrargyri Acetas, Dub.; Liquor Ammoniae Acetatis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, Lond., Dub.; Oxymel, Ed., Dub., Lond.; Plumbi Acetas, Dub., Ed.; Potassae Acetas, Dub., Ed.; Sodas Acetas, Dub.; Syrupus Allii, U.S. ACETUM COLCHICI. U.S., Lond., Bub. Vinegar of Mea- dow-saffron. ' " Take of [dried] Meadow-saffron Root, sliced, two ounces; Distilled Vinegar two pints; Alcohol a fluidounce. Macerate the Meadow-saffron Root with the Vinegar, in a^ylose glass vessel, for seven days; then express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside; lastly, pour off the clear liquor, and add the Alcohol." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges direct an ounce of the fresh root or bulb, a pint of distilled vinegar, a fluidounce of proof spirit, and a ma- , ceration of three days. The resulting preparation may be considered identical with the American; as the dried bulb of our shops is probably not on an average stronger than the fresh bulb in Europe, and the proof spirit of the British Colleges is equivalent to little more than half its bulk of our officinal alcohol. Vinegar is an excellent solvent of the active principle of colchicum; and the veratria of the latter loses none of its efficacy by combination with the acetic acid of the former. The use of the alcohol is simply to retard the spontaneous decomposition to which this, like most of the other medicated vinegars, is liable. Medical Uses.—The preparation has been extolled as a diuretic in dropsy; and may be given in gout, rheumatism, and neuralgia; but the wines of colchicum are usually preferred. The dose is from thirty drops or minims, to a fluidrachm. Off. Prep. Syrupus Colchici. U. S. ACETUM OPII. Bub. Vinegar of Opium. "Take of Turkey Opium four ounces; Distilled Vinegar a pint. Rub the Opium into a pulp with a little of the Vinegar; macerate the mix- ture in a close vessel for seven days, frequently shaking ; then pour off the supernatant liquor and filter." PART II. Aceta. 695 The vinegar of opium was introduced into the late edition of the Dub- lin Pharmacopoeia, as a substitute for the preparation in common use under the name of black drop, the purposes of which it is calculated to answer, without being liable to the same objections. We prefer, how- ever, the Tinctura Opii Acetata of the United States Pharmacopceia, which has taken the place of the Acetum Opii of the first edition of that work. From the want of alcohol, the Dublin preparation must be liable to spontaneous decomposition, and consequently to variation in strength; and we suspect that there is some waste of opium, as Dr. Montgomery, in his observations upon the Dublin Pharmacopceia, states that twenty drops are equivalent to thirty of the common tincture of opium, though in the preparation of the latter, somewhat less than one-third the quantity of opium is used. For further remarks in relation to the black drop, the reader is referred to the article Tinctura Opii Acetata. ACETUM SCILLA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Acidum Aceticum Scilliticum. Ed. Vinegar of Squill. "Take of Squill, sliced, four ounces; Distilled Vinegar two pints; Alcohol a fluidounce. Macerate the Squill with the Vinegar, in a close glass vessel, for seven days; then express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside; lastly, pour off the clear liquor, and add the Alcohol." U.S. The London College directs a pound of recently dried squill, six pints of diluted acetic acid (distilled vinegar), half a pint of proof spirit, and maceration with a gentle heat for twenty-four hours. The Edinburgh Col- lege directs an ounce of dried squill, fifteen ounces of weak acetic acid (distilled vinegar), an ounce and a half of Alcohol, and maceration for seven days. In the Dublin process, the ingredients are in the same pro- portion as in the London, but in half the quantity; and rectified spirit is employed instead of proof spirit. The maceration is continued, with- out heat, for seven days. The process of the late edition of the United States Pharmacopoeia, is a great improvement upon that of 1820. In the latter, which was in- tended to be identical with the Edinburgh process, the proportion of vinegar was increased by the inadvertent adoption of a pint as equiva- lent to the troy pound; and the liability to spontaneous decomposition was rendered greater by the substitution of vinegar boiled with char- coal, and improperly called "purified vinegar," for the distilled. In the revised process, the proportion of the squill and solvent is the same as in the London and Dublin processes, and the desirable object of unifor- mity is thus promoted, while a stronger preparation is secured. The quantity of alcohol, which was before unnecessarily large, has been much diminished; and though rather less than that directed by any of the British Colleges, is deemed sufficient—exceeding considerably the amount ordered in the Paris Codex. The only object of the alcohol is to retard the decomposition of the vinegar of squill; while its presence is medically injurious by rendering the preparation too stimulating. It is best, therefore, to prepare the vinegar frequently, and in small quantities, so as to require little alcohol for its preservation. In the preparation of the oxymel and syrup of squill, for which purpose the vinegar is chiefly used in this country, it should be employed without alcohol. The vine- gar of squill deposites, upon standing, a precipitate which consists, ac- cording to Vogel, of citrate of lime and tannin. Medical Uses.—This preparation has all the properties of the squill in substance, and is occasionally prescribed as a diuretic and expectorant 696 Aceta.—Adda. tart ii. in various forms of dropsy and of pulmonary disease; but the oxymel and syrup are usually preferred,.as they keep better and are less unplea- sant to the taste. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms; but the latter quantity would be apt to produce vomiting. It should be given in cinnamon-water, mint-water, or some other aromatic liquid cal- culated to conceal its taste and obviate its nauseating effect. Off. Prep.—Oxymel Scilte, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Syrupus Scillae, U.S., Ed. ACIDUM ACETICUM AROMATICUM. Ed. Aromatic Ace- tic Acid. "Take of dried Rosemary Tops, dried Sage Leaves, each, an ounce; dried Lavender Flowers half an ounce; Cloves, bruised, half a drachm; Weak Acetic Acid [Distilled Vinegar] two pounds. Macerate for seven days, express the liquor, and filter it through paper." Ed. This is a solution of various volatile aromatic oils in distilled vine- gar, and serves as a grateful refreshing perfume in the chambers of the sick." It was intended as a simplification of the thieves' vinegar—vi- naigre des quatres voleurs—formerly esteemed a prophylactic against the plague and other contagious diseases. In the present state of knowledge, it is hardly necessary to observe, that neither the original nostrum, nor its substitute, has any other power of protecting the system against disease, than such as may depend on its slightly stimulant properties, and its influence over the imagination. ACIDUM ACETICUM CAMPHORATUM. Ed., Bub. Cam- phorated Acetic Acid. "Take of Acetic Acid six fluidounces, [six ounces, Ed.~\; Camphor half an ounce; Rectified Spirit a sufficient quantity. Reduce the Cam- phor to powder by means of the spirit; then add the acid, and dissolve." The use of the alcohol is simply to- facilitate the pulverization of the camphor, and a few drops are sufficient. Acetic acid in its concentrated state readily dissolves camphor. In this preparation, the whole of the camphor is taken up by the acid. In consequence of the powerful chem- ical agency of the solution, and its extreme volatility, it should be kept in glass bottles accurately fitted with ground stoppers. The camphorated acetic acid is an exceedingly pungent perfume, which, when snuffed up the nostrils, produces a strongly excitant im- pression, and may be beneficially resorted to in cases of fainting or ner- vous debility. It is an officinal substitute for Henry's aromatic spirit of vinegar. ACIDA. Acids. Acids, in chemical classification, are those compounds which are capable of uniting with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, in definite proportions, with the effect of producing a combination, in which the properties of its constituents are mutually destroyed. Such combina- tions are said to be neutral, and are denominated salts. Most acids have a sour taste, and possess the power of changing vegetable blues to red; and though these properties are by no means constant, they afford a ready means of detecting acids, applicable in practice to most cases. The above explanation of the nature of an acid is that usually given; but, according to strict definition, acids are compounds having a strong PART II. Acida. 697 electro-negative energy, and, therefore, possessing a powerful affinity for electro-positive compounds, that is, alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides. It is this antithesis in the electrical condition of these two great classes of chemical compounds that gives rise to their mutual affinity; which is so much the stronger, as their contrast in this respect is great- er. In the majority of cases, the electro-negative compound or acid, is an oxidized body, but by no means necessarily so. When it does not contain oxygen, this element is usually replaced by hydrogen. These peculiarities in composition have given rise to a division of acids into oxacids, or those the radical or basis of which is combined with oxygen, and hydracids, of which the radical is united with hydrogen. Vegetable acids, for the most part, contain both oxygen and hydrogen. A small portion only of the acids known, are used in medicine; but among these are to be found examples of the three kinds above indicated. ACIDUM ACETICUM. U.S., Dub. Acidum Aceticum Forti- us, Lond; Acidum Aceticum Forte, Ed. Acetic Acid. " Take of Acetate of Soda, in powder, a pound; Sulphuric Acid half a pound. Pour the Sulphuric Acid into a giass retort, and gradually add the Acetate of Soda; then, by means of a sand-bath, distil the Acetic Acid, with a gentle heat, till the residuum becomes dry. The specific gravity of this acid is 1.0634." U.S. "Take of Acetate of Potassa one hundred parts; Commercial Sulphu- ric Acid fifty-two parts. Put the acid into a tubulated retort, and at different intervals of time, add the Acetate of Potassa, waiting after each addition until the mixture becomes cool. Lastly, with a moderate heat, distil the acid until the residuum is dry. The specific gravity of this acid is 1.074." Dub. " Take of dried Sulphate of Iron a pound; Acetate of Lead ten ounces. Having rubbed them together, put them into a glass retort, and distil by means of a sand-bath, with a moderate heat, so long as any acid comes over." Ed. The London College has no formula for preparing acetic acid; but includes it among the articles of the Materia Medica, with the following explanatory remark. •" Acetic Acid distilled from wood, [and purified ?] the specific gravity of which is 1.046. One hundred grains of it will saturate eighty-seven grains of crystallized subcarbonate of soda." These processes are intended to furnish a strong acetic acid. The United States and Dublin formulae are similar, consisting in the decom- position of an acetate of soda or potassa by sulphuric acid. A sulphate of the alkali is formed, and the disengaged acetic acid distils over. The acetate of soda, however, is on several accounts the best salt for decom- position. Its advantages are, its uniform crystallized state, its giving rise to a residuary salt (sulphate of soda) easily washed out of the re- tort, and the abundance in which it can be obtained from the manu- facturers of pyroligneous acid. (See Sodae Acetas.) On the other hand acetate of potassa is a deliquescent salt, and, therefore, liable to contain a variable quantity of water, and to yield an acid of variable strength. Besides, the residue of the process (sulphate of potassa) is not so easi- ly removed from the retort. In cither process a small quantity of sul- phurous acid is apt to pass over with the acetic acid, which, however, may be freed from it by redistillation from a little acetate of lead. In the process of the Edinburgh College, a double decomposition at first takes place, resulting in the formation of sulphate of lead and acetate of iron. Subsequently the latter salt is decomposed, and yields its acetic 698 Acida. PART II. acid, which distils over; while the sulphate of lead mixed with the ox- ide of iron, remains in the retort. This College does not state the spe- cific gravity or saturating strength of its acid. The acid of the Lon- don College may be considered as obtained in the same way as that of the United States Pharmacopoeia. The acid intended to be designated by this College, is the purified acetic acid from wood; and this is made by converting the impure pyroligneous acid into a pure acetate of soda, and decomposing this by sulphuric acid. How the acetate of soda is thus formed, is explained under another head. (See Sodae Acetas.) Of the different officinal acids, the density of which has been specified, that of the Dublin College is the strongest, and that of the London weak- est The acid of the United States Pharmacopceia is intermediate in its strength. The Dublin acid, when properly prepared, is necessarily stronger than that of our national Pharmacopoeia; because acetate of « potassa contains but two, while acetate of soda embraces six equivalents of water; and it is from the water present in the acetate employed, to- gether with that present in the liquid sulphuric acid, that the acetic acid obtained, derives the water with which it may be diluted. Besides the methods above mentioned, there are others for procuring strong acetic acid. Thus it may be obtained from acetate of lead; and this, according to Berzelius, is the least expensive process that can be adopted. This method consists in distilling with a gentle heat, from a glass retort into a receiver, perfectly effloresced acetate of lead with three-tenths of its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, the materials being stirred immediately with a glass rod, in order that they may be thoroughly mixed. Acetic acid, obtained in this way, has always the odour of sulphurous acid, from which it may be freed by the addition of a small portion of peroxide (brown oxide) of lead. This converts the sulphurous into sulphuric acid, which immediately combines with the lead reduced to protoxide, and forms a sulphate, insoluble in the acetic acid. Another method for obtaining this acid, adopted in the Paris Codex, is by the destructive distillation of binacetate of copper (crystals of venus). The distillation must be performed in a stoneware retort, and is described in detail by Thenard. The water of crystallization of the salt being evaporated before the acid begins to rise, there is a de- ficiency of this liquid, necessary to hold the elements of the acetic acid together. Accordingly, a part of the acid is decomposed, being resolved into water, and a peculiar volatile compound called pyroacetic spirit, which gives to the acid product a peculiar fragrant smell. The sp. gr. of the acid thus obtained is 1.075. Both the methods for obtaining acetic acid last described, are liable to the objection that the acid pro- duced is apt to contain metallic matter; and hence the acid, when thus procured, is generally directed to be purified by a new distillation. But even after this step, some doubt may be entertained as to its entire safety for medicinal employment. Properties. The acetic acid of the Pharmacopoeias is a limpid and colourless liquid, possessing a very sour and acrid taste, and a fragrant pungent smell. It unites in all proportions with water, and dissolves to a certain extent in alcohol. It possesses the property of dissolving a number of substances, such as the volatile oils, camphor, gluten, resins and gum-resins, fibrin, albumen, &c. When well prepared, it should not form a precipitate with the soluble salts of baryta, and should evaporate completely in a glass or platinum capsule, without leaving any residue. The presence of copper, lead, or tin, may be detected by neutralizing the acid with ammonia, and testing successively with ferrocyanate of PART II. Acida. 699 potassa, sulphate of soda, and sulphuretted hydrogen, in the manner ex- plained under Acetum Destillatum. This acid consists of the strongest liquid acetic acid (radical vinegar) diluted with a variable quantity of water. The acid of the United States Pharmacopoeia contains about 50 per cent, of water of dilution; that of the Drtblin College, about 34 per cent. In this estimation, the water in a state of combination in the radical vinegar, and which is essential to its existence in the liquid state, is not included. Admitting 50 per cent, of water of dilution in the U.S. acid, it would contain 42.5 per cent, of absolute or dry acetic acid. Acetic acid as concentrated as possible, or radical vinegar, is a colour- less liquid at the temperature of 60°, possessing a strongly acid and cor- rosive taste, and an acid, pungent, and refreshing smell. At the tem- perature of 55° it becomes a crystalline solid. Its sp. gr. is 1.063. In the state here described, it consists of one equiv. of dry acid 51, and one equiv. of water 9=60. When diluted with water, its density increases until it reaches 1.079, when its sp. gr. is at a maximum, after which further dilution renders it lighter. This statement shows that specific gravity is not an accurate test of the strength of this acid; but as the or- dinary samples of the acid are not likely to be deficient in density from extreme concentration, they may without risk of error be estimated as stronger in proportion as this is greater. The best means, however, of determining the strength of the acid, is by ascertaining its saturating power; as this method is liable to no ambiguity. This acid is one of the few that volatilize without decomposition. Its boiling point is some- what higher than that of water. When boiled in open vessels, it takes fire and burns with a blue flame like alcohol. As it attracts humidity from the atmosphere, it should be preserved in well stopped bottles. Its combinations with salifiable bases are called acetates. It consists, as a dry acid, of three equivalents of hydrogen 3, four equiv. of carbon 24, and three equiv. of oxygen 24=51 (Prout.) Medical Properties and Uses. Acetic acid acts as a stimulant and rube- facient. Owing to its volatility and pungency, its vapour is frequently applied to the nostrils as an excitant in syncope, asphyxia, and headach. When employed in this manner, it is generally added to a small portion of sulphate of potassa, so as to moisten the latter, and the mixture is put in small glass bottles with ground stoppers. As a rubefacient it operates with considerable activity, producing burning heat and much redness and inflammation, which terminates by the peeling off of the cuticle. It is sometimes employed as a substitute for a blister, where the speedy production of a counter-irritant impression is desirable; as for example, in croup, sorethroat, and other cases of internal inflamma- tion. It may be applied by means of blotting paper or cambric moist- ened with the acid. It is also a good application to warts and corns, the vitality of which it frequently destroys. Off. Prep. Acidum Aceticum Camphoratum, Ed., Dub.; Acidum Aceticum Dilutum, U. S.; Morphiae Acetas, U. S. ACIDUM ACETICUM DILUTUM. U.S. Diluted Acetic Acid. "Take of Acetic Acid half a pint; Distilled Water five pints. Mix them." The acid resulting from the above formula is peculiar to the United States Pharmacopceia, but, unfortunately, precisely the same name by which it is designated is applied by the London College to distilled vin- egar. The object in view in having this preparation, is to possess a weak solution of pure acetic acid, which might be substituted for dis- 700 Adda. part ii. tilled vinegar in the preparation of all formulae in which nicety is an ob- ject Distilled vinegar contains a portion of mucilage, which is always darkened or precipitated when this acid is saturated with an alkali, an occurrence which cannot take place when the dilute acetic acid of our Pharmacopceia is employed. As the Acidum Aceticum (U.S. Pharm.) contains 42.5 per cent, of dry acid, it is easily determined by a calcula- tion that the Diluted Acetic Acid will contain 3.86 per cent, of the same acid, which is about the average strength of distilled vinegar as ascer- tained by Mr. Phillips. Off. Prep. Liquor Ammoniae Acetatis, U. S. ACIDUM BENZOICUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Bub. Benzoic Acid. " Take of Benzoin any quantity. Put the Benzoin into a glass vessel placed in a sand-bath; and with a heat of 300° gradually increased, sub- lime until nothing more ascends. Wrap the sublimed matter in bibulous paper, and press it, that it may be separated from the oily part; then again sublime with a heat not exceeding 400°." U. S. This process is identical with that of the London Pharmacopceia, from which it was adopted. The Edinburgh College gives the following. Two pounds of benzoin, previously triturated with eight ounces of carbonate of soda, are boiled in sixteen pounds of water, with constant agitation, for half an hour. The decoction is then strained; and the residue of the benzoin is boiled with other six pounds of water, which are also strained. The decoctions are mixed, and evaporated to two pounds. The remaining liquid is filtered, and diluted sulphuric acid dropped into it so long as any pre- cipitate is afforded. The precipitated benzoic acid is dissolved in boil- ing water; and the solution while still hot is strained through linen, and set aside to crystallize. The process is completed by washing the crystals with cold water, and drying them. According to the Dublin process, five parts of benzoin, triturated with one part of fresh quicklime, are boiled in one hundred and thirty parts of water for half an hour, the mixture being constantly stirred with a rod. After having cooled, the clear liquor is decanted, and the residue is boiled with seventy parts of water, which is also decanted when cold. The liquors having been mixed are evaporated to one-half, and one part of muriatic acid is gradually added. The precipitate produced is sepa- rated from the supernatant liquid, washed with a small quantity of cold water, dried with a gentle heat, and submitted to sublimation in a pro- per apparatus. Of the above processes, the first is most simple and easy. The acid, which exists in the benzoin combined with resin, is volatilized by the heat, and condensed in the upper part of the apparatus. Unless the tem- perature is very carefully regulated, a portion of the resin is decompos- ed, and an oily substance generated, which rises with the acid and gives it a brown colour, from which it cannot be entirely freed by bibulous paper; and this result sometimes takes place even with the greatest cau- tion. The process for subliming benzoic acid is usually conducted in a glazed earthen vessel, surmounted by a cone of paper, or by another vessel with a small opening at top, and a band of paper pasted round the place of junction. After the heat has been applied for an hour, the process should be suspended till the condensed acid is removed from the upper vessel or paper cone, when it may be renewed, and the acid again removed, and thus alternately till coloured vapours rise. The re- maining acid of the benzoin may be extracted if deemed advisable, by PART II. Adda. 701 treating the balsam with lime or carbonate of soda. From this mode of preparing benzoic acid it was formerly called flowers of benzoin. By the Edinburgh and Dublin processes, the acid is extracted from the benzoin by combining it with a salifiable base, and is subsequently precipitated by an acid. It is purified, in the one case, by dissolving it in boiling water, which throws it down upon cooling; in the other, by sublimation, which gives it the peculiar silky lustre which distinguishes it. The process of the Dublin College is essentially that of Scheele, the process of the Edinburgh College that of Gren. They both afford a purer product than that obtained by sublimation, but not preferable in a medicinal point of view, as the small quantity of oil present in the sub- limed acid adds to its stimulant properties, and at the same time ren- ders it pleasant to the smell. Several other modes of extracting the acid have been recommended by different chemists. The following is the process of Stolze. One part of the balsam is dissolved in three parts of alcohol, the solution filtered and introduced into a retort, and the acid saturated by carbonate of soda dissolved in a mixture of eight parts of water and three of alcohol. The alcohol is distilled off; and the benzoate of soda contained in the residuary liquid is decomposed by sulphuric acid, which precipitates the benzoic acid. This is purified by solution in boiling water, which lets fall the acid when it cools. By the above process Stolze obtained 18 per cent, of acid from ben- zoin containing 19.425 per cent. By the process of Scheele (that of the Dublin College) he obtained 13.5 per cent; by the agency of carbonate of soda, as in the Edinburgh process, 12 per cent; by sublimation only 7.6 per cent. Nevertheless Mr. Brande says that the last process is on the whole the most economical. According to this author, good benzoin affords by sublimation from 10 to 12 per cent, of the acid contaminated with empyreumatic oil, and about 9 per cent, of the purified acid. Properties.—Sublimed benzoic acid is in soft, white, feathery crystals, of a silky lustre, and not pulverulent. From solution the acid crystal- lizes in transparent prisms. When quite pure it is inodorous; but pre- pared by sublimation from the balsam, it has a peculiar agreeable aro- matic odour, dependent on the presence of an oil, which may be sepa- rated by dissolving the acid in alcohol, and precipitating it with water. Its taste is warm, acrid, and acidulous. It is unalterable in the air, but at 230° melts, and at a somewhat higher temperature rises in suffocating vapours. It is inflammable, burning without residue. It is very spar- ingly soluble in cold, but is dissolved by about twenty-four parts of boil- ing water. It is soluble in alcohol, and in concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids, from which it is precipitated by water. The fixed oils also dissolve it. Its solution reddens litmus paper, and it forms salts with salifiable bases; but its acid properties are not powerful. According to Berzelius it consists of 75.36 parts of carbon, 4.92 of hydrogen, and 19.72 of oxygen in the hundred. It is a characteristic constituent of the balsams, and has been found in various other vegetable, and in some animal products. Medical Properties and Uses.—Benzoic acid is stimulant, and has been thought to be expectorant; but is not now used internally except as a constituent of one or two officinal preparations. The dose is from 10 to 30 grains. It is an ingredient in some cosmetic washes, and has been employed by way of fumigation as a remedy in affections of the skin. Off. Prep. Tinctura Opii Ammoniata, i?d.; Tinctura Opii Camphorata, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. 702 Adda. PART II. ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM. U.S. Acidum Prussicum. Dub. Hydrocyanic Acid. Prussic Acid. " Take of Cyanuret of Mercury an ounce; Distilled Water eight fluid- ounces and a half; Carbonate of Lead a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Cyanuret of Mercury, with a gentle heat, in the Distilled Water; pass Hydrosulphuric Acid through the solution, in a proper vessel, till it is fully saturated ; then filter through paper. To the filtered liquor add a quantity of Carbonate of Lead more than sufficient to saturate any ex- cess of Hydrosulphuric Acid, and agitate them well together. Lastly, again filter through paper. " The Hydrocyanic Acid prepared by this process, is of the same density with that of Scheele. "Hydrosulphuric Acid is obtained from the Sulphuret of Iron, and Sulphuric Acid diluted with four times its weight of water." U.S. " Take of Cyanuret of Mercury an ounce; Muriatic Acid seven flui- drachms; Water eight fluidounces. Distil into a refrigerated receiver, eight fluidounces, to be kept in a well corked bottle, in a cool and dark place. The specific gravity of this acid is 0.998." Dub. Hydrocyanic or prussic acid was first brought into general notice as a remedy by Magendie in 1817. In the subsequent year, it was admitted as an officinal article in the Paris Codex; in 1820, in the first edition of the United States Pharmacopceia; and in 1826, in the revised edition of the Dublin Pharmacopceia. As yet it has not been recognised by the London or Edinburgh College. The process of the United States Pharmacopoeia of 1820 for obtaining this acid, was that of Scheele; but as this process produced an acid of variable strength, it was thought advisable, in the revision of 1830, to substitute the process of Proust, (generally attributed to Vauquelin,) as laid down in the Paris Codex. By this process the cyanuret (bicyanu- ret) of mercury, in solution of definite strength, is decomposed by a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas (sulphuretted hydrogen.) The pro- portions for mutual decomposition, are one equiv. of the bicyanuret, and two equiv. of hydrosulphuric acid. Two equiv. of hydrogen from the acid, combine with the two equiv. of cyanogen in the bicyanuret, forming two equiv. of hydrocyanic acid which dissolve in the water; while the two equiv. of sulphur form with the one equiv. of mercury, one equiv. of bisulphuret of mercury (cinnabar,) which precipitates. Filtration would now complete the process, were it not that the filtered solution is apt to retain a little hydrosulphuric acid. To remove this, an excess of carbonate of lead is added, which converts it into insoluble sulphuret of lead. By a new filtration, the sulphuret, as well as any su- perabundant carbonate of lead, is removed, and the clear liquor con- tains nothing but hydrocyanic acid dissolved in water. The Dublin process is that of Gay-Lussac, with the use of a certain amount of water of dilution. The rationale is precisely similar to that just given, the chlorine of the muriatic acid in this process performing exactly the same part as the sulphur in the other. Consequently the residue here is the deutochloride of mercury, or corrosive sublimate. The Dublin College uses a little more than the equivalent quantity of muriatic acid, to ensure the perfect decomposition of the bicyanuret. The process adopted in the United States Pharmacopoeia is prefera- ble to that of the Dublin College, on account of its greater facility and productiveness. The acid obtained is stated to be equivalent in strength to that obtained by Scheele's process; but this statement is "not very de- finite, as we have already mentioned that Scheele's process gives an acid PART II. Adda. 703 of variable strength. To remove uncertainty, we have had the process of the United States Pharmacopceia repeated, and the acid obtained is found to have the sp. gr. of 0.996. The Dublin acid has the density of 0.998. That made at Apothecaries' Hall, London, weighs 0.995. The process pursued at this establishment is to put a pound of bicyanuret of mercury into a tubulated retort with six pints of water, and one pound of muriatic acid of the sp. gr. 1.15. A capacious retort is luted on and six pints are distilled over. The Paris Codex gives three processes for obtaining hydrocyanic acid; namely, Proust's (Vauquelin's), Robiquet's, and Scheele's. The first of these is that adopted in the United States Pharmacopceia, and has already been explained. The second is essentially the same as that of the Dublin College, differing only in the details. The first step of it is to distil the bicyanuret with strong muriatic acid, whereby the con- centrated acid of Gay-Lussac, weighing 0.700, is obtained, which is then mixed with twice* its weight of distilled water. Thus diluted, it has the sp. gr. 0.900. Scheele's process, as given in the Codex, is as fol- lows:—128 parts of ferrocyanate of iron (Prussian blue) and 64 parts of red oxide of mercury are boiled in 500 parts of distilled water for fifteen minutes, the mixture being constantly stirred. The whole is then filter- ed, and the insoluble residue washed with 128 parts of boiling distilled water. The filtered liquors are then mixed, and to these are added, 96 parts of finely levigated iron filings, and 24 parts of sulphuric acid, pre- viously diluted with 24 parts of distilled water. The whole is stirred, and afterwards allowed to remain at rest for an hour, (the vessel being immersed in cold water,) in order that the insoluble matter may subside. The clear solution is then subjected to distillation, and 192 parts drawn off. The distilled product is next mixed with 8 parts of carbonate of lime, and redistilled, 128 parts only being drawn off. In this process, the boiling together of Prussian blue and peroxide of mercury generates the bicyanuret of mercury. (See Hydrargyri Cyanuretum.) When this solution is mixed with diluted sulphuric acid and iron filings, water is decomposed; its oxygen converts the iron into protoxide, which com- bines with the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of iron, while its hydro- gen combining with the cyanogen, generates hydrocyanic acid. In the meantime the mercury is thrown down in the metallic state. The clear solution, therefore, contains sulphate of iron and hydrocyanic acid, the latter of which alone comes over, when the liquid is distilled. The ob- ject of the second distillation from chalk, is to free the acid from colour. * The Paris Codex says an equal weight of distilled water; but this is an error, as Robiquet's formula directed Gay-Lussac's acid to be diluted with twice its weight of water. But even when diluted to this extent, the acid is much stronger than it would be safe to use as a medicine. Gay-Lussac's acid being anhydrous, the acid pro- posed by Robiquet would contain thirty-three and one third per cent, of real acid ! The acid obtained by the use of sulphuretted hydrogen in the Codex, is much weaker than Robiquet's; but is nevertheless alleged to be of the same strength. The apothecaries of Paris, aware of the dangerous strength of the acid of the Codex (Robiquet's,) are in the habit of putting up in prescriptions, an acid prepared with one part of Gay-Lussac's acid to forty parts of water, which gives a preparation containing 2.4 per cent, of real acid. On account of the difference in strength of different samples of medicinal hydro- cyanic acid and its liability to decomposition, Messrs. Robiquet and Villerme have pro- posed to substitute for it the cyanuret of potassium, which is a permanent compound, not liable to change. It is made by exposing ferrocyanate of potassa to a long continued red heat in a crucible; whereby the ferrocyanic acid is decomposed, and a dark mass remains, consisting of cyanuret of potassium mixed with charcoal and iron. From this mass the cyanuret may be dissolved, and the solution, when evaporated to dryness, furnishes the substance in the solid state. 704 Adda. part ii. The processes above given are intended to furnish a dilute or medi- cinal hydrocyanic acid. The methods of obtaining the anhydrous or pure acid are somewhat different. Vauquelin's process is to pass a cur- rent of hydrosulphuric acid gas over the bicyanuret of mercury contain- ed in a glass tube, connected with a refrigerated receiver. The first third of the tube only is filled with the bicyanuret; the remaining two- thirds being filled, half with carbonate of lead, and half with chloride of calcium. This process is precisely similar to Proust's, only perform- ed in the dry way. The hydrocyanic acid being generated in the first third of the tube, is driven forward, by a gentle heat, into the refrigerat- ed receiver. By passing through the carbonate of lead and chloride of calcium, it is successively freed from any traces of hydrosulphuric acid or of water which it might contain. Gay-Lussac's process, already allud- ed to, consists in distilling the bicyanuret with strong muriatic acid into a refrigerated receiver. Between the retort and receiver is interposed a tube filled, one half with fragments of marble and the rest with chloride of calcium. The distilled acid, by passing through these, is purified from muriatic acid and water, and condenses in the cooled receiver in the anhydrous state. The rationale of this process has already been given. The residue in the retort is of course corrosive sublimate. An- other process for the anhydrous acid, less expensive than the above, is that of Gautier, the details of which are thus given by Berzelius. The ferrocyanate of potassa is fused without access of air; whereby it is con- verted into a mixture of cyanuret of potassium and carburet of iron. The mass obtained is pulverised and placed in a flask, slightly moisten- ed with water, and acted on with muriatic acid, added by small portions at a time. The flask is then plunged into hot water, which causes the hydrocyanic acid to be disengaged in the, form of vapours. This is pass- ed through a tube containing chloride of calcium, and finally received in a small flask, kept cold by a freezing mixture, where it is condensed. Berzelius inclines to give the preference to this process over all others for obtaining the anhydrous acid; as the salt employed is cheap, and as the temperature of the hot water, while it is competent to volatilize the hydrocyanic acid, is not sufficient to drive over any muriatic acid. Properties of the Medicinal Acid.—Hydrocyanic acid, in the dilute state in which it is used in medicine, is a transparent, colourless, somewhat volatile liquid, possessing a taste at first cooling, afterwards somewhat irritating, and a smell resembling that of bitter almonds. It is liable to undergo decomposition if exposed to the light; but is easily kept if the bottle containing it is covered with black paint, or black paper. Its most usual impurities are sulphuric and muriatic acids; the former of which may be detected by evaporating a small portion of the suspected acid, when this impurity will remain; and the latter by saturating with ammonia, and exposing the liquid to a temperature not exceeding 212°, when the hydrocyanate of ammonia will be dissipated, and muriate of ammonia left. It is incompatible in prescriptions with nitrate of silver, the salts of iron and copper, and most of the salts of mercury. The medicinal acid is of different strengths, as ordered by different pharma- ceutical authorities; its particular strength being denoted by the specific gravity, which is always lower in proportion as it is stronger. The tak- ing of the specific gravity, however, is not a mode of determining the strength, which is convenient for the majority of apothecaries; as slight differences in density indicate very material differences in strength. It is on this account that Dr. Ure has proposed another method, which consists in ascertaining the quantity of red oxide of mercury which a TART II. Adda. 705 given weight of the acid will dissolve. In applying this test, any conve- nient weight of the acid, for example one hundred grains, are to be taken, and forty or fifty grains of the mercurial oxide, well pulverised and dried, arc weighed out. The latter is then to be added to the former, by small portions at a time, as long as it is dissolved; the solution being assisted by agitation. What remains of the oxide unexpended, deducted from the whole quantity weighed out, will give the portion dissolved. The equiva- lent quantities of oxide and acid for mutual decomposition, are one equiv. of the former 216, and two equiv. of the latter 54; as these pro- portions contain the proper quantities of mercury and cyanogen to form a bicyanuret. Consequently, the oxide dissolved will be to the anhydrous acid present, as 216 to 54, or, which is the same thing, as 4 to 1. Hence we have the simple rule of dividing the weight of oxide dissolved by 4, and the quotient will represent the quantity of anhydrous acid pre- sent. The strength of the medicinal acid may also be ascertained by nitrate of silver, "which forms a precipitate, every 136 parts of which indicate 27 of real acid. Both these tests, however, arc inapplicable, if the hydrocyanic acid contains muriatic acid. The strength of the dif- ferent medicinal acids, expressed by indicating the percentage of anhy- drous acid, varies considerably. Thus the acid of the United States Pharmacopoeia, assuming its sp. gr. at 0.996, contains 2.5 per cent, of real acid; that of Apothecaries'Hall 3.2 per cent; while that of the Dublin College contains only 1.6 per cent. Properties of the Anhydrous Acid.—Hydrocyanic acid, perfectly free from water, is a colourless, transparent, inflammable liquid, of extreme volatility, boiling at 80°, and congealing at 5°. Its sp. gr. as a liquid is 0.6969, at the temperature of 64°; and as a vapour 0.9476. Its taste is at first cooling, afterwards burning, with an after-taste in the throat like that of bitter almonds; but from its extremely poisonous nature, it must be tasted with the utmost caution. Its odour is so strong as to produce immediate headach and giddiness. Both water and alcohol dissolve it readily. It is much more prone to undergo decomposition than the dilute acid. In the course of a few hours it sometimes begins to assume a reddish-brown colour, which becomes gradually deeper, till at length the acid is converted into a black liquid, which exhales a strong smell of ammonia. It is a very weak acid in its chemical relations, and red- dens litmus but slightly. With salifiable bases it forms salts called hy- drocyanates, which are very liable to undergo decomposition. Though usually a product of art, it exists in nature in the cherry-laurel, bitter almond, bird-cherry, peach, and some other plants. Composition, fyc.—Hydrocyanic acid consists of one equiv. of cyanogen it), and one equiv. of hydrogen 1=27; or in volumes, of one volume of cyanogen and one volume of hydrogen without condensation. Cyanogen is a colourless gas, of a strong and penetrating smell, inflammable, and burning with a beautiful bluish-purple flame. Its sp. gr. is 1.805. It was discovered in 1815, by Gay-Lussac, who considers it a compound radical, which, when acidified by hydrogen, becomes hydrocyanic acid. it consists of two equiv. of carbon 12, and one equiv. of nitrogen 14=26; or in volumes, of two volumes of the vapour of carbon, and one volume of nitrogen, condensed into one volume. The ultimate constituents of hydrocyanic acid arc, therciore, two equiv. of carbon 12, one equiv, of nitrogen 14, and one equiv. of hydrogen 1. Hydrocyanic acid, in a dilute state, was discovered in 1780 by Scheele, who correctly stated its constituents to be carbon, nitrogen, and hydro- gen; but the peculiar nay in which these are combined was first demon- 89 706 Acida. PART II. strated by Gay-Lussac, by whom also the anhydrous acid was first ob- tained. Medical and Toxicological Properties.—Hydrocyanic acid is the mos.t deadly poison known, proving, in many cases, almost instantaneously fatal. A drop or two of the pure acid are sufficient to kill a vigorous dog in a few seconds. After death no trace of irritability can be detect- ed in the muscles. Notwithstanding its tremendous energy as a poison, it has been ventured upon in a dilute state as a medicine. Though occa- sionally resorted to as a remedy previously to 1817, it did not attract general attention until that year, when Magendie published his observa- tions on its use in diseases of the chest, and recommended its employ- ment to the profession. Its medical virtues are those of a powerful sedative, and, accordingly, it has been used in diseases attended with irritation and pain. It has been most highly recommended, and most extensively used, in complaints of the respiratory organs. It is supposed to exert a control over pulmonary inflammation, after the first edge of excitement has been taken off by blood-letting, and no doubt, in many Instances, has been found beneficial under such circumstances. In tu- berculous phthisis, though at one time boasted of as a remedy, it has no power whatever, except as a palliative for the cough. In the various affections of the chest, however, attended with dyspnoea or cough, such as asthma, hooping cough, and chronic catarrh, its use has often been decidedly beneficial, by allaying irritation or relaxing spasm. In hyper- trophy of the heart, and aneurism of the aorta, it has also been used with advantage. In various affections of the stomach, attended with pain and imperfect digestion, hydrocyanic acid, conjoined with tonics, has proved beneficial in the hands of some practitioners. Sometimes it is used externally, diluted with water, as a wash in cutaneous diseases. Dr. A. T. Thomson insists particularly on its efficacy, as the result of his personal experience, in allaying the itching and tingling in impetiginous affections. The dose of medicinal hydrocyanic acid is from one to six or eight drops dissolved in distilled water, or rubbed up with mucilage of gum Arabic or almond emulsion. It requires to be administered with the greatest caution, on account of the minuteness of the dose, and the great variableness in strength of the acid as found in the shops. The proper plan, therefore, is to begin with a small dose, one drop for ex- ample, and gradually increase the dose, until some obvious impression is produced. If giddiness, weight at the top of the head, sense of tight- ness of the stomach, or faintness, come on, its use should be discon- tinued. In all cases in which a fresh portion of medicine is used, the dose should be lowered to the minimum, for fear the new sample might prove stronger than that previously employed. When resorted to as a lotion, from thirty minims to a fluidrachm may be mixed with a fluid- ounce of distilled water. Hydrocyanic acid is so rapidly fatal as a poison, that physicians have very seldom to treat its effects. When not immediately fatal, the symp- toms produced are sudden loss of sense, trismus, difficult and rattling respiration, coldness of the extremities, a smell of bitter almonds pro- ceeding from the mouth, smallness of the pulse, swelling of the neck, dilatation and immobility of the pupil, convulsions, &c. The first mea- sure to be taken in the treatment is the administration of a strong emetic, if the practitioner be called immediately, otherwise a purgative enema. Next frictions with tincture of cantharides and ammonia, sinapisms to the feet, and mucilaginous drinks, are to be employed. In case of cere- PART II. Adda. 707 bral congestion, bleeding from the jugular, or leeching behind the ears, will be proper. As a stimulant, a teaspoonful of oil of turpentine may be given from time to time with advantage. Diluted water of ammonia, mentioned by some authorities as an antidote, is not, according to Orfila, entitled to that appellation. Berzelius, however, considers it the best counterpoison which can be used against this acid. After death from suspected poison, it is sometimes necessary, in medico-legal investigations, to ascertain whether the event was caused by this acid. Lassaigne has indicated, as a very delicate test, the use of sulphate of copper. The stomach is cut up, and, with its contents, mix- ed with a small quantity of water, and the mixture submitted to distil- lation. When about an eighth of the water has come over, a drop of caustic potassa is added to it, and immediately afterwards, a small quantity of the sulphate of copper. The alkali will cause a precipitate of peroxide of copper; but if hydrocyanic acid be present, a cyanuret of copper will also be formed. To ascertain the presence of the latter, a drop or two of muriatic acid are added, which will dissolve the per- oxide of copper, and leave the cyanuret diffused through the liquid, so as to give it a milky appearance. ACIDUM MURIATICUM DILUTUM. Dub. Diluted Muri- atic Acid. "Take of Muriatic Acid, by measure, ten parts. Distilled Water, by measure, eleven parts. Mix. The specific gravity of this acid is 1.080." Dub. This preparation, which is peculiar to the Dublin College, contains about sixteen per cent, of real acid. It is more convenient for exhibition than the strong acid; and its introduction may, therefore, be viewed as an improvement. For an account of its medical properties the reader is referred to the article Acidum Muriaticum. Its dose is from ten to fifty drops, mixed with water or any other convenient vehicle. It is employ- ed by the Dublin College in the preparation of the Calcis Phosphas Prae- cipitatum. ACIDUM NITRICUM DILUTUM. Lond., Bub. Acidum Ni- trosum Dilutum. Ed. Diluted Nitric Acid. "Take of Nitric Acid a fluidounce; Distilled Water nine fluidounces. Mix." Lond. " Take of Nitric Acid, by measure, three parts; Distilled Water, by measure, four parts. Mix, avoiding the noxious vapours. The specific gravity of this acid is 1.280." Dub. " Take of Nitrous Acid and of Water equal weights. Mix them, tak- ing care to avoid the noxious vapours." Ed. These formulae are intended to furnish a nitric acid of convenient strength for medical use. The U.S. Pharmacopceia has no correspond- ing preparation. The British Colleges do not agree in the strength which they direct for it. The acid of the London College contains 14.2 per cent of strong nitric acid, and has a sp. gr. of 1.08; that of the Dublin College contains nearly 48 per cent, and that of the Edinburgh, 50 per cent. The acid, therefore, of the Dublin and Edin- burgh Colleges is more than three times as strong as that of the London Pharmacopoeia. These discrepancies are to be regretted; but we incline to the opinion that the strength of the London acid is the most conve- nient The formula of the Edinburgh College would seem to give a di- luted nitrous, instead of nitric acid; but the fact is, that the nitric 708 Acida. part n. oxide, the presence of which forms the essential character of the phar- maceutical nitrous acid, is extricated during the dilution. The medical properties of the diluted acid are the same as those of the strong acid. (See Acidum Nitricum.) The dose of the London acid is from twenty to forty drops three times a day; that of the other Col- leges, one-third this quantity. It is employed pharmaceutically by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges in preparing the nitrate of silver, sub- nitrate of bismuth, red precipitate, acetate of mercury, and precipitated calomel. ACIDUM NITRO-MURIATICUM. Bub. Nitro-Muriatic Acid. "Take of Nitric Acid, by measure, one part; Muriatic Acid, by mea- sure, two parts. Mix the Acids in a refrigerated bottle, and keep the mixture in a cool and dark place." Dub. This is the aqua regia of the earlier chemists, so called from its pro- perty of dissolving gold. The nitric and muriatic acids, when mixed together, mutually decompose each other. The hydrogen of the mu- riatic acid forms water with one equiv. of oxygen of the nitric acid, which consequently becomes reduced to the state of nitrous acid, and chlorine is set free. The preparation, therefore, after the reaction has taken place, consists of a solution of nitrous acid and chlorine in water. It has a golden-yellow colour, and emits the smell of chlorine. It re- quires to be kept ina cooLdark place, on account of its liability to lose its chlorine by heat, or to have it converted, by the action of light, into muriatic acid, in consequence of the decomposition .of water. The nitric and muriatic acids, as kept in the shops, are sometimes so weak, that when mixed they will not react on each other. Under these circumstances, the addition of a little sulphuric acid, by concentrating the others, pro- duces an immediate action, accompanied with the evolution of chlorine. Medical Properties and Uses.—Nitro-muriatic acid has been introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, probably on account of the favourable report of its efficacy as an external remedy in hepatitis, made by Dr. Scott of Bombay. When thus employed, it produces a tingling sensa- tion in the skin, thirst, and a peculiar taste in the mouth; and at the same time stimulates the liver, as is evinced by an increased flow of bile. It is used either by sponging, or in the form of bath. When ap- plied in the former way, the acid is first diluted so as to have the acidity of strong vinegar. When used as a. bath, three gallons of water contain- ed in a narrow tub, may be acidulated with six fluidounces of the acid. In this the feet and legs are to be immersed for twenty minutes or half an hour. The bath may be employed at first daily, and afterwards thrice or twice a week; and the sponging may be used at the same time. This acid may be used also; internally. The dose in this case is two or three drops, sufficiently diliited with water. ACIDUM SUCCINICUM. Ed., Bub. Succinic Acid. "Take of Amber reduced to powder, and of Sand, equal parts. Mix them, and put the mixture in a glass retort, of such a size as to be only half filled by it. Then adapt a receiver, and distil, by means of a sand- bath, with a fire gradually increased. At first a watery liquor will come over, with a little yellow oil; then a yellow oil with an acid salt; and lastly, a reddish and black oil. Pour the liquor out of the receiver, and separate the oil from the water. Press the Succinic Acid, collected from the neck of the retort and sides of the receiver, between folds of blotting paper, to free it from adhering oil; then purify it by solution in warm water, and crystallization." Ed. part ii. Adda. 709 "Take of Amber reduced to coarse powder, and of pure Sand, each one part. On the application of heat gradually increased, an acid liquor, an oil, and the acid in the crystallized form will distil over. The latter should be received on bibulous paper, and exposed to a strong pressure to expel the oil, and again sublimed. By filtration through bibulous pa- per, the oil may be obtained separate from the acid liquor." Dub. The above formulae have for their object to obtain the oil of amber, as well as succinic acid; but our remarks will be confined in this place, to the acid, the oil being described under another head. (See Oleum Succi- ni.) Amber contains succinic acid united with a peculiar oily matter. When distilled, it swells considerably, and a slightly coloured liquid first comes over; after which the succinic acid sublimes, and condenses in needles in the neck of the retort and on the sides of the receiver. At last the matter suddenly ceases to swell, and the process is finished; for after this time, very little succinic acid is disengaged, but a thick and dark-coloured oil rises, which renders the acid impure. The Colleges direct the admixture of sand, to prevent the inconvenience of the amber swelling too much by the heat. Several processes have been proposed to purify succinic acid. The best is that of Morveau, which consists in dissolving the acid in twice its weight of nitric acid, and evaporating the solution to dryness. In this way the^sil is decomposed, while the succinic acid remains unalter- ed. This is then washed in,a little ice-cold water, next dissolved in boiling water, and crystallized. - Properties.—Succinic acid, when pure, is a white, transparent solid, crystallized in prisms, and having a somewhat acrid taste. It reddens litmus strongly. Exposed to heat it melts, and above the boiling point of water, is partly sublimed and partly decomposed. It dissolves in five times its weight of cold, and twice its weight of boiling water. It is soluble also in cold alcohol, and much more so in boiling alcohol. It consists of two equiv. of hydrogen 2, four equiv. of carbon 24, and three equiv. of oxygen 24=50. It differs, therefore, from acetic acid, only in containing one equiv. less of hydrogen. Succinic acid is at present never used in medicine, and ought to be expunged from the Pharmacopoeias. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM AROMATICUM. U.S., Ed., Dub. Aromatic Sulphuric Acid. Elixir of ^Vitriol. " Take of Sulphuric Acid three fluidounces and a half; Ginger, bruised, an ounce; Cinnamon, bruised, an ounce and a half; Alcohol two pints. Drop the Acid gradually into the Alcohol, and digest in a close vessel for three days; then add the Ginger and Cinnamon, and macerate for a~ week; lastly, filter through paper." U.S. "Take of Stronger Alcohol two pounds [Rectified Spirit two pints, Dub.~\; Sulphuric Acid six ounces. Add the Acid gradually to the Alco- hol. Digest the mixture with a very gentle heat, in a covered vessel, for three days, and then add Cinnamon Bark, bruised, an ounce and a half; Ginger Root, bruised, an ounce. Digest again in a covered vessel for six days, and then filter throughpaper placed in a glass funnel." Ed. This valuable preparation, cbrgmpnly called elixir of vitriol, is a sim- plification of the acid elixir of IN|ftisicht, and was adopted from the Ed- inburgh College, in the first Unffed!|States Pharmacopoeia, and after- wards by the Dublin College, in Iheir revised edition of 1826. The only change in the Edinburgh formula, made by the United States Conven- tion, was in the substitution of the nearest equivalent measures for the 710 Adda. part ii. weights of the liquid ingredients. In the Edinburgh directions, the acid is to the alcohol in weight as 1 to 4; and in the United States Pharma- copoeia (the measures being turned into weights) as 1 to 4.15, which is a sufficiently near coincidence for all practical purposes. The Dublin College has adopted the Edinburgh formula throughout, with the excep- tion of substituting two pints of alcohol for two pounds; a change which renders the preparation considerably weaker in acid, as two pints of al- cohol weigh more than two pounds. Properties.—Aromatic sulphuric acid is a reddish-brown liquid, of a peculiar aromatic odour, and, when sufficiently diluted, of a grateful acid taste. It has been supposed by some to be a kind of ether, its main in- gredients justifying such a suspicion; but Dr. Duncan, who originally held this opinion, has satisfied himself that the alcohol and sulphuric acid, in the proportions here employed, do not produce, by their mutual reaction, a single particle of ether. It must, therefore, be viewed merely as sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol, and containing the essential oils of ginger and cinnamon. Medical Properties and Uses.—It is tonic and astringent, and affords the most agreeable mode of administering sulphuric acid. It is very much employed in debility with night sweats, and in loss of appetite, as in the convalescence from fevers, especially those of the intermittent type. It is often given in conjunction with cinchona, the taste of which it serves to cover, and by increasing the solubility of the febrifuge prin- ciples,of the bark, appears to increase its efficacy. In haemoptysis and other hemorrhages, when not attended with obvious inflammation, it frequently proves useful in stopping the flow of blood. The dose is from ten to thirty drops in a wineglassful of water, repeated two or three times a day. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Diluted Sulphuric Acid. " Take of Sulphuric Acid a fluidounce; Water thirteen fluidounces. Add the Acid gradually to the Water in a glass vessel, and mix them." U.S. "Take of Sulphuric Acid a fluidounce and a half; Distilled Water fourteen fluidounces and a half. Add the Acid gradually to the Water, and mix them." Lond. " Take of Sulphuric Acid one part; Water seven parts. Mix them." Ed. "Take of Pure Sulphuric Acid one part; Distilled Water seven parts. Gradually add the Acid to the Water. The specific gravity of this acid is 1.084." Dub. This preparation is sulphuric acid diluted to such an extent as to make it convenient for medical use. The Edinburgh and Dublin Col- leges agree in making the strong acid one-eighth part of the mixture; and in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, these proportions are followed, as nearly as they can be approached in measures. The exact proportions of these Colleges, expressed in measures, would be 1 fluidounce of acid to 12.9 fluidounces of water, which is sufficiently near the proportion of 1 to 13, to justify the adoption of the latter [lumbers. There is accordingly a virtual agreement in the strength,oP"the acid, by the three processes just mentioned; but unfortunately!thef'formula of the London College gives an acid considerably stronOTrJThe coincident processes afford an acid containing between 12 andlfper cent of the strong liquid acid ; while the London acid contains 16 per cent The strong acid is added PART II. Adda. 711 gradually to the water, to guard against the too sudden production of heat, which might endanger the fracture of the vessel. During the dilu- tion, when commercial sulphuric acid is used, the liquid becomes slight- ly turbid, and in the course of a few days deposites a grayish-white pow- der, which is sulphate of lead, an impurity in the strong acid, not solu- ble in it after considerable dilution. This noxious salt is thus got rid of, but sulphate of potassa, another impurity in the strong acid, remains still in solution. To avoid these impurities, the Dublin College directs pure sulphuric acid and distilled water. This, however, would seem to be a useless refinement, as the sulphate of lead of the commercial acid :s pre- cipitated by dilution, as above explained, and the presence of the sul- phate of potassa can do no harm. Medical Properties and Uses.—Diluted Sulphuric Acid is tonic, re- frigerant, and astringent. It is given in low typhoid fevers, and often with advantage. In the convalescence from protracted fevers, it often acts beneficially as a tonic, exciting the appetite and promoting digestion. As an astringent, it is employed in colliquative sweats, passive hemor- rhages, and diarrhoeas dependent on a relaxed state of the mucous mem- brane of the intestines. Externally, it is used as an ingredient in gargles for ulcerated sore throat and for checking excessive ptyalism, and as a wash for cutaneous eruptions and ill-conditioned ulcers. The close is from ten to thirty drops three times a day, in a wineglass or two of plain or sweetened water." It is occasionally given in infusions of cinchona and other bitters. As it is apt to injure the teeth, it is best taken by sucking it through a quill. It is much less used in the United States than the elixir of vitriol, which possesses nearly the same medical properties. (See Acidum Sulphuricum and Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum.) This acid is'employed as a chemical agent in the preparation of the benzoic and citric acids, and of the precipitated sulphuret of antimony. Off. Prep. Infusum Rosae Compositum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mor- phiae Sulphas, U.S.; Quininae Sulphas, Dub. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM PURUM. Dub. Pure Sulphuric Acid. " Take of Commercial Sulphuric Acid a pound. Put the acid into a retort of flint glass, attach a receiver of the same kind, and with the junctures of the vessels left open, let heat be applied to the retort until one-twelfth part of the liquor shall have distilled over: this, as it con- tains water, should be rejected. The receiver being again applied, the residuum is to be distilled to dryness. A few slips of platinum put into the acid in the retort, will restrain the ebullition, which otherwise would be too violent. The specific gravity of this acid is 1.845. Let the acid be kept in well closed vessels." Dub. The object of this process is to obtain a pure sulphuric acid. The commercial acid contains the sulphates of lead and potassa, amounting not unfrequently to three or four per cent; and these salts, not being volatile, are effectually got rid of by distillation. The explanation of the several steps of the process for distilling this acid has been given under the head of Acidum Sulphuricum, p. 44, and need not be repeated here. This preparation is peculiar to the Dublin College, and has been adopted in the late revision of their Pharmacopceia, to avoid the risk of introducing sulphate of lead into the preparations of sulphuric acid. But this acid is never used in a concentrated form; and in the dilute state in which it is employed, it always lets fall this metallic salt. Ad- mitting, however, that there is some danger of metallic impurity from 712 Acida. —AUtherea. part n. using the commercial acid, the Dublin College have committed the double error of omitting to use their pure acid, where on their prin- ciples it is necessary, and of employing it in formulae in which it is not needed. The only officinal preparation of the pure acid is the Diluted Sulphuric Acid; but it would seem equally required in the elixir of vitriol, where the commercial acid is directed. On the other hand, the diluted sulphuric acid is employed uselessly in the processes for citric acid and the precipitated sulphuret of antimony, in the formulae for which it merely acts as a chemical agent. Off. Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum, Dub. ^THEREA. Ethers. Ethers are peculiar, fragrant, sweetish, very volatile, and inflammable liquids, generated by the action of acids on alcohol. Their composition varies with the acid employed in their formation. Sometimes this merely acts on the alcohol as a chemical agent, without entering into the com- position of the ether generated; in which case the ether consists of hy- drogen, carbon, and oxygen. In other instances the acid-employed unites with the alcohol unchanged, or with olefiant gas resulting from its de- composition. On the basis of these differences of composition, ethers are divided into three kinds: 1. those consisting of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen; 2. those consisting of an acid and alcohol; and 3. those composed of an acid and olefiant gas. Sulphuric ether is an example of the first kind, nitric ether of the second, and muriatic ether of the third. In medicine, the sulphuric and nitric ethers, and their modifica- tions, are those most commonly employed; though occasionally the acetic and muriatic ethers are prescribed. Ethers, from their extreme inflammability, ought never to be decant- ed in the vicinity of flame. Hence it is prudent not to pour them out near to a lighted candle. They should be kept in accurately stopped bottles, in a cool place; otherwise they are liable to considerable loss by evaporation. JET-HER SULPHURICUS. U.S., Lond. Liquor JSthbreus Sulphuricus. Bub. Sulphuric Ether. " Take of Alcohol two pounds and a half; Sulphuric Acid a pound and a half. Pour a pound and a half, of the Alcohol into a glass retort, and gradually add the Acid, shaking them frequently, and taking care that the temperature, during the mixture, do not exceed one hundred and twenty degrees. Place the retort very cautiously in a sand-bath, pre- viously heated to two hundred degrees, so that the liquor may boil as speedily as possible, and the ether may pass over into a tubulated re- ceiver, to which another receiver, kept cold by ice or water, is adapted. Distil the liquor until a heavier portion begins to pass over, and appears under the ether at the bottom of the receiver. To the liquor which re- mains in the retort, add the residue of the Alcohol, and repeat the dis- tillation in the same manner." U.S. The process of the London College is essentially the same with the above, which was copied from it, with slight alterations of phraseology to adapt it to the plan of the United States Pharmacopoeia. " Take of Rectified Spirit and of Sulphuric Acid, each, thirty-two ounces part ir. AZtherea. 713 by weight. Pour the Spirit into a glass retort adapted to bearing a sud- den heat, and then pour on the acid in a continued stream; mix them gradually, and let twenty fluidounces of the liquor be distilled, with a sudden and sufficiently strong heat, into a receiver kept cold. If sixteen ounces of rectified spirit be poured upon the acid remaining in the retort, sulphuric ethereal liquor will again come over by distillation." Dub. The preparation obtained by these processes is sulphuric ether con- taminated with alcohol, water, sulphurous acid, and the oil of wine. In this state it is proper only for external use. For internal exhibition it is freed from these impurities, and then constitutes a distinct preparation, called Rectified Sulphuric Ether. This is described in the next article, in which the properties and composition of sulphuric ether, and the theory of its formation, will be given. Off. Prep. jEther Sulphuricus Rectificatus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. iETHER SULPHURICUS RECTIFICATUS. U.S. .Ether Rectificatus. Lond.; jEther Sulphuricus. Ed., Bub. Rectified Sulphuric Ether. "Take of Sulphuric Ether fourteen fluidounces; Potassa half an ounce; Distilled Water eleven fluidounces. Dissolve the Potassa in two fluid- ounces of the Water, and add the Ether to the solution, shaking them well till they are mixed; then, at a heat of about one hundred and twenty degrees, distil from a large retort into a cooled receiver twelve fluid- ounces of Rectified Ether. Shake the distilled liquor with nine fluid- ounces of the Water, and set them by that the Water may subside. Lastly, pour off the supernatant Rectified Ether, and preserve it in a well stopped bottle." U.S., Lond. " Take of Sulphuric Acid, and of Stronger Alcohol, each, thirty-two ounces. Pour the Alcohol into a glass retort capable of sustaining a sud- den heat, and add to it the acid in an uninterrupted stream. Mix them by degrees, shaking them gently and frequently, and instantly distil from sand, previously heated for the purpose, into a receiver kept cool with water or snow. The heat must likewise be so managed, that the liquor shall boil as soon as possible, and continue to boil till sixteen ounces are drawn off, when the retort is to be removed from the sand. To the distilled liquor add two drachms of potassa, and distil from a very high retort, with a very gentle heat, into a cool receiver, until ten ounces have been drawn off. If sixteen ounces of Stronger Alcohol be poured upon the acid remaining in the retort after the first distillation, and the distillation be repeated, more ether will be obtained; and this may be repeated several times." Ed. " Take of Sulphuric Ethereal Liquor twenty fluidounces; Carbonate of Potassa, dried and powdered, two drachms. Mix them, and from a very high retort, distil, by a very gentle heat, twelve fluidounces into a receiver kept cold. The specific gravity of the liquor should be 0.765." Dub. The object of these processes is to obtain a pure sulphuric ether. The first and third formulae are intended to purify the unrectified sulphuric ether, which is officinal only in the United States, London, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. The second, or Edinburgh process, forms and purifies the clhcr at one operation. Hence the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia has no preparation corresponding to the unrectified ether of the other Phar- macopoeias. By an unfortunate confusion in nomenclature, the title " JElher Sulphuricus" means the unrectified ether in the United States 90 714 AUtherea. PART II. and London Pharmacopoeias, and the rectified in those of Edinburgh and Dublin. The generation and rectification of sulphuric ether, may be consider- ed as different steps of one chemical operation; and are, therefore,most conveniently treated of under the same head. In the process for prepar- ing it, the acid is gradually added to the alcohol to prevent too great a heat, which would generate and dissipate the ether before the arrange- ments are made for collecting it. After the receivers have been attach- ed, and the junctures luted, the retort is placed in a sand-bath, previously heated to 200°, for the purpose of forming the ether quickly; for if the retort were gradually heated, the greater part of the alcohol would distil over, without being converted into ether, and the process would furnish a comparatively small product. The lutings are best made with common paste, spread on strips of muslin, which are first applied, and after- wards, when dry, covered over with slips of moistened bladder. The receiver is refrigerated on account of the great volatility of ether, a part of which, without this precaution, would be lost. A convenient mode for keeping the receivers cold is to lay across them a number of strips of woollen cloth, one end of which is immersed in cold water placed higher than the receivers. By this arrangement, cold water is made continually to trickle over them, whereby they are kept cool; and at the same time the progress of the distillation may be seen, which is not the case when they are immersed in water. The moment at.which the heavier portion begins to pass over, which is the signal for discon- tinuing the process, is indicated by the appearance of white vapours in the retort. If the distillation were continued after this, very little ether would be obtained; but there would be generated, sulphurous acid, oil of wine, olefiant gas, carbonic acid, and a large quantity of carbonaceous matter, blackening and rendering thick the residuary liquid. The above remarks apply to the formula of the U. S. and Lond. Phar- macopoeias. The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are in principle the same, and do not require a separate explanation. In re- peating the London (U. S.) process, Mr. Phillips obtained twelve fluid- ounces of product, six fluidrachms of which were the heavy liquid men- tioned in the formula, and the remainder the officinal i£ther Sulphuricus of sp. gr. 0.768. Upon adding the second portion of alcohol, the quan- tity of ether produced was nearly similar, but its sp. gr. was as high as 0.807. The process of forming ether, however, is most advantageously performed on a large scale. At Apothecaries' Hall, where the operation is conducted in this way, in a cast iron still, lined with lead, Mr. Brande informs us that 100 pounds of sulphuric acid and of alcohol are taken, and afford about 52 pounds of ether of the sp. gr. 0.761. Fifty pounds of alcohol are then added to the residue, and upon a second distillation, from 46 to 50 pounds of additional ether are drawn off, having the sp. gr. 0.765. About 100 pounds of impure ether are thus obtained, which, when purified, yield from 55 to 58 pounds of rectified ether of the sp. gr. 0.733. The mixture of acid and alcohol is heated by means of steam, passing through a contorted leaden pipe at the bottom of the still, and supplied by a boiler, situated in an adjoining apartment, and capable of bearing a pressure of 100 pounds to the square inch. Mr. Brande states that if the attempt be made to generate the ether at the temperature of 212° or even 220°, very little else than alcohol will pass over. According to this chemist a temperature of from 250° to 280° is required. The rectification of ether is intended to purify it from sulphurous acid, oil of wine, and alcohol, and is variously conducted in the different Phar- PART II. AUtherea. 715 macopoeias. The distillation with a gentle heat from potassa, has the effect of separating the sulphurous acid and oil of wine, and the greater part of the alcohol. The remainder of the alcohol passes over with the ether, and is afterwards separated in the United States and London pro- cesses by agitation with water. This liquid having a stronger affinity than ether for alcohol, unites with the latter, and forms a combination which sinks, while the pure ether floats above it. The Edinburgh Col- lege adds the potassa to the impure ether in the solid state, which is preferable to dissolving it previously in water. This College omits the subsequent agitation with water to separate alcohol, probably because in the distillation so small a portion is drawn off (ten ounces from sixteen.) The Dublin College performs the rectification by a distillation from carbonate of potassa, twelve parts only in twenty being drawn off. This salt is usually employed by the manufacturing chemist, the distillation being continued so long as the ether comes over of a sufficiently low specific gravity. Properties.—Rectified sulphuric ether is a colourless very limpid li- quid, of a strong and sweet odour, and hot pungent taste.. When as pure as possible, its sp. gr. is about 0.700; but the ether used in medi- cine is never of so high a strength. The Dublin College directs that the rectified ether have the sp. gr. 0.765; the United States, London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias have omitted to designate the specific gravity of this preparation. As obtained at Apothecaries' Hall, Lon- don, it has the sp. gr. 0.733, and according to the Paris Codex, 0.758. For medicinal purposes, its specific gravity should not be higher than 0.750. It is a very volatile liquid, and when of the sp. gr. 0.720, boils at about the temperature of 98°, and forms a vapour which has the density of 2.586. Its extreme volatility causes it to evaporate speedily in the open air, with the production of a considerable degree of cold. Its inflammability is very great, and the products of its com- bustion are water and carbonic acid. In consequence of this property, the greatest caution should be used not to bring it too near an ignited body, as for example, a lighted candle, for fear of its accidental inflam- mation. When too long kept, it undergoes decomposition, and becomes converted in part into acetic acid. Phosphorus and sulphur are slightly soluble in it, and the former is generally exhibited in ethereal solution. (See Phosphorus.) Water dissolves a tenth of its weight of ether, and reciprocally ether takes up a small portion of water. It unites in all proportions with alcohol. Composition and Theory of its Production.—Sulphuric ether consists, in ultimate constituents, of five equiv. of hydrogen 5, four equiv. of carbon 24, and one equiv. of oxygen 8=37; or in volumes, of five volumes of hydrogen, four volumes of the vapour of carbon, and half a volume of oxygen, condensed into one volume of ether vapour. Its proximate con- stituents are four equiv. of olefiant gas 28, and one equiv. of water 9 = 37; or in volumes, two volumes of olefiant gas, and one volume of the vapour of water, condensed into one volume. The sp. gr. of its vapour, calculated on this composition in volume, is 2.569, which is very near 2.586, the number obtained by experiment. By this statement of the composition of sulphuric ether, it is perceived that it contains no sulphu- ric acid, contrary to what its name would seem to indicate. The fact is, that it is called sulphuric ether, merely in allusion to the agency of the acid usually employed in its preparation; but an identical ether may be obtained by the action of other acids or alcohol. The French chemists, in allusion to the water it contains, sometimes call it hydrated ether. 716 AUtherea. PART II. With a view to determine in what manner sulphuric acid acts upon alcohol in order to convert it into ether, it is necessary that a comparison should be instituted between the composition of the two latter. It has already been stated under Alcohol, that this liquid consists of two equiv. of olefiant gas and one equiv. of water; and ether, as above stated, is composed of four equiv. of the same gas and one equiv. of water. It thus appears that the proximate constituents of the two liquids are the same, but the proportions different. If we suppose two equiv. of alco- hol to be the subject-matter of the decomposition by the acid, then we shall have four equiv. of olefiant gas and two equiv. of water to be acted on, which will obviously be converted into ether by losing one equiv. of water, that is half the water present. On this view, then, the theory of etherification consists in the abstraction from alcohol of half the essen- tial water which it contains. The agent in effecting this abstraction is evidently the sulphuric acid, which is known to have a strong affinity for water. To produce this result, however, the proportion of the acid to the alcohol must be attended to; for if the former be excessive, the whole of the water will be separated from the alcohol, and the product will be chiefly olefiant gas. If the original proportions of acid and alcohol continued the same, throughout the whole of the distillation, all the alcohol would be resolved into water and ether; but, during the progress of the process, the alcohol is constantly diminishing, and of course the relative excess of the acid becoming greater; and at last a point of time arrives when the excess of acid is so great that the gene- ration of ether ceases, and olefiant gas becomes the principal product, associated, however, with sulphurous acid, while oil of wine remains in the retort. As these results depend upon the relative deficiency of the alcohol, while the acid remains but slightly changed, it is easy to under- stand why a second distillation may be practised, as prescribed in the Pharmacopoeias, by adding a fresh portion of alcohol to the residue in the retort; for by this addition, the proper relative proportion of the al- cohol to the acid is restored. But the repetition of the distillation in this manner has its limit; as the acid becomes at last too dilute to react upon the alcohol. Above we have given the usual theory of etherification ; but Mr. Hen- nell of London has explained the change differently. By the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol, there is always formed at first a peculiar acid, called sulphovinic acid, which, according to his view, consists of sulphu- ric acid, half saturated with olefiant gas. The sulphovinic acid, abundant at first, becomes less and less so as the ether is formed; and Mr. Hennell is of opinion that this acid, by its decomposition, furnishes olefiant gas in a favourable condition to unite with water, in the proportion to form ether. Medical Properties and Uses.—Ether is a powerful diffusible stimulant, but transient in its operation. It is also esteemed antispasmodic and narcotic. Its vapour when breathed from a bladder in which a few tea- spoonfuls are put, produces a transient intoxication, resembling the effects of respiring nitrous oxide, but very dangerous if carried too far. In some stages of low fevers, attended with subsultus tendinum, ether sometimes proves useful as a stimulant and antispasmodic. It is useful in nervous headach unattended with vascular fulness, some states of hysteria, and generally in nervous and painful diseases which are unac- companied by inflammation or high vascular action. In catarrhaldyspnoea, and spasmodic asthma, its vapour may be inhaled with advantage by holding in the mouth a piece of sugar to which a few drops of ether part n. AUtherea. 717 had been previously added. In nausea it is given as a cordial, and in flatulence of the stomach it sometimes acts with singular efficacy. Ac- cording to Mr. Brande, a small teaspoonful of ether mixed with a glass of white wine, is often a most effectual remedy for allaying the distressing symptoms of sea-sickness. When externally applied it may act either as a stimulant or refrigerant If its evaporation be repress- ed, it operates as a powerful rubefacient, and may even vesicate; but when its evaporation is promoted, it is refrigerant in consequence of the great degree of cold which it produces. In the latter way it is some- times employed in strangulated hernia. Dr. A. T. Thomson has found ether sometimes to produce immediate relief when dropped into the ear in earach. For external use, the unrectified ether may be employed. The dose of rectified ether is from half a fluidrachm to two fluidrachms, to be repeated frequently when the full effect of the remedy is desired. Off. Prep. Spiritus iEtheris Sulphurici, U.S., Lond., Ed. OLEUM JETHEREUM. U.S., Lond. Liquor ^Ethereus Oleosus. Dub. Ethereal Oil. "After the distillation of Sulphuric Ether, carry on the distillation with a less degree of heat, until a black froth begins to rise; then im- mediately remove the retort from the fire. Add water to the liquor in the retort, that the oily part may float upon the surface. Separate this and add to it sufficient Lime-water to neutralize the acid present, and shake them together. Lastly, when the oil has separated, remove it." U.S., Lond. " Take what remains in the retort after the distillation of Sulphuric Ether. Distil down to one half, with a moderate heat." Dub. It has already been mentioned under the head of Ether, that towards the end of the distillation of this liquid, there is formed a small quantity of a peculiar oleaginous matter, usually called oil of wine. This matter is the officinal ethereal oil, the object of the above processes. The for- mation of this oil is connected with complicated changes, which are not well understood. According to Vogel and Gay-Lussac, the reaction be- tween sulphuric acid and alcohol causes the decomposition of the former as well as the latter, and gives rise to a peculiar acid, called sulphovinic, consisting of hyposulphuric acid and a peculiar vegetable matter, the nature of which has not been well determined. If after the ether has ceased to come over, the heat is still continued, the new acid is decom- posed, sulphurous acid is given off, and by a reaction occurring between the elements of the vegetable matter and of the other substances present, oil of wine is formed. In this account of the formation of oil of wine, its composition is left unexplained. Mr. Hennell gives a different expla- nation of this complicated subject. According to him, sulphovinic acid and oil of wine are both composed of sulphuric acid and olefiant gas, the oil containing twice as much of the gas as the acid. When the oil is heated, it parts with half its olefiant gas, and becomes, of course, sul- phovinic acid. It is this acid which contaminates the oil, and renders it necessary to shake it with lime-water, as directed in the first formula given above. The Dublin process is altogether defective. By distilling " down to one-half with a moderate heat," the residue of the sulphuric ether process, the oil of wine is no doubt generated; but it is mixed with various substances, from which, no directions are given in the formula for its separation. The product of the U. S. process, which is adopted from the London, is a very small amount of the ethereal oil. According to Mr. Brande, a 718 AUtherea. PART II. larger portion may be Obtained by distilling equal measures of alcohol and sulphuric acid. The best way to purify it is by means of a weak so- lution of carbonate of potassa. Mr. Phillips states that he could neither prepare this oil by following the London process, nor purchase it; what he made being ether mixed with sulphurous acid, and that which he pur- chased, a yellow-coloured empyreumatic ether. This statement shows that the production of the oil in question is rather a precarious operation. Properties and Composition.—Ethereal oil is an oleaginous liquid, re- sembling the volatile oils, of a yellow colour, fragrant odour, and aro- matic, bitterish, and pungent taste. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Its sp. gr. is 1.060. Though containing sulphuric acid, it has no acid reaction, its acid being apparently neutralized by the olefiant gas with which it is united. Its exact composition, accord- ing to Mr. Hennell, is two equiv. of sulphuric acid 80, and eight equiv. of olefiant gas 56=136. This oil is not used in medicine in a separate state, but enters into the composition of the compound spirit of sulphuric ether. Off. Prep. Spiritus iEtheris Sulphurici Compositus, U.S., Lond. SPIRITUS JETHERIS SULPHURICI. U.S., Lond. .Ether Sulphuricus cum Alcohole. Ed. Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. " Take of Rectified Sulphuric Ether half a pint; Alcohol a pint. Mix them." U.S., Lond. "Take of Sulphuric Ether one part; Stronger Alcohol two parts. Mix them." Ed. This preparation is merely rectified ether diluted with twice its volume or weight of alcohol. When prepared with materials of proper strength, its sp. gr. is 0.816. Its medical properties are similar to those of ether. Its dose is from one to three fluidrachms, given with a sufficient quan- tity of water. SPIRITUS iETHERIS SULPHURICI COMPOSITUS. U.S., Lond. Compound Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. Hoffman's anodyne liquor. "Take of Spirit of Sulphuric Ether a pint; Ethereal Oil two flui- drachms. Mix them." U.S., Lond. This preparation is intended as a substitute for the anodyne liquor of Hoffman, which it closely resembles. In addition to the stimulating and antispasmodic qualities of the ether which it contains, it possesses anodyne properties, highly useful in nervous irritation, and want of sleep arising from this cause. These additional virtues it derives from the oil of wine, which is a more important preparation than is generally admitted. Mr. Brande asserts that the only effect of the oil of wine in the preparation under consideration, is to alter the flavour of the Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. In this assertion he is certainly in error. Dr. Hare, in his Chemical Compendium, reports the opinion of his colleagues, Drs. Physick and Dewees, in favour of the efficacy of oil of wine dis- solved in alcohol, in certain disturbed states of the system, as a tran- quillizing and anodyne remedy. Such indeed are the generally admitted effects of Hoffman's anodyne, when made with a due admixture of the ethereal oil; but the Spirit of Sulphuric Ether is often improperly sold for it. When properly prepared, it becomes milky on being mixed with water, in consequence of the precipitation of the oil. It is on many oc- casions a useful adjunct to laudanum, to prevent the nausea which is liable to be excited by the latter in certain habits. Its dose is from half a fluidrachm to two fluidrachms in any proper vehicle. PART II. AZtherea. 719 SPIRITUS jETHERIS AROMATICUS. Lond. .Ether Sul- phuricus cum Alcohole Aromaticus. Ed. Aromatic Spirit of Ether. " Take of Cinnamon Bark, bruised, three drachms; Cardamom Seeds, in powder, a drachm and a half; Long Pepper, in powder, Ginger Root, sliced, of each, a drachm; Spirit of Sulphuric Ether a pint. Macerate for fourteen days in a well stopped glass bottle, and filter." Lond. " Take of Cinnamon Bark, bruised, Lesser Cardamom Seeds, bruis- ed, of each, an ounce; Long Pepper, in powder, two drachms; Sulphuric Ether with Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and filter through paper." Ed. This is merely the Spirit of Sulphuric Ether, rendered more grateful by aromatics. The difference between the two formulae for its prepara- tion are not important; but we should prefer the London. Its medical properties and dose are the same as those of the preparation which forms its basis. It is very rarely if ever prescribed. EITHER NITROSUS. Dub. Nitrous Ether. {Nitric Ether.) " Take of Nitrate of Potassa, purified, dried, and coarsely powder- ed, a pound and a half; Sulphuric Acid a pound; Rectified Spirit nine- teen fluidounces. Put the Nitrate of Potassa into a tubulated retort, placed in a bath of cold water, and pour on it by degrees and at inter- vals the Sulphuric Acid and Spirit, previously mixed, and cooled after their mixture. Without almost any external heat, or at most a very gentle one, (as of warm water added to the bath), the ethereal liquor will begin to distil without the application of fire. In a short time, the heat of the retort will increase spontaneously, and a considerable ebul- lition will take place, which must be moderated by reducing the tempe- rature of the bath with cold water. The receiver must also be kept cold with water or snow, and furnished with a proper apparatus for trans- mitting the highly elastic vapour (bursting from the mixture with great violence if the heat be too much increased), through a pound of Recti- fied Spirit contained in a cooled bottle. " The ethereal liquor thus spontaneously distilled, is to be received into a phial with a ground glass stopper; and then must be added by degrees (closing the phial after each addition) as much very dry and powdered carbonate of potassa as will suffice to saturate the excess of acid, using litmus as the test. This is effected by the addition of about a drachm of the salt. In a short time the Nitrous Ether will rise to the surface, and is to be separated by means of a funnel. " If the Ether be required very pure, distil it again to one-half, from a water-bath at a temperature of 140°. Its specific gravity is 0.900." Dub. The Dublin is the only Pharmacopceia commented on in this work, which embraces nitrous (nitric) ether among its preparations. The mu- tual reaction of nitric acid and alcohol is so violent, that the formation of this ether has justly been regarded as a process of difficulty. The method adopted by the Dublin College, in their formula, was contrived by Wolfe, and is commended by Pelletier, as well adapted for obtaining this ether with facility and safety. The alcohol is not mixed directly with nitric acid, but with the materials necessary for generating it Upon the addition of the mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol to the nitre, this salt is decomposed, and the disengaged nitric acid gradually reacts upon the alcohol, and generates the ether in question. The saline residue in the retort is sulphate of potassa. The heat evolved upon mix- 720 AEtherea. PART II. ing the. materials is so considerable, that the application of extraneous heat becomes unnecessary, and even hazardous. Indeed, as the action advances, the temperature of the mixture must be moderated by the application of cold water. The violent action arises from the vast quan- tity of gases and vapours suddenly given off. These are nitrogen, nitrous and nitric oxide, carbonic acid, and the vapours of water, nitrous acid, and of the nitric ether itself. Notwithstanding the cold employed, a portion of the nitric ether escapes condensation in the receiver, and hence the Dublin College, to save this portion, directs a cooled bottle to be connected with it, containing a pound of alcohol, into which the uncondensed ether is allowed to pass. The alcohol thus impregnated is subsequently employed in the Dublin formula for Sweet Spirit of Nitre (See Spiritus AZtheris Nitrici.) The ether condensed in the receiver is not pure, but contains a little nitrous, nitric, and acetic acids. To re- move these, the ethereal product is shaken with carbonate of potassa, which has the effect of saturating them. Nitric ether is prepared by Thenard by the following process, which is adopted, with slight modifications, in the Paris Codex. Equal weights of alcohol and nitric acid, contained in a retort having a capacity double their volume, are distilled by a moderate heat, into a Wolfe's apparatus of five bottles, the first of which is empty, and the four others half fill- ed with saturated brine. Each bottle is placed in an earthen pan con- taining a mixture of ice and salt. The apparatus being thus arranged, a few live coals are placed under the retort, whereupon the liquid enters quickly into ebullition. The fire must then be immediately withdrawn, and the ebullition moderated, by allowing some water pressed from a sponge to pass over the retort. The process is terminated when the Spontaneous ebullition ceases; at which time the liquid in the retort forms a little more than the third of the quantity of alcohol and acid employed. In the first bottle, a large quantity of yellow liquid will be found, consisting of much weak alcohol, of ether, and nitrous, nitric, and acetic acids; in the second, a pretty thick stratum of ether, con- taining a little acid and alcohol, and swimming on the surface of the brine; in the third, a very thin stratum, of the same nature as that in the second, and so on for the rest. The several layers of ether are then separated by means of a funnel, mixed together, and redistilled by a moderate heat, into a refrigerated receiver. The first product is the ether, which, to be perfectly pure, and devoid of acidity, must be allow- ed to remain in contact with lime in powder for half an hour, in a bot- tle. From 500 parts of alcohol, and 500 parts of acid, Thenard obtained 100 parts of excellent ether. Dr. Hare has contrived an apparatus for generating nitric ether, which answers very well. It consists of a three necked bottle, the outer orifices of which are furnished with glass funnels with stop-cocks; a tube of glass three feet long; and a tubulated receiver, surrounded with a freezing mixture. The tube isarranged in an inclined position, and surrounded also by a freezing mixture,contained in a wooden trough; and is so bent at its extremities, that one end may be attached to the middle neck of the bottle, and the other to the receiver. The apparatus being thus ar- ranged, alcohol is added to the bottle, through one of the funnels, to the depth of half an inch, and afterwards nitric acid is cautiously in- troduced through the other funnel, sufficient to cause an active ebulli- tion. When this relaxes, more acid is added, and so on at intervals until the ebullition ceases to be renewed. When this happens, the alcohol is again added, at intervals, until it ceases to excite any action in the ma- PART II. AZtherea. 721 tcrials, when the process is finished. The ether generated is effectually condensed by the frigorific mixtures, and is collected in the receiver. Dr. Duncan states that he has " repeatedly prepared nitric ether with great facility and safety, by putting alcohol into a tubulated retort having a small long-tubed funnel introduced through a cork in the tubulature, so that the end of the funnel was immersed in the alcohol, pouring ni- trous acid through this slowly, until reaction commenced, and waiting till it ceased before more acid was added in successive portions, until the whole proportion intended was added. After the spontaneous action had ceased, heat was cautiously applied as long as ether was produced." To condense the products, a Wolfe's apparatus was used, kept very cold. The first bottle was emptv, and in it the principal part of the ether con, densed; the second contained water, and the third alcohol. From this last a tube proceeded to give exit to the gases. This method of Dr. Duncan is certainly a good one, and has the merit of being easily exe- cuted. Properties.— Nitrous or Nitric Ether as it is differently called, is a yel- lowish-white liquid, of an acrid and burning taste, and a smell resem- bling that of sulphuric ether, but much stronger. When simply washed with water, Dr. Duncan found its sp. gr. to be 0.912; but in this state it contained acid. When this was removed, its density became 0.896, and when rectified by redistillation it fell to 0.866. The Dublin College and the Paris Codex direct its sp. gr. to be 0.900. This ether, there- fore, is much heavier than the sulphuric, and even heavier than alco- hol. When agitated with water it is divided into three portions; a small portion dissolves, a second evaporates, and a 'third is decompos- ed. The aqueous solution becomes immediately acid, and acquires the smell of apples. Nitric ether is soluble in all proportions in alcohol; and with a variable portion of the latter forms the Spirit of Nitric Ether, or sweet spirit of nitre. It is more volatile than sulphuric ether, entering into ebullition at 70°. It is highly inflammable, and burns with a white flame, without residue. It is very liable to spontaneous decom- position, becoming acid after the lapse of a few clays. It ought to be kept in bottles, completely filled, in a dark cool place; and prepared in small quantities at a time. Composition.—When nitric ether is dissolved in water, it becomes qufckly resolved into hyponitrous acid and alcohol. If this statement be accurate, it is an ether of the third class, and would be entitled to the name of hyponitrous ether. But so long as uncertainty exists as to its exact composition, it is best to call it nitric ether, after the acid used in its preparation. Besides these constituents, Thenard believes it always to contain a little acetic acid. Its ultimate constituents are, of course, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, united in proportions not well ascertained. Medical Properties and Uses.—Nitric Ether is very seldom used in medicine. Its medical virtues are probably the same as those of Sul- phuric Ether. SPIRITUS iETHERIS NITRICI. U.S., Lond. Spiritus iETHERis Nitrosi. Ed. Spiritus iETHEREUS Nitrosus. Dub. Spirit of Nitric Ether. Sweet Spirit of Nitre. •' Take of Nitrate of Potassa, in powder, two pounds; Sulphuric Acid a pound and a half; Alcohol nine pints and a half; Diluted Alcohol a pint; Carbonate of Potassa an ounce. Mix the Nitrate of Potassa and the Acid in a glass retort, and, having gradually poured in the Alcohol, digest 91 722 AZtherea. part it. with a gentle heat for two hours; then raise the heat, and distil a gallon. To the distilled liquor add the Diluted Alcohol and Carbonate of Potassa, and again distil a gallon." U.S. "Take of Rectified Spirit two pints; Nitric Acid, by weight, three ounces. Add the Acid to the Spirit by slow degrees, and mix them, taking care that the temperature does, not exceed one hundred and twenty degrees; then, by means of a gentle heat, distil twenty-four fluid- ounces." Lond. " Take of Stronger Alcohol three pounds; Nitrous Acid a pound. Pour the Alcohol into a capacious phial, placed in a vessel full of cold water, and add the Acid by degrees, constantly agitating them. Let the phial be slightly covered, and placed for seven days in a cool place; then distil the liquor with the heat of boiling water, into a receiver kept cool with water or snow, until about three pounds come over." Ed. " Add to the matter which remains after the distillation of Nitrous Ether, the Rectified Spirit employed in that operation for condensing the elastic vapour, and distil till the residuum be dry, with the superior heat of a water-bath. Mix the distilled liquor with the alkaline liquor which remains after the separation of the Nitrous Ether, and add, more- over, as much well dried Carbonate of Potassa as shall be sufficient to saturate the predominant acid. This is made evident by the test of lit- mus. Lastly, distil as long as any drops come over by the medium heat of a water-bath. The specific gravity of this liquor is 0.850. " Nitrous Ethereal Spirit may also be prepared by adding gradually two ounces of Nitric Acid to a pint of Rectified Spirit, and distilling twelve ounces with a proper apparatus and the application of a gentle heat." Dub. The Spirit of Nitric Ether is a mixture, in variable proportions, of nitric ether and alcohol. Nitric ether is always generated by the mu- tual reaction of nitric acid and alcohol; and it matters not whether the alcohol be mixed with nitric acid directly, or with the materials for generating it, namely, nitre and sulphuric acid. When the materials for forming the ether contain an excess of alcohol, this distils over with the ether, and forms the preparation under consideration. The processes given above differ considerably. The U. S. and Dub. Pharmacopoeias obtain the requisite nitric acid by using the materials for generating that acid; while the London and Edinburgh Colleges mix the acid ready formed with the alcohol. The different formulae will be noticed in the order just named. The U. S. formula is modelled after a recipe communicated by Mr. John Carter, manufacturing chemist, to the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and recommended for adoption by a committee of that body. It is in fact the Dublin process for obtaining nitric ether, explained in the preceding article, with the use of alcohol in excess. The nitre and acid being placed in the retort, the materials are. ready for generating the nitric acid. The alcohol being gradually added, and a gentle heat applied, the nitric acid is set free, and by reacting on a part of the alco- hol produces the ether. Upon the subsequent increase of the heat, this ether and the remainder of the alcohol distil over as the spirit of nitric ether. The distilled product, however, contains some acid, and hence is rectified by redistillation from carbonate of potassa. The diluted al- cohol is added before this distillation, to enable the operator to obtain a quantity of distilled product equal to that procured at first, without distilling to dryness, which would endanger the production of empy- reuma. The sulphuric acid" and alcohol are added successively to the part ii. AZtherea. '23 nitre, and not previously mixed; as by the latter plan, the sulphuric acid would be converted in part into sulphovinic acid, and the risk would be run of generating some sulphuric ether. The retort should be of such a capacity as to be capable of holding twice the amount of the materials employed. It would be an improvement in this formula, if the nitre were directed to be bruised, rather than powdered; as the more slowly the nitric acid is liberated, the more safely the process may be conducted. The above process, as conducted by Mr. Carter on a large scale, is performed in a copper still of about twenty gallons capacity, and furnish- ed with a pewter head and worm. The materials for the first distillation are 18 pounds of purified nitre, 12 gallons of alcohol of 34° Baume (0.847) and 12 pounds of sulphuric acid; and 10 gallons are drawn off. The distilled product is then mixed with a gallon of diluted alcohol, and rec- tified by a new distillation from lime or a carbonated alkali, the same quantity being distilled as at first. When large quantities of this pre- paration are thus obtained, the several portions require to be mixed in a large glass vessel, to render the whole of uniform strength ; as the por- tion which first comes over in the rectification is strongest in nitric ether. Previous to the redistillation, the head and worm must be washed tho- roughly with water, to remove a little acid which comes over in the first distillation. {Journ. of the Phil. Coll. of Pharm. i. 308.) A similar process to the above for making sweet spirit of nitre, is adopted in the principal laboratories of Philadelphia. As the use of me- tallic vessels is attended with some risk, it would be an improvement in the above process, if an earthenware still and worm were employed, as is done at Apothecaries' Hall, London; the still being heated by the slow application of steam to its outer surface. In order to understand the process of the Dublin College for preparing sweet spirit of nitre, it will be necessary to revert to their formula for ob- taining nitric ether, and the explanations connected with it. The residue of the latter process consists of sulphate of potassa, free nitric acid-not consumed in the generation of the nitric ether, and, perhaps, a portion of alcohol. To this residue is added, the pound of alcohol which had been employed in the process for nitric ether for the purpose of absorbing the ether which had escaped condensation in the receiver. Of course, after this addition, all the conditions are fulfilled which are necessary for generating spirit of nitric ether, namely, nitric acid in contact with more alcohol than is necessary to form ether. Accordingly, upon distilla- tion, the nitric ether comes over mixed with a certain portion of alcohol, forming the spirit in question. But at the same time, a portion of acid is distilled over, to free it from which, the product is redistilled from an alkaline carbonate at a medium heat (between 100° and 200°) as long as any drops come over. To save the alkaline solution used in purifying the nitric ether, it is directed to be applied, as far as it will go, to the saturation of the acid of this preparation. From the explanations here and previously given, it is obvious that the formulae for nitric ether and sweet spirit of nitre of the Dublin Col- lege, form in fact but one process; and whenever it is desirable to ob- tain nitric ether, it is no doubt economical to use the residue and part of the products of this process for preparing sweet spirit of nitre. But the fact is, nitric ether is seldom or never used in medicine, and has very few other uses; and hence the Dublin formula for the preparation under consideration is ineligible, as including the preparation of another substance which may not be wanted. It is, no doubt, on this account* 724 A^thcrca. part ii. that the College has appended to their principal process another formu- la, (very nearly the same as that of the London College,) by means of which sweet spirit of nitre may be obtained independently of any other product. The London and Edinburgh processes for this preparation are in principle the same, namely, the addition of nitric acid, ready formed, to alcohol; but the proportions employed are very different. In the London formula, the acid is to the alcohol as 1 to 8 nearly; in the Edin- burgh, as 1 to 3. The proportion of nitric acid to alcohol for mutual reaction in the U. S. formula, is about the same as in the London pro- cess, if we suppose that the nitre, by its decomposition, yields a pound and a quarter of acid, which is about the quantity obtained in prac- tice. This coincidence may be assumed with the greater confidence, as the preparation obtained by these two formula has about the same specific gravity. The proportion of alcohol in the Edinburgh formula is so deficient, that the product must be very strong in nitric ether. The directions of this College to keep the acid and alcohol mixed for seven days, answers no useful purpose, and is, therefore, a waste of time. The proportion of the spirit drawn off to ihe alcohol employed in the differ- ent formulae is different. It is three-fourths in the London formula, five- sixths by the U. S. process, and it is exactly equal to the alcohol employ- ed by the Edinburgh directions. When the distillation is pushed too far, the product is apt to be contaminated with nitric acid. This risk is avoided almost entirely by the London College, by distilling only twen- ty-four fluidounces; but if accidentally the distillation be continued too long, a very acid liquor comes over. By following the directions of the Edinburgh formula, the acidity of the product would seem to be almost inevitable. From these considerations, we think that the London and Edinburgh Colleges have erred in not directing a rectification, as is or- dered in the U. S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. Properties.—Spirit of nitric ether is a colourless liquid, of a grateful ethereal odour, and, when recently prepared, of a very pungent, and slightly sweet and bitter taste. When kept for a few weeks, it acquires a decided acidity, and becomes sourish to the taste. When thus changed, it may be rectified by saturating the acid present with lime-water, and redistilling. It is very inflammable and volatile, but less so than sulphuric ether. It is readily soluble in water, and unites with any additional por- tion of alcohol to that which it already contains. Its sp. gr. is necessa- rily variable, as obtained by different formulae. The density prescribed for it by the Dublin College is 0.850; but it ought not to exceed 0.834; which differs very little from the density of the officinal alcohol or recti- fied spirit, which weighs 0.835. The preparation as obtained by Mr. Carter's formula has the sp. gr. 0.833 at 65°, Unfortunately, how- ever, specific gravity is not a criterion of its quality; as its appropriate density may be preserved, even after being weakened by a large quanti- ty of alcohol. When tincture of guaiac is added to it, a peculiar blue tint is produced, which soon passes into various shades of green, with- out disturbing its transparency. Perhaps this tincture might afford the means of determining the quality of sweet spirit of nitre. Some test of this kind would be a highly desirable acquisition, on account of the ex- tensive use made of this preparation, and the frequent sophistications to which it is subjected. It is stated on good authority, that the article has been variously diluted, according to the views of the vender, with twice, thrice, and even four times its weight of alcohol and water. In some shops a strong and weak preparation has been kept, to suit the views of PART It AStherea.—Alcohol. 725 customers as to price. The wholesale druggists are very constantly in the habit of diluting it, under the impression that the physician's prescriptions have been drawn up in contemplation of the use of a weak- er preparation, or for the purpose of affording it at a low price. All this confusion in regard to an important medicine would disappear, if the different manufacturing chemists in the Union would comply with the recommendation of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and adopt for its preparation the formula of the United States Pharmacopoeia. A uniform preparation being in this way furnished to the druggists, all that would be necessary on their part would be to abstain from weaken- ing it by the admixture of alcohol and water. Sweet spirit of nitre is very prone to become acid by keeping; and a slight acidity is almost unavoidable. It is best preserved by being kept in accurately stopped half-pint bottles in a cool place. Its specific gra- vity ought not to exceed 0.834. If acid be present in considerable amount, it may be detected by the taste, by its acting strongly on lit- mus, or by effervescence being produced on the addition of a crystal of carbonate of soda. Its esse'ntial constituents are nitric ether and alco- hol in proportions not well ascertained. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sweet spirit of nitre is diaphoretic, diu- retic, and antispasmodic. It is deservedly much esteemed as a medicine, and is extensively employed in febrile affections for the purpose of pro- moting the secretions, especially those of sweat and urine. It often proves a grateful stimulus to the stomach, relieving nausea, and expel- ling flatulence, and not unfrequently allays restlessness and promotes sleep. On account of its tendency to the kidneys, it is often conjoined with other diuretics, such as squills, digitalis, nitre, &c, for the pur« pose of promoting their action in dropsical complaints. Dr. Duncan praises a combination of it with a small portion of aromatic spirit of ammonia, as eminently diaphoretic and diuretic, and well suited to cer- tain states of febrile disease. The dose varies from twenty drops to a teaspoonful, given every two or three hours in a small portion of water, ALCOHOL. Preparations of Alcohol. ALCOHOL DILUTUM. U.S. Spiritus Tenuior. Lond., Dub. Alcohol Dilutius. Ed. Diluted Alcohol. Proof Spirit. "Take of Alcohol, Distilled Water, each, a pint. Mix them." U.S. The British Colleges have placed diluted alcohol or proof spirit in the Materia Medica. The London College directs its sp. gr. to be 0.930. When of this strength, it contains 44 per cent, of pure aIcohol£*and may be formed by mixing four measures of their rectified spirit with three of water. In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, it is ordered of the sp. gr. 0.919, and the statement is made in a note, that spirit of almost the same specific gravity may be formed by mixing five and a quarter measures of rectified spirit, with three of distilled water. Such spirit will contain about 49 per cent, of absolute alcohol. The directions of the Edinburgh College are more explicit; for they first explain " Alco- hol Dilutius" to mean " Alcohol Fortius" mixed with an equal measure of water, and then state its sp. gr. to be 0.935. It is perceived, there- fore, that the diluted alcohol of the U. S. Pharmacopceia corresponds precisely with that of the Edinburgh College; being alcohol of the same 726 « Alcohol.—Alumen. part it strength diluted to an equal extent. Its sp. gr. must consequently be identical, or 0.935 also. Such spirit will contain 42 per cent of absolute alcohol, and form the weakest officinal diluted alcohol. Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses.—The medical effects of alcohol in a diluted and modified state, as it exists in brandy and other ardent spirits, have been detailed under other heads. (See Alcohol and Vinum.) As a pure diluted spirit, however, consisting solely of alcohol and water in determinate proportions, its use is exclusively pharmaceutical. It is employed as an addition to some of the distilled waters and preparations of vinegar, in order to preserve them from decomposition; and as a menstruum for extracting the virtues of some plants, preparatory to their being brought to the state of extracts and syrups; and in preparing many of the spirits. But it is in forming the tinctures that diluted al- cohol is principally employed. Many of these are formed with the offi- cinal alcohol (rectified spirit)', but the majority, with diluted alcohol (proof spirit) as the menstruum. As the latter contains more than half its weight of water, it is well fitted for acting on those vegetables, the virtues of which are partly soluble in, water and partly in alcohol. The apothecary however is, on no account, to substitute the commercial proof spirit for diluted alcohol, even though it should be of the same strength. On this point, the authors of the Dublin Pharmacopceia have very cor- rectly remarked, that " almost all the spirit which is sold under the name ,of proof spirit, is contaminated with empyreumatic oil, and unfit for medical use." But when it is recollected how variable the so called proof spirits are in strength, the objection to their use in pharmacy becomes still stronger. Thus, according to Mr. Brande, gin contains 51.6 per icent of alcohol of 0.825 ; and the percentage of the same alcohol is 53.39 in brandy, 53.68 in rum, 53.90 in Irish whiskey, and 54.32 in Scotch whiskey. The alcohol on which these results are based already con- tains 11 per cent, of water. ALUMEN. Preparations of Alum. ALUMEN EXSICCATUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Alumen Sicca- tum. Bub. Bried Alum. "Take of Alum any quantity. Melt it in an earthen or iron vessel over the fire, and continue the heat till it becomes dry; then rub it into powder." U.S. "Melt Alum in an earthen vessel over the fire; and then increase the heat until ebullition ceases." Lond. «k Edinburgh and Dublin processes agree with that of the U. S. PtU&nacopceia. When alum is heated, it quickly melts in its water of crystallization, which, if the heat be continued, is gradually driven off, and the salt swells up exceedingly, so as to make it expedient to use a vessel, the capacity of which is at least equal to three times the bulk of the alum operated on. When the boiling up has ceased, it is a sign that all the water has been driven off, and the preparation is finished. Properties.—Dried alum is in the form of an opaque white powder, possessing a more astringent taste than the crystallized salt. Before pulverisation, it is a light, white, opaque, porous mass. During the ex- siccation, it loses from 41 to 46 per cent, of its weight in dissipated wa- ter. If, however, the heat be very strong, some of the acid is driven off, PART ii. Alumen. —Ammonia. 727 and the loss becomes still greater. Dried alum resists the action of wa- ter for a long time, showing that ihe process to which it has been sub- jected has altered its state of aggregation. In composition, it differs from crystallized alum merely in the absence of water. (See Alumen.) Medical Properties and Uses.—Dried alum has occasionally been given to the extent of a scruple in obstinate constipation, with the effect of gently moving the bowels, and of affording great relief from pain. But its principal medical use is as an escharotic to destroy fungous flesh. LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS. Lond. Compound So- lution of Alum. "Take of Alum and Sulphate of Zinc, each, half an ounce; boiling Water two pints. Dissolve the Alum and Sulphate of Zinc in the Water, and filter through paper." Lond, This was formerly called Aqua Aluminosa Bateana, or Bates's Alum Water. It is a powerful astringent solution, and is employed for cleans- ing and stimulating foul ulcers, and as an injection in gleet and leucor- rhoea. It is also sometimes employed as a collyrium in ophthalmia after depletion; but when used in this way it must be diluted. A con- venient formula is half a fluidounce of the solution mixed with six and a half fluidounces of rose water. AMMONIA. Preparations of Ammonia. ALCOHOL AMMONIATUM. U.S., Ed. Spiritus Ammonle, Lond., Dub. Ammoniated Alcohol. *' Take of Alcohol two pints and a half; Lime, recently burnt, a pound} Muriate of Ammonia eight ounces; Water six fluidounces. From these let the Ammoniated Alcohol be prepared in the manner directed for Water of Ammonia." U.S. "Take of Stronger Alcohol thirty-two ounces; fresh Lime twelve ounces; Muriate of Ammonia eight ounces; Water six ounces. Pour the Water on the pounded Lime in an iron or earthenware vessel; then cover the vessel until the lime falls to powder and becomes cold. Then mix the Muriate in very fine powder with the Lime, and rubbing them together in a mortar, immediately introduce them into a glass retort Place the retort in a sand-bath, and fit on closely a receiver furnished with a tube which passes to the bottom of a bottle containing the alco- hol, and of such a size as only to be two-thirds full. Lastly, apply heat, and gradually increase it until the bottom of the iron pot becomes red, and continue it as long as gas and liquid come over." Ed. " Take of Proof Spirit three pints ; Muriate of Ammonia/owr ounces; Subcarbonate of Potassa six ounces. Mix, and by means of a gentle heat, distil a pint and a half into a cooled receiver." Lond. "Take of Rectified Spirit three pints; Carbonate of Ammonia, coarsely powdered, three ounces and a half. Mix them, and dissolve the salt with a medium heat; then filter the liquor." Dub. The product of these different processes is considerably different The process of the. United States Pharmacopoeia is in effect the same as that of the Edinburgh College, the nearest measures for the liquids being merely substituted for weights. These two processes consist sim- ply in the saturation of alcohol with gaseous ammonia, extricated from a mixture of lime and muriate of ammonia. On the other hand, the 72S Ammonia. part it London and Dublin formulae yield preparations in which carbonated ammonia is dissolved in alcohol. In the London process, a double de- composition takes place between the muriate of ammonia and carbonate of potassa, resulting in the formation of carbonate of ammonia, which distils over with the proof spirit, and muriate of potassa, which remains behind in solution. Part, however, of the carbonate formed, sublimes, the proof spirit, notwithstanding the water it contains, not being com- petent to dissolve the whole which comes over. The Dublin process is peculiar, and is characterized by Dr. A. T. Thomson as simple and elegant. It consists in dissolving the officinal carbonate in heated recti- fied spirit (Alcohol, U.S.) The officinal carbonate is a sesquicarbonate, and during its solution in the alcohol in this process, just so much car- bonic acid is disengaged with effervescence, as to convert it into the carbonate, of which thirty grains dissolve in each fluidounce of the spirit. The preparation thus obtained, therefore, contains the ammonia in the same state as it exists in that formed by the London process. Properties.—Ammoniated Alcohol, as obtained by the United States and Edinburgh formulae, is a colourless liquid, of an exceedingly pun- gent smell and acrid taste. It consists of caustic ammonia dissolved in alcohol. The London and Dublin preparations have the same general properties, but in a milder degree, as they are solutions of carbonated ammonia in the same menstruum. They are more pungent and alkaline than if they contained the sesquicarbonate, as the ammonia present is combined with less carbonic acid than in that carbonate. They are ca- pable, as well as the two former preparations, of dissolving camphor and the volatile oils. Medical Properties and Uses.—These preparations are exceedingly stimulant, especially those of the United States and Edinburgh Pharma- copoeias. They are sometimes given in flatulent colic and nervous debi- lity, in doses of from twenty to fifty drops, in two or three tablespoon- fuls of water. The stronger preparations, when saturated with camphor, form a very highly stimulating liniment. Ammoniated alcohol is principally employed for the purpose of form- ing the class of preparations called Ammoniated Tinctures. ALCOHOL AMMONIATUM AROMATICUM. U.S. Spiritus Ammonije Aromaticus. Lond., Bub. Tinctura Aromatica Am- moniata. Ed. Aromatic Ammoniated Alcohol. " Take of Ammoniated Alcohol a pint; Oil of Rosemary, Oil of Le- mons, each, two fluidrachms; Oil of Cloves, Oil of Cinnamon, each, half a fluidrachm. To the Oils, previously mixed, add the Ammoniated Alcohol, and pour upon them so much water, that, after distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent empyreuma; then, with a gentle heat, distil a pint." U.S. " Take of Cinnamon Bark, bruised, Cloves, bruised, each, two drachms; Lemon Peel four ounces; Subcarbonate^ of Potassa half a pound; Muriate of Ammonia five ounces; Rectified Spirit four pints; Water a gallon. Mix, and let six pints be distilled." Lond. "Take of Ammoniated Alcohol eight ounces; Volatile Oil of Lemon Peel a drachm; Volatile Oil of Rosemary a drachm and a half. Mix them, that the Oils may be dissolved." Ed. " Take of Spirit of Ammonia tivo pints; Essential Oil of Lemons two drachms; Nutmegs, bruised, half an ounce; Cinnamon Bark, bruised, three drachms. Macerate in a covered vessel for three days, shaking oc- casionally; then distil a pint and a half." Dub. PART II. Ammonia. ?29 These processes all furnish Ammoniated Alcohol, impregnated with volatile oils. In the United States and Dublin formulae, the ammoniated alcohol is distilled with the aromatics; in the London, the materials for forming the ammoniated alcohol are thus distilled; the Edinburgh Col- lege dissolves the aromatics in the menstruum, without resorting to dis- tillation. The process of the United States Pharmacopceia has been found to afford a pleasant preparation. In the London process, the car- bonate of potassa directed is insufficient to decompose the whole of the muriate of ammonia, the proportions used in the London spirit of am- monia being injudiciously departed from. Four pints of Rectified Spirit are taken, but six pints of product are drawn off; showing that the Lon- don preparation is a solution of carbonate of ammonia in diluted alcohol, impregnated with aromatics. The Dublin preparation is the same, ex- cept that the menstruum is undiluted alcohol, or rectified spirit. The Edinburgh process is objectionable on account of the omission of dis- tillation ; for if the volatile oils contain impurity, the preparation which results will be coloured and turbid, a defect which is avoided by distil- lation, as the impurities are thus left behind. Medical Properties and Uses.— These preparations, though analogous, are by no means identical, differing considerably in strength, accord- ing as the alcoholic menstruum contains caustic or carbonated ammonia. They are much more used than the preceding preparations, on account of their more grateful taste, derived from the aromatics; but their medical effects are similar. The dose is from twenty to sixty drops, in one or two wineglassfuls of water. They are compatible with sulphate of magnesia, and may be usefully added to aperient draughts of that salt, to render them less offensive to the stomach. Off. Prep. Tinctura Guaiaci Ammoniata, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Tinc- tura Valerianae Ammoniata, U.S., Lond., Dub. AMMONIA CARBONAS. U.S., Dub. Ammonue Subcarbonas. Lond. Sub-Carbonas Ammonia. Ed. Carbonate of Ammonia. Mild volatile alkali. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia a pound; Carbonate of Lime, dried, a pound and a half. Pulverise them separately; then mix them thoroughly, and sublime from a retort into a receiver kept cold." U. S. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia one part; Softer Carbonate of Lime, dried, two parts. Having triturated them separately, mix them thorough- ly, and sublime from a retort into a refrigerated receiver." Ed. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia, pulverised and well dried, Dried Carbonate of Soda, each, one part. Put the mixture into an earthenware retort, and with a heat gradually increased, sublime the Carbonate of Ammonia into a refrigerated receiver." Dub. The London differs from the United States process, in ordering the heat to be continued until the retort becomes red-hot, and in omitting the refrigeration of the receiver. In the above processes, by the reciprocal action of the salts employ- ed, the Carbonic acid unites with the ammonia, generating carbonate of ammonia, and the muriatic acid with the lime or soda, so as to form water and chloride of calcium, or the same liquid and chloride of so- dium. The carbonate and water sublime together as a hydrated car- bonate of ammonia, and the residue is chloride of calcium; or, in the case of the Dublin formula, chloride of sodium, or common salt. In conducting this process, the retort should be of earthenware, and have a wide cylindrical neck; and the receiver should be cylindrical, to facili- 92 730 Ammonia. PART II. tate the extraction of the sublimate. The relative quantities of chalk and muriate of ammonia for mutual decomposition, are 50 of the former to 54 of the latter, or one equiv. of each. The different Pharmacopoeias, therefore, use a great excess of chalk. A small excess is desirable, to ensure the perfect decomposition of the muriate of ammonia, any re- dundancy of which would sublime along with the carbonate and render it impure. The employment of carbonate of soda, in the Dublin pro- cess, affords a product of greater whiteness, but is objectionable on the score of expense. The proportions of the muriate and alkaline car- bonate directed by this College, correspond precisely with the equiva- lents ; but in practice, the quantity of carbonate of soda is found insuf- ficient. Carbonate of ammonia is obtained on a large scale, generally by sub- liming the proper materials from an iron pot, into a large earthen or leaden receiver. Sulphate of ammonia may be substituted for the mu- riate with much economy, as has been shown by Payen. Large quantities of this carbonate are also manufactured from the products of the distil- lation of coal in gas works; but the salt thus obtained is apt to have a slight odour of tar, and to leave a blackish carbonaceous matter when dissolved in acids. Properties.—Carbonate of ammonia, recently prepared, is in white, moderately hard, translucent masses, of a striated and crystalline ap- pearance, a pungent smell, and a sharp penetrating taste. It possesses an alkaline reaction, and when held under a piece of turmeric paper changes it to brown, owing to the ammonia which escapes. When long or carelessly kept, it gradually passes into the state of bicarbonate, be- coming opaque and friable, and much less pungent It is soluble in about four times its weight of cold water, and is decomposed by boiling water with effervescence of carbonic acid. According to Dr. Barker, (Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia,) it dissolves abundantly in diluted alcohol; as also in heated alcohol of the sp. gr. 0.836, with effer- vescence of carbonic acid. When heated on a piece of glass, it ought to evaporate without residue, and if turmeric paper held over it undergoes no change, it is proved to have passed into bicarbonate. It is decom- posed by acids, alkalies and their carbonates, lime-water and magnesia, muriate of lime and supertartrate of potassa, the preparations of iron except the tartrate of iron and potassa, corrosive sublimate, the acetate and subacetate of lead, and the sulphates of iron and zinc. Composition.—It consists, according to Phillips, of three equiv. of carbonic acid 66, two equiv. of ammonia 34, and two equiv. of water 18=118; or which conies to the same thing, of one equiv. of bicarbo- nate 61, and one equiv. of the regular carbonate 39, combined with the same quantity of water. The medicinal carbonate of ammonia, when perfect, is, therefore, a hydrated sesquicarbonate, and not a subcarbo- nate, as called by the London and Edinburgh Colleges. When converted into bicarbonate by exposure to the air, it probably loses one equiv. of the regular carbonate. The mutual decomposition of the salts employed in its preparation, would generate, if no loss occurred, the regular carbonate, and not a sesquicarbonate. The way in which the latter salt is formed may be thus explained. By the mutual decomposition of three equiv. of muriate of ammonia and of chalk respectively, three equiv. of car- bonate of ammonia, three of water, and three of chloride of calcium may be conceived to be generated. During the operation, one equiv. of ammonia and one equiv. of water are lost; so that there remain to be sublimed, three equiv. of carbonic acid, two of ammonia, and two of PART II. Ammonia. 731 water, or in other words, the exact constituents of the hydrated sesqui- carbonate. Medical Properties and Uses.—Carbonate of ammonia is stimulant, dia- phoretic, antispasmodic, powerfully antacid, and in large doses emetic. Under certain circumstances it may prove expectorant; as when, in the last stages of phthisis, it assists, by increasing the muscular energy, the excretion of the sputa. As a stimulant, it is exhibited principally in typhus fever, and very frequently in connexion with wine-whey. Its principal advantage in this disease, is its power to increase the action of the heart and arteries, without unduly exciting the brain. It is employed, with a view to the same effect, and as an antacid, in certain states of atonic gout, and in the derangements of the stomach supervening on habits of irregularity and debauchery. As a diaphoretic, it is resorted to in gout and chronic rheumatism, particularly the latter, in conjunction with guaiac. It is very seldom used as an emetic; but is said to act with advantage, in this way, in some cases of paralysis. As an external appli- cation, it is rubefacient, and maybe employed in several ways. Reduced to fine powder, and mixed with some mild ointment, it is useful in local rheumatism. One part of it, incorporated with three parts of extract of belladonna, forms a plaster very efficacious in relieving local and spas- modic pains. Coarsely bruised, and scented with oil of lavender, it con- stitutes the common smelling salts, so much used as a nasal stimulant in syncope and hysteria. The dose as a stimulant, is from five to ten grains, every two, three, or four hours, in the form of pill, or dissolved in some aqueous vehicle; and as an emetic, thirty grains, to be repeated if necessary, and assisted by free dilution. It should never be given in powder, on account of its volatile nature. Pills of it may be made up with some vegetable extract, as of chamomile for example, and should be dispensed in a wide mouthed phial, and not in a box. Off. Prep. Cuprum Ammoniatum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Ammoniae Acetatis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Ammonias Subcar- bonatis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Ammoniae, Dub. LIQUOR AMMONITE SUBCARBONATIS. Lond. Solutio Sub-Carbonatis Ammonle. Ed. Ammonle Carbonatis Aqua. Dub. Solution of Subcarbonate of Ammonia. " Take of Subcarbonate of Ammonia four ounces, [one part, Ed.']; Distilled Water a pint, [four parts, Ed.] Dissolve the Subcarbonate of Ammonia in the Water, and filter through paper." Lond. "Take of Carbonate of Ammonia, four parts; Distilled Water^een parts. Dissolve the Carbonate of Ammonia in the Water, and filter through paper. The specific gravity of the solution is 1.090." Dub. This preparation may be viewed as a saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia in water, the proportions employed being but slightly dif- ferent, as directed by the different Colleges. It is very properly omitted in the United States Pharmacopoeia, as it is liable to change by keeping. The dose is from half a fluidrachm to a fluidrachm, given in any bland liquid. Off. Prep. Ammoniae Bicarbonas, Dub.; Linimentum Ammoniae Sub- carbon atis, Lond. AMMONITE BICARBONAS. Bub. Bicarbonate of Ammonia. " Take of Water of Carbonate of Ammonia any quantity. Expose it, in a suitable apparatus, to a stream of carbonic acid gas, evolved during the solution of white marble in diluted muriatic acid, until the alkali is 732 Ammonia. PART II. saturated. Then let it rest to form crystals, which are to be dried with- out heat, and kept in a closely stopped vessel." Dub. This salt has been made officinal in the late revision of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, and is peculiar to that work. The process by which it is formed consists in saturating the sesquicarbonate (officinal carbonate) with carbonic acid, whereby this salt becomes a bicarbonate. The ses- quicarbonate consists of three equiv. of acid, two of ammonia, and two of water; and, by gaining one equiv. of carbonic acid, becomes a bicar- bonate, consisting of four equiv. of acid, two of ammonia, and two of water. These proportions reduced to their lowest terms give for the composition of this bisalt, two equiv. of carbonic acid, one of ammonia, and one of water. It thus would seem to differ from the bicarbonate ob- tained by exposing the sesquicarbonate for a long time to the air,, only in containing one equiv. less of water. (See remarks under Ammoniae Carbonas.) The above is the rationale of the formation of this salt given by Dr. Barker, the Commentator on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia; but it is probable that the bicarbonate obtained by the Dublin process, espe- cially as it is crystallized, contains at least as much water as the same salt procured from the sesquicarbonate by exposure to the air. Bicarbonate of ammonia, as prepared by this process, is in the form of crystals, which are much less, ammoniacal in taste and smell, and more permanent in the air, than the sesquicarbonate. It is also less soluble in water, requiring eight times its weight of that liquid to dissolve it. It possesses, though in an inferior degree, the medical properties of the sesquicarbonate. As it furnishes the practitioner with the means of prescribing ammonia in a convenient and palatable form, Dr. Barker deems its introduction into the officinal list of the Dublin College, a valuable improvement. It ought to have been shown, however, in what respect the Dublin preparation differs from the bicarbonate, obtained by exposing the sesquicarbonate to the air; for if they be identical, it cannot be necessary to resort to the Dublin formula for preparing this bisalt. The dose of bicarbonate of ammonia is from six to twenty-four grains, dissolved in cold water, as hot water decomposes it. AQUA AMMONITE. U.S., Ed. Liquor Ammonlze. Lond. Am- monia Caustice Aqua. Bub. Water of Ammonia. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia, in very fine powder, a pound; Lime, recently burnt, a pound and a half; Distilled Water a pint; Water nine fluidounces. Break the Lime in pieces, and pour the Water upon it, in an earthen or iron vessel; then cover the vessel, and set it aside till the Lime falls into powder, and becomes cold. Mix this thoroughly with the Muriate of Ammonia in a mortar, and immediately introduce the mixture into a glass retort. Place the retort upon a sand-bath, and adapt to it a receiver, previously connected, by means of a glass tube, with a quart bottle containing the Distilled Water. Then apply heat, to be gradually increased till the bottom of the iron vessel containing the sand becomes red-hot; and continue the process so long as the Am- monia comes over. Remove the liquor contained in the quart bottle, and preserve it in small phials well stopped. The specific gravity of Water of Ammonia is 0.944." U.S. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia eight ounces; fresh Lime six ounces; Water four pints. Pour a pint of the Water upon the Lime; then cover the vessel, and set it aside for an hour. Next add the Muriate of Am- monia and the rest of the Water previously heated to ebullition, and again cover the vessel. Strain the liquor after it has become cold, and PART II. Ammonia. 733 distil from it twelve fluidounces of Solution of Ammonia into a receiver, the temperature of which does not exceed 50°. The specific gravity of Solution of Ammonia is 0.960." Lond. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia, in powder, three parts; Lime, recent- ly burnt, two parts; Water ten parts. Pour one part of the Water pre- viously heated, on the Lime, placed in an earthen vessel, and cover it. Dissolve the salt in the remainder of the Water, also heated. When the Lime has fallen into powder and become cool, put it into a retort, and add to it the saline solution also cold. Then distil five parts with a me- dium heat into a refrigerated receiver. The specific gravity of this So- tion is 0.950." Dub. The Edinburgh process for Ihis preparation is nearly the same with that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; the latter having been copied from the former, with the unimportant differences of substituting a pint of dis- tilled water for a pound, and nine fluidounces of water for nine ounces, changes which cause the U. S. preparation to be somewhat weaker than the Edinburgh, which has the sp. gr. 0.939. The object of the above processes is to obtain an aqueous solution of the alkaline gas ammonia. The muriate of ammonia is decomposed by the superior attraction of the lime for its acid, ammonia is disengaged, and the lime combining with the acid, forms chloride of calcium and water. The ammonia is either evolved from the dry materials, and pass- ed into water, by which it is absorbed, as in the U. S. and Edinburgh processes, or distilled over in connexion with water, as directed by the London and Dublin Colleges. The lime is required to be recently burnt, to ensure its causticity; for if partly carbonated, it would give rise to a portion of carbonate of ammonia. It is slaked to render it pulverulent, in which state, it acts more readily on the finely pulverised muriate of ammonia. The receiver directed in the U. S. process is intended to retain any water holding in solution undecomposed muriate, or oily mat- ter sometimes contained in this salt, which may be driven over by the heat; while the pure gas passes forward through the glass tube into the bottle containing the distilled water, which should not more than half fill it, on account of the increase of bulk which it acquires during the absorption of the gas. The tube should continue clown to near the bottom of the bottle, and pass through a cork, which loosely fits its mouth. To prevent the regurgitation of the water from the bottle into the re- ceiver, the latter should be furnished with a Welter's tube of safety. Large bottles are improper for keeping the water of ammonia obtained; as when partially empty, the atmospheric air contained within them, is apt to furnish some carbonic acid to the ammonia. In the London process, a boiling solution of muriate of ammonia being added to the slaked lime, the decomposition of the muriate takes place before the distillation is commenced, and results in the formation of am- monia which dissolves in part of the water, and of the solution of muri- ate of lime. An excess of lime being used, the object of straining is to separate it, and, consequently, the clear liquid contains nothing but the mixed solutions of ammonia and of muriate of lime. When subjected to distillation, so as to draw off a limited portion of liquid, the solution of ammonia comes over, and the muriate of lime is left behind dissolved in the larger part of the water. The receiver is not allowed to exceed the temperature of 50°, in order to prevent the loss of gas which the high temperature of the product might occasion. The principle of the Dublin process is the same as that of the London. The difference con- sists in dispensing with the straining, so that the residue of the opera- 734 Ammonia. part it tion consists of the solution of muriate of lime, mixed with the supera- bundant lime. Dr. Barker objects to the Dublin formula that the am- monia is apt to be generated in the retort faster than the water present can take it up, which circumstance causes a loss. He, therefore, believes it would be an improvement in this formula to direct, that part of the water should be placed in the receiver. The proportion of lime is very different, as used in the different for- mulae. The equivalent proportions are 54 of salt to 28 of lime; or a quantity of the latter only a little more than half the weight of the for- mer. By the numbers expressing the proportions of the ingredients em- ployed, it is shown, therefore, that all the Pharmacopoeias use an excess of lime, the excess being least in the Dublin. The earth is particularly in excess in the U. S. and Edinburgh processes, and Mr. Phillips alleges that its bulk is an inconvenience by requiring large vessels; but Dr. Hope contends that the excess of lime is useful by accelerating the dis- engagement of the ammonia, and in rendering a less elevated tempera- ture necessary. The excess of lime to the extent directed by the Dub- lin College, is stated by Dr. Barker to be necessary to compensate for the impurities in ordinary lime. The use of no more lime than is abso- lutely required, has the incidental advantage of rendering the residual solution of muriate of lime less impure; an object oJF some importance where it is reserved for purification, as is done by the Dublin College. Water of ammonia is usually prepared in large quantities by the man- ufacturing chemist. To save the expense of glass or earthenware re- torts, a cast iron boiler is employed, furnished with a copper head, which communicates with glass receivers, arranged as already explained. The materials being placed in the boiler, the head is luted on with a mixture of lime and white of eggs. This apparatus, according to Thenard, offers the advantages of allowing considerable quantities of the materials to be operated on at a time, and of permitting an admixture of water, which, by bringing the lime to a pasty consistence, facilitates remarkably the decomposition of the muriate. When a strong water of ammonia is re- quired, the water employed to absorb the gas should equal in weight the muriate decomposed. The manufacturing chemists generally obtain a very strong solution, and afterwards reduce it to the medicinal standard, as ascertained by its specific gravity, by the addition of the requisite portion of water. Sulphate of ammonia may be used in this process, instead of the muriate, as proposed by Payen, with very economical re- sults. Properties.—Water of ammonia is a colourless liquid, of a caustic, acrid taste, and peculiar and pungent smell. It is strongly alkaline, and immediately changes turmeric to reddish-brown, when held over its fumes. When concentrated, its contact blisters the tongue and skin. Cooled down to 40° below zero, it concretes in a gelatinous mass, and at the temperature of 130°, enters into ebullition, owing to the rapid disengagement of the gas. It possesses a very strong affinity for carbonic acid, and when insecurely kept, attracts it from the atmosphere. When pure, it evaporates in a glass capsule without residue. The presence of carbonic acid may be detected by its effervescing with acids, and affording a precipitate when poured into lime-water. It unites with oils and forms a liquid soap, and dissolves resins and many other vegetable principles. Its sp. gr. is in an inverse proportion to its strength. When as concentrated as possible, it weighs 0.875 at the temperature of 50°. Its sp. gr. in its various officinal states has been already indicated. It PART ii. Ammonia. 735 is incompatible with all the acids, and with most of the earthy and me- tallic salts. Composition.—Water is capable of absorbing a third of its weight, or 430 times its volume of ammoniacal gas, and increases in bulk about two-thirds. But the officinal water of ammonia is by no means saturated. Thus the percentage of ammonia contained in the preparations of the different Pharmacopoeias is nearly as follows:—London 10 per cent; Dublin 12|; U. S. 14£; and Edinburgh 15.8. The following table, con- structed by Sir H. Davy, gives the percentage of ammoniacal gas in aqueous solutions of different specific gravities. Specific Ammonia Specific Ammonia Specific Ammonia Gravity. per cent. Gravity. per cent. Gravity. per cent. 0.8750 32.50 0.9326 17.52 0.9545 11.56 0.8875 29.25 0.9385 15.88 0.9573 10.82 0.9000 26.00 0.9435 14.53 0.9597 10.17 0.9054 25.37 0.9476 13.46 0.9619 9.60 0.9166 22.07 0.9513 12.40 0.9692 9.50 0.9255 19.54 Properties of Gaseous Ammonia.—All the ammoniacal compounds owe their distinctive properties to the presence of a peculiar gaseous com- pound of hydrogen and nitrogen, called ammonia. It is most easily ob- tained by the action of lime upon muriate of ammonia. It is transparent and colourless like common air, and possesses an acrid and hot taste, and an exceedingly pungent smell. It has a powerful alkaline reaction, and from its gaseous nature, was called volatile alkali by the earlier che- mists. Its sp. gr. is 0.59. It is irrespirable, the glottis closing spasmo- dically when the attempt is made to breathe it. It consists of one equiv. of nitrogen 14, and three equiv. of hydrogen 3 = 17; or in volumes, of one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, condensed into two volumes. Medical Properties and Uses.—Water of ammonia is stimulant, antacid, and rubefacient. It is rarely used internally; other ammoniacal prepa- rations being preferred, the doSe of which is larger and more easily ma- naged. As a stimulant, it is occasionally employed in paralysis, hyste- ria, syncope, asphyxia, and similar affections, with a view to rouse the vital powers. In the same complaints it is often applied to the nostrils with advantage. As an antacid, it is one of the best remedies in heart- burn, and for the relief of sick headach, when dependent on acidity of sto- mach. In these cases it acts usefully also as a stimulant. Externally ap- plied, it may be made to act either as a rubefacient or vesicatory. As a rubefacient it is employed united to oil in the form of volatile liniment (See Linimentum Ammoniae.) As a vesicatory, it is applied by means of a piece of linen wet with it The close is from five to twenty drops, largely diluted with water to prevent its caustic effect on the mouth and throat. In graduating the dose, the particular officinal preparation employed must be taken into the account, as these differ considerably in strength. It is on account of the high strength of the water of ammonia of the Edinburgh College, considered as a medicine, that a diluted preparation is directed by that College under a separate name. (See Aqua Ammoniae Diluta, Ed.) When swallowed in an over-dose, its effects are those of a corrosive poison. The best antidote that can be used is vinegar, which acts by neutralizing the ammonia, and which must be promptly applied 736 Ammonia. part it to be useful. The consecutive inflammation must be treated on general principles. Water of ammonia is used pharmaceutically as a precipitant, in pre- paring morphia {U. S.), the precipitated phosphate of lime {Dub.), and the oxide of zinc {U. S., Lond.). Off. Prep. Aqua Ammoniae Diluta, Ed.; Hydrargyri Submurias Am- moniatum, Dub.; Linimentum Ammoniae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Lini- mentum Camphorae Compositum, Lond., Dub.; Linimentum Hydrargyri, Lond.; Liquor Ammoniae Hydrosulphatis, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Ammoniae Succinatus, Lond. AQUA AMMONIA DILUTA. Ed. Diluted Water of Am- monia. "Take of Water of Ammonia one part; Distilled Water two parts. Mix them." Ed. The Edinburgh College, considering their water of ammonia to be inconveniently if not dangerously strong for internal exhibition, have di- rected this formula for its dilution. It is true that the strong prepara- tion is always diluted at the moment it is taken; but the objection to it still holds, that it is exceedingly pungent, and its dose being only a few drops, is not so convenient to apportion, and may be given by mistake, unduly concentrated. This preparation is, of course, one-third of the strength of the strong water of ammonia of this College, or will contain about 5.3 per cent, of ammonia. Its dose is from fifteen to thirty drops, duly diluted with water. LIQUOR AMMONLE ACETATIS. U.S., Lond. Aqua Ace- tatis Ammonia. Ed. Ammonia Acetatis Aqua. Bub. Solution of Acetate of Ammonia. Spirit of Mindererus. "Take of Diluted Acetic Acid a pint; Carbonate of Ammonia, in powder, a sufficient quantity. Add the Carbonate of Ammonia gradually to the Acid, stirring constantly, until effervescence ceases." U.S. " Take of Subcarbonate of Ammonia two ounces; Diluted Acetic Acid [Distilled Vinegar] four pints, or a sufficient quantity. Add the Acid to the Subcarbonate of Ammonia, until effervescence ceases, and mix." Lond. " Take of Sub-Carbonate of Ammonia, in powder, any quantity; Weak Acetic Acid [Distilled Vinegar] a sufficient quantity. Add the Acid gradually until the Sub-Carbonate is accurately saturated." Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Ammonia one part. Add gradually, and with frequent agitation, as much Distilled Vinegar as may be necessary to saturate the ammonia, namely, about thirty parts. The saturation may be ascertained by means of litmus." Dub. This preparation is an aqueous solution of acetate of ammonia. The process by which it is formed constitutes a case of single elective affinity. The acetic acid decomposes the carbonate, combines with the ammonia, forming the acetate of ammonia, and disengages the carbonic acid, the escape of which causes the effervescence. The British Colleges employ distilled vinegar, while, according to the United States Pharmacopceia, the saturation is effected with a pure acetic acid, diluted to a determinate extent with water. {See Acidum Aceticum Dilutum, U.S.) The use of the acid in the latter form is a decided improvement; for besides fur- nishing the solution of the acetate of uniform strength, a result which cannot be attained by the employment of distilled vinegar, it avoids the production of a brownish solution, which uniformly follows the use of the latter, especially when it has been condensed in a metallic worm. PART II. Ammonia. 737 The quantity of carbonate of ammonia necessary to saturate a given weight of the acid of average strength, cannot be laid down with any accuracy, on account of the variable quality of this salt. When the acid is of the sp. gr. 1.009, Mr. Phillips found a pint of it to require for saturation within a few grains of seven drachms. The addition of the salt to the acid, as directed in the U. S. Pharmacopceia, is more conve- nient than the contrary order; as the point of saturation is thus more easily attained. This point is best determined by the alternate use of turmeric and litmus paper; and it is a good rule to allow rather a slight acidity to prevail, which will be due to carbonic acid dissolved in the liquid, and will disappear as soon as this acid is dissipated by time. Properties.—Solution of acetate of ammonia is a limpid and nearly colourless liquid when made of pure materials. Its taste is saline, and resembles that of a mixture of nitre and sugar. It should not be made in large quantities at a time, as its acid becomes decomposed, and a portion of carbonate of ammonia is generated. As formerly prepared, under the name of spiritus Mindereri, it was made from the impure carbonate of ammonia, containing animal oil, which modified the pro- duct by giving rise to a portion of ammoniacal soap. It is incompatible with acids, the fixed alkalies and their carbonates, lime-water, magnesia, sulphate of magnesia, corrosive sublimate, the sulphates of iron, cop- per, and zinc, and nitrate of silver. When it contains free carbonic acid, it produces with the acetate or subacetate of lead, a precipitate of carbonate of lead, which being mistaken for a sulphate, has sometimes led to the erroneous supposition of the presence of sulphuric acid in the distilled vinegar, when this has been employed. Acetate of ammonia, the salt in solution in this preparation, is difficultly crystallizable, and very deliquescent. It may be obtained by sublimation, from a mixture of equal parts of dry acetate of potassa or of lime, and muriate of am- monia. It consists of one equiv. of acetic acid 51, and one equiv. of ammonia 17=68. When crystallized it contains seven equiv. of water 63. Medical Properties and Uses.—Solution of acetate of ammonia is a diaphoretic, much employed in febrile and inflammatory diseases. Ac- cording to the indications to be answered by its use, it is variously com- bined with nitre and antimonials, camphor and opium. If, instead of promoting its determination to the skin by external warmth, the patient walk about in a cool air, its action will be directed to the kidneys. It it sometimes used externally as a discutient. Mr. Brande speaks of it as an excellent application in mumps, applied hot upon a piece of flannel. Mixed in the proportion of a fluidounce with seven fluidounces of rose- water, and two fluidrachms of laudanum, it forms a useful collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. Dr. A. T. Thomson has used it as a lotion with the best effect in a case of porrigo affecting the scalp. The dose is from half a fluidounce to a fluidounce and a half, every three or four hours. It proves sometimes very grateful to febrile patients, when mixed with an equal measure of carbonic acid water. LIQUOR AMMONLE HYDROSULPHATIS. U.S. Hydro- Sulphuretum Ammonije. Ed. Ammonia Hydrosulphuretum. Dub. Solution of Hydrosulphate of Ammonia. Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia. " Take of Water of Ammonia four fluidountes. Pass Hydrosulphuric Acid through the Water of Ammonia, in a suitable vessel, to perfect saturation. Let the solution be kept in a well stopped bottle. 93 738 Ammonia. PART II. " Hydrosulphuric Acid is obtained from the Sulphuret of Iron, and Sulphuric Acid diluted with four times its weight of Water." U.S. " Take of Water of Ammonia, Sulphuret of Iron, each, four ounces; Muriatic Acid eight ounces; Water two pounds and a half. Pour the Acid, previously mixed with the Water, upon the Sulphuret, and pass the Gas extricated from them through the Water of Ammonia. Keep the solu- tion in a phial, very well stopped." Ed. " Take of Sulphuret of Iron, in coarse powder, five parts; Sulphuric Acid seven parts; Water thirty-two parts; Water of Caustic Ammonia four parts. Put the Sulphuret into a retort; then gradually pour on the Acid, previously diluted with the Water, and in a suitable apparatus, transmit the gas evolved through the Water of Ammonia. Towards the end of the process, apply a gentle heat to the retort." Dub. This preparation is a solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia in water, and is formed by passing a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas (sulphu- retted hydrogen) through a portion of water of ammonia, the operation being usually performed in a Wolfe's bottle. In the United States and Dublin processes, the hydrosulphuric acid is generated by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on sulphuret of iron. The water yields its oxygen to the iron forming protoxide of iron, with which the sulphuric acid combines; while the hydrogen of the water, uniting with the sulphur, gives rise to the hydrosulphuric acid. In the Edinburgh formula, the same acid is formed by the action of dilute muriatic acid on sulphuret of iron; in which case the rationale is similar to the above, the only difference being that the residual salt is a muriate of iron instead of a sulphate. In the Edinburgh and Dublin processes, the ingredients, in certain specified quantities, for producing the hydrosulphuric acid, are enumerated in the formula; in the United States process, the mode of obtaining it is explained in a general way in an appended paragraph. In the two former processes, 'the gas extricated from the given weight of ingredients is supposed to be all absorbed by the water of ammonia; in the latter, the limit to the generation of the gas is the accomplishment of the complete saturation of the alkali, which is the better rule. Sul- phuric acid is to be preferred for extricating the gas to muriatic acid, both Cn account of its cheapness, and its fixed nature, which makes it less liable than muriatic acid to come over and contaminate the product. Properties.—Solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia is a liquid of a greenish-yellow colour, very fetid smell, and acrid and disagreeable taste. It is characterized by giving coloured precipitates with neutral metallic solutions, for which it is much used as a test It is decomposed by acids, which cause the escape of hydrosulphuric acid with efferves- cence, and the deposition of sulpfiur. Medical Properties and Uses.—This preparation acts on the living sys- tem as a powerful sedative, lessening the action of the heart and arte- ries in a remarkable degree, and producing nausea and vomiting, vertigo and drowsiness. It is used only in diabetes mellitus, in which disease it was proposed as a remedy by Mr. Cruickshank, for the purpose of les- sening the morbid appetite, which often attends that affection, and has been employed by Dr. Rollo and others. The dose is from five to six drops in a tumblerful of water three or four times a day, gradually in- creasing the close until giddiness is produced. PART II. Antimonium. 739 ANTIMONIUM. Preparations of Antimony. ANTIMONII OXYDUM NITRO-MURIATICUM. Dub. Ni- iro-Muriatic Oxide of Antimony. "Take of Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony twenty parts; Muriatic Acid one hundred parts; Nitric Acid one part. Add the Sulphuret gra- dually to the Acids, previously mixed in a glass vessel, avoiding the va- pours. Digest with a heat gradually increased, until the effervescence cease, and then boil for an hour. Receive the cooled and filtered liquor in a gallon of water. Wash the Oxide of Antimony, after it has subsid- ed, repeatedly, in a sufficiently large quantity of water, until the liquid poured off be perfectly free from acid, as known by the test of litmus. Lastly, dry the oxide on bibulous paper." The object of this process is to obtain the protoxide of antimony. When sulphuret of antimony is dissolved, with the aid of heal, in mu- riatic acid, the oxygen of the water converts the metal into protoxide, which, uniting with the acid, forms muriate of antimony in solution, while il-i hydrogen, uniting with the sulphur, generates hydrosulphuric acid gas. (sulphuretted hydrogen), which being extricated, causesthe effervescence. The presence of the hydrosulphuric acid in the solution, is useful at first in preventing the antimony from passing into a, higher stage of oxidation than that of protoxide. The solution of muriate of antimony being poured into water, immediately causes a white flocculeht precipitate, which, as first precipitated, is considered to be the protoxide, containing a portion of muriatic acid, sometimes called submuriate of antimony, the powder of Algaroth of old pharmacy. This precipitate, when thoroughly washed, is freed from the muriatic acid, and becomes pure protoxide of antimony. The heat should be applied moderately at first, for fear the materials should unduly swell up; but towards the close of the process it ought to be increased, to ensure the complete action of the acid. The small portion of nitric acid used by the Dublin College, is not essential to the process for forming this oxide; but is useful in decomposing any remains of hydrosulphuric acid which may exist in the solution, and which, by its presence, would impair the whiteness of the oxide, when precipitated in the next step of the process by the water. The employment of nitric acid, for the purposcof giving whiteness to the product of this formula, originated with Dr. Percival of Dublin. Properties.—This oxide is in the form of a white powder. When ex- posed to a red heat it enters into fusion, and forms a yellow liquid, which, on cooling, concretes into a grayish crystalline mass, of a pearly aspect. When perfectly pure, it consists of one equiv. of antimony 44, and one equiv. of oxygen 8=52. Medical Properties and Uses, fyc.—The oxide was formerly used in medicine, but owing to its unequal operation, it has been laid aside. It is employed in pharmacy in the preparation of tartar emetic, for which purpose it is placed among the preparations of the Dublin Phar- macopoeia. It is also applied to the same use in the United States Pharmacopoeia, but without being recognised under a distinct name, being formed as one step of the process adopted in that work for pre- paring tartar emetic. The name given to this oxide by the Dublin Col- lege is very exceptionable. It is not formed on correct chemical princi- 740 Antimonium. PART II. pies; neither has it any pharmaceutical convenience to recommend it. As this compound of antimony and oxygen is the only one which is salifiable, the others being acids, a better name for it would have been Antimonii Oxidum. Off. Prep. Antimonii et Potassae Tartras, Dub. ANTIMONII ET POTASS^ TARTRAS. U.S., Dub. Anti- monium Tartarizatum. Lond. Tartras Antimonii. Ed. Tar- trate of Antimony and Potassa. Tartarized Antimony. Emetic Tartar. "Take of Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony two ounces; Muriatic Acid twelve ounces and a half; Nitric Acid a drachm; Water a gallon. Having mixed the acids together in a glass vessel, add by degrees the Sulphuret of Antimony, and digest the Mixture, with a gradually in- creasing heat, till effervescence ceases; then boil for an hour. Filter the liquor when it is cold, and pour it into the Water. Wash the precipi- tated powder frequently with water, till it is entirely freed from acid, and then dry it. Take of this powder two ounces; Supertartrate of Po- tassa, in very fine powder, two ounces and a half; Distilled Water eighteen fluidounces. Boil the Water in a glass vessel; then add the powders, previously mixed together, and boil for half an hour; lastly, filter the liquor through paper, and set it aside to crystallize." U.S. " Take of Nitro-Muriatic Oxide of Antimony four parts; Bitartrate of Potassa, in very fine powder, five parts; Distilled Water thirty-four parts. Boil the Water in a glass vessel; then gradually throw into it the Oxide and Bitartrate of Potassa, previously mixed, and boil for half an hour; then filter the liquor through paper, and crystallize by slow cool- ing." Dub. " Take of Glass of Antimony, in very fine powder, Supertartrate of Potassa, each, a pound; boiling Distilled Water a gallon. Mix the Glass of Antimony and the Supertartrate of Potassa intimately together, and throw the mixture by degrees into the boiling Distilled Water, stir- ring constantly with a rod. Boil the whole for a quarter of an hour, and set it aside. Filter it when cold, and evaporate the filtered liquor, that crystals may form." Lond. "Take of Sulphuret of Antimony and Nitrate of Potassa' equal weights; Supertartrate of Potassa a sufficient quantity. Powder the Sulphuret and Nitrate separately, and having mixed them thoroughly, throw them into a red-hot crucible. When the deflagration is finished, separate the red- dish matter obtained from the white crust, and rub it into a very fine powder, which is to be washed with abundance of warm water, and then dried. Mix this powder, by trituration, with an equal weight of Super- tartrate of Potassa, and boil the mixture in a glass vessel, with four times its weight of Distilled Water, for an hour; then filter through paper, and evaporate the filtered liquor, so that crystals may form." Ed. This preparation is a double salt, consisting of the tartrate of potassa, united to the tartrate of antimony. The principle of its formation is exceedingly simple, being merely the saturation of the excess of acid in the bitartrate of potassa (cream of tartar), with protoxide of antimony. The various officinal processes for its preparation all agree in boiling cream of tartar with some form of antimonial protoxide, and only differ in the particular one selected, and in some minor details of manipulation. The United States Pharmacopceia, following the Dublin, employs the precipitated protoxide, {nitro-muriatic oxide, Dub.); while the London College uses the glass of antimony, and the Edinburgh the crocus. The PART II. Antimonium. 741 nitro-muriatic oxide and glass have been described under other heads, to which the reader is referred for their mode of preparation and pro- perties. (See Antimonii Oxydum Nitro-Muriaticum, and Antimonii Vi- trum.) In the Edinburgh formula for tartar emetic, the crocus is formed in the first part of the process, and not being prepared by a separate formula, will be described in this place. It is generated during the de- flagration of the sulphuret of antimony and nitrate of potassa. The nitric acid of the nitre is decomposed, and by furnishing oxygen to part of the sulphuret, converts its constituents into sulphuric acid and pro- toxide of antimony. The sulphuric acid then combines with the potassa of the nitre, to form sulphate of potassa, while the protoxide unites with the undecomposed portion of the sulphuret, to constitute the crocus. The white crust mentioned in the formula as rejected, consists of the sulphate of potassa formed as above. Crocus of antimony is in the form of a liver-brown opaque vitrified mass. When too little nitre has been used in its preparation, it is steel-gray. It consists, according to Proust, of three parts of protoxide of antimony, and one of sulphuret; and agrees, therefore, with glass of antimony, in being a mixture of pro- toxide and sulphuret, though containing a smaller proportion of the former. In the first part of the United States formula, directions are given for procuring the Dublin nitro-muriatic oxide of antimony, a prepara- tion not recognised under a distinct name, nor obtained by a separate process in pur national Pharmacopceia. The directions are nearly the same as those of the Dublin College, the acids being employed in the same proportions; but the quantity of sulphuret of antimony is less, in the United States process, in the proportion of sixteen to twenty. The latter part of the formula is an exact transcript, as to the quantities taken, of the process of the former Dublin Pharmacopceia, which, with the exception of a slight difference in the amount of water, is adopted in the revision of that work in 1826. Thus the proportions of the United States formula are, nitro-muriatic oxide 2 ounces, cream of tartar 2| ounces, water 18 fluidounces. Now 18 fluidounces of water weigh almost precisely 17 ounces. Substituting this weight, the proportions are as 2, 9.1, and 17, and when doubled, 4, 5, and 34, which are the identical numbers used in the Dublin formula. Assuming then the United States and Dublin formulae as identical, the following table will represent the proportions in which the materials for making tartar emetic are em- ployed in the four Pharmacopoeias noticed in this work. The measured portion of water of the London process is converted into its equivalent weight; and the quantity of antimonial oxide is assumed at the common quantity of four parts in each formula. Authority. Form of Protoxide employed. Proportion Proportion of of Protoxide. Cream of tartar. Proportion of AVater. U.S. & > p, c m ui- c "harm. < Dublin y I London Pharm. Edinburgh Pharm. Nitro-muriatic oxide. Glass. Crocus. 4 4 4 5 4 4 34 40 32 The U. S. and Dub. Pharmacopoeias direct the ebullition to be con- tinued for half an hour, filter the solution while hot, and, without con- centration, set it aside to crystallize. The London College boils for a quarter of an hour, and filters the solution when cold. The Edinburgh 749 Antimonium. PART II. College boils for an hour, and filters while hot. Both these Colleges eva- porate to crystallize. In judging of the relative eligibility of these processes, several circum- stances are to be taken into view; such as the proportions employed, the length of the ebullition, and the relative advantages of the antimonial oxide selected. The cream of tartar ought not to be in excess; as in this case it is apt to crystallize upon cooling with the tartar emetic. To avoid such a result it is better to have a slight excess of antimonial oxide. Upon inspecting the table just given, it would appear that the oxide is most deficient in the U. S. and Dublin formula; but in making the com- parison, it must be recollected that the nitro-muriatic oxide is a pure protoxide of antimony; while the glass and crocus contain a considerable quantity of sulphuret. Mr. Phillips, indeed, recommends that the glass in the London formula should be increased one-tenth ; while on the other hand, we are assured by Dr. Barker that the proportions of the Dublin (U. S.) formula furnish a slight excess of antimonial oxide. No other rule is applicable to the proportion of the water, except that it should be sufficient to dissolve the tartar emetic formed. The London Pharma- copoeia employs the largest quantity of water, and filters when cold; and perhaps it is sufficient, at common temperatures, to retain in solution all the tartar emetic formed. The hot filtration directed by the other Pharmacopoeias may be performed conveniently by means of the tin ap- paratus of Dr. Hare, for filtering liquors at the point of ebullition. (See p. 682, where this apparatus is figured.) Here the proportion of water is smaller; and if attention were not paid to preserving the heat of the li- quid while filtering, it would be apt to crystallize in the paper. Mr. Phillips very justly objects to the time prescribed for the ebullition in the London process as too short; and an hour, the period directed by the Edinburgh College, is unnecessarily long. Half an hour, the time ordered in the U. S. and Dub. processes, is, perhaps, a proper medium. But whenever any of these officinal processes which direct concentration are repeated on a small scale, it is necessary to supply the water which is lost by evaporation; otherwise the liquor will inevitably crystallize in the filter. In all cases, the salt should be obtained in well defined crystals, unmixed with those of cream of tartar, as the best index of its purity. The practice of some manufacturing chemists, therefore, of boiling the filtered liquor to dryness, whereby an impure mass is obtain- ed, only partly consisting of the antimonial salt, is very reprehensible. Though the glass of antimony will furnish good tartar emetic; yet there are several objections to its use. Thus it always contains as impurity, about five per cent of silica, and a small portion of peroxide of iron. Besides, it is sometimes mixed with glass of lead, an adulteration which is not easily detected by the eye. Even if it be obtained of good quality, it requires to be finely levigated; as it will otherwise only partially unite with the cream of tartar, as was pointed out by Mr. Phillips. The prin- cipal objection to the crocus, is that it is not easily obtained in the shops of good quality, and even when properly prepared, as by the formula of the Edinburgh College, it requires to be levigated and elutriated to make it readily unite with the cream of tartar? The use of the nitro-mu- riatic oxide is liable to none of these objections, and to no other, except its expense, which is one of very minor importance, where the purity of so important a medicine as tartar emetic is concerned. The prefer- ence is given to it by Berzelius; and M. Henry, an eminent pharmaceu- tist of Paris, after an elaborate comparison of the different processes, declares in favour of this oxide, as superior to all others for preparing part n. Antimonium. 743 this antimonial salt. The weight of authority being thus in favour of the nitro-muriatic oxide, the National Convention, in their late revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, acted judiciously in substituting the Dublin formula for tartar emetic, in place of Mr. Phillips's process originally adopted in the work. The process of Mr. Phillips, here alluded to, consists in boiling one part of subsulphate of antimony with an equal weight of cream of tartar, and six parts of water. The boiling is continued, until the liquid be- comes slightly turbid, when it is filtered, evaporated, and set aside to crystallize. The mother waters are twice successively boiled down, and two additional crops of crystals obtained, which, if not white, must be purified by solution and recrystallization. The subsulphate is formed by boiling powdered metallic antimony with twice its weight of sulphuric acid to dryness in an iron vessel, and washing the grayish product with water, until the uncombined sulphuric acid is separated. This substance, though called*a*subsulphate, is essentially the protoxide of antimony, the quantity of acid which it contains not constituting a definite proportion. Good tartar emetic may be obtained by this process, and Mr. Phillips has stated it to be very productive. M. Henry, however, objects to it on account of the inconstant composition of the subsulphate employed. The process of the Paris Codex coincides with that of the London College, in the employment of the glass; but it is very little followed, as the salt obtained by it requires repeated crystallizations to free it from the tartrates of lime and iron. It has been already mentioned that M. Henry preferred the use of the nitro-muriatic oxide for making tartar emetic; in other words, the Dub- lin process. He has thought, however, that it was susceptible of some improvements, and has given a process on a large scale, which he pre- fers. As this formula may be useful to the manufacturing chemist, we subjoin it, turning the French weights into the nearest apothecaries' weights and measures. Take of prepared sulphuret of antimony, in very fine powder, three pounds four ounces; muriatic acid, marking 22° (sp. gr. 1.178), eighteen pounds and a half; nitric acid two ounces and a half. Introduce the sulphuret into a glass matrass, of a capacity double the volume of the mixture to be formed, and add to it from three to five pounds of the acids previously mixed, so that the sulphuret may be tho- roughly penetrated by them ; then add the remainder of the acids. Place the matrass on a sand-bath, and heat the mixture gradually to ebullition; avoiding the vapours, which are disengaged in large quantity. Continue the heat, until the vapours given off are so far deprived of sulphuretted hydrogen, as not to blacken white paper, moistened with the solution of acetate of lead; after which allow the liquor to cool, and to remain at rest until it has become clear. Decant the clear liquid, and to obtain the portion of it which may be retained by the moist residue, mix this with a small portion of muriatic acid, and again decant. Mix the de- canted liquids, which consist of a solution of muriate of antimony, and add them to a large quantity of water, in order that the nitro-muriatic oxide may be precipitated; taking care, during their addition, to stir constantly, in order that the precipitated powder may be more minutely divided, to facilitate its subsequent washing. To determine whether the water has been sufficient to decompose the whole of the muriate, a part of the supernatant liquid, after the subsidence of the powder, is to be added to a fresh portion of water; and if a precipitate takes place, more water must be added to the mixture, so as to obtain the largest possible quantity of the nitro-muriatic oxide. The precipitation being 744 Antimonium. part ii. completely effected, wash the powder repeatedly with water, until this no longer affects litmus, and then place it on linen, to drain for twenty- four hours. The quantity of nitro-muriatic oxide thus obtained will be about three and a half pounds in the moist state, or two pounds nine ounces when. dry. Assuming it to be this quantity, mix it with three pounds eleven ounces of cream of tartar, in fine powder, and add the mix- ture to two gallons and five pints of boiling water, contained in an iron kettle. Concentrate the liquor rapidly until it marks 25° of Baume's hydrometer for salts, and then filter. By repose, the liquor furnishes a crop of very pure crystals, which require only to be dried. The mother waters are treated in the following manner. Saturate the excess of acid with chalk, filter, and concentrate to 25°. By cooling, a second crop of crystals is obtained; and by proceeding in a similar manner, even a third crop. But the crystals thus obtained are somewhat coloured, and must be purified byrecrystallization. With regard to the above process, it is to be observed,'that the pro- portions of the cream of tartar and antimonial oxide must be adjusted according to the numbers given, on the assumption that the latter is dry; but it by no means follows that the whole of the oxide should be dried, which would cause a waste of time. The mode of proceeding is to weigh the whole of the moist oxide, and afterwards to weigh off a small part of it, and to ascertain how much this loses in drying. Then by a calculation it is easy to determine how much of the moist oxide must be taken, to be equivalent to any desired quantity of the dry. Properties.—Tartrate of antimony and potassa is a colourless, inodo- rous salt, possessing a nauseous, styptic taste, and crystallizing usually in rhombic octohedrons. When prepared from the nitro-muriatic oxide, it crystallizes in tetrahedrons, and the crystals are often an inch or more in diameter. As it occurs in the shops it is in the form of a white powder, formed by the pulverisation of the crystals. The crystals, when exposed to the air, effloresce slightly and become opaque. They are insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in about fourteen times their weight of cold, and twice their weight of boiling water. Dr. Percival, however, asserts that good tartar emetic dissolves in twelve times its weight of cold water. Dr. Barker'found that water saturated with this salt at a high tempera- ture, would retain more of it when cooled than it is capable of taking up at common temperatures. Its aqueous solution reddens litmus, and undergoes spontaneous decomposition by keeping. Sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acid, added to its solution, disturbs its transparency, and the alkalies and their carbonates precipitate the protoxide of antimony. It is decomposed also by some of the metals and their oxides, by lime-wa- ter, muriate of lime, acetate and subacetate of lead, and hydrosulphuric acid and its compounds. The decoctions and infusions of many plants, especially of those which are bitter and astringent, such as cinchona, rhubarb, galls, and catechu, are capable of decomposing it, and ought not to be associated with it in prescriptions. When tartar emetic is pure, it should exhibit its appropriate crystal- line form, and be entirely soluble in water. Its solution should not be precipitated by muriate of baryta, oxalate of ammonia, acidulous nitrate of silver, or acidulous acetate of lead. A precipitate by the first reagent indicates sulphuric acid; by the second, lime; by the third, muriatic acid; and by the fourth, cream of tartar. The most usual impurities which it contains, are uncombined cream of tartar arising either from the use of an excess of this salt in its preparation, or from its fraudulent ad- mixture; tartrate of lime; silica and iron; and sulphate of lime. The tar-- PART II. Antimonium. 745 trate of lime is derived from the cream of tartar, which always contains this impurity. It is liable to form on the surface of the crystals of tartar emetic in crystalline tufts, which are easily brushed off. Silica and iron are apt to be present when glass of antimony has been employed in pre- paring the antimonial salt, and the evaporation has been carried too far. Sulphate of lime is sometimes an impurity, when tartar emetic is pre- pared by means of the subsulphate of antimony. According to Serullas, all the antimonial medicines, except well crystallized tartar emetic, are liable to contain a minute portion of arsenic. The crystalline character of this salt being one of the best tests of its purity, it ought always to be purchased by the apothecary in crystals. It is, indeed, sometimes sold in powder to conceal its imperfections. Composition.—Tartar emetic consists of two equiv. of tartaric acid 132, one equiv. of potassa 48, three equiv. of protoxide of antimony 156, and two equiv. of water 18=354. It is evident, therefore, that it contains tartaric acid and potassa in the precise proportions to form bitartrate of potassa or cream of tartar; and accordingly, it may be viewed as a compound of one equiv. of cream of tartar, and three equiv. of antimo- nial protoxide. The excess of acid in the bitartrate may be considered as saturated by the protoxide; and in that view it is a double salt, com- posed of the tartrate of potassa and the tartrate of antimony. The name therefore, of the U. S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, is the most correct. Medical Properties and Uses.—Tartrate of potassa and antimony is the most important of the antimonials, and is capable of fulfilling numerous indications in disease. Its general action is that of a seda- tive upon the circulation; while on the contrary, it excites most of the secretions. According to the dose in which it is given, and the pecu- liar circumstances under which it is administered, it acts variously as an alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, and emetic. In minute doses, it is employed either alone, or conjoined with calomel, with a view to its alterative effects, and has been found useful in diseases of the skin. In small closes, mostly associated with saline remedies, such as nitre or sulphate of magnesia, and assisted by copious dilution, it is very frequently resorted to in febrile complaints, for the purpose of producing perspiration, which is often copiously induced, especially if the remedy create nausea. If the surface be exposed to cool air, so as to constrict the pores, the tendency will be to the kidneys, with the effect of pro- ducing an increased flow of urine. On the principle of exciting the se- cretions, it is found, on many occasions, to prove useful in pulmonary and bronchial disease as an expectorant; and with a view to its action in this way, it is frequently conjoined with squill, ammoniac, and si- milar remedies. In full closes, it acts as an emetic, and as such is cha- racterized by certainty, strength, and permanency of operation. It re- mains longer in the stomach than ipecacuanha, produces more frequent and longer continued efforts to vomit, and exerts a more powerful im- pression upon the system generally. The nausea and attendant prostra- tion are often very great. As an emetic, its use is indicated where the object is not merely to evacuate the stomach, but to agitate and compress the liver and other abdominal viscera. By the extension of its action to the duodenum, it causes copious discharges of bile, and hence forms an appropriate remedy in those diseases, in which there is an accumula- tion of that secretion. It is employed as an emetic in the commence- ment of fevers, especially those of a bilious character; in jaundice, hoop- ing cough, and spasmodic croup ; and in several diseases of the nervous system, such as mania, amaurosis, tic douleureux, &c. In efforts to re- 746 Antimonium. part ii. duce old dislocations, its relaxing effect is taken advantage of, in order to facilitate the operation. As an incidental effect to its diaphoretic and emetic operation, tartar emetic often produces purging. Taking ad- vantage of this tendency, practitioners are frequently in the habit of add- ing it to purgatives, the operation of which it promotes in a remarkable degree. It is contra-indicated in diseases of great debility, in the ad- vanced stages of febrile affections, and in fevers attended with extreme irritability of stomach. Of late years, on the continent of Europe, tartar emetic has been given in large doses in inflammatory diseases, with a view to its sedative, or, as it is usually termed, contra-stimulant operation. This practice origi- nated with Rasori in Italy, and has been followed to a considerable extent in that country and in France. As yet it has had but few imitators in Great Britain or the United States. The chief diseases in which tartar emetic has been thus used are bronchitis, inflammation of the chest, acute rheumatism, chorea, hydrocephalus, and apoplexy. It is directed in doses varying from a grain to two grains and a half every two hours, dissolved in a small quantity of water; the patient being restricted in the use of drinks, whilst under its operation. It is stated, that when the me- dicine is thus given in diseases of high action, it very seldom produces vomiting, an effect which the authors of the practice wish to avoid. The use of tartar emetic in the doses mentioned is certainly hazardous, and we cannot, therefore, recommend an imitation of the practice. It cannot properly supersede the use of blood-letting, which is a safer and more efficient means of reducing inflammation. In cases, however, in which bleeding, both local and general, has been carried as far as the circum- stances of the case will safely permit, and inflammatory action continues but partially subdued, the use of tartar emetic, in rather large doses, may often prove useful. , . Externally, tartar emetic is sometimes employed as a counter-irritant, mixed with lard, or sprinkled in very fine powder on adhesive plaster, or in a saturated aqueous solution. (See Unguentum Tartari Emetici, Dub.) It causes, after a longer or shorter interval, a painful burning sensation, accompanied by a peculiar pustular eruption. This mode of producing counter-irritation forms an exceedingly valuable remedy in a number of diseases; but particularly in deep seated pains, hooping cough, and chronic inflammation of the chest threatening consumption. Care must be taken, when the salt is applied by means of a plaster, that the pustular inflammation does not proceed too far; as in that event, it produces very painful deep seated ulcerations, difficult to heal. It acts by destroying the skin and subjacent cellular membrane in spots, without being absorbed. Tartar emetic is almost always given in solution, and in an amount which varies with the intention in view in its administration. Its dose as an alterative, is from the sixteenth to the eighth of a grain; as a dia- phoretic or expectorant, from an eighth to a sixth of a grain; and as a nauseating sudorific, from a quarter to half a grain; in each case, re- peated once every one, two, or four hours. As an emetic, the full dose is from two to three grains, though it is usually given in divided por- tions of a grain dissolved in a tablespoonful of water, every ten or filteen minutes until it vomits, the operation being aided by warm water, or warm chamomile lea. It is often conjoined with ipecacuanha, in the proportion of one or two grains to twenty of the vegetable emetic, ror convenient administration in small doses, the Pharmacopoeias order it dissolved in wine. (See Vinum Antimonii.) Toxicological Properties,—The symptoms produced by * poisonous PART II. Antimonium. 747 dose of tartar emetic are—an austere metallic taste; nausea; copious vomiting; frequent hickup; burning pain in the stomach; colic; copi- ous stools; fainting; small, contracted, and accelerated pulse; cold skin; sometimes intense heat; difficult respiration; loss of sense; convulsive movements; very painful cramps in the legs; prostration, and death. To these symptoms is sometimes added difficulty of deglutition. Vomit- ing and purging do not always take place; and when they are absent, the other symptoms are aggravated. If the patient has not vomited, im- mediate recourse must be had to tickling the throat with a feather, and the use of abundance of warm water. The administration of large quan- tities of oil will sometimes favour vomiting, and may prove useful. If vomiting be not quickly induced, it is necessary to give immediately a large amount of cinchona, mixed with water or in decoction, with a view to decompose the poison. If the bark be not at hand, decoctions of common tea should be administered, until the former can be obtained Alkaline sulphurets, according to Orfila, augment the irritation of the poison. Nevertheless, Dr. Duncan has recorded one case in which the sulphuret of potassa was completely successful. If the vomiting should be excessive, opium should be employed; and to combat the consecutive inflammation which is apt to be excited, bleeding, both local and gene- ral, and other antiphlogistic remedies, should be resorted to. Off. Prep. Mel Scillae Compositum, U.S.; Vinum Antimonii, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Tartari Emetici, Dub. VINUM ANTIMONII. U.S. Vinum Antimonii Tartarizati. Lond. Vinum Tartratis Antimonii. Ed. Liquor Tartari Emetici. Dub. Antimonial Wine. "Take of Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa a scruple; Wine [Tene- ^ riffe] ten fluidounces. Dissolve the Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa in the Wine." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges direct one scruple of the salt to be dissolved in eight fluidounces of boiling distilled water, and two fluid- ounces of Rectified Spirit to be added to the solution. By the Edinburgh process, twenty-four grains are dissolved in a pound of Sherry wine. In the revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia, the proportion of tartar emetic was altered from four to two grains to the fluidounce of wine, so that our formula now corresponds with that of the British Colleges, and the highly important object has been accomplished, of uniformity in the strength of this very popular preparation. The slight difference between the troy ounce of the Edinburgh formula, and the fluidounce of the others, is scarcely deserving of notice in a practical point of view. The present officinal name was adopted as most conve- nient, sufficiently expressive, and in accordance with the nomenclature of several other metallic preparations, such as Ceratum Arsenici, Em- plastrum Ferri, Mistura Ferri Composita, &c. Difficulty is often experienced in effecting a solution of tartar emetic in wine; and precipitation is very apt to occur after the solution has been effected. These results are attributable either to impurity in the antimonial salt, which frequently contains supertartrate of potassa and various insoluble matters, or to inferiority in the character of the wine, which holds in solution vegetable principles that form insoluble com- pounds with the protoxide of antimony. Dr. Paris states that he has seen the decomposition of the tartar emetic so complete, that no traces of the salt could be detected in the supernatant liquid. The difficulty is not avoided by the plan directed in the old Pharmacopoeia, of first dis- 748 Antimonium. TART II. solving the antimonial in water, and then adding the wine; for even allowing that the solution may be accomplished, the same ingredients are present, and their mutual reaction must ultimately result in the same effects. The proper course is to select perfectly pure crystallized tartar emetic, and sound Teneriffe or Sherry wine, which make a permanent solution. To obviate the risk of decomposition and consequent inequality of strength, the London and Dublin Colleges direct water and rectified spirit in about the proportions in which these exist in the wines just mentioned. The only objection to this menstruum is the want of colour, which renders the preparation liable to be confounded with less active liquids. The advantages of antimonial wine are, that it affords the means of administering minute doses of tartar emetic, and is more permanent than an aqueous solution of that salt, which is liable to spontaneous decomposition. It is usually administered in small doses as a diaphoretic or expectorant, or as an emetic in infantile cases. Where a considerable quantity of tartar emetic is requisite, it should always be given in ex- temporaneous aqueous solution. The dose of the wine as an expectorant or diaphoretic, is from ten to thirty drops, given frequently; as an emetic for infants, from thirty drops to a fluidrachm, repeated every fifteen minutes till it operates. ANTIMONII SULPHURETUM PRAEPARATUM. U.S., Dub. Sulphuretum Antimonii Prseparatum. Ed. Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony. ' j^ake of Sulphuret of Antimony any quantity. Prepare it in the manner directed for Carbonate of Lime." U.S. y " Powder Sulphuret of Antimony in an iron mortar, levigate it upon , a porphyry stone with a little water, and put it into a large vessel. Then pour water on it, and, after frequently agitating the vessel, pour it off, loaded with the fine powder. Allow the water to remain at rest, and when the powder has subsided, dry it. The coarse powder, which the water could not suspend, is to be again levigated, and treated in the same way." Ed. " Take of Sulphuret of Antimony any quantity. Reduce it to powder, and separate for use the impalpable particles, in the manner directed for the preparation of Chalk." Dub. Sulphuret of antimony in mass is placed in the Materia Medica of all the Pharmacopoeias noticed in this work. But for use in medicine, and for some pharmaceutical processes, it requires to be levigated, and hence the necessity of the above formulae. Properties.—Prepared sulphuret of antimony is in the form of a dull insoluble powder, without taste or smell; usually of a blackish colour, but, when perfectly pure, reddish-brown. By exposure to air, it ab- sorbs, according to Buchner,a portion of oxygen, and becomes partially converted into protoxide. Its usual adulterations and composition are given under another head. (See Antimonii Sulphuretum.) Medical Properties and Uses.—This preparation is very uncertain in its operation; sometimes appearing to be almost inert, and at other times, if it meet with acid in the stomach, acting with extreme violence, producing vomiting and hypercatharsis. The effect usually attributed to it is that of a diaphoretic and alterative; and the diseases in which it is principally recommended, are scrofula, glandular obstructions, cu- taneous diseases, and chronic rheumatism. It is very little employed by physicians in the United States, its use in this country being almost PART II. Antimonium. 749 exclusively confined to veterinary practice. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, given in powder or bolus. Off. Prep. Antimonii et Potassae Tartras, U.S.; Antimonii Oxydum Nitro-Muriaticum, Dub.; Antimonii Sulphuretum Praecipitatum, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Antimonialis, Dub. ANTIMONII SULPHURETUM PRAECIPITATUM. U.S., Lond. Sulphuretum ANTiMqNii Pr^cipitatum. Ed. Sulphur Antimoniatu^m Fuscum. Dub. Precipitated Sulphuret of Anti- mony. "Take of Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony two pounds; Solution of Potassa four pints; Distilled Water, Diluted Sulphuric Acid, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Sulphuret of Antimony with the Solution of Potassa, and three pints of Distilled Water, and boil them over a gentle fire for three hours, constantly stirring, and occasionally adding Distilled Water so as to preserve the same measure. Strain the liquor immedi- ately through a double linen cloth, and gradually drop into it, while yet hot, sufficient Diluted Sulphuric Acid to precipitate the powder; then wash away the Sulphate of Potassa with hot water, dry the Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony, and rub it into a fine powder." U.S. The London process is the same as the above; the United States pro- cess having been adopted from that of the London College. "Take of Water of Potassa. four parts; Water three parts; Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony two parts; Diluted Sulphuric Acid a sufficient quantity. Mix the Sulphuret with the Water of Potassa and the Water; then boil them in a covered iron pot over a gentle fire for three hours, frequently stirring with an iron spatula, and adding water as it may be required. Strain the hot liquor through a double linen cloth, and add to it, when strained, as much of the Acid as may be necessary to pre- cipitate the Sulphuret, which must be well washed with warm water." Ed. "Take of Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony one part; Water of Caustic Potassa eighteen parts; Diluted Sulphuric Acid eleven parts, or a suffi- cient quantity. Add the Sulphuret of Antimony to the Water of Caustic Potassa, and boil for an hour. Strain the hot liquor through a double linen cloth, and drop into it the Diluted Sulphuric Acid. Wash away the Sulphate of Potassa with warm water. Dry the Brown Antimoniated Sulphur, and rub it into fine powder." Dub. As the theory of the formation of this preparation is intimately con- nected with that for forming the substances called kermes mineral, and golden sulphur of antimony, we shall first describe the latter substances, as introductory to our account of the former. The usual mode of forming kermes mineral corresponds precisely with the first part of the above processes. Sulphuret of antimony is boiled with a solution of caustic potassa, and strained while hot; but the solution, instead of being precipitated by an acid, is allowed to cool; whereupon a powder is deposited, which is the kermes. This substance was formerly supposed to be a compound of sulphuretted hydrogen and protoxide of antimony; but the more probable opinion is that of Gay- Lussac, namely, that it is an oxysulphuret of antimony, that is, a combi- nation of sulphuret with the protoxide of antimony. Assuming the latter composition, its formation may be thus explained. By the mutual reac- tion of water and a part of the sulphuret of antimony, hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen) and protoxide of antimony are formed; the former of which unites to the potassa, as hydrosulphate of potassa 750 Antimonium. PART n' in solution, and the latter, to the remainder of the ^^^^J^ the oxysulphuret, or kermes. This, at the temperature of ebuUitmn,^ abundantly soluble in the hydrosulphate of potassa; but * "X^ofto peratures being much less so, it is in part deposited on the coohng^ot the solution. The cooled liquor, supposing it to *f?&™£™g^2l atmosphere, will, therefore, consist of hydrosulphate °* %£**£****£* in solution as much of the kermes as it is capable of di"°^inB^dc ™e mon temperatures. If to this liquor a ^^^S alkaline hydrosulphate will be decomposed, hydrosulphuric acid gas will be extricated, and sulphate of potassa formed; and ^ the same time, in consequence of the decomposition of the hydr0S.^Phat^nJh^ soTvent of the kermes, a fresh portion of this will be depos^d But is generally supposed that the liquor from which the kermes has preci mtated bvRefrigeration, quickly undergoes a change, consisting in the SsorptioVof olygen, ;hqerebyypart of the hydrosulphuric acid& is de- composed- its hydrogen combining with the oxygen absorbed, and its sulXr by uniting with the remaining hydrosulphuric acid, converting S^h^Vulphate^f potassa into a sulphuretted hyj«.ulphale Assum- ing- this change to take place before the addition of the acid, the_ expla Nation of its action will be somewhat different. Here as before the ker- m^llVeyeTipitated; but from the decomposition o the sulphurete hvdrnsulnhate. hydrosulphuric acid and sulphur will be set tree, uc fomepTwntchwill be evolved; while the latter will precip.taejalong . with the kermes. Now the combination °'^Zl^MmmiSr. Pl':™t min^uTnduded among the Preparations of the principal having boiled it to iree u irum « , «tirrine- it with a wooden °f rtanSng wXn^ft^StU^T » very K'owd^. »ehUouor Jo avessel^tain^^ ^pre- viously freed from a,r byoiling I he hqnor, as _,t falls in^ ^ ^ S^powde'r onPa rtS cfoth^'nd wash it with bolWI water first cold and afterwards hot, until the washings come off tasteless. Then submU the powder to the action of a press to expel the water, dry it n t i. J. «nrl nreservc it in a bottle secluded from the light 1 he use 0hf%ttnateofPrs:daTS stated to be preferable to that of carbonate of Cd V£ acidwTthThe Sance of heat, hydrosulphuric acid being ?U"LdTt first came into vogue as a remedy, in France, about the dtsengaged. It hrst came g preparation being pos- bTd"b\^su%eof named La Ligerie, from whom, in 1720, the rectpe was purcV^'y the French government, and made pubhc. PART II. Antimonium. 751 Golden sulphur also is officinal in the Paris Codex. It is prepared, agreeably to the formula of that work, by precipitating the liquor left after the deposition of the kermes, by acetic acid. It is in the form of a powder of a golden-yellow colour. From the explanations above given, the reader is prepared to under- stand that the method of forming the precipitated sulphuret of anti- mony of the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, consists of a combination of the processes for producing the kermes mineral and golden sulphur; for while the refrigeration of the solution would of itself cause the precipitation of the kermes, the addition of the diluted sulphuric acid would throw down more or less of the golden sulphur, provided the solution, as is most likely, underwent any change from the air. This view then would make the officinal precipitated sulphuret a mixture, in variable proportions, of kermes and the true golden sulphur, which we conceive to be its most probable nature; and admitting this to be the case, the name, " golden sulphur of antimony," is incorrectly given as a synonyme of the preparation under consideration. No further explanation is deemed necessary of the formulae placed at the head of this article, as they all agree in the use of the same alkali and acid. Properties.—Precipitated sulphuret of antimony is an orange-colour- ed, insoluble powder, without smell, and possessing a slightly styptic taste. When heated it readily catches fire, burning with a greenish-blue flame, and giving off sulphurous acid, while the metal remains behind in the state of a grayish oxide. When pure it is not acted on by dilute sulphuric acid; and hence, if it effervesce with this acid, its adultera- tion with chalk may be suspected. It should readily dissolve in solutions of the caustic fixed alkalies. Medical Properties and Uses.—This preparation, like the other anti- monials containing protoxide, is diaphoretic or emetic according to the dose. It is, however, an uncertain medicine, as well from the want of uniformity in its composition, as from its liability to vary in its action with the state of the stomach. It is seldom given alone, but generally in combination with calomel in the form of Plummer's pill, as an altera- tive in secondary syphilis and cutaneous eruptions, or conjoined with henbane or hemlock, in chronic rheumatism. (See Pilulse Hydrargyri Submuriatis Compositae, Lond.) During its use the patient should ab- stain from acidulous drinks. Its dose as an alterative is from one to two grains twice a day in the form of pill; as an emetic, from five grains to a scruple. Properly prepared kermes, being a more active prepara- tion, must be used in a smaller close; while, on the other hand, the true golden sulphur, containing a greater excess of sulphur than the preci- pitated sulphuret, would perhaps require to be given in larger amount. Off. Prep. Pilulae Hydrargyri Submuriatis Comp. Lond., Ed., Dub. PULVIS ANTIMONIALIS. Lond., Dub. Oxidum Antimonii cum Phosphate Calcis. Ed. Antimonial Powder. "Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, in powder, a pound; Hartshorn shavings two pounds. Mix, and throw them into a wide crucible heated to whiteness, and stir them constantly until visible vapour ceases to arise. Rub the residue to powder, and put it into a proper crucible. Then apply heat, and raise it gradually to whiteness, and keep it so for two hours. Rub the residue into a very fine powder." Lond. "Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, in coarse powder, Hartshorn shav- ings, each, equal parts. Mix, and put them into a shallow iron pot, heat- ed to redness, and stir the mixture constantly, until it becomes of an 752 Antimonium. PART II. ash-gray colour; and having removed it from the fire, reduce it to pow- der and put it into a coated crucible. Lute to this crucible another in- verted over it, and perforated with a small hole in the bottom, and ap- ply heat, which is to be gradually raised to whiteness, and then kept at that temperature for two hours. Lastly, reduce the matter, when cold, to a very fine powder." Ed. The Dublin College uses the proportions of the London College; but treats the materials in the manner directed in the Edinburgh formula. This preparation, which consists of phosphate of lime, or bone-earth, mixed with antimony in an uncertain state of oxidizement, is intended to furnish a substitute for'the celebrated empyncal remedy ot Dr. James an English physician, after whom the original composition was called Jameses powder. Dr. Pearson, of London, found the genuine powder to consist, on analysis, of phosphate of lime and oxidized antimony; and guided by his results, devised the formula adopted by the British Ce- lebes for producing an imitation of it. By burning the materials direct- ed in a wide vessel, while they are constantly stirred, the sulphur is ex- pelled in the form of sulphurous acid, and the antimony is oxidized; while the hartshorn, which is of the nature of bone, has the greater part of its animal matter consumed. By the subsequent calcination at a white heat, the remainder of the animal matter is dissipated; leaving only the phosphate of lime mixed with the oxidized antimony. This mixture constitutes the antimonial powder The only material difference between the processes of the Colleges, is that the London and Dublin use two partsof hartshorn shavings to one of sulphuret; while the Ed- "nbureh College employs equal parts, which are also the proportions adopted in the Paris Codex. The use of the larger proportion of harts- horn is stated to obviate the inconvenience of the vitrification of part of fhe antimony; but Dr. Duncan alleges that the product thus obtained does not correspond so nearly with the analysis of Dr. Pearson of James's powder, as when the smaller proportion is employed. In consequence of the variable nature of antimonial powder, a ob- tained in the processes of the Colleges by the agency of fire, Mr. Chene- vix proposed \o form it in the humid way, by dissolving equal weights of nitro-muriatic oxide of antimony and precipitated phosphate of lime, in the smallest possible quantity of muriatic acid, and precipitating this solution by adding it to diluted water of ammonia. The solvent power of the muriatic add being destroyed by the ammonia, the precipitate will be an intimate mixture, in determinate proportions of protoxide of Tn imony and phosphate of lime. This precipitate, Mr. Chenevix states, is soluble in any acid capable of dissolving its constituents separately. On tie other hand, 28 p'er cent, of James's powder, and about 44 per cent, of the London antimonial powder, resist the action of all acids It is hence evident that Mr. Chenevix's powder would prove far more active than those for which it is proposed as a substitute. This ob- tction to it might be obviated by increasing the proportion of phos- phate of lime; but still it is liable to the inconvenience, according o Mr Brande, of being apt to become horny or gritty, and difficult to P°Properties, ^.-Antimonial powder has a dull-white colour, is taste- less and inodorous, and insoluble in water. It is only partially soluble in ackls; the phosphate of lime, and any protoxide of antimony present S^ dissolved, and a variable amount of antimonious acid (deutoxide n?Srav^maiiiing behind. Its activity as a medicine will depend u^on^P^SSkm of protoxide present, the quantity of which may PART II. Antimonium. 753 be judged of by dropping the muriatic solution obtained from the pre- paration into water, whereby the protoxide will be precipitated. Its composition varies exceedingly, a circumstance which is a strong ob- jection to it as a medicine. Mr. Phillips analyzed two specimens, and found one to contain 35 per cent., the other 38 per cent, of oxidized antimony, the remainder being phosphate of lime. Mr. Brande has ge- nerally obtained a greater discordance of results, and occasionally de- tected as much as 5 per cent, of protoxide. From the James's powder, both Dr. Pearson and Mr. Phillips obtained from 56 to 57 per cent, of oxidized antimony. A portion of this powder, -derived from the heirs ot Dr. James, was found by Berzelius to contain nearly two-thirds antimo- nious acid, one-thircl phosphate of lime, and scarcely one per cent, ot antimonite of lime soluble in water. Phillips and Brande speak of the antimony as being in the state of peroxide (antimonic acid); but it can be shown that it must be in the state of deutoxide, or antimonious acid, as stated by Berzelius, if the preparation be made according to the di- rections of the Colleges. This is evident from the circumstance, that the high heat to which the preparation is exposed would decompose the peroxide, and is compatible only with the existence of the deutoxide. When antimonial powder, therefore, contains protoxide, in which case alone it is active, its presence must arise from the materials having been exposed to a lower heat than is directed by the Colleges. Medical Properties and Uses.— This preparation is stated to be altera- tive, diaphoretic, purgative, or emetic, according to the dose in which it may be given. Until within a few years it was very much used in febrile diseases, with a view to its diaphoretic effect. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, it is advantageously given in acute rheumatism, con- joined with camphor, calomel, and opium, and with calomel and guaiac in several cutaneous affections. The estimation in which this prepara- tion is held is very various. Dr. Duncan characterizes it as one of the best antimonials we possess; yet he acknowledges that its effects vary very much, either from idiosyncrasy, or variations in its composition. Dr. Thomson found it sometimes to answer his expectations, but as often to disappoint them. Mr. Brande admits its activity sometimes, and entire inertness at others, differences which he attributes to the pre- sence or absence of protoxide of antimony. Upon the whole, it appears evident, that, whatever may be the occasional efficacy of this medicine, it is too inconstant in its composition, from circumstances in its prepa- ration, scarcely within the control of the pharmaceutical chemist, to make it a safe remedy. No therapeutical effect can be expected from it, which cannot be more certainly and safely produced by tartar emetic; and it seems to be the sentiment of some of the best practitioners, that this antimonial may in all cases be advantageously substituted for it. Considerations of this kind, no doubt, influenced the United States Medical Convention, in omitting it from our Pharmacopoeia of 1830. The dose of antimonial powder as a diaphoretic, is stated to be from three to eight grains every third or fourth hour, given in the form of pill. In larger doses it is purgative or emetic. It is impossible, how- ever, to give precise directions as to the dose; as "it sometimes proves virulently emetic, from accidental redundancy of the protoxide," and at other times is without any obvious effect, even in doses of 100 grains. 95 754 Aqua.—Aquae Medicatse. part ii. AQUA. Water. AQUA DESTILLATA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Aqua Distillata. Bub. Bis tilled Water. " Take of Water ten gallons. First distil four pints, and throw them away; then distil four gallons. Keep the Distilled Water in a glass bot- tle." U.S., Lond. " Let Water be distilled in appropriate and very clean vessels, until about two-thirds have come over." Ed. " Take of Water twenty pounds. Put it into a glass retort, and hav- ing rejected the first pound which comes over, distil a gallon with a moderate heat." Dub. The purest natural water is not sufficiently pure for some pharmaceu- tical purposes; and hence the necessity of the above processes for its distillation. It is best, to reject the first portion which distils, as this may contain carbonic acid and other volatile impurities; and the last portions of the water ought not to be distilled, lest it should pass over in an empyreumatic state. The Dublin College directs the distillation to be conducted in a glass retort; but it is usually performed with the ordinary still and condenser, and such an apparatus is evidently con- templated in the United States and London formula. Mr. Brande states that distilled water has often a foreign flavour, derived from the still, which it is difficult to avoid. He therefore recommends that a still and condenser be exclusively kept for distilling water; or, where this can- not be done, that steam be driven through the condensing pipe for half an hour, for the purpose of washing it; the worm-tub having been pre- viously emptied. Properties, fyc.—Distilled water, as usually obtained, has always a vapid and disagreeable taste. It is not perfectly pure; water, to be so, requiring to be distilled in silver vessels. The properties of pure water have already been given under the head of Aqua. Distilled water should undergo no change on the addition of tincture of soap, subacetate of lead, nitrate of baryta, oxalate of ammonia, nitrate of silver, or lime- water. It is uselessly employed in some formulae; but is essentially ne- cessary in others. As a general rule, when small quantities of active remedies are to be given in solution, and in the preparation of collyria, distilled water should be employed. The following list contains the chief substances which require distilled water as a solvent;—tartar emetic, corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver, muriate of baryta, acetate of lead, the sulphates of iron and zinc, sulphate of quinia, and sulphate and acetate of morphia. AQU^ MEDICATiE. U.S. Medicated Waters. Under this head are included, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, all those preparations consisting of water impregnated with some me- dicinal substance, which are^not arranged in any other class. Among them are the Distilled Waters of the British Pharmacopoeias, which therefore require some notice in the present place. PART II. Aquae Medicatse. 755 Aqu.?e Destillatje. Lond. A que Stillatitie. Ed. Aque Distillate. Dub. Many vegetables impart to water distilled from them their peculiar flavour, and more or less of the medical properties by which they are distinguished. The distilled waters chiefly used, are those prepared from aromatic plants, the volatile oil of which rises with the aqueous vapour, and is condensed with it in the receiver. But as water is capable of holding but a small proportion of the oil in solution, these preparations are generally feeble, and are employed rather as plea- sant vehicles or corrigents of other medicines, than with a view to any remediate action of their own. In the preparation of the distilled waters, the London College directs the dried plants, because the fresh are not to be had at all seasons; but the latter, at least in the instances of herbs and flowers, should be pre- ferred if attainable. Flowers which lose their odour by desiccation, may be preserved by incorporating them intimately with one-third their weight of common salt; and in this state, according to M. Decroizilles, afford distilled waters of very delicate flavour. It is necessary to observe certain practical rules in conducting the process of distillation. When the substance employed is dry, hard, and fibrous, it should be mechanically divided, and macerated in water for a short time previously to the operation. The quantity of materials should not bear too large a proportion to the capacity of the alembic, as the water might otherwise boil over into the receiver. The water should be brought quickly to the state of ebullition, and continued in that state till the end of the process. Care should be taken to leave suf- ficient water undistilled to cover the whole of the vegetable matter, lest a portion of the latter, coming in contact with the sides of the vessel, might be decomposed by the heat, and yield empyreumatic products. If any volatile oil float upon the surface of the distilled water, it should be separated. But however carefully the process may be conducted, the distilled waters prepared from plants always have at first an unpleasant smoky odour. To free them from this, it is necessary to expose them for a short time to the air, before enclosing them in well stopped bottles, in which they should be ultimately preserved. When long kept they are apt to form a viscid ropy matter, and to become sour. This result is ascriba- ble to other principles, which rise with the oil in distillation, and pro- mote its decomposition. To prevent this decomposition, the London College orders the addition of five fluidounces of proof spirit to a gallon of distilled water; the Edinburgh, five ounces of diluted alcohol to ten pounds; and the Dublin, half an ounce of rectified spirit to a pound. But this addition is inadequate to the intended object. A better plan is to redistil the waters; as when thus purified it is said that they may be kept for several years unchanged. Another mode of preparing the distilled waters, is to substitute the volatile oil, previously separated from the plant, for the plant itself in the process. This mode is directed by the London and Dublin Colleges in several instances. It is preferable to the preceding, as it affords a purer and more permanent product. In relation to most of the aromatics, the United States Pharmacopoeia discards altogether the process by distillation, and directs that water should be impregnated with the volatile oil by trituration with magnesia, and subsequent filtration. This is by far the most simple and easy pro- cess ; and the resulting preparation is in all respects equal to that ob- 756 Aquae Medicatse. PART II. tained by distillation from the oil. The aromatic solution is pure and permanent, and, notwithstanding the assertion of Dr. Paris to the con- trary, is perfectly transparent, the magnesia being separated by the fil- tration. The carbonate of magnesia, however, should be employed in preference to the pure earth; as the latter sometimes gives a brownish colour to the liquid, and requires to be used in larger proportions. A minute quantity, moreover, of the magnesia is dissolved, and attracting carbonic acid from the air, becomes a carbonate, and is precipitated in a flocculent form. The object of the magnesia or. its carbonate is simply to enable the oil to be brought to a state of minute division, and thus presented with a larger surface to the action of the solvent. Chalk and sugar answer a similar purpose; but the latter, by being dissolved with the oil, renders the preparation impure. AQUA ACIDI CARBONICI. U.S. Carbonic Acid Water. Artificial Seltzer Water. " By means of a forcing pump, throw into a suitable receiver, nearly filled with Water, a quantity of Carbonic Acid equal to five times the bulk of the Water. " Carbonic Acid is obtained from the Hard Carbonate of Lime, by means of dilute Sulphuric Acid." U.S. This preparation, which is not adopted by the British Colleges, con- sists of water highly charged with carbonic acid. Water is found to take up its volume of this acid under the pressure of the atmosphere; and Dr. Henry ascertained, from numerous experiments, that precisely the same volume of the compressed gas is absorbed under a higher pres- sure. From this law, the bulk taken up is constant, the quantity being different in proportion as there is more or less driven into, a given space. As the space occupied by a gas is inversely as the compressing force, it follows that the quantity of the acid forced into the water will be directly as the pressure. A double pressure will force a double quan- tity into a given space, and, therefore, cause a double quantity to be ab- sorbed; a treble pressure will drive a treble quantity into the same space, and cause its absorption; and so on for higher pressures, ihebulk of the compressed gas always remaining the same. From the principles above laid down, it follows, that to saturate water with five times its volume of carbonic acid, as directed in the formula, it must be subjected to a pres- sure of five atmospheres. This is about the strength of the carbonic acid water manufactured in the United States. Carbonic acid water is familiarly called in this country "mineral wa- ter," and " soda water;" the latter name, originally applied to the pre- paration when it contained a small portion of carbonate of soda, being from habit continued since the alkali has been omitted. As it is largely consumed, both as an agreeable beverage and as a medicine, it will be proper to give a sketch of the apparatus usually employed in its prepa- ration. It consists of a generator, gasometer, forcing pump, reservoir or fountain, and refrigerator. The generator is usually formed of a wooden tub somewhat like a churn, in which the dilute sulphuric acid is put. On this is luted a small cylindrical wooden vessel, through the bottom of which passes a wooden stirrer. This vessel is filled with mar- ble powder, which, by the movement of the stirrer, is made gradually to fall into the acid below, generating the carbonic acid, which by a lead pipe is conducted into the gasometer. This is a large cylindrical tub, in which another is inverted suspended by a pulley. As soon as the gasometer is full, which should have five or six times the capacity of the reservoir, the operation of condensing the gas into the latter is com- part ii. Aquae Medicatae. 757 menced. This is effected by a condensing pump, the chamber of which is made to communicate, by leaden tubes on opposite sides, with the gasometer and reservoir. This latter, usually called the fountain, is a very strong cylindrical copper vessel, with hemispherical extremities, tinned on the. inside, and before receiving the carbonic acid is nearly filled with water. When the water has been duly charged with the acid gas, it is drawn off as it is wanted, by means of a stop-cock connected with a tube which passes to the bottom of the reservoir. The tube may be of any desired length, so as to draw oft* the water at a distance from the reservoir. The apparatus is usually placed in the cellar, and the tube from the reservoir is made to pass through the floor and counter of the shop, and terminate in a stop-cock, by means of which the car- bonic acid water may be drawn off at pleasure. In order to have the liquid cool in summer, the tube from the cellar generally terminates in a strong metallic vessel, of convenient shape, placed under the counter and surrounded with ice, and from this vessel the tube penetrating the counter proceeds. The acid gas for the impregnation of the water is always obtained from marble, called hard carbonate of lime in the United .States Phar- macopoeia, by the action of sulphuric acid; these being the cheapest materials for the purpose. Chalk may also be used, but is objectionable on account of its communicating a foreign smell to the carbonic acid. When sulphuric acid is employed, sulphate of lime is formed, which interferes with the action of the acid; and hence it is necessary to stir the mixture to render the decomposition of the carbonate complete. Properties.—Carbonic acid water is a sparkling liquid, possessing an agreeable, pungent, acidulous taste. It reddens litmus feebly, and is precipitated by lime-water. Being impregnated with the acid gas under the influence of pressure, it effervesces strongly when freed from re- straint. Hence, to preserve its briskness, it should be kept in strong well corked bottles, placed inverted in a cool place. Several natural waters are'of a similar nature; such as those of Seltzer, Spa, and Pyrmont; but the artificial preparation has the advantage of a stronger impregnation with the acid gas. Carbonic acid water should be made with every precaution to avoid metallic impurity. Hence the necessity of having the reservoir or fountain well tinned on the inner surface. Even with this precaution, a slight metallic impregnation is not always avoided, especially in the winter, when the water is less consumed as drink, and allowed to remain longer in the reservoir. Glass fountains are some- times used with advantage in this season; and a patent has been taken out for a stoneware fountain enclosed in tinned copper, which has been found to answer a good purpose. When leaden tubes are employed to convey the water, it is liable to be contaminated with this metal, which renders it deleterious. A case of colica pictonum came under the care of one of our medical friends, arising from the daily use of the first draught of carbonic acid water from a fountain with tubes of lead. Tin tubes are sometimes employed enclosed in lead ones to give them strength. Carbonic acid, formerly called fixed air, is a colourless gas, of a slight- ly pungent odour and acid taste. It reddens litmus feebly, and combines with salifiable bases, forming salts called carbonates, from which it is expelled by all the strong acids. It extinguishes flame, and is quickly fatal to animals when respired. All kinds of fermented liquors, which are brisk or sparkling, such as champagne, cider, porter, 8cc, owe these peculiar properties to its presence. Its sp. gr. is 1.52. It is composecl of one equiv. of carbon 6, and two equiv. of oxygen 16=22. 758 Aquae Medicatae. part ii. Medical Properties and JUses.—Carbonic acid water is diaphoretic, diuretic, and anti-emetic. It forms a very grateful drink to febrile pa- tients, allaying thirst, lessening nausea and gastric distress, and pro- moting the secretion of urine. The quantity taken need only be regu- lated by the wishes of the patient. It also forms a very convenient ve- hicle for the administration of magnesia, the carbonated alkalies, sul- phate of magnesia, and the saline cathartics generally; rendering these medicines less unpleasant to the palate, and, in irritable states of the stomach, increasing the chances of their being retained. When used for this purpose, six or eight fluidounces will be sufficient. AQUA ANETHL Lond. Bill Water. " Take of Dill Seeds, bruised, a pound. Pour on them so much wa- ter, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent empy- reuma. Distil a gallon." Lond. This is seldom if ever used in the United States. AQUA AURANTII CORTICIS. U.S. Aqua Citri Aurantii. Ed. Water of Orange Peel. " Take of Fresh Orange Peel two pounds. Water a sufficient quantity; Diluted Alcohol fourfluidounces. Pour upon the Orange Peel so mHch water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent em- pyreuma. Then distil a gallon, and add the Diluted Alcohol." U.S. The Edinburgh College directs ten pounds of the Water to be distilled from two pounds of the Peel. AQUA CAMPHORiE. U.S. Mistura Camphore. Lond., Dub. JEmulsio Camphore. Ed. Camphor Water. " Take of Camphor two drachms; Alcohol fprty minims; Magnesia a drachm; Distilled Water two pints. Rub the Camphor first with the Al- cohol, afterwards with the Magnesia, and lastly with the Water gradu- ally added; then filter through paper." U.S. The London College directs half a drachm of camphor, ten minims of alcohol, and a pint of water, without magnesia. The Dublin College orders a scruple of camphor, ten drops of alcohol, a pint of warm water, and instead of the magnesia, half an ounce of sugar. The process in each case is completed as in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The Edinburgh College directs a scruple of camphor and half an ounce of sugar, well rubbed together, to be beat with half an ounce of blanched sweet almonds, a pound and a half of water to be gradually added, and the mixture to be strained. In all these processes the object is to effect a solution of the camphor. Water is capable of dissolving but a small proportion of this principle; but the quantity varies with the method employed. Prepared according to the London process, one pint of the water contains only thirteen grains of camphor; according to those of Edinburgh and Dublin less than twenty grains; while our own officinal preparation contains about fifty grains to the pint, or more than three grains to the fluidounce. {Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. iv. 13.) The difference is attributable to the minute division effected in the camphor by trituration with the magnesia, which is afterwards separated by filtration. The use of the alcohol is simply to break down the cohesion of the camphor, and enable it to be more easily pulverised. The process of the United States Pharmacopoeia is much preferable to the others, as it affords a permanent solution of suf- ficient strength to be employed with a view to the influence of the cam- phor on the system, while the British preparations have little more than the flavour of the narcotic, and are fit only for vehicles of other medi- PART II. Aquae Medicatas. 759 cines. The camphor is separated by a solution of pure potassa, and ac- cording to Dr. Paris, by sulphate of magnesia and several other salts. Camphor water is chiefly employed in low fevers and typhoid diseases attended with restlessness, slight delirium, or other symptoms of nervous derangement or debility. It has this advantage over camphor in sub- stance, that the latter is with difficulty dissolved by the liquors of the stomach; but it is not applicable to cases where very large doses of the medicine are required. It is usually given in the dose of one or two table- spoonfuls repeated every hour or two hours. AQUA CARUI. Lond., Dub. Caraway Water. " Take of Caraway Seeds, bruised, a pound. Pour on them so much Water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent em- pyreuma. Distil a gallon." Lond. Caraway water has the flavour and pungency of the seeds, but is not used in this country. AQUA CHLORINII. Dub. Chlorine Water. " Take of dried Muriate of Soda one hundred parts; Oxide of Man- ganese thirty parts; Sulphuric Acid eighty-seven parts; Water one hun- dred and twenty four parts. Add the Acid gradually to the Water, and when the mixture has grown cold, pour it on the Muriate of Soda and Oxide of Manganese, both having been previously reduced to fine pow- der, well mixed, and put into a retort. Then with a proper apparatus and a moderate heat gradually increased, let the gas escaping from the mixture be transmitted through two hundred parts of Distilled Water; the operation being concluded as soon as the effervescence in the retort has subsided. Chlorine Water should be kept in well stopped glass bot- tles, and in a place impervious to the rays of the sun." Dub. This formula is intended to furnish a saturated solution of chlorine in water. The materials employed are those usually taken for generating chlorine; and this, as it is extricated in a gaseous state, is passed into a portion of water, with a view to its being absorbed. The muriate of soda of the formula is the chloride of sodium of modern chemists. This, when acted on by dilute sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, is decomposed, the chlorine is extricated, and the sodium and peroxide of manganese, having been converted, by a transfer of oxygen from the latter, into soda and protoxide, unite with the sulphuric acid, and form the sulphate of soda and protosulphate of manganese, which remain be- hind. The water intended to receive the gas is most conveniently placed in a series of Wolfe's bottles, the last of which should contain some slaked lime, to absorb any excess of chlorine, which might otherwise pro- duce inconvenience by its escape. Properties.—Chlorine water has a yellowish-green colour, a harsh styptic taste, and the peculiar odour of the gas which it contains. Like gaseous chlorine, it destroys all vegetable colours. When cooled to about the freezing point, it forms deep-yellow crystalline plates, consisting of hydrate of chlorine. At the temperature of 50° it contains about twice its volume of the gas. It is decomposed by light, with the production of muriatic acid, and the evolution of oxygen. It is on this account that it requires to be kept in a dark place. Chlorine is an elementary gaseous fluid, of a greenish-yellow colour, and characteristic and disagreeable smell and taste. Its sp. gr. is 2.5, and its equivalent number 36. It is a supporter of combustion, but de- structive of life in respiration. When the attempt is made to breathe it, even much diluted, it excites cough, and a sense of suffocation, and 760 Aquae Medicafas. PART II. causes a discharge from the nostrils resembling coryza. When breathed in large quantities, it produces- spitting of blood, violent pains, and death. It is the agent almost exclusively employed for bleaching and disinfection. Medical Properties and Uses.—Chlorine water is stimulant and anti- septic. It is highly esteemed by some practitioners, but as yet is very little employed. It has been used in typhus, and chronic affections of the liver, but the diseases in which it has been most extolled, are scarlatina and malignant sore throat. Externally, it may be used, duly diluted, as a gargle in putrid sore throat, as a wash for ill-conditioned ulcers and cancerous sores, and as a local bath in diseases of the liver; though for the latter purpose, the nitro-muriatic acid, which is in effect a solution of chlorine, is usually employed. As it depends upon chlorine for its activity, its medical properties coincide generally with those of chloride of lime, chloride of soda, and nitro-muriatic acid, to which arti- cles the reader is referred. The dose of chlorine water is from one to two fluidrachms, diluted with eight fluidounces of water, and given in the course of the day. AQUA CINNAMOMI. U.S., Lond., Bub. Aqua Lauri Cin- namomi. Ed. Cinnamon Water. "Take of Oil of Cinnamon half a fluidrachm; Magnesia half a drachm; Distilled Water two pints. Rub the Oil of Cinnamon first with the Mag- nesia, then with the Water gradually added, and filter through paper." U.S. "Take of Cinnamon Bark, bruised, a pound; or Oil of Cinnamon, by weight, five scruples. Pour so much water on the oil, or on the bark, previously macerated in water for twenty-four hours, that, after the dis- tillation, sufficient may remain to prevent empyreuma. Distil a gallon." Lond. • The process of the Dublin College is the same with the preceding, ex- cept that three drachms of the oil are directed instead of five scruples. The Edinburgh College orders ten pounds of water to be distilled from a pound of the bark. Of these processes that of the United States Pharmacopoeia is de- cidedly preferable, as much easier than the others, and affording a pro- duct in every respect equal, if not superior. Carbonate of magnesia, however, should be used instead of the pure earth, as the latter, in the quantity indicated, forms a semifluid mass with the oil, which is with some difficulty miscible with the water; and, though this disadvantage might be obviated by increasing the quantity of the magnesia, still the objection remains that the preparation is apt to have a brownish colour, which is not produced by the carbonate. Besides, a minute proportion of magnesia is dissolved, sufficient to render the preparation incompati- ble with small quantities of the sulphates of morphia and quinia, for which it is sometimes employed as a menstruum. Cinnamon water is a favourite vehicle with many practitioners for other less pleasant medicines; but should be used cautiously in inflam- matory affections. For ordinary purposes it is sufficiently strong when diluted with an equal measure of water. Off. Prep. Mistura Calcis Carbonatis, U.S.; Mistura Guaiaci, Lond. AQUA LAURI CASSIAS. Ed. Water of. Cassia. This is prepared from the variety of cinnamon called cassia, in the manner directed by the Edinburgh College for cinnamon water. The distinction is not recognised in our Pharmacopoeia. PART II. Aquae Medicaids. 761 AQUA CITRI MEDICO. Ed. Water of Lemon Peel. v The Edinburgh College directs ten pounds of water to be distilled from two pounds of the fresh peel duly macerated, sufficient water being left to prevent empyreuma. The preparation is almost unknown in this country. AQUA FOZNICULI. Lond., Dub. Fennel Water. "Take of Fennel seeds, bruised, a pound. Pour on them so much water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent em- pyreuma. Distil a gallon." Lond. This is seldom used, as the infusion answers a better purpose. AQUA LAURO-CERASI. Dub. Water of Cherry Laurel " Take of Fresh Leaves of Cherry Laurel a pound; Water three pints. Distil a pint, and instead of Rectified Spirit, add of Compound Spirit of Lavender an ounce." Dub. The substitution of the compound spirit of lavender for alcohol, is in order to impart colour to the preparation, and thus prevent it from being mistaken for common water. It is employed in Europe as a sedative narcotic, identical in its properties with a dilute solution of hydrocyanic acid. The close is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm. AQUA MENTHA PIPERITA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Peppermint Water. This is prepared, according to the United States Pharmacopoeia, from the oil of peppermint, in the manner directed for cinnamon water; but the caution should in this instance also be observed, of substituting the carbonate of magnesia for pure magnesia. "Take of Peppermint, dried, a pound and a half, or Oil of Pepper- mint, by weight, three drachms. Pour on the herb or the oil so much water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent em- pyreuma. Distil a gallon." When the fresh herb is used the quantity should be doubled. Lond. The Edinburgh College distils ten pounds of water from three pounds of peppermint. The Dublin process is essentially the same with the London. AQUA MENTHiE VIRIDIS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Spear- mint Water. This is prepared, according to the United States Pharmacopceia, from the oil of spearmint, in the manner directed for cinnamon and pepper- mint waters. By the British Colleges it is also prepared in the manner directed by them for peppermint water. The two mint waters are among the most grateful and most employ- ed of this class of preparations. Together with cinnamon water, they are used in this country almost to the exclusion of all others, as the ve- hicle of medicines given in the form of mixture. They serve not only to conceal or qualify the taste of other medicines, but also to counteract their nauseating properties. The peppermint water is generally thought to have a more pleasant flavour than that of spearmint, but some prefer the latter. Their effects are the same. AQUA PICIS LIQUIDS. Dub. Tar Water. " Take of Tar two pints; Water a gallon. Mix, stirring with a wooden rod for fifteen minutes; then, after the Tar shall have subsided, strain the liquor, and keep it in well stopped bottles." Dub. Water takes from tar a small portion of acetic acid, empyreumatic oil, and resinous matter, acquiring a sharp empyreumatic taste, and the 96 762 Aquae Medicatae. PART II. colour of Madeira wine. Thus impregnated it is stimulant and diuretic; and, though at present little used, was formerly highly extolled as a re- medy in pulmonary consumption. It may be given with occasional ad- vantage in chronic catarrhal affections, and complaints of the urinary passages. From one to two pints may be taken in the course of the day. AQUA PIMENTO. Lond., Dub. Aqua Myrti Pimento. Ed. Pimento Water. " Take of Pimento, bruised, half a pound; Water a pint. Macerate the berries in the Water for twenty-four hours; then add so much wa- ter, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent empy- reuma. Distil a gallon." Lond. The Edinburgh College distils ten pounds. The Dublin process is es- sentially the same with the London. Pimento water is brownish when first distilled, and upon standing de- posites a brown resinous sediment. It is used as a carminative. AQUA PULEGII. Lond., Bub. Aqua Mentha Pulegii. Ed. Pennyroyal Water. This is prepared from the European pennyroyal or its oil, precisely in the manner directed by the British Colleges for peppermint water. It is not used in this country, as we have not the plant. A water prepared from the Hedeoma pulegioides, or American pennyroyal, might be substi- tuted. Pennyroyal water is employed for the same purposes with those of peppermint and spearmint. Off. Prep. Mistura Ammoniaci, Dub.; Mistura Assasfcetidae, Dub. AQUA ROSJE. U.S., Lond., Bub. Aqua Ros.e Centifolls:. Ed. Pose Water. " Take of Fresh Hundred-leaved Roses six pounds; Water a sufficient quantity; Diluted Alcohol four fluidounces. Pour on the Roses so much Water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent em- pyreuma. Then distil a gallon, and add the Diluted Alcohol. U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges order a gallon of the Water to be distilled from eight pounds of the petals; the Edinburgh, ten pounds of the Water from six pounds of the petals. It should be observed, that in the nomenclature of the United States Pharmacopoeia, the term " Roses" implies only the petals of the flower. These are directed in the recent state; but it is said that when preserved by being incorporated with one-third of their weight of common salt, they retain their odour, and afford a Water equally fragrant with that prepared from the fresh flower. Rose water, when properly prepared, has the delightful perfume of the rose in great perfection. It is most successfully made on a large scale. Like the other distilled waters it is liable to spoil when kept; and the alcohol which is added to preserve it is incompatible with some of the purposes to which the water is applied. It is best, therefore, to avoid this addition, and to substitute a second distillation. This distilled wa- ter is chiefly employed on account of its pleasant odour in collyria and other lotions. It is wholly destitute of irritating properties, unless when it contains alcohol. Off. Prep. Mistura Ferri Composita, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Mistura Mos- chi, Lond.; Unguentum Aquae Rosae, U.S. PART II. Argentum. 763 ARGENTUM. Preparations of Silver. ARGENTI NITRAS. U.S., Lond. Nitras Argenti. Ed. Argenti Nitras Fusum. Dub. Nitrate of Silver. Lunar Caustic. " Take of Silver, flattened into plates and cut, an ounce; Nitric Acid five fluidrachms [a fluidounce, Lond.]; Distilled Water two fluidounces. Mix the Acid with the Water, and dissolve the Silver in the mixture, on a sand-bath. Then gradually increase the heat, so that the Nitrate of Silver may be dried. Melt this in a crucible over a gentle fire, and con- tinue the heat till ebullition ceases; then immediately pour it into suita- ble moulds. Lastly, wrap it in white paper, and keep it in a well stop- ped bottle." U.S. The London formula differs from the preceding Only in the proportion of nitric acid, as above indicated, and in omitting to give any directions for wrapping the salt in white paper, and for preserving it in bottles. " Take of purest Silver, flattened into plates and cut in pieces, one part; Diluted Nitrous Acid two parts; Distilled Water one part. Dissolve the Silver in the Acid and Water, previously mixed, in a matrass, with a gentle heat, and evaporate the solution to dryness. Then put the mass into a large crucible, and place it on the fire, which should at first be gentle, and afterwards increased by degrees until the mass flows' like oil; then pour it into iron moulds previously heated and anointed with tallow. Lastly, keep it in a glass vessel very well corked." Ed. " Dissolve Silver in diluted Nitric Acid [in the manner described un- der Crystals of Nitrate of Silver]; then evaporate the solution to dryness. Melt the residuum, placed in a crucible, over a slow fire; then pour it out into proper moulds, and keep it in a glass phial." Dub. During the solution of silver in nitric acid, part of the acid is decom- posed into nitric oxide, which is given off and becomes red fumes by contact with the atmosphere, and into oxygen which oxidizes the silver. The oxide formed then combines with the remainder of the acid and generates the nitrate of silver in solution. The water is next driven off by heat, and the salt fused and cast into little cylinders about the size of a quill. The silver should be pure, and the acid is diluted for the purpose of promoting its action. The solution takes place more rapidly if the pieces of silver are rolled in a coil; as a larger surface is thus exposed to the action of the acid. If the silver contain copper, it will form a solution of a greenish tint, not disappearing on the application of heat; and if a minute portion of gold be present, it will be left undissolved as a black powder. The acid should be pure also. The commercial nitric acid, as it frequently contains both muriatic and sulphuric acids, should never be used in this process. The muriatic acid gives rise to an insolu- ble chloride, and the sulphuric, to the sparingly soluble sulphate of sil- ver. The proportion of acid employed by the London and Edinburgh Colleges is unnecessarily large; and hence it has been very properly re- duced in the United States formula. As the salt sinks into a common crucible, fusion should be performed in a porcelain or silver one, of a size sufficient to hold five or six times the quantity of the dry salt ope- rated on; so as to prevent its overflowing in consequence of the ebulli- tion. Sometimes small portions of the liquid are spirted out, against which the operator should be on his guard. When the mass flows like 764 Argentum. part ii. oil, as mentioned in the Edinburgh process, it is completely fused, and ready to be poured into the moulds. These should be warmed as well as greased, as otherwise the sticks will be very brittle. The object of the covering of paper is to protect them from the decomposing influence of light, and to prevent them from discolouring the fingers. Properties.—Nitrate of silver, as prepared by the above processes, is in the form of hard, brittle sticks, of a gray colour, and an austere, metallic taste. When broken across they exhibit a crystalline fracture, and their surface often becomes dark coloured, owing either to exposure to light, to fusion at too high a temperature, or to the presence of cop- per. This salt is soluble in its weight of cold water, and four times its weight of boiling alcohol. Its solution stains the skin of an indelible black colour. It is decomposed at a red heat, the acid being dissipated, and the oxide reduced. When pure it is not deliquescent, and when it possesses this quality, the presence of copper may be suspected. This metal may be detected by the use of ammonia, which will cause a blue tinge if it be present. It may be separated by solution and crystalliza- tion, the pure nitrate of silver crystallizing to the exclusion of the ni- trate of copper, which remains in the mother water. Nitrate of silver is decomposed by common water, soaps, the fixed alkalies and their car- bonates, lime-water, sulphuric muriatic and tartaric acids and their salts, solutions of arsenite of potassa, hydrosulphuric acid gas and its compounds, and the astringent vegetable infusions. It is an anhydrous salt, consisting of one equiv. of nitric acid 54, and one equiv. of oxide of silver 118=172. Medical Properties and Uses.—Nitrate of silver, used internally, is tonic and antispasmodic. It was formerly employed in dropsy, but its hydragogue powers are doubted by modern practitioners. The principal diseases in which it has been tried are epilepsy, chorea, angina pectoris, and other spasmodic affections. In epilepsy it has gained some celebrity as a remedy; but, though sometimes beneficial, it often fails. Its effects have been found to be most favourable in this disease when it acts on the bowels. Whenever resorted to, caution must be exercised not to continue it too long, as it is apt to weaken the stomach. An incidental disadvantage from its use, is its occasional effect of giving the skin a dark hue, approaching to black, which is difficult to remove, but which is said to yield to a steady course of cream of tartar. Externally, this salt is employed as a stimulant and escharotic, either dissolved in dis- tilled water, or in the solid state. In the proportion of about half a grain to the fluidounce of water, it has been recommended as a mouth wash, for healing ulcers produced by the use of mercurials. Dissolved to the extent of from one to five grains in the same quantity of water, it is used for the purpose of stimulating indolent ulcers, and as an injection for fistulous sores. A solution containing two grains to the fluidounce is an excellent application in ophthalmia with ulcers of the cornea, in fetid dis- charges from the external meatus of the ear, in aphthous affections of the mouth, and in spongy gums. It is in general most conveniently applied to ulcers by means of a camel's hair pencil. A drachm of the salt dis- solved in a fluidounce of water, forms an escharotic solution, which may often be resorted to with great advantage. But nitrate of silver is most frequently employed, as an escharotic, in the solid state; and as it is not deliquescent, nor apt to spread, it forms the most manageable caustic that can be used. It is employed to destroy strictures in the urethra, warts, fungous flesh and excrescences, incipient chancres, and the sur- face of other unhealthy ulcers. It forms a most efficacious application part ii. Argentum.—Arsenicum. 765 to certain ulcerations in the throat. Mr. Higginbottom insists upon its efficacy when freely applied to ulcers, so as to cover them with an eschar, as an excellent means of expediting their cicatrization. He alleges,- that if an adherent eschar is formed, the parts underneath heal before it falls off. The dose of nitrate of silver is an eighth of a grain, gradually increased to four or five grains, three times a day. It may be given in pill or solu- tion ; but the former state is preferable, on account of its strong and disagreeable taste. The pill is usually made with crumb of bread, but as this contains common salt, which is incompatible, some absorbent vegetable powder, with mucilage of gum Arabic, is preferable. As the fused nitrate in the form of sticks, as prepared for the use of the sur- geon, is apt to be impure, it would be a good rule to resort exclusively to the crystallized nitrate for internal exhibition. The Dublin College, adopting this sentiment, has made nitrate of silver officinal in the form of crystals. (See Argenti Nitratis Crystalli, Dub.) Nitrate of silver, in an over-dose, produces the effects of the corrosive poisons. The proper antidote is a solution of common salt, which acts by converting the poison into the insoluble and therefore inert chloride of silver. Consecutive inflammation must be combated by bleeding, both general and local, and other antiphlogistic remedies. ARGENTI NITRATIS CRYSTALLI. Dub. Crystals of Ni- trate of Silver. "Take of Silver, laminated and cut in pieces, thirty-seven parts; Di- luted Nitric Acid sixty parts. Put the Silver in a glass vessel, and pour the Acid upon it. Dissolve the metal with a heat gradually increased, and by evaporation and refrigeration let crystals be formed. Dry them without heat, and preserve them in a glass bottle in a dark place." Dub. The Dublin is the only Pharmacopoeia noticed in this work which has made the crystals of nitrate of silver officinal; and the motive for doing so is to have a purer salt for internal exhibition than the fused nitrate generally is. In the formula, the error of the London and Edin- burgh Colleges, of using an excess of acid, has been avoided. The crys- tals are in thin rhomboidal plates, often of large size. Their other pro- perties, as well as their medical applications, are the same as those of the fused nitrate, to which article the reader is referred. ARSENICUM. Preparations of Arsenic. ARSENICUM ALBUM SUBLIMATUM. Lond. Arsenici Oxydum Album Sublimatum. Dub. Sublimed White Arsenic. " Reduce White Arsenic to powder; then put it into a crucible, and, applying heat, sublime it into another crucible, inverted over the first." Lond. " Reduce the Oxide of Arsenic to a coarse powder, and, avoiding the vapours, expose it to heat in a suitable vessel, that the White Oxide of Arsenic may sublime." Dub. The London and Dublin Colleges, deeming the commercial white oxide of arsenic {Acidum Arseniosum, U. S.) not sufficiently pure for medicinal employment, have given the above formulae for its purification. But as the commercial oxide itself has undergone a second sublimation, it would seem that these processes are superfluous. The only precaution neces- 766 Arsenicum. part ii. sary to be taken on the part of the apothecary, is to purchase the oxide in lump; for when in powder it is liable to be adulterated with chalk or sulphate of lime. The chemical, medical, and toxicological properties of this oxide, have been given under the head of Acidum Arseniosum. Off. Prep. Liquor Arsenicalis, Lond., Dub. LIQUOR POTASSAE ARSENITIS. U.S. Liquor Arsenicalis. Lond., Bub. Solutio Arsenicalis. Ed. Solution of Arsenite of Potassa. Fowler's Solution. " Take of Arsenious Acid, in very fine powder, Purest Carbonate of Potassa, each, sixty-four grains; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity; Compound Spirit of Lavender four fluidrachms. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Potassa with a pint of Distilled Water, till the Acid is entirely dissolved. To the solution, when cold, add the Spirit of Lavender, and afterwards sufficient Distilled Water to make it fill up exactly the measure of a pint." U.S. The formula of the London College is the same as the above, w^th the exception that the " Sublimed White Arsenic" of this College is made use of instead of the commercial oxide, the arsenious acid of the United States Pharmacopoeia. The Dublin College copies the London process, reducing the quantity of the arsenious acid and carbonate, from sixty- four grains to sixty. The Edinburgh College takes the same quantities of acid and carbonate as are directed in the United States and London formulae, but adds half an ounce, instead of half a fluidounce, of the spirit of lavender, and uses sufficient water to make the whole solution weigh sixteen ounces. This preparation originated with Dr. Fowler, and was intended as a substitute for the celebrated empyrical remedy known under the name of " the tasteless ague drop." It is an arsenite of potassa dissolved in water, and is formed by the combination of the arsenious acid with the potassa of the carbonate, the carbonic acid being expelled. The name, therefore, by which it is designated in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is obviously the most correct. The spirit of lavender is added to give it taste, to prevent its being mistaken for simple water. The United States and London preparations are of the same strength. The Dublin is weaker, in consequence of the very injudicious course of substituting sixty instead of sixty-four grains of arsenious acid to the pint of liquid. Dr. Barker, in his Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopceia, informs us, that the reason for this change was the supposition that less danger of error would occur in weighing sixty than sixty-four grains; as the former quantity would be weighed by a single weight. On this insuffi- cient ground, the Dublin College have made their preparation to contain one-sixteenth of arsenious acid less than the corresponding preparation of the London College. The Edinburgh preparation is.also weaker than the London and United States solutions, on account of the quantity of the menstruum being greater; sixteen ounces of the liquid, the quan- tity prepared by the Edinburgh College, measuring about six-sevenths of a fluidounce more than a pint. To form a perfect arsenite of potassa, theory would call for 50 of acid to 70 of the carbonate, instead of equal parts; so that the quantity di- rected of the latter is deficient. In making this preparation, care must be taken that the arsenious acid be pure. Sulphate of lime is a common adulteration, and if present, will remain undissolved, and cause the so- lution to be weaker than it ought to be. Properties.—Solution of arsenite of potassa is a transparent liquid, having the colour, taste, and smell of the spirit of lavender. It is de- part ii. Arsenicum.—Baryta. 767 composecl by the usual reagents of arsenic; such as nitrate of silver, the salts of copper, lime-water, hydrosulphuric acid gas, and hydrosulphates; and is incompatible with infusions and decoctions of cinchona. Medical Properties and Uses.—This solution has the general action of the arsenical preparations on the ar.imal economy, already described un- der the head of Arsenious Acid. Its liquid form makes it convenient for exhibition and gradual increase; and it is the preparation generally re- sorted to, when arsenic is given internally. It is a valuable resource in the intermittents of children, who are with difficulty induced to swallow sufficient quantities of bark or even sulphate of quinia. Dr. Dewees (Phil. Journ. of Med. and Phys. Sciences, xiv. 187,) relates the case of a child only six weeks old, affected with a severe tertian, in which this solution was given with success. A fluidrachm was diluted with twelve fluidrachms of water; and of this six drops were given every four hours. Fowler's solution, while partaking of the general therapeutical pro- perties of the arsenical preparations, appears to be particularly adapted to the cure of several diseases. It has been employed with success in lepra and other inveterate cutaneous affections. Dr. S. Colhoun (Med. Recorder, iii. 347,) relates five cases of nodes, successfully treated by it; and in consequence of his success, Dr. Baer of Baltimore, and Dr. Eberle, now of Cincinnati, were induced to give the remedy a trial in this affection, and \Vith satisfactory results. Several cases of chorea, cured by this remedy, are reported by Mr. Martin, Mr. Salter, and Dr. Gre- gory, in the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions of London. Two inter- esting cures of periodical headach, performed by this solution, are re- lated by Dr. Otto of Philadelphia, in the fourth and fifth volumes of the N. A. Medical and Surgical Journal, the first occurring in the practice of Dr. Joseph M. Alexander of North Carolina; the second under his own observation. Each fluidrachm of the solution contains half a grain of arsenious acid. The average dose for an adult is ten drops two or three times a day. For the peculiar effects which it produces in connexion with the other arsenical preparations, apd for the signs by which the practitioner is warned that its further exhibition would be unsafe, the reader is re- ferred to the article on Arsenious Acid. BARYTA. Preparations of Baryta. BARYTA MURIAS. U.S., Dub.; Murias Barytje. Ed.; Muriate of Baryta. "Take of Carbonate of Baryta, in small fragments, a pound; Muria- tic Acid twelve fluidounces; Water three pints. Mix the Acid with the Water, and gradually add the Carbonate of Baryta till effervescence ceases. Digest for an hour and filter; then evaporate the solution, and set it aside to crystallize. Repeat the evaporation and crystallization, so long as any crystals form." U.S. "Take of Sulphate of Baryta ten parts; Wood Charcoal, in very fine powder, or Lampblack, one part. Roast the Sulphate of Baryta, and throw it while still red-hot into water; then reduce it to a very fine pow- der in the manner directed for the preparation of chalk. Mix the pow- ders intimately, put them into a crucible, and expose them to a red heat for four hours. Dissolve the mass when cold in Distilled Water, equal 76S Baryta. part ii. to ten times the weight of the Sulphate of Baryta, and filter the solution. Add to this, avoiding the vapours, as much Muriatic Acid as may be sufficient to saturate the Baryta. Then filter the liquor, and crystallize by evaporation and refrigeration." Dub. By the above formulae, it is seen that the muriate of baryta, in the U. S. process, is obtained from the native carbonate; in that of the Dub- lin College, from the native sulphate. The Edinburgh College gives se- parate formulae for obtaining the salt in question from either of these native sources. The process in which the carbonate is used does not differ materially from that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; and the formula for obtaining the muriate from the native sulphate is in principle the same as the corresponding process of the Dublin College, and, there- fore, need not be quoted. When the carbonate is used, the process is a case of single elective affinity; the muriatic acid combining with the ba- ryta, and the carbonic acid being expelled with effervescence. The pro- cess, where the sulphate of baryta is employed, is more complicated. The object of the roasting and quenching in water, is to render the sulphate more easily pulverizable. The calcination with carbonaceous matter deoxidizes its constituents, converting it into sulphuret of barium, the oxygen flying off in combination with the carbon, as carbonic oxide and carbonic acid. The sulphuret of barium, when dissolved in water, is converted, by union with the elements of water, into hydrosulphate of baryta; and this by the addition of muriatic acid is decomposed, hydro- sulphuric acid gas being given off in large quantities, and muriate of baryta being formed in solution, from which, in the usual manner, the solid salt is obtained. Muriate of baryta may be obtained also from the sulphate, by calci- ning it, either with muriate of lime, or carbonate of potassa. In the former case it is directly generated by double decomposition; in the lat- ter, carbonate of baryta is in the first instance formed, which is easily converted into the muriate by solution in muriatic acid. Of the officinal processes, that in which the native carbonate is used is the simplest and most convenient; but as it may happen that the operator may have the native sulphate and not the carbonate at hand, the addi- tional process of the Edinburgh College may sometimes prove useful. Properties.—Muriate of baryta is a permanent white salt, possessing an acrid and disagreeable taste. It crystallizes in rectangular plates with bevelled edges. It dissolves in about two and a half times its weight of cold, and in a less quantity of boiling water. It is scarcely soluble in absolute alcohol, but dissolves in spirit of wine. Alcohol, impregnated with it, burns with a yellow flame. When exposed to heat, it decrepi- tates, dries, and melts, and is converted into chloride of barium. It is decomposed by the sulphates, oxalates, and tartrates, and the alkaline phosphates, borates, and carbonates; also by the nitrate of silver, ace- tate and phosphate of mercury, and the acetate of lead. When pure, it does not deliquesce. If strontia be present, its alcoholic solution will burn with a red flame. Like all the soluble salts of baryta, it is poison- ous. It consists of one equiv. of muriatic acid 37, one equiv. of baryta 78, and one equiv. of water 9 = 124; or, viewed as a chloride of barium, of one equiv. of chlorine 36, one equiv. of barium 70, and two equiv. of water 18. It is used in medicine only in solution. Off. Prep. Liquor Barytae Muriatis, U.S., Ed., Dub. LIQUOR BARYTA MURIATIS. U.S. Solutio Muriatis Baryt.e. Ed. Barytje Muriatis Aqua. Dub. Solution of Mu- riate of Baryta. PART II. Baryta. —Bismuthum. 769 "Take of Muriate of Baryta an ounce; Distilled Water three fluid- ounces. Dissolve the Muriate of Baryta in the Water." U.S. "Take of Muriate of Baryta one part; Distilled Water three parts; Dissolve." Ed., Dub. "The sp. gr. of this solution should be 1.230." Dub. The muriate of baryta not being used in the solid state, this solution is intended for its convenient exhibition. The' Edinburgh and Dublin formulae agree in dissolving the salt in three times its weight of water. The U.S. preparation is somewhat stronger; inasmuch as three fluid-' ounces weigh about a sixth of an ounce less than three ounces. The plan of the Dublin College is a good one, of designating the strength by the specific gravity. The solution should be limpid and Colourless; and to make it so, the salt in crystals, and not in powder, should be em- ployed. It is not saturated, which is an advantage; as otherwise it would be liable to grow weaker by a fall of temperature. Medical Properties and Uses.—This solution is deobstruent and anthel- mintic, and in large doses poisonous. It was introduced into practice by Dr. Crawford as a remedy for cancer and scrofula. Its value in the latter disease has been particularly insisted on by Hufeland. This phy- sician considers it to act more particularly on the lymphatic system, in the irritated states of which he esteems it a valuable remedy. Hence he recommends it in the scrofulous affections of delicate and irritable organs, such as the eyes, lungs, 8cc. In the commencement of scrofu- lous phthisis, he views it as one of the best remedies to which we can have recourse. It is employed also in diseases of the skin, in ulcers, and ophthalmia. The dose for an adult is about five drops, given twice or thrice a day, and gradually but cautiously increased, until it produces nausea, or some other sensible impression. When taken in an over-dose it causes violent vomiting and purging, vertigo, and other dangerous symptoms. To combat its poisonous effects, recourse must be had im- mediately to weak solutions of sulphate of magnesia or of soda, which act by converting the poison into the insoluble sulphate of baryta. If vomiting does not come on, it should be induced by tickling the fauces, or by the administration of an emetic. BISMUTHUM. Bismuth. BISMUTHI SUBNITRAS. U.S., Lond., Bub. Subnitrate of Bismuth. White Oxide of Bismuth. "Take of Bismuth an ounce; Nitric Acid a fluidounce and a half} Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix six fluidrachms of Distilled Water with the Nitric Acid, and dissolve the Bismuth in the mixture; then filter the solution. To the filtered liquor add three pints of Dis- tilled Water, and set the mixture by nd., Dub. Becoction of White Hellebore. PART II. Decocta. —Emplastra. 7.99 "Take of White Hellebore, in powder, an ounce; Water two pints; Alcohol two fluidounces. Pour the Water upon the Hellebore and boil down to a pint; then strain the decoction, and after it has cooled add the Alcohol." U. S. The London and Dublin processes correspond with the above. The root of the white hellebore imparts its acrid properties to boiling water, and the decoction is powerfully cathartic and emetic; but, in consequence of the harshness of its action, it is not used internally. As an external application it is employed in psora, tinea capitis, lepra, and other cutaneous eruptions, in which it sometimes proves highly benefi- cial. When the skin is very irritable, it should be diluted with an equal measure of water. Even externally applied it should be used with some caution; as the veratria, upon which its activity depends, may possibly be absorbed. As the plant is not a native of this country, the Veratrum viride, which is identical in medical properties, may be advantageously substituted for it in the preparation of the decoction. EMPLASTRA. Plasters. Plasters are solid compounds intended for external application, ad- hesive at the temperature of the human body, and of such a consistence as to render the aid of heat necessary in spreading them. Most of them have as their basis a compound of olive oil and litharge, constituting the Emplastrum Plumbi of the United States Pharmacopceia; and it has- been proposed by M. Deyeux to restrict the term plaster to those bodies which are formed by the mutual reaction of the metallic oxides and oil or fat. But this proposition has not been adopted ; and as the object of nomenclature is practical utility, there is an obvious propriety in retain- ing under the same officinal title, substances M'hich, though differing in composition, are closely allied in all that relates to their pharmaceutic management. Those plasters which contain none of the compound of oil and litharge, owe their consistence and adhesiveness to resinous sub- stances, or to a mixture of these with wax and oleaginous matter. Only two of this class have gained admission into our national Pharmaco- poeia; several of those directed by the British Colleges having been re- jected as superfluous, and the Emplastrum Cantharidis transferred to the Cerates, to which class it properly belongs. In the preparation of the plasters, care is requisite that the heat em- ployed be not sufficiently elevated to produce decomposition, nor so long continued as to drive off any volatile ingredient upon which the virtues of the preparation may in a greater or less degree depend. After having been prepared, they are usually shaped into cylindrical rolls, and wrap- ped in paper to exclude the air. Plasters should be firm at ordinary temperatures, should spread easily when heated, and after being spread, should remain soft, pliable, and adhesive, without melting at the heat of the human body. When long kept, they are apt to change colour and to become hard and brittle; and as this alteration is most observable upon their surface, it must depend chiefly upon the action of the air, which should therefore be as much as possible excluded. The defect may usually be remedied by melting the plaster with a moderate heat, and adding a sufficient quantity of oil to give it the due consistence. Plasters are prepared for use by spreading them upon leather, linen, SOO Emplastra. part ii. or muslin, according to the particular purposes they are intended to answer. Leather is most convenient when the application is made to the sound skin, linen or muslin when the plaster is used as a dressing to ulcerated or abraded surfaces, or with the view of bringing and retaining together the sides of wounds. The leather usually preferred is white sheep skin. A margin about a quarter or half an inch broad should usually be left uncovered, in order to facilitate the removal of the plaster, and to prevent the clothing in contact with its edges from being soiled. An accurate outline may be obtained by pasting upon the leather a piece of paper, so cut as to leave in the centre a vacant space of the required dimensions, and removing the paper when no longer required. The same object may be accomplished by employing two narrow rulers of sheet tin, graduated in inches, and so shaped that each of them may form two sides of a rectangle. (See the figure, p. 689.) These may be applied in such a manner as to enclose within them any given rectangular space, and may be fixed by weights upon the leather while the plaster is spread. For any other shape, as in the instance of plasters for the breast, pieces of tin may be employed having a vacuity within, corresponding to the required outline. The spreading of the plaster is most conveniently ac- complished by means of a peculiar iron instrument employed for the purpose; though a common spatula will answer. This may be heated by means of a spirit lamp. A sufficient portion of the plaster should first be melted by the heated instrument, and having been received on a piece of coarse stiff paper, should, when nearly cool, be transferred to the leather, and applied evenly over its extended surface. By this plan, the melted plaster is prevented from penetrating the leather, as it is apt to do when applied too hot. When linen or muslin is used, and the di- mensions of the portion to be spread are large, as is often the case with adhesive plaster, the best plan is to pass the cloth " on which the plaster has been laid, through a machine formed of a spatula fixed by screws, at a proper distance from a plate of polished steel." EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Am- moniac Plaster. " Take of Ammoniac five ounces; Vinegar half a pint. Dissolve the Ammoniac in the Vinegar, and strain; then evaporate the solution in an iron vessel, by means of a water-bath, stirring constantly until it ac- quires a proper consistence." U.S. The London and Edinburgh Colleges direct purified ammoniac and distilled vinegar, and omit the straining of the acetic solution. In other respects their processes are the same with ours, except that the Edin- burgh College orders five parts of the gum-resin to eight parts of the solvent, instead of five ounces to half a pint. In the Dublin process, the ingredients are in the same proportion as in that of the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia; but pure ammoniac is directed, the vinegar of squill is substitut- ed for common vinegar, the straining is omitted, and the evaporation is conducted without the water-bath. As ammoniac is not usually kept purified in our .shops, the straining of the solution in vinegar is directed as the most convenient method of separating impurities. Dr. Duncan says that the plaster, prepared in iron vessels, as ordered in all the Pharmacopoeias, except that of Dub- lin, " acquires an unpleasant dark colour, from being impregnated with iron; whereas, when prepared in a glass or earthenware vessel, it has a yellowish-white colour, and more pleasant appearance." Medical Properties.—The ammoniac plaster is stimulant, and is ap- PART II. Emplastra. 801 plied over scrofulous tumours, and swellings of the joints, to promote their resolution. It often produces a papular eruption, and sometimes occasions considerable inflammation of the skin. Dr. Duncan has de- scribed a fatal case of diffuse inflammation following its use in a case of diseased knee joint. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO.Lond., Dub. Plaster of Ammoniac with Mercury. " Take of Purified Ammoniac a pound; Purified Mercury three ounces; Sulphurated Oil a fluidrachm. Rub the Mercury with the Sulphurated Oil until the globules disappear; then gradually add the Ammoniac previously melted, and mix the whole together." Lond. "Take of Pure Gum Ammoniac a pound; Purified Mercury three ounces; Common Turpentine two drachms. Rub the Mercury with the Turpentine until the globules, disappear, then gradually add the Ammo- niac previously melted, and with a moderate heat rub them all together till they unite." Dub. Of these processes the latter is preferable, as the unpleasant odour of the sulphurated oil is avoided, as well as the action of the sulphur upon the mercury, with which it must form an inactive sulphuret. But it should be recollected that the common turpentine of Great Britain is not the common white turpentine of our shops. The former is a thick liquid, the latter a soft solid. If the white turpentine be employed, it should be rendered sufficiently liquid by the admixture of Venice tur- pentine. As ammoniac is not fusible by heat, it must be brought to the proper consistence by dissolving it in a small quantity of hot water, straining, and evaporating. Medical Properties and Uses.—This plaster unites with the stimulant power of the ammoniac the specific properties of the mercury, which is sometimes absorbed in sufficient quantity to affect the gums. It is used as a discutient in enlargement of the glands, tumefaction of the joints, nodes, and other indolent swellings, especially when dependent on a venereal taint. It is sometimes, also, applied over the region of the liver in chronic hepatitis. EMPLASTRUM AROMATICUM. Dub. Aromatic Plaster. " Take of Frankincense [concrete juice of the Pinus Abies] three ounces; Yellow Wax half an ounce; Cinnamon Bark, in powder, six drachms; Oil of Pimento, Oil of Lemons, each, two drachms. Melt the Frankincense and Wax together, and strain. When, upon cooling, they begin to thicken, mix in the powdered Cinnamon previously rubbed with the Oils, and make a plaster." Dub. As the virtues of this plaster depend chiefly upon volatile ingre- dients, it cannot be kept long without injury, and should therefore be extemporaneously prepared. It is not intended to be very adhesive, as, in order to maintain the due impression, its application must be fre- quently renewed. The volatility of the oils requires that it should be spread without being melted, or heated more than is absolutely neces- sary to produce the proper degree of softness. We are therefore recom- mended to spread it with the fingers. Medical Properties and Uses.—This is an elegant local stimulant, cal- culated when applied over the region of the stomach to allay nausea and vomiting, to correct flatulence, and to relieve the gastric uneasiness at- tendant upon dyspepsia. EMPLASTRUM ASSAFOZTIDA. U.S. Emplastrum Ass^ fcetide. Ed. Assafetida Plaster. 101 S02 Emplastra. part n. " Take of Assafetida, Lead Plaster, each, a pound [two parts, Ed.~\; Galbanum, Yellow Wax, each, half a pound [one part, Ed.] Melt to- gether the Plaster and Wax;'then add the Assafetida and Galbanum, previously melted and strained, and mix the whole together." U.S. In the former edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, the ingredients of this plaster were simply directed to be melted together and mixed; but experience has shown that they cannot, in this mode, be made to com- bine properly; and the directions of the Edinburgh College were there- fore substituted in the revised edition. Even as the process now stands, it requires some explanation. The Galbanum melts sufficiently by the aid of heat to admit of being strained ; but this is not the case with the assafetida, which must be prepared by dissolving it in a small quantity of hot water, straining and evaporating; and even the galbanum may be most conveniently treated in the same way. This plaster may be advantageously applied over the stomach or ab- domen, in cases of hysteria attended with flatulence, and to the chest or between the shoulders in hooping cough. EMPLASTRUM BELLADONNA. Bub. Plaster of Beadly Nightshade. " Take of the Inspissated Juice of the Deadly Nightshade [Extractum Belladonnae] an ounce; Soap Plaster two ounces. Make a plaster." Dub. The most convenient method of forming this plaster, is to rub the in- gredients together in an earthenware mortar placed in hot water, and then, having removed the mortar from the water-bath, to continue the trituration till the mixture cools. The preparation was introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopceia, as a useful anodyne application in neuralgic and rheumatic pains; and from our own experience we can bear testi- mony to its beneficial operation in some of these cases. We have seen the constitutional effects of belladonna result from the external use of this plaster. EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS. Lond., Bub. Emplastrum Cantharidis Vesicatorie. Ed. Plaster of Spanish Flies. See CERATUM CANTHARIDIS. U. S. EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS VESICATORIA COMPO- SITUM. Ed. Compound Plaster of Spanish Flies. " Take of Venice Turpentine eighteen parts; Burgundy Pitch, Spanish Flies, each, twelve parts; Yellow Wax four parts; Subacetate of Copper two parts; Mustard Seeds, Black Pepper, each, one part. Having first melted the Pitch and Wax, add the Turpentine; and to these, still hot, add the other ingredients previously reduced to a fine powder and mixed, and stir the whole together till the mixture stiffens on cooling." Ed. This is intended to be a powerful and speedy blistering plaster, and may probably prove beneficial in very urgent cases attended with much torpor of the skin; but great care should be observed not to allow it to remain too long, as unpleasant and tedious ulceration, if not gangrene, might result. To the cases of children it is wholly inapplicable. EMPLASTRUM CERA. Lond. Emplastrum Simplex. Ed. Wax Plaster. "Take of Yellow Wax, Prepared Suet, each, three pounds; Yellow Resin a pound. Melt them together, and strain." Lond. "Take of Yellow Wax three parts; Mutton Suet, Pine Resin, each, two parts. Melt them together with a gentle heat, and stir the mixture well till it stiffens on cooling." Ed. These plasters were originally intended for dressing blistered sur- PART II. Emplastra. 803 faces, in order to maintain a moderate discharge, for which purpose they are adapted by the stimulant properties of the resin. But their stiffness and adhesiveness render them unpleasant and of difficult man- agement; and they have been entirely superseded by the resin cerate. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Cantharidis. Lond. EMPLASTRUM CUMINI. Lond. Cumin Plaster. " Take of Cumin Seeds, Caraway Seeds, Bay Berries [Lauri Baccae], each, three ounces; Burgundy Pitch three pounds; Yellow Wax three ounces; Olive Oil, Water, each, a fluidounce and a half. To the Pitch and Wax melted together, add the dry ingredients previously powdered, the Olive Oil, and the Water; then boil to a proper consistence." Lond. This is a warm, moderately stimulant plaster, occasionally useful in the discussion of indolent tumours, and, when applied over the abdo- men, in the relief of flatulence and other symptoms dependent upon a sluggish or debilitated condition of the stomach and bowels. EMPLASTRUM FERRI. U.S. Emplastrum Oxidi Ferri Rubri. Ed. Emplastrum Thuris. Bub. Emplastrum Roborans. Iron Plaster. Strengthening Plaster. " Take of Red Oxide of Iron eight ounces; Lead Plaster two pounds; Resin six ounces; Yellow Wax, Olive Oil, each, three ounces. Rub the Red Oxide of Iron with the Oil; then add the other ingredients previ- ously melted together by means of a water-bath, and mix the whole." U.S. The process of the Edinburgh College corresponds with the above in' the proportions of the ingredients, and the general mode of proceeding. The Dublin College directs that two pounds of litharge plaster (Em- plastrum Plumbi,) be melted with half a pound of frankincense (con- crete juice of the Pinus Abies); that three ounces of the red oxide of iron be afterwards added; and the whole stirred together, so as to form a plaster. This preparation has enjoyed some popular celebrity, under the im- pression that it strengthens the parts to which it is applied, whence it has derived the name of strengthening plaster. It is used in those con- ditions of the loins, larger muscles, and joints, which, though usually ascribed to debility, are in fact most frequently dependent on rheumatic or other chronic inflammatory affections, and, if relieved by the plaster, are so in consequence of the gentle excitation which it produces in the vessels of the skin. It may also, in some instances, give relief by afford- ing a mechanical support; but neither in this, r.or in any other respect, can it be deemed very efficient. Prepared according to the U.S. and Edinburgh process, it is deficient in the qualities which characterize a good plaster, and among others that of adhesiveness. We should prefer the process of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia; Burgundy pitch being sub- stituted for frankincense. EMPLASTRUM GALBANI. Dub. Galbanum Plaster. "Take of Litharge Plaster [Emplastrum Plumbi] two pounds; Gal- banum half a pound; Yellow Wax, sliced, four ounces. Add the Litharge Plaster and Wax to the Galbanum previously melted; then melt the whole together with a moderate heat, and strain." Dub. This is essentially the same in properties as the following, though somewhat less stimulating. EMPLASTRUM GALBANI COMPOSITUM. U.S., Lond. Compound Galbanum Plaster. " Take of Galbanum eight ounces; Lead Plaster three pounds; Turpen- 804 Emplastra. PART II. tine ten drachms; Burgundy Pitch, in powder, three ounces. Melt toge- ther the Galbanum and Turpentine; then add first the Burgundy Pitch, afterwards the Lead Plaster previously melted over a slow fire, and mix the whole together." U.S. The London process differs only in directing the galbanum previously purified (See Gummi-resinse) instead of the gum-resin in its ordinary state; and the concrete juice or unprepared resin of the Pinus Abies, in- stead of Burgundy pitch or the prepared resin. It is a defect of the process of the United States Pharmacopoeia, not to have ordered the galbanum purified, as it often contains foreign mat- ters which must injure the plaster. It may be freed from these by melting it with a little water, straining, and evaporating to the due con- sistence. There is no necessity for employing the Burgundy pitch in powder. This plaster is an excellent local stimulant in chronic scrofulous en- largement of the glands and joints. We have employed it with apparent advantage in some obstinate cases of this kind, which after having re- sisted general and local depletion, blistering, and other measures, have yielded under its use. As a discutient it is also employed in the indura- tion which sometimes remains after the discharge of abscesses. It is said to have been useful in rickets when applied over the whole lumbar region; and has been recommended in chronic gouty or rheumatic ar- ticular affections. It should not be employed in the discussion of tu- mours in which any considerable inflammatory action exists. EMPLASTRUM GUMMOSUM. Ed. Gum Plaster. " Take of Plaster of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead [Emplastrum Plumbi] eight parts; Gum Ammoniac, Galbanum, Yellow Wax, each, one part. To the melted Plaster and Wax, add the Gum-resins, previously melted and strained, and mix the whole thoroughly." Ed. The addition of ammoniac adds little to the virtues of this plaster, which closely resembles the compound galbanum plaster in its effects. The galbanum and ammoniac are best prepared by dissolving them in a small quantity of hot water, straining the solution, and evaporating it to the proper consistence for mixing with the other ingredients. EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRI. U.S., Lond., Ed. Mercu- rial Plaster. Take of Mercury six ounces; Olive Oil, Resin, each, two ounces; Lead Plaster a pound. Melt the Oil and Resin together, and when they have become cool, rub the Mercury with them till the globules disappear; then gradually add the Lead Plaster, previously melted, and mix the whole together." U. S. By the process of the London College three ounces of purified mer- cury are extinguished by trituration with a fluidrachm of sulphurated oil; a pound of lead plaster, previously melted, is then gradually added, and the whole mixed together. The Edinburgh process corresponds precisely, except in phraseology, with that of the United States Phar- macopoeia. The sulphurated oil employed by the London College is intended to facilitate the extinguishment of the mercury; but as it operates by the union of the sulphur with the metal forming an inefficient sulphuret, it impairs the virtues of the plaster at least as much as it assists in its preparation. The melted resin and oil of the United States and Edin- burgh process are decidedly preferable. This plaster is employed to produce the local effects of mercury upon PART II. Emplastra. 805 venereal buboes, nodes, and other chronic tumefactions of the bones or soft parts, dependent on a syphilitic taint. In these cases it sometimes acts as a powerful discutient. It is frequently also applied to the side in chronic hepatitis or splenitis. In habits peculiarly susceptible to the mercurial influence, it occasionally affects the gums. EMPLASTRUM OPII. Lond., Ed., Dub. Opium Plaster. "Take of Opium, in powder, half an ounce; Burgundy Pitch three ounces; Plaster of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead [Emplast. Plumbi] a pound. Add the Opium and Pitch to the Plaster, previously melted, and mix them thoroughly." Ed., Dub. " Take of Hard Opium, in powder, half an ounce; Resin of the Spruce-fir [unprepared concrete juice of the Pinus Abies], in powder, three ounces; Lead Plaster a pound; Water half a pint. To the melted Plaster add the Resin, Opium, and Water; and boil down with a slow fire until the in- gredients unite into the consistence of a plaster." Lond. The opium plaster is* thought to relieve rheumatic and other pains in the parts to which it is applied. EMPLASTRUM PICIS COMPOSITUM. Lond. Compound Pitch Plaster. " Take of Burgundy Pitch two pounds; Resin of the Spruce-fir [unpre- pared concrete juice of the Pinus Abies] a pound; Yellow Resin, Yellow Wax, each, four ounces; Expressed Oil of Nutmegs an ounce; Olive Oil, Water, each, two fluidounces. To the Pitch, Resin, and Wax, melted together, add first the Resin of the Spruce-fir, then the Oil of Nutmegs, the Olive Oil, and the Water. Lastly, mix the whole, and boil down to the proper consistence." Lond. The driest white turpentine may be substituted for the resin of the spruce-fir, which is not always to be obtained in this country. This is a rubefacient plaster applicable to catarrhal and other pectoral affections, chronic inflammation of the liver, and rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles. It often keeps up a serous discharge, which requires that it should be frequently renewed. The irritation which it sometimes excites is so great as to render its removal necessary. EMPLASTRUM PICIS CUM CANTHARIDE. U.S. Emplas- trum Calefaciens. Dub. Plaster of Pitch with Spanish Flies. Warming Plaster. " Take of Burgundy Pitch three pounds and a half; Cerate of Spanish Flies half a pound. Melt them together by means of a water-bath, and stir them constantly till they thicken upon cooling." U.S. The Dublin College employs the same proportions. This plaster is an excellent rubefacient, more active than Burgundy pitch, yet in general not sufficiently so to produce vesication. Still, how- ever, in consequence of a peculiar susceptibility of the skin in some in- dividuals, it occasionally blisters; and it has been recommended to di- minish the proportion of the flies. But, while such a reduction would render the plaster insufficiently active in most cases, it would not en- tirely obviate the objection, as the smallest proportion of flies would vesicate in certain persons, and even the Burgundy pitch alone some- times produces the same effect. In whatever mode, therefore, this plaster may be prepared, it cannot always answer the expectations which may be entertained; and the only plan, when the skin of any individual has been found to be very susceptible, is to accommodate the proportions to the particular circumstances of the case. Much, however, may be ac- complished by proper care in the preparation of the plaster, towards 806 Ernplastra. part ii. obviating its tendency to blister. If the flies of the Ceratum Cantharidis should have been coarsely pulverised, the larger particles coming in contact with the skin will exert upon the particular part to which they are applied their full vesicatory effect, while if reduced to a very fine pow- der they would be more thoroughly enveloped in the other ingredients, and thus have their strength very much diluted. Now the former con- dition of the cerate when prepared for ordinary use is not objection- able, as the design in this case is to produce a blister. Hence particular care is neither necessary nor observed in powdering the flies under these circumstances. But as an ingredient of the warming plaster, the cerate should contain the cantharides as minutely divided as possible, and if that usually kept is not in the proper state, a portion should be prepared for this particular purpose. The warming plaster is employed in chronic rheumatism, and various chronic internal diseases attended with inflammation or an inflammatory tendency, such as chronic catarrh, asthma, pertussis, phthisis, hepatitis, and the sequelae of pleurisy and pneumonia. EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI. U.S., Lond. Emplastrum Plumbi Semivitrei. Ed. Emplastrum Lithargyri. Dub. Lead Plaster. "Take of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead, in very fine powder, five pounds; Olive Oil a gallon; Water two pints. Boil them together over a gentle fire, stirring constantly, until the Oil and Oxide of Lead unite into a Plaster. It will be proper to add a little boiling water, if that employed at the commencement be nearly all consumed before the end of the pro- cess." U. S., Lond. The Edinburgh College orders one part of the semivitrified oxide of lead, two parts of olive oil, and a sufficient quantity of water. The Dub- lin process does not differ materially from that of the London and U.S. Pharmacopoeias. The importance of this plaster, as the basis of most of the others, re- quires that we should enter somewhat in detail into an account of the principles and manner of its preparation. It was formerly thought that the oil and oxide of lead entered into direct union, and that the presence of water was necessary only to regu- late the temperature, and prevent the materials from being decomposed by heat. The discovery, however, was afterwards made, that this liquid was essential to the process; and that the oil and oxide alone, though maintained at a temperature of 220°, would not combine, while the ad- dition of water, under these circumstances, would produce their imme- diate union. It was now supposed that the oil was capable of combining only with the hydrated oxide of lead, and that the use of the water was to bring the oxide into this state; and in support of this opinion, the fact was advanced, that the hydrated oxide of lead and oil would form a plaster when heated together without any free water. (See N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. i. p. 469.) But since the general reception of Chevreul's views in relation to oils and their combination with alkalies and other metallic oxides, the former opinions have been abandoned; and it is now admitted that the preparation of the lead plaster affords a genuine example of saponification, as explained by that chemist. The elements of the oil undergo a new arrangement, one portion of them, though comparatively small, uniting with a portion of the water to form a sweetish substance called glycerine, and the remainder, consti- tuting more than ninety parts in the hundred, combining among them- selves to produce two acid bodies, the oleic and margaric acids, to which, PART II. Emplastra. 807 when animal fat is employed instead of olive oil, a third is added, name- ly, the stearic* The plaster is formed by a union of these acids with the oxide, and, prepared according to the directions of the Pharmacopoeias, is in fact an oleo-margarate of* lead. The glycerine remains dissolved in the water, or mechanically mixed with the plaster. That such is the cor- rect view of the nature of this compound, is evinced by the fact, that if the oxide of lead be separated from the plaster by digestion at a mode- rate heat in very dilute nitric acid, the fatty matter which remains will unite with litharge with the greatest facility, without the intervention of water. Other oleaginous substances and other metallic oxides are susceptible of the same combination, and some of them form compounds, having the consistence of a plaster; but according to M. Henry of Paris, who has fully investigated the subject, no oily matter .except animal fat can properly be substituted for olive oil, and no metallic oxide, not even one of the other oxides of lead, for litharge. He ascertained, moreover, that the English litharge is preferable for the formation of the lead plaster to that obtained from Germany. Red lead, which is a deutoxide of that metal, forms a plaster with oil or fat, without the addition of water; but it is always of a deep brown colour, as if burnt. It is supposed, in this,case, that the oil is acidified by the agency of the oxygen, which the deutoxide affords when heated. Preparation.—The vessel in which the lead plaster is prepared, should be of such a size that the materials will not occupy more than two- thirds of its capacity. The oil should be first introduced, and the litharge then sprinkled in by means of a sieve, the mixture being constantly stir- red with a spatula. The particles of the oxide are thus prevented from coalescing in small masses, which the oil would not easily penetrate, and which would therefore delay the process. Though water exerts an important chemical agency in the changes which occur, it is also useful by preventing too high a temperature, which would decompose the oil and cause the reduction of the metal. The waste must therefore be sup- plied by fresh additions as directed in the process, and the water added for this purpose should be previously heated, as otherwise it would not only delay the operation, but by producing explosion, might endanger the operator. During the continuance of the boiling, the materials should be constantly stirred, and the spatula should be repeatedly passed along the bottom of the vessel, from side to side, so as to prevent any of the oxide, which is disposed by its greater density to sink to the bottom, from re- maining in that situation. The materials swell up considerably, in conse- quence partly of the vaporization of the water, partly of the escape of car- bonic acid gas, which is liberated by the oily acids from some carbonate of lead usually contained in the litharge. {Chevallier.) The process should not be continued longer than is sufficient to produce complete union of the ingredients, and this may be known by the colour and consistence of the mass. The colour of the litharge gradually becomes paler, and at length almost white when the plaster is fully formed. The consist- ence increases with the progress of the boiling, and is sufficiently thick, when a portion of the plaster taken out and allowed to cool upon the end of a spatula, or thrown into cold water, becomes solid, without ad- hering in this state to the fingers. The portion thus solidified, should not present, when broken, any red points, which would indicate the • Berzelius considers that the margaric acid may be a compound of the oleic and stearic, and that in fact only two acids are generated. 808 Emplastra. PART II. presence of a portion of uncombined litharge. When the plaster is formed, it should be removed from the fire, and after a short time cold water should be poured upon it: portions should then be detached from the mass, and having been well kneaded under water, in order to sepa- rate the viscid liquid contained in the interior, should be formed into cylindrical rolls, and wrapped in paper.* Medical Properties and Uses.—This plaster, which has long been known under the name of diachylon, is used as an application to exco- riated surfaces, and to slight wounds, which it serves to protect from the action of the air. It may also be beneficial by the sedative influ- ence of the lead which enters into its composition. But its chief use is in the preparation of other plasters. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Assafoetidae, U.S., Ed.; Emp. Ferri, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Galbani, Dubs; Emp. Galbani Comp., U.S., Lond.; Emp. Gummosum, Ed.; Emp. Hydrargyri, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Emp. Opii, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Plumbi Carbonat., U.S.; Emp. Resinae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Saponis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Sapo- nis Comp., Dub. EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS. U.S. Plaster of Carbonate of Lead. "Take of Carbonate of Lead a pound; Olive Oil two pints; Yellow Wax four ounces; Lead Plaster a pound and a half; Florentine Orris, in powder, nine ounces. Boil together the Oil and Carbonate of Lead, add- ing a little water, and constantly stirring, till they are thoroughly in- corporated ; then add the Wax and Plaster, and when these are melted sprinkle in the Orris, and mix the whole together." U.S. In the first edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, the oil and carbonate of lead were directed to be boiled together by means of a water-bath, till they were incorporated; but they cannot be made to unite in this manner, and the present directions were very properly substituted in the last edition. According to the process as it now stands, a good plaster may be prepared, rather too soft, perhaps, at first, but soon ac- quiring the proper consistence. The plaster of carbonate of lead was introduced into our Pharmaco- poeia as a substitute for Mahy's plaster, so much employed in some parts of the United States. It is an excellent application to surfaces inflamed or excoriated by friction; and may be resorted to with great advantage in those troublesome cases of cutaneous irritation, and even ulceration, occurring upon the back and hips during long continued confinement to one position. EMPLASTRUM RESINA. U.S., Lond. Emplastrum Resi- nosum. Ed. Emplastrum Lithargyri cum Resina. Dub. Em- plastrum Adhesivum. Resin Plaster. Adhesive Plaster. " Take of Resin, in powder, half a pound; Lead Plaster three pounds. To the Lead Plaster melted over a gentle fire add the Resin, and mix them." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College orders five parts of the lead plaster and one of resin; the Dublin, three pounds and a half of the former, and half a pound of the latter. This preparation differs from the lead plaster in being more adhesive and somewhat more stimulating. It is the common adhesive plaster of * For many of these remarks on the lead plaster, we are indebted to Chevallier's Manuel du Pharmacien. PART II. Emplastra. —Enemata. 809 the shops, and is much employed for retaining the sides of wounds in contact, and for dressing ulcers according to the method of Baynton, by which the edges are drawn towards each other, and a firm support is given to the granulations. It is usually spread for these purposes upon muslin; and the spreading is best accomplished, on a large scale, by means of a machine, as described in the general observations upon plas- ters. It is kept in the shops ready spread; but as the plaster becomes less adhesive by long exposure to the air, the supply should be frequent- ly renewed. When the skin is very delicate, it occasionally excites some irritation; and under these circumstances a plaster may be substituted, containing a smaller proportion of resin. That originally employed by Baynton contained only six drachms of resin to the pound of lead plaster. EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS. Lond., Dub. Emplastrum Sa- ponaceum. Ed. Soap Plaster. "Take of Hard Soap, sliced, half a po und; head Plaster three pounds. Mix the Soap with the melted Plaster; then boil them down to the pro- per consistence." Lond., Dub. " Take of Piaster of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead [Emplastrum Plumbi] four parts ; Gum Plaster two parts ; Hard Soap, sliced, one part. To the plasters melted together add the soap; then boil a little, so as to form a plaster." Ed. » In relation to the soap plaster of the London and Dublin Colleges, Dr. Montgomery, in his Observations upon the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, makes the following remark. "I am informed by Mr. Scanlan, who prepares this plaster in large quantities, that the quantity of soap is twice too great, the plaster being, when prepared by this formula, quite pulverizable, and falling into crumbs." After.ihe addition of the soap to the melted lead plaster, it is only necessary to continue the heat for a short time, till the soap is incorporated. Boiling is not necessary* Soap plaster is considered discutient, and is sometimes used as an application to tumours. Off. Prep. Emplast. Belladonnae, Dub ; Emp. Saponis Comp., Dub. EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS COMPOSITUM vel ADHARENS. Dub. Compound Soap Plaster, or Adhesive Plaster. " Take of Soap Plaster two ounces; Litharge Plaster with Resin [Em- plast. Resinae] three ounces. Make a plaster, which is to be melted and spread on linen." Dub. Dr. Duncan, in his Dispensatory, makes the following observations in relation to this preparation. " The common resinous plaster is in cold weather too brittle, and apt to crack off from the linen on which jt is spread ; but by combining it in due proportion with soap plaster, it acquires greater pliability, without losing its adhesive property. In fact, this is the plaster commonly spread by a machine on webs of linen, and sold under the name of adhesive plaster." ENEMATA. Bub. Clysters. These can scarcely be considered proper objects for officinal direc* tion- but having been introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopceia, the plan of this work requires that we should notice them. They ars sub* 102 810 Enemata. part ii. stances in the liquid form, intended to be thrown up the rectum, with the view either of evacuating the bowels, or of producing the peculiar impression of a remedy upon the lower portion of the alimentary canal and neighbouring organs, or of acting on the system generally through the medium of the surface to which they are applied. They are usually employed to assist the action of remedies taken by the mouth, or to supply their place when the stomach rejects them, or is insensible to their impression. Sometimes they are preferably used, when the seat of the disorder is in the rectum or its vicinity. As a general rule, three times as much of any remedy is required to produce a given impres- sion by enema, as when taken into the stomach; but this rule should be acted on with caution, as the relative susceptibilities of the stomach and rectum are not the same in all individuals ; and with regard to all very active remedies, the best plan is to administer less than the stated proportion. Attention should also be paid to the fact, that by the fre- quent use of a medicine the susceptibility of the stomach may be in some measure exhausted, without a proportionate diminution of that of the rectum. When the object is to evacuate the bowels, the quantity of liquid ad- ministered should be considerable. For an adult from ten fluidounces to a pint, for a child of eight or ten years half that quantity, for an in- fant within the year from one to three fluidounces, are about the proper proportions. Much larger quantities of mild liquids may sometimes be given with safety and advantage; as the bowels will occasionally feel the stimulus of distention, when they are insensible to impressions of an irritating character. When the design is to produce the peculiar impression of the remedy upon the neighbouring parts or the system, it is usually desirable that the enema should be retained; and the liquid vehicle should therefore be bland, and as small in quantity as is compatible with convenient ad- ministration. A solution of starch, flaxseed tea, or other mucilaginous fluid should be selected, and the quantity given should seldom exceed two or three fluidounces. In every case the patient should be induced to resist any immediate disposition to discharge the injected fluid; and his efforts to retain it should be assisted if necessary by pressure with a warm folded towel upon the fundament. The best instrument for administering enemata is an accurate metal- lic syringe. ENEMA CATHARTICUM. Bub. Cathartic Clyster. ^ " Take of Manna an ounce. Dissolve it in ten fluidounces of Com- pound Decoction of Chamomile, and add of Olive Oil an ounce, Sul- phate of Magnesia half an ounce." Dub. The laxative enema most commonly employed in this country, and in all respects equal to the above, consists of a tablespoonful of common salt, two tablespoonfuls of lard or sweet oil, the same quantity of mo- lasses, and a pint of warm water. It has the advantage of consisting of materials which are always at hand in families. ENEMA FCETIDUM. Dub. Fetid Clyster. " This is made by adding to the Cathartic Clyster two drachms of Tincture of Assafetida." Dub. It is carminative and antispasmodic, as well as laxative; but when the peculiar influence of assafetida is desired by way of enema, we prefer the gum-resin itself rubbed up with hot water, in the proportion of one PART II. Enemata.—Extracta. 811 or two drachms to half a pint, of which the whole or a part may be given according to circumstances. ENEMA OPII. Dub. Clyster of Opium. "Take of Tincture of Opium a drachm; Warm Water six ounces. Mix them." Dub. This contains too much both of the tincture and the vehicle. It must have happened to every one in the habit of prescribing opium in this way, to have seen a much greater effect produced by a certain amount of laudanum injected into the rectum than by one-third of the quantity swallowed. The fluidrachm—the drachm of the Dublin formula—con- tains at least one hundred drops of laudanum of the ordinary size, and not less than one hundred and twenty as they are often formed. From twenty to twenty-five drops are usually considered as a medium dose; so that the Dublin College orders five times as much by the rectum as is given by the mouth. Sixty drops, equivalent to about thirty-five minims, are abundantly sufficient. As the object is that the enema should remain in the rectum, the smaller the quantity of the vehicle the better, and a mucilaginous fluid is preferable to water, as it involves the tincture and prevents the irritation of the alcohol before the opium be- gins to take effect. The ordinary anodyne enema employed in this country consists of about sixty drops of laudanum and one or two fluid- ounces of flaxseed tea or solution of starch. It is an admirable remedy in obstinate vomiting, strangury from blis- ters, painful affections of the kidneys, bladder, and uterus, and in the tenesmus of dysentery. It may also frequently be employed to produce the effects of opium upon the system, when circumstances prevent the administration of this medicine by the mouth. ENEMA TEREBINTHINA. Dub. Clyster of Turpentine. " Take of Common Turpentine half an ounce; the Yolk of one Egg. Rub them together, and add gradually ten ounces of Water of a tempe- rature not exceeding 100°." Dub. As the common turpentine alluded to in the formula is not usually kept in the shops of this country, we almost always employ the oil of turpentine, which is even more efficacious, and in no respect inferior for the purpose. (See Oleum Terebinthinse.) -."»p®e<"— EXTRACTA. Extracts. Extracts, as the term is employed in the U.S. and London Pharma- copoeias, are solid substauces, resulting from the evaporation of the so- lutions of vegetable principles, obtained either by exposing the vegetable to the action of a solvent, or by expressing its juice in the recent state. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges make a distinction between those prepared from the infusions, decoctions, or tinctures, and those from the expressed juices of plants, calling the former Extracta, the latter Sued Spissali. But there is no such essential difference between these two sets of preparations, as to require that they should be separately classed; and something is gained in the simplicity of nomenclature, as well as of arrangement, which results from their union. We shall con- sider them under the same head, taking care, however, to detail dis- tinctly whatever is peculiar in the mode of preparing each. The composition of extracts varies with the nature of the vegetable, 812 Extracta. part ii. the character of the solvent, and the mode of preparation. The object is generally to obtain as much of the active principles of the plant, with as little of its inert matter as possible ; though sometimes it may be de- sirable to separate the active ingredients from each other, when their effects upon the system are materially different; and this may be ac- complished by employing a menstruum which, while it dissolves one, leaves the other untouched. The proximate principles most commonly present in extracts are gum, sugar, starch, tannin, extractive, colouring matter, salts, and the peculiar principles of plants; to which, when a spirituous solvent is employed, may usually be added resinous sub- stances, fatty matter, and frequently more or less essential oil—gum and starch being excluded when the menstruum is pure alcohol. Of these sub- stances, as well as of others which, being soluble, are sometimes neces- sarily present in extracts, we have taken occasion to treat under various heads in the Materia Medica. There is one, however, which, from its supposed almost uniform presence in this class of preparations, and from the influence it is thought to exert upon their character, deserves particular consideration in this place;—we allude to extractive, or, as it is sometimes called, extractive matter. It has long been observed, that in most vegetables there is a substance, soluble both in water and alcohol, which, in the preparation of extracts, undergoes some chemical change during the process of evaporation, im- parting to the liquid, even if originally limpid, first a greenish, then a yel- lowish-brown, and ultimately a deep brown colour, and becoming itself insoluble. This substance, originally called saponaceous matter by Scheele, afterwards received the more expressive name of extractive, derived from its very frequent presence in extracts. Its existence as a distinct principle is denied, or at least doubted by some chemists, who consider the pheno- mena supposed to result from its influence, as depending upon the mutual reaction of other principles; and in relation to Peruvian bark, it appears to have been proved, that the insoluble matter which forms during its de- coction in water, is a compound of starch and tannin. A similar compound must also be formed in other cases when these two principles co-exist; but they are not always present in the same vegetable, nor can all the changes which have been attributed to the extractive, be accounted for by their union, even when they are present; so that till further light is shed on the subject, it is best to admit the existence of a distinct sub- stance, which, though not the same in all plants, possesses sufficient identity of character to be entitled, like sugar, resin, tannin, Sec, to a distinctive name. The most interesting property of extractive is its dis- position to pass, by the influence of the atmospheric air at a high tem- perature, into an insoluble substance. If a vegetable infusion or decoc- tion be evaporated in the open air to "the consistence of an extract, then diluted, filtered, and again evaporated, and the process repeated so long as any insoluble matter is formed, the whole of the extractive will be separated from the liquid, which will then contain only the gum, sugar, saline matters, &c, which may have existed in the plant. If chlo- rine be passed through an infusion or decoction, a similar precipitate is formed with much greater rapidity. The change is usually ascribed to the absorption of oxygen by the extractive, which has therefore been called, in its altered condition, oxidized extractive; but de Saussure as- certained, that though oxygen is absorbed during the process, an equal measure of carbonic acid gas is given out, and the oxygen and hydrogen of the extractive unite to form water in such a manner as to leave the principle richer in carbon than it was originally. The name of oxidized PART II. Extracta. 813 extractive is therefore obviously incorrect, and Berzelius proposes to substitute for it that of apotheme, synonymous with deposite. According to Berzelius, apotheme is not completely insoluble in water, but imparts a slight colour to that liquid when cold, and is rather more soluble in boiling water, which becomes turbid upon cooling. It is still more solu- ble in alcohol, and is freely dissolved by solutions of the alkalies and alkaline carbonates, from which it is precipitated by acids. It has a great tendency, when precipitated from solutions, to unite with other principles, and to carry them along with it, thus acquiring properties somewhat different, according to the source from which it is obtained. In this way also, even when the extractive of a plant is itself medicinally inert, its conversion into apotheme may be injurious, by causing a pre- cipitation of a portion of the active principle; and in practical phar- maceutic operations, this change should always, if possible, be avoided. With these preliminary views, we shall proceed to the consideration of the practical rules necessary to be observed in the preparation of ex- tracts. We shall treat of the subject under the several heads, 1. of the extraction of the soluble principles from the plant; 2. of the method of conducting the evaporation; 3. of the proper condition of extracts, the changes they are liable to undergo, and the best methods of preserving them; and 4. of the general directions of the several Pharmacopoeias in relation to them. 1. Extraction of the Soluble Principles. There are two distinct modes of obtaining, in a liquid state, the principles which we wish to extract; 1. by expression; 2. by the agency of a solvent. 1. By expression.—This method is applicable only to recent vegeta- bles. All plants cannot be advantageously treated in this way, as many have too little juice to afford an appreciable quantity upon pressure, and of those which are succulent, a considerable proportion do not yield all their active principles with their juice. Succulent fruits, and various acrid and narcotic plants, are proper subjects of this treatment. With the exception of the fruit of the Sambucus nigra, the inspissated juice of which is directed by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, all the vege- tables from which officinal extracts are prepared in this way belong to the class of narcotics. The plants should be operated upon, if possible, immediately after their collection. Mr. Battley of London recommends that if not entirely fresh, they should be revived by the immersion of the stalks in water for twelve or eighteen hours, and those only used which recover their freshness by this management. They should then be cut into pieces, and bruised in a stone mortar till brought to a pulpy consistence. When the plant is not very succulent, it is necessary to add a little water during this part of the process, in order to dilute the juice. After sufficient contusion, the pulp is introduced1 into a linen or canvass bag, and the liquid parts expressed. The juice thus obtained is opaque and usually green, in consequence of the presence of green wax or chlorophylle, a peculiar resinoid principle to which plants usually owe their green colour, and of a portion of the undissolved vegetable fibre in a state of minute division. By heating the juice to about 160°, the albumen contained in it coagulates, and involving the chlorophylle and vegetable fibre, forms a greenish precipitate. If the liquid be now filtered, it becomes limpid and nearly colourless, and is prepared for evaporation. The clarification, however, is not absolutely necessary, 814 Extracta. part ii. and is generally neglected. Sometimes the precipitate carries with it a considerable portion of the active principle, in which case it should be subsequently incorporated with the juice, when reduced by evaporation to the consistence of a syrup. 2. By solution.—The active principles of dried vegetables can be ex- tracted only by means of a liquid solvent. The menstruum employed is either water or alcohol, or a mixture of the two. Water, on account of its cheapness, is always preferred when circumstances do not strongly call for the use of alcohol. It has the advantage, moreover, that its ope- ration may be assisted, if necessary, by a higher degree of heat than the latter. Pump water is often unfit for the purpose, in consequence of the quantity of its saline matter, which, in some instances, may exert an unfavourable influence on the active principle, and must always be left in the extract. Rain or river or distilled water should be preferred. Al- cohol is employed when the principles to be extracted are insoluble, or but slightly soluble in water, as in the case of the resins; when it is de- sirable to avoid in the extract inert substances, such as gum and starch, which are dissolved by water and not by alcohol; when the heat required to evaporate the aqueous solution would dissipate or decompose the ac- tive ingredients of the plant, as the volatile oils and the active principle of sarsaparilla; and finally, when the nature of the substance to be ex- hausted requires so long a maceration in water as to endanger sponta- neous decomposition. The watery solution requires to be soon evapo- rated, as this fluid rather promotes than counteracts chemical changes, while an alcoholic tincture may be preserved unaltered for an indefi- nite period. An addition of alcohol to water is sufficient to answer some of the purposes for which the former is preferable; and the em- ployment of both fluids is essential, when the virtues of the plant reside in two or more principles, all of which are not soluble in either of these menstrua. In this case it is usually better to submit the vegetable to the action of the two fluids successively, than to both united. Extracts ob- tained by the agency of water, are called watery or aqueous extracts, those by means of alcohol rectified or diluted, alcoholic or spirituous extracts. The method of preparing the solution is by no means a matter of in- difference. The vegetable should be thoroughly bruised, Or reduced to the state of coarse powder, so as to allow the access of the solvent to ail its parts, and yet not so finely pulverised as to prevent a ready precipi- tation of the undissolved and inactive portion. When water is employ- ed, it is usual to boil the medicine for a considerable length of time, and if the first portion of liquid does not completely exhaust it, to re- peat the operation with successive portions, till the whole of the active matter is extracted. This may be known by the sensible properties of the liquid, and by its influence upon reagents. But the boiling tempera- ture produces decomposition of many vegetable principles, or at least so modifies them as to render them inert; and the extracts prepared by decoction are usually less efficient than those prepared with a less de- gree of heat. From numerous experiments upon extracts, Orfila con- cluded that their virtues were less in proportion to the heat used in their preparation. It is recommended, therefore, to substitute for de- coction, the process of maceration, digestion, or hot infusion; in the first of which the liquid acts without heat, in the second is assisted by a moderately increased temperature sustained for a considerable time, and in the third is poured boiling hot upon the vegetable matter, and allowed part n. Extracta. 815 to stand for a short period in a covered vessel. When the active principles are readily soluble in cold water, maceration is preferable to any other mode, as the starch, which is inert, is thus left behind ; but in many in- stances the preparation would spoil before the extraction would be com- pleted. By digestion, though the solvent power of water is moderately increased, the advantage is more than counterbalanced by the increased disposition to spontaneous decomposition.*' Infusion, therefore, is gene- rally preferred when decoction is not resorted to. A convenient mode of performing this process, is to introduce the solid material into a ves- sel with an opening near the bottom temporarily closed, or into a funnel with its mouth loosely stopped, then to pour on the boiling water, and having allowed it to remain a sufficient length of time, to draw it off through the opening. This operation may be repeated till the water comes away without any obvious impregnation. It is, however, always desira- ble to obtain the solution in the first place as concentrated as possible, so as to prevent the necessity of long continued evaporation, which has a tendency to injure the extract. It is better, .therefore, to incur the risk, both where decoction and infusion are employed, of leaving a por- tion of the active matter behind, than to obtain a very weak solution. When successive portions of water are employed, those which are least impregnated should be brought by evaporation to the consistence of that first obtained before being mixed with it, as the latter thus escapes exposure to unnecessary heat. When alcohol is employed as a menstruum, the vegetable should be macerated in it for one or two weeks, and care should be taken that the tincture be as nearly saturated as possible. The extraction may be has- tened by substituting digestion for maceration, as the moderate heat employed, while it facilitates the action of the alcohol, has in this case no effect in promoting decomposition, and the influence of the atmo- spheric air may be excluded by performing the process in close vessels. When alcohol and water are both used, it is best, as a general rule, to exhaust the vegetable with each' separately, as the two menstrua require different modes of treatment. By whatever process the extraction is effected, it requires the assist- ance of occasional agitation; and when the vegetable matter is very po- rous, and absorbs large quantities of the solvent, expression must be resorted to. 2. Mode of conducting the Evaporation. In evaporating the solutions obtained in the modes above described, attention should always be paid to the fact, that the extractive matter is constantly becoming insoluble at high temperatures with the access of air, and that other chemical changes are going on, sometimes not less injurious than this, while the volatile principles are expelled with the vapour. The operator should, therefore, observe two rules; 1. to conduct the evaporation at as low a temperature as is consistent with other objects; 2. to exclude as much as possible the atmospheric air, and, when this cannot be accomplished, to expose the liquid the shortest possible time to its action. According to Berzelius, the injurious influ- ence of the atmospheric air is much greater at the boiling point of water than at a less heat, even allowing for the longer exposure in the latter case; and, therefore, a slow evaporation at a moderate heat is prefer- able to the more rapid effects of ebullition. Bearing these principles in mind, we shall proceed to examine the different modes in practice. S16 Extracta. PART II. First, however, it is proper to observe, that decoctions generally let fall upon cooling a portion of insoluble matter; and it is a question whe- ther this should be rejected, or retained so as to form a part of the ex- tract. Though it is undoubtedly in many instances inert, as in that of the insoluble tannate of starch formed during the decoction of certain vegetable substances, yet, as it frequently also contains a portion of the active principle which a boilmg saturated solution necessarily deposites on cooling, and as it is difficult to decide with certainty when it is ac- tive and when otherwise, the safest plan, as a general rule, is to allow it to remain. The method of evaporation usually resorted to in the case of the aqueous solutions is rapid boiling over a fire. The more quickly the pro- cess is conducted, the better, provided the liquid is to be brought to the boiling point; for the temperature cannot exceed this, and the length of exposure is diminished. But even where this method is employed, it should not be continued till the completion of the evaporation; for when most of the water has escaped, the temperature can no longer be kept down to the boiling point, and the extract is burnt. The caution, there- fore, should always be observed of removing the preparation from the fire, before it has attained the consistence of thick syrup, and completing the evaporation either by means of a water-bath, or in shallow vessels, at a moderate heat. But this mode of evaporation is always more or less objectionable, and should never be employed, except in cases where the principles of the plant arc so fixed and unchangeable as to authorize their extraction by boiling. Evaporation by means of the water-bath, from the commencement of the process, is safer than the plan just mentioned, as it obviates all dan- ger of burning the extract; but as the heat is not supplied directly from the lire, the volatilization of the water cannot go on so rapidly, and the temperature being the same, or very nearly so, when ihe water-bath is kept boiling, there is greater risk of injurious action from the air. The use of the vapour bath, as suggested by M. Henry, is perhaps pre- ferable, as it requires a smaller consumption of fuel, and the heat im- parted to the liquid, while sufficient to evaporate it, is less than 212°. We take the following description of the apparatus employed at the Central Pharmacy of Paris, from M. Chevallier's highly useful Manual. It consists of a covered boiler, containing water, the vapour of which is conducted through a pipe into evaporating vessels, communicating with each other by means of metallic tubes. These vessels have the form of an ordinary copper basin, over the top of which is soldered a shallow tin capsule intended to contain the liquor to be evaporated. The vapour from the boiler circulates through these vessels, and the water into which it condenses is allowed to escape through a stop-cock attached to the bottom of each vessel. From the last one of the series a tube passes into a vessel of water, so as to afford a slight pressure against the escape of any excess of vapour. The liquid to be evaporated is first distributed in two or three capsules, but when considerably concentrated is transferred to a single one, where it is stirred towards the close of the process to hasten the evaporation. The heat applied to the liquid, if there are four vessels, is in that nearest the boiler about 198° F., in the fourth or most remote, about 135°. An incidental advantage of this apparatus is, that it affords a large supply of distilled water, which may be used for extracting the active matter from fresh portions of the vege- table, or for other purposes. PART II. Extracta. 817 A good plan of evaporation, though slow, is to place the liquid in a broad shallow vessel, exposed in a stove or drying room to a tempera- ture of about 100°, or a little higher, taking care that the air have tree access, in order to facilitate the evaporation. This mode is particularly applicable in all those cases in which maceration or infusion is preferred to decoction for extracting the active principles. Berzelius says that we may thus usually obtain the extract in the form of a yellowish transpa- rent mass, while those prepared in the ordinary way are almost black, and are opaque even in very thin layers. Even when the liquid is boiled at first, the process may often be advantageously completed in this manner. aimer. „ Plans have been proposed and carried into execution lor perlorming evaporation without the admission of atmospheric air. The apparatus for evaporation in vacuo, invented by Mr. Barry, and described in the Lond. Journ. of Science and Arts, vol. viii. p. 360, is well calculated to meet this object, at the same time that, by removing the atmospheric pressure, it enables the water to rise in vapour more, rapidly, and at a comparatively low temperature. Another method is to place the liquid under an exhausted receiver, together with some concentrated sulphuric acid, or chloride of calcium (dry muriate of lime), which, by its affinity for water, assists the evaporation of the liquid. But, from the expense and trouble of these modes of evaporation, they are not calculated tor general use. A more convenient plan of excluding the air, though it does not at the same time meet the object of reducing the requisite degree of heat, is to distil off the water in close vessels. Berzelius says that this is the best mode of concentration next to that in vacuo. Care, however, must be taken, that the fire be not too long applied, lest the extract should be burnt. The process should, therefore, be completed by means of the water-bath. m In the concentration of alcoholic solutions, distillation should always be performed, as not only is the atmospheric air thus excluded, but the alcohol is recovered, if not absolutely pure, certainly fit for the purpose to which it was originally applied. Here also the water-bath should be employed to obviate any possible risk of injury from the fire. When a decoction or infusion, and tincture of the same vegetable have been made separately, they should be separately evaporated to the con- sistence of syrup, and then mixed together, while they are of such a con- sistence as to incorporate without difficulty. A reason for this separate evaporation, is, that the spirituous extract may not be exposed to the degree of heat, or lengthened action of the air, which is necessary in the ordinary mode of concentrating the infusion or decoction. In every instance, care should be taken to prevent any portion of the extract from becoming dry and hard on the sides of the evaporating vessel, as in this state it will not readily incorporate with the remaining mass. The heat, therefore, should be applied to the bottom, and not to the sides of the vessel. 3. Condition and Preservation of Extracts. Extracts are prepared of two different degrees of consistence, soft so that they may be readily made into pills, and hard that they may be pulverised. Those obtained from the expressed juices of plants are apt to attract moisture from the air, in consequence of the deliquescent na- ture of the salts existing in the juice. They are thus rendered softer, 103 818 Extracta. PART II. and more liable to become mouldy upon the surface. Others, especially such as contain much chlorophylle, harden by time, in consequence of the escape of their moisture; and it not unfrequently happens that small crystals of saline matter are formed in their substance. The air, more- over, exercises an unfavourable chemical influence over the softer ex- tracts, which are enfeebled, and ultimately become nearly inert, by the same changes which they undergo more rapidly in the liquid state at an elevated temperature. If an extract be dissolved in water, and the liquid be saturated with common salt, or any other very soluble salt of difficult decomposition, the greater part of it is precipitated, in conse- quence of the insolubility of this class of substances in saline solutions. The precipitate may be again dissolved in pure water. {Berzelius.) Extracts, in order that they may keep well, should be placed in glaz- ed earthenware, glass, or porcelain jars, and completely protected from the access of the air. This may be effected by covering their surface with a layer of melted wax, or with a piece of paper moistened with strong spirit, then closing the mouth of the vessel with a cork, spread- ing wax or rosin over this, and covering the whole with leather, or a piece of bladder. {Duncan.) The dry extracts, being less liable to be affected by the atmospheric oxygen, do not require so much care. The application of alcohol to the surface has a tendency to prevent moodi- ness. A method of protecting extracts from the action of the air fre- quently resorted to, is to cover them closely with oiled bladder; but this, though better than to leave them uncovered, is not entirely effectual. Should the extract become too moist, it may be dried by means of a water-bath; should it, on the contrary, be too dry, the proper consist- ence may.be restored, by softening it in the same manner, and incor- porating with it a little distilled water. {Chevallier.) Extracts from recent plants should always be prepared at the season when the plant is medicinally most active; and a good plan is to pre- pare them once a year. 4. Officinal Directions. The Pharmacopceia of the United States and that of the London Col- lege, give the following general directions. " In the preparation of the extracts, evaporate the moisture, as quickly as possible, in a broad, shallow dish, by means of a water-bath, until they have acquired the consistence proper for forming pills; and towards the end of the process, stir them constantly with a spatula. "Sprinkle upon the softer Extracts a small quantity of Alcohol." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College gives separate directions for different classes of extracts under the heads of Sued Spissati, or inspissated juices; Ex- tracta per Aquam, or watery extracts; and Extracta per Aquam et Alcohol, or spirituous extracts. 1. Sued Spissati.—" Bruise the fresh substance, and compress it strongly in a hempen bag that it may yield its juice, which is to be placed in shallow vessels heated in boiling water saturated with muriate of soda, and immediately reduced to the consistence of thick honey. The mass, when cold, is to be placed in glazed earthen vessels, and moistened with stronger alcohol." Ed. 2. Extracta per Aquam.—" Having sliced and bruised the substance, pour upon it eight times its weight of distilled water. Boil to one-half, and strain with strong expression. Immediately evaporate the decoction PART II. Extracta. 819 to the consistence of thick honey, in a bath of boiling water saturated with muriate of soda." Ed. 3. Extracta per Aquam et Alcohol.—"Upon a pound of the substance, in powder, pour four times its weight of stronger alcohol. Digest for four days, and pour off the tincture. Boil the residuum in five pounds of distilled water for fifteen minutes, and strain the decoction, boiling hot, through linen. Repeat the boiling and filtration with an equal quantity of distilled water, and evaporate the liquor to the consistence of thin honey. Draw oft" the alcohol from the tincture by distillation, till it be- comes equally thick; then mix the inspissated liquors, and in a bath of boiling water saturated with muriate of soda, evaporate to the proper consistence." Ed. The Dublin College also places the inspissated juices under a distinct head, and gives directions for the watery extracts, under the title of Extracta Simpliciora, omitting, probably through inadvertence, the classi- fication of the spirituous extracts which it also orders. 1. Sued Spissati.—" The leaves used in the preparation of the inspis- sated juices should be gathered about the period when the herb begins to flower. The inspissation is best effected by evaporating the superflu- ous moisture with a medium heat by means of a vapour bath, and con- stantly stirring with a spatula towards the close of the process." Dub. 2. Extracta Simpliciora.—"All simple extracts, unless otherwise or- dered, are to be prepared according to the following rule. Boil the vegetable matter in eight times its weight of water, till the liquid is reduced one-half; then express, and after the subsidence of the dregs filter: evaporate the liquor with a superior heat (between 200° and 212°) until it begins to thicken ; finally, inspissate it with a medium heat (be- tween 100° and 200°) obtained by a vapour bath, frequently stirring, till it acquires the consistence proper for the formation of pills." Dub. EXTRACTUM ACONITI. U.S., Lond. Succus Spissatus Aco- niti Napelli. Ed.; Succus Spissatus Aconiti. Dub. Extract of Aconite. " Take of Fresh Aconite [leaves] a pound. Bruise it in a stone mor- tar, sprinkling on it a little water; then express the juice, and evapo- rate it to the proper consistence." U.S. The directions of the London and Dublin Colleges are the same with the above. The Edinburgh College orders all its inspissated juices, with the exception of that of elder berries, to be prepared according to its general formula. The reader will find the general officinal directions of the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, at the close of our intro- ductory observations in relation to extracts. Among these observations, he will also find rules which may be of practical use in regulating the various steps of the process under consideration. In relation to the preparation of this extract, as well as of all those de- rived from the expressed juices of narcotic plants, the following sum- mary of the plan pursued by Mr. Battley, an experienced apothecary of London, may be of service. Having passed the expressed juice through a fine hair sieve, he places it immediately upon the fire. Before it boils, a quantity of green matter rises to the surface, which in some plants is very abundant. This is removed by a perforated tin dish and preserved. It ceases to appear soon after the liquid begins to boil. The boiling is continued till rather more than half the fluid has been evaporated, when the decoction is poured into a conical pan and allowed to cool. An abundant dark green precipitate forms, from which the supernatant 820 Extracta. part ii. liquid is poured off, and having been reduced one-half by a second boil- ing, is again allowed to stand. The precipitate which now falls, is less green than the first. The remaining fluid is once more placed over the fire, and allowed to boil till it assumes the consistence of syrup, when it is removed. The matter at first collected by filtration, together with that precipitated, is now incorporated with it, and the whole placed in a metallic pan, and by means of a water-bath evaporated to the consist- ence of an extract. In the latter part of the process, care is necessary to prevent any part of the extract from hardening on the sides of the vessel, as it thus loses its fine green colour and becomes proportionably feeble. The superiority of this plan over a continuous boiling is, that the portions of active matter which are deposited at different stages of the process, are subjected for a shorter time to heat than if allowed to re- main in the liquor, and consequently are less deteriorated. The matter which coagulates before the fluid boils, is chiefly albumen, embracing portions of chlorophylle and of the undissolved vegetable fibre. It might probably be thrown away without diminishing the virtues of the extract; but as the chlorophylle, though itself inactive, has often asso- ciated with it a portion of the active principle, it is the most economi- cal plan to incorporate it with the other matters. Mr. Brande states that one Cwt. of fresh aconite yields about five pounds of extract. When properly prepared, by means of a water-bath, this extract has a yellowish-brown colour, with a disagreeable narcotic odour, and the acrid taste of the plant. It may be given in the dose of one or two grains; but a safer plan is to begin with half a grain night and morning, to be gradually increased till the system is affected. Twenty grains or more have been given in the course of a day. EXTRACTUM ALOES PURIFICATUM. Lond. Extractum Aloes Hepatice. Bub. Purified Extract of Aloes. "Take of Extract of the Aloe Spicata, in powder, a pound; Boiling Water a gallon. Macerate for three days with a gentle heat; then strain the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside. Pour off the clear liquor, and evaporate it to a proper consistence." Lond. The Dublin College prepares this extract according to the general di- rections. (See page 819.) As the London College calls aloes itself an extract, it gives this pre- paration necessarily the title of the purified extract. The object of the process is to separate the resinous matter, the apotheme of Berzelius, which is supposed to irritate the bowels, without possessing purgative properties: but the truth appears to be, that, when deprived of a small proportion of adhering extractive, it is quite inert. It cannot, therefore, injuriously affect the virtues of the medicine; and as it exists in compa- ratively small proportion, and during the process a part of the extrac- tive becomes insoluble, the preparation may be considered as at best unnecessary. The dose of the purified aloes is from five to fifteen grains. EXTRACTUM ANTHEMIDIS. U.S., Lond. Extractum An- themidis Nobilis. Ed. Extractum Chamjemeli. Bub. Extract of Chamomile. " Take of Chamomile [dried flowers] a pound; Water a gallon. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot; then evaporate to the proper consistence." U.S. PART II. Extracta. 821 This is also the process of the London College. For the mode of con- ducting the evaporation as directed in the United States and London Pharmacopoeias, and applied to all the extracts, see page 818. The Edin- burgh and Dublin Colleges prepare this extract according to the general process of the former for watery extracts, of the latter for simple extracts. (See pages 818, 819.) According to Mr. Brande, one Cwt. of dried chamomile flowers af- fords upon an average 48 pounds of extract. This extract has a deep brown colour, and the bitter taste of chamo- mile, but is wholly destitute of aroma, the volatile oil having been en- tirely driven off during the process. It does not, therefore, possess the peculiar virtues of the flowers; but is simply a mild bitter, which may sometimes be advantageously combined with laxatives and mineral tonics in debilitated states of the digestive organs. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. An extract may be prepared, having the peculiar flavour as well as bitterness of chamomile, by macerating the flowers in water, and evaporating the infusion in vacuo. EXTRACTUM ARTEMISIA ABSINTHII. Dub. Extract of Wormwood. This extract, which is directed only by the Dublin College, is prepared from the tops of Wormwood according to the general formula of that College for simple extracts. (See page 819.) It retains, to a certain ex- tent, the bitterness of the plant, without the strong odour and peculiar taste dependent on the volatile oil, which is driven off by the boiling. It is, however, in no respect superior to other bitter extracts, and is very seldom used. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. EXTRACTUM BELLADONNA. U.S., Lond. Succus Spissa- tus Atropa Belladonna. Ed. Succus Spissatus Belladonna. Dub. Extract of Deadly Nightshade. This is prepared from the fresh leaves of the Atropa Belladonna,.in the manner directed for the extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti.) Mr. Brande states that one Cwt. of fresh belladonna yields from 4 to 6 pounds of extract. According to M. Recluz, nearly ten parts may be obtained from one hundred. The extract of belladonna employed in this country is brought chiefly from England. It has usually a dark-brown colour, a slightly narcotic not unpleasant odour, a bitterish taste, and a soft consistence which it long retains. Its medical properties and uses have been detailed under the head of Belladonna. In relation, however, to its local employment, it may be proper to add to what we have already stated, that it is recommended by M. Chaussier and others in cases of protracted labour depending on rigidity of the os uteri. The extract, mixed with simple ointment, in the proportion of two drachms to an ounce, is applied at intervals di- rectly to the neck of the uterus. With a similar view of producing re- laxation, it has been employed locally in spasm of the urethra and pain- ful constriction of the rectum; but care is requisite not to introduce it too freely into the bowel. It is often advantageously employed, in the shape of plaster or ointment, in local pains of a neuralgic or rheumatic character. (See Emplastrum Belladonnas.) Off. Prep. Emplastrum Belladonnae, Dub. EXTRACTUM CINCHONA. U.S. Extractum Cinchona Lancifolia. Ed. Extract of Peruvian Bark. " Take of Peruvian Bark, in powder, a pound; Alcohol four pints; 822 Extracta. part ii, Water a gallon. Macerate the Peruvian Bark with the Alcohol for four days, and pour off the tincture. Boil the residuum in four pints of the Water for a quarter of an hour, and strain the liquor, while hot, through linen: repeat the boiling with the four remaining pints of Water, and strain as before; then evaporate the decoction to the consistence of thin honey. Distil the Alcohol from the tincture till this attains a similar degree of thickness; then mix the inspissated liquors, and evaporate to the proper consistence." U.S. The Extract of the Edinburgh College, which is prepared according to their general directions for extracts by water and alcohol, (see page 819,) differs from ours only in being procured exclusively from the pale bark, while the United States Pharmacopoeia leaves the choice of the variety to the physician or apothecary. (See General Observations below.) EXTRACTUxM CINCHONA. Lond., Hub. Extract of Peru- vian Bark. " Take of Bark of the Cinchona Lancifolia [Pale Bark], bruised, a pound; Water a gallon. Boil down to six pints, and strain the liquor while hot. In the same manner boil the residue four times in an equal quantity of water, and strain. Lastly, mix all the decoctions together, and evaporate the mixture, until it acquires a proper consistence. "This extract should be kept soft, so as to be fit for forming pills, and hard, that it may be pulverised." Lond. The Dublin College takes a pound of coarsely powdered pale bark and six pints of water; boils for fifteen minutes, in a loosely covered vessel, and filters the decoction while hot; boils the residue again in an equal quantity of water and filters as before; repeats the boiling and filtration in like manner a third time; then mixes the decoctions, and evaporates them to a proper consistence. This College gives the same directions with that of London, in relation to the different states in which the ex- tract should be kept. (See General Observations below.) EXTRACTUM CINCHONA RESINOSUM. Lond. Resinous Extract of Peruvian Bark. "Take of Bark of the Cinchona Lancifolia [Pale Bark], bruised, two pounds; Rectified Spirit a gallon. Macerate for four days and strain. Distil the tincture, by means of a water-bath, until the extract acquires a proper consistence." Lond. General Observations on the Extracts of Peruvian Bark. Of the differ- ent officinal extracts of bark for which directions are given above, we decidedly prefer that of the United States and Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeias. The aqueous extract of the London and Dublin Colleges is an injudicious preparation. In the first place the water does not nearly ex- haust the bark, and in the second, the boiling favours the formation of an insoluble compound of starch and tannin, which carries with it a portion of the alkaline principles, and though retained in the extract, is probably less efficient as a medicine than a more soluble compound con- taining an equal proportion of the active matter. According to the sug- gestion of M.Henry Jun., it is not improbable that the different colour- ing matters in the bark act in relation to the quinia and cinchonia the part of an acid, sharing at a high temperature these bases with the kinic acid, and forming with them insoluble if not inert compounds. Besides, we cannot by any means be certain that a long continued heat of 212° may not determine an actual decomposition of a portion of these alkalies, and the formation of new principles. The London process is PART II. Extracta. 823 more objectionable than the Dublin, in proportion as the boiling which it directs is longer continued. The alcoholic extract of the London College is a good preparation, containing probably most of the active matter of the cinchona; but we consider it inferior to that of the United States Pharmacopoeia, inas- much as the latter must necessarily embrace an equal proportion of the active matter, and in consequence of the use of water as a solvent, after the alcohol has performed its office, has probably an additional quantity, which the latter fluid may have left behind. A very good extract of bark was formerly prepared in the sjiops of Philadelphia, by macerating the cinchona for a considerable length of time in a large proportion of water, and slowly evaporating the infusion, by a very moderate heat, in large shallow dishes placed upon the top of a stove. Before the use of the sulphate of quinia Mad superseded that of most other preparations of bark, we employed this extract with success in the treatment of intermittents, and found ten grains of it equivalent to nearly a drachm of the powdered cinchona. Mr. Brande informs us that one Cwt. of fine crown bark (best pale bark) yields, on an average, 28 pounds of watery extract, and 25 pounds of al- coholic extract. The same kind of bark gave to M. Recluz, out of 100 parts, by maceration with cold water, 12.5 parts on an average of ex- tract, by infusion with boiling water about 9.4 parts, by decoction from 12.5 to 18.75 parts, and by maceration in diluted alcohol (22° B.) from 25 to 31.3 parts. But the length of time for which the bark is submitted to the action of the solvent must have considerable influence on the pro- portion extracted, and of this we are not informed in the table from which we have extracted the above results. (See Diet, des Drogues.) It is best that the bark should be only coarsely powdered when sub- mitted to decoction or maceration, as in this state it is sufficiently pene- trable by the solvent, and more readily separated after being exhausted. The extract should always be brought to the hard dry state in which it may be pulverised, as it is thus less apt to be injured by exposure; and in the state of powder may be more uniformly incorporated with other substances. Medical Uses.—The extract of Peruvian bark is at present much less employed than before the discovery of quinia. It is still, however, oc- casionally prescribed as a tonic in combination with other medicines; and as it possesses, when properly prepared, most of the principles as they exist in the bark itself, it may be used in preference to the sulphate of quinia, whenever it is supposed that the latter is incapable of exerting all the curative influence of cinchona. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, equivalent to about a drachm of the powdered bark. EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS. Lond. Extractum Colo- cynthidis Simplex. Dub. Extract of Colocynth. " Take of Pulp of Colocynth a pound; Water a gallon. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot; then evaporate it to a proper consistence." Lond., Dub. The proportion of colocynth is too large, if the pulp only, without the seeds, is intended; as, in consequence of the porous nature of the medullary matter, it absorbs nearly the whole of the water, and almost precludes the possibility of boiling as directed. Dr. Duncan found half a pound of colocynth to contain 2770 grains of seeds, which boiled by themselves yielded almost nothing to water, and 800 grains of pith, which was easily boiled in four pounds of water, but absorbed almost 824 Extracta. PART II. the whole of it. The decoction, when expressed, although it contained no starch, gelatinized on cooling. By boiling the residuum in four pounds of fresh water, he obtained a decoction, which, mixed with that pre- viously obtained, yielded upon evaporation 360 grains of a pale-brown, semitransparent, dry, elastic extract, of intense bitterness. The decoction is ordered to be strained while hot, because the gelatin- ous consistence which it assumes on cooling prevents it from readily passing through the strainer. The Parisian Codex directs, instead of the decoction, an infusion prepared by maceration in cold water. But the aqueous extract of colocynth, however made, is not an eligible pre- paration, as water does not dissolve the active bitter principle in large proportion, while it takes up much inert matter, so that the extract is even feebler than colocynth itself, without having any peculiar merit to recommend it. Besides, according to Mr. Brande, it is invariably either mouldy, or so tough and hard as to resist trituration and formation into pills. It has no place in our national Pharmacopoeia, and might with propriety be discarded from those of London and Dublin. It is little used. The dose is from five grains to half a drachm. EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Compound Extract of Colocynth. "Take of Pulp of Colocynth [without the seeds], sliced, six ounces; Aloes, in powder, twelve ounces; Scammony, in powder, four ounces; Cardamom, in powder, an ounce; Soap [Castile] three ounces; Diluted Alcohol a gallon. Macerate the Pulp of Colocynth in the Diluted Alco- hol, with a gentle heat, for four days. Strain the liquor, and add to it the Aloes, Scammony, and Soap; then evaporate to the proper con- sistence, and, near the end of the process, mix the Cardamom with the other ingredients." U.S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges correspond with the above except in phraseology. The former College, however, designates the Socotrine Aloes, the latter, the Hepatic. Soap was not embraced in the formula of the first edition of our Phar- macopoeia; but has been added in imitation of the London process, in order to improve the consistence of the mass, which it renders more soluble in the liquors of the stomach when hardened by time. It may possibly also serve the purpose of qualifying the action of the aloes. Diluted alcohol is a much better solvent of the active principle of colo- cynth than water. The proper consistence alluded to in the process, is that which is adapted to the formation of pills. This extract is an energetic and safe cathartic, possessing the activity of its three purgative ingredients with comparatively little of the drastic character of the colocynth and scammony. It may be still further and advantageously modified by combination with rhubarb, jalap, calomel, &c, with one or more of which it is very often united in prescription. In such combination it is much employed wherever an active cathartic is desirable, particularly in the commencement of fevers and febrile com- plaints, in congestion of the liver or portal system, and in obstinate constipation. In small doses it is an excellent laxative in that state of habitual costiveness depending on a want of the due irritability of the bowels, which often occurs in old people. The dose is from five to thirty grains, according to the effect to be produced, and the suscepti- bility of the bowels. A very eligible combination is the compound ca- thartic pill of the U.S. Pharmacopceia. Off. Prep. Pilulae Catharticae Compositae. U.S. PART II. Extracta. 825 EXTRACTUM CONII. U.S., Lond. Succus Spissatus Conii Maculati. Ed. Succus Spissatus Conii. Dub. Extract of Hem- lock. This is prepared from the fresh leaves of the Conium maculatum, in the manner directed for extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti.) Mr. Brande observes, in relation to the inspissated juices generally, that light pressure only should be employed in separating the juice. from the leaves; as the extract is thus procured greener, of a less glu- tinous or viscid consistence, and, in his opinion, more active than when considerable power is used in the expression. With regard to this par- ■ ticular extract, he states that its preparation " almost necessarily re- quires the use of a steam-apparatus, for in a water-bath the evaporation is so prolonged as to injure it, and over the open fire it invariably suffers from too high a temperature." {Manual of Pharmacy.) No one of the extracts is more variable in its qualities than this. The season at which the herb is collected, the place and circumstances of its growth, the me- thod of preparing the extract, are all points of importance, and are all too frequently neglected. (See Conium.) In this country the process is often very carelessly conducted; and we are told by Dr. A. W.Ives, that large quantities of an extract prepared by boiling the plant in wa- ter and evaporating the decoction, have been sold as the genuine drug. The apothecary should always prepare the extract himself, or procure it from persons in whom he can have entire confidence. That imported from London is usually the best. Extract of hemlock should have a fresh olive colour, a strong narcotic somewhat fetid odour, and a bitterish saline taste. According to Brande, from three to five pounds are obtained from one Cwt. of the leaves. M. Recluz got rather more than an ounce from sixteen ounces. Of the medical properties and application of this extract, we have spoken under the head of Conium. The dose is three grains twice a day, to be gradually increased till evidences of its action upon the sys- tem are afforded. It may be administered in pill or solution. EXTRACTUM GENTIANA. U.S., Lond., Dub* Extractum Gentiana Lutea. Ed. Extract of Gentian. This is prepared from bruised gentian, in the manner directed for extract of chamomile. (See Extractum Anthemidis.) The French Codex directs maceration in cold water, instead of decoc- tion as ordered by the U.S. and British Pharmacopoeias, for extracting the virtues of the root; and MM. Guibourt and Cadet de Vaux obtain- ed by the former method an extract not only greater in amount, but more transparent, more bitter, and possessing more of the colour and smell of the root than that prepared by the latter. Guibourt attributes this result to the circumstance, that as gentian contains little, if any starch, it yields nothing to boiling which it will not also yield to cold water, while decoction favours the combination of a portion of the co- louring matter with the lignin. Gentian, according to Brande, yields half its weight of extract. As ordinarily procured, the extract of gentian is nearly inodorous, very bitter, of a dark brown colour approaching to black, shining, and tenacious. It is frequently used as a tonic in the form of pill, either alone or in connexion with metallic preparations. .The dose is from ten to thirty grains. EXTRACTUM HAMATOXYLI. U.S., Lond. Extractum Hamatoxyli Campechiani. Ed., Dub. Extract of Logwood. 104 826 Extracta. part ii. This is prepared from the raspings of logwood, in the manner di- rected for extract of chamomile. (See Extractum Anthemidis.) The evaporation should be carried so far, that the extract may be dry and brittle when cold. About twenty pounds of it are obtained from one Cwt. of logwood. (Brande.) It is of a deep ruby colour, and an astringent sweetish taste; and possesses all the medical virtues of the wood from which it is procured. If given in pills, these should be recently made, as, when long kept, they are said to become so hard as sometimes to pass unchanged through the bowels. The extract, how- ever, is best administered in solution. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. EXTRACTUM HELLEBORI NIGRI. U.S., Ed. Extract of Black Hellebore. This is prepared from the bruised root of the Helleborus niger, in the manner directed for extract of chamomile. (See Extractum Anthemidis.) The virtues of black hellebore are either not completely extracted by boiling water, or are deteriorated by decoction; for the watery extract is little, if at all stronger than the root. It operates as a drastic purge in the dose of twelve or fifteen grains; but is seldom employed. The French Codex gives a formula for preparing the extract of helle- bore, according to the method of Bacher. Two pounds of the root and half a pound of carbonate of potassa are digested, with a moderate heat, for twelve hours, in eight pounds of alcohol of 22° B.; the tincture is strained with expression; the residuum is again digested with eight pounds of white wine for twenty-four hours; the wine is expressed, and having stood four hours to settle is decanted; the liquors are then mix- ed, and with a gentle heat evaporated to the consistence of an extract One ounce of this extract, mixed with the same quantity of myrrh, and with ten scruples of the powdered leaves of the Centaurea benedicta, and made into pills of one grain each, constitutes the preparation known as the tonic pills of Bacher, formerly much used in amenorrhcea and dropsy, and probably not without advantage, especially in the former of these diseases. The dose is from ten to twenty pills during the day. An additional quantity of diluted alcohol might, without disadvantage, be substituted for the wine in the preparation of the extract. EXTRACTUM HUMULI. Lond. Extractum Humttli Lu- puli. Bub. Extract of Hops. "Take of Hops/owr ounces; boiling Water a gallon. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot; then evaporate to a proper consistence." Lond. Since the discovery of the fact that the active properties of hops re- side in the lupulin, this extract has not been deemed an eligible prepa- ration, and has been little used. It has the peculiar bitterness of the Strobiles, without their aroma. Lupulin may be advantageously substi- tuted for it in all cases in which it was formerly employed. Mr. Brande says that the average produce of one Cwt. of hops is forty pounds of the extract. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI. U.S., Lond. Succus Spissatus Hyoscyami Nigri. Ed. Succus Spissatus Hyoscyami. Bub. Ex- tract of Henbane. This is prepared from the fresh leaves of the Hyoscyamus niger, in the manner directed for extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti.) It is seldom if ever made in this country, being derived chiefly from England. Mr. Brande says that one Cwt. of the fresh herb affords PART II. Extracta. 827 between four and five pounds. M. Recluz obtained about one part from sixteen. The extract, as it reaches us, is of a dark olive colour almost black, of a narcotic rather unpleasant odour, and a bitterish, nauseous, slightly saline taste. It retains its softness for a long time; but at the end of three or four years becomes dry, and exhibits, when broken, small crys- tals of nitrate of potassa and chloride of sodium. {Recluz.) Like all the inspissated juices it is of variable strength, according to its age, the care used in its preparation, and the character of the leaves from which it was procured. (See Hyoscyamus.) In its use, therefore, it is necessary to begin with a moderate dose, two or three grains for instance, and gradually increase the quantity till some effect is experienced, and the degree of efficiency of the particular parcel employed is ascertained. It is usually given in pill. EXTRACTUM JALAPA. U.S., Lond, Dub. Extractum Convolvuli Jalapa. Ed. Extract of Jalap. "Take of Jalap, in powder, a pound; Alcohol four pints; Water a gallon. Macerate the Jalap in the Alcohol for four days, and pour off the tincture. Add the Water to the residue, and boil down to two pints; then strain the tincture and decoction separately, and distil the former and evaporate the latter, till they acquire the consistence of thin honey. Lastly, mix them together, and evaporate to the proper consistence. " Of this Extract, let a portion be kept in a soft state, fit for the formation of pills; and another hard, so that it may be pulverised." U. S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges for this extract, cor- respond with the above in all essential points. The Edinburgh College prepares it according to their general formula for spirituous extracts, , (see page 819,) which will afford a similar result. Infusion in water might be advantageously substituted for the decoc- tion to which the residuum of the jalap, after having been treated with alcohol, is subjected; as the virtues of the root may be thus extracted without the amylaceous matter, which serves only to augment the bulk, and impede the filtration or straining. But, according to M. Cadet de Gassicourt, water at ordinary temperatures acts so slowly, that ferment- ation takes place before the active matter is all dissolved. It is, there- fore, necessary to digest with a heat of about 90° or 100° F., which, while it is insufficient for the solution of the starch, enables the water to take up all that it is desirable to extract. By the previous removal of the resin by means of alcohol, it is probable that the action of the water is facilitated. One Cwt. of jalap affords, according to Mr. Brande, about fifty pounds of aqueous extract and fifteen of resin. The pro- duct of the former is somewhat less by infusion than decoction; and the extract is proportionably stronger. The extract of jalap is of a dark brown colour, slightly translucent at the edges, and tenacious when not perfectly dry. It has the medical properties of the root; but is not often exhibited alone, being chiefly used as an ingredient of purgative pills, for which the. comparative smallness of its bulk adapts it. The dose is from ten to twenty grains, or rather more than half that of jalap. Off. Prep. Pilulae Catharticae Compositae, U.S.; Pulvis Scammonii Compositus, Dub., Lond. EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS. U.S. Extract of Butternut. This is prepared from the sliced inner bark of the root of the Juglans 828 Extracta. PART II. cinerea, in the manner directed for extract of chamomile. (See Extrac- tum Anthemidis.) Most of this extract kept in the shops is prepared by the country people, who are said to use the bark of the branches, and even the branches themselves, instead of the inner bark of the root, as directed by the Pharmacopceia. The heat is also improperly regulated, being applied too vigorously, or continued too long, so that the preparation is often injured. That it should have proved uncertain in the hands of many physicians is, therefore, not a matter of surprise. It should al- ways be prepared by the apothecary, and from the inner bark of the root gathered in May or June. The extract of butternut is of a black colour, sweetish odour, and bitter astringent taste. In the dose of twenty or thirty grains it acts as a mild cathartic. (See Juglans.) EXTRACTUM LACTUCA. Lond. Succus Spissatus Lac- tuca Sativa. Ed. Extract of Lettuce. " Take of fresh Lettuce Leaves a pound. Bruise them in a stone mor- tar, sprinkling a little water upon them; then express the juice, and evaporate it unstrained, until it acquires a proper consistence." Lond. This extract is prepared by the Edinburgh College from the plant, according to their general formula for the preparation of inspissated juices. (See page 818.) Its claims to favourable notice are at least very questionable. Con- sisting chiefly of the common sap of the plant, which is inert, with a variable, but always small proportion of the milky secretion, on which the activity of lettuce depends, it is at best a feeble and uncertain preparation ; and might very well be dispensed with. Lactucarium pos- , sesses all its virtues, with much greater strength and uniformity of ac- tion. It is accordingly used in this country to the exclusion of the ex- tract. The dose of the latter is from five to fifteen grains. SUCCUS SPISSATUS LACTUCA VIROSA. Ed. Inspis- sated Juice of Strong-scented Lettuce. This is prepared from the plant, according to the general formula of the Edinburgh College for the preparation of their inspissated juices. (See page 818.) It is not used in this country. The inspissated juice of our own wild lettuce—Lactuca elongata—has been proposed as a substitute, but has not found a place among the officinal preparations. (See Lactuca Virosa and Lactuca Elongata.) EXTRACTUM NUCIS VOMICA. Bub. Extract of Nux Vomica. "Take of Nux Vomica, rasped, eight ounces ; Proof Spirit two pints. Digest in a close vessel for three days; filter the liquor, and express the remainder by a press. Add to the residue one pint and a half of Proof Spirit, digest for three days, and express. Mix the liquors, and having reduced them by distillation to one-fourth, evaporate to a proper con- sistence." Dub. This extract, which is peculiar to the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, is an active preparation of nux vomica, though not always of uniform strength, owing to the variable proportion of strychnia in the article from which it is prepared. M. Recluz obtained from sixteen ounces of the nux vomica, the average product of one ounce and a quarter. The dose of the extract is from half a grain to two grains, to be repeated three times a day. PART II. Extracta. 829 EXTRACTUM OPII. Lond. Extractum Opii Aquosum. Dub. Extract of Opium. " Take of Opium sixteen ounces; WateY a gallon. Add a little Water to the Opium, and macerate for twelve hours that it may become soft; then, adding gradually the remainder of the Water, rub them until they are thoroughly mixed, and set the mixture by that the dregs may sub- side; lastly, strain the liquor, and evaporate it to a proper consist- ence." Lond. "Take of Opium, sliced, two ounces; Boiling Water a pint. Rub the Opium with the Water for ten minutes, and, after a short interval, pour off the liquor. Triturate the remaining Opium with an equal quan- tity of boiling Water, for the same length of time, and pour off the liquor as before. Repeat the trituration a third time; then mix the liquors, and expose the mixture to the air for two days in an open ves- sel. Lastly, filter through linen, and evaporate the filtered liquor slowly to the consistence of an extract." Dub. Of these two processes, that of the Dublin College is undoubtedly superior, as water boiling hot extracts more of the soluble principles of opium than at a lower temperature. M. Recluz obtained from sixteen ounces of the drug an average product of nine ounces by hot water, and only six by cold. But we can discover no advantage which either pre- paration has over opium itself. Though the dose may be somewhat smaller, yet that of opium is sufficiently so; and if there be any distinct principle in this drug which modifies in an unpleasant manner the action of the morphia, it is not left behind in the preparation of the watery extract. Nor has this preparation the advantage of greater uniformity, as the gum, extractive, &c, taken up by the water,bear no fixed propor- tion to the anodyne principle. It is highly probable, moreover, that the opium is not completely exhausted by either process. It certainly is not by that of the London College; for morphia may be extracted from the residuum of the operation. {Brande.) In the preparation, therefore, of the extract of opium, there is a loss of time and of active matter, with- out any equivalent gain; and there is the further disadvantage, that, as the extract does not possess equally with opium those external charac- ters by which its quality may be decided, it is more liable to adultera- tion. We should, therefore, in every instance, prefer opium to the ex- tract; but it is necessary that the latter should be selected of good quality, and should be freed from all adhering extraneous matters. Under the impression that the stimulating and unpleasant effects of opium are owing to the narcotin, it has been proposed to separate this principle by submitting the extract to the operation of ether, which dis- solves the narcotin and leaves the morphia with the other ingredients. Robiquet employed cold ether; but M. Dublanc, convinced that the whole of the narcotin was not thus extracted, proposed the following plan. "Take of watery extract of opium 16 ounces; dissolve it in 8 ounces of distilled water; introduce the solution into the water-bath of a still; pour upon it 104 ounces of pure ether; distil off 24 ounces of the ether; take apart the apparatus and decant the ether which floats on the top of the extract; wash the latter while hot with the distilled ether; concentrate the residual matter, dissolve it in distilled water, filter the solution, and evaporate to a proper consistence." It is very doubtful, however, whether any useful end is gained by this expensive operation, as it is not by any means conclusively settled that the narcotin does in fact produce the unpleasant effects which have been attributed to it; and 830 Extracta. PART II. even admitting the fact, the preparations of morphia, which are of uni- form strength, are greatly preferable to the denarcotized extract. The dose of the extract of opium prepared by the Dublin process is about one-half that of opium itself. The London extract, according to Brande, is never stronger, and is sometimes weaker than opium. EXTRACTUM PAPAVERIS. Lond. Extractum Papaveris Somniperi. Ed. Extract of Poppy. " Take of Poppy Capsules, freed from their seeds, and bruised, a pound; Boiling Water a gallon. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pints, strain the liquor while hot, and evaporate it to a proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh College prepares the Extract of Poppy from the cap- sules prepared as above, according to their general formula for watery extracts. (See page 818.) Mr. Brande observes, in relation to this extract, that if prepared over the open fire it is often nearly inert. He states, moreover, that it is apt to be of a troublesome consistence, too hard to form into pills, and too tough to be pulverised; and advises that it should always be carefully dried till it becomes sufficiently brittle to admit of being reduced to powder. One Cwt. of the capsules, without the seeds, yields, according to this author, the average product of 35 pounds of extract. This preparation is little used in the United States. It possesses the virtues of opium, but is much inferior and less uniform in strength. The dose is from five to ten grains. EXTRACTUM PODOPHYLLI. U.S. Extract of May-apple. This is prepared from the powdered root of the Podophyllum peltatum, in the manner directed for the Extract of Jalap. (See Extractum Ja- lapae. ) It is possessed of the purgative properties of the root, and may be given in the dose of from five to fifteen grains, but is little employed. It might be substituted in all cases for the extract of jalap. EXTRACTUM QUASSIA. U.S. Extract of Quassia. This is prepared from the raspings of Quassia, in the manner directed for the Extract of Chamomile. (See Extractum Anthemidis.) According to M. Recluz, sixteen ounces of quassia yield by infusion in water seven drachms of extract; by maceration in alcohol of 19° Baume, two ounces five drachms and a half. The difference between these quantities is so great that we suspect some mistake in the table of the Dictionnaire des Drogues from which we quote. The extract of quassia is dark-brown or black, and excessively bitter. It is apt to become dry and disposed to crumble by time. It concentrates a greater amount of tonic power within a given weight than any other extract of the simple bitters; and may therefore be given with great advantage in cases in which it is desirable to administer this class of substances in as small a bulk, and with as little inconvenience to the patient as possible. The dose is about five grains, and should be given in the form of pill. EXTRACTUM QUERCUS. Dub. Extract of Oak Bark. This is prepared from the bark of the Quercus Robur, according to the general formula given by the Dublin College for the preparation of the simple extracts. (See page 819.) The Dublin College alone orders this preparation, which maybe con- sidered as quite superfluous. The Quercus Robur, the bark of which is directed, is not a native of this country; but were it desirable to obtain PART II. Extracta. 831 the extract, the bark of our white oak—Quercus alba—might]jbefadvan- tageously substituted. The dose is from ten grains to a drachm. EXTRACTUM RHEI. Lond., Dub. Extract of Rhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb Root, powdered, a pound; Proof Spirit a pint; Water seven pints. Macerate for four days with a gentle heat, then strain, and set the liquor by that the dregs may subside. Pour off the clear li- quor, and evaporate it to the proper consistence." Lond., Dub. Rhubarb yields all its active matter to water and alcohol united; but as the proportion of the root insoluble in these fluids is only about 30 per cent. (20 according to Brande) the extract can be little stronger than rhubarb itself, even allowing that the active matter is not injured or dissipated in the process of its preparation. Unless the evaporation is performed with great care and with a very moderate heat, it is certain that this latter effect is produced to a greater or less extent, and the ex- tract thus becomes even less efficient than the root. Among other con- sequences which result from the boiling temperature, is the formation of a compound of the tannin and starch which is insoluble in cold water, and upon its precipitation probably carries with it a portion of the pur- gative principle. There is, moreover, reason to believe that this princi- ple is volatilizable by heat, and that a portion of it escapes with the va- pour. This extract may, therefore, be very well dispensed with. It is not directed by the United States or Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. The only advantage, if it be one, which it possesses over powdered rhubarb, is that it may be given in solution; and the same object may be accom- plished by employing the root itself in the state of infusion. The dose of the extract is from ten to thirty grains. EXTRACTUM RUTA. Dub. Extractum Ruta Graveo- lentis. Ed. Extract of Rue. This is prepared by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges from the herb, according to their respective general formulae for the preparation of the watery or simple extracts. (See pages 818, 819.) The volatile oil upon which the stimulant and antispasmodic proper- ties of rue depend, is driven off in the preparation of the extract, which, therefore, answers no other purpose than that of a bitter tonic; and even in this respect it is inferior to the other bitter extracts. It is not used in this country. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. SUCCUS SPISSATUS SAMBUCI. Dub. Succus Spissatus Sambuci Nigri. Ed. Inspissated Juice of Elder. This is prepared by the Dublin College from elder berries, in the same manner with the inspissated juice of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti.) The Edinburgh College orders five parts of the juice of ripe elder ber- ries to be mixed with one part of refined sugar, and evaporated by a gentle heat to the consistence of pretty thick honey. The elder berries employed in Europe are those of the Sambucus ni- gra; but the berries of the Sambucus Canadensis, which is a native of this country, will answer equally well. For the uses of this extract the reader is referred to the article Sambucus in the Materia Medica EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLA. Lond., Bub. Extract of Sarsaparilla. " Take of Sarsaparilla Root, sliced, a pound; Boiling Water a gallon. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and boil down to four pints; then strain the liquor while hot, and evaporate to a proper consistence." Lond., Dub. This extract can have little or no effect upon the system, as the active matter of sarsaparilla is either destroyed by chemical change or driven S32 Extracta. part ii. off at the heat of boiling water. Besides, it appears from the experi- ments of Hancock and others, that water is incapable of exhausting the root, and waste would be incurred, even admitting that the extract pos- sessed some efficiency. Very different quantities have been obtained from different varieties of sarsaparilla, and even from different parcels of the same variety; but as the matter taken up by boiling water consists chiefly of starch, no inference as to the relative value of any particular specimen of the root can be drawn from a knowledge of the quantity of extract which it is capable of affording. From ten grains to a drachm of this preparation may be given for a dose. A\pirituous extract of sarsaparilla has been proposed by M. Beral, which probably contains the active matter of the root, and which well deserves the attention of pharmaceutists and physicians. It is prepared in the following manner. "Take of dilute alcohol of 20° B. [sp. gr. .9336] sixteen pounds ; sarsaparilla, properly prepared, tivo pounds. Ma- cerate the sarsaparilla in the dilute alcohol for a month ; then decant, and filter through paper. Distil the tincture so as to draw off the alco- hol, and concentrate the remaining liquid by means of a water-bath till it attains the consistence of a soft extract. The product is usually four ounces [a quarter of a pound]." {Journ. de Pharm. xv. 657.) The diluted alcohol extracts all the virtues of the root, leaving the inert fecula which encumbers the extract obtained by decoction; while the temperature requisite for the concentration of the tincture is insufficient to destroy the active principle. As the product of this operation is about one-eighth of the sarsaparilla employed, a drachm of the extract repre- sents an ounce of the root. From ten to twenty grains of it may be given three or four times a day. We have ascertained by actual observation that it possesses in a high degree the acrid taste of sarsaparilla. EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLA FLUIDUM. Bub. Fluid Extract of Sarsaparilla. " Take of the Root of Sarsaparilla, sliced, a pound; Water twelve pints. Boil them together for an hour, and pour off the liquor; then add twelve pints of water, and boil and decant as before. Express the liquor strongly from the residuary matter, and having mixed the decoctions, set the mixture by that the dregs may subside; then evaporate by con- tinued boiling to thirty ounces [fluidounces], and add two ounces [fluid- ounces] of Rectified Spirit." Dub. It has lately become very customary to employ a concentrated liquid preparation of sarsaparilla, under the name of fluid extract. It was pro- bably in order to give some regularity to popular practice in this respect, that the Dublin College adopted the above process in the last edition of their Pharmacopceia. It is, however, to be regretted, that the prepara- tion is not more in conformity with our present knowledge in relation to the pharmaceutical management of this root. There can be little doubt as to the almost total inefficacy of the fluid extract of the Dublin College. We should ourselves prefer the solid extract prepared accord- ing to the formula of M. Beral, detailed under the last head, to any con- centrated liquid preparation; as we cannot be certain that the active prin- ciple is held in solution by a very small proportion of water, and if it be merely suspended, there may be a risk that due agitation may not be always practised in dispensing and administering the medicine. But if the popular inclination to this mode of preparation must be gratified, we should give a decided preference to the following formula of William Hodgson Jun. over any other which we have seen. PART II. Extracta. 833 " Take of Sarsaparilla Root, bruised, sixteen ounces; Liquorice Root, bruised, Guaiacum Wood, rasped, Bark of Sassafras Root, each, two ounces; Mezereon six drachms; Diluted Alcohol eight pints. Digest for fourteen days at a common temperature; then strain, express, and filter. Evaporate the tincture in a water-bath to twelve fluidounces; then add eight ounces of white sugar, and remove from the fire as soon as the sugar is dissolved." {Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. ii. 285.) Mr. Hodgson observes, that during the process a small quantity ol resin separates and adheres to the sides of the vessel, apparently derived from the guaiacum wood. The advantages of this process are, that by means of the alcohol all the virtues of the root are extracted, while the low temperature required in its evaporation is not sufficient to impair these virtues. The preparation has been used in Philadelphia with great apparent advantage in secondary syphilis. The dose is a fluidrachm, equivalent to a drachm of the root, three or four times a day. EXTRACTUM SPARTII SCOPARII. Dub. Extract of Broom Tops. This is prepared from the Tops of the Spartium Scoparium, accord- ing to the general formula of the Dublin College for the preparation of their simple extracts. (See page 819.) It has laxative and diuretic properties; but is not employed in this country, and seldom in Europe. The dose is from thirty grains to a drachm. EXTRACTUM STRAMONII. U.S., Lond., Dub. Extract of Thorn-apple. This is prepared, according to the U.S. Pharmacopceia, from fresh thorn-apple leaves, in the manner directed for extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti.) The London and Dublin Colleges prepare the extract from the seeds according to the following formula. " Take of Thorn-apple Seeds a pound; Boiling Water a gallon. Macerate for four hours in a covered vessel near the fire; then take out the seeds* and after having bruised them in a stone mortar, return them to the liquor. Boil down to four pints, and strain the decoction while hot. Finally evaporate to a proper consistence." The extract of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia* like the other inspissated narcotic juices, is an uncertain preparation, varying in strength accord- ing to the care used in conducting the process, and to the season at which the leaves are collected. M. Recluz obtained half an ounce of the extract from sixteen ounces of the leaves. The dose is a grain night and morning, to be gradually increased till it affects the system. The extract of the seeds is more active in the same dose than that of the leaves; and would probably be still more efficient if prepared by maceration in diluted alcohol, instead of decoction in water as ordered by the London and Dublin Colleges. According to the table of Recluz, sixteen ounces of the seeds afford two ounces and two drachms of extract by maceration in diluted alcohol, and one ounce and a half by decoction. The dose to begin with is a quarter or half a grain twice a day, to be gradually increased. EXTRACTUM TARAXACI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Extract of Dandelion. This is prepared, according to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, from the fresh root of the Leontodon Taraxacum, in the manner directed for extract of chamomile. (See Extractum Anthemidis.) 105 834 Extracta.—Ferrum. part il The London process differs from that for extract of chamomile only in requiring a maceration of twenty-four hours previously to boiling. The Dublin College prepares the extract from both the herb and root, according to their general formula for the simple extracts. (See page 819.) The extract is undoubtedly stronger prepared from the root alone than from the whole plant. The month of August is the proper season for preparing it. Mr. Houlton, in a communication to the London Med- ico-Botanical Society, states that at this period the bruised roots yield by pressure nearly one-third of their weight of a thick cream-coloured fluid, in which the medical virtues reside. {Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ. vi. 78.) It is probable that this juice would afford by inspissation an ex- tract much stronger than that prepared by the ordinary method. The product, however, would be much smaller. Mr. Brande informs us that one Cwt. of the fresh root affords from twenty to twenty-five pounds of extract by decoction in water. This extract deteriorates by keeping, and should therefore be renewed annually. It is most conveniently given dissolved in cinnamon or mint water. The dose is twenty or thirty grains three times a day. (See Ta- raxacum.) FERRUM. Preparations of Iron. LIMATURA FERRI PURIFICATA. Ed. Purified Iron Filings. " Place a sieve over the Iron Filings, and apply a Magnet, so that the Filings may be attracted upwards through the sieve." Ed. The common iron filings, obtained from the workshops, are generally mixed with particles of brass and other substances, and require to be purified for medicinal use; but the above process effects this object but imperfectly. The magnet will unquestionably attract the particles of iron; but these will often have attached to them certain impurities, which are carried with them. The only way to obtain pure iron filings is by filing a piece of pure iron with a clean file. The Paris Codex di- rects iron in an impalpable powder, prepared by porphyrizing bright and clean iron filings without water, and in dry weather. A dull, black powder is formed, which must be carefully preserved from moisture. For the medical properties of iron filings, see Ferrum and Ferri Ra- menta in the Materia Medica. The dose is from five to twenty grains. Off. Prep. Sulphas Ferri, Ed.; Tartras Potassae et Ferri. Ed. FERRI OXYDUM NIGRUM. Dub. Oxidum Ferri Nigrum Puripicatum. Ed. Black Oxide of Iron. "Wash the Scales of the Oxide of Iron, found at the blacksmith's anvil, with water; and having dried them, separate them from impu- rities by means of a magnet. Then reduce them to powder, of which the finest particles are to be collected in the manner directed for the preparation of chalk." Dub. " Let the Scales of the Oxide of Iron, found at the blacksmith's anvil, be purified by the application of a magnet; so that the smaller and purer Scales alone may be attracted." Ed. The nature and composition of the scales of iron have been explained under the article Ferri Oxydi Squamse. By washing, they are freed from PART II. Ferrum. 835 accidental impurities; and as they are not at the maximum of oxida- tion, they are further purified by the attraction of the magnet, after which they are reduced to an impalpable powder, or left in the form of scales. This preparation is not the regular black oxide, and besides, fre- quently contains metallic iron. A more uniform black oxide, and there- fore preferable for medicinal use, is obtained by the following formula of the Paris Codex, adopted from Guibourt. Take of iron filings any quantity. Triturate them in a mortar, and then place them in a wide vessel of earthenware or porcelain. Pour water on them, until this liquid runs off perfectly limpid. Then incline the vessel a little, compress the filings, and allow them to drain for some minutes; after which replace the vessel, stir the filings with an iron spatula, and add from time to time sufficient water to keep them moist. At the end of four or five days wash the filings to remove the black oxide formed, and collect it on a filter. Lastly, compress the oxide and dry it. Medical Properties and Uses.—Black oxide of iron, when properly pre- pared, dissolves readily in the stomach, and is one of the best ferrugi- nous preparations. Its general remediate powers coincide with those of the other chalybeates. (See Ferrum.) The dose is from five to twenty grains, two or three times a day. Off. Prep. Tinctura Muriatis Ferri. Ed. FERRI OXIDUM RUBRUM. U.S. Oxidum Ferri Rubrum. Ed. Ferri Oxydum Rubrum. Dub. Red Oxide of Iron. "Take of Sulphate of Iron any quantity. Put it in a crucible, and ex- pose it to an intense heat, till it is converted into a red substance. Wash this with boiling water, and afterwards dry it." U.S. The Edinburgh College directs its officinal dried sulphate of iron to be violently heated, until it passes into a very red matter, and omits the ablution. " Expose Sulphate of Iron to heat, until the water of crystallization is expelled. Then roast it by an intense fire as long as acid vapours rise. Wash the red oxide until the washings, when examined by lit- mus, appear free from acid. Lastly, dry it on bibulous paper." Dub. When sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, is heated, it swells up, and undergoes the aqueous fusion, and afterwards, by losing its water of crystallization, becomes a dry white mass, consisting of anhydrous sul- phate of iron. This, by the application of a strong heat, is decomposed; the iron becomes peroxidized at the expense of part of the acid, and sulphurous and sulphuric acids are given off. The peroxide, however, is not perfectly pure, but contains still a small portion of acid, to remove which it requires to be washed. Properties, fyc.—Red oxide of iron is a reddish-brown, tasteless, in- soluble powder, called colcothar in commerce. It should not be deli- quescent, and should dissolve in muriatic acid, without effervescence. If it contain copper, its muriatic solution will deposite this metal on a bright rod of iron. It consists of one equiv. of iron 28, and one and a half equiv. of oxygen 12 = 40. It is used only in the preparation of other compounds. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Ferri, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Ferrum Ammonia- tum, U.S., Ed. FERRI ACETAS. Dub. Acetate of Iron. " Take of Carbonate of Iron one part; Acetic Acid six parts. Digest for three days, and filter." Dub. 836 Ferrum. PART II. As the carbonate of iron contains both oxides of iron, this preparation is a mixed solution of the acetate and peracetate of iron. From compa- rative experiments made by Dr. Percival of Dublin, it was found that the carbonate was more soluble in acetic acid than either the oxides of iron or the metal, and hence it was selected for this formula. Of ten grains of the following ferruginous preparations digested in two drachms of acetic acid, sp. gr. 1.065, half a grain was dissolved of the scales of iron, one and a quarter grains of the red oxide, three and a quarter of iron filings, and the whole of the carbonate. Properties, fyc.—This solution has a deep red colour, and an acid and strongly chalybeate taste. When exposed to heat it yields acetic acid. It possesses the general medical properties of the preparations of iron. The dose is from ten to twenty-five drops, taken in water. It is not used in this country. TINCTURA FERRI ACETATIS. Bub. Tincture of Acetate of Iron. "Take of Acetate of Potassa two parts; Sulphate of Iron one part; Rectified Spirit twenty-six parts. Rub the Acetate of Potassa and Sul- phate of Iron together in an earthenware mortar, until they unite into a mass. Dry this with a medium heat, and triturate it with the Spirit. Digest the mixture in a well stopped bottle for seven days, shaking it occasionally. Lastly, pour off the tincture from the sediment, and pre- serve it in a well stopped bottle." Dub. This preparation was introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia by Dr. Percival. In the process, a douhle decomposition takes place be- tween the salts employed, resulting in the formation of the acetate of iron which dissolves in the spirit, and sulphate of potassa which re- mains behind, being insoluble in that menstruum. The tincture also contains a portion of acetate of potassa; more of this salt being em- ployed than is necessary to decompose the sulphate of iron. Properties.—This tincture is a transparent liquid, of a deep claret co- lour, and strong chalybeate taste. When evaporated to dryness, a saline matter is obtained which is whitish, from the presence of acetate of po- tassa. The tincture is extremely liable to spontaneous decomposition. It is decomposed also by the alkalies and their carbonates, the strong acids, and by astringent vegetable infusions. Medical Properties and Uses.—This preparation is represented to be an agreeable chalybeate; but it possesses no particular virtue, which can give it any advantage over other medicines of the same class. The dose is from one to two teaspoonfuls, mixed with water or any other convenient vehicle. TINCTURA FERRI ACETATIS CUM ALCOHOL. Dub. Tincture of Acetate of Iron with Alcohol. "Take of Sulphate of Iron, Acetate of Potassa, each, an ounce; Al- cohol two pints. Rub the Acetate of Potassa and Sulphate of Iron to- gether, until they unite into a soft mass; then dry this with a medium heat, and as soon as it has grown cold triturate it with the alcohol. Di- gest the mixture in a well stopped bottle for twenty-four hours, shaking it occasionally. Lastly, pour oft' the clear tincture from the sediment, and keep it in a well stopped bottle." Dub. This formula is nearly the same with the last; the points of difference being, that equal weights of the saline materials are employed, and the menstruum is the alcohol of the Dublin College, and not rectified spirit. The double decomposition takes place as in the preceding prepa- PART II. Ferrum. 837 ration, and with the same results; but her*, instead of there being an excess of acetate of potassa to enter into r*e tincture, there is an ex- cess of sulphate of iron. The acetate of iron formed is a mixture of acetate and peracetate; but the latter only is soluble in the strong alco- hol of the Dublin College. Hence this tincture may be viewed as an alcoholic solution of the peracetate of iron. It is necessary here not to confound the Dublin alcohol, which has the sp. gr. of 0.810, with the U.S. alcohol, which corresponds with the rectified spirit of the British Colleges. This preparation is stronger, and less liable to spontaneous decompo- sition than the preceding; while its sensible and medical properties are nearly the same. A fluidounce of it, when evaporated, furnishes ten grains of a crimson coloured extract, which at first has the consistency of wax, but afterwards, when dried, is transparent. It is not easy to perceive the motive of the Dublin College in having two spirituous pre- parations of the acetate of iron. FERRI CARBONAS PRACIPITATUS. U.S. Ferri Subcar- bonas. Lond. Carbonas Ferri Pracipitatus. Ed. Ferri Car- bonas. Dub. Precipitated Carbonate of Iron. " Take of Sulphate of Iron dght ounces; Carbonate of Soda six ounces; boiling Water a gallon. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron and Carbonate of Soda severally in four pints of the Water; then mix the solutions, and set the mixture by that the powder may subside; lastly, having poured off the supernatant liquor, wash the Carbonate of Iron with hot Water, wrap it in bibulous paper, and dry it with a gentle heat." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College directs four ounces of sulphate of iron, five ounces of subcarbonate of soda, and ten pounds of water; the Dublin, twenty-five parts of sulphate of iron, twenty-six parts of carbonate of soda, and dght hundred parts of water. The materials are then treated as in the above formula. When the solutions of carbonate of soda and sulphate of iron are mixed together, a hydrated protocarbonate of iron of a green colour is thrown down, and sulphate of soda remains in solution. The equivalent quantities of the crystallized salts for mutual decomposition are 139 of the sulphate to 144 of the carbonate, so that six ounces of the alkaline carbonate are not sufficient to decompose eight ounces of the ferrugi- nous salt, the proportions of the U.S. and London formulae. The Edin- burgh formula gives an excess of the carbonate of soda, while the Dublin proportions arc very nearly accurate. The precipitate is altered by drying, during which it absorbs oxygen, and loses more or less car- bonic acid, whereby it becomes in part converted into peroxide of iron When prepared with the greatest care, Mr. Phillips found it to contain 15 per cent, of carbonic acid; but ordinarily it contains about 5 per cent, of this acid; and if improperly made, not more than H per cent The precipitate always contains more carbonic acid, when the saline solu- tions for generating it are mixed at the temperature of 150°. As it does not readily subside, it is best separated by a filter, on which also the washing may be performed. Either of the fixed alkalies will answer to decompose the ferruginous sulphate; but the carbonate of soda is prefer- red, as it gives rise to the sulphate of soda, which, from its greater solu- bility, is washed away more readily than the sulphate of potassa. The precipitate should be dried at a heat not exceeding 200°; as above that temperature it would lose almost all its carbonic acid, and be reduced nearly to the state of peroxide. 838 Ferrum. PART II. Properties.—Precipitated carbonate of iron is a reddish-brown powder of a slightly styptic taste, insoluble in water, but dissolving readily in acids with effervescence of carbonic acid. When imperfectly prepared its colour is less brown, and it is not so easily dissolved by acids, scarcely any effervescence being produced. It is incompatible with acids and acidulous salts. Its composition varies exceedingly, from the influ- ence of slight differences in conducting the process. Though called a carbonate, it is, strictly speaking, a mixture of peroxide of iron with the protocarbonate. Part of the protoxide of the precipitate, as first thrown down, is converted into peroxide in drying; and as carbonic acid will not combine with this oxide, so much of the acid is given off as was united to the protoxide changed. It is so difficult to prevent the absorption of oxygen by the precipitate during exsiccation, that a per- fect protocarbonate of iron can probably only be obtained in the humid way. (See Mistura Ferri Composita.) Still, however, with care, a consi- derable part of this salt will remain undecomposed in the preparation under consideration; and there is reason to believe that its activity will be greater, in proportion as this part is larger. Medical Properties and Uses.—Precipitated carbonate of iron is one of the best chalybeates which we possess. Its virtues are those of a tonic, alterative, and emmenagogue, and it is employed for all the purposes to which the preparations of iron are generally applicable. It was recom- mended by Mr. Carmichael in cancer, and is said sometimes to prove useful. Mr. Hutchinson brought it forward as a remedy for neuralgia; and an extensive experience with it in that disease has established its efficacy. It is also useful in chorea. When prescribed as a tonic, the usual dose is from five to thirty grains three times a day, given in pill or powder, and frequently combined with aromatics and vegetable to- nics. In neuralgia and chorea it is administered in doses of a drachm or more. We have given it in these diseases with success, and in doses of from one to two teaspoonfuls three times a day. No nicety need be observed in the dose; its only obvious effect in very large doses being a slight nausea and a sense of weight at the stomach. Its use gives the stools a black colour. Off. Prep. Ferri Acetas, Dub.; Ferri et Potassae Tartras, U.S.; Fer- rum Ammoniatum, Lond.; Tinctura Ferri Muriatis, U.S., Lond. FERRI CARBONAS PRAPARATUS. U.S. Subcarbonas Ferri Praparatus- Ed. Ferri Rubigo. Bub. Prepared Car- bonate of Iron. Rust of Iron. " Take, of Iron Wire, cut into pieces, any quantity. Expose the Iron to the air, frequently moistening it with Water, till it is converted into rust. Rub this in an iron mortar, and prepare it in the manner directed for carbonate of lime." U. S. " Moisten Purified Iron Filings frequently with Water, that they may be converted into rust, which is to be ground into an impalpable pow- der." Ed. The Dublin process is almost identical with that of the U.S. Pharma- copoeia. Rust of iron, according to Berzelius, is a hydrated peroxide of iron, containing frequently a little protpcarbonate. It is formed in conse- quence of the decomposition of the water, the oxygen of which converts the iron chiefly into peroxide; but partly also into protoxide, the latter of which becomes protocarbonate by absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere. Iron, in the form of wire, is, on account of its greater pu- part ii. Ferrum. 839 rity, preferable to the filings for forming this preparation. Though called a carbonate or a subcarbonate, it is hardly entitled to either ap- pellation ; as it sometimes contains no carbonate, and this salt, when present, is in variable quantity. Properties, &rc.—Prepared carbonate of iron is in the form of a red powder of a slightly styptic taste. Its medical properties and dose are the same as those of the precipitated carbonate; but from its difficult solubility in acids it is far less eligible, and might, without detriment, be expunged from the officinal catalogue. (See Ferri Carbonas Prxcipi- talus.) Off. Prep. Muriatis Ferri Liquor, Dub. FERRI ET POTASSA TARTRAS. U.S. Ferrum Tartari- zatum. Lond. Tartras Potassa et Ferri. Ed. Ferri Tar- tarum. Dub. Tartrate of Iron and Potassa. " Take of Precipitated Carbonate of Iron half an ounce; Supertartrate of Potassa an ounce; Distilled Water a pint. Boil them together over a gentle fire, in a glass vessel, for an hour, and filter the solution through paper. After it has become cold, again filter it, and evaporate by means of a water-bath, till the Tartrate of Iron and Potassa is entirely dried. Rub this into powder, and keep it in a well stopped bottle." U.S. "Take of Iron a pound; Supertartrate of Potassa, in powder, two pounds; Distilled Water five pints, or a sufficient quantity. Rub together the Iron and Supertartrate of Potassa, and expose the mixture, in an open glass vessel, with a pint of Water, to the action of the air for twenty days, stirring it daily, and keeping it always moist by occasional additions of Distilled Water. Then boil it in four pints of Distilled Water for fifteen minutes, and filter. Evaporate the solution, by means of a water-bath, until the Tartarized Iron is perfectly dried. Rub this into powder, and preserve it in a well stopped bottle." Lond. The Edinburgh College orders one part of purified iron filings, two parts of supertartrate, and one part of water, employs an earthen vessel, and exposes the mixture for fifteen days. The materials are then boiled for a short time with four times their weight of water, and the clear liquor poured off from the dregs. This is evaporated to dryness by means of a water-bath, and the dry mass reduced to powder and kept in close bottles. The Dublin College directs one part of fine iron wire, four parts of supertartrate, and dght parts or a suffident quantity of distilled water, and treats the materials nearly as directed in the Edinburgh formula ; the differences being that the iron during exposure is not to be entirely covered with water, that filtration is substituted for decantation, and that the product is not reduced to powder. In these processes, the excess of acid in the supertartrate of potassa combines with protoxide of iron to form a prototartrate, which by the action of the air is converted into a pertartrate, and the resulting pre- paration is a double salt composed of pertartrate of iron and tartrate of potassa. In the U.S. process, which is that of the Dublin Pharmaco- poeia of 1807, the protoxide of iron is furnished by the precipitated carbonate; in those of the British Colleges, by the slow oxidation of metallic iron. As the precipitated carbonate contains only a small por- tion of protoxide, and the peroxide does not directly unite with the ex- cess of acid of the cream of tartar, the U.S. process is liable to the objection of furnishing but a small product, an objection which caused the Dublin College to abandon it. Dr. Barker, in his Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopceia, states that the use of the precipitated car- 840 Ferrum. part ii. bonate gives rise to a large residue of undissolved cream of tartar and carbonate, and furnishes an acid product. When, however, metallic iron was used with the cream of tartar, mutual reaction gradually took place, and a dark brown neutral solution was obtained, which, when evaporated to dryness, furnished a mass of a resinous appearance, and completely soluble in water. When metallic iron is employed, it is protoxidized by the oxygen of the water, hydrogen being given off, and immediately unites with the excess of acid in the cream of tartar. By the action of the air the protoxide of iron is converted into peroxide, and the proto- tartrate, consequently, into pertartrate. Fine iron wire is, perhaps, preferable to the filings, as these are apt to be impure. The only mate- rial difference between the British formulae, is that the Dublin College uses only half as much iron as the other Colleges. The smaller quantity is probably quite sufficient, though no injury can result from an excess of the iron. Properties.—Tartrate of iron and potassa is an olive-green powder, and, when properly prepared, has a sweetish and rather agreeable taste. If it contain an excess of acid from the imperfect saturation of the cream of tartar, its taste is disagreeable. When exposed to a damp atmosphere it becomes moist, and hence it requires to be preserved in close bottles. It is soluble in seven times its weight of water, forming a solution not liable to decomposition for a considerable time. It is not decomposed by the fixed alkalies or their carbonates in the cold, by ammonia, pure or carbonated, at any temperature, nor by ferrocyanate of potassa. It is incompatible with astringent vegetable infusions, the strong acids, hydrosulphuric acid gas, lime-water, and acetate of lead. According to Phillips it contains about 20 per cent, of peroxide of iron. Dr. Ure has proposed the use of prototartrate of iron. He makes it by acting on clean iron filings, or bits of iron wire, with a solution of tartaric acid. The iron is protoxidized at the expense of the water, and uniting with the tartaric acid produces the. prototartrate in the form of a powdery matter, which is obtained separate by diffusing it through the liquid, decanting, and washing on a filter. The salt is nearly white, pulverulent, and insoluble, and possesses a mild chalybeate taste. Medical Properties and Uses.—Tartrate of iron and potassa is one of the most agreeable preparations of iron, and may be given, generally, in cases in which chalybeates are indicated. From its slight taste when well prepared, and its ready solubility, it forms one of the best ferru- ginous preparations for exhibition to children. The dose is from ten grains to half a drachm, given in solution, or combined with an aromatic or bitter in the form of bolus. VINUM FERRI. Lond. Wine of Iron. " Take of Iron [wire or filings] a drachm; Supertartrate of Potassa, in powder, six drachms; Distilled Water two pints, or a sufficient quan- tity; Proof Spirit twenty fluidounces. Rub together the Iron and Super- tartrate of Potassa, and expose them to the air for six weeks, in a shal- low glass vessel, with a fluidounce of the Water, stirring daily with a spatula, and occasionally adding Distilled Water, so that the mixture maybe always moist. Then dry it with a gentle heat, rub it into powder, and mix it with thirty fluidounces of the Distilled Water. Filter the solution, and after filtration add the Spirit." Lond. The iron oxidized by the combined action of air and moisture, unites with the excess of acid of the supertartrate; and a double salt is ultimately formed, consisting of pertartrate of iron and tartrate of potassa, which, together with a portion of undecomposed supertartrate of potassa, is part n. Ferrum. 841 dissolved in the distilled water. The preparation is, therefore, a solution of tartrate of iron and potassa and of cream of tartar, in dilute spirit intended to represent wine. It contains, according to Mr. Phillips, only sixteen grains of peroxide of iron in the pint, considerably less than might be inferred to be present from the quantity of iron employed. The deficiency is ascribed by Mr. Phillips to three causes; 1. the incomplete oxidation of the metal, of which a portion remains unchanged; 2. the drying of the tartrate of iron and potassa, by which it is rendered partly insoluble; and 3. the precipitation of a part of the salt from its aqueous solution, upon the addition of the spirit. The preparation is absurdly called Wine of Iron, as no wine enters into its composition. So far as regards the chalybeate ingredient, it closely resembles the old wine of iron, made by macerating iron wire or filings previously oxidized by air and moisture, in some acidulous wine, containing supertartrate of po- tassa, which formed the double tartrate with the oxidized iron. But as the proportion of this salt is variable in different wines, the preparation was necessarily of unequal strength, and has been discarded both from the U.S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, in which it formerly held a place.* The London preparation might also be discarded, as though more uni- form than the former, it is an exceedingly feeble chalybeate, and is in no respect superior to an extemporaneous solution of the tartrate of iron and potassa. Medical Properties and Uses.—The wine of iron is too stimulating in proportion to its tonic power to be employed except in cases of con- siderable general debility, united with enfeebled digestion. The dose is from half a fluidounce to two fluidounces, two or three times a day. FERRI PHOSPHAS. U.S. Phosphate of Iron. " Take of Sulphate of Iron ./Sue ounces; Phosphate of Soda six ounces; Water a gallon. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron and Phosphate of Soda severally in four pints of the Water; then mix the solutions and set the mixture by that the powder may subside; lastly, having poured off the supernatant liquor, wash the Phosphate of Iron with hot water, and dry it with a gentle heat." U.S. This preparation is the result of a double decomposition between the saline materials employed. The sulphuric acid combines with the soda and remains in solution as sulphate of soda; while the phosphoric acid, uniting with the protoxide of iron, falls as phosphate of iron. The amount of water directed is useful to ensure a prompt and complete mutual reaction of the two salts. If the ferruginous sulphate be a per- fect protosulphate, the precipitate, as first thrown down, will be white; but it quickly absorbs oxygen and becomes bluish-white. It is in the form of insoluble powder of a bright slate colour. According to Berze- lius, it consists of a mixture of the protophosphate and perphosphate of iron. Medical Properties and Uses.—Phosphate of iron possesses the general properties of the ferruginous preparations, and has been given with ad- vantage in amenorrhcea and some forms of dyspepsia. It was introduc- ed into the U.S. Pharmacopceia, at the suggestion, we believe, of Dr. • The •following is the formula for preparing Wine of Iron according to the former editions of the U.S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. "Take of Iron Wire, cut in pieces, four ounces,- Wine [White Rhenish Wine, Dub.] four pints. Sprinkle the Wire with two pints of the Wine [a little of the Wine, Dub.], and expose it to the air till it i» covered with rust; then add the rest of the Wine ; macerate for ten days [dige&t for tcven days, Dub.], with occasional agitation, and filter." 106 842 Ferrum. part ii. Hewson, by whom it was found, after an extensive experience with its use, to be a valuable chalybeate. The dose is from five to ten grains. FERRI SULPHAS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Sulphas Ferri. Ed. Sulphate of Iron. Green Vitriol. " Take of Iron Wire, cut into pieces, Sulphuric Acid, each, dght ounces; Water four pints. To the Iron and Water, previously introduced into a glass vessel, add by degrees the Sulphuric Acid. When the effer- vescence shall have ceased, filter the solution through paper, and evapo- rate it so that crystals may form when it cools. Pour off the supernatant liquor, and dry the crystals upon bibulous paper." U.S. The London process scarcely differs from the above, which was taken from it with slight alterations. "Take of Purified Iron Filings six ounces; Sulphuric Acid eight ounces; Water two pounds and a half. Mix them, and when the effervescence is over, digest the mixture for some time on warm sand. Then filler the decanted liquor through paper, and after due evaporation, set it aside to crystallize." Ed. "Take of Iron Wire four parts; Sulphuric Acid [Commercial?] seven parts; Water sixty parts. Mix,.and dissolve the metal by the aid of heat, and filter the solution through paper. Lastly, after due evaporation, set aside the solution, that crystals may form by slow refrigeration." Dub. In these processes, a pure sulphate of the protoxide of iron is formed. Sulphuric acid, in a concentrated state, acts but imperfectly on iron; but when it is diluted, a vigorous action takes place, the oxygen of the water converts the metal into protoxide, with which the sulphuric acid unites, and hydrogen is evolved. The equivalent quantities for mutual reaction are 28 of iron to 49 of acid, which are the precise proportions taken by the Dublin College, and which were found to answer by Dr. Barker. In the other processes quoted above, the iron is evidently in excess; but this is an error on the safe side, as it tends to secure the production of a perfect protosulphate, the portion of metal not dissolved being removed by the filtration. The quantity of water directed in the formulae is sufficient to hold the salt in solution, and is necessary to enable the operator to com- ply with'the direction to filter. A smaller quantity would be sufficient to form the salt, but would probably cause it to crystallize in mass, and thus interfere with the means of separating the impurities. Sulphate of iron, under the name of copperas, is manufactured on the large scale, for the purposes of the arts, from the native sulphuret of iron, or pyrites, by roasting, oxidation by exposure to air and moisture, and lixiviation. The constituents of the mineral become sulphuric acid and protoxide of iron, which, by their union, form the salt in question. In this manner it is extensively manufactured at Strafford in Vermont, and at Cape Sable in Maryland. Sometimes, when the price of the pro- ' duct will justify it, our manufacturers of sulphuric acid make it from the unconcentrated acid and scraps of old iron. The sulphate of commerce is always impure, containing various fo- reign bodies, such as copper, zinc, alumina, magnesia, &c. Copper maybe detected and separated by its deposition on an immersed polished plate of iron; but the other impurities are not easily got rid of. It is, therefore, altogether unfit for medicinal employment, and should never be substituted by the apothecary for the officinal sulphate, which is made by the direct combination of its constituents, in order to ensure its purity. Properties.—Sulphate of iron is a bluish-green salt, having a disagree- PART II. Ferrum. 843 able styptic taste, and an acid reaction. It crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, which, by exposure to the air, effloresce and absorb oxygen, and become, on the surface, first white, and afterwards yellow, passing gra- dually into the state of persulphate. It dissolves in twice its weight of cold, and in three-fourths of its weight of boiling water; but is insoluble in alcohol. When healed moderately it undergoes the watery fusion, and afterwards becomes dry and white; and at a red heat loses its acid and is converted into the red oxide of iron. (See Sulphas Ferri Exsic- catus, and Ferri Oxidum Rubrum.) It is incompatible with the alkalies and their carbonates, soaps, lime-water, the muriates of lime and baryta, the borate and phosphate of soda, nitrate of silver, and the acetates of lead. It is also decomposed by astringent vegetable infusions, the tannin and gallic acid of which strike a black colour with the oxide of the sul- phate ; but how far this change may interfere with its medical activity is not well ascertained. It is composed of one equiv. of acid 40, one equiv. of protoxide 36, and seven equiv. of water 63 = 139. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sulphate of iron is tonic and astringent. In large doses it is apt to produce nausea and vomiting, and griping of the bowels; and if its use be too long Continued it injures the stomach. It has been recommended in scrofulous habits, conjoined with the ex- tract of bark. In amenorrhcea with deficient action, it is frequently re- sorted to with advantage, either alone, or combined with the fetid and stimulant gums. It has also been given in diabetes. The dose is from one to five grains, in the form of pill. If given in solution, the water should be previously boiled to expel the air, by which, if allowed to remain, the salt would be partially decomposed. Off. Prep. Ferri Carbonas Praecipitatus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Ferri Oxidum Rubrum, U.S., Dub.; Ferri Phosphas, U.S.; Mistura Ferri Composita, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Ferri Compositae, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Sulphatis Ferri Compositae, Ed.; Sulphas Ferri Exsiccatus, Ed.; Tinctura Ferri Acetatis, Dub.'; Tinctura Ferri Acetatis cum Alco- hol, Dub. SULPHAS FERRI EXSICCATUS. Ed. Dried Sulphate of Iron. " Take of Sulphate of Iron any quantity. Expose it to a moderate heat in an unglazed earthen vessel, until it becomes white and» perfectly dry." Ed. This process is merely intended to deprive the salt of its water of crystallization, which amounts to about forty-two per cent. The heat should not exceed 212°, otherwise the salt itself would suffer decompo- sition. Dried sulphate of iron may be used internally in the form of pill, and is employed pharmaceutically by the Edinburgh College for making Acidum Aceticum Forte, and Oxidum Ferri Rubrum, which are its only officinal preparations. FERRI SULPHURETUM. U.S., Dub. Sulphuretum Ferri. Ed. Sulphuret of Iron. " Take of Iron Filings/b?/r oi/nces [Purified, three parts, Ed.']; Sulphur two ounces [Sublimed Sulphur one part, Ed.~\ Mix, and expose them, in a covered crucible, to an obscure red heat, till they unite." U.S. " Expose a rod of Iron to the strongest heat of a forge, until it be- comes white-hot; and upon taking it from the fire, instantly apply it to a roll of sulphur. Receive the Sulphuret of Iron in water, separate it from sulphur, and, having dried it, keep it in a well stopped bottle." Dub. 844 Ferrum. part ii. Iron combines with sulphur in two proportions, forming a protosul- phuret and a bisulphuret. It is the protosulphuret that is formed in the above processes. In the first, which is the easier of the two, the iron, in a divided form and mixed with the sulphur, is made to unite with it by the application of heat. At a particular temperature the mixture suddenly becomes incandescent, when the heat may be withdrawn. The operation may be performed in a Florence flask, one-third filled with the mixture, and heated with a chafing-dish. When thus prepared, the sulphuret is apt to contain bisulphuret and metallic iron. The Dublin process fur- nishes a purer product, but is not so easy of execution. On the applica- tion of a roll of sulphur to heated iron, which should be at a white heat in order that the experiment may succeed well, the metal appears to become hotter, burns with scintillations in the vapour of the sulphur, and forms instantly a protosulphuret, which being comparatively fusible, melts into globules, and drops into a vessel of water beneath, which serves to extinguish them. The sulphuret thus obtained is stated by Berzelius to contain an excess of iron. The process recommended by him as the best, consists in heating, in a close vessel, a mixture of sul- phur and the cuttings of thin sheet iron. At a full red heat, the iron burns in the gaseous sulphur, and becomes covered with a crust of the sulphuret. The heat is then maintained at redness until all excess of sul- phur has been driven off. Upon the cooling of the vessel, the pieces of iron are bent to and fro, whereby the superficial sulphuret is made to scale off. Properties, 8,-c.—Sulphuret of iron has a yellowish colour and the me- tallic lustre. When pure it furnishes a yellow powder, and dissolves in dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid without leaving a residue of sulphur, and with the production of hydrosulphuric acid gas (sulphuretted hy- drogen), free from admixture of hydrogen. It consists of one equiv. of sulphur 16, and one equiv. of iron 28=44. This preparation is employ- ed exclusively in the Pharmacopoeias for the production of hydrosul- phuric acid gas, a necessary ingredient or agent in several formulae. It may be made to yield this gas by the action of diluted sulphuric or mu- riatic acid, but the former acid is preferred on account of its cheapness. By either method water is decomposed; its hydrogen combines with the sulphur to form the hydrosulphuric acid, while the oxygen converts the iron into protoxide, with which the acid employed combines. Hydrosul- phuric add is a colourless gas, having a smell like that of putrid eggs. Its sp. gr. is 1.1805. It reddens litmus and saturates bases, with which it forms salts called hydrosulphates or hydrosulphurels. It is generated in the processes for the following preparations :—Acidum Hydrocyanicum, U.S.; Liquor Ammoniae Hydrosulphatis, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Potassii Io- didum, U.S., Dub. FERRUM AMMONIATUM. U.S., Lond. Murias Ammonije et Ferri. Ed. Ammoniated Iron. " Take of Red Oxide of Iron, Muriate of Ammonia, each, a pound. Mix them well together, and sublime quickly by the application of a strong heat; then rub the sublimed matter into powder." U.S. " Take of Subcarbonate of Iron [Precipitated Carbonate], Muriatic Acid, Muriate of Ammonia, each, a pound. Pour the Muriatic Acid upon the Subcarbonate of Iron, and set the mixture aside till it ceases to effervesce. Filter the solution through paper, and evaporate it to dry- ness. Mix the residue thoroughly with the Muriate of Ammonia; then sublime immediately with a hot fire; lastly, rub the sublimed matter into powder." Lond. PART II. Ferrum. 845 « Take of Red Oxide of Iron, washed and dried, Muriate of Ammo- nia, each, equal wdghts. Mix them thoroughly, and sublime with a quick fire. Rub the sublimate into powder, and keep it in a well stopped phial." Ed. In the U.S. and Edinburgh processes, which are essentially the same, a portion of the muriate of ammonia is decomposed, the ammonia es- caping, and the muriatic acid reacting upon the peroxide of iron, so as to form water and the perchloride of iron, the latter of which is sub- limed with the undecomposed portion of the muriate of ammonia. In the London process, the permuriate of iron is first obtained, and this is sublimed in connexion with muriate of ammonia, assuming probably during the operation the form of perchloride of iron. The quantity of carbonate of iron directed by the London College is unnecessarily large, as little more than half of it is dissolved.. A more convenient mode of preparing the Ammoniated Iron is that of the Paris Codex, which directsthat three parts of muriate of ammo- nia and one of muriate of iron, be dissolved together in a sufficient quantity of water, and the solution evaporated to dryness with a mode- rate heat. The muriate of iron of the Paris Codex, is the protomuriate formed by the action of muriatic acid upon metallic iron; but the per- muriate resulting from the action of the same acid on the officinal pre- cipitated carbonate or red oxide is preferable, as it is less liable to chem- ical change. . Properties.—Ammoniated iron, as usually found in the shops, is in crystalline grains, of a yellow colour, a feeble odour, and a styptic sa- line taste. In this form it is probably a mixture of muriate of ammonia and permuriate of iron, obtained by evaporating a solution of these salts. {Phillips.) Procured by sublimation it has an orange colour, and probably contains iron in the state of perchloride. In either form it is highly soluble and deliquescent, and requires to be kept in well stopped bottles. The proportion of the perchloride of iron to the muriate of ammonia, hi the sublimed preparation, is very variable, but usually small. Medical Properties and Uses.—This preparation unites aperient pro- perties with those belonging to the chalybeates generally, and is said to have been used with advantage in amenorrhcea, epilepsy, scrofula, rickets, See; but it is at best uncertain, and is now very seldom pre- scribed. It was formerly employed under the. names of flores martiales, and ens martis. From four to twelve grains may be given in the form of pill, electuary, or solution, several times a day. Off Prep. Tinctura Ferri Ammoniati, Lond. TINCTURA FERRI AMMONIATI. Lond. Tincture of Am- moniated Iron. " Take of Ammoniated Iron four ounces; Proof Spirit a pint. Mace- rate and filter." Lond. This is simply a solution of the preceding preparation in diluted al- cohol. It is feeble and uncertain as a chalybeate, and has no particular claims to attention. TINCTURA FERRI MURIATIS. U.S., Lond. Tinctura Mu- riatis Ferri. Ed. Muriatis Ferri Liquor. Dub. Tincture of Muriate of Iron. " Take of Precipitated Carbonate of Iron half a pound; Muriatic Acid a pint; Alcohol three pints. Pour the Acid upon the Carbonate of Irojv in a glass vessel, and shake the mixture occasionally for three day*^ 846 Ferrum. part ii. then set it by that the dregs, if vhere be any, may subside; lastly, pour oft* the liquor, and to this add the Alcohol." U.S. The process of the London College is the original of the above, and differs from it only in the nomenclature. "Take of Purified Black Oxide of Iron, in powder, three ounces; Muriatic Acid about ten ounces, or as much as may be sufficient to dis- solve the oxide. Digest with a gentle heat, and when the powder is dis- solved, add as much Alcohol as will make the whole quantity of liquor amount to two pounds and a half." Ed. "Take of Rust of Iron one part; Muriatic Acid, Rectified Spirit, each, six parts. Pour the Muriatic Acid upon the Rust in a glass vessel, and shake the mixture occasionally for three days. Then set it by that the dreg^-may subside, and pour off the dear liquor. Evaporate this slowlv.to one-third, and when it is cold add the Spirit." Dub. The precipitated carbonate of iron of the shops consists of the per- oxide of iron, mixed with a variable, but always small proportion of the protocarbonate. When acted on by muriatic acid, as in the U.S. and London processes, it is dissolved with effervescence, in consequence of the escape of carbonic acid; and a solution of the permuriate of iron, with a little protomuriate, is obtained. When the muriatic acid employ- ed is of the officinal strength (sp. gr. 1.160), it dissolves nearly all the precipitated carbonate, leaving behind, according to Mr. Phillips, less than one scruple, including accidental impurities. A reaction appears to take place between the muriatic acid and the alcohol, as the prepara- tion has a decided ethereal odour. On exposure, the protoxide of iron of the protomuriate is converted by the absorption of oxygen into per- oxide, which, requiring a larger proportion of acid than the former for its saturation, is partly precipitated. A slight excess of acid would, therefore, not be amiss, as the peroxide would thus be held in solution^ and the preparation be of more uniform strength. The black oxide of iron, employed by the Edinburgh College instead of the precipitated car- bonate, yields with the muriatic acid a larger proportion of the proto- muriate; and the solution is, therefore, still more apt, upon exposure, to deposite peroxide, than that of the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias. .The Dublin process is liable to the objection of a great waste of acid, of which much more is employed than is necessary to dissolve the quantity of rust of iron directed, the excess being driven off by heat. It is important that the apothecary should employ muriatic acid of the officinal specific gravity, as otherwise his preparation will be of uncer- tain strength. A want of attention to this circumstance is probably the cause that the tincture, as found in the shops, is very unequal. Of four specimens examined by Mr. Phillips, one contained in half a fluidounce 20 grains of peroxide of iron, another 12.1 grains, a third 11.3 grains, and the fourth only 9.3 grains. A specimen prepared by himself, pre- cisely according to the directions of the London College, had the sp. gr. 0.994, and contained in half a fluidounce 16.8 grains of peroxide. Properties.—The tincture of muriate of iron is of a reddish-brown, somewhat yellowish colour, a sour and very styptic taste, and an odour resembling that of muriatic ether. The permuriate of iron, which is its chief constituent, is a deliquescent salt, of a dark orange colour, scarcely crystallizable, and consisting of one equiv. of peroxide of iron 40, and one equiv. and a half of muriatic acid 55.5 = 95.5. The tincture is de- composed by the alkalies, alkaline earths, and their carbonates, astrin- gent vegetable infusions, and the. mucilage of gum arabic, which are, therefore, incompatible with it in prescriptions. PART II. Ferrum. 847 Medical Properties and Uses.—This is one of the most active and cer- tain preparations of iron, usually acceptable to the stomach, and much employed for all the purposes to which the chalybeates generally are applied. It is particularly recommended as a tonic in scrofula, in which it is often given, combined with the solution of muriate of lime, or mu- riate of baryta. It has been employed also in gfceets, and is said to be useful in dysury dependent on spasmodic stricture of the urethra, in the dose of ten drops repeated every ten minutes, till some effect is ex- perienced.. In hemorrhages from the uterus, kidneys, and bladder, it is thought to act advantageously, but should be confined to those of a pas- sive character, or employed only after sufficient depletion. Externally it has sometimes proved useful in the destruction of venereal warts, and as a styptic in cancerous and fungous ulcers. The dose is from ten to thirty minims, which may be gradually increased to one, or even two fluidrachms, two or three times a day. It is given diluted with water. LIQUOR FERRI ALKALINI. Lond. Solution of Alkaline Iron. " Take of Iron two drachms and a half; Nitric Acid two fluidounces ; Distilled Water six fluidounces; Solution of Subcarbonate of Potassa six fluidounces. Pour the Acid and Water, previously mixed together, upon the Iron; then, after the cessation of effervescence, pour off the acid solution. Add this gradually and at intervals to the Solution of Subcarbonate of Potassa, occasionally stirring, until the liquor, having assumed a red-brown colour, ceases to effervesce. Lastly, set it aside for six hours, and pour off the solution." Lond. In the first step of this process, the iron, by the decomposition of a portion of the nitric acid, is converted into the peroxide, which unites with a part of the undecomposed acid to form the pernitrate of iron, while nitric oxide gas escapes with effervescence, assuming the form of red fumes on contact with the air. A reddish-brown solution of per- nitrate of iron is thus obtained, with a considerable excess of nitric acid. When this is added to the solution of carbonate of potassa, the free nitric acid, as well as that of the salt of iron, combines with the potassa to form nitre, carbonic acid escapes with effervescence, and the peroxide of iron is precipitated for a moment, to be again dissolved by the excess of the alkaline carbonate. From the liquor thus prepared, when allowed to stand, most of the nitrate of potassa separates in a spongy mass of crystals, from which the liquor is poured off. Properties.—This solution has a deep red colour, and an alkaline, styptic, saline taste. It contains nitrate of potassa, carbonate of potassa, and peroxide of iron; but in what precise mode these are combined has not been ascertained. Upon the addition of water it lets fall the peroxide of iron; and alcohol separates all the solid ingredients. So loosely are its constituents held together, that, according to Dr. Paris, it cannot be administered in any form without undergoing decomposi- tion. It is an inelegant preparation, without any superiority as a chaly- beate to counterbalance its inconveniences; and might very properly be discarded from the London Pharmacopceia. Medical Properties.—The solution of alkaline iron, or, as it might be more appropriately called, the alkaline solution of iron, has the general properties of the chalybaates united with those of an antacid. It is, we believe, never employed in this country. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm. 848 Oummi-resinse. PART II. GUMMI-RESINA. Gum-resins. These are concrete tiatural juices of plants, obtained by spontaneous exudation or incision, and consisting of gum and resin, associated for the most part with more or less essential oil, and frequently with other substances, such as extractive, bassorin, starch, wax, and various salts. The gum and resin are essential ingredients, but exist in very different proportions in the different varieties. All the gum-resins are partially soluble in alcohol and in water, but completely so in neither of these liquids. Diluted alcohol, on the contrary, dissolves them almost en- tirely, especially if assisted by heat. With water they form an opaque emulsion; the resin, essential oil, and other insoluble constituents, be- ing held in suspension by the dissolved gum. The London College gives the following directions in relation to the gum-resins. "Those Gum-resins are to be preferred, which may be chosen so per- fect as not to require purification. But if they do not appear to be suffi- ciently pure, boil them in water until they soften, and express them through a hempen cloth; then set them by that the resinous part may subside. Pour off the supernatant liquid, and evaporate it by means of a water-bath, adding, towards the end of the process, the resinous por- tion, so as to incorporate it with the gum. "The Gum-resins, which melt easily, may be purified by putting them into an ox bladder, and holding them in boiling water, until they become so soft as to be capable of being separated from their impuri- ties by expression through a hempen cloth." The first of these processes is applicable to the gum-resins only when they are intended for external use; for the essential oil, upon which their medicinal virtues often in great measure depend, is more or less dissipated by the heat employed. The latter process is preferable when- ever practicable, as it affects less the character of the medicine; but several of the gum-resins, such as assafetida and ammoniac, are not sufficiently fusible at the temperature of boiling water to admit of being strained with facility. It is always best to select those intended for in- ternal exhibition, of such a quality as not to require purification. As they are usually brittle and pulverizable when very cold, they may be freed from the coarser impurities by powdering them in the winter sea- son, and sifting the powder, which afterwards agglutinates with warmth. This plan is recommended by Mr. Brande, in relation to assafetida, am- moniac, and galbanum. The French pharmaceutists purify the gum- resins by dissolving them in diluted alcohol, filtering and evaporating the solution. This process, though liable in a still greater degree than that of the London College to the objection of diminishing the virtues of the medicine by driving off the essential oil, has the advantage that it completely separates all insoluble substances, however minutely di- vided, such as fine sand or other earth, which might pass through the pores of a hempen strainer. PART II. Hydrargyrum. 849 HYDRARGYRUM. Preparations of Mercury. HYDRARGYRUM PURIFICATUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Hv- drargyrus Purificatus. Ed. Purified Mercury. " Take of Mercury any quantity. Pour it into an iron retort, and having applied heat, distil the Purified Mercury." U.S., Lond. "Take of Mercury six parts; Iron Filings one part. Rub them to- gether, and distil from an iron vessel." Ed. " Take of Mercury six parts. Draw oft four parts by slow distillation." Dub. The mercury of commerce is usually very pure; but occasionally it contains foreign metals, such as lead, tin, zinc, and bismuth, and hence the Pharmacopoeias direct its purification. Mercury being much more volatile than the contaminating metals, rises first in distillation, while they are left behind. But it is necessary to avoid pushing the distillation too far; for in that event, some of the foreign metals, particularly bis- muth, are apt to be carried over. The Dublin Pharmacopoeia, adopting this caution, directs only two-thirds of the mercury to be drawn over; while the other Pharmacopoeias distil the whole. The iron filings di- rected by the Edinburgh College appear to be useless, as they have no affinity for the contaminating metals. Considering the difficulty of puri- fying mercury by distillation, it is better for the manufacturing chemist to purchase pure samples of the metal, which may be always had in the market, and thus supersede the necessity of this process. Properties, $c.—Mercury is known to be pure when it is bright and perfectly mobile. Its freedom from foreign metals may be ascertained by the negative indications of the tests mentioned under Hydrargyrum*. Purified mercury is used in all the preparations of mercury requiring the metal, except the mercurial plaster of our Pharmacopoeia, in which the unpurifled metal is employed. HYDRARGYRI ACETAS. Dub. Acetas Hydrargyri. Ed, Acetate of Mercury. " Take of Purified Mercury, Acetate of Potassa, each, nine parts; Diluted Nitric Acid eleven parts; boiling Distilled Water one hundred parts; Distilled Vinegar a sufficient quantity. Add the Nitric Acid to the Mercury, and when the effervescence shall have ceased, digest the mixture, so as to dissolve the metal. Dissolve the Acetate of Potassa in the Water, and add Distilled Vinegar until acidity predominates in the solution. To this, boiling hot, add the solution of the Mercury in the Nitric Acid, and strain the mixture quickly through a double linen cloth; then let it cool that crystals may form. Wash these with cold Distilled Water, and dry them on paper with a very gentle heat. In every step of this process glass vessels are to be used." Dub. The Edinburgh College orders three ounces of purified mercury, four1 ounces and a half of diluted nitrous acid, or a little more than sufficient to dissolve the mercury, three ounces of acetate of potassa, and dght pounds of boiling water, and treats the materials in a similar manner to the above, merely omitting to acidulate with distilled vinegar, and to strain through linen. The object of these processes is to obtain an acetate of the protoxide of mercury. By the solution of mercury in diluted nitric acid, in thd proportions indicated, a protonitrate is formed; and this, whefl added 107 850 Hydrargyrum. part ii. to the boiling solution of acetate of potassa, causes a double decompo- sition, resulting in the formation of nitrate of potassa, which remains in solution, and protacetate of mercury, which precipitates in crystals as the solution cools. The nitric acid is used diluted in order to avoid per- oxidizing the metal; and for the same reason heat is not applied until the action of the acid has ceased in the cold, and then only moderately. Notwithstanding every precaution, it is very difficult to get a perfect protonitrate of mercury, and as water throws down a yellow subnitrate from the pernitrate if the solutions be neutral, the Dublin College orders the solution of the acetate of potassa to be acidulated with distilled vinegar, which effectually prevents this precipitation. The same object is gained in the Edinburgh formula, by using a slight excess of nitric acid for dissolving the mercury. The straining of the solution while hot, as directed by the Dublin College, is intended to separate any sub- nitrate which may be accidentally formed. As the crystals of the acetate of mercury may be contaminated with a little pernitrate, which is ren- dered yellow by the action of water, some authorities recommend that the washing should be performed with water acidulated with a little distilled vinegar. The drying of the crystals is an operation which re- quires great care, as a slight heat is sufficient to decompose them. On this account it has been proposed to dry them by compression between the folds of bibulous paper. Properties, fyc.—Acetate of mercury is a white salt, in the form of thin elastic scales of a silvery lustre. Its taste is very disagreeable, but less so than most of the other soluble salts of mercury. Air has no effect on it, but it contracts a brown tinge by exposure to light. It is insoluble in alcohol, but dissolves readily, with partial decomposition, in boiling water, from which, being only sparingly soluble in cold water, it preci- pitates in crystals on cooling. When a perfect protacetate, alkalies throw down from its solution a black precipitate of protoxide; but if it be contaminated with peracetate, the same reagents cause a yellowish precipitate. It consists of one equiv. of acetic acid 51, one equiv. of pro- toxide of mercury 208, and four equiv. of water 36=295. Medical Properties.—Acetate of mercury was introduced into regular practice in consequence of its having been ascertained to be the active ingredient in Keyser's pills, which were at one time esteemed to be a mild and safe antisyphilitic remedy, and the mode of preparing which was purchased and made public by the French government. These pills, however, are very unequal in their operation; and it is the opinion of M. Garot, that their occasional violence is attributable to their contain- ing the peracetate instead of the protacetate of mercury. The officinal acetate is intended to be a protacetate; but even in this state it possesses no peculiar powers which give it advantages over other mercurials in the treatment of syphilis; and it is at present very little used. The dose is a grain, given in the form of pill, twice a day. It is occasionally used as an external application in cutaneous eruptions, in the proportion of a grain, dissolved in a fluidounce of rose-water. HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDUM CORROSIVUM. U.S. Hy- drargyri Oxymurias. Lond. Murias Hydrargyri Corrosivus. Ed. Hydrargyri Murias Corrosivum. Dub. Corrosive Chloride of Mercury. Corrosive Sublimate. " Take of Purified Mercury two pounds; Sulphuric Acid thirty ounces; Chloride of Sodium four pounds. Boil the Mercury with the Sulphuric Acid, in a glass vessel, until the sulphate of mercury is left dry. Rub PART II. Hydrargyrum. 851 this, when cold, with the Chloride of Sodium, in an earthenware mor- tar; then sublime in a glass cucurbit, with a gradually increasing heat." U.S. The London and Edinburgh processes agree with the above in the proportions of the materials employed; and only differ from it slightly in phraseology. "Take of Persulphate of Mercury^ueparts; dried Muriate of Soda two parts. Rub them well together in an earthenware mortar, so as to reduce them, to a very fine powder. Then, with a heat gradually raised, sublime the Corrosive Muriate of Mercury into a proper receiver." Dub. In order to understand the above processes, which are virtually the same, it is necessary to premise, that corrosive sublimate is a deuto- chloride of mercury, consisting of two equiv. of chlorine 72, and one equiv. of mercury 200=272. By boiling sulphuric acid on mercury to dryness, as directed in the first process, a white salt is formed, which is a bipersulphate of mercury. (See Hydrargyri Persulphas, Dub.) When this is mixed with chloride of sodium (common salt), and the mixture exposed to a subliming heat, a mutual decomposition takes place; the chlorine of the common salt combines with the mercury, and sublimes as deutochloride of mercury, while the sodium, oxygen of the peroxide of mercury, and sulphuric acid unite to form a fixed residue of sulphate of soda. The quantities for mutual decomposition are two equiv. of chloride of sodium 120, consisting of two equiv. of chlorine 72 and two equiv. of sodium 48; and one equiv. of bipersulphate of mercury, consisting of one equiv. of mercury 200, two equiv. of oxygen 16, and two equiv. of sulphuric acid 80. The two equiv. of chlorine combine with the one equiv. of mercury, to form one equiv. of corrosive subli- mate 272; and the two equiv. severally,of sodium, oxygen, and sulphuric acid, by their union, form two equiv. of dry sulphate of soda 144. From the foregoing statement, it is easy to determine the relative quantities of mercury and common salt to be taken in the first formula; for it is plain, that for every equiv. of mercury 200, there are required two equiv. of common salt 120, as they contain two equiv. of chlorine. The ratio of 200 to 120 is the. same as 2 to 1.2; but the ratio of the formula is 2 of mercury to 4 of common salt, which gives a large excess of the latter. It may be desirable to have a slight excess of the common salt; but so large a redundancy has no power of increasing the product of corrosive sublimate, as was ascertained experimentally by Dr. Barker of Dublin. The Dublin formula for corrosive sublimate is peculiar in ordering the bipersulphate of mercury ready formed, instead of preparing it as the first step of the process, as is done in the processes of the other Pharmacopoeias. The proportions employed give a slight excess of bi- persulphate, which is a defect, as it would be better rather to waste the common salt. As the British Colleges adopt the old theory of the nature of common salt and corrosive sublimate, namely, that they are muriates, it may be well to explain the formation of the latter on that theory. According to the old theory, the reaction takes place between two equiv. of muriate of soda, and one equiv. of bipersulphate of mercury. The two equiv. of soda combine with the two equiv. of sulphuric acid to form two equiv. of sulphate of soda; while the two equiv. of dry muriatic acid sublime in union with the one equiv. of peroxide of mercury, to form the oimuriate of the peroxide, the corrosive muriate of the British Pharmacopoeias. Thus, while the new theory makes corrosive sublimate a deutochloride 852 Hydrargyrum. PART II. of mercury, the old one considers it a bipermuriate. According to both views, the compound has the same equivalent number, and consists of one equiv. of mercury, combined with the same quantity of matter. This matter is considered, according to the new theory, to consist of two equiv. of a simple body, called chlorine, but according to the old, of two equiv. of an imaginary body called dry muriatic acid, and two equiv. of oxygen. Considering the fact, that the chloridic theory is now fully establish- ed, and that the old theory is not advocated by a single chemist of note, it is remarkable that the British Colleges have still adhered to the latter, and misnamed their chlorides of mercury. The U.S. Conven- tion, in the recent revision of our Pharmacopceia, have avoided this reproach, by adopting a correct nomenclature for these compounds. In the instance of the substance under consideration, it is correctly called a chloride, while its deleterious nature is sufficiently marked by the ad- junct "corrosivum," an epithet which has served to identify it from an early period. Preparation on the large Scale, fyc.—According to Mr. Brande, the fol- lowing proportions are employed at Apothecaries' Hall, London:— " 50 lbs. of mercury are boiled to dryness with 70 lbs. of sulphuric acid: 73 lbs. of bipersulphate of mercury are thus formed, which being per- fectly mixed with 120 lbs, of common salt, and sublimed, yield from 63 to 65 lbs. of corrosive sublimate." According to theory, the mercury here employed should produce 68 lbs. of the corrosive chloride; but there is always some loss in operations on a large scale. It is sometimes useful to a physician to know how to make a small portion of corrosive sublimate on an emergency. This may be done by dissolving peroxide of mercury (red precipitate) in muriatic acid, evaporating the solution to dryness, dissolving the dry mass in water, and crystallizing. At first a bimuriateof the peroxide is formed in solution, which, by crystallizing, loses the elements of water, and becomes the deutochloride. Properties.—Corrosive chloride of mercury, as obtained by sublima- tion, is in the form of white, semitransparent, ponderous masses, of the sp. gr. 5.2, permanent in the air, and possessing an exceeding acrid, styptic, and durable taste. It dissolves in sixteen parts of cold water, and in three of boiling water. A boiling saturated solution, upon cool- ing, lets it fall in a confused mass of crystals. By solution, it may be considered as converted, by the decomposition of two equiv. of water, into a bimuriate of the peroxide. It is soluble also in two and a third parts of cold alcohol, in about its own weight of boiling alcohol, and in three parts of ether. Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids dissolve it without alteration. When heated it melts, and readily sublimes in dense, white, acrid vapours, which condense, on cool surfaces, in white, shin- ing needles. Its aqueous solution renders green the syrup of violets, and is precipitated brick-red becoming yellow by the fixed alkalies and alkaline earths, and white by ammonia. (See Hydrargyrum Ammonia- tum.) The former precipitate is a hydrated peroxide of mercury, and is formed in the process for preparing the aqua phagedsenica of old phar- macy, which is obtained by dissolving a drachm of corrosive sublimate in a piqt of lime-water. Corrosive sublimate forms with muriate of am- monia and chloride of sodium, compounds which are more soluble than the uncombined mercurial salt. It is on this account that aqueous solu- tions of sal ammoniac, or of common salt, dissolve much more corrosive sublimate than simple water. The combination of corrosive sublimate PART II. Hydrargyrum. 853 with muriate of ammonia, was formerly called sal alembroth, or salt of wisdom. Corrosive sublimate has the property of retarding putrefaction in a remarkable degree. Animal matters, immersed in its solution, shrink, acquire firmness, assume a white colour, and become imputrcscible. It is on account of this property that it is often usefully resorted to for the preservation of anatomical preparations. Tests of Purity and Incompatibles.—Pure corrosive chloride of mer- cury sublimes, when heated, without residue; and consequently, if a portion of a sample should not evaporate entirely, the presence of some impurity is proved. If calomel be present, it may be detected by its in- solubility in water. Corrosive sublimate is incompatible with many of the metals, with the alkalies and their carbonates, with soap, lime-water, tartar emetic, nitrate of silver, the acetates of lead, the sulphurets of potassa and soda, and all the hydrosulphates. It is also decomposed by many vegetable and some animal substances, and in most cases is con- verted by them into protochloride of mercury or calomel. According to Dr. Thomson (London Dispensatory), it produces precipitates in infu- sions or decoctions of the following vegetable substances ;—chamomile, horse-radish, columbo, catechu, cinchona, rhubarb, senna, simaruba, and oak-bark. Medical Properties and Uses.—Corrosive sublimate is the most pow- erful of the mercurial preparations, operating quickly on the system, and, if not properly regulated, producing very violent effects. It is less apt to salivate than most other mercurials. In minute doses properly repeated, it exerts its peculiar influence without any obvious alteration of the vital functions, except, perhaps, a slight increase in the frequency of the pulse, and in the secretions from the skin and kidneys. Sometimes, however, it purges; but this effect may be obviated by combining it with a little opium. In larger doses it occasions nausea, vomiting, grip- ing pain in the bowels, diarrhoea, and other symptoms of gastric and intestinal irritation; and in still larger quantities produces all the effects of a violent corrosive poison. It has long been used as a remedy in sy- philis, in all stages of which it is highly recommended by some authors. It is said to remove the symptoms more speedily than other mercurials, while its action is less unpleasant, as the mouth is less liable to be made sore. For the latter reason it is much employed by empyrics, and is an ingredient in almost all those nostrums which have at various pe- riods gained a temporary popularity as antivenereals. But while it is extolled by some authors, others, among whom is Mr. Pearson of Lon- don, deny its extraordinary merits, and maintain that, though occasion- ally useful in arresting the progress of the complaint, particularly in the secondary stage, it does not produce permanent cures, and in the primary stage, often fails altogether. The general opinion at present is in favour of its employment in secondary syphilis, and there can be no doubt that it occasionally does much good. It is also used advanta- geously in cutaneous diseases of a leprous character, and in obstinate chronic rheumatism. It is usually associated with alterative or diapho- retic medicines, such as the antimonials, and the compound decoction or syrup of sarsaparilla; and, in order to obviate the irritation it is apt to produce, it may often be advantageously united with opium, or ex- tract of hemlock. There is no doubt that many of the substances in con- nexion with which it is employed, alter its chemical condition; but it does not follow that even in its altered state it may not be very useful as a remedy. S54 Hydrargyrum. part ii. As an external remedy, corrosive sublimate is stimulant and escha- rotic. A very weak solution in water, containing from an eighth to half a grain in the fluidounce, is employed as an injection in gleet, as a gar- gle in venereal sore throat, and as a collyrium in chronic venereal oph- thalmia. A stronger solution, containing one or two grains in the fluidounce, is a very efficacious wash in lepra, and other scaly cutaneous eruptions. Dissolved in water, in the proportion of five or ten grains to the fluidounce, it may be used with much benefit in venereal ulcers of the throat, to which it should be applied by means of a camel's hair pencil. With lime-water, it forms the aquaphagedsenica of the older wri- ters, employed as a wash in ill-conditioned ulcers. The powdered chlo- ride has been used as an escharotic; but is, in general, inferior to nitrate of silver or caustic potassa. In onychia maligna, however, it is employed with great advantage, mixed with an equal weight of sulphate of zinc, and sprinkled thickly upon the surface of the ulcer, which is then to be covered with a pledget of lint saturated with tincture of myrrh. The whole diseased surface is thus removed, and the necessity of resorting to the knife is avoided. This practice was first introduced, we believe, by Dr. Perkins of Philadelphia, and is highly recommended by Dr. Physick. We have employed it in several instances with complete suc- cess. The dose of corrosive sublimate is from an eighth to a quarter of a grain, repeated three or four times a day, and given in pill, or dissolved in water or spirit. The pill, which is the preferable form, is usually prepared with crumb of bread, and care should be taken that the medi- cine be equally diffused through the pilular mass, before it is divided. Mucilaginous drinks are usually given to obviate the irritating effects of the medicine. Toxicological Properties.—Swallowed in poisonous doses, it produces a sense of burning heat in the throat, excruciating pain in the stomach and bowels, excessive thirst, anxiety, nausea and frequent retching with vomiting of bloody mucus, diarrhoea and sometimes bloody stools, small and frequent pulse, cold sweats, general debility, difficult respiration, cramps in the extremities, faintings, insensibility, convulsions, and death. The mucous membrane of the stomach exhibits on dissection all the signs which mark the action of a violent corrosive poison. In the treatment of a case of poisoning by corrosive sublimate, Orfila re- commends the free use of the whites of eggs beat lip with water. The albumen of the eggs converts the corrosive sublimate into calomel; and the liquid by its bulk dilutes the poison, and distends the stomach so as to produce vomiting. If eggs cannot be procured, wheat flour mixed with water may be substituted, gluten having, according to M. Taddei, the same effect as albumen. Should neither of these antidotes be at hand, mucilaginous drinks should be largely administered; and in any event, the patient should be made to drink copiously, so long as vomit- ing continues, or till the symptoms are relieved. Should he be unable to vomit, the stomach should be washed out by means of the stomach pump. The consecutive inflammation should be treated with general or local bleeding, fomentations, and cooling mucilaginous drinks, and the attendant nervous symptoms be alleviated by opiates. Tests for Corrosive Sublimate.—On account of the extreme virulence of this chloride as a poison, the reagents by which it may be detected become a subject of inquiry of the utmost importance, as connected with medico-legal investigations. The best tests for this substance, ac- cording to Dr. Christison, are hydrosulphuric acid gas (sulphuretted PART II. Hydrargyrum. S55 hydrogen), hydriodate of potassa, protochloride of tin, and nitrate of sil- ver. A stream of hydrosulphuric acid transmitted through a solution of corrosive sublimate, produces a black precipitate of sulphuret of mercury, and acts as a very delicate test. A solution of hydriodate of potassa produces a very characteristic pale scarlet precipitate of deut- iodide of mercury. Protochloride of tin causes at first a white, and after- wards a grayish-black precipitate, and, as a test, is not liable to any fallacy. Nitrate of silver causes a heavy white precipitate of chloride of silver, which darkens by exposure to light. This test delects the chlo- rine of the corrosive sublimate, and serves to determine, after the other tests have detected the mercury, by what means the metal is held in solution. In addition to these tests, the following may be mentioned. Lime-water throws down a yellow precipitate of peroxide. Ammonia produces a fine white flocculent precipitate. Ferrocyanate of potassa gives rise to a white precipitate, becoming slowly yellowish, and at length pale blue. A bright plate of copper immersed in the solution is instantly tarnished, and after the lapse of half an hour becomes covered with a grayish-white powder. Lastly, a polished piece of gold, moistened with the mercurial solution, and touched, through the liquid, with a piece of iron, becomes silvery white. This test, which was pro- posed by Mr. Sylvester and simplified by Dr. Paris, is conveniently ap- plied by moistening a gold ring with the suspected solution, and touch- ing the ring through the moistened spot with the point of a penknife. The object of the iron is to form with the gold a simple galvanic circle, which enables the latter metal to precipitate the mercury on its surface. By the combined indications of the foregoing tests, corrosive subli- mate may be infallibly detected; unless it exists in very minute quan- tity, associated with organic substances, by which its presence is often greatly obscured. When it exists in organic mixtures, made by boiling the contents or substance of the stomach in distilled water, Dr. Chris- tison recommends that a preliminary trial be made with the protochlo- ride of tin, on a small portion filtered for the purpose. If this causes a grayish-black colour, he shakes the mixture, as recommended by Orfila, with a fourth of its bulk of sulphuric ether, which dissolves the chlo- ride and rises to the surface. The ethereal solution is then evaporated to dryness, and the dry salt obtained is dissolved in hot water, whereby a pure solution is procured, in which the corrosive sublimate may be readily detected by the ordinary tests. If the trial test should produce a light gray colour, the chloride is indicated in a still less quantity, and Dr. Christison recommends to proceed in the following manner. Treat the unfiltered mixture with protochloride of tin, as long as any precipi- tate is formed, which will have a slate-gray colour. Collect, wash, and drain it on a filter, and, having removed it without being dried, boil it, in a glass flask, in a moderately strong solution of caustic potassa, until all the lumps disappear. The alkali will dissolve all animal and vege- table matter, and on allowing the solution to remain at rest, a heavy grayish-black powder will subside, which consists chiefly of metallic mercury, and in which small globules of the metal may sometimes be discovered, either by the naked eye, or by the aid of a magnifier. For further details, see Christison on Poisons, Edinburgh, 1829. Off. Prep. Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Liquor Hydrargyri Oxymuriatis, Lond.; Sub-Murias Hydrargyri Mitis, Ed. LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI OXYMURIATIS. Lond. Solution of Oxymuriate of Mercury. 856 Hydrargyrum. part ii. " Take of Oxymuriate of Mercury [Corrosive Sublimate] dght grains; Distilled Water fifteen fluidounces; Rectified Spirit a fluidounce. Dis- solve the Oxymuriate of Mercury in the Distilled Water, and add the Spirit to it." Lond. This solution was intended to facilitate the dispensing of corrosive sublimate in small doses. On exposure to light it suffers decomposition, calomel being deposited, and free muriatic and chloric acids formed in the water. According to Dr. Davy, the decomposition is accelerated by the addition of a small quantity of alcohol; so that the formula of the London College is not judicious. Mr. Brande states, that the decompo- sition is entirely prevented by the presence of muriate of ammonia, or common salt, and recommends the addition of eight grains of the former to the officinal solution. The dose of the solution, of which a fluidounce contains half a grain of corrosive sublimate, is from one to four fluidrachms taken in flaxseed tea. HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDUM MITE. U.S. Hydrargyri Submurias. I,ond. Sub-Murias Hydrargyri Mitis, sive Calo- melas. Ed. Calomelas Sublimatum. Bub. Mild Chloride of Mercury. Submuriate of Mercury. Calomel. " Take of Purified Mercury four pounds; Sulphuric Acid thirty ounces; Chloride of Sodium a pound and a half. Boil two pounds of the Mercury with the Sulphuric Acid, in a glass vessel, till the sulphate of mercury is left dry. Rub this, when cold, with the remainder of the Mercury, in an earthenware mortar, so that they may be thoroughly mixed. Then add the Chloride of Sodium, and rub it with the other ingredients, till all the globules disappear; afterwards sublime. Reduce the sublimed matter to a very fine powder, pass it through a sieve, and wash it fre- quently with boiling distilled water, till this affords no precipitate upon the addition of water of ammonia. Lastly, prepare the powder in the manner directed for carbonate of lime." U.S. The London formula is the same with the above, except that the pow- dered sublimate is directed to be agitated with a solution of eight ounces of muriate of ammonia in a gallon of boiling distilled water, before it is washed with pure water. " Take of Muriate of Mercury [Corrosive Sublimate] four parts; Puri- fied Mercury three parts. Rub the Muriate into a fine powder, in a glass mortar, with a little water to prevent the acrid powder from rising; then add the Mercury, and rub again, until the metal is extinguished. Dry the matter, and having put it in an oblong phial, of which it should fill only one-third, sublime from warm sand. Reduce the sublimate to pow- der, and sublime it a second time; then rub it into a very fine powder, and lastly, wash it with boiling distilled water." Ed. " Take of Persulphate of Mercury twenty-five parts; Purified Mer- cury seventeen parts; dried Muriate of Soda ten parts. Triturate together the Persulphate of Mercury and Purified Mercury, in an earthenware mortar, until the metallic globules completely disappear. Then add the dried Muriate of Soda and mix them well; and from a suitable vessel, with a heat gradually raised, sublime the mixture into a re- ceiver. Reduce the sublimate to powder, and wash it with water so long as the decanted liquid is precipitated by Water of Caustic Potassa. Lastly, dry the Sublimed Calomel." Dub. The object of the above processes is to obtain a protochloride of mer- cury. This chloride consists of one equiv. of chlorine 36, and one equiv. of mercury 200=236; and consequently contains precisely half as much PART II. Hydrargyrum. 857 chlorine as corrosive sublimate, combined with the same quantity of mercury. In the process of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, as in the case of corrosive sublimate, a bisulphate of the peroxide is first formed; but instead of being immediately sublimed with the chloride of sodium (common salt), it undergoes a preparatory trituration with the same quantity of mercury as was employed in forming it. This trituration may be conceived to take place hetween one equiv. of the fo'sulphate of the peroxide, and one equiv. of metallic mercury, which are converted into two equivalents of the neutral sulphate of the protoxide. This change will be easily understood, by adverting to the fact, that the bi- sulphate of the peroxide consists of two equiv. of sulphuric acid, two of oxygen, and one of mercury, and when rubbed up with one equiv. of additional mercury, the whole matter present becomes two equiv. of acid, two of oxygen, and two of mercury, evidently corresponding to two equiv. of the neutral protosulphate. The two equiv. of protosul- phate thus formed, being heated with two equiv. of common salt, the two equiv. of chlorine in the latter sublime in union with the two equiv. of mercury in the former, and generate two equiv. of protochloride of mercury; while the two equiv. severally, of sulphuric acid, oxygen, and sodium, unite together to form two equiv. of dry sulphate of soda, which remains as a fixed residue. If, for the sake of greater simplicity, We take, in this case, a single, equiv. of the reacting materials, instead of two equiv. of each, the decomposition may be thus stated in propor- tional numbers:—one equiv. of protosulphate of mercury 248, consists of one equiv. of sulphuric acid 40, one of oxygen 8, and one of mercury 200; and one equiv. of chloride of sodiu-m 60, is formed of one equiv. of chlorine 36, and one equiv. of sodium 24. The one equiv. of chlorine 36, unites with the one equiv. of mercury 200, and forms one equiv. of calomel 236; while the single equiv. of sulphuric acid, oxygen, and so- dium, represented severally by 40, 8, and 24, combine together to form one equiv. of dry sulphate of soda 72. It is hence apparent, that the residue of this process is the same as that in the ordinary process for corrosive sublimate. Some writers explain the above process differently. Thus it is alleged that the trituration cannot reasonably be supposed chemically to unite metallic mercury with the bipersulphate, so as to convert it into proto- sulpjhate; and hence the process has been considered as one in which the materials for generating corrosive sublimate are sublimed in a state of intimate mixture with metallic mercury. According to this view, corrosive sublimate is first formed, and rising by the heat simultaneously with the mercury, unites with the metal and forms the calomel. The calomel in mass as sublimed, is liable to contain a little corro- sive sublimate; and hence the necessity of the directions of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, to reduce the sublimed matter to a very fine powder, and to wash it with boiling distilled water until water of ammonia pro- duces no precipitate. The ammonia occasions a white precipitate so long as the washings contain corrosive sublimate; and when it ceases to produce this effect, the operator may rest satisfied that the whole of the poisonous salt has been washed away. The direction of the London College, that the washing should first be performed with a hot solution of muriate of ammonia, is improper; for while this muriate has the power of rendering corrosive sublimate more soluble, it has been shown by Mr. Hennell of London, to have the property also, when in hot so- lution, of converting some calomel itself into corrosive sublimate. The Edinburgh process is peculiar in directing the sublimation of a 108 858 Hydrargyrum. part ii. mixture of corrosive sublimate and mercury, and the mode in which the calomel is formed is thus explained. One equiv. of corrosive sublimate consists of two equiv. of chlorine and one of mercury. When rubbed up with one equiv. of metallic mercury and sublimed, the whole becomes two equiv. of chlorine and two of mercury; that is, two equiv. of calo- mel. The proportions employed are very nearly those of the equiva- lents, giving merely a slight excess of mercury. The process of the Dublin College is in effect the same as that of the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias; the only difference being, that in the former the bipersulphate of mercury is used ready formed, as prepared by a distinct formula of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, instead of being made as the first step of the process itself. The Dublin College does not direct that the water employed for washing the calomel should be hot. This omission renders the directions somewhat incomplete; for it is ob- viously preferable to wash with boiling water. The water of caustic po- tassa with which the washings are tested, is intended to detect corro- sive sublimate, and will cause a yellow cloud as long as this salt is pre- sent in them. The proportions employed are very nearly the equivalent quantities, the mercury and persulphate being in slight excess. Of the different processes here commented upon, those of the U.S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias are obviously the best. The London pro- cess, though the same in principle, is liable to the objection of using, needlessly if not injuriously, a hot solution of muriate of ammonia; and the Edinburgh formula is expensive, as implying the previous prepara- tion of corrosive sublimate. The chemical changes which take place may be readily explained on the old theory of muriatic acid, which has been sanctioned by the nomenclature adopted by the British Colleges. By this theory, calomel is a neutral* muriate of the jorotoxide of mercury. When it is generated according to the first plan mentioned in this arti- cle (U.S., Lond., and Dub. process), it becomes formed in consequence of a double decomposition between the protosulphate of mercury and muriate of soda (common salt), which results in the generation of neu- tral protomuriate of mercury (calomel), and sulphate of soda. Accord- ing to the second plan (Edinburgh process), one equiv. of iimuriate of the peroxide of mercury (corrosive sublimate), is triturated with one equiv. of metallic mercury, and made to unite with it by sublimation. The whole, after combination, is evidently two equiv. of muriatic a^i^, two of oxygen, and two of mercury, which correspond precisely with two equiv. of the neutral protomuriate, or calomel. From these expla- nations it becomes apparent, that the difference, according to the old theory, between the mercurial chlorides, is not merely that the base of calomel is a protoxide, while that of corrosive sublimate is a peroxide; but also that the base of the latter is combined with twice as much mu- riatic acid as is united with that of the former. According even to the old theory, therefore, calomel is not a si/fimuriate, as it is called by the London and Edinburgh Colleges; though on the erroneous assumption that corrosive sublimate is the neutral muriate, the name is defensible as relatively correct, in allusion to the fact that calomel contains only half as much muriatic acid combined with the base. • Preparation on the Large Scale.—The process for making calomel by means of the bipersulphate of mercury, was originally practised at Apothecaries' Hall, London. The proportions taken, and the mode of • By neutral is here meant, neutral in composition, as Dr. Turner terms it; that is, consisting of one equiv. of acid and one equiv. of base. PART II. Hydrargyrum. S59 proceeding, in that establishment, are, according to Mr. Brande, as fol- lows:—50 pounds of mercury are boiled to dryness with 70 pounds of sulphuric acid, in a cast-iron vessel. Sixty-two pounds of the dry salt formed are triturated with 40£ pounds of mercury till the globules dis- appear, and the whole is mixed with 34 pounds of common salt. The mixture is'then heated in earthen vessels, and the product is from 95 to 100 pounds of calomel. The sublimate is next ground to an impalpable powder, and washed with a large quantity of distilled water. The object of bringing calomel into a state of minute division, is more perfectly accomplished by the method of Mr. Jewell of London, for which he has taken out a patent. It consists in causing the calomel in vapour to come in contact with steam in the subliming vessel, where- by it is condensed in the form of an impalpable powder, and perfectly' washed from corrosive sublimate, in the same operation. Calomel made by this process, sometimes called Jewell's or Howard's hydrosublimate of mercury, is lighter than that ordinarily prepared in the proportion of three to five, {Paris's Pharmacologia,) and free from all suspicion of con- taining corrosive sublimate; and as it is much finer than when obtained by levigation and elutriation, it probably possesses more efficacy as a medicine. This process has been admitted into the French Codex. Properties.—Mild chloride of mercury is a tasteless, inodorous, inso- luble substance, less volatile than corrosive sublimate, inalterable in the air, but blackening by long exposure to light. When in mass, its form and appearance depend upon the shape and temperature of the sublim- ing vessels. In this state, it is generally in the form of a white crystal- line cake, the interior surface of which is studded with shining trans- parent crystals, having the shape of quadrangular prisms, and a texture somewhat horny and elastic. When the mass is scratched it yields a yellow streak, which is very characteristic. Its sp. gr. is 7.2. The offi- cinal form of this chloride is that of powder, in which state it always exists in the shops. The powder has a light buff or ivory colour, if ob- tained by the levigation of sublimed masses, but if condensed at once in the form of an impalpable powder, as is the case with Jewell's calo- mel, it is perfectly white. To protect it from the action of the light, it should always be kept in a dark place, or in bottles painted black, or covered with black paper. By the action of the alkalies or alkaline earths it immediately becomes black, in consequence of the formation of protoxide. (Sec Hydrargyri Oxydum Cinereum, and Hydrargyri Oxi- dum Nigrum.) The composition of calomel has already been mentioned. The first European writer by whom it was described was Beguin, in 1608; but the researches of Mr. Hatchett seem to prove that it was long known and prepared in Thibet. Tests of Purity, and lncompatibles.—Calomel, when pure, completely sublimes on the application of heat, and strikes a black colour, free from reddish tinge, by contact with the fixed alkalies. The buff colour indicates the absence of corrosive sublimate; but whiteness by no means indicates the presence of impurity. Its freedom from the corrosive chloride may be judged of by digesting a small portion of it in alcohol, and then testing the alcohol with caustic potassa or ammonia, the former of which will cause a yellow precipitate, the latter a white one, in case the menstruum has taken up any of tb'.s chloride. Besides being'incom- patible with the alkalies and alkaline earths, it is also decomposed by the alkaline carbonates, soaps, hydrosulphates, and, according to some authorities, by iron, lead, and copper. Medical Properties and Uses.—Calomel unites to the general proper- 860 Hydrargyrum. tart ii. ties of the mercurials, those of a purgative and anthelmintic. It is the most valuable of the mercurial preparations, and in extent of employ- ment is inferior to few articles of the Materia Medica. Whether the object is to bring the system under the general influence of mercury, or to produce its alterative action upon the hepatic or other secretory functions, calomel, both on account of its certainty and mildness, is pre- ferred to all other preparations, with the single exception of the blue pill, which though less certain, is still milder, and is sometimes prefer- ably employed. When used with the above objects, the tendency to purge which it sometimes evinces, even in very small doses, must be restrained by combining it with opium. In sialagogue or alterative doses, it is often prescribed with other medicines, which, while they give it a direction to certain organs, have their own peculiar influence increased by its co-operation. Thus it renders squill more diuretic, nitre and the antimonials more diaphoretic, and seneka more expectorant. As a purgative, calomel owes its chief value to its tendency to the liver, the secretory function of which it powerfully stimulates. It is usually slow and somewhat uncertain in its cathartic effect, and though itself unirrltating, sometimes occasions severe griping pain with bilious vomiting, attributable to the acrid character of the bile which it causes the liver to secrete. It is peculiarly useful in the commencement of bilious fevers, in hepatitis, jaundice, bilious and painters' colic, dysen- tery, especially that of tropical climates, and all other affections attend- ed with congestion of the portal system, or torpidity of the hepatic ves- sels, The difficulty with which it is thrown from the stomach, renders it highly useful in some cases of obstinate vomiting, when other reme- dies are rejected. In the cases of children, it is peculiarly valuable from the facility of its administration; and in the febrile complaints to which they are subject, appears to us to exercise a curative influence, depend- ing on some other cause than its mere purgative effect, and perhaps re- ferrible to its action upon the liver. In the treatment of worms it is one of the most efficient remedies, acting probably not only as a purgative, but also as an irritant to the worms, either by its immediate influence, or that of the acrid bile which it causes to flow. The slowness and un- certainty of its action, and its liability to salivate if too long retained in the bowels, render it proper either to follow or combine it with other cathartics, in order to ensure its purgative effect. When given alone, it should be followed, if it do not operate in six or seven hours, by a dose of castor oil or sulphate of magnesia. The cathartics with which it is most frequently combined are jalap, rhubarb, aloes, scammony, colo- cynth, and gamboge. It is often added in small quantities to purgative combinations, with a view to its influence on the biliary organs. It is sometimes used as an errhine in amaurosis, mixed with twice its weight of sugar, or other mild powder; and in the same combination is occasionally employed to remove specks and opacity of the cornea. For this latter purpose, Dupuytren recommends particularly the calomel prepared according to the plan of Mr. Jewell. Calomel is also some- times employed externally in herpetic and other eruptions, in the shape of an ointment. The dose as an alterative in functional derangement of the liver, is from half a grain to a grain every night, or every other night, followed in the morning, if the bowels are not opened, by a gentle saline laxa- tive. When the stomach or bowels are very irritable, as in cholera and diarrhoea, from an eighth to a quarter of a grain may be given every PART II. Hydrargyrum. 861 hour or two, so as to amount to one or two grains in the course.of the day. With a view to salivation, the dose is from half a grain to a grain three or four times a day, to be increased considerably in urgent cases. When large doses are given with this view, it is often necessary to com- bine them with opium. As a purgative, from five to fifteen grains or more may be given. Calomel has the peculiarity that its cathartic ac- tion is not increased in proportion to the dose, and enormous quantities have sometimes been given with impunity. In yellow fever, tropical dysentery, 8cc, from twenty grains to a drachm have been given and repeated at short intervals, without producing hypercatharsis; but this practice is justifiable only in cases of extreme urgency, in which saliva- tion as well as purgation is indicated. Even in very small doses of not more than one, two, or three grains, calomel purges some individuals briskly. In these persons, large doses, though they do not proportion- ably increase the evacuation, often occasion excessive spasmodic pain in the stomach and bowels. For children, larger doses are generally re- quired in proportion than for adults. Not less than from three to six grains should be given to a child two or three years old, and this quan- tity often fails to act on the bowels, unless assisted by castor oil, or some other cathartic. Calomel may be given in pill made with gum arabic and syrup, or in powder mixed with syrup or molasses. Off. Prep. Hydrargyri Oxydum Cinereum, Lond., Ed.; Hydrargyri Oxidum Nigrum, U.S., Dub.; Pilulae Catharticae Compositae, U.S.; Pilulae Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis, U.S.; Pil. Hydrarg. Submuriatis Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub. CALOMELAS PRAECIPITATUM Dub. Sub-Murias Hydrar- gyri Pr^cipitatus. Ed. Precipitated Calomel. Precipitated Sub-Muriate of Mercury. "Take of Purified Mercury seventeen parts; Diluted Nitric Acid fifteen parts. Pour the Acid upon the Mercury in a glass vessel; and when the mixture shall have ceased to effervesce, digest with a medium heat, with occasional agitation for six hours. Then increase the heat that the liquor may boil for a short time, and afterwards pour it off from the re- sidual Mercury, and quickly mix it with four hundred parts of boiling Water, containing seven parts of Muriate of Soda in solution. Wash the powder which subsides with warm water, as long as the liquor decanted from it is precipitated by the addition of a few drops of Water of Caus- tic Potassa, and, lastly, dry it." Dub. The Edinburgh College orders eight ounces, each, of diluted nitrous acid and purified mercury, four ounces and a half of muriate of soda, and dght pounds of boiling water, and treats the materials generally as directed in the Dublin formula. The method of forming calomel in the humid way, or by precipita- tion, was first proposed by Scheele. It consists of two steps; first, the formation of a protonitrate of mercury by dissolving the metal in weak nitric acid, and secondly, the decomposition of this salt by means of a hot solution of common salt. The latter compound may be considered as becoming, by solution, muriate of soda, and when it reacts upon the protonitrate, a double decomposition takes place. The nitric acid com- bines with the soda, and remains in solution as nitrate of soda, while the elements of the muriatic acid and protoxide of mercury unite in such a manner as to form water and protochloride of mercury, the latter of which precipitates. Though the theory of this process is sufficiently simple, the performance «f it is attended with some difficulty. It is ne- 862 Hydrargyrum. part ii. cessary, in the first place, to prepare a pure pro/onitrate, an object in which the operator is apt to miscarry, in consequence of the proncness of the metal to become peroxidized by the action of nitric acid. To guard against this result, weak nitric acid is employed, more mercury is ordered than the acid can dissolve, and a moderate heat is applied, only after the effervescence has ceased. In the next place, the operator must guard against the precipitation of a subnitrate, which is always thrown down by the action of water upon the neutral nitrate. To pre- vent the production of this impurity, it is necessary slightly to acidulate the nitric solution of the mercury with nitric acid, or the solution of common salt with muriatic acid ; for an excess of acid in either of the solutions effectually prevents the formation of the subnitrate. This ne- cessary precaution has been omitted in the directions of the Dublin and Edinburgh Colleges. The reason why the peroxidation of the metal, and consequently the production of bipernitrate is to be avoided, is, that this salt, by double decomposition with the solution of muriate of soda, ge- nerates corrosive sublimate in solution, which, in this state, may be viewed as a bipermuriate. The result is thus explained. The two equiv. of nitric acid combine with the two equiv. of soda, and thereby cause the decomposition of two equiv. of the dissolved muriate of soda. Two equiv. of muriatic acid are thus set free, which, by uniting with the peroxide of mercury, form the bipermuriate in solution, or corro- sive sublimate. The production of corrosive sublimate in this way in the process will not injure the precipitated calomel, provided this be thoroughly washed; but it is objectionable as diminishing the product. When, however, the subnitrate is allowed to be formed, it contaminates the precipitated calomel, and, from its insolubility, cannot be separated by washing. As, notwithstanding every precaution, corrosive sublimate will be formed in this process, the liquor poured off from the precipi- tated calomel should be reserved for forming white precipitate, as is directed by the Dublin College. (See Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum.) Properties, <^c—Precipitated calomel, when properly prepared, scarce- ly differs in properties from sublimed calomel. It is stated to be whiter, smoother, and lighter than when obtained by sublimation. Another dif- ference, according to Gottling, is, that the precipitated calomel pro- duces a gray, while the sublimed causes a black colour, when triturated with lime-water. The presence of subnitrate may be detected by digest- ing the calomel in water containing a little nitric acid, and then testing the acid by an alkali, which will cause a precipitate, if any subnitrate had been taken up. Corrosive sublimate is discovered by testing alco- hol, digested on a portion of it, by ammonia or caustic potassa. The medical properties of precipitated calomel are the same as those of the ordinary sublimed preparation. By some it is supposed to be more pur- gative. Upon the whole, it may be viewed as a superfluous prepara- tion. HYDRARGYRI CYANURETUM. U.S., Bub. Cyanuret .of Mercury. Prussiate of Mercury. "Take of Red Oxide of Mercury three ounces; Ferrocyanate of Iron [Prussian Blue] six ounces; Distilled Water three pints. Put the Oxide of Mercury and the Ferrocyanate of Iron, previously powdered and tho- roughly mixed together, in a glass vessel; and pour upon them two pints of' the Distilled Water. Then boil the mixture, stirring constantly, till it becomes of a yellowish colour; after which filter it through paper. Wash the residue in a pint of the Distilled Water, and filter as before. Mix the solutions, and evaporate by the fire till a pellicle appears; then PART II. Hydrargyrum. 863 set the liquor aside that crystals may form. To purify the crystals, dis- solve them again in distilled water, filter and evaporate the solution, and set it aside to crystallize." U. S. "Take of Cyanuret of Iron [Prussian Blue] six parts; Nitric Oxide of Mercury [Red Precipitate] five parts; Distilled Water forty parts. Mix the Cyanuret of Iron and Oxide of Mercury, and then add them to the Water previously warmed. Boil the mixture, with constant stirring, for half an hour, and filter through bibulous paper. Wash the residue frequently with warm distilled water. Lastly, filter the liquors, and eva- porate them until they furnish crystals by refrigeration." Dub. The above processes are essentially the same; their object being to present cyanogen and mercury to each other underfavourable circum- stances for combination. The compound formed consists of two equiv. of cyanogen 52, and one equiv. of mercury 200=252. It is, therefore, properly speaking, a fiicyanuret. As the rationale of its formation involves a knowledge of the composition of Prussian blue, it is neces- sary to remind the reader that this substance consists of two equiv. of hydrocyanic acid, one of cyanuret of iron, and two of peroxide of iron. (See Ferri Ferrocyanas.) The two equiv. of hydrocyanic acid react upon one equiv. of peroxide of mercury, and, by a double de- composition, give rise to two equiv. of water, and one equiv. of the bi- cyanuret, the latter of which remains in solution; while the cyanuret and peroxide of iron of the Prussian blue are left as an insoluble resi- due. The equiv. quantities for mutual reaction are 216 of the red oxide and 188 of pure Prussian blue ; but as the Prussian blue of commerce al- ways contains an admixture of alumina, these proportions are not the proper ones for practice, and a large;* quantity of the commercial article must be employed to make up for its impurity. The U.S. and Dublin" formulae, however, present a great disparity, which shows that the pro- portions of one or the other process must be ineligible. In favour of the proportions adopted in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, it may be stated that they are the same with those adopted in the Paris Codex, and which are recommended by Berzelius. As Prussian blue is of variable quality, perhaps the best rule in conducting this process, would be to add the red oxide of mercury at intervals to the boiling water containing the Prussian blue, until the blue colour is replaced by a bright brown, a change indicative of the complete decomposition of the ferruginous salt. Winkler prepares the bicyanuret of mercury by the following process. Mix 15 parts of ferrocyanate (prussiate) of potassa in powder with 13 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, and 100 parts of water. Distil the mixture to dryness into a receiver, containing 30 parts of water. The fer- rocyanate is decomposed, sulphate of potassa is formed in the retort, and hydrocyanic acid distils over. Of the acid thus obtained, reserve a portion, and mix the rest with 16 parts of red oxide of mercury in fine powder, and stir the mixture till the odour of hydrocyanic acid has en- tirely disappeared. Then decant the liquor, and add for the purpose of saturating it, the portion of acid that had been reserved. This process gives 12 parts of the bicyanuret. If the liquor were not treated with free hydrocyanic acid after acting on the red oxide, it would probably contain some of this oxide in solution, and when evaporated would yield, instead of the bicyanuret, a peculiar salt, composed of this cyanu- ret and red oxide, which crystallizes in small acicular crystals. Properties, fyc.—Cyanuret of mercury is a white substance, perma- nent in the air, and crystallized in quadrangular obliquely truncated prisms, which are devoid of water of crystallization, and have a dis- 864 Hydrargyrum. part ii. agreeable styptic taste. It is but sparingly soluble in alcohol, but dis- solves readily in cold water, and much more abundantly in hot. When heated it yields cyanogen, and mercury remains behind. It acts on the animal economy as a potent poison. It has been occasionally tried as a remedy in syphilis, in doses of from an eighth to a sixth of a grain; but the object of its introduction into the U.S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, was that it might serve in the preparation of hydrocyanic acid. Its composition has been given above. For the properties and composition of cyanogen, see Acidum Hydrocyanicum. Off. Prep. Acidum Hydrocyanicum, U.S., Dub. HYDRARGYRI OXYDUM CINEREUM. Lond. Oxidum Hydrargyri Cinereum. Ed. Gray Oxide of Mercury. "Take of Submuriate of Mercury [Calomel] an ounce; Lime-water a gallon. Boil the Submuriate of Mercury in the Lime-water, stirring constantly, until the Gray Oxide of Mercury subsides. Wash this with distilled water; then dry it." Lond. "Take of Submuriate of Mercury half an ounce; Lime-water five pounds. Boil the Submuriate in the Lime-water for a quarter of an hour in a lightly covered vessel. Pour off the supernatant liquor, wash the oxide with distilled water, and then dry it." Ed. The object of these processes is to obtain the protoxide or black oxide of mercury, which was at one time believed to be the active constituent of those preparations, in which the metal is minutely divided by tritu- ration. When calomel is agitated with lime-water, a portion of the water is decomposed, giving its hydrogen to the chlorine of the calomel to form muriatic acid which unites with the lime, and its oxygen to the metal to form protoxide of mercury. The muriate of lime remains in solution, and the oxide subsides. But it is extremely difficult completely to decompose calomel in this manner, on account of the obstacle which its insolubility and the dilute nature of the solution of lime presents to that close contact of particles which is essential to the chemical reac- tion of different bodies on each other. Hence the protoxide, in this pre- paration, is almost always mixed with a portion of calomel, which is greater or less, according to the care with which the process has been conducted. When the proportion is large, the powder has the grayish colour to which it owes its officinal title; whenvery small, it scarcely differs in appearance or properties from the oxide described under the following head. From the uncertainty of its composition, it should be discarded from the officinal lists, as it generally has been from practical use. HYDRARGYRI OXIDUM NIGRUM. U.S. Hydrargyri Oxydum Nigrum. Bub. Black Oxide of Mercury. "Take of Mild Chloride of Mercury [Calomel], Potassa, each, four ounces; Water a pint. Dissolve the Potassa in the Water, and when the dregs shall have subsided, pour off the clear solution. To this add the Chloride of Mercury, and stir them constantly together, till the Black Oxide is formed. Having poured off the supernatant liquor, wash the Black Oxide with Distilled Water, and dry it with a gentle heat." U.S. " Take of Sublimed Calomel one part; Water of Caustic Potassa, heated, four parts. Rub them together until an oxide of a black colour is obtained; wash this frequently with water, and dry it upon bibulous paper with a medium heat." Dub. These processes afford the protoxide of mercury in a purer state than the preceding. Calomel is completely decomposed by the solution of potassa; its chlorine being converted by union with the hydrogen of the PART II. Hydrargyrum. 865 water into muriatic acid, which combines with the potassa and re- mains in solution, while the mercury unites with the oxygen of the water to form the protoxide of that metal, which subsides. The U.S. and Dublin processes are essentially the same. In both, more potassa is employed than by calculation would seem to be requisite; but it has been ascertained by experiment, that a considerable excess is necessary for the complete decomposition of the calomel. In the U.S. process, however, the quantity is, perhaps, unnecessarily large; being more than double the proportion contained in the " water of caustic potassa," directed by the Dublin College. The use of the officinal solution of po- tassa is preferable, on the score of economy, to that of a solution ex- temporaneously prepared from the caustic alkali. In order to ensure the success of the process, the calomel, very finely levigated, should be rubbed quickly with the alkaline solution in a mortar; and the resulting oxide should be dried in the dark with a very gentle-heat, as it is de- composed by the agency both of light and of an elevated temperature. For the same reason it should be preserved in an opaque bottle. This mode of preparing the black oxide of mercury was introduced into use by Mr. Donovan. The oxide may also be prepared by decomposing a solution of the pro- tonitrate of mercury by the solution of potassa. The protonitrate may be obtained by treating twenty parts of mercury with eighteen parts of nitric acid of 25° Baume, adding, when nitrous vapours cease to rise, ten parts of warm distilled water, boiling for a short time, decanting the clear liquor, and setting it aside to crystallize. The mother waters by evaporation will furnish a new product of crystals of protonitrate. {Ratier's Pharm. Franc.) The preparation formerly officinal in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, under the name of Pulvis Hydrargyri Cinereus, made by adding carbonate of ammonia to a solution of mercury in heat- ed nitric acid, was a mixture of subnitrate of mercury and ammonia with the protoxide of mercury. Properties, fyc.—As first prepared, this oxide is greenish-black, but as found in the shops is almost always of an olive colour, owing, it is supposed, to the chemical changes which it undergoes. It is inodorous, tasteless, and insoluble in water; and consists of one equiv. of mercury 200, and one equiv. of oxygen 8 = 208. On exposure to light or heat it is decomposed, one part assuming the metallic state, in consequence of the loss of its oxygen, which converts another part into the peroxide. The preparation, therefore, becomes a mixture of the protoxide, the peroxide, and metallic mercury, with which calomel is sometimes asso- ciated, in consequence of the incomplete decomposition of that origi- nally employed in the process. When pure it is soluble in acetic, and entirely insoluble in muriatic acid. If it contain the peroxide, this is dissolved by muriatic acid, and may be detected in the solution by the production of a white precipitate with water of ammonia, and of a yel- low one with solution of potassa. Calomel, if present, may be discovered by boiling the powder with a solution of potassa, thus forming a mu- riate of that base, which, when the solution is saturated with nitric acid, will afford a white precipitate of chloride of silver on the addition of nitrate of silver. {Phillips.) Medical Properties and Uses.—The black oxide is alterative, siala- gogue, and purgative. It may be employed for the same purposes with calomel, over which, however, it has not in our hands exhibited any superiority, while, from the occasional presence of the peroxide, it must be liable, to operate harshly. The idea under which it was intro- 109 866 Hydrargyrum. part ii. duced into use, that it was the basis of the blue pill, is probably erro- neous. Made into an ointment with lard, according to the process of Donovan, it may be applied externally with good effect in bringing the system under the mercurial influence. (See Unguentum Hydrargyri.) Its dose as an alterative is one-fourth or half a grain daily, as asiala- gogue from one to three grains two or three times a day, given in the form of pill. Off. Prep. Unguentum Oxidi Hydrargyri Cinerei. Ed. HYDRARGYRI OXIDUM RUBRUM. U.S. Hydrargyri Ni- trico-Oxydum. Lond. Oxidum Hydrargyri Rubrum per Acidum Nitricum. Ed. Hydrargyri Oxydum Nitricum. Dub. Bed Oxide of Mercury. Bed Precipitate. "Take of Purified Mercury three pounds; Nitric Acid a pound and a half; Distilled Water two pints. Mix them in a glass vessel, and boil till the Mercury is dissolved, and a while mass remains after the evapo- ration of the Water. Rub this into powder, and throw it into a very shallow vessel; then apply a gentle heat, and gradually increase it, till red vapours cease to arise." U.S., Lond. "Take of Purified Mercury three parts; Diluted Nitrous Acid four parts. Dissolve the Mercury, and evaporate the solution, with a gentle heat, to a dry white mass; which, having been rubbed into powder, is to be put into a glass cucurbit, and covered with a thick glass plate. Then, a capital having been adapted, and the vessel placed in a sand- bath, let the contained matter be roasted by a gradually increased heat, until the matter is converted into small bright red scales." Ed. "Take of Purified Mercury two parts; Diluted Nitric Acid three parts. Dissolve the Mercury, and let heat be applied until the dried mass is converted into red scales." Dub. The white mass obtained in the first of these processes, is either the pernitrate of mercury, or a mixture of the pernitrate and protonitrate. When exposed to a strong heat it is decomposed, giving out red nitrous fumes, and assuming successively a yellow, orange, and brilliant purple- red colour, which becomes orange-red on cooling. These changes are owing to the gradual separation and decomposition of the nitric acid, by the oxygen of which the protoxide of the protonitrate, if any be pre- sent, is converted into peroxide, while nitric oxide gas escapes, and takes the form of nitrous acid vapour on contact with the air. The per- oxide of mercury is left behind, but not entirely free from nitric acid, which cannot be wholly expelled by heat, without endangering the de- composition of the oxide itself, and the volatilization of the metal. The preparation is, in common language, called red precipitate. The name of red oxide of mercury, by which it is designated in the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia, is appropriate, as the nitric acid exists merely as an incidental impurity; and there is no occasion to distinguish the preparation from the pure peroxide obtained by heating mercury, as the latter is not re- cognised in our Pharmacopceia, and is never employed in this country. In the preparation of this mercurial, various circumstances influence, in some measure, the nature of the product, and must be attended to, if we desire to procure the oxide with that fine bright orange-red colour, and shining scaly appearance, which are usually considered desirable. Among these circumstances is the condition of the nitrate of mercury submitted to calcination. According to Gay-Lussac, it should be em- ployed in the form of small crystalline grains. If previously pulverised, as directed in the U.S., London, and Edinburgh processes, it will yield PART II. Hydrargyrum. 867 an orange-yellow powder; if it be in the state of large and dense crystals, the oxide will have a deep orange colour. Care must also be taken that the mercury and acid be free from impurities. It is highly important that sufficient nitric acid be employed fully to saturate the mercury. The quantity directed in the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias is defi- cient by theory, and, as we have been informed, has not been found to answer in practice. M. Paysse, who paid great attention to the manu- facture of red precipitate, recommends 70 parts of nitric acid from 34° to 38° Baume, to 50 parts of mercury. This, however, is an excess of acid. We have been told by a skilful practical chemist of Philadelphia, that he has found, by repeated experiment, 7 parts of nitric acid of 35° Baume, to be sufficient fully to saturate 6 parts of mercury. Less will not answer, and more would be useless. It is not necessary that the salt should be removed from the vessel in which it is formed; and it is even asserted that the product is always more beautiful when the calcination is performed in the same vessel. A matrass may be used, with a large flat bottom, so that an extended surface may be exposed, and all parts heated equally. The metal and acid having been introduced, the matrass should be placed in a sand-bath, and covered with sand up to the neck. The solution of the mercury should be favoured with a gentle heat, which should afterwards be gradually increased till red vapours make their appearance, then maintained as equably as possible till these va- pours cease, and afterwards slightly elevated till oxygen gas begins to escape. This may be known by the increased brilliancy with which a taper will burn if placed in the mouth of the matrass, or by its rekind- ling if partially extinguished. Too high a temperature must be care- fully avoided, as it decomposes the oxide, and volatilizes the mercury. At the close of the operation the mouth of the vessel should be stopped, and the heat gradually diminished, the matrass being still allowed to remain in the sand-bath. These last precautions are said to be essential to the fine red colour of the preparation. It is best to operate upon a large quantity of materials, as the heat may be thus more steadily and uniformly maintained. As the process is ordinarily conducted in chemical laboratories, the nitrate of mercury is decomposed in shallow earthen vessels, several of which are placed upon a bed of sand in the chamber of an oven or fur- nace provided with a flue for the escape of the vapours. Each vessel may conveniently contain ten pounds of the nitrate. There is always some loss in the operation conducted in this way. Properties, fyc.—Red precipitate, when1 well prepared, has a brilliant red colour with a shade of orange, a shining scaly appearance, and an acrid taste. It is very slightly soluble in water, of which Dr. Barker found 1000 parts to take up only 0.62 of the oxide. Nitric acid dissolves it without effervescence. At a red heat it is decomposed and entirely dissipated. As before stated it is not a perfectly pure peroxide; but is mixed with a minute proportion of nitric acid, probably in the state of subpernitrate. Perhaps it is to this salt, which is of a yellow colour, that red precipitate owes the orange tint which distinguishes it from the red oxide procured by heating metallic mercury. According to Brande, when rubbed and washed with a solution of potassa, edulcorated with distilled water, and carefully dried, it may be regarded as a nearly pure peroxide. It is said to be sometimes adulterated with powdered bricks, red lead, 8cc; but these may be readily detected, as the oxide of mercury is wholly dissipated if thrown upon red-hot iron. Medical Properties and Uses.—-This preparation is too harsh and ir- 868 Hydrargyrum. PART II. regular in its operation for internal use; but is much employed exter- nally as a stimulant and escharotic, either in the state of powder or of ointment. In the former state it is sprinkled on the surface of chancres, and indolent, flabby, or fungous ulcers; and mixed with 8 or 10 parts of finely powdered sugar is sometimes blown into the eye to remove opaci- ty of the cornea. The powder should be finely levigated. The ointment is officinal. (See Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Rubri.) Off. Prep. Hydrargyri Cyanuretum. U.S., Dub.; Unguent. Hydrarg. Oxid. Rub. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. HYDRARGYRI OXYDUM RUBRUM. Lond., Dub. Red Ox- ide of Mercury. "Take of Purified Mercury a pound. Put it into a tall glass vessel, with a narrow mouth and broad bottom. To this vessel, unclosed, ap- ply a heat of 600°, till the Mercury passes into red scales; then rub them into a very fine powder." Lond. " Take of Purified Mercury any quantity. Put it into an open glass vessel, with a narrow mouth and broad bottom, and expose it to a heat of about 600°, till it is converted into red scales." Dub. As mercury requires for its oxidation a temperature little short of its boiling point, it is necessary that the vessel in which it is heated be so constructed as to prevent the escape of the vapour which rises during the process. A glass matrass is usually employed, having a narrow neck, drawn out at top into an almost capillary orifice. But the arrangement which serves to confine the mercurial vapour, impedes also the free ac- cess of air; so that the process is exceedingly tedious. The mercury introduced should not be more than sufficient to cover the bottom of the vessel, which should be heated by means of a sand-bath till vapours be- gin to rise. These are condensed in the upper part of the matrass, and by maintaining the temperature steadily at this point, a constant circu- lation of vapour is kept up within the vessel. The metal very slowly combines with the oxygen, forming first a black, and then a red pow- der, molecules of which begin to appear after some days, and gradu- ally increase till they cover the surface of the mercury. Care must be taken not to increase the heat too much, as not only is the mercury thus volatilized, but the oxide already formed is decomposed. Several weeks are requisite for the complete oxidation of a small portion of metal, and the process is necessarily expensive. The preparation is the hydrargy- rum praecipitatum per se, or precipitate per se of the older chemical writers. Properties, fyc.—It is in minute, sparkling, crystalline scales, of a deep red colour becoming still deeper by heat, inodorous, of an acrid taste, very slightly soluble in water, and freely soluble in nitric, muriatic, and some other acids. Its aqueous solution changes the infusion of violets to green. It consists of one equiv. of mercury 200, and two equiv. of oxygen 16=216. At a red heal it is decomposed, oxygen being given out, and the mercury revived. Its solutions in the acids afford, with potassa and soda, an orange-coloured precipitate of the peroxide, and with ammonia . a white precipitate, consisting of the acid, peroxide, and ammonia. Its high price affords an inducement for adulteration, to avoid which it should be kept in the crystalline state, and not in powder as directed by the London College. If pure, it is wholly volatilized by a red heat. Medical Properties and Uses.—It has the general properties of the mercurial preparations, but is apt to vomit and purge, and to act other- wise violently on the stomach and bowels. Though formerly used in the treatment of syphilis, it has been entirely abandoned. Externally it PART II. Hydrargyrum. 869 has been employed for the same purposes with the red precipitate; but is much more costly, without having any superiority. In this country it is almost unknown as a medicine. The dose may be from one sixth of a grain to a grain. HYDRARGYRI PERSULPHAS. Dub. Persulphate of Mer- cury. "Take of Purified Mercury, Sulphuric Acid, each, six parts; Nitric Acid one part. Expose them to heat in a glass vessel, and increase the heat until the mass becomes white and perfectly dry." Dub. When an excess of sulphuric acid is boiled to dryness upon mercury, the metal is peroxidized at the expense of part of the acid, sulphurous acid is copiously evolved, and the peroxide formed unites with the un- decomposed portion of the sulphuric acid, so as to form a ^'persulphate of mercury, which is the persulphate of the Dublin College. In the Dublin formula, the peroxidation of the metal is assisted by a small por- tion of nitric acid, the use of which, though not essential to the result, is stated by Dr. Barker to facilitate and shorten the process, and to afford a much whiter salt than when sulphuric acid alone is employed. When the nitric acid is used, orange-coloured fumes are given off on the first application of the heat, and the acid is totally decomposed. Persulphate of mercury, as obtained by a separate formula, is peculiar to the Dublin Pharmacopoeia; but it is formed as the first step of the processes of the other Pharmacopoeias for obtaining corrosive subli- mate and turpeth mineral, and of the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias for procuring sublimed calomel. The adoption of a separate formula and distinct officinal name for this salt, is certainly an improvement on the part of the Dublin College; as it prevents the necessity of repeating the process for obtaining the same substance in several distinct formulae. On account of its important uses, it requires to be made on a large scale by the manufacturing chemist, and the process is generally performed in a cast-iron vessel, which should be conveniently arranged for the escape and decomposition of the sulphurous acid fumes, which other- wise become a serious nuisance to the neighbourhood. The best way to effect this purpose is to allow them to pass off through a very lofty chim- ney mixed with abundance of coal smoke. Properties, §c.—Persulphate of mercury is in the form of a white saline mass. Being a bipersulphate, it consists of two equiv. of acid 80, and one equiv. of peroxide of mercury 216=296. It has no medical uses. Off. Prep. Calomelas Sublimatum, Dub.; Hydrargyri Murias Corro- sivum, Dub.; Hydrargyri Oxydum Sulphuricum, Dub. HYDRARGYRI SULPHAS FLAVUS. U.S. Sub-Sulphas Hy- drargyri Flavus. Ed. Hydrargyri Oxydum Sulphuricum. Dub. Yellow Sulphate of Mercury. Turpeth Mineral. " Take of Purified Mercury four ounces; Sulphuric Acid dx ounces. Mix in a glass vessel, and boil, by means of a sand-bath, till a dry white mass remains. Rub this into powder and throw it into boiling water. Pour off the supernatant liquor, and wash the yellow precipitated pow- der repeatedly with hot water; then dry it." U.S.' The Edinburgh formula is the same as the above, except in phrase- ology. " Take of Persulphate of Mercury one part; warm Water twenty parts. Rub them together in an earthenware mortar, and pour off the super- natant liquor. Wash the yellow powder with warm distilled water so long as the decanted liquor is precipitated by the addition of a few 870 Hydrargyrum. part ii. drops of the Water of Caustic Potassa. Lastly, dry the Sulphuric Oxide of Mercury." Dub. By referring to the articles on corrosive sublimate and calomel, it will be found that the peculiar salt which is generated by boiling sulphuric acid on mercury to dryness, is directed to be obtained as the first step of several of the processes; and here it is perceived that in the U.S. and Edinburgh formulae the same salt is again directed to be formed. The Dublin College has very properly avoided these repetitions, by adopting a distinct formula and name for the salt in question. We have already mentioned that this compound is a bipersulphate of mercury. When obtained as the first step in the processes for corrosive sublimate and calomel, the proportions of metal and acid uniformly adopted are as 4 to 5; when procured by the separate formula of the Dublin College, the quantities used are equal parts; while the proportions directed in the U.S. and Edinburgh formulae for turpeth mineral are as 2 to 3. There can be no good reason for these discrepancies, and, therefore, some uniform proportion should be selected. We incline to believe that 4 of metal to 5 of acid are the most eligible proportions. The Dublin College may, perhaps, be justifiable in using less sulphuric acid; as, in their formula for the bipersulphate, the mercury is partly oxidized at the expense of the nitric acid employed. (See the preceding article, where the formation of this salt is explained.) When the bipersulphate of mercury is thrown into boiling or even warm water it is instantly decomposed, and an insoluble salt is precipi- tated, which is the turpeth mineral. The change which takes place is generally supposed to consist in the separation, by the action of the water, of one equiv. of sulphuric acid; and, on this supposition, the preparation under consideration would be simply a persulphate of mer- cury. But it would appear that the water separates something more than sulphuric acid; for the supernatant liquid is found to contain mer- cury, and, when duly evaporated, will yield a salt in white, crystalline, deliquescent needles. Berzelius is of opinion that the water resolves the bipersulphate into an insoluble subsesquisulphate, and a soluble super- sulphate, containing six equiv. of acid to one of base; and this view corresponds better with the facts than the other. Properties, 4*c.—Yellow sulphate of mercury is in the form of a pow- der of a lemon-yellow colour, and possessing a somewhat acrid taste. It dissolves in 2000 parts of cold water, and in about 600 parts at the boil- ing temperature. When exposed to a moderate heat, it becomes first red and afterwards brownish-red, but regains its original colour on cool- ing. {Barker.) At a red heat it is decomposed and dissipated without residue. It was originally called turpeth mineral, from the resemblance of its colour to that of the root of the Ipomoea Turpethum, a plant for- merly used in medicine. It consists, according to most authorities, of one equiv. of sulphuric acid and one of peroxide of mercury; but ac- cording to Berzelius, of one equiv. of sulphuric acid, and an equiv. and a half of peroxide. Though its composition is not well settled, it is evidently not a mere oxide of mercury, as it is called by the Dublin Col- lege ; and even if it were, the prefix of this College, sulphuric, is not in accordance with any recognised principle of nomenclature. Medical Properties and Uses.—Turpeth mineral is alterative, and pow- erfully emetic and errhine. As an alterative, it has been given in leprous disorders and glandular obstructions. It has also been employed with benefit as an emetic, repeated every few days, in chronic enlargements of the testicle; but it often operates with great violence, and is apt to PART II. Hydrargyrum. 871 excite severe ptyalism. It proves useful in these cases upon the princi- ple of revulsion, and by giving activity to the absorbents. As an errhine, it has been used with advantage in chronic ophthalmia, and in diseases of the head; and it sometimes produces salivation when thus employed. The dose, as an alterative, is from half a grain to a grain; as an emetic, from two to five grains. When employed as an errhine, one grain may be used mixed with five grains of starch or powdered liquorice root. HYDRARGYRI SULPHURETUM NIGRUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Sulphuretum Hydrargyri Nigrum. Ed. Black Sulphuret of Mercury. Ethiops Mineral. "Take of Purified Mercury, Sulphur, each, a pound. Rub them to- gether in a glass mortar till all the globules disappear." U.S. The London process is the same as the above, except that it does not designate the kind of vessel in which the trituration is to be performed. The Edinburgh College takes equal parts of the materials, and directs the use of a glass mortar and pestle, and at the end of the formula, men- tions that the preparation may be made with a double proportion of mercury. The Dublin College takes equal parts also, and orders the trituration to be performed in a stoneware mortar. Mercury and sulphur have a strong affinity for each other; as is shown by the fact, that when they are triturated together in quantities, the mixture grows very hot, cakes, and exhales a sulphureous odour. When rubbed together in equal weights, as directed in the Pharmacopoeias, they are supposed to unite chemically; but the proportion of sulphur is much greater than is necessary to form a definite compound. Only two sulphurets of mercury have been admitted by the generality of chemists, a protosulphuret, and- a bisulphuret or cinnabar; and the quantity of sulphur, directed in the above processes, is much more than sufficient to form even the latter. Thus, it still remains an unsettled point, what is the exact nature of the officinal black sulphuret, or ethiops mineral. Mr. Phillips supposes it to be a mixture of protosulphuret and sulphur; but it appears to have been experimentally proved by Mr. Brande to be a bisulphuret mixed with a portion of sulphur. Thus it was found by this chemist, that when boiled repeatedly in a solution of potassa, sul- phur was dissolved by the alkali, and a black insoluble powder was left, which sublimed, without decomposition, into a substance having all the characters of cinnabar. Ethiops mineral is sometimes obtained by melting the sulphur in a crucible, and adding the mercury to it; but when thus prepared, the sulphur is apt to become acidified, and the preparation to acquire an activity which does not belong to it when obtained by trituration. The latter method, accordingly, ought always to be employed. Properties, Src. Black sulphuret of mercury is in the form of an inso- luble, tasteless, very black powder. When exposed to heat, it becomes of a dark violet colour, emits its excess of sulphur in sulphurous acid fumes, and sublimes in brilliant red needles without residue. When well prepared, no globules of mercury should be discernible in it when view- ed with a magnifier; and if rubbed on a gold ring, it should not com- municate a white colour. Ivory black is detected in it, by throwing a small portion on a red-hot iron, when a white matter, phosphate of lime, will be left behind. Adulteration by sulphuret of antimony is shown, when muriatic acid boiled on a portion of the powder, acquires the property of causing a precipitate, the protoxide of antimony, upon being added to water. Adopting the views of Mr. Brande, ethiops mi- 872 Hydrargyrum. part ii. neral consists of one equiv. of bisulphuret of mercury 232, mixed with ten and a half equiv. of sulphur in excess, 168. Medical Properties and Uses. Ethiops mineral is supposed to be alter- ative, and as such is sometimes prescribed in glandular affections and cutaneous diseases. It has been given in scrofulous swellings, occur- ring in children; and from the mildness of its operation has been es- teemed well suited to such cases. The dose generally given is from five to thirty grains, repeated several times a day; but it has often been administered in much larger doses, without producing any obvious im- pression on the system. Dr. Duncan reports, that he has given it in doses of several drachms for a considerable length of time, with scarcely any effect. Upon the whole, it may be viewed as quite an inert prepa- ration, and might be expunged from the Pharmacopoeias without being missed. HYDRARGYRI SULPHURETUM RUBRUM. U.S., Lond., Bub. Sulphuretum Hydrargyri Rubrum, Ed. Bed Sulphuret of Mercury. Cinnabar. " Take of Purified Mercury forty ounces; Sulphur eight ounces. Mix the Mercury with the melted Sulphur over the fire; and, as soon as the mass begins to swell, remove the vessel from the fire, and cover it with considerable force, to prevent combustion; then rub the mass into pow- der, and sublime." U.S. The London process, which is the original of the above, only differs from it in phraseology. "Take of Purified Mercury nineteen parts; Sublimed Sulphur three parts. Mix the Mercury with the melted Sulphur; and if the mixture takes fire, extinguish the flame by covering the vessel. Reduce the mass to powder, and sublime it." Dub. The Edinburgh College has given no formula for this preparation, having included it in the Materia Medica. Mercury and sulphur, when heated together, unite with great ener- gy, and a product is obtained, which by sublimation becomes the red or bisulphuret of mercury. In order to render the combination more prompt, the sulphur is first melted; and in adding the mercury, it should be done gradually, while the mixture is constantly stirred. Dr. Barker recom- mends the addition of the metal, by straining it upon the melting sul- phur through a linen cloth, whereby it falls in the form of a shower, in a minutely divided state. When the temperature has arrived at a cer- tain point, the combination takes place suddenly, with a slight explosion, and with the inflammation of the sulphur, which must be extinguished by covering the vessel. A black mass will thus be obtained, containing generally an excess of sulphur, which may be got rid of by gently heat- ing the matter reduced to powder on a sand-bath. After this treatment it is better prepared for being sublimed, as directed by the Pharmaco- poeias. The sublimation is best performed on a small scale in a loosely stopped glass matrass, which should be placed in a crucible containing sand, and, thus arranged, exposed to a red heat. The equivalent quan- tities for forming this sulphuret, are 32 of sulphur, and 200 of mercury, or as 3 to 18|. The Dublin proportions approach these numbers very nearly; while the U. S. and London ratio, being as 3 to 15, gives a con- siderable excess of sulphur. Preparation on the Large Scale.—Cinnabar is seldom or never prepared on a small scale, being made in large quantities for the purposes of the arts; and on these accounts, it is, perhaps, preferably placed in the Ma- PART II. Hydrargyrum. 873 teria Medica, as has been done by the Edinburgh College. In Holland, where it is principally manufactured, the sulphur is melted in a cast iron vessel, and the mercury is added in a divided state, by causing it to pass through chamois leather. As soon as the combination has taken place, the iron vessel is surmounted by another, into which the cinnabar is sublim- ed. In proportion as the quantity of the materials employed in one ope- ration is greater, will the product have a finer tint. It is also important in the manufacture to use the materials pure, and to drive off any un- combined sulphur which may exist in the mass, before submitting it to sublimation. Properties, fyc.—Red sulphuret of mercury is in the form of heavy, bril- liant, crystalline masses, of a deep red colour and fibrous texture. It is inodorous and tasteless, and insoluble in water and alcohol. It is not acted on by the sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acid, nor by solutions of the caustic alkalies; but is decomposed by nitro-muriatic acid, the chlorine of which unites with its elements, so as to form corrosive sub- limate, and chloride of sulphur. When heated in the open air, it is decomposed, the sulphur becoming sulphurous acid^ and the mercury being volatilized. In close vessels, at a red heat, it sublimes without fusion, and condenses in a mass composed of a multitude of small nee- dles. When duly levigated, it furnishes a powder of a brilliant red co- lour, and in this state constitutes the paint called vermilion. It occurs native, and forms the principal ore of mercury, and that from which the metal is exclusively extracted. It should not be purchased in powder; as, in that state, it is sometimes adulterated with red lead, dragon's blood, or chalk. If red lead should be present, the cinnabar will not be entirely volatile at a red heat. Dragon's blood may be detected by alco- hol, which will take up the colouring matter of this vegetable, if pre- sent ; and if chalk be mixed with it, effervescence will be excited on the addition of an acid. Red sulphuret of mercury is composed of one equiv. of mercury 200, and two equiv. of sulphur 32=232. Medical Properties and Uses.—Cinnabar was formerly considered to be alterative and anthelmintic; but is at present seldom or never given internally. It is sometimes employed in the way of fumigation, as a ra- pid sialagogue, in venereal ulcers of the nose and throat, in cases in which it is an object of importance to check the ulceration in the shortest time possible. The dose for internal exhibition is from ten grains to half a drachm, in the form of electuary or bolus. When used by fumi- gation, half a drachm may be thrown on a red-hot iron, and the fumes inhaled as they arise. These consist of sulphurous acid gas and mer- cury vapour, the former of which must prove highly irritating to the patient's lungs. A better material for mercurial fumigation is the black or gray protoxide of mercury. HYDRARGYRUM AMMONIATUM. U.S. Hydrargyrum Pr.ecifitatum Album. Lond. Hydrargyri Submurias Ammoni- atum. Dub. Ammoniated Mercury. White Precipitate. " Take of Corrosive Chloride of Mercury [Corrosive Sublimate] half a pound; Muriate of Ammonia four ounces; Solution of Carbonate of Potassa half a pint; Distilled Water four pints. Dissolve first the Muri- ate of Ammonia, then the Chloride of Mercury, in the Distilled Water, and add the Solution of Carbonate of Potassa. Wash the precipitate till it becomes tasteless, and then dry it." U.S., Lond. "Add to the liquor which has been poured off from Precipitated Calomel, as much Water of Caustic Ammonia as may be sufficient com- 110 874 Hydrargyrum. part ii. pletely to precipitate the metallic salt. Wash the precipitate with cold Distilled Water, and dry it on bibulous paper." Dub. In the first of the above processes, the muriate of ammonia and cor- rosive sublimate being both dissolved in the distilled water, a very so- luble double salt is formed in solution, formerly called sal alembroth. It may be obtained in crystals by evaporation, and is found to consist of one equiv. of corrosive sublimate and two equiv. of muriate of ammo- nia. When in solution, it may be considered as a compound of one equiv. of bipermuriate of mercury, and two of muriate of ammonia. Upon the addition of carbonate of potassa to this solution, the carbonic acid is given off, and the mercurial salt is decomposed. Two equiv. of potassa combine with the two equiv. of muriatic acid, and remain in so- lution as muriate of potassa; while the one equiv. of peroxide of mercu- ry precipitates in combination with one equiv. of muriate of ammonia to form the ammoniated mercury, the other equiv. of muriate of ammo- nia remaining in solution along with the muriate of potassa. This state- ment is made in accordance with the results of Mr. Hennell of London, who fbund the preparation under consideration, on analysis, to consist of one equiv. of peroxide of mercury 216, and one equiv. of muriate of ammonia 54=270. This composition is admitted by Berzelius; and the analysis of Guibourt, who makes the preparation an ammoniacal deuto- chloride, combined with the ammoniuret of the peroxide of mercury, agrees virtually with that of Hennell; as it corresponds with two equiv. of the compound on Hennell's view, minus two equiv. of water. The Dublin formula furnishes another mode of obtaining precisely the same compound, the nature of which has been explained above. The liquor which is poured off from precipitated calomel, consists, as was explained under that preparation, of a solution of corrosive sublimate, which, in this state, is viewed as a bipermuriate of mercury. When ammonia is added to it, two equiv. of the alkali combine with the two equiv. of muriatic acid, and form two equiv. of muriate of ammonia; while the one equiv. of peroxide precipitates in combination with one of the equiv. of muriate of ammonia to form the ammoniated mercury. The process of the Dublin College is advantageous, in so far as it use- fully employs the residuary liquor derived from another formula, and which would otherwise be lost. Indeed, it may be stated that the best way of making this preparation is to form an aqueous solution of corro- sive sublimate, and to precipitate it with ammonia. Properties, fyc.—Ammoniated mercury is a light, perfectly white pow- der, insoluble in water and alcohol, and having a taste, at first earthy and afterwards metallic. The caustic fixed alkalies unite with the mu- riatic acid, disengage the ammonia, and set the peroxide free. When exposed to heat it is decomposed, and resolved into water, nitrogen, ammonia, and protochloride of mercury or calomel. If adulterated with white lead or chalk, the fraud may be detected by exposing a sample of the preparation to a strong red heat, when these impurities will remain. Should starch be mixed with it, a charry residuum will be obtained on the application of heat. The nature of this preparation was long in- volved in doubt; and admitting the composition assigned to it by Mr. Hennell, it is not easy to give it a name which will accurately express its nature. Under these circumstances, perhaps, the name appropriated 'to it in the U. S. Pharmacopceia is as little liable to objection as any other that could be selected; and it has in its favour the precedent of the analogous names of ammoniated copper and ammoniated iron. part ii. Hydrargyrum. 875 Medical Properties and Uses.—This preparation is only used in the form of ointment as an external remedy. Off. Prep. Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammoniati, U.S., Lond., Dub. HYDRARGYRUM CUM CALCIS CARBONATE. U.S. Hy- drargyrum cum Creta. Lond., Dub. Mercury with Carbonate of Lime. Mercury with Chalk. "Take of Purified Mercury three ounces; Prepared Carbonate of Lime [Prepared Chalk, Lond.~\ five ounces. Rub them together till all the globules disappear." U.S., Lond. The Dublin College prepares it in the same manner as Mercury with Magnesia, only substituting precipitated carbonate of lime for carbonate of magnesia. When mercury is triturated with certain dry and pulverulent sub- stances, such as chalk or magnesia, it gradually loses its fluidity and metallic lustre, and assumes the form of a blackish or dark gray pow- der. A similar change takes place when it is rubbed with viscid or greasy substances, such as honey or lard. The globules in either case entirely disappear, so as not to be visible even through a good lens; and the mercury is said to be extinguished. It was formerly thought that the metal was oxidized in the process, and that the medical activity of the preparation depended on the presence of the black or protoxide of mercury. At present, however, the change is generally attributed solely to the mechanical division of the metal, which in this state is supposed to be capable of acting on the system. In relation to the preparation under consideration, Mr. Phillips observes, that the mercury is wholly insoluble in acetic acid, and therefore is not in the state of the protoxide. He suggests, however, that it may be in the form of a suboxide; as, when the chalk has been separated by acetic acid, the mercury does not form a fluid mass, but exists in separate and minute globules. Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation is a very mild mercu- rial, similar in its properties to the blue pill, but much weaker. It is sometimes used as an alterative, particularly in the complaints of chil- dren, attended with deficient biliary secretion, indicated by white or clay-coloured stools. The chalk is antacid, and, though in small quan- tity, may sometimes be a useful accompaniment of the mercury in di- arrhoea. Eight grains of the preparation, according to the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, contain three grains of mercury. The dose is from five grains to half a drachm twice a day. HYDRARGYRUM CUM MAGNESIA. Dub. Mercury with Magnesia. " Take of Purified Mercury, Manna, each, two parts; Carbonate of Magnesia one part. Rub the Mercury with the Manna in an earthen- ware mortar, dropping in sufficient water to give to the mixture the con- sistence of syrup, and continue the trituration till the globules dis- appear. Then add, still rubbing, an eighth part of the Carbonate of Magnesia; and when this is well mixed with the other ingredients, add sixteen parts of hot water, and agitate the mixture. Let this stand for some time that the sediment may subside, and then decant the fluid. Repeat the washing twice, that the whole of the Manna may be removed; and with the sediment, while it is still moist, mix the remainder of the Carbonate of Magnesia. Lastly, dry the powder on bibulous paper." Dub. The use of the manna in this process is merely to facilitate the ex- tinction of the mercury, as it is wholly washed away, and the metal is 876 Hydrargyrum.—Infusa. part ii. left mixed with magnesia. The preparation has the same virtues with the preceding, but may be preferably used in the complaints of children attended with constipation. INFUSA. Infusions. These are aqueous solutions obtained by treating with water, without the aid of ebullition, vegetable products which are only partly soluble in that liquid. The water employed may be hot or cold according to the objects to be accomplished. Infusions are generally prepared by pouring boiling water upon the vegetable substance, and macerating in a lightly closed vessel till the liquid cools. The soluble principles are thus extracted more rapidly, and, as a general rule, in larger propor- tion than at a lower temperature. Some substances, moreover, are dis- solved in this manner, which are nearly or quite insoluble in cold water. A prolonged application of heat is in some instances desirable; and this may be effected by placing the vessel near the fire. Cold water is pre- ferred, when the active principle is highly volatile, or when any sub- stance of difficult solubility at a low temperature exists in the vegetable, which it is desirable to avoid in the infusion. A longer continuance of the maceration is necessary in this case; and in warm weather there is sometimes clanger, that spontaneous decomposition may commence be- fore the process is completed. The water employed should be free from saline impurities, which frequently produce precipitates, and render the infusion turbid. Fresh river, rain, or distilled water is usually pre- ferable to that of pumps or springs. The substance to be acted on should be sliced or bruised, or employ- ed in the state of powder; but this last condition is seldom requisite, and is always inconvenient, as it requires that the infusion should be filtered through paper in order completely to separate the undissolved portion. In other cases, it is sufficient to strain through fine linen. In- fusions are usually prepared in glazed earthenware or porcelain vessels fitted with covers. Mr. Brande suggests the use of clean metallic ves- sels, which when finely polished retain the heat for a greater length of time; but they are also more liable to chemical alteration, and may some- times injuriously affect the preparation. As infusions do not keep well, especially in warm weather, they should be made extemporaneously and in small quantities. In this country they are usually prepared in families, and the propriety of their intro- duction into the Pharmacopoeia has been doubted; but it is desirable to have certain fixed standards for the convenience of the medical practi- tioner; and it is sometimes convenient to direct infusions from the apo- thecary, for whose guidance officinal formulae are necessary. Physicians would, indeed, find their advantage in more frequently directing them from the shops, instead of leaving their preparation to the carelessness or want of skill of the attendants upon the sick. As we have already treated of the chemical relations and medical pro- perties of the substances used in infusion, it would be useless repetition to enlarge upon these points in the following details. We shall touch upon them only in cases of peculiar interest, or where changes requiring particular notice may grow out of the nature of the process. PART II. Infusa. 877 INFUSUM ANGUSTURiE. U.S., Dub. Infusum Cusparije. Lond. Infusion of Angustura Bark. " Take of Angustura Bark, bruised, half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel and strain." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges direct two drachms to half a pint, and proceed as above. The dose of the infusion is two fluidounces repeated every two, three, or four hours. INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIS. U.S., Lond. Infusum Anthemidis Nobilis. Ed. Infusum Chamjemeli. Dub. Infusion of Chamo- mile. " Take of Chamomile half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for ten minutes in a covered vessel and strain." U.S. The London College orders two drachms of the flowers to half a pint of boiling water, and proceeds as above; the Edinburgh directs two drachms to eight ounces of cold water, and macerates for twenty-four' hours; the Dublin agrees with the London in the proportion of the in- gredients, and with the Edinburgh in the period of digestion. The infusion of chamomile has the odour and taste of the flowers. It affords precipitates with gelatin, yellow Peruvian bark, sulphate of iron, tincture of muriate of iron, nitrate of silver, corrosive chloride of mer- cury, and the acetates of lead. {London Dispensatory.) As a tonic it is given cold in the dose of two fluidounces several times a day. To assist the operation of emetic medicines it should be administered in the tepid state, and in large draughts. The infusion prepared by maceration in cold water is more grateful to the palate and stomach than that made with boiling water, but is less efficient as an emetic. INFUSUM ARMORACLE. U.S. Infusum Armoracle Com- positum. Lond., Dub. Infusion of Horse-radish. " Take of Horse-radish [fresh root], sliced, Mustard [seed], bruised, each, an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel and strain." U.S. The London College adds to the infusion, prepared as above directed, a fluidounce of the compound spirit of horse-radish. The process of the Dublin College differs from that of the London only in requiring a maceration of six instead of two hours. This infusion is rendered turbid by the deposition of vegetable albu- men, and in warm weather speedily runs into the putrefactive fermen- tation. It affords precipitates with the infusion of galls and of Peruvian bark, with the alkaline carbonates, nitrate of silver, and corrosive chlo- ride of mercury. {London Dispensatory.) It has the stimulant properties of its two active ingredients, and is occasionally used in paralytic and dropsical affections attended with general debility. The dose is about two fluidounces three or four times a day. INFUSUM AURANTII COMPOSITUM. Lond., Dub. Com- pound Infusion of Orange Peel. " Take of dried Orange Peel two drachms; fresh Lemon Peel a drachm; Cloves, bruised, half a drachm; Boiling Water half a pint. Macerate for a quarter of an hour in a covered vessel and strain." This infusion is given as a grateful stomachic in the dose of two or three fluidounces. INFUSUM BUCHU. Dub. Infusion of Buchu. " Take of Buchu Leaves half an ounce; Boiling Water half a pint. Digest for four hours, and strain through linen." Dub. 878 Infusa. part ii. This infusion has the odour and taste, and the medical virtues of the leaves; and affords a convenient mode of administering the medicine. The dose is one or two fluidounces. INFUSUM CARYOPHYLLORUM. Lond., Bub. Infusion of Cloves. " Take of Cloves, bruised, a drachm; Boiling Water half a pint. Ma- cerate for two hours in a covered vessel and strain." The infusion of cloves affords precipitates with lime-water, and with the soluble salts of iron, zinc, lead, silver, and antimony. (Phillips.) The dose is about two fluidounces. INFUSUM CASCARILLAE. U.S., Lond., Bub. Infusion of Cascarilla. " Take of Cascarilla, bruised, an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Ma- cerate for two hours in a covered vessel and strain." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges direct half an ounce of the bark to half a pint of boiling water, and proceed as above. This infusion affords precipitates with lime-water, infusion of galls, nitrate of silver, acetate and subacetate of lead, sulphate of zinc, and sulphate of iron. (London Dispensatory.) The medium dose is two fluid- ounces. INFUSUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM. Lond., Bab. Infusum AcAciiE«CATECHu. Ed. Compound Infusion of Catechu. " Take of Extract of Catechu two drachms and a half; Cinnamon Bark, bruised, half a drachm; Boiling Water half a pint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel and strain." Lond. " Digest for an hour in a covered vessel and strain through linen." Dub. The Edinburgh College orders the same quantities of catechu and cinnamon, but directs them to be macerated in seven ounces of boiling water for two hours, and an ounce of simple syrup to be added to the strained infusion. This is an. elegant mode of administering catechu. The dose is from one to three fluidounces, repeated three or four times a day, or more frequently. INFUSUM CINCHONJE. U.S., Lond., Bub. Infusum Cin- chona Lancifolijs. Ed. Infusion of Peruvian Bark. "Take of Peruvian Bark, bruised, an ounce; Boiling Water apint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel and strain." U.S. " Take of Bark of the Cinchona lancifolia [pale bark], bruised, half an ounce; boiling Water half apint. Macerate for two hours in a lightly covered vessel and strain." Lond. " Take of Bark of the Cinchona lancifolia, in powder, an ounce; Wa- ter [cold] a pound. Macerate for twenty-four hours in a lightly covered vessel, with occasional agitation, and filter." Ed. " Take of Bark of the Cinchona lancifolia, in fine powder, an ounce; cold Water twelve fluidounces. Triturate the Bark with a little of the Water, and add the remainder during the trituration. Macerate for twenty-four hours, with frequent agitation, and decant the clear liquor." Dub. We can discover no good reason for the exclusive employment by the British Colleges of the pale bark in the preparation of this infusion. The U.S. Pharmacopoeia, wisely we think, leaves the particular variety to the choice of the physician. Though the infusion with boiling water, as directed by the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, is more quickly prepared than the cold infu- PART II. Infusa. 879 sion of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, and therefore better adapt- ed to cases of emergency, yet the latter is a more elegant preparation, not turbid like the former, and at least equally efficient. The trituration directed by the Dublin College facilitates the process, by thoroughly wetting the powder, and thus enabling it to be more readily diffused through the liquid. We have been much in the habit of using the cold infusion prepared with the addition of a fluidrachm of aromatic sul- phuric acid to the ingredients, and have found it very effectual. The addition of the acid ensures the solution of all or nearly all the quinia and cinchonia. We have always preferred the red bark, as abounding most in the active principles. The former edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia directed three other infusions of cinchona, one with lime-water, a second with magnesia, and a third with lemon-juice. Of these, the first two are obviously im- proper preparations; as the lime and magnesia decompose the salts of quinia and cinchonia, and precipitate the alkaline bases. In the third, on the contrary, the lemon-juice promotes the solubility of the active principles, and is therefore a useful addition, though, as it is not al- ways applicable, it may with propriety be left to extemporaneous pre- scription. These preparations have been omitted in the last edition. The infusion of cinchona affords precipitates with the alkalies, alka- line carbonates, and alkaline earths; the soluble salts of iron, zinc, and silver; corrosive chloride of mercury, arsenious acid, and tartar eme- tic; gelatinous solutions; and various vegetable infusions and decoc- tions, as those of galls, chamomile, columbo, cascarilla, horse-radish, cloves, catechu, orange-peel, foxglove, senna, rhubarb, valerian, and simaruba. In some instances the precipitate occurs immediately, in others not for several hours. (London Dispensatory.) Few, however, of these substances diminish the efficacy of the infusion, as they do not affect the active principles. The alkalies, alkaline earths, and vegetable astringents are really incompatible. The same is said to be the case with tartaric and oxalic acids, and the soluble tartrates and oxalates. The infusion of cinchona may be advantageously administered in cases which require tonic treatment, but do not call for the full powers of the bark. The medium dose is two fluidounces to be repeated three or four times a day, or more frequently in acute diseases. INFUSUM COLOMBO. U.S., Ed., Dub. Infusum CALUMBiE. Lond. Infusion of Columbo. "Take of Columbo, sliced, half an ounce; Boiling Water apint. Ma- cerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges direct two drachms of columbo to half a pint of boiling water; theEdinburgh, one drachm to eight ounces; and all proceed as above. This infusion is not disturbed by the salts of iron, and may be con- veniently administered in connexion with them. It very soon spoils. The dose is two fluidounces three or four times a day. INFUSUM DIGITALIS. U.S, Land., Dub. Infusum Digi- talis Purpurea. Ed. Infusion of Foxglove. _ "Take of Foxglove [dried leaves] a drachm; Boiling Water half a pint; Tincture of Cinnamon a fluidounce. Macerate the Foxglc? with the Water for four hours in a covered vessel, and strain; then add the Tincture of Cinnamon." U.S. The London and Dublin processes correspond with the above, except that half a fluidounce of the spirit of cinnamon is employed instead of a 880 Infusa. part il fluidounce of the tincture. The Edinburgh College takes a drachm of the leaves, eight ounces of boiling water, and an ounce of the spirit of cinnamon; and having macerated the leaves in the water for four hours, adds the spirit, and strains. This infusion is essentially the same with that employed by Withering. It affords precipitates with the sulphate of iron, acetate of lead, and in- fusion of Peruvian bark. (London Dispensatory.) The dose is half a fluidounce, repeated twice a day under ordinary circumstances, every eight hours in urgent cases, until the system is affected. INFUSUM EUPATORII PERFOLIATI. U.S. Infusion of Thoroughwort. " Take of Thoroughwort [the dried herb] an ounce; Boiling Water apint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U.S. As a tonic, this infusion should be taken cold in the dose of two fluid- ounces three or four times a day, or more frequently; as an emetic and diaphoretic, in large tepid draughts. INFUSUM GENTIANS COMPOSITUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Bub. Compound Infusion of Gentian. "Take of Gentian, bruised, half an ounce; Orange Peel [dried peel of the Seville orange], bruised, Coriander, bruised, each, a drachm; Diluted Alcohol four fluidounces; Water [cold] twelve fluidounces. First pour on the Alcohol, and three hours afterwards, the Water; then ma- cerate for twelve hours, and strain." U.S. The above was copied from the Edinburgh formula, which differs only in designating the quantity of diluted alcohol and of water in troy ounces instead of fluidounces. The London and Dublin Colleges employ the following formula. "Take of Gentian Root, sliced, Dried Orange Peel, each, a drachm; Fresh Lemon Peel two drachms [one drachm, Dub.]; Boiling Water twelve fluid- ounces. Macerate for an hour in a lightly covered vessel, and strain." The U.S. and Edinburgh infusion differs materially from the London and Dublin. The former has three times as much gentian in proportion to the solvent as the latter, and is therefore a much stronger bitter; While, by the use of cold instead of boiling water, less of the inert mu- cilaginous matter is extracted. • The use of the diluted alcohol is to as- sist in dissolving the bitter principle, and at the same time to contri- bute towards the preservation of the infusion, which, without this addi- tion, is very apt to spoil. The preparation, however, may be considered rather in the light of a very weak tincture than of an infusion, and should be used accordingly. The dose of the infusion of the U.S. Pharmacopceia is a fluidounce, that of the preparation of the London College two or three fluidounces, to be repeated three or four times a day. INFUSUM LINI. U.St Infusum Lini Compositum. Lond., Bub. Infusum Lini Usitatissimi. Ed. Infusion of Flaxseed. "Take of Flaxseed half an ounce; Liquorice Root, bruised, two drachms; Boiling Water apint. Macerate for four hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges direct an ounce of flaxseed, bruised, half an ounce of liquorice root, sliced, and two pints of boiling water; the Edinburgh, an ounce of flaxseed, two drachms of liquorice root, bruised, and two pounds of boiling water; all complete the. process in the manner directed in the U.S. Pharmacopceia. This is a useful demulcent drink in inflammatory affections of the mu- PART 11. Infusa. 881 cous membrane of the lungs and urinary passages. It may be taken ad libitum. INFUSUM MENTHA SIMPLEX. Dub. Simple Infusion of Mint. "Take of the dried Leaves of Spearmint two drachms; Boiling Wa- ter a sufficient quantity to afford six ounces [fluidounces] of strained liquor." Dub. This is common mint tea, and may be taken ad libitum. INFUSUM MENTHJE COMPOSITUM. Dub. Compound Infusion of Mint. " Take of the dried Leaves of Spearmint two drachms; Boiling Water a sufficient quantity to afford six ounces [fluidounces] of strained liquor. Digest for half an hour in a covered vessel, and strain the liquor when cold; then add, of Refined Sugar two drachms, Oil of Spearmint three drops dissolved in half an ounce [fluidounce] of Compound Tincture of Cardamom." Dub. This is an agreeable aromatic infusion, useful in allaying nausea and vomiting, and affording an eligible vehicle for unpleasant medicines. The dose is one or two fluidounces frequently repeated. INFUSUM PRUNI VIRGINIANS. U.S. Infusion of Wild- cherry Bark. " Take of Wild-cherry Bark, bruised, half an ounce; Water [cold] a pint. Macerate for twelve hours, and strain." U.S. This is a useful addition to the infusions first adopted as officinal in the former edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. It is a peculiarly suitable object for officinal direction, as, in consequence of the volatile nature of one of its active ingredients, it is better prepared with cold water than in the ordinary mode. The period of maceration might with propriety be extended to twenty-four hours, or even longer in cold weather. The in- fusion, which is beautifully transparent, has the colour of Madeira wine and the pleasant bitterness and peculiar flavour of the baric. The dose is two or three fluidounces three or four times a day, or more frequently when a strong impression is required. INFUSUM QUASSIA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Infusum Quassia Excelsa. Ed. Infusion of Quassia. "Take of Quassia, rasped, two drachms; Water [cold] apint. Ma- cerate for twelve hours, and strain." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges order a scruple of quassia, half a pint of boiling water, and maceration for two hours in a covered vessel. The Edinburgh College proceeds in the same way, employing half a drachm of quassia and eight ounces of boiling water. The proportion of quassia directed in the British Pharmacopoeias is much too small. The infusion of the London and Dublin Colleges con- tains the strength of only two grains and a half of quassia in a fluid- ounce, that of the Edinburgh College, three grains and three quarters in an ounce; while the dose of quassia in substance is from twenty grains to a drachm, and of the extract not less than five grains. We, there- fore, prefer the proportions directed by our national Pharmacopoeia. Boiling water may be employed when it is desirable to obtain the pre- paration quickly; but cold water affords a clearer infusion. The dose is two fluidounces three or four times a day. INFUSUM RHEI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Infusion of Rhu- barb. "Take of Rhubarb, sliced, a drachm; Boiling Water half a pinU 111 880 Infusa. part ii. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U.S., Lond., Dub. " Take of Russian Rhubarb, bruised, half an ounce; Boiling Water eight ounces; Spirit of Cinnamon an ounce. Macerate the Rhubarb with the Water, in a close vessel, for twelve hours; then add the Spirit, and strain." Ed. In the latter process there is a great waste of a costly medicine, the Russia rhubarb commanding a very high price. We greatly prefer the first formula. In order, however, that the rhubarb may be exhaust- ed, the maceration should be conducted near the fire at a temperature somewhat less than that of boiling water. It is customary to add some aromatic, such as cardamom, fennel-seed, or nutmeg, which improves the taste of the infusion, and renders it more acceptable to the stomach. One drachm of either of these spices may be digested in connexion with the rhubarb. This infusion may be given as a gentle laxative, in the dose of one or two fluidounces, every three or four hours, till it operates. It is occa- sionally used as a vehicle of tonic, antacid, or more active cathartic me- dicines. The stronger acids, and most metallic solutions, are incom- patible with it. INFUSUM ROSS COMPOSITUM. U.S., Lond. Infusum Rosa Gallica. Ed. Infusum Rosa Acidum. Bub. Compound Infusion of Roses. "Take of Red Roses [dried petals] half an ounce; Boiling Water two pints and a half; Diluted Sulphuric Acid three fluidrachms; Sugar [re- fined] an ounce and a half. Pour the Water upon the Roses in a glass vessel; then add the Acid, and macerate for half an hour; lastly, strain the liquor, and add the Sugar." U.S., Lond. The Dublin process corresponds with the above, except that the pe- tals are directed without their claws, and three pints of water are em- ployed instead of two pints and a half. The Edinburgh College directs an ounce of the dried petals, two pounds and a half of boiling water, half an ounce of sulphuric acid, and ap ounce of white sugar; mace- rates the petals with the water for four hours in an earthen vessel not glazed with lead; then adds the acid, and having strained the liquor, dissolves the sugar in it. The red roses serve little other purpose than to impart a fine red co- lour and a slight astringent flavour to the preparation, which owes its me- dicinal virtues almost exclusively to the sulphuric acid. It is refrigerant and astringent, and affords a useful and not unpleasant drink in hemor- rhages and colliquative sweats. It is much used by British practitioners as a vehicle foF saline medicines, particularly sulphate of magnesia, the taste of which it serves to cover. It is also employed as a gargle, usu- ally in connexion with acids, nitre, alum, or tincture of Cayenne pepper. The dose is from two to four fluidounces. INFUSUM SARSAPARILLAE COMPOSITUM. Dub. Com- pound Infusion of Sarsaparilla. "Take of Sarsaparilla Root, previously cleansed with water and sliced, an ounce; Lime-water apint. Macerate for twelve hours in a co- vered vessel, with occasional agitation, and strain." Dub. From the experiments of M. Soubeiran it appears, that, by maceration in cold water for twenty-four hours, the active principle of sarsaparilla is extracted as effectually as by infusion in boiling water and digestion for two hours, and that in either case the infusion is stronger than the PART II. Infusa. 883 decoction; but the aqueous preparation which he found to possess most of the sensible properties of the root, was made by infusing in water the spirituous extract obtained according to the process of M. Beral. (See page 832.) In all his experiments, M. Soubeiran employed the same proportions of the root and of water. (Journ. de Pharm. xvi. 43.) A cold infusion of sarsaparilla may be considered an eligible preparation; but no advantage can result from the use of lime-water, as directed by the Dublin College. From two to four fluidounces of the infusion may be taken three times a day. INFUSUM SENNiE. U.S. Infusum Senna Compositum. Lond., Dub. Infusum Cassia Senna. Ed. Infusion of Senna. "Take of Senna an ounce; Coriander [seed], bruised, a drachm; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain." U.S. The London College orders an ounce and a half of senna, a drachm of sliced ginger root, and a pint of boiling water; the Edinburgh, six drachms of senna, a scruple of ginger, and nine ounces of boiling water; and the Dublin, an ounce of senna, a drachm of ginger, and a pint of boiling water: all macerate as above directed. We decidedly prefer the formula of the U.S. Pharmacopceia. The proportions of senna directed by the London and Edinburgh Colleges, are unnecessarily and wastefully large; and coriander is a better addi- tion than ginger to an infusion very often given in inflammatory affec- tions. This infusion deposites, on exposure to the air, a yellowish preci- pitate, which is said to aggravate its griping tendency; it should, therefore, not be made in large quantities. It is customary to connect with it manna and some one of the neutral salts, which both increase its efficacy and render it less painful in its operation. The following is a good formula for the preparation of senna tea. Take of senna half an ounce; sulphate of magnesia, manna, each, an ounce; fennel seed a drachm; boiling water half apint. Macerate in a covered vessel till the liquid cools. One-third may be given for a dose, and repeated every four or five hours till it operates. The dose of the infusion of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia is about four fluidounces. INFUSUM SENNA CUM TAMARINDIS. Dub. Infusum Senna Compositum. Ed. Infusion of Senna with Tamarinds. "Take of Preserved Tamarinds an ounce; Senna Leaves a drachm; Coriander Seeds, bruised, a drachm; Brown Sugar half an ounce; Boil- ing Water eight ounces. Macerate for four hours, with occasional agi- tation, in a closed earthen vessel, not glazed with lead, and strain. " It may also be made with double, triple, &c, the quantity of senna." Ed. The process of the Dublin College corresponds closely with the above. In this infusion, the unpleasant taste of the senna is covered by the acidity of the tamarinds and sweetness of the sugar. It is aperient and refrigerant, and is well adapted to febrile complaints when a laxative operation is desired. The dose is from two to four fluidounces. INFUSUM SERPENTARIA. U.S. Infusion of Virginia Snakeroot. " Take of Virginia Snakeroot half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S. The proportion of serpentaria in this infusion, as directed in the first edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, was twice as great as that now order- 884 Infusa.—Linimenta. part n. ed; but it may be doubted whether the preparation was much stronger. A pint of water does not extract all the virtues of an ounce of the root, at least in the time specified by the Pharmacopoeia. The. infusion, as at present directed, is quite strong enough. The dose is one or two fluid- ounces, repeated every two hours in low forms of fever, but less fre- quently in chronic affections. INFUSUM SIMAROUBA. Lond., Dub. Infusion of Sima- ruba. "Take of Simaruba Bark, bruised, half a drachm; Boiling Water half apint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." Lond., Dub. * This is a feeble preparation, and little, if at all used in the United States. The dose is two fluidounces. INFUSUM SPIGELIA. U.S. Infusion of Pink-root. " Take of Pink-root half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U.S. The dose of this infusion for a child two or three years old, is from four fluidrachms to a fluidounce; for an adult, from four to eight fluid- ounces, repeated morning and evening. A quantity of senna equal to that of the spigelia, is usually added in order to ensure a cathartic effect. INFUSUM TABACI. U.S., Lond., Bub. Infusion of Tobacco. " Take of Tobacco a drachm; Boiling Water apint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain." US., Lond., Dub. This is used only in the form of enema in strangulated hernia, obsti- nate colic, and retention of urine from spasm of the urethra. Only half of the pint should be employed at once; and if this should not produce relaxation in half an hour, the remainder may be injected. Fatal conse- quences have resulted from too free a use of tobacco in this way. INFUSUM ULMI. U.S. ' Infusion of Slippery Elm Bark. " Take of Slippery Elm Bark, sliced, an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for twelve hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S. The period of maceration is unnecessarily long, unless cold water is employed. This infusion may be used ad libitum, as a demulcent and nutritious drink in catarrhal and nephritic diseases, and in inflamma- tory affections of the intestinal mucous membrane. INFUSUM VALERIANA. U.S., Bub. Infusion of Valerian. "Take of Valerian half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain." U.S. The Dublin College directs two drachms of valerian, in coarse powder, seven fluidounces of boiling water, digestion for an hour, and straining after the liquid has become cold. The dose of this infusion is two fluidounces, repeated three or four times a day, or more frequently. LINIMENTA. Liniments. These are preparations intended for external use, of such a consist- ence as to render them conveniently applicable to the skin by gentle friction with the hand. They are usually thicker than water, but thinner than the ointments; and are always liquid at the temperature of the body. PART II. Linimenta. 885 LINIMENTUM AMMONIA. U.S., Dub. Linimentum Am- monia Fortius. Lond. Oleum Ammoniatum. Ed. Liniment of Ammonia. " Take of Water of Ammonia half a fluidounce; Olive Oil two fluid- ounces. Mix them." U.S. The London College directs a fluidounce of " Solution of Ammonia" to two fluidounces of olive oil; the Edinburgh, one part of " Water of Ammonia" to eight parts of olive oil; the Dublin, two fluidrachms of " Water of Caustic Ammonia" to two fluidounces of the oil. The proportions of the alkali to the oil, directed by the several Phar- macopoeias, though very different, are not so much so in reality as they appear to be; the water of ammonia being strongest in those instances where the quantity is least. In our Pharmacopceia, a mean proportion between the two extremes has been wisely adopted. In this preparation, the ammonia unites with the oil to form a soap, which is partly dis- solved, partly suspended in the water, producing a white opaque emul- sion. This linimenj is an excellent rubefacient, frequently employed in inflammatory affections of the throat, catarrhal and other pectoral com- plaints of children, and in rheumatic pains. It is applied by rubbing it gently upon the skin, or placing a piece of flannel saturated with it over the affected part. Should it occasion too much inflammation, as some- times happens, it must be diluted with oil. LINIMENTUM AMMONIA SUBCARBONATIS. Lond. Liniment of Subcarbonate of Ammonia. "Take of Solution of Subcarbonate of Ammonia a fluidounce; Olive Oil three fluidounces. Shake them together until they unite." Lond. In this instance, as in the preceding, a kind of fluid soap is formed; but the union between the oil and alkali is less perfect, and after a short time the soapy matter separates from the water. The preparation is therefore less elegant; and as the end which it was probably intended to answer of affording a milder rubefacient, may be obtained by diluting the liniment of ammonia with olive oil, there seems to be no good rea- son for retaining it among the officinal remedies. LINIMENTUM CALCIS. U.S., Dub. Oleum Lini cum Calce, sive Linimentum Aqua Calcis. Ed. Liniment of Lime. "Take of Lime-water, Flaxseed Oil, each, a fluidounce. Mix them." U.S. The Edinburgh College directs equal parts of the same ingredients; the Dublin, three fluidounces of lime-water, and three fluidounces of olive oil. The lime forms a soap with the oil, of which there is a great excess, that separates upon standing. Olive oil, as directed by the Dublin Col- lege, is often substituted for that of flaxseed; but possesses no other advantage over it than in having a less unpleasant odour. This is a very useful liniment in recent burns and scalds. It is sometimes called Carron oil, from having been much employed at the iron works of that name in Scotland. LINIMENTUM CAMPHORA. U.S., Lond. Oleum Campho- ratum. Ed., Dub. Camphor Liniment. "Take of Camphor half an ounce; Olive Oil two fluidounces. Dis- solve the Camphor in the Oil." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges direct one part of camphor to eight of olive oil. This is employed as an anodyne embrocation in sprains, bruises, rheu- SS6 Linimenta. PART II. matic or gouty affections of the joints, and other local pains. It is also supposed to have a discutient effect when rubbed upon glandular swel- lings. LINIMENTUM CAMPHORA COMPOSITUM. Lond., Dub. Compound Camphor Liniment. " Take of Camphor two ounces; Solution of Ammonia six fluidounces; Spirit of Lavender a pint. Mix the Solution of Ammonia with the Spirit in a glass retort; then, with a gentle heat, distil a pint; lastly, dissolve the Camphor in the distilled liquor." Lond., Dub. This preparation deserves a place rather among the Spirits or Tinc- tures than the Liniments. The distillation is an unnecessary refinement, • as the ingredients may be immediately united; and the quantity of water contained in the solution of ammonia cannot materially diminish the efficacy of the liniment. Indeed, if prepared with the water of ammonia of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, it would be too stimulant without dilution. It is used as a rubefacient, and at the same time anodyne embrocation, in local pains, particularly of a rheumatic character. LINIMENTUM CANTHARIDIS. U.S. Liniment of Spanish Flies. " Take of Spanish Flies, in powder, an ounce; Oil of Turpentine half apint. Digest for three hours in a water-bath, and strain." U.S. The oil of turpentine is an excellent solvent of the active principle of cantharides, and when impregnated with it, acquires in addition to its own rubefacient properties, those of a powerful epispastic. In the first edition of the Pharmacopoeia, the directions were to simmer for three hours; but as the flies are injured by a heat above that of boiling water, the use of the water-bath is now ordered. This liniment was introduced into notice by Dr. Joseph Hartshorn of Philadelphia, who employed it with great advantage as an external stimulant in the prostrate states of typhus fever. Caution, however, is necessary in its use, both to graduate its strength to the circumstances of the case, and not to apply it very extensively, lest it may produce severe and troublesome, if not danger- ous vesication. (See Eclectic Repertory, vol. i. p. 94.) If too powerful in its undiluted state, it may be weakened by the addition of olive or lin- seed oil. LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI. Lond. Liniment of Mer- cury. " Take of Stronger Mercurial Ointment, Prepared Lard, each, four ounces; Camphor an ounce; Rectified Spirit fifteen minims; Solution of Ammonia, four fluidounces. Rub the Camphor first with the Spirit, then with the Lard and Mercurial Ointment.; lastly, add gradually the Solu- tion of Ammonia, and mix the whole." Lond. This is a stimulant liniment, employed for the discussion of chronic glandular swellings and venereal tumours, and to promote the absorp- tion of collections of fluid. It is said to be more apt to salivate than mercurial ointment. One drachm of it is to be rubbed upon the affected part night and morning. LINIMENTUM SAPONIS CAMPHORATUM. U.S. Cam- phorated Soap Liniment. Opodeldoc. " Take of Common Soap three ounces; Camphor an ounce; Oil of Rosemary, Oil of Origanum, each, a fluidrachm; Alcohol apint. Dis- solve the Camphor and Oils in the Alcohol; then add the Soap, and digest, by means of a sand-bath, till it is dissolved. This Liniment, when cold, is of the consistence of a soft ointment." U.S. PART II. Liniment a.—Magnesia. 887 This preparation is directed only by the U.S. Pharmacopceia. It dif- fers from the common soap liniment (Tinctura Saponis Camphorata) chiefly in being prepared with common white soap, made with animal fat, instead of Castile soap, which is made with olive oil. The latter will not coagulate upon cooling like the former, and is therefore unfit for the preparation-of this liniment, which is intended to be in the solid state. It is customary, after the solution of the soap has been effected, to pour the liquid into small wide-mouthed glass bottles, containing about four fluidounces, in which it solidifies into a soft, semitransparent, uniform, yellowish-white mass. This liniment melts with the heat of the body, and therefore becomes liquid when rubbed upon the skin. It is much used, under the common name of opodeldoc, as an anodyne appli-. cation in sprains, bruises, and rheumatic pains. • LINIMENTUM SIMPLEX. Ed. Simple Liniment. " Take of Olive Oil four parts; White Wax one part. Melt the Wax in the Oil with a gentle heat, then stir the mixture well till it becomes stiff on cooling." Ed. This is little employed. It may be used for keeping the skin soft and smooth in cold weather. Off. Prep. Unguentum Oxidi Zinci, Ed.; Unguentum Oxidi Zinci Im- puri, Ed. LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINA. U.S., Lond, Dub. Lini- ment of Turpentine. " Take of Oil of Turpentine half apint; Resin Cerate a pound. Add the Oil of Turpentine to the Cerate, previously melted, and mix them." U.S., Lond., Dub. This is the liniment originally proposed by Dr. Kentish, and subse- quently so highly lauded as a remedy in burns and scalds. It should be applied as soon after the occurrence of the accident as possible, and should be suspended when the peculiar inflammation excited by the fire is removed. The best mode of application is to cover the burned or scalded surface with pledgets of patent lint saturated with the liniment. It should not be allowed to come in contact with the sound parts. MAGNESIA. Preparations of Magnesia. MAGNESIA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Magnesia. " Take of Carbonate of Magnesia any quantity. Put it into an earthen vessel, and expose it to a red heat for two hours, or till the addition of Vinegar produces no effervescence." U.S. " Take of Subcarbonate of Magnesia four ounces. Heat it intensely for two hours, or until Diluted Acetic Acid dropped upon it excites no effervescence." Lond. " Let Carbonate of Magnesia be exposed, in a crucible, to a red heat for two hours; then let it be kept in well stopped vessels." Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Magnesia any quantity. Put it into a crucible, and subject it to a strong heat for two hours. When the Magnesia has become cool, preserve it in a glass vessel." Dub. By exposure to a red heat, the water and carbonic acid of the carbo- nate of magnesia are expelled, and the earth obtained pure. According to Dr. Black, the carbonate loses seven-twelfths of its weight by calci- nation. Brande says that the loss varies from 50 to 60 per cent., of which from 15 to 20 per cent, is water. About the close of the process 688 Magnesia. PART II. the earth exhibits a luminous or phosphorescent appearance, which is said to be a good criterion of its freedom from carbonic acid. (Duncan.) A more certain indication, however, is the absence of effervescence when muriatic acid is added to a little of the magnesia, previously mixed with water. It is an error to suppose that a very intense heat is requisite in the calcination. The temperature of ignition is sufficient for the expul- sion of the water and carbonic acid, and any increase serves only to render the magnesia harder, denser, less readily soluble in acids, and consequently less useful as a medicine. In order to ensure a pure pro- duct, care should be take that the carbonate employed be free from lime. It should be rubbed to powder before being introduced into the pot or crucible; and as in consequence of its levity it occupies a very large space, the plan»has been proposed of moistening and compressing it in order to reduce its bulk. The magnesia may thus be obtained of greater density; but this is an equivocal recommendation; and the French pharmaceutical writers direct, that the vessels employed should be sufficiently large to contain a considerable quantity of the carbonate, without the necessity of resorting to compression. The officinal direction, to keep the magnesia, after it has been prepared, in well stopped glass vessels, is founded on the fact that it absorbs carbonic acid and water from the air; but the absorption goes on slowly, and the caution is often neglected in the shops. Its great bulk renders its introduction into small bottles inconvenient. A four ounce bottle holds only about an ounce of the purest and finest magnesia. But its specific gravity is greatly increased by trituration; and four times the quantity may thus be got into the same space. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm.'iii. 198.) The density of Henry's magnesia, which is at least four times that of the earth prepared in the ordinary way, has been ascribed to this cause. It has also been attribut- ed to the influence of intense heat employed in the calcination ; and both causes may contribute to it. The conjecture has even been advanced, that this magnesia, which has enjoyed so great a popularity in England and this country, is prepared by precipitating a solution of sulphate of magnesia by caustic potassa, as the earth afforded by this plan is com- paratively dense. It is difficult to find any reasonable ground for the preference given to Henry's magnesia. If its density be owing to the employment of an intense heat in the calcination, it is rather an objec- tion than otherwise, as its solubility in acids is thus diminished. In France the earth is esteemed in proportion to its levity. Properties, fyc.—Pure magnesia is in the state of a very light, white, inodorous powder, of a feeble alkaline taste. Its sp. gr. is commonly stated at 2.3. It was deemed infusible, till melted by means of the com- pound blow-pipe of Dr. Hare. Water sprinkled upon it is absorbed to the extent of about 18 per cent., but with scarcely any increase of tem- perature. It is almost insoluble, requiring, according to Dr; Fyfe, 5142 parts of water at 60°, and 36,000 parts of boiling water for solution. Water thus impregnated has no effect on vegetable colours, but magne- sia itself produces a brown stain by contact with moistened turmeric paper. Magnesia is a metallic oxide, consisting of one equivalent of magnesium 12, and one equiv. of oxygen 8=20. Magnesium is a white, very brilliant metal, resembling silver, malleable, fusible at a low tem- perature, and convertible into magnesia by the combined action of air and moisture. There is a hydrate of magnesia, consisting of one equiv. of the earth and one of water. Lime is the most common impurity in the magnesia of the shops, to which it imparts a more strongly alkaline and more disagreeable taste. PART II. Magnesia. —Mellita. 889 It may be detected by the precipitate which it affords when oxalate of ammonia is added to a neutral solution of magnesia in a diluted acid. Magnesia forms with nitric and muriatic acids, salts which are solu- ble in alcohol and very deliquescent. It is precipitated from its saline solutions by the pure alkalies in the state of a hydrate, and by the car- bonates of potassa and soda as a carbonate; but is not precipitated by the alkaline bicarbonates nor by common carbonate of ammonia. Medical Properties and Uses.—It is antacid and laxative; and is much employed, under the name of calcined magnesia, in dyspepsia, sick head- ach, gout, and other complaints attended with sour stomach and consti- pation. It is also a favourite remedy in the complaints of children, in which acidity of the primae viae is often a prominent symptom. Its antacid properties render it very useful in gravel attended with an ex- cessive secretion of uric acid. Its advantages over carbonate of mag- nesia are that it may be given in a smaller dose, and does not occasion flatulence. The dose as a laxative is from thirty grains to a drachm, as an antacid merely, or antilithic, from ten to thirty grains twice a day. When it meets with no acid, it is apt to linger in the stomach or bowels, and should in this case be followed by lemonade. It should be adminis- tered in water or milk, and should be thoroughly triturated so as to render the mixture uniform. MAGNESIA SULPHAS PURUM. Dub. Pure Sulphate of Magnesia. " Take of Commercial Sulphuric Acid twenty-five parts; Water one hundred parts; Carbonate of Magnesia twentyfour parts, or as much as may be sufficient to saturate the Acid. Mix the Sulphuric Acid and Water, and then gradually add the Carbonate of Magnesia. Lastly, evaporate the filtered liquor, so that crystals may form when it cools." Dub. The sulphate of magnesia prepared in the large way is sufficiently pure for medical purposes; and the above process is, therefore, super- fluous. MELLITA. Preparations of Honey. Honey is used in pharmacy only as the vehicle of more active medi- cines. It is said to have this advantage over syrup, that its preparations are less apt to become candied; but as it contains principles which dis- agree with the stomachs of many persons, and as its variable consistence prevents the same exact precision in regard to proportion as is attain- able with a solution of pure sugar, it is at present little employed. The preparations in which honey and vinegar are combined, are called Oxymels. Medicated honeys are of a proper consistence, if, when a small quan- tity allowed to cool upon a plate, is divided by the edge of a spoon, the portions do not readily coalesce. A more accurate criterion, however, is their specific gravity, which should be 1.319 (35° B.) at ordinary tem- peratures, and 1.261 (30° B.) at the boiling point of water. MEL DESPUM ATUM. U. S, Lond., Ed., Dub. Clarified Honey. " Take of Honey any quantity. Melt it by means of a water-bath, and then remove the scum." U.S., Land., Ed., Dub. Honey by the heat of the water-bath becomes so fluid, that the wax 112 890 Mellita. part ii. and other lighter impurities which it contains rise to the surface, and may be skimmed off; while the heavier substances which may have been accidentally or fraudulently added, such as sand or other earth, sink to the bottom. The following method of clarifying honey is commonly practised in France. Take of white honey 3000 parts; water 750 parts; carbonate of lime, powdered and washed, 96 parts. Mix them in a suitable vessel, and boil for three minutes, stirring constantly. Then add 96 parts of animal charcoal previously washed, heated to redness, powdered, and sifted, and boil for a few minutes. Lastly, add the whites of two eggs beat up with 500 parts of water, and bring the liquid to the boiling point. Withdraw the vessel from the fire, and after the mixture has cooled for fifteen minutes, strain it through flannel, and repeat the straining till the liquid passes perfectly clear. Should it not have the proper consistence, it should be concentrated sufficiently by a quick boiling. The following process for clarifying common honey was proposed by M. Borde, and approved by the Society of Pharmacy at Paris. Take of common honey 5000 parts; vegetable charcoal, in powder, 320 parts^; animal charcoal, in powder, 160 parts; nitric acid of 30° or 32° Baume, 40 parts; water 320 parts. Rub the two kinds of charcoal in a porcelain mortar, with the water and acid; then add the honey, and put the whole into a tinned pan. Place the vessel over the fire, and allow it to remain for eight or ten minutes without suffering it to boil; then add 1600 parts of milk in which the white of an egg has been beaten, and boil for four or five minutes. Remove the liquid from the fire, and pass it through a strainer in a warm place, repeating the straining if the first portions are not clear. Of the nitric acid employed in the pro- cess, a portion is saturated by the lime of the animal charcoal, and the remainder unites with the caseous matter of the milk, which it thus causes to coagulate: none remains in the honey. (Diet, des Drogues.) Honey clarified by these processes is as clear and colourless as syrup made with sugar, but still retains a peculiar flavour. It is less disposed to ferment than crude honey, and is said not to be so liable to produce griping pain when swallowed. , Off. Prep. Confectio Rutse,Lond., Dub.; Linimentum iEruginis, Lond.; Mel Boracis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mel Rosse, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mel Scillae Compositum, U.S.; Oxymel, Ed., Dub., Lond.; Oxymel Col- chici, Dub.; Oxymel Scillae, U.S., Lond., Dub. MEL BORACIS. Lond., Bub. Mel Subboratis Soda. Ed. Honey of Borax. " Take of Subborate of Soda, in powder, a drachm. Clarified Honey an ounce. Mix them." Lond., Dub. "Take of Subborate of Soda, in powder, one part; Clarified Honey eight parts. Mix them." Ed. , . This preparation might well be left to extemporaneous prescription. It is used in aphthous ulcerations of the mouth. MEL ROSA. Lond., Dub. Mel Rosa Gallica. Ed. Honey of Roses. " Take of Petals of the Red Rose, dried, four ounces; Boiling Water three pints; Clarified Honey five pounds. Macerate the Petals in the Water for six hours, and strain ; then add the Honey, and by means of a water-bath, boil the liquor down to the proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh College directs an ounce of the red rose leaves, dried, a poundoi boiling water, and sixteenounces of clarified honey; and proceeds as PART II. Mellita. 891 above, without using the water-bath. The Dublin College employs the same proportions with the London, but uses unclarified honey, and di- rects that the scum which rises during the boiling should be removed. We prefer the process of the London College. The preparation has the flavour of the rose with its slight astringency, and forms a pleasant addition to the gargles employed in inflammation and ulceration of the mouth and throat. MEL SCILLA COMPOSITUM. U. S. Compound Honey of Squill. Hive-syrup. " Take of Squill bruised, Seneka bruised, each, four ounces; Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa/orfy eight grains; Clarified Honey two pounds; Distilled Water four pints. Pour the Distilled Water upon the Squill and Seneka, and boil to one half; strain and add the Clarified Honey; then boil down to three pints, in which dissolve the Tartrate of Anti- mony and Potassa." U. S. This is the preparation commonly known by the name of Coxe's Hive Syrup. The degree of evaporation directed by the Pharmacopoeia is in- sufficient, and it has been found that the resulting preparation invariably ferments. It measures only 20|° Baume, a degree of concentration which is by no means sufficient for syrups, and still less so for the preparations of honey. If boiled down to two pints instead of three, it will have a suitable consistence, measuring 30° Baum6, and will be found to keep much better. In this case, in order to preserve, the due proportion of tartar emetic, only thirty-two grains should be added. The compound honey of squill combines the virtues of seneka, squill, and tartar emetic, of the last of which it contains one grain in every fluidounce. It is emetic, diaphoretic, expectorant, and frequent- ly cathartic; and may be given with advantage in mild cases of croup, in the latter stages of severe cases when the object is to promote expec- toration, and in other pectoral affections in which the same indication is presented. As an emetic in inflammatory croup and infantile ca- tarrh, we decidedly prefer a simple solution of tartar emetic in water. The dose of the compound honey of squill is for children from ten drops to a fluidrachm, according to the age, and should be repeated in cases of croup every fifteen or twenty minutes till it operates. As an expectorant for adults the dose is twenty or thirty drops. OXYMEL. Ed. Dub. Oxymel Simplex. Lond. Oxymel. " Take of Clarified Honey three pounds; Diluted Acetic Acid [Dis- tilled Vinegar] two pints. Boil them down in a glass vessel, with a gentle heat, to the proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh College orders three parts of clarified honey, and two parts of distilled vinegar, and proceeds as above. The Dublin formu- la coincides with the London, except that crude honey is employed, and the scum which rises is directed to be removed. This mixture of honey and vinegar forms a pleasant addition to gar- gles, and is sometimes used as a vehicle of expectorant medicines, and to impart flavour to drinks in febrile complaints. OXYMEL CUPRI SUBACETATIS. Dub. Linimentum Arugi- nis. Lond. Oxymel of Subacetate of Copper. " Take of Verdigris, in powder, an ounce; Vinegar seven fluidounces ; Clarified Honey fourteen ounces. Dissolve the Verdigris in the Vinegar, and strain the solution through linen; then gradually add the Honey, and boil down to a proper consistence." Lond., Dub. This is an external stimulant and escharotic, and was formerly called 892 Mellita.—Misturse. PART II. mel AZgyptiacum. It is employed either undiluted or mixed with some mild ointment, to destroy fungous granulations, or repress their growth. In the latter state it is a useful stimulant to flabby, indolent, and ill condi- tioned ulcers; and largely diluted with water has been used as a gargle in venereal ulcerations of the mouth and throat. OXYMEL COLCHICI. Dub. Oxymel of Meadoio Saffron. "Take of the fresh Bulb of Meadow Saffron, cut into thin slices, an ounce; Distilled Vinegar a pint; Clarified Honey two pounds. Macerate the Meadow Saffron with the Vinegar, in a glass vessel, for forty-eight hours. Strain the liquor, with strong expression, from the Bulb, and add the Honey. Lastly, boil the mixture, frequently stirring it with a spatula, to the consistence of a syrup." Dub. This preparation is seldom used in this country, and could not indeed be conveniently prepared, according to the above directions, as we have not the fresh bulbs. It is in no respect superior to the wine of colchi- cum, by which it has been superseded. The dose is a fluidrachm, re- peated twice a day, and gradually increased till it produces the desired effect. OXYMEL SCILLA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oxymel of Squill. "Take of Clarified Honey three pounds; Vinegar of Squill two pints. Boil them in a glass vessel, by means of a water-bath, to a proper consistence." U.S. The London and Dublin processes differ from the above only in boil- ing over a gentle fire, instead of by means of a water-bath. This preparation has the virtues of squill, but is not superior in any respect to the syrup, while it is of a less definite strength, in consequence of the want of precision in the degree of evaporation. Prepared accord- ing to the directions of the London and Dublin Colleges, it would be very liable to be injured by heat. It is chiefly used as an expectorant in chronic catarrh, humoral asthma, hooping cough, and generally in those states of the pulmonary organs in which the bronchial tubes are loaded with a viscid mucus of difficult expectoration. The dose is from one to two fluidrachms. In large doses it is emetic, and as such may sometimes be given with advantage in infantile croup and catarrh. MISTURA. Mixtures. This term is applied, in the language of pharmacy, to those prepara- tions in which insoluble substances, whether solid or liquid, are sus- pended in watery fluids by the intervention of gum arabic, sugar, the yolk of eggs, or other viscid matter. When the suspended substance is of an oleaginous nature, the mixture is sometimes called an emulsion. The object of these preparations is usually to facilitate the administra- tion, to conceal the taste, or to obviate the nauseating effects of unplea- sant medicines; and their perfection depends upon the intimacy with which the ingredients are blended. Some skill and care are requisite to the production of a uniform and perfect mixture. As a general rule, the body to be suspended should be thoroughly mixed by trituration with the substance intended to act as the intermedium, before the watery ve- hicle is added. In the case of the liquid balsams and oils, if gum arabic be employed as the intermedium, it should be previously brought to the state of mucilage, of the consistence directed by the U.S. Pharmacopceia. part n. Misturse. 893 The white of eggs is frequently ordered by physicians as the suspending substance, but it is inferior for this purpose to the yolk, or to gum arabic* Mixtures are generally the objects of extemporaneous pre- scription ; but a few have been deemed of sufficient importance to merit a place in the Pharmacopoeias. They should be prepared only when wanted for use. MISTURA AMMONIACI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Ammoniac Mixture. " Take of Ammoniac two drachms; Water half apint. Rub the Am- moniac with the Water gradually added, until they are thoroughly mix- ed." U.S., Lond. The Dublin College directs a drachm of ammoniac to be rubbed with eight fluidounces of pennyroyal water, and the mixture to be strained through linen. In this mixture the insoluble part of the ammoniac is suspended by means of the gum, imparting a milky appearance to the preparation, which, from this circumstance, was formerly called lac ammoniaci. The greater portion of the resin subsides upon standing. The mixture is- slightly curdled by acids. The dose is from one to two tablespoonfuls. MISTURA AMYGDALA. U.S. Mistura Amygdalarum. Lond. Emulsio Acacia Arabica. Ed. Emulsio Arabica. Dub. Almond Mixture. "Take of Almond Confection an ounce; Distilled Water half apint. Rub the Confection with the Water gradually added, until they are thoroughly mixed; then strain." U.S. The London College directs the same ingredients, but in double the quantity, and proceeds in the same manner as above. "Take of Mucilage of Gum Arabic two ounces; Almonds an ounce; Refined Sugar half an ounce; Water two pounds and a half. Blanch the almonds by steeping them in hot water and peeling them; then beat them diligently in a stone mortar, first with the Sugar, and afterwards with the Mucilage, gradually adding the Water; lastly, strain through linen." Ed. "Take of Gum Arabic, in powder, two drachms; Sweet Almonds, blanched, Refined Sugar, each, half an ounce; Water a pint. Dissolve the Gum in the heated Water, and when the solution is almost cold, gradually pour it upon the Almonds, previously well beaten with the Sugar, triturating at the same time so as to form an emulsion ; then strain." Dub. EMULSIO AMYGDALI COMMUNIS. Ed. Mistura Amyg- dalarum. Dub. Almond Emulsion. "Take of Sweet Almonds an ounce; Refined Sugar half an ounce; Water two pounds and a half. Blanch the Almonds by steeping them for a short time in hot water, and peeling them; then beat them dili- gently with the Sugar in a stone mortar, gradually adding the Water; and strain the liquor." Ed. "Take of Sweet Almonds, blanched, an ounce and a half; Bitter Al- monds two scruples; Refined Sugar half an ounce; Water two pints and a half. Triturate the Almonds with the Sugar, adding the Water by de- grees, and strain." Dub. • For some good practical observations upon the preparation of mixtures, the reader is referred to a communication published in the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, vol. iv. p. 11, by W. Hodgson, Jun. 894 Misturse. part ii. As the almond mixture of the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias is prepared from the almond confection which contains gum arabic, it arranges itself with the arabic emulsion of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges; while the almond emulsion of the Edinburgh College, and the almond mixture of the Dublin, containing no gum arabic, properly come together. All the preceding preparations, however, may be consi- dered as identical in properties; for the gum arabic is, like almonds, merely demulcent; and the proportion of bitter almonds in the mixture of the Dublin College is too small to produce any sensible effect on the system. The oleaginous matter of the almonds is suspended, by means of their albumen and gum, in the water, forming a milky emulsion. When the almonds themselves are employed, as in the Edinburgh and Dublin pro- cesses, care should be taken to reduce them to the consistence of a paste previously to the addition of the water; and with each successive portion of fluid a uniform mixture should be formed, before another portion is added. The use of the confection, as directed in the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias, very much facilitates the process. Common water, when not very impure, may be properly substituted for the dis- tilled. Great care should be taken to select the almonds perfectly free from rancidity. The mixture is not permanent. Upon standing, the oil rises like thick cream to the surface, and the separation is effected more quickly by heat, alcohol, and the acids, which coagulate the albumen. The preparation, in warm weather, soon becomes sour, and unfit for use. The almond mixture has a bland taste, and may be used as a pleasant demulcent in catarrhal and dysenteric affections, and irritation or in- flammation of the urinary passages. To be of any service it must be freely employed. From two to eight fluidounces may be taken at once. It is occasionally employed as the vehicle of less pleasant medicines; but should not be used in connexion with any considerable quantity of tinctures, acidulous salts, or other substances containing an excess of acid. MISTURA ASSAFOZTIDA. U.S., Lond. Mistura Assafoe- tida. Bub. Assafetida Mixture. " Take of Assafetida two drachms; Water half apint. Rub the Assa- fetida with the Water gradually added, until they are thoroughly mix- ed." U.S., Lond. The Dublin College directs one drachm of assafetida and eight fluid- ounces of pennyroyal water. This mixture, from its whiteness and opacity, is frequently called lac assafoetidae, or milk of assafetida. It is, as a general rule, the best form for the administration of this antispasmodic, being less stimulant than the tincture, and more prompt in its action than the pill. Its excessively disagreeable smell and taste are, however, objections, which induce a frequent preference of the last mentioned preparation. It is very often employed as an enema. The dose is from one to two tablespoonfuls, frequently repeated. From two to four fluidounces may be given by the rectum. MISTURA CALCIS CARBONATIS. U.S. Mistura Creta. Lond., Bub. Potio Carbonatis Calcis. Ed. Mixture of Car- bonate of Lime. Chalk Mixture. "Take of Prepared Carbonate of Lime [prepared chalk] half an ounce; Sugar [refined], Gum Arabic, in powder, each, two drachms; part n. Misturse. 895 Cinnamon Water, Water, each, four fluidounces. Rub them together till they are mixed." U.S. The London College orders half an ounce of prepared chalk, three drachms of refined sugar, half an ounce of powdered gum arabic, and a pint of water. The formula of the Dublin College is the same, except that an ounce of mucilage of gum arabic is substituted for the half ounce of gum in powder. The Edinburgh College takes an ounce of prepared carbonate of lime, half an ounce of refined sugar, and two ounces of mucilage of gum arabic; and having rubbed them together, adds gradually two pounds and a half of water, and two ounces of spirit of cinnamon. We prefer the process of the U.S. Pharmacopceia. The mixture of the London and Dublin Colleges is without any aromatic addition; that of the Edinburgh College is in too large a quantity. This mixture is a convenient form for administering chalk, and is much employed in looseness of the bowels accompanied with acidity. Laudanum and kino or catechu are very often added to increase its as- tringency. The dose is a tablespoonful frequently repeated. MISTURA CAMPHORA CUM MAGNESIA. Dub. Mixture of Camphor with Magnesia. "Take of Camphor twelve grains; Carbonate of Magnesia half a drachm; Water six ounces [fluidounces]. Triturate the Camphor with the Magnesia, adding the Water gradually, and mix." Dub. This differs from the Aqua Camphorae of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, in which, though the camphor is dissolved by the intervention of magnesia, the latter is afterwards separated by filtration. In the above mixture the carbonate of magnesia is retained; and an anodyne, antacid, and laxa- tive draught is formed, which, though it may sometimes be given with advantage, hardly deserves a place among the officinal preparations. MISTURA CORNU USTI. Lond. Mixture of Burnt Harts- horn. " Take of Burnt Hartshorn two ounces; Gum Arabic an ounce; Water three pints. Boil down to two pints, constantly stirring, and strain." Lond. This formula is altogether absurd. The phosphate of lime, which constitutes almost the whole of the burnt hartshorn, is insoluble in water hot or cold, and might be suspended by means of gum arabic without boiling. It is, moreover, quite inert as a medicine. MISTURA FERRI AROMATICA. Dub. Aromatic Mixture of Iron. " Take of Crown Bark, in coarse powder, an ounce; Columbo Root, sliced, three drachms; Cloves, bruised, two drachms; Iron Filings half an ounce. Digest for three days in a close vessel, with occasional agita- tion, with such a quantity of mint water as will yield a mixture of twelve ounces after filtration ; then add, of Compound Tincture of Cardamoms three ounces, Tincture of Orange Peel three drachms." Dub. This is an aromatic infusion of Peruvian bark and columbo, and has not the slightest claim to the title given it in the Pharmacopceia, as it contains but a very small proportion of iron, and that in a state of solu- tion, not of mixture. In consequence of the action of some of the vege- table principles upon the filings, enough of the metal is taken up to im- part a greenish-black colour to the liquor; but the quantity is not appreciable, as the filings seem to be scarcely diminished by the process. 896 Misturse. part ii. The preparation may be given as a tonic in the dose of one or two fluid- ounces. MISTURA FERRI COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Bub. Com- pound Mixture of Iron. " Take of Myrrh, in powder, a drachm; Carbonate of Potassa twenty- five grains; Rose Water half a pint; Sulphate of Iron, in powder, a scruple; Spirit of Lavender half a fluidounce; Sugar [refined] a drachm. Rub together the Myrrh, Carbonate of Potassa, and Sugar, and during the trituration, add gradually, first the Rose Water and Spirit of Laven- der, and lastly the Sulphate of Iron. Pour the mixture immediately into a glass bottle, which is to be well stopped." U.S. "Take of Myrrh, in powder, a drachm; Subcarbonate of Potassa [Carbonate of Potassa] twenty-five grains; Rose Water seven fluidounces and a half; Sulphate of Iron, in powder, a scruple; Spirit of Nutmeg half a fluidounce; Refined Sugar a drachm. Rub the Myrrh with the Spirit of Nutmeg and Subcarbonate of Potassa; and to these, while rubbing, add first the Rose Water with the Sugar, and then the Sulphate of Iron. Put the mixture immediately into a suitable glass vessel, and stop it." Lond., Dub. This is very nearly the same with the celebrated tonic or antihectic myrrh mixture of Dr. Griffith. The sulphate of iron is decomposed by the carbonate of potassa, with the production of sulphate of potassa and protocarbonate of iron; while the excess of the alkaline carbonate forms a saponaceous compound with the myrrh. The mixture is at first of a greenish colour, which it loses upon exposure to the air, in conse- quence of the conversion of the protoxide of iron of the protocarbonate into the red or peroxide. It may, however, be kept for some time with- out change, if the vessel in which it is contained be well closed; but the best plan is to prepare it only when it is wanted for use. It is a good tonic in debility of the digestive organs, especially when attended with derangement of the menstrual function. Hence it is used with advantage in chlorosis and hysterical affections. It is also much employed in the hectic fever of phthisis and chronic catarrh. It is con- tra-indicated by the existence of inflammation of the gastric mucous membrane. The dose is one or two fluidounces two or three times a day. MISTURA GUAIACI. Lond. Mixture of Guaiac. " Take of Guaiacum Gum-resin a drachm and a half; Refined Sugar two drachms; Mucilage of Gum Arabic two fluidrachms; Cinnamon Wa- ter eight fluidounces. Rub the Guaiac with the Sugar, then with the Mucilage, and to these, while rubbing, add gradually the Cinnamon Water." Lond. From one to three tablespoonfuls of this mixture may be given for a dose, and repeated two or three times a day, or more frequently. MISTURA MOSCHI. Lond. Musk Mixture. " Take of Musk, Gum Arabic, in powder, Refined Sugar, each, a drachm; Rose Water six fluidounces. Rub the Musk with the Sugar, then with the Gum, adding gradually the Rose Water." Lond. The musk should be thoroughly rubbed with the gum and sugar be- fore the addition of the water. The mixture will be more permanent if made with twice the quantity of gum directed. The dose is a fluidounce. PART II. Morphia. S97 MORPHIA. Preparations of Morphia. MORPHIA. U.S. Morphia. " Take of Opium, sliced, a pound; Distilled Water dxpints; Alcohol a gallon; Water of Ammonia six fluidounces. Macerate the Opium, with four pints of the Distilled Water, in a glass vessel, for six days, fre- quently stirring; then filter through paper. Wash the residue with the remainder of the Water, and filter as before. Mix the filtered liquors, and add first five pints of the Alcohol, and afterwards three fluidounces of the Water of Ammonia, previously mixed with half a pint of the Alcohol. After twenty-four hours, pour in the rest of the Water of Ammonia, mixed, as before, with half a pint of the alcohol; and set the liquor aside for a day, that crystals may form. To purify these, boil them with the remainder of the Alcohol till they are dissolved, filter the solution while hot, and set it aside to crystallize." U.S. The process for procuring morphia will be better understood by a previous acquaintance with the properties and chemical relations of this principle. Morphia crystallizes in the form of small, colourless, shining crystals, which appear to be rectangular prisms. It is inodorous and bitter. Ex- posed to a moderate heat it loses the crystalline form, becoming white and opaque. At a higher temperature it melts, forming a yellowish liquid, which becomes white and crystalline upon cooling. Heated in the open air it burns with a bright flame. It is insoluble in cold water, soluble in rather less than 100 parts of water at 212°, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, and freely so in boiling alcohol, which precipitates it upon cooling. It is dissolved also by the fixed and volatile oils, but very slightly if at all by ether. Its solution restores the blue colour of litmus paper reddened by acids, and turns the yellow of turmeric to brown. With the acids it forms salts, which are generally soluble, and are de- composed by the alkalies. The solutions of potassa and of soda are also capable of dissolving morphia, which is precipitated slowly on exposure to the air, in consequence of the absorption of carbonic acid. Aqua ammoniae has to a certain extent the same solvent power; and hence the necessity, in precipitating morphia by this alkali, not to employ it in great excess. Morphia and its salts, by the contact of nitric acid, assume a blood-red colour, which ultimately changes to yellow. When added to a solution of iodic acid, or an acidulous iodate, they redden the liquid and set iodine free. (Serullas.) According to Robinet, they assume a fine blue colour with the salts of the peroxide of iron, especially the permuriate. Morphia is precipitated from its solutions, according to Dublanc, by the infusion of galls, but not by pure gallic acid. (Journ. de Pharm. xvi. 429.) Wittstock, on the contrary, states that the salts of morphia are not disturbed by the infusion of galls when entirely pure; but yield a precipitate if contaminated with the smallest proportion of narcotin. (Berzelius, Traite de Chimie, v. 132.) The ultimate constituents of morphia, are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. According to Dumas and Pelletier, 100 parts of morphia saturate 12.465 of sulphuric acid. The equivalent of morphia is therefore 320. Leibig gives 10.33 and 75.38 as the mutually saturating quantities of the acid and base; which makes the equivalent 292. Various processes for preparing morphia have been proposed. In all 113 898 Morphia. part ii. of them the morphia is extracted from the opium either in the state of meconate,or in combination with some acid added to the menstruum; is precipitated from its solution by ammonia or magnesia; and is then purified by the agency of alcohol, or by repeated solution in a dilute acid and precipitation. The processes may be considered under three heads; 1st, those in which ammonia is employed as the precipitant, and alcohol as the agent of purification; 2d, those in which magnesia is used instead of ammonia; and 3d, those in which the alkali is obtained pure without the agency of alcohol. 1. Sertuerner made an infusion of opium in distilled water, precipi- tated the morphia by ammonia in excess, dissolved the precipitate in dilute sulphuric acid, precipitated anew by ammonia, and purified by solution in boiling alcohol and crystallization. The process of M. Hottot, considerably followed in France, is a modi- fication of that of Sertuerner. It is as follows. " Take of commercial opium 1000 parts; macerate it in sufficient cold water to exhaust it; unite the infusions; evaporate till the liquor is at 2° Baume; pour into it when half cooled sufficient ammonia to render the liquid neutral or slightly alkaline, about 8 parts [10 parts of the aqua ammoniae of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia]; allow the fatly matter to subside; decant, and add anew 64 parts of liquid ammonia [about 85 parts of the aq. am. of the U.S. Pharm.]; set aside the liquor for 12 hours; throw the precipi- tate which forms upon a filter; wash it with cold water; then treat it with 3000 parts of alcohol of 34° Baume, and 64 parts of animal char- coal; heat the mixture in a water-bath, and filter it while boiling hot. When the liquor cools the morphia will be precipitated in crystals." (Journ. de Pharm. x. 479.) The alcohol may be purified by distillation, and an additional quantity of morphia may thus be obtained. In this process, the object of the first addition of ammonia is to separate the fatty matter, which might otherwise embarrass the subsequent steps of the operation. The necessity for a second solution in alcohol, or a solu- tion in diluted sulphuric acid and precipitation, is thus avoided; but it has been asserted that considerable morphia is associated with the fatty matter, and that loss is thereby incurred. The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is an improvement upon the above, and is essentially the same with that of Dr. Edward Staples, published in the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, Vol. I. p. 15. Without repeating a description of the process, we shall make such remarks upon its several steps, as appear to us likely to be of practical advantage. The employment of water as the solvent is justified by the almost universal practice. It is true, that Sertuerner sometimes employed dilute acetic acid, and Vogel states that the pro- duct thus obtained is much greater than when water alone is used. Dr. Staples, also, recommends diluted vegetable acids in the treatment of opium of medium quality. But when the opium is properly com- minuted, either by being reduced to a coarse powder when dry, or by being finely sliced, in its ordinary state, water alone will be found suffi- ciently to extract the morphia, by a protracted digestion, such as that directed in the Pharmacopceia. The acids have this disadvantage, that they dissolve more of the narcotin than pure water, and thus render the ultimate product more impure; for the narcotin which is originally taken up continues associated with the morphia in all the subsequent steps of the process. It has been proposed to expose the opium to fermentation with water and yeast, in order. to facilitate the extraction of the mor» phia. By this plan M. Blondeau succeeded in procuring more of the PART II. Morphia. 899 alkaline principle than he could obtain by the ordinary mode; and his results were confirmed by the experiments of MM. Robiquet and Gui- bourt. According to these latter chemists, no alcohol is produced dur- ing the fermentation, which appears to act merely by disengaging mor- phia from the combinations in which it naturally exists, and which tend to counteract the solvent power of the menstruum. Alcohol has been proposed as the solvent by M. Guillermond,but it is liable to the objec- tion that it dissolves also the resin, a portion of which is afterwards precipitated with the morphia and embarrasses the process. Much of the resin, however, may be separated by distilling most of the alcohol from the tincture, and then adding water. The resin is precipitated, and the liquor may now be treated in the same manner with the aqueous in- fusion. On the whole, the officinal mode of extraction will probably be found most satisfactory; and should the opium not be exhausted, mace- ration in successive portions of water may be resorted to, and the mixed liquors reduced by evaporation to the quantity ordered in the Pharma- copoeia. The solution of opium having been prepared, the next object is to decompose the meconate or other salt of morphia, according as water alone, or a diluted acid has been employed as the menstruum. For this purpose water of ammonia is added, which seizes the acid and precipitates the vegetable alkali; but much colouring matter will be thrown down along with the latter, occasioning some trouble to sepa- rate it, unless measures are taken to obviate this effect. The object is gained by mixing the infusion with alcohol, previously to the addition of the ammonia, and by employing the water of ammonia itself in con- nexion with alcohol, as directed in the Pharmacopoeia. This is the peculiarity and chief merit of the process of Dr. Staples. By the pre- sence of the alcohol in all parts of the liquor, the colouring matter is dissolved so soon as it is separated by the ammonia, and the morphia is thus precipitated in a much purer state. The advantage of adding the ammonia in separate portions is, that the morphia being thus more slowly disengaged, can be more completely deprived of its impurities by the alcohol of the mixture, than if the whole were liberated al once. It is necessary to be careful that the ammonia be not in great excess, as it has the property, under these circumstances, of dissolving the morphia in some degree, and will therefore lessen the product, while waste is in- curred by its own unnecessary consumption. The quantity of water of ammonia ordered by the Pharmacopoeia is too great, if it be used of the proper officinal strength (sp. gr. 944). Very little more should be added than is sufficient to saturate the acid present. Four fluidounces will be found abundantly sufficient for this purpose. But the water of ammonia of the shops is often much below the officinal standard, and this should always be attended to in the process. Alcohol is mixed with the ammonia before it is added, in order that every particle of the separated morphia may come in contact with the particles of this fluid, and thus have the opportunity of being deprived of colouring matter. The crystals of mor- phia obtained by this first operation have a light yellowish colour, and are much purer than when no alcohol is added to the infusion before the precipitation by ammonia. According to Dr. Staples, opium yields from 10 to 12s per cent, of these crystals. Their purification by solution in boiling alcohol, is the concluding step of the operation. The liquid, on cooling, deposites the morphia in a crystalline state and nearly free from colour. As cold alcohol retains a portion of the morphia in solu- tion, it should not be employed in too large a quantity. Alcohol some- what reduced by water, is preferable to the highly rectified spirit; as it 900 Morphia. part ii. is less capable of holding the morphia in solution when cold. It is suf- ficiently strong for the purpose at 25° Baume (sp. gr. 0.9032). The im- pure morphia remaining in the alcohol maybe obtained by distilling off the latter, and when sufficiently accumulated, may be purified by a sepa- rate operation. The crystals of morphia may also be purified by solu- tion in dilute sulphuric acid, digestion with animal charcoal deprived of earthy matter, filtration, and precipitation by ammonia. If alcohol be added to the solution previously to the ammonia, the digestion with animal charcoal may be dispensed with, as the alcohol retains the colour- ing matter. 2. The process in which magnesia is employed instead of ammonia to precipitate the morphia is that of Robiquet. It is as follows. Select the dryest opium, divide it into small pieces, and macerate it with cold water for six days; then separate the infusion, and knead the residuary mass with a fresh portion of water, in order that all the soluble parts may be extracted. Unite the liquors; add magnesia in the proportion of 5 parts to 100 of the opium used, and boil for fifteen minutes. The magnesia decomposes the meconate of morphia, uniting with the acid, and separating the morphia, which is precipitated with the excess of the earth, an insoluble submeconate of magnesia, and colouring matter. Collect the precipitate upon a filter, and having washed it with water, allow it to drain and dry; then remove it from the filter, reduce it to powder, and digest it with a gentle heat in alcohol of 22° Baume (sp. gr. .9212). Decant the solution, and repeat the digestion in fresh por- t tions of alcohol till this liquid ceases to extract any thing from the pre- cipitate. Most of the colouring matter is thus removed. Place the re- sidue upon a filter and allow it to drain; then remove it, treat it with strong boiling alcohol, and filter the alcoholic solution while boiling hot. Upon cooling, the solution deposites the morphia. Treat the impure residuary mass several times in the same manner with fresh portions of alcohol. After the deposition of the morphia, the mother liquors may be made to furnish a fresh supply by evaporation at a low temperature. If the morphia, thus procured, be not colourless, it may be rendered so by boiling it in alcohol with a small portion of pure animal charcoal, filtering the liquid while hot, and allowing it to crystallize. The process of Robiquet occupies a longer time, requires the con- sumption of a larger proportion of alcohol, and is attended with a greater •loss of morphia, in consequence of the frequent washings, than the pro- cesses in which ammonia is employed as the precipitant. Some one of the latter, therefore, is generally preferred. 3. The following process for extracting morphia without the use of alcohol has been proposed by MM. Henry Jun. and Plisson. Take of opium 500 parts, slice it, and infuse it three times successively in three several mixtures, each consisting of 500 parts of water and 20 parts of muriatic acid. Unite the liquors, filter, and add water of ammonia, or a solution of caustic soda of 2° or 3° Baume. Collect and wash the pre- cipitate; then slightly acidulate the mother waters, concentrate them about three quarters, and precipitate as above. By this last step, the morphia which was held in solution by means of the alkali is partly thrown down, as concentrated alkaline liquors dissolve less of this prin- ciple than the dilute. The precipitate, consisting of resin, caoutchouc, morphia and narcotin, and extractive colouring matter, is next to be treated several times with water slightly acidulated, with the assistance of a gentle heat, till the acidulous liquor ceases to be saturated. A little resin and extractive matter, and a large quantity of muriate of morphia PART II. Morphia. 901 are dissolved, while the remainder contains the resin and much narco- tin, the latter of which principles is not soluble in very dilute muriatic acid when presented to it in connexion with morphia. The solution is now to be filtered, and concentrated by evaporation so that crystals may form. These, which have a brown colour, are to be washed slightly, and twice purified by animal charcoal, with the aid of new crystallizations in water. The blackish mother waters are decomposed by the alkalies and treated separately in the manner above detailed. The muriate of morphia, purified by three crystallizations, is then dissolved in a very small quantity of water very slightly acidulated, and decomposed by a small excess of water of ammonia. The morphia is to be collected on a filter, and dried by a gentle heat. From 400 parts of commercial opium, MM. Henry and Plisson obtained by this process 26 or 27 parts of morphia free from narcotin. It is not probable that this method will be practically applied. The saving of alcohol, and the exemption from narcotin, are overbalanced by the necessary consumption of time. Various other processes, or modifications of those above described, have been proposed; but none which, in our opinion, combine the advan- tages of economy of time and richness of product equally with that of Dr. Staples. Morphia obtained by any of the processes described, with the excep- tion of that of MM. Henry and Plisson, contains a considerable propor- tion of narcotin. It is highly probable that this ingredient exercises no influence, either beneficial or injurious, upon the operation of the mor- phia; but as the contrary has been supposed, various methods have been employed for separating it. The simplest and easiest is to submit the mixture to the action of sulphuric ether, which dissolves the narcotin and leaves the morphia. The agency of dilute acids, particularly the muriatic, may also be resorted to. As morphia is more soluble in this acid than narcotin, it will be exclusively dissolved, provided the acid be very much diluted, and added in quantities barely sufficient to saturate this base. The morphia may then be obtained by the addition of water of ammonia to the solution. Another mode is to dissolve the mixed bases in strong acetic acid, (of 7° Baume or sp. gr. 1.0511, for example,) and expose the solution to heat. The narcotin is precipitated, and the morphia remaining in solution, may be precipitated by diluting the li- quid and adding ammonia. (See Jour, de Pharm. xvii. p. 640.) Witt- stock advises one of the following methods. Dissolve the impure mor- phia in dilute muriatic acid, evaporate to the point of crystallization, and strongly express the crystals, which consist solely of the muriate of morphia, the narcotin being retained in the mother waters:—or, saturate the muriatic solution with common salt, which will render the liquors milky, and cause the narcotin to separate after some clays; then preci- pitate the morphia by ammonia:—or, pour into the diluted muriatic so- lution a weak ley of caustic potassa, which, if in slight excess, will dis- solve the morphia at the moment of its separation, while the narcotin is precipitated; then immediately filter the liquor, and separate the morphia by neutralizing the alkali. If the potassa be in considerable excess, a small portion of the narcotin is redissolved. (Berzelius, Traite de Chimie.) The quantity of pure morphia which Turkey opium is capable of affording, varies from nine per cent, or less, to fourteen per cent., ac- cording to the quality of the drug; but much less is often obtained, in consequence of the incomplete exhaustion of the opium, or the loss in the process for preparing it. 902 Morphia. partii. Medical Properties.—There can be no doubt that morphia is the chief, if not the exclusive narcotic principle of opium, from which, however, it differs somewhat in its mode of action. Whether the difference arises from the peculiar state of combination in which morphia exists in opium, or from other narcotic principles being associated with it, has not been determined; but the former would seem to be the probable cause, from the circumstance, that long before the discovery ot this alkali, prepara- tions of opium were habitually used, in which the properties of the me- dicine were somewhat similarly modified by the agency of vinegar, lemon-juice, or other vegetable acid. In consequence of its insolubility in water, morphia in its pure state is less certain in its effects than some of its saline compounds; as the mode and degree of its action must, in some measure, depend on the presence or absence of acid in the sto- mach, and perhaps on the peculiar character of the acid. Its salts are therefore always preferred. The acetate, sulphate, and muriate, have been employed. Between these there is a great similarity of action, and what may be said of one, in regard to its therapeutical effects, will equally apply to the other. They have the anodyne, soporific, and dia- phoretic properties of opium; but are less stimulant, less disposed to constipate the bowels, and less apt to leave behind them headach, nau- sea, or other unpleasant effect. They are usually also more acceptable to the irritated stomach, and will often be retained, when opium or its tincture would be rejected. They are applicable to all cases where the object is to relieve pain, quiet restlessness, promote sleep, or allay ner- vous irritation in any shape; but are less efficient than opium in the suppression of morbid discharges, and as stimulants in low forms of disease. We have found them especially useful in the mania arising from intemperance. A great advantage which they possess, is the convenience of their external application to blistered surfaces, and the certainty of their effects when thus applied. In cases which do not admit of the in- ternal use of opium or its preparations, the acetate or sulphate of mor- phia, sprinkled, in triple the ordinary dose, upon a blistered surface denuded of the cuticle, will be found to exercise upon the system all the influence it is capable of exerting when taken into the stomach. Ap- plied in this manner, these salts are peculiarly useful in relieving violent neuralgic pains, and controlling obstinate sickness of the stomach. When intended to act on the system through the medium of the skin, they should be applied preferably to the epigastrium; when to act locally, as near the affected part as possible. When given in doses nearly, but not quite sufficient to produce sleep, they sometimes give rise to a very troublesome condition of the brain, amounting almost to delirium; but this always subsides spontaneously, and vanishes immediately upon the increase of the dose. In over doses, morphia and its salts produce the symptoms of narcotic poisons, though not perhaps in the same degree with a quantity of opium, equivalent in anodyne effect. The toxicological treatment is pre- cisely the same as in the case of laudanum. (See Opium.) As the proportion of acid necessary to neutralize morphia is very small, the dose of the alkali is the same with that of its salts. One-sixth of a grain may be considered equivalent to a grain of opium of the me- dium strength. The acetate and sulphate of morphia are officinal; and processes are given for their preparation, under distinct heads. The muriate may be prepared by saturating dilute muriatic acid with morphia, evaporat- ing, crystallizing, and pressing the crystals in bibulous paper to sepa- PART II. Morphia. 903 rate the narcotin which remains in the mother liquor. It may also be prepared directly from opium, according to the process of MM. Henry and Plisson, before detailed, or by that of Dr. William Greg6ry of Edin- burgh, which the reader will find in the third volume of the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, p. 124. Off. Prep. Morphiae Acetas, U.S.; Morphiae Sulphas, U.S. MORPHIA ACETAS. Acetate of Morphia. " Take of Morphia, in powder, an ounce; Distilled Water half a pint; Acetic Acid a sufficient quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Water; then carefully drop in the Acid, constantly stirring, until the Morphia is saturated and dissolved. Evaporate the solution, by means of a water- bath, to the consistence of syrup; lastly, dry the Acetate of Morphia with a gentle heat, and rub it into powder." U.S. Acetic acid is employed in the process in preference to vinegar, be- cause it can leave no impurity in the resulting salt. The solution of the morphia in the water is an indication that it is saturated. A small ex- cess of acid is attended with no inconvenience, as it is subsequently driven off by the heat. Care is requisite not to employ too great a heat in the evaporation, as the acetate is readily decomposed, a portion of the acetic acid escaping, and leaving an equivalent portion of uncom- bined morphia. With attention to arrest the evaporation at a certain point, the acetate may be obtained in the state of crystals; but the crys- tallization is attended with some difficulty, and evaporation to dryness is almost universally preferred. Some recommend to dissolve the mor- phia in boiling alcohol, instead of suspending it in water, previously to the addition of the acetic acid. A less heat is thus required in the eva- poration, and impurities in the morphia may often be delected, as they are apt not to be soluble in alcohol. To ascertain, in this case, whether the morphia is saturated, it is necessary to employ litmus paper, the blue colour of which should not be restored, if previously reddened by an acid. Acetate of morphia crystallizes in the form of slender needles united in fasciculi. It is readily dissolved by water, and less easily by alcohol. As ordinarily obtained, however, by evaporation to dryness, it is not entirely soluble in water, a portion of it being uncombined morphia. To render it soluble, all that is necessary is to add a little distilled vinegar. From an eighth to a quarter of a grain may be given for a dose, and repeated, if necessary, in order to obtain the anodyne and soporific effect of the medicine. One-sixth of a grain is about equivalent to a grain of opium. It may be given in pill or solution. It is frequently employed externally, sprinkled on blistered surfaces, to obtain its effects upon the system. MORPHIA SULPHAS. U.S. Sulphate of Morphia. " Take of Morphia, in powder, an ounce; Distilled Water half apint; Diluted Sulphuric Acid a sufficient quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Water; then carefully drop in the Acid, constantly stirring, till the Morphia is saturated and dissolved. Evaporate the solution, by means of a water-bath, so that crystals may form when it cools. Dry the crys- tals upon bibulous paper." U.S. In this process, the morphia is known to be saturated when it is wholly dissolved by the water. To ascertain whether the acid is added in excess, litmus paper may be resorted to. The mother liquor remain- ing after the first crystallization may be evaporated, so as to obtain a 904 Morphia.—Mucilagines. part ii. fresh supply of the sulphate; but if the morphia was not originally quite pure, the second product will contain the impurities, and should not be used till it has undergone further preparation. When impure mor- phia is employed, the mother liquor should be mixed with alcohol, or boiled with washed animal charcoal and filtered, and then decomposed by ammonia, which will precipitate the morphia. This may then be converted into sulphate in the manner directed by the Pharmacopoeia. Another mode of obtaining sulphate of morphia, is to dissolve the alkali in boiling alcohol of 36° Baume (sp. gr. .8428), saturate it while hot with sulphuric acid, add animal charcoal previously washed with muriatic acid, boil for a few minutes, and filter the solution while at a boiling temperature. Upon cooling, it deposites most of the sulphate; and the remainder may be obtained by evaporating the mother liquor. The sulphate of morphia crystallizes in beautifully white, minute, feathery crystals, which are soluble in twice their weight of boiling wa- ter. They contain, according to Liebig, in 100 parts, 14.29 of Water, 10.33 of sulphuric acid, and 75.38 of morphia. By exposure to a heat of 248° F. they lose 9.66 parts of the water, but cannot be deprived of the remainder without decomposition. The dose of the sulphate of morphia is from an eighth to a quarter of a grain, which may be given in pill or solution. Off. Prep. Liquor Morphiae Sulphatis. LIQUOR MORPHIA SULPHATIS. U.S. Solution of Sul- phate of Morphia. " Take of Sulphate of Morphia eight grains; Distilled Water half a pint. Dissolve the Sulphate of Morphia in the Distilled Water." U.S. The sulphate of morphia as found in the shops, particularly that im- ported from France, is not always entirely soluble in water. This some- times, perhaps, arises from adulterations; but more frequently, in all probability, from the mode in which the sulphate is prepared. In the process of the French Codex for the preparation of this salt, the quan- tity of water directed for the suspension of the morphia is insufficient to hold the sulphate when it is formed in solution; and the consequence is, that upon the addition of sulphuric acid, the crystallization of the sulphate takes place before the whole of the morphia has been saturated by the acid. With the resulting salt, therefore, a portion of uncom- bined morphia is necessarily mixed; and this is probably the cause of the incomplete solubility of the sulphate of morphia alluded to. This explanation is rendered still more probable by the fact, that the addition of a little sulphuric acid usually remedies the defect and renders the whole soluble. Pure sulphate of morphia is readily and entirely soluble in cold water. This solution is very convenient, by enabling the physician to prescribe a minute dose, which in consequence of the great energy of the prepa- rations of morphia, is very often necessary. It has the advantage that it may be kept for a very considerable length of time unchanged. The full dose for an adult is from one to two fluidrachms, containing from an eighth to a quarter of a grain of the sulphate. MUCILAGINES. Mucilages. Mucilage, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, and in the sense in which it is employed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, is an aqueous solu- PART II. Mucilagines. 905 tion of gum or of substances closely allied to it. As used by the British Colleges it appears to signify any bland, viscid, aqueous, vegetable so- lution, resembling that of gum in sensible properties. MUC1LAG0 ACACIA. U.S., Lond. Mucilago Acacia Ara- bica. Ed. Mucilago Gummi Arabici. Dub. Mucilage of Gum Arabic. " Take of Gum Arabic, in powder, four ounces; Boiling Water half a pint. Add the Water gradually to the Gum, rubbing them together, till the mucilage is produced." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College directs one part of gum arabic, in powder, to two parts of boiling water; the Dublin College, four ounces of the for- mer, in coarse powder, to four fluidounces of the latter; both Colleges order the ingredients to be digested, with frequent agitation, till the gum is dissolved, and the resulting mucilage to be strained through linen. Straining through linen is necessary to separate the foreign substan- ces which are often mixed with gum arabic. This mucilage is semi- transparent, almost colourless if prepared from good gum, viscid, te- nacious, of a feeble peculiar odour, and nearly tasteless. By keeping, it becomes sour in consequence of the spontaneous generation of acetic acid; and this happens even though atmospheric air be excluded. It is employed chiefly in the formation of pills, and for the suspension or dif- fusion of insoluble substances in water. Off. Prep. Mistura Cretae, Dub.; Mistura Guaiaci, Lond.; Potio Cal- cis Carbonatis, Ed. MUCILAGO AMYLI. Lond., Ed., Dub. Mucilage of Starch. "Take of Starch three drachms [six drachms, Dub."]; Water a pint. Rub the Starch with the Water gradually added; then boil till a muci- lage is produced." Lond., Ed., Dub. This mucilage has an opaline appearance, and gelatinous consistence; and is much used as a vehicle for laudanum and other active remedies given in the form of enema. In consequence of its demulcent properties, it may be usefully employed as an enema in irritation and inflammation of the mucous coat of the rectum and large intestines. Its unpleasant flavour, when it is prepared from ordinary starch, precludes its employ- ment by the mouth. MUCILAGO GUMMI TRAGACANTHA. Dub. Mucilago Astragali Tragacantha. Ed. Mucilage of Tragacanth. "Take of Tragacanth, in powder, two drachms; Water eight fluid- ounces. Macerate in a covered vessel till the Gum is dissolved; then strain the mucilage through linen." Dub. " Take of Tragacanth, in powder, two drachms; Boiling Water eight ounces. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then triturate the Gum care- fully that it may be dissolved, and strain the mucilage through linen." Ed. A part only of tragacanth is soluble in water. The remainder swells up and forms a soft tenacious mass, which may be mechanically mixed with water, but does not form a proper solution. Hence the trituration directed by the Edinburgh College is necessary to complete the incor- poration of the ingredients. The mucilage is thick and very viscid, but not permanent, as the water separates from the insoluble portion of the tragacanth on standing. It is chiefly used in making pills and troches. In consequence of its great tenacity, it may be advantageously employed for the suspension of heavy insoluble substances, such as the metallic oxides, in water. 114 906 Olea Destillata. part ii. OLEA DESTILLATA. Distilled Oils. For an account of the general properties of the volatile, essential, or distilled oils, the reader is referred to the head of Olea Volatilia in the first part of this work. The following are the different officinal direc- tions for preparing them. OLEA DESTILLATA. U.S. " Put the substance from which the Oil is to be extracted, into a re- tort or other vessel suitable for distillation, and add enough Water (o cover it; then distil into a large refrigeratory. Separate the Distilled Oil from the Water which comes over with it. "In this manner prepare Oil of Anise, from Anise; Oil of Cara- way, from Caraway; Oil of Wormseed, from Wormseed; Oil of Fennel, from Fennel-seed; Oil of Partridge-berry, from Partridge- berry [leaves]; Oil of Pennyroyal [Oleum Hedeoma?], from Penny- royal ; Oil of Juniper, from Juniper [berries]; Oil of Lavender, from Lavender [flowers]; OiL of Peppermint, from Peppermint; Oil of Spearmint, from Spearmint; Oil of Horsemint, from Horsemint; Oil of Origanum, from Origanum [Marjoram] ; Oil of Pimento, from Pi- mento ; Oil of Rosemary, from Rosemary [tops]; Oil of Sassafras, from Bark of Sassafras Root." U. S. OLEA DESTILLATA. Lond. " Oil of Anise, of Chamomile, of Caraway, of Juniper, of Lavender, of Peppermint, of Spearmint, of Origanum, of Pimento, of Pennyroyal [Pulegium], of Rosemary. " The seeds of Anise and Caraway, the flowers of Chamomile and Lavender, the berries of Juniper and Pimento, the tops of Rosemary, and the fresh herb of the other plants are to be employed. Put any of these into an alembic, and add sufficient Water to cover it; then distil the Oil into a large refrigeratory. Let the Water which distils over with the Oils of Caraway, Peppermint, Spearmint, Pimento, and Penny- royal, be kept for use." Lond. OLEA VOLATILIA. Ed. "Only so much Water is to be added to the substance as will be suf- ficient to prevent it from being burnt when distilled. The distillation is to be commenced after due maceration, and the Oil is, lastly, to be se- parated from the Water. " In this manner are prepared the Volatile Oil of Chamomile, from the flowers; of Juniper, from the bruised berries ; of Savine, from the leaves; of Lavender, from the flowers; of Sassafras, from the bruised root; of Peppermint, from the herb; of Pimento, from the bruised fruit; of Origanum, from the herb; of Anise, from the seeds; of Rosemary, from the topsi" Ed. OLEA ESSENTIALIA. Bub. " Oil of Aniseed, of Caraway, of Fennel, from the seeds dried with a medium heat; of Sassafras, from the bark and wood; of Juniper, of Pimento, from the berries; of LaVendeb, from the flowers; of Pepper- mint, of Spearmint, of Origanum, of Pennyroyal, of Rosemary, of Rue, from the leaves and flowers of the plant while in flower; of Savine, from the leaves. " Put the substance, previously macerated in Water, into an alembic; part ii. Olea Destillata. 907 then, by means of the vapour of boiling water, distil into a receiver. Separate, by a proper apparatus, the Oil which floats on the surface, or sinks to the bottom, according as it is lighter or heavier than water. In distilling the seeds of Caraway and Fennel, the leaves of Peppermint, Spearmint, and Pennyroyal, and the berries of Pimento, the liquor which comes over with the oil is to be kept for use in the manner di- rected under the head of Distilled Waters." Dub. The substances from which the volatile oils are extracted, may be em- ployed either in the recent or dried state. Certain flowers, however, such as orange flowers and roses, must be used fresh, or preserved with salt, as they afford little or no oil after exsiccation. Most of the aromatic herbs, also, as peppermint, spearmint, pennyroyal, and marjoram, are usually distilled while fresh, and are directed in this state by the Lon- don College; although it is thought by some, that, when moderately dried, they yield a larger and more grateful product. Dried substances, before being submitted to distillation, require to be macerated in water till they are thoroughly penetrated by this fluid; and to facilitate the action of the water, it is necessary, that, when of a hard or tough con- sistence, they should be properly comminuted by slicing, shaving, rasp- ing, bruising, or other similar mechanical process. The water which is put with the subject of distillation into the alem- bic, answers the double purpose of preventing the decomposition of the vegetable matter by regulating the temperature, and of facilitating the volatilization of the oil, which, though in most instances it readily rises with the vapour of boiling water, requires when distilled alone, a consi- derably higher temperature, and is at the same time liable to be par- tially decomposed. Some oils, however, will not ascend readily with steam at 212°; and in the distillation of these it is customary to use water saturated with common salt, which does not boil under 230°. Others again may be volatilized with water at a temperature below the boiling point; and as heat exercises an injurious influence over the oils, it is desirable that the distillation should be effected at as low a tempe- rature as possible. To prevent injury from heat, it has been recommend- ed to suspend the substance containing the oil in a basket, or to place it upon a perforated shelf, in the upper part of the alembic, so that it may be penetrated by the steam, without being in direct contact with the water. Another mode of effecting the same object, is to distil in vacuo. Dr. Duncan states, that the most elegant volatile oils he had ever seen were prepared in this manner by Mr. Barry, the inventor of the process. The quantity of water added is not a matter of indifference. An ex- cess above what is necessary, acts injuriously by holding the oil in so- lution, when the mixed vapours are condensed; and if the proportion be very large, it is possible that no oil whatever may be obtained sepa- rate. On the contrary, if the quantity be too small, the whole of the oil will not be distilled; and there will be danger of the substance in the alembic adhering to the sides of the vessel, and thus becoming burnt. Enough water should always be added to cover the solid material, and prevent this latter accident. Dried plants require more water than those which are fresh and succulent. The whole amount of materials in the alembic should not exceed three-fourths of its capacity; as otherwise there would be danger of the liquid boiling over. The form of the alembic has a considerable influence over the quantity of water distilled, which depends more upon the extent of surface than the amount of liquid submitted to evaporation. By employing a high and narrow ves- 90S Olea Destillata. part ii. sel, we may obviate the disadvantage of an excess of water. The broad shallow alembic, suitable for the distillation of alcohol and the spiritu- ous liquors, will not answer so well in this case. Sometimes the propor- tion of oil contained in the substance employed is so small, that it is wholly dissolved in the water distilled, even though the proportion of the liquid in the alembic is not greater than is absolutely essential. In this case it is necessary to redistil the same water several times from fresh portions of the plant, till the quantity of oil exceeds its solvent power. This process is called cohobation. The more volatile oils pass with facility along with the steam into the neck of the common still; but some which are less volatile are apt to condense in the head, and thus return into the alembic. For the distilla- tion of the latter, a still should be employed with a large and very low head, having a rim or gutter around its internal circumference, into which the oils may be received as they condense, and thence pass into the neck.. As, after the distillation of any one oil, it is necessary that the apparatus should be thoroughly cleansed before being used for the preparation of another, it is better that the condensing tube should be straight, than spiral as in the ordinary still. It should be recollected, moreover, that certain oils, such as those of anise and fennel, become solid at a comparatively high temperature; and that in the distillation of these, the water employed for refrigeration should not be below 42° F. The mixed vapours are condensed into a milky liquid, which is col- lected in a receiver, and after standing for some time separates into a clear solution of the oil in water, and into the oil itself, the latter float- ing on the surface, or sinking to the bottom, according as it is lighter or heavier than water. The distillation should be continued so long as the fluid which comes over has this milky appearance. The last step in the process is to separate the oil from the water. For this purpose the Florence receiver may be used. This is a conical glass vessel, broad at the bottom, and narrow towards the top, and, very near its base, furnished with a tubulure or opening, to which is adapted, by means of a pierced cork, a bent tube so shaped as to rise perpendicu- larly to seven-eighths of the height of the receiver, then to pass off from it at right angles, and near the end to bend downwards. The condensed liquid being admitted through the opening in the top of the receiver, the oil separates, and rising to the top, occupies the upper narrow part of the vessel, while the water remains at the bottom and enters the tube affixed to the receiver. When the surface of the liquid attains in the receiver a higher level than the top of the tube, the water will necessarily begin to flow out through the latter, and may be received in bottles. The oil thus accumulates so long as the process continues; but it is evident that the plan is applicable only to the oils lighter than water. For the heavier oils, cylindrical vessels may be employed, to be renewed as fast as they are filled. But as all the water cannot be removed by these plans, it is necessary to resort to some other method of effecting a complete separation. An instrument called a separatory is usually employed for this purpose. It consists of a glass funnel, bulging at the top, where it is furnished with a stopper, and prolonged at the bottom into a very nar- row tube. (See figure, page 683.) The lower opening being closed, the mixed liquids are introduced, and allowed to stand till they separate. The orifice at bottom is then opened, and the stopper at top being a lit- tle loosened so as to admit the air, the heavier liquid slowly flows out, and may be separated to the last drop from the lighter, which floats above it. If the oil is heavier than water, it passes out of the separatory, PART II. Olea Destillata. 909 if lighter, it remains within. Another mode of separating the oil, is to introduce into the vessel containing the two liquids, one end of a cord of cotton, the other end hanging out and terminating in a suitable re- ceptacle beneath the level of that immersed in the liquid. The oil at top passes through the cord, and may thus be wholly removed. The last drops may be collected by pressing the cord between the fingers. The water saturated with oil should be preserved for future distilla- tions, as it can now dissolve none of the oil, and will therefore yield a larger product. When first procured, the oil has a disagreeable empyreumatic odour, from which it may be freed by allowing it to stand for some days in ves- sels loosely covered with paper. It should then be introduced into small opaque bottles, which should be well stopped, so as to exclude the air. The volatile oils have the medical properties of the plants from which they are derived; and as their remedial application has been mentioned under the heads of these plants respectively, it will be unnecessary to treat of it in this place. They may be administered dropped on a lump of sugar; or triturated with at least ten times their weight of sugar, forming an oleosaccharum, and then dissolved in water; or made into an emulsion with water, sugar, and gum arabic. They are frequently kept dissolved in alcohol under the name of essences. OLEUM ANISI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oleum Volatile Pim- pinella Anisi. Ed. Oil of Anise. Recluz obtained from fresh anise seeds from 2.125 to 2.48 per cent. of oil; from the dried, 3.125 per cent. The oil employed in this country is almost all imported. It is colourless or yellowish, with the peculiar odour and taste of the seed. At 50° it crystallizes in flat tables, and does not melt under 62°. Its sp. gr. is variously stated from 0.9768 to 0.9903. Berzelius gives it 0.9857 at 77° F. It is soluble in all proportions in alcohol of 0.806; but alcohol of 0.840 dissolves at 77° only 42 per cent. It consists of two oils, one solid at ordinary temperatures and heavier than water (stearoplene), the other liquid and more volatile (eleoptene). It is said to be sometimes adulterated with spermaceti, wax, or camphor. The first two may be detected by their insolubility in cold alcohol, the last by its odour. The dose of the oil is from five to fifteen drops. Its comparative mildness adapts it to infantile cases. Off. Prep. Syrupus Sarsaparillae, U.S.; Tinctura Opii Camphorata, U.S., Dub. OLEUM ANTHEMIDIS. Lond. Oleum Volatile Anthemi- dis Nobilis. Ed. Oil of Chamomile. This is never prepared, and little used, in this country. It has the peculiar smell of chamomile, with a pungent somewhat aromatic taste. When recently distilled it is of a sky-blue colour, which changes to yel- low on exposure. The sp. gr. of the English oil is said to be 0.9083. It has sometimes been used in spasm of the stomach, and as an adjunct to purgative medicines. The dose is from five to fifteen drops. On the continent of Europe, an oil extracted from the Matricana Chamomilla is employed under the name of oil of chamomile. OLEUM CARI. U.S. Oleum Carui. Lond, Dub. Oil of Ca- raway. This oil is prepared to a considerable extent by our distillers. The fresh seeds yield on an average about 4.7 per cent. (Recluz) ; but the pro- duct is very variable. The oil of caraway is somewhat viscid, of a pale 910 Olea Destillata. part ii. yellow colour, with the odour and taste of the seeds. Its sp. gr. is 0.946 according to Baume, 0.931 according to Brande. It is much used to im- part flavour to medicines, and to correct their nauseating and griping effects. The dose is from one to ten drops. Off. Prep. Confectio Scammoneae, Lond., Dub.; Electuarium Sennae, Dub.; Pilulse Aloes Compositae, Lond., Dub. OLEUM CHENOPODII. U.S. Oil of Wormseed. This oil is peculiar to the United States. It is of a light yellow co- lour when recently distilled, but becomes deeper yellow, and even brown- ish by age. It has in a high degree the peculiar flavour of the plant. Its sp. gr. is 0.908. It is used as an anthelmintic, in the dose of from four to eight drops for a child, repeated morning and evening for three or four days, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. OLEUM FCENICULI. U.S. Oleum Fceniculi Dulcis. Dub. Oil of Fennel. Fennel seeds yield about 2.5 per cent, of oil. That used in this coun- try is imported. It is colourless or yellowish, with the odour and taste of the seeds. Its sp. gr. is 0.997. It congeals below 50° into a crystalline mass, separable by pressure into a solid and liquid oil (stearoptene and eleoptene), the former heavier than water, and less volatile than the lat- ter, which rises first when the oil is distilled. As found in the shops, therefore, the oil of fennel is not uniform; and Dr. Montgomery found that a specimen which he examined did not congeal at 22°. The dose is from five to fifteen drops. OLEUM GAULTHERIA. U.S. Oil of Partridge-berry. This oil is known only in the United States. It is directed, by the Pharmacopceia, to be prepared from the leaves of the Gaultheria pro- cumbens; but the whole plant is usually employed. It is supposed to exist also in the bark of the Betula lenta, the root of the Polygala pau- dfolia, and the roots and stems of the Spirsea ulmaria, Spiraea lobata, and Gaultheria hispidula, which have its peculiar flavour. The oil of par- tridge-berry has a brownish-yellow colour, a sweetish, slightly pungent, peculiar taste, and a very agreeable characteristic odour, by which it may be readily distinguished from all other oils. It is the heaviest of the known essential oils, having the sp.gr. 1.17. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. iii. 199.) This affords an easy method of ascertaining its purity. It is used chiefly on account of its pleasant flavour, to cover the taste of other medicines. Off. Prep. Syrupus Sarsaparillae, U. S. OLEUM HEDEOMA. 'U.S. Oil of Pennyroyal. This, though analogous in properties to the European oil of penny- royal, is derived from a distinct plant—the Hedeoma pulegioides—pecu- liar to North America. It has a light-yellow colour, with the odour and taste of the herb. Its sp. gr. is 0.948. It may be used as a remedy in flatulent colic and sick stomach, to correct the operation of nauseating or griping medicines, and to impart flavour to mixtures. The dose is from two to ten drops. OLEUM JUNIPERI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oleum Volatile Juniperi Communis. Ed. Oil of Juniper. The proportion of oil which juniper berries afford is stated differently by different authors, from 0.78 to 5 per cent. The greatest quantity ob- tained by Recluz was 2.34 parts from 100. The berries are most pro- ductive when bruised. The oil of juniper consumed in this country is brought from Europe. It is colourless, or of a light greenish-yellow, PART II. Olea Destillata. 911 with a terebinthinate odour, and a hot acrid taste. Its sp. gr. is 0.911. It is not very soluble in alcohol. The oil of turpentine is often fraudulently added, but may be detected by the specific gravity of the mixture, which is considerably less than that of the unadulterated oil of juniper. This oil is stimulant, carminative, and diuretic; and may be employ- ed advantageously in debilitated dropsical cases, in connexion with other medicines, especially with digitalis. It is this oil which imparts to Hol- land gin its peculiar flavour and tendency to the kidneys. The dose is from five to fifteen drops two or three times a day, and may be consid- erably increased. OLEUM LAVANDULA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oleum Volatile Lavandula Spica. Ed. Oil of Lavender. Dried lavender flowers yield on an average about 1.5 per cent, of a very fluid, lemon-yellow oil, having the fragrance of the flowers, and an aromatic, burning taste. That met with in commerce has the sp. gr. 0.898 at 68° F., which is reduced to 0.877 by rectification. (Berzelius.) According to Brande, the sp. gr. of the oil obtained from the whole herb is 0.9206. Alcohol of 0.830 dissolves the oil of lavender in all pro- portions; that of 0.887 only 42 per cent. (Berzelius.) Proust states, that when allowed to stand in imperfectly stopped bottles, it lets fall a crys- talline deposite (stearoptene), which he considers identical with cam- phor, and which often amounts to one-fourth of the weight of the oil. It is said that the portion of oil first distilled is most agreeably fragrant, and is often kept separate, and sold at a higher price. The oil of laven- der is used chiefly as a perfume, though possessed of carminative and stimulant properties, and sometimes useful in cases of nervous languor and headach. The dose is from one to five drops. The oil of spike is procured from the broad-leaved variety of the laven- der, which grows wild in Europe, the Lavandida Spica of De Candolle. Its odour is less fragrant than that of the common oil of lavender, and is somewhat analogous to that of the oil of turpentine, with which it is said to be often adulterated. It is much used by artists in the prepara- tion of varnishes. Off. Prep. Spiritus Ammoniae Succinatus, Lond. OLEUM MENTHA PIPERITA. U.S., Lond. Oleum Vo- latile Mentha Piperita. Ed. Oleum Mentha Piperitidis. Dub. Oil of Peppermint. Peppermint varies exceedingly in the quantity of oil which it affords. Four pounds of the fresh herb yield, according to Baume, from a drachm and a half to three drachms of the oil. The product is generally less than 1 per cent. This oil is largely distilled in the United States. It is of a greenish-yellow colour, a strong aromatic odour, and a warm, Cam- phorous, very pungent taste, succeeded, when air is admitted into the mouth, by a sense of coolness. Its sp. gr. is stated differently from 0.907 to 0.920. Upon long standing it deposites a stearoptene, considered by Proust as identical with camphor. According to Giese, it is only the oil distilled from the herb gathered when in flower and dried, that yields this crystalline precipitate. Berzelius states, that at —8° F. it deposites small capillary crystals. The oil of peppermint is stimulant and carminative, and is much used in flatulence, nausea, spasmodic pains of the stomach and bowels, and as a corrigent or adjuvant of other medicines. The dose is from one to three drops, and is most conveniently given rubbed up with sugar and then dissolved in water. The oil is also very frequently employed in the 912 Olea Destillata. part ii. form of essence of peppermint, prepared by dissolving two fluidounces in a pint of alcohol, and given upon sugar in the dose of ten or twenty drops. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthae Piperitae, U.S.; Pilulae Rhei Compositae, Ed.; Pilulae Sulphatis Ferri Comp., Ed.; Spiritus Menthae Piperitae, Lond., Dub. OLEUM MENTHA VIRIDIS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oleum Volatile Mentha Viridis. Ed. Oil of Spearmint. According to Lewis, ten pounds of spearmint yield an ounce of oil; by others the product is stated not to exceed one part from five hun- dred. The oil is largely distilled in this country. It is greenish when recently prepared, but becomes red with age, and ultimately almost of a mahogany colour. Its flavour is analogous to that of the oil of pep- permint, but is less agreeable and less pungent. Its sp. gr., according to Lewis, is 0.975, according to Brande 0.9394. It is used for the same purposes as the oil of peppermint, in the dose of from two to five drops. An essence of spearmint is prepared by dissolving two fluidounces of the oil in a pint of alcohol, and may be given in the quantity of from twenty to forty drops, upon a lump of sugar. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthae Viridis, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Infusum Men- thae Compositum, Dub.; Spiritus Menthae Viridis, Lond., Dub. OLEUxM MONARDA. U.S. Oil of Horsemint. This is prepared by our distillers from the fresh herb of the Monarda punctata. It has a reddish-amber colour, a fragrant odour, and a warm, very pungent taste. Applied to the skin it acts as a powerful rubefacient, quickly producing heat, pain, redness, and even vesication. This pro- perty of the oil was made known to the profession by Dr. Atlee of Phi-- ladelphia, who employed it externally with advantage in low forms of typhus fever, cholera infantum, chronic rheumatism, and other affec- tions in which rubefacients are indicated. In ordinary cases it should be diluted before being applied. It may be given internally as a stimu- lant and carminative, in the dose of two or three drops mixed with sugar and water. OLEUM ORIGANI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oil of Origanum. This is obtained from the common marjoram, Origanum vulgare, and is frequently called oil of marjoram. The plant varies exceedingly in the proportion which it affords. The mean product may be stated at from four to six parts from a thousand. The recent oil, when properly pre- pared, is of a yellow colour; but if too much heat is used in the distil- lation, it is said to be reddish, and it acquires the same tint by age. It has the odour of the plant, and a hot acrid taste. Its sp. gr., according to Lewis, is 0.940, according to Brande 0.909. It is sometimes used as an external irritant, and to allay the pain of toothach, by being introduced, on lint or cotton, into the cavity of a carious tooth. It is not employed internally. Off. Prep. Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum, U.S. OLEUM VOLATILE ORIGANI MARJORANA. Ed. Oil of Sweet Marjoram. It is somewhat doubtful, whether the Edinburgh College did not in- tend to direct, under this title, the oil of marjoram (Oleum Origani); at least the terms are considered as identical in their signification by the authors of the British Dispensatories. The oils of the two plants, how- ever, are entirely distinct. The sweet marjoram yields when distilled from 2.5 to 6 parts of oil out of 1000 of the plant. This oil is of a le- PART II. Olea Bestillata. 919 mon-yellow colour, light, and camphorous, and deposites upon long standing a substance supposed to be identical with camphor. It is not. used in this country. OLEUM PIMENTA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oleum Volatile Myrti Pimenta. Ed. Oil of Pimento. The berries yield from 1 to 4 per cent, of oil, which, as found in the shops, has a brownish-red colour, and the odour and taste of pimento, though warmer and more pungent. It is said, when freshly distilled, to be colourless or yellowish. Nitric acid reddens it. Bonastre states that it combines with salifiable bases like the oil of cloves. Its sp. gr. is 1.021. It may be given for the same purposes with the other aromatic stimulant oils. The dose is from three to six drops. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Aromaticum, Dub. OLEUM PULEGII. Lond., Dub. Oil of European Penny- royal. About 1 part of this oil on an average is obtained from 100 parts of the plant. When freshly distilled it is yellowish, but becomes reddish by age. Its sp. gr. is, according to Lewis, 0.978, to Brande 0.939. It pos- sesses medical properties similar to those of the oil of peppermint; but is seldom used in this country. The dose is from one to five drops. Off. Prep. Aqua Pulegii, Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Pulegii, Lond., Dub. OLEUM ROSMARINI. U.S., Lond. Oleum Volatile Roris- marini Officinalis. Ed. Oleum Rorismarini. Dub. Oil of Rose- mary. The fresh leaves of rosemary yield, according to Baume, 26 percent. of oil; but the product is stated very differently by different authors. This oil is colourless, with an odour similar to that of the plant, though less agreeable. Its sp. gr. is 0.911, but is reduced to 0.8886 by rectifica- tion. It is soluble in all proportions in alcohol of 0.830; but requires for solution at 64°, forty parts of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0.887. (Berzelius.) Kept in bottles imperfectly stopped, it deposites a stearoptene, which is considered identical with camphor, and the proportion of which, accord- ing to Proust, amounts sometimes to one-tenth of the oil. Bucholz states that it affords camphor when digested with from one-half its weight to an equal weight of potassa, and distilled. It is said to be sometimes adulterated with the oil of turpentine, which may be detected by mixing the suspected liquid with an equal volume of pure alcohol. The oil of rosemary is dissolved, and that of turpentine left. This oil is possessed of stimulant properties, but is employed chiefly as an ingredient of rube- facient liniments. The dose is from three to six drops. Off. Prep. Alcohol Ammoniatum Aromaticum, U.S., Ed.; Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum, U.S.; Spiritus Rosmarini, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Saponis Camphorata, U.S., Ed.; Tinctura Saponis et Opii, Ed. OLEUM RUTA. Dub. Oil of Rue. Rue yields a very small proportion of a yellow or greenish oil, which becomes brown with age. It has the strong unpleasant odour of the plant, and an acrid taste. According to Dr. A.T. Thomson it congeals at 40°, but Dr. Montgomery found it to remain liquid at 28° F. It is stimulant and supposed to be antispasmodic; and has been given in hys- teria, convulsions, and amenorrhcea. The dose is from two to five drops. OLEUM SABINA. Dub. Oleum Volatile Juniperi Sabina. Ed. Oil of Savine. Savine is very abundant in volatile oil. The fresh leaves yield, ac- 115 914 Olea Destillata. part ii. cording to Hoffman and Murray,between 15 and 16 per cent.; the dried are much less productive. The oil is yellow, limpid, light, strongly odorous, and of an exceedingly acrid taste. It is stimulant, emmena- gogue, and actively rubefacient; and may be given for the same purposes as the plant in substance. It has been much employed empyrically in amenorrhcea, and with a view to produce abortion, and in some instances with fatal effects. The dose is from two to five drops. OLEUM SASSAFRAS. U.S., Dub. Oleum Volatile Lauri Sassafras. Ed. Oil of Sassafras. The proportion of oil yielded by the root of sassafras is variously stated from 1.25 to 2 per cent. The bark of the root, directed by the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, would afford a larger quantity. This oil is of a yellow colour, becoming reddish by age. It has the fragrant odour of sassafras, with a warm pungent aromatic taste. It is among the heaviest of the volatile oils, having the sp. gr. 1.094. According to Bonastre, it separates, by agitation with water, into two oils, one lighter, the other heavier than water. Berzelius states that the first is often nothing more than oil of turpentine existing as an adulteration in the oil of sassafras. Nitric acid colours it red, and fuming nitric acid inflames it more rea- dily than most other oils. It has the useful property of dissolving ca- outchouc. When kept for a long time it deposites transparent crystals, having the same odour as the liquid oil. It is stimulant, carminative, and supposed to be diaphoretic; and may be employed for the same pur- poses with the bark from which it is derived. The dose is from two to ten drops. Off. Prep. Syrupus Sarsaparillae. U. S. OLEUM SUCCINI. U.S., Ed, Dub. Oil of Amber. " Take of Amber, in powder, any quantity. Put the AmberT previ- ously mixed with an equal weight of sand, into a glass retort, which is to be only half filled; then distil, by means of a sand-bath, with a gra- dually increasing heat, an acid liquor, an oil, and a concrete acid im- pregnated with oil. Separate the oil from the other matters, and pre- serve it in well stopped bottles." U. S. The unrectified oil of amber is not among the preparations directed by the London College. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges obtain it by the same process by which they procure succinic acid. (See Acidum Sucdnicum.) The amber in this process undergoes decomposition, and affords, among other products, an empyreumatic oil which floats in the receiver upon the surface of an acid liquor. The heat requisite for the complete decomposition of the amber cannot be supported by a glass retort; and in order that all the oil which it is capable of yielding may be collected, the distillation should be performed in a tubulated iron or earthenware retort, which may be placed immediately upon the fire. The sand is added to prevent the amber from swelling too much. The oil may be separated from the acid liquor by means of the separating funnel. As first procured, it is a thick, very dark coloured liquid, of a peculiar strong empyreumatic odour. In this state it is occasionally employed as a liniment; but for internal use it should always be rectified. OLEUM SUCCINI RECTIFICATUM. U.S., Dub. Oleum Succini. Lond. Oleum Succini Purissimum. Ed. Rectified Oil of Amber. "Take of Oil of Amber apint; Water six pints. Distil them from a glass retort, till four pints of the water shall have passed over into the part n. Olea Destillata. 915 receiver; then separate from the Water the Oil which has been distilled, and preserve it in well stopped bottles." U.S. The Edinburgh College employs one part of oil of amber and six of water; the Dublin, a pound of the former and six pints of the latter; both distil until two-thirds of the water has passed into the receiver, and then separate the oil. " Put Amber into an alembic, and distil from a sand-bath, with a heat gradually increased, an acid liquor, an oil, and a salt contaminated with oil; then distil the oil a second and a third time." Lond. By successive distillations the oil of amber is rendered thinner and more limpid, till at length it is obtained colourless. The first portions which distil are less coloured than those which follow, and may be se- parated for keeping, while the remainder is submitted to another distil- lation. For practical purposes, however, the oil is sufficiently pure when once redistilled, as directed in the processes of the U.S., Edinburgh, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. As usually found in the shops, the rec- tified oil is of a light yellowish-brown or amber colour. When quite pure it is colourless, as fluid as alcohol, of the sp. gr. 0.758 at 75°, and boils at 186°. It has a strong, peculiar, unpleasant odour, and a hot, acrid taste. It imparts these properties in some degree to water with- out being perceptibly dissolved. It is soluble in eight parts of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0.847 at 55°, in five parts of the sp. gr. 0.825, and in all pro- portions in absolute alcohol. The fixed oils unite with it. On exposure to the light and air, it slowly changes in colour and consistence, be- coming ultimately black and solid. Medical Properties and Uses. Rectified oil of amber is stimulant and antispasmodic; and occasionally promotes the secretions, particularly that of urine. It has been employed with advantage in amenorrhoea, and in various spasmodic and convulsive affections, as tetanus, epilepsy, hysteria, hooping cough, and infantile convulsions from intestinal irri- tation, 8cc. The dose is from five to fifteen drops, diffused in some aro- matic water by means of sugar and gum arabic. Externally applied, the oil is rubefacient, and is considerably employed as a liniment in chronic rheumatism and palsy, and in certain spasmodic disorders, as hooping cough and infantile convulsions. In the latter affection it should be rubbed along the spine, and is highly recommended by Dr. Parrish of Phila- delphia, mixed with an equal measure of laudanum and diluted with three or four parts of olive oil and of brandy. Off. Prep. Spiritus Ammoniae Succinatus. Lond. OLEUM TEREBINTHINA RECTIFICATUM. Lond., Dub. Oleum Volatile Pini Purissimum. Ed. Rectified Oil of Tur- pentine. " Take of Oil of Turpentine apint; Waterfour pints. Distil the Oil." Lond. "Take of Oil of Turpentine one part; Water four parts. Distil as long as any oil comes over." Ed. " Take of Oil of Turpentine two pints; Water four pints. Distil a pint and a half of the oil." Dub. The oil of turpentine becomes impure by exposure, in consequence of the absorption of oxygen and the production of resin. From this it may be freed by distillation, as above directed, or by the agency of al- cohol. (See Oleum Terebinthime.) The process for distilling it is at- tended with some inconvenience, in consequence of the great inflamma- bility of the vapour, and its rapid formation, which causes the liquid to 916 Olea Destillata.—Pilulae. part ii. boil over. In this country, the apothecary can almost always purchase the oil sufficiently pure for medical use without the necessity of recti- fying it. The presence of a small proportion of resin does not interfere with its efficiency as a medicine. PILULE. Pills. These are small globular masses of a size convenient for swallowing. They are well adapted for the administration of medicines which are unpleasant to the taste or smell, or insoluble in water, and do not re- quire to be given in large doses. Deliquescent substances should not be made into pills, and those which are efflorescent should be previous- ly deprived of their water of crystallization. Care should also be taken not to combine materials, the mutual reaction of which may result in a change of form. Some substances have a consistence which enables them to be made immediately into pills. Such are the softer extracts and certain gum- resins ; and the addition of a little water to the former, and a few drops of spirit to the latter, will give them the requisite softness and plasticity, if previously wanting. Substances which are yery soft, or in the liquid state, are formed into the pilular mass by incorporation with dry and inert powders, such as crumb of bread, wheat flour, starch, and pow- dered gum arabic. Powders must be mixed with soft solid bodies, as extracts, confections, soap, Sec, or with tenacious liquids, as syrup, mo- lasses, honey, or mucilage. Heavy metallic powders are most conve- niently made into pills with the former; light vegetable powders with the latter. Mucilage is very often used; but pills made with it are apt when kept to become bard and of difficult solubility in the liquors of the stomach, and if metallic substances are mixed with it, the mass does not work well. A mixture of syrup and powdered gum arabic is not liable to the same inconveniences, and is an excellent material in the formation of pills. Many powders require only the addition of water. Such are all those which contain ingredients capable of forming an ad- hesive or viscid solution with this liquid. Care should always be ob- served, that the matter added be not incompatible with the main ingre- dients of the pill. The materials should be accurately mixed together, and beat in a mortar till formed into a perfectly uniform and plastic mass. This should be of such a consistence, that the pills may preserve their form, without being so hard as to resist the solvent power of the gastric liquors. As pills often become very hard by time, it is convenient, in some instances, to keep the mass in a state fit to be divided when wanted for use. This may be done by wrapping it in bladders, putting it in covered pots, and occasionally moistening it as it becomes dry. The mass having been duly prepared, is made into pills, by rolling it with a spatula into a cylinder of precisely the same thickness through- out, and of a length corresponding to the number of pills required. It is then divided as equally as possible by the hand, or more accurately by a machine made for the purpose. The pills receive a spherical form by being rolled between the fingers. In order to prevent their adhesion to one another, or to the sides of the vessel in which they may be placed, it is .customary to agitate them with some dry powder, which gives them an externa) coating, that serves also to conceal their taste, part ii. Pilulse. 917 For this purpose, carbonate of magnesia, starch, or powdered liquorice root may be used. Carbonate of magnesia is sometimes incompatible with one of the ingredients of the pills, starch is almost too light, and liquorice root will, as a general rule, be found the best. The powder of Lycopodium is much employed on the continent of Europe; and it was formerly the custom to give the pill a coating of gold or silver leaf. Though the U.S. Pharmacopceia, in every instance, orders the mass to be divided into pills; yet it should be understood rather as indicating the number of pills to be made from a certain quantity of the mass when particular directions are not given by the physician, than as re- quiring the division to be made immediately after the materials have been mixed. It will generally be found convenient by the apothecary to keep a portion of the mass undivided. PILULA ALOES. U.S. Pilula Aloetica. Ed. Aloetic Pills. " Take of Aloes, in powder, Soap, each, an ounce. Beat them with wa- ter so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U.S. The Edinburgh College directs equal quantities of aloes and soap to be beat with simple syrup into a mass fit for forming pills. The soap, in this formula, not only serves to impart a proper pilular consistence to the aloes, but is thought to qualify its operation, and di- minish its liability to irritate the rectum. Five pills, containing ten grains of aloes, may be given with a view to their purgative effect; but the preparation is usually employed as a laxative in cases of habitual costiveness, in the quantity of one, two, or three pills, taken before breakfast, before dinner, or at bedtime. PILULA ALOES COMPOSITA. Lond., Dub. Compound Pills of Aloes. "Take of Socotrine Aloes, [Hepatic Aloes, Dub.~\, in powder, an ounce; Extract of Gentian, half an ounce; Oil of Caraway forty minims, Simple Syrup a sufficient quantity. Beat them together, till they are tho- roughly incorporated." Lond. A reaction takes place between the aloes and extract of gentian when rubbed together, which renders the mass so soft as sometimes to re- quire the addition of a light powder. The use of syrup is therefore un- necessary and improper. This combination is well adapted as a laxa- tive to the costiveness of sedentary and dyspeptic persons. The dose is from five to twenty grains, according to the degree of effect desired. PILULA ALOES ET ASSAFCETIDA. U.S., Ed. Pills of Aloes and Assafetida. " Take of Aloes, in powder, Assafetida, Soap, each, half an ounce. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into one hun- dred and eighty pills." U. S. The Edinburgh College takes equal parts of Socotrine aloes, assafetida, and soap, and beats them into a mass with mucilage of gum arabic. These pills are peculiarly adapted, by the stimulant and carminative properties of the assafetida, to cases of costiveness attended with flatu- lence and debility of the. digestive organs. Each pill contains about four grains of the mass. From two to five may be given for a dose. PILULA ALOES ET MYRRHA. U.S., Ed. Pilula Aloes cum Myrrha. Lond., Bub. Pills of Aloes and Myrrh. " Take of Aloes, in powder, two ounces; Myrrh, in powder, an ounce; Saffron half an ounce; Syrup a suffident quantity. Beat the whole toge- 918 Pilulse. PART II. ther so as to form a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills." U.S. The directions of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia correspond with the above, Socotrine aloes being particularly indicated. Those of the Lon- don and Dublin Pharmacopoeias differ only in the proportion of saffron, which is doubled, Socotrine aloes being directed by the former, and he- patic aloes by the latter. This composition has been long in use, and is generally known by the name of Rufus's pills. It is employed as a warm stimulant cathartic in debilitated states of the system, attended with constipation and retention or suppression of the menses. From three to six pills, or from ten to twenty grains of the mass, may be given for a dose. PILULA AMMONIARETI CUPRI. Ed. Pills of Ammo- niaret of Copper. "Take of Ammoniaret of Copper, in fine powder, sixteen grains; Crumb of bread four scruples; Water of Carbonate of Ammonia a suf- ficient quantity. Beat them into a mass, to be divided into thirty-two equal pills." Ed. This is a convenient form for administering ammoniated copper. One pill, containing half a grain of the preparation of copper, may be given night and morning; and the dose gradually increased to five or six pills. PILULA ASSAFCETIDA. U.S. Assafetida Pills. " Take of Assafetida an ounce and a half; Soap half an ounce. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U.S. Each of these pills contains three grains of the gum-resin. They are a very convenient form for administering assafetida, the unpleasant odour and taste of which render it very offensive in the liquid state. PILULA CATHARTIC A COMPOSITA. U.S. Compound Cathartic Pills. " Take of Compound Extract of Colocynth half an ounce; Extract of Jalap, in powder, Mild Chloride of Mercury [Calomel], each, three drachms; Gamboge, in powder, two scruples. Mix the powders together; then with water form them into a mass, which is to be beat with the Ex- tract of Colocynth, and divided into one hundred and eighty pills." U.S. This cathartic compound was first introduced into the recent edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. It was intended to combine smallness of bulk with efficiency and comparative mildness of purgative action, and a pe- culiar tendency to the biliary organs. Such an officinal preparation was much wanted in this country, in which bilious fevers and other com- plaints attended with congestion of the liver and portal circle generally, so much abound. The object of smallness of bulk was accomplished by employing extracts and the more energetic cathartics; that of a peculiar tendency to the liver, by the use of calomel; and that of efficiency with mildness of operation, by the union of several powerful purgatives. It is a fact abundantly proved by experience, that drastic cathartics become milder in combination, without losing any of their purgative power. Nor is it difficult, in this case, to reconcile the result of observation with physiological principles. Cathartic medicines act on different parts of the alimentary canal and organs secreting into it. In small doses, both the irritation which they occasion and their purgative effect are pro- portionably lessened. If several are administered at the same time, each in a diminished*dose, it is obvious that the combined purgative effect part n. Pilulse. 919 of all will be experienced, while the irritation being feeble in each part affected, and diffused over a larger space, will be less sensible to the pa- tient, and will more readily subside. In the compound cathartic pills, most of the active purgatives in common use are associated together in proportions corresponding to their-respective doses, so that an excess of any one ingredient is guarded against, and violent irritation from this cause prevented. The name of the preparation may at first sight seem objectionable, as it might be applied to any compound pills possessing cathartic properties; but when it is considered that the ingredients cannot all be expressed in the title, and no one is sufficiently prominent to give a designation to the whole, and that the preparation is intended as the re- presentative of numerous cathartics, and calculated for a wide range of application, the name will not be considered an inexcusable deviation from ordinary medical ncfmenclature. Three of the pills, containing 10f grains of the mass, are a dose for an adult. In this quantity are four grains of compound extract of colo- cynth, three of the extract of jalap, three of calomel, and two-thirds of a grain of gamboge. A single pill will generally be found to operate as a mild laxative. In a full dose, the preparation acts vigorously on the bowels, producing bilious stools, generally without much pain or disor- der of stomach. It may be employed in most instances where a brisk cathartic is required; but is particularly applicable to the early stages of bilious fevers, to hepatitis, jaundice, and all ihose derangements of the alimentary canal or of the general health dependent on congestion of the portal circle. PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA. Ed., Dub. Com- pound Pills of Colocynth. "Take of Socotrine Aloes, Scammony, each, eight parts; Pulp of Colocynth four parts; Oil of Cloves, Sulphate of Potassa, each, one part. Reduce the Aloes and Scammony, with the Sulphate, to powder; then mix in the Colocynth rubbed to a very fine powder, and the Oil; lastly, beat the whole into a proper mass with Mucilage of Gum Arabic." Ed. " Take of Hepatic Aloes, Scammony, each, an ounce; Pulp of Colo- cynth half an ounce; Castile Soap two drachms; Sulphate of Potassa, Oil of Cloves, each, a drachm; Molasses a sufficient quantity. Reduce the Aloes and Scammony to powder with the Sulphate of Potassa; then mix the Pulp of Colocynth and the Oil; and lastly, rub all together into a mass with the Soap and Molasses." Dub. The sulphate of potassa, in these formulae, is intended to promote the more complete division of the aloes and scammony. The preparation is actively cathartic in the dose of from eight to sixteen grains. PILULA COPAIBA. U.S. Pills of Copaiba. "" " Take of Copaiba two ounces; Magnesia, recently prepared, a drachm. Mix them, and set the mixture aside till it concretes into a pilular mass, which is to be divided into two hundred pills." U.S. When copaiba is mixed with pure magnesia, it gradually loses its fluid consistence, forming at first a soft tenacious mass, and ultimately becoming dry, hard, and brittle. The quantity of magnesia, and the length of time requisite for the production of this change, vary with the condition of the copaiba, being greater in proportion to the fluidity of this substance, or, in other words, to the amount of volatile oil which it contains. The quantity of magnesia directed by the Pharmacopceia, one-sixteenth of the weight of the copaiba, is sufficient to solidify the lat- ter, as it is often found in the shops, in tne course of six or eight hours; 920 Pilulse. part II. but when the copaiba is fresh or has been kept in closely stopped bot- tles, and retains, therefore, nearly the whole of its volatile oil, it is ne- cessary either to augment the proportion of magnesia, or to expose the mixture for a much longer time, or to diminish the volatile oil of the copaiba by evaporation. According to M. Faure, the magnesia combines chemically with the resin, but in relation to the volatile oil, acts merely as an absorbent; for when the solidified mass is submitted to the action of boiling alcohol, a part is dissolved, abandoning the magnesia with which it was mixed, while the resin combined with another portion of the earth remains undissolved. (Journ. de Pharm. xvii. 105.) In the preparation of the pills, care should be taken to divide the mass before it has become too hard. The advantage of this preparation is, that the copaiba is brought to the state of pill with little increase of its bulk. Each pill contains nearly five grains of copaiba, and from two to six may be taken for a dose twice or three times a day. PILULA FERRI COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Com- pound Pills of Iron. "Take of Myrrh, in powder, two drachms; Carbonate of Soda, Sul- phate of Iron, each, a drachm; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Rub the Myrrh with the Carbonate of Soda; then add the Sulphate of Iron, and again rub them; lastly, beat them with the Syrup so as to form a mass, to be divided into eighty pills." U. S. The directions of the British Colleges are essentially the same with the above. The London College orders a drachm of sugar without syrup; but the reaction of the materials in our climate does not always produce sufficient moisture to give the mass a pilular consistence. The direc- tion for dividing the mass into pills is peculiar to our Pharmacopceia. This preparation is closely analogous to the Mistura Ferri Compo- sita in properties and composition. It is a good emmenagogue and antihectic tonic. From two to six pills may be given at a dose, three times a day. PILULA GALBANI COMPOSITA. Lond., Dub. Pilula Assafoetida Composita. Ed. Compound Pills of Galbanum. " Take of Galbanum an ounce; Myrrh, Sagapenum, each, an ounce and a half; Assafetida half an ounce; Simple Syrup a sufficient quantity. Beat them together till they are thoroughly incorporated." Lond. The Dublin College gives the same directions, substituting molasses for the syrup. The Edinburgh College takes of assafetida, galbanum, and myrrh, each, eight parts, and of rectified oil of amber one part; and beats them into a mass with simple syrup. This compound is given as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue in chlorosis and hysteria. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. PILULA GAMBOGIA COMPOSITA. Ed., Dub. Pilula Cambogia Composita. Lond. Compound Pills of Gamboge. " Take of Gamboge, in powder, a drachm; Socotrine Aloes, in pow- der, a drachm and a half; Ginger, in powder, half a drachm; Soap two drachms. Mix the powders together; then add the Soap, and beat the whole together till they are thoroughly incorporated." Lond. The Dublin formula differs from the above only in the use of hepatic instead of Socotrine aloes, and in the addition of molasses to impart more readily the pilular consistence. The Edinburgh College takes of gamboge, Socotrine aloes, and com- pound powder of cinnamon (aromatic powder), each, a drachm, and of PART II. Pilulse. 921 soap two drachms; and proceeds in the manner ordered by the London College. This is an active purgative pill; and may be given in the dose of ten or fifteen grains. The formula is that of Dr. George Fordyce simplified. PILULA HYDRARGYRI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Mercurial Pills. Blue Pills. " Take of Purified Mercury an ounce; Confection of Roses an ounce and a half; Liquorice Root, in powder, half an ounce. Rub the Mercury with the Confection till all the globules disappear; then add the Liquorice Root, and beat the Avhole into a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills." U.S. The process of the London College is the same with the above, one quarter only of the quantity of materials being used. The Dublin pro- cess differs from the London only in substituting extract of liquorice for liquorice root. Neither of these Colleges orders the mass to be di- vided into pills. " Take of Purified Mercury, Conserve of Red Roses, each, an ounce; Starch two ounces. Triturate the Mercury with the Conserve, in a glass mortar, till the globules disappear, adding occasionally a little Mucilage of Gum Arabic; then add the Starch, and with a little water beat the whole into a mass, to be immediately divided into four hundred and eighty equal pills." Ed. This preparation is very generally known by the name of blue pill. Made according to the directions of the U.S., London, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, it contains one grain of mercury in three of the mass; according to those of the Edinburgh, one grain in four. As the pill of our Pharmacopoeia contains three grains of the mass, and that of the Edin- burgh four grains, the two may be considered equivalent, each having one grain of the metal. The condition of the mercury in this preparation is a point which has not yet been satisfactorily determined. There is no doubt that by far the greater portion is in the state of minute mechanical division, and not chemically altered. Some maintain that the whole of the metal is in this state, others, that a small portion is converted during the tritu- ration into the black or protoxide of mercury, and that this is the in- gredient upon which the activity of the pill depends. The oxidation is attributed partly to the influence of the air upon the surface of the metal, greatly extended by the separation of its particles, partly to the action of the substance used in the trituration. All agree that the efficacy of the preparation is proportionate to the extinction of the mercury, in other words, to the degree in which the metallic globules disappear. This extinction may be effected by trituration with various substances; and manna, syrup, honey, liquorice, mucilage, soap, and guaiac, have been recommended, among others, for this purpose; but the confection of roses has been adopted in all the Pharmacopoeias, as affording greater facilities and being less liable to objection than any other. The mercury is known to be completely extinguished, when, upon rubbing a small portion of the mass with the end of the finger upon a piece of paper or glass, no metallic globules appear. The powdered liquorice root is add- ed in order to give the due degree of consistence to the mass. The Edin- burgh College prefers starch for this purpose, as being less liable to become mouldy when the pills are kept. As the trituration requires to be continued a considerable length of time, and renders the process very laborious, it is customary in Great Britain to prepare the mass by ma- 922 Pilulse. PART II. chinery; and at Apothecaries' Hall, in London, the trituration is effected by the agency of steam. The machine there employed consists of "a circular iron trough for the reception of the materials, in which revolve four wooden cylinders, having also a motion on their axis." Much of the mercurial pill employed in this country is imported from England. Medical Properties and Uses.—These pills are among the mildest of the mercurial preparations, being less liable than most of the others to act upon the bowels, and exercising the peculiar influence of the remedy upon the system with less general irritation. They are much employed for producing the sialagogue and alterative action of mercury. For the former purpose, one pill may be given two or three times a day; and if the case is urgent, the dose may be increased. Even this preparation sometimes disturbs the bowels. It should then be given combined with a small proportion of opium, or in very minute doses, as half a grain or a grain of the mass repeated every hour or two through the day, so as to allow of its absorption before a sufficient quantity has been ad- ministered to act as an irritant. With a view to the alterative effect of the preparation upon the. digestive organs, one pill may be given every night, or every other night, at bed time, and followed in the morning, if the bowels should not be opened, by a small dose of some laxative med- icine. The blue mass may frequently be administered with advantage, suspended in water by the intervention of thick mucilage; and it forms an excellent addition to the chalk mixture in diarrhoea, particularly that of children, when the biliary secretion is deficient, or otherwise de- ranged. PILULA HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI MITIS. U.S. Pilula Calomelanos. Pills of Mild Chloride of Mercury. Calomel Pills. " Take of Mild Chloride of Mercury [Calomel] half an ounce; Gum Arabic, in powder, a drachm; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Mix together the Chloride of Mercury and the Gum; then beat them with the Syrup so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U.S. This is a convenient form for administering calomel, of which one grain is contained in each pill. Soap, which was directed in the prepa- ration of this pill in the first edition of the Pharmacopoeia, is objection- able on account of its chemical incompatibility with calomel. Mucilage of gum arabic alone does not form a sufficiently plastic mass, but gum and syrup united, as in the officinal formula, answer admirably well, forming a mass which is easily made into pills, and which readily yields to the solvent power of the stomach. PILULA HYDRARGYRI SUBMURIATIS COMPOSITA. Lond. Pilula Submuriatis Hydrargyri Composita. Ed. Pil- ula Calomelanos Composita. Bub. Compound Pills of Sub- muriate of Mercury. Compound Calomel Pills. " Take of Submuriate of Mercury [Calomel], Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony, each, two drachms; Guaiac, in powder, half an ounce; Rectified Spirit half a drachm. Rub the Submuriate of Mercury with the Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony, then with the Guaiac, and add the Spirit to give the proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges agree with the above proportions, but employ only half the quantity of materials, and, for the half drachm of rectified spirit, substitute—the former, a sufficient quantity of muci- lage of gum arabic, the latter, of molasses. We prefer the name " Compound Calomel Pills" of the Dublin Phar: PART II. Pilulse. 923 macopoeia; as, though not scientific, it is not, like the others, chemically incorrect. The preparation was originally introduced to the notice ot the profession by Dr. Plummer, who found it useful as an alterative, and upon whose authority it was at one time much employed under the name of Plummer's Pills. The combination is well adapted to the treatment of chronic rheumatism, and of scaly and other eruptive diseases of the skin, especially when accompanied with a syphilitic taint. Six grains of the mass contain about one grain of calomel. From three to six grains or more may be given morning and evening. PILULA OPII. U.S. Pilula Saponis cum Opio. Lond., Dub. Pilula Opiata. Ed. Pills of Opium. " Take of Opium, in powder, a drachm; Soap twelve grains. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into sixty pills." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges direct half an ounce of opium and two ounces of hard soap, to be beat together till thoroughly incorporat- ed. The Edinburgh College takes one part of opium, seven parts of ex- tract of liquorice, and two parts of pimento; and having beat the opium and soap into a pulp, adds the pimento, previously powdered, and forms the whole into a mass. The object of these preparations is different. The process of the U.S. Pharmacopceia is designed merely to furnish a convenient formula for putting opium into the pilular form, preferable to the mode sometimes practised of making the pills directly from the unpowdered mass of opium as found in commerce. The soap answers no other purpose than to give a due consistence, and is therefore in small proportion. Each pill contains a grain of opium. The processes of the British Colleges are designed to afford a prepa- ration, in which the opium, bearing a small proportion to the whole amount of ingredients, may be conveniently administered, by a division of the pilular mass, in small fractions of a grain. The additions in the Edinburgh preparation, while they dilute the opium, serve also to cover its taste. The name adopted by the London and Dublin Colleges is not appropriate, as opium, though in small proportion as to quantity, is yet the ingredient of greatest importance, and that which gives character to the pill. The London and Dublin preparation contains one grain of opium in five of the mass, that of Edinburgh one grain in ten. PILULA QUINIA SULPHATIS. U.S. Pills of Sulphate of Quinia. " Take of Sulphate of Quinia an ounce; Gum Arabic, in powder, two drachms; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Mix together the Sulphate of Quinia and the Gum; then beat them with the Syrup so as to form a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills." U.S. Each pill contains a grain of sulphate of quinia, and twelve are equivalent to an ounce of good Peruvian bark. PILULA QUINIA SULPHATIS IMPURI. U.S. Pills of Im- pure Sulphate of Quinia. "Take of Impure Sulphate of Quinia an ounce. Beat it with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U.S. Each pill contains two grains of the impure sulphate, and may be considered as equivalent in medical power, to one grain of the pure sul- phate of quinia. PILULA RHEI COMPOSITA. U.S., Ed. Compound Pills of Rhubarb. " Take of Rhubarb, in powder, an ounce; Aloes, in powder, dx 924 Pilulse. PART II. drachms; Myrrh, in powder, half an ounce; Oil of Peppermint half a fluidrachm; Syrup of Orange Peel a sufficient quantity. Beat the whole together so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and for- ty pills." U.S. The Edinburgh College employs the same ingredients, in the same proportions; but specifies the Socotrine aloes as the variety to be used, and does not divide the mass into pills. This is a warm tonic laxative, useful in costiveness with debility of stomach. From two to four pills, or from ten to twenty grains of the mass, may be taken twice a clay. PILULA SCILLA COMPOSITA. Lond., Dub. Pilula Scil- litica. Ed. Compound Pills of Squill. "Take of Squill Root, fresh dried and powdered, a drachm; Ginger Root, in powder, Hard Soap, each, three drachms ; Ammoniac, in pow- der, two drachms. Mix the powders together; then beat them with the Soap, and add as much Simple Syrup as may be sufficient to give the proper consistence." Lond. The Dublin College employs the same ingredients, but adds the am- moniac without previously powdering it, and gives the due consistence by molasses, instead of simple syrup. The Edinburgh College takes of powdered squill a scruple* powdered ammoniac, cardamom, and liquo- rice, each, a drachm; and forms them into a mass with simple syrup. This is a stimulant expectorant compound, depending for its virtues chiefly on the squill, and applicable to the treatment of chronic affec- tions of the bronchial mucous membrane. From five to ten grains may be given three or four times a day. The preparation should be made when wanted for immediate use, as the squill which it contains would be liable to be injured by keeping. PILULA E STYRACE. Bub. Storax Pills. "Take of Purified Storax three drachms; Turkey Opium, Saffron, each, a drachm. Beat them together till they are thoroughly mixed." Dub. In these pills the storax and saffron are added merely to conceal the taste and smell of the opium, as the name of the pills is intended* to conceal their real character. This contrivance is esteemed necessary; as some individuals have a prejudice against the use of opium, which reason cannot overcome. Five grains of the mass contain a grain of opium. PILULA SUB-CARBONATIS SODA. Ed. Pills of Subcar- bonate of Soda. " Take of Dried Sub-Carbonate of Soda [carbonate of soda] four parts; Hard Soap three parts. Beat them into a mass with Simple Syrup." Ed. The carbonate of soda being efflorescent, should always be deprived of its water of crystallization before being made into pills. This form of administering it may sometimes be advantageously resorted to, when the palate or stomach rejects the solution. PILULA SULPHATIS FERRI COMPOSITA. Ed. Com- pound Pills of Sulphate of Iron. "Take of Sulphate of Iron, in powder, an ounce; Extract of Chamo- mile an ounce and a half; Oil of Peppermint a drachm. Beat them into a mass with Simple Syrup." Ed. This is a good tonic pill, applicable to most complaints in which cha- lybeates are administered. About two grains of the sulphate are con- tained in a pill of five grains. part ii. Plumbum. 925 PLUMBUM. Preparations of Lead. LIQUOR PLUMBI SUBACETATIS. U.S., Lond., Dub. So- lution of Subacetate of Lead. " Take of Acetate of Lead, Semivitrified Oxide of Lead, each, dght ounces; Distilled Water two pints. Mix in a glass vessel, and boil for twenty minutes; then filter through paper." U.S. "Take of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead two pounds; Diluted Acetic Acid [Distilled Vinegar] a gallon. Mix, and boil down to six pints, constantly stirring; then set the liquor by that the dregs may subside, and filter." Lond. "Take of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead one part; Distilled Vinegar twelve parts. Boil together in a glass vessel until eleven parts of the fluid remain, then let the liquor rest, and when the impurities have sub- sided, let it be filtered." Dub. Crystallized acetate of lead consists of one equivalent of acetic acid 50, one of protoxide of lead 112, and three of water 27= 189. Litharge as usually found in the shops is an impure protoxide of lead. When a solution of the former is boiled with the latter, a large quantity of the protoxide is dissolved, and a subacetate of lead is formed which re- mains in solution. The precise composition of the subacetate varies with the proportions of acetate of lead and of litharge employed. When the quantity of the latter exceeds that of the former by one half or more, the acetic acid of the acetate unites, according to the highest chemical au- thorities, with two additional equivalents of protoxide, forming a trisace- tate; when the two substances are mixed in proportions corresponding to their equivalent numbers, that is, in the proportion of 189 of salt to 112 of oxide, or 10 to 6 nearly, only one additional equivalent of protoxide unites with the acid, and a diacetate of lead, according to Dr. Thomson, is produced. As the quantity of litharge directed in the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia, is intermediate between these proportions, it is probable that the solution which results, contains both the diacetate and trisacetate. The litharge should be employed in the state of very fine powder, and, accord- ing to Thenard, should be previously calcined in order to decompose the carbonate of lead, which it always contains in greater or less pro- portion, and which is not dissolved by the solution of the acetate. We have found by Experiment, that the solution is diminished about four fluidounces by the boiling, and that when prepared it has the sd. e-r 1.285 at 60°. **• 5" The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges also result in the pro- duction of a subacetate of lead, one equivalent of the acetic acid of the vinegar combining directly with two equivalents of the protoxide of the litharge, to form a diacetate. That a trisacetate is not produced may be inferred from the fact ascertained by Dr. Barker, that distilled vine- gar dissolves only about one-twelfth of its weight of the litharge, which is not nearly sufficient to afford three equivalents of protoxide to one of the acid. Besides, according to Phillips and Duncan, the resulting salt has been proved by the analysis of Dr. Bostock to be composed of one equivalent of acid and two of base. The quantity of litharge directed by the London College is much larger than necessary, not one half of it being dissolved by the distilled vinegar. The strength of the solution 926 Plumbum. part ii. necessarily varies with the strength of the vinegar, and this is an objec- tion against the British processes, to which ours is not equally liable. We are told by Phillips, that the sp. gr. of the solution prepared with distilled vinegar of 1.007 is 1.220, with that of 1.009 is 1.309; while Dr. Barker states the specific gravity of the saturated solution prepared by himself with distilled vinegar, to be only 1.118 at 68°. Common vine- gar yields a dark brown solution, and is therefore not employed. Properties.—The solution of subacetate of lead of the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia is colourless, that of the British Colleges has a pale greenish straw colour, arising from impurities in the distilled vinegar. Its taste is sweet- ish and astringent. When concentrated by evaporation, it deposites on cooling crystalline plates, which, according to Dr. Barker, are flat rhom- boidal prisms with diedral summits. It has an alkaline reaction, tinging the syrup of violets green, and reddening turmeric paper. One of its most striking properties is the extreme facility with which it is decomposed. Carbonic acid throws down a white precipitate of carbonate of lead, and this happens by mere exposure to the air, or by mixture even with distilled water, if this has had an opportunity of absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere. It affords precipitates also with the alkalies, al- kaline earths, and their carbonates, with sulphuric and muriatic acids free or combined, with hydrosulphuric acid and the hydrosulphates, and, according to Thenard, with solutions of all the neutral salts. Solu- tions of gum, tannin, most vegetable colouring principles, and many animal substances, produce with it precipitates consisting of the sub- stance added and oxide of lead. It should be kept in well stopped bottles. Medical Properties and Uses.—This solution is astringent and sedative; but is employed only as an external application. It is highly useful in inflammation arising from sprains, bruises, burns, blisters, &c, to which it is applied by means of linen cloths, which should be removed as fast as they become dry. It always, however, requires to be diluted. From four fluidrachms to a fluidounce added to a pint of distilled water forms a solution sufficiently strong in ordinary cases of external inflammation. When applied to the skin denuded of the cuticle, the solution should be still weaker, as constitutional effects might result from the absorption of the lead. Paralysis is said to have been produced by its local action; but we have not witnessed such an effect. The solution has the common name of Goulard's extract, derived from a surgeon of Montpelier by whom it was introduced into notice. LIQUOR PLUMBI SUBACETATIS DILUTUS. U.S., Lond. Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Compositus. Bub. Diluted Solution pf Subacetate of Lead. Lead-water. " Take of Solution of Subacetate of Lead a fluidrachm ; Distilled Wa- ter apint. Mix them." U.S. The London and Dublin processes differ from the above only in adding a fluidrachm of proof spirit to the other ingredients. This preparation is convenient, as, in consequence of the subsidence of the carbonate of lead usually formed on the dilution of the strong solution, it enables the apothecary to furnish clear lead-water when it is called for. The strength, however, is hardly sufficient for the ordinary purposes to which lead-water is applied. The Paris Codex directs two drachms of the strong solution to a pound of distilled water, and an ounce of alco- hol of 22° Baume; and thus forms the vegeto-mineral water of Goulard. The minute proportion of proof spirit added by the British Colleges can have no sensible effect. PART II. Potassa. 927 POTASSA. Preparations of Potassa. LIQUOR POTASS A. U. S.,Lond. Aqua Potassa. Ed. Potas- sa Caustic a Aqua. Dub. Solution of Potassa. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa a pound; Lime, fresh burnt, half a pound; Boiling Distilled Water a gallon. Dissolve the Carbonate of Po- tassa in two pints of the Water, and add the remainder to the Lime. Mix the hot liquors; then set the mixture aside in a covered vessel, and when cold, strain it through a cotton cloth. If effervescence be produced upon the addition of a diluted acid, more lime should be added, and the liquor again strained. A pint of this solution should weigh sixteen ounces." U.S., Lond. " Take of recently burnt Lime eight ounces; Sub-Carbonate of Potassa six ounces; Boiling Water twenty-eight ounces. Pour upon the Lime, in an iron or earthen vessel, twenty ounces of the Water. After the ebul- lition has ceased, immediately add the Salt, dissolved in eight ounces of the Water; and having thoroughly mixed the materials, cover the ves- sel until they cool. When the mixture has cooled, stir it well, and pour it into a glass funnel, the throat of which is obstructed with a piece of clean linen. Cover the upper orifice of the funnel and insert its tube into another glass vessel, so that the Water of Potassa may gradually drop, through the linen, into the lower vessel. As soon as it ceases to drop, pour into the funnel some ounces of water, but cautiously, so that it may swim above the matter in the funnel. The Water of Potassa will again begin to drop; and the affusion of water is to be repeated in the same manner, until three pounds have dropped, which will happen in the space of two or three days. Then mix the superior and inferior parts of the liquor together by agitation, and keep it in a well stopped bottle." Ed. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlashes, fresh-burnt Lime, each, two parts; Water fifteen parts. Sprinkle one part of the Water, previously heated, on the Lime, placed in an earthen vessel; and when it is slaked, mix the salt with it immediately, and then add the remain- der of the Water. When the mixture has cooled, put it'into a well stopped bottle, and shaking it frequently, keep it for three days. When the Carbonate of Lime has subsided, decant the supernatant liquor, and keep it in green glass bottles, well stopped. The specific gravity of this solution is 1.080." Dub. The object of these processes is to separate carbonic acid from the carbonate of potassa, so as to obtain the alkali in a caustic state. This is effected by hydrate of lime; and the chemical changes which take place are most intelligibly explained by supposing the occurrence of a double decomposition. The lime of the hydrate of lime, by its superior affinity, combines with the carbonic acid, and precipitates as carbonate of lime; while the water of the hydrate unites with the potassa, and re- mains in solution as the hydrate of potassa. The proportions indicated by theory for this decomposition would be 70 of the carbonate and 28 of lime, or one equiv. of each; but in practice it is found that an excess of lime is necessary. In the U.S. and London process, the alkaline salt is treated with half its weight of lime; in the Dublin formula with its own weight; and in the Edinburgh, with one and a third times its weight; 928 Potassa. part ii. proportions of which even the lowest exceeds the theoretical quantity. From the experiments of Dr. Barker it appears, that the carbonate of potassa, to be fully decomposed, requires at least five-sixths of its weight of lime, with the aid of a sufficient quantity of water to promote the chem- ical reaction. Hence it may be inferred, that the medium proportion of lime ordered by the Dublin College is the. most eligible in practice. The Edinburgh proportion is certainly excessive; and any defect in the preparation arising out of the deficient action of the lime in the U.S. and London formula, is remedied by the direction to add more lime, in case the solution, as first obtained, should effervesce with acids. The disadvantages of using an excess of lime are the necessity of employing larger vessels, on account of the bulk of the materials; and the loss of a portion of alkaline solution which is retained by the spongy residuum. The proportion of water employed has a decided influence on the result. If the water be deficient in quantity, the decomposing power of the lime, on account of its sparing solubility, will be lessened, and more of it will be required to complete the decomposition of the carbonate, than if the solutions had been made more dilute. The quantity ordered in the U.S. and London formula is ample, being more than ten times the weight of the alkaline salt employed, but it is deficient in the Edinburgh process. The plan of agitation and decantation, pursued by the Dublin College, is better than straining or filtration; as these latter operations give rise to a longer exposure to the air, and, consequently, increase the liability of the solution to absorb carbonic acid. Filtration, however, may be performed, so as to prevent the contact of any air, except that contained in the filtering apparatus itself, by pursuing the method de- scribed at page 682. The direction of the Dublin College, to keep the solution of potassa in green glass bottles is judicious; as white glass is slightly acted on. As the solution of potassa is frequently made by the operative chem- ist in considerable quantities, the following details of the best mode of conducting the process, according to Berzelius, may not be without their use. Dissolve one part of carbonate of potassa in from seven to twelve parts of water, in a bright iron vessel, and decant the solution after it has become clear by standing. Boil the solution in an iron ves- sel, and while it is boiling, add, at intervals, small quantities of slaked lime, reduced to a thin paste \yith water; allowing the solution to boil a few minutes between each addition. One and a half parts of pure lime will be more than sufficient to decompose one part of the carbo- nate. When about half the hydrate of lime has been added, take out about a teaspoonful of the boiling solution, and after dilution, and filtra- tion through paper, test it by adding it to some nitric acid, or by mix- ing it with an equal bulk of lime-water. If the solution has not been completely freed from carbonic acid, the first reagent will cause an ef- fervescence, and the second a milky appearance; in either of which events the addition of the lime must be continued as before, until the above mentioned tests give negative indications. In performing this operation, two advantages are gained by keeping the solution constantly boiling. One is that the carbonate of lime formed is in this way ren- dered granular and heavy, and more disposed to subside; and the other, that it prevents the precipitated carbonate from coalescing into a mass at the bottom of the vessel, an occurrence which causes the ebullition, when subsequently renewed, to take place imperfectly and by jerks. Properties, 8fC.—Solution of potassa is a limpid, colourless liquid, of an oleaginous appearance, without smell, and having a very acrid and PART II. Potassa. 929 caustic taste. It acts rapidly on animal and vegetable substances, and when rubbed between the fingers produces a soapy feel, in consequence of a partial solution of the cuticle. It dissolves gum, resins, and ex- tractive matter, and, by union with oily and fatty bodies, forms soap. The officinal solution is never perfectly pure, but contains either some undecomposed carbonate, or free lime; in addition to minute portions of sulphate and muriate of potassa, silica, and alumina, impurities usually present in the carbonate of potassa obtained from pearlashes, which is used in its preparation. Undecomposed carbonate may be de- tected in the manner explained in the preceding paragraph; and free lime, by the production of a milky appearance on the addition of a few drops of carbonate of potassa, which serves to precipitate the lime as a carbonate. It is incompatible with acids, salts containing an ex- cess of acid, and all metallic and earthy preparations held in solution by an acid; as also with all ammoniacal salts, and with calomel and corrosive sublimate. This solution, being intended for medicinal em- ployment, should have a uniform strength. The weight which a pint of it is directed to have in the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias, indicates a sp. gr. of 1.056. The Dublin solution is ordered to be of the sp. gr. 1.08; while the density of the Edinburgh preparation is not designated. These solutions are quite dilute; for according to a table given by Dal- ton, a solution having the sp. gr. of 1.06, contains only 4.7 per cent, of the alkali. On account of its strong attraction for carbonic acid, the solution of potassa should be carefully preserved from the contact of the air. Medical Properties and Uses.—Solution of potassa is antacid, diuretic, and antilithic. It has been much employed in calculous complaints, under the impression that it has the property of dissolving urinary con- cretions in the kidneys and bladder; but experience has proved that the stone once formed cannot be removed by remedies internally adminis- tered ; and the most that the alkaline medicines can effect, is to correct that disposition to the superabundant secretion of uric acid, or the in- soluble urates, upon which gravel and stone often depend. For this purpose, however, the carbonated alkalies are preferable to caustic po- tassa, as they are less apt to irritate the stomach, and to produce inju- rious effects when long continued. It has been proposed to dissolve cal- culi by injecting immediately into the bladder the solution of potassa in a tepid state, and so much diluted that it can be held in the mouth; but this mode of employing it has not been found to answer in practice. This solution has also been highly recommended in lepra, psoriasis, and other cutaneous affections; and is said to have proved peculiarly useful in scrofula; but in all these cases it probably acts simply by its antacid property, and is not superior to the carbonate of potassa or of soda. Externally it has been used in a diluted state as a stimulant lo- tion in rachitis and arthritic swellings, and concentrated, as an escha- rotic in the bite of rabid or venomous animals. The dose is from ten to thirty minims, repeated two or three times a day, and gradually increas- ed in cutaneous affections to one or two fluidrachms; but the remedy should not be too long continued, as it is apt to debilitate the stomach. It may be given in sweetened water or some mucilaginous fluid. Veal broth and table beer have been recommended as vehicles; but the fat usually present in the former, would be liable to convert it into soap, and the acid in the latter would neutralize it. In dyspeptic cases it may be associated with the simple bitters. It is employed pharmaceutically in the preparation of the Precipitated 930 Potassa. part ii. Sulphuret of Antimony, and by the Dublin College in forming the Black Oxide of Mercury. Off. Prep. Potassa, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassa cum Calce, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassii Iodidum, U.S. POTASSA. U.S., Ed. Potassa Fusa. Lond. Potassa Causti- ca. Dub. Potassa. Caustic Potassa. " Take of Solution of Potassa a gallon. Evaporate the water in a clean iron vessel, over the fire, till ebullition ceases, and the Potassa melts. Pour this into suitable moulds." U.S. The London formula is the same as the above, except that it directs that the melted potassa should be "poured out upon an iron plate into pieces of a proper form." " Take of Solution of Potassa any quantity. Evaporate it in a very clean covered iron vessel, until, on the ebullition ceasing, the saline mat- ter flows gently like oil, which happens before the vessel becomes red hot. Then pour it out on a clean iron plate, and before it hardens, cut it into small pieces, which are immediately to be put into a well stopped bottle." Ed. " Take of Water of Caustic Potassa any quantity. Evaporate it over the fire in a perfectly clean silver or iron vessel, until the ebullition shall have ceased, and the saline matter, on increasing the heat, shall remain perfectly at rest in the vessel. Pour out the liquified Potassa on a silver or iron plate, and, whilst concreting, cut it into pieces of a proper size, which are immediately to be introduced into a well stopped bottle. The operator should carefully avoid the drops which are ejected from the vessel during the evaporation." Dub. The concrete alkali obtained by these processes, is a hydrate of po- tassa, sufficiently pure for medical purposes. The solution of the alkali freed from carbonic acid having been obtained by another formula, (see Liquor Potassse,) the formation of the present preparation requires merely the evaporation of this solution, until the whole of its uncom- bined water is driven off. The evaporation is required to be performed in metallic vessels, as those of glass or earthenware are acted on by the alkali; and it should be completed as quickly as possible, to abridge the period during which the solution would be liable to absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere. When poured out on a metallic plate, the cake just as it concretes may be marked with a knife in the directions in which it is desired to divide it; and when cold, it readily breaks in these directions. A better course, however, is to run the fused alkali, as directed in the U.S. formula, into suitable moulds. These should be made of iron and have a cylindrical shape, which is the most conve- nient form of the alkali for the use of the surgeon. Green glass bottles with ground stoppers are the best adapted for preserving this prepara- tion; as white flint glass is slightly acted on. Properties, fyc.—In its officinal impure form, potassa has usually a dingy gray or green colour, occasionally a bluish tint, and the peculiar odour of slaking lime. It is extremely caustic and very deliquescent, and dissolves in less than its weight of water. It is also readily soluble in alcohol. When exposed to a low red heat it melts, and at bright redness is volatilized. On account of its deliquescent property, and its strong attraction for carbonic acid, it requires to be kept in very ac- curately stopped bottles. In the state here described, the alkali always contains combined water as a part of its composition. It contains also several impurities, such as sulphate of potassa, chloride and peroxide of potassium, peroxide of iron, lime, and a portion of the alkali itself PART II. Potassa. 931 still in a carbonated state. It may be freed from these impurities by di- gesting it in alcohol, which will take up only the pure hydrated alkali, evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness, and fusing the dry mass obtained. Pure hydrate of potassa, as thus procured, is usually called alcoholic potassa. It is generally in the form of flat white pieces, which are dry, hard, and brittle, and extremely caustic. Its other properties are similar to those of the impure hydrate above described. It may be discriminated from the other fixed alkalies (soda and lithia) by afford- ing, when in solution, a crystalline precipitate (cream of tartar) with an excess of tartaric acid, and a yellow one with muriate of platinum. The officinal potassa, apart from impurities, consists of one equiv. of dry potassa 48, and one equiv. of water 9 = 57. Dry potassa is formed of one equiv. of potassium 40, and one equiv. of oxygen 8 = 48. (See Potassium.) Medical Properties and Uses.—This is the old causticum commune acer- rimum, or strongest common caustic. It is a very powerful escharotic, quickly destroying the life of the part with which it comes in contact, and extending its action to a considerable depth beneath the surface. In this latter respect, it differs from the nitrate of silver or lunar caustic, to which it is, therefore, preferred for the purposes of forming issues and opening abscesses. It is sometimes used for removing stricture of the urethra; but in consequence of its tendency to spread, it may, un- less carefully applied, produce such a destruction of the lining mem- brane, as to open a passage for the urine into the cellular membrane, and thus involve the patient in danger. The most convenient mode of employing the caustic for the formation of an issue, is to apply to the skin a piece of linen spread with adhesive plaster, having a circular opening in its centre corresponding to the intended size of the issue, and then to rub upon the skin within the opening a piece of the caus- tic previously moistened at one end. The application is to be continued till the life of the part is destroyed, when the caustic should be care- fully washed off by a wet sponge or wet tow, or neutralized by vinegar. The preparation is also employed for forming solutions of potassa of definite strength, whether for medicinal or pharmaceutic use. A solu- tion of one drachm and a half of caustic potassa in two fluidounces of distilled water, is highly recommended hy Dr. Hartshorne, as an appli- cation to the spine in tetanus. It may be applied by means of a sponge attached to the end of a stick, which should be drawn quickly along the back from the nape of the neck to the sacrum. It produces a very pow- erful rubefacient effect. The U.S. Pharmacopceia employs caustic potassa in the preparation of the black oxide of mercury. POTASSA CUM CALCE. Lond., Ed. Potassa Caustica cum Calce. Dub. Potassa with Lime. " Take of Solution of Potassa three pints; fresh-burnt Lime a pound. Boil down the Solution of Potassa to a pint; then add the Lime, pre- viously slaked with water, and mix them thoroughly." Lond. " Take of Water of Potassa any quantity. Evaporate it to one-third in a covered iron vessel; then mix with it as much newly slaked and powdered lime as will bring it to the consistence of a solid paste, which is to be preserved in a well stopped bottle." Ed. " Evaporate Water of Caustic Potassa to one-fourth; then add as much fresh-burnt Lime, in powder, as will form a mass of the proper consistence, which is to be preserved in a well stopped bottle." Dub. 932 Potassa. PART II. In making this preparation, the alkaline solution is so far concentrat- ed, as that, upon the addition of the lime, and the cooling of the mix- ture, the whole becomes a granular mass, consisting of the mixed hy- drates of potassa and lime. Potassa with lime, like the officinal potassa, is only used as a caustic; but it is more manageable than the latter pre- paration, owing to the presence of the lime, which renders it milder and slower in its operation, and also less deliquescent, and, therefore, less liable to spread beyond the part intended to be affected. This pre- paration was formerly called causticum commune mitius, or milder com- mon caustic. POTASSA CARBONAS. U.S. Potassa Subcarbonas. Lond. Sub-Carbonas Potassa. Ed. Potassa Carbonas e Lixivo Ci- nere. Dub. Carbonate of Potassa. Subcarbonate of Potassa. Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlashes. "Take of-Impure Carbonate of Potassa [pearlashes], in powder, three pounds; Water two pints and a half [boiling Water three pints and a half, Lond.] Dissolve the Impure Carbonate of Potassa in the Water, and filter the solution; then pour it into a clean iron vessel, and evapo- rate the Water over a gentle fire till the solution thickens; lastly, re- move it from the fire, and stir it constantly with an iron spatula, till the salt granulates." U.S., Lond. "Subcarbonate [Carbonate, U.S.] of Potassa may be obtained in a similar manner from Tartar, previously burnt till it becomes of an ash colour." Note to the Lond. formula. " Expose Impure Sub-Carbonate of Potassa [pearlashes], in a cruci- ble, to a red heat; then triturate it well with an equal weight of water. Pour the solution, after the impurities have subsided, into a very clean iron pot, and boil it to dryness; stirring the salt assiduously towards the end of the process, to prevent it from adhering to the vessel." Ed. " Take of Pearlashes, in coarse powder, cold Water, each, one part. Mix them by trituration, and macerate for a week, in a wide vessel, with occasional agitation. Then filter the lixivium, and evaporate it to dryness.in a very clean silver or iron vessel. Towards the end of the evaporation, stir the saline mass constantly with an iron spatula. In this manner, having reduced it to a coarse powder, preserve it in close ves- sels. If the Pearlashes are not sufficiently pure, roast them in a cruci- ble until they become white, before dissolving them in the Water." Dub. The object of the above processes is to purify the impure carbonate of potassa, or pearlashes. These generally contain certain insoluble im- purities, as well as small portions of sulphate and silicate of potassa, and chloride of potassium, as explained under another head. (See Potas- sse Carbonas Impurus.) By dissolving them in a due proportion of water, and filtering the solution, the insoluble impurities are got rid of, as well as the greater part of the foreign salts, which being much less soluble than the carbonate of potassa, are excluded by the superior affinity of this salt for the water. The proper way of conducting the purification is to mix the impure carbonate with an equal weight of cold water, and to allow the mixture to stand for a day or two, stirring it frequently to promote the action of the water. The clear liquor, obtained by decanta- tion and filtration, is then evaporated to dryness. The U.S., Edinburgh, and Dublin processes are conducted very much in this way; cold water being employed, and equal weights of alkali and water being used in the Edinburgh and Dublin formulae, and nearly equal weights in the PART II. Potassa. 933 process of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. The London College has Com- mitted an error in ordering a larger proportion of water, and in direct- ing it to be boiling. The prolonged contact of the water with the salt, and the occasional stirring of the mixture, ordered by the Dublin Col- lege, are useful directions. In no case should the undissolved residue be washed with a fresh portion of water, as in that case the foreign salts, which it is the object of the process to separate, would be dissolved. Iron or silver vessels are directed, because these metals are not acted on by the alkali, while glass is attacked by it. Mr. Phillips says copper vessels are generally preferred, and may be used without inconvenience. In granulating the salt by stirring, it is better to keep it on the fire until the process is finished, than to remove it at the moment it thickens. According to Berzefius, a more productive process for purifying pearlashes, though the salt is not so pure as when obtained by the pro- cess just described, is to dissolve the impure salt in more than its weight of water, to evaporate the solution till it has the density of 1.52, and then to put it in a cool place, that the foreign salts, principally muriate and sulphate of potassa, may crystallize. The solution is then decant- ed, and evaporated to dryness. Properties, <£-c.—Carbonate of potassa, as found in the shops, is in the form of a coarse white granular powder, having a nauseous, alka- line taste, and acting as an alkali on vegetable colours. It is very solu- ble in water, dissolving in its weight of that liquid; but is insoluble in alcofrol. It is extremely deliquescent, and hence, a portion of it ex- posed to the air for some time, attracts so much water as completely to dissolve into an oily liquid, called by the older chemists, oleum tarlari per deliquium. On account of this property, carbonate of potassa should be kept in bottles with accurately ground stoppers. If exposed, in its usual state, to a red heat, it retains its carbonic acid, but loses from ten to fifteen per cent, of water, which appears to be hygrometric, and not chemically combined. It should be completely soluble in water, and any residue may be viewed as impurity. The usual impurities are some earthy matter, and about three per cent, of the muriate and sul- phate of potassa, with a little silica, in the state, probably, of silicated potassa; but the presence of these substances in so small an amount does not interfere with its medical efficacy. It is incompatible with acids and acid salts, muriate and acetate of ammonia, lime-water and muriate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, alum, tartar emetic, nitrate of silver, ammoniated copper and ammoniated iron, sulphate of iron and tinc- ture of muriate of iron, calomel and corrosive sublimate, acetate and subacetate of lead, and sulphate of zinc. It is not decomposed by the tartrate of iron and potassa, and, therefore, may be associated with it in prescriptions. Compodtion.—Carbonate of potassa, as obtained by evaporation to dryness, is an anhydrous salt, consisting of one equiv. of carbonic acid 22, and one equiv. of potassa 48=70. As it is neutral in composition, the name by which it is designated in the U.S. and Dublin Pharmaco- poeias is strictly correct. Its possession of an alkaline reaction cannot jus- tify its being called a subcarbonate, since, on the same ground, the bicar- bonate would be a subcarbonate, as it possesses an alkaline reaction also. Medical Properties and Uses.—Purified pearlashes is the form of carbo- nate of potassa usually employed in this country, where it is frequently, though incorrectly called salt of tartar, the latter name being strictly applicable to the purer carbonate, obtained by decomposing cream of tartar. It is occasionally used as an antacid in dyspepsia, as a diuretic 934 Potassa. part ii. in dropsy, and as an antilithic in gravel accompanied with red depo- sition in the urine; but the purpose to which it is most commonly applied is the formation of the neutral mixture and effervescing draught. (See page 389.) It is worthy of observation, that its solution, on expo- sure to the air, or on the addition of an acid, deposites flocculi consist- ing of hydrate of silica, resulting from the decomposition of the silicated potassa, which is always present as an impurity. The deposition of silica is owing to the absorption of carbonic acid. Carbonate of potassa is also used with much advantage in some cases of jaundice, in which it probably operates by entering the circulation and directly exciting the hepatic function. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, given in some aromatic water sweetened with sugar. Off. Prep. Liquor Potassae, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Liquor Potassae Carbo- natis, U.S., Lond.; Magnesiae Carbonas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Ferri Comp., U.S., Lond., Dub.; Potassae Acetas, Lond.; Potassae Bi- carbonas, Dub.; Potassae Bisulphas, Dub.; Potassae Sulphas, Lond., Dub.; Potassae Sulphuretum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. POTASSA CARBONAS PURISSIMUS. U.S. Sub-Carbonas Potassa Purissimus. Ed. Potassa Carbonas e Tartari Crys- tallis. Dub. Purest Carbonate of Potassa. Carbonate of Po- tassa from Crystals of Tartar. Salt of Tartar. " Take of Supertartrate of Potassa [cream of tartar] two pounds; Ni- trate of Potassa a pound. Rub them separately into powder; then mix, and throw them into a brass vessel heated nearly to redness, that they may undergo combustion. From the residue prepare the Purest Carbo- nate of Potassa, in the manner directed for the Carbonate." U. S. " Take of Impure Super-Tartrate of Potassa [crude tartar] any quan- tity. Wrap it up in moist bibulous paper, or put it into a crucible, and having surrounded it with live coals, burn it into a black mass. Reduce this to powder, and expose it, in an open crucible, to the action of a moderate fire, until it becomes white, or at least of an ash colour; care being taken that it do not melt. Then dissolve it in warm water, strain the solution through a linen cloth, and evaporate it in a clean iron ves- sel, diligently stirring it towards the end of the process with an iron spoon, to prevent the matter from adhering to the bottom of the vessel. A very white salt will remain, which is to be left a little longer on the fire, until the bottom of the vessel becomes nearly red. Lastly, when the salt has grown cold, keep it in well stopped glass vessels." Ed. " Take of Crystals of Tartar any quantity. Heat them to redness in a silver crucible, loosely covered, until they cease to emit vapours. Re- duce the residue to a coarse powder, and roast it for two hours in the same crucible, without a cover, stirring it frequently; then boil it with twice its weight of water for a quarter of an hour,, and after the requi- site subsidence, pour off the clear liquor. Repeat this three times. Fil- ter the mixed solutions, and evaporate them in a silver vessel. Granu- late the residual salt by frequently stirring it while it is becoming dry, and then heat it to dull redness. Before it is perfectly cold, take it out of the vessel, and preserve it in well stopped bottles." Dub. The product of the above processes, is a carbonate of potassa, purer than that described under the preceding head. In the U.S. formula the salts employed undergo decomposition by the deflagration to which they are subjected; the tartaric and nitric acids are totally decomposed, and sufficient carbonic acid is formed, as one of the products of their de-! PART II. Potassa. 935 composition, to saturate the common base of the two salts, and thus to generate carbonate of potassa. This, however, is mixed with a certain portion of redundant charcoal, which gives the mass a black colour; and from its colour and use in this state it was formerly called black flux. It is freed from carbonaceous matter by being treated in the manner directed for purifying the carbonate obtained from pearlashes. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges form this carbonate by incinerat- ing the supertartrate of potassa without nitre. The tartaric acid, which consists of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, is decomposed, and gives rise, among other products, to carbonic acid, which combines with the potassa. The matter, after ignition, contains, besides carbonate of po- tassa, certain impurities derived from those pre-existing in the supertar- trate itself. These are carbonate of lime, arising from the decomposi- tion of tartrate of lime, alumina, silica, and minute portions of the oxides of iron and manganese; and being all insoluble in water, are left behind when the mass is acted on by that liquid, the alkaline carbonate alone being taken up. The insoluble matter is greater in the incinerated mass of the Edinburgh process than in that of the Dublin; as crude tar- tar is employed in the former, crystals of tartar in the latter. The London College do not recognise a separate preparation under the name of "purest carbonate of potassa," but give the formula for obtaining it as an additional method for preparing their "subcarbonate of potassa." (Seepreceding article.) , Properties, Sec.—Carbonate of potassa obtained from tartar differs from the same salt procured from pearlashes, only in containing fewer impu- rities. It was formerly called salt of tartar, in allusion to its source; but at present, the same name is familiarly applied to any carbonate of po- tassa of good quality, without reference to its mode of preparation. It may, indeed, be very much doubted whether the real salt of tartar is often kept in our shops; the carbonate as purified from pearlashes being generally substituted for it, and answering every medicinal purpose that could be expected from the use of the purer salt. Medical Properties and Uses.—These are precisely the same with those of the carbonate of potassa described in the preceding article. Off. Prep. Aqua Super-Carbonatis Potassae, Ed. ; Carbonas (Bicar- bonas) Potassae, Ed.; Liquor Potassae Arsenitis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassae Acetas, Dub.; Potassae Carbonatis Aqua, Dub. LIQUOR POTASSA CARBONATIS. U.S. Liquor Potassa Subcarbonatis. Lond. Potassa Carbonatis Aqua. Dub. Solu- tion of Carbonate of Potassa. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa a pound; Distilled Water twelve fluid- ounces. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the Water, and filter the solution through paper." U.S., Lond. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Crystals of Tartar one part; Dis- tilled Water two parts. Dissolve and filter. The specific gravity of this solution is 1.320." Dub. This is simply a solution of carbonate of potassa in water, and fur- nishes a convenient form for the administration of this salt. The U.S. and London process gives a liquid of the sp. gr. of 1.446. The Dublin process differs in using the purer form of the carbonate, and in furnish- ing a solution considerably weaker. This solution should be colourless and inodorous, and possess the general alkaline qualities of the salt from which it is formed. The dose of the U.S. solution is from ten minims to a fluidrachm, sufficiently diluted with water, or some bland liquid. 936 Potassa. PART II. Off. Prep. Potassae Bicarbonas, U.S., Lond.; Potassae Hydriodas, Dub. POTASSA BICARBONAS. U.S., Bub. Potassa Carbonas. Lond. Carbonas Potassa. Ed. Bicarbonate of Potassa. " Take of Solution of Carbonate of Potassa [Subcarbonate of Potassa, Lond.] a gallon. Pass Carbonic Acid through the Solution, in a suit- able vessel, till it is fully saturated; then filter, and evaporate the filtered liquor, that crystals may form, taking care that the heat does not exceed one hundred and twenty degrees. Pour off the liquor, and dry the crys- tals upon bibulous paper. Carbonic Acid is obtained from Hard Car- bonate of Lime [White Marble, Lond.], by the addition of Dilute Sul- phuric Acid." U.S., Lond. " Take of Purest Sub-Carbonate of Potassa [salt of tartar] two parts; Water three parts. Dissolve the salt in the Water, and, in a suitable apparatus, pass through it a stream of Carbonic Acid Gas. Filter the solution when it ceases to absorb acid, and afterwards evaporate it with a heat not exceeding one hundred and eighty degrees, so that crystals may form. Carbonic Acid is easily obtained from equal weights of Car- bonate of Lime in powder, and Sulphuric Acid diluted with much wa- ter." Ed. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlashes one part; Distilled Water two parts. Dissolve, and expose the solution, in a suitable appa- ratus, to a current of Carbonic Acid Gas, evolved from white marble by the action of dilute Muriatic Acid, until the liquid becomes turbid. Then filter it, and again expose it to the stream of Carbonic Acid Gas, until the alkali is saturated. Lastly, put the solution in a cool place, that it may form crystals, which are to be dried without heat, and kept in a well stopped bottle." Dub. In these processes, the regular carbonate of potassa, called a subcar- bonate by the London and Edinburgh Colleges, is combined with an ad- ditional equivalent of carbonic acid. The combination is effected by passing a stream of this acid through a solution of the carbonate, so long as it is absorbed. The solution employed is directed of different strengths. In the U.S. and London formula, the officinal solution of the carbonate being ordered, the salt and water exist in nearly equal parts; in the Edinburgh formula, they are to each other as 2 to 3, and in the Dublin, as 1 to 2. The Edinburgh differs from the other Pharmaco- poeias in using the purest form of the officinal carbonate for forming the solution. The saturation is best performed on a small scale in a Wolfe's apparatus, with wide connecting tubes to prevent their being obstructed by the crystals, and on a large one, in strong vessels, into which the carbonic acid may be driven by means of a forcing pump. During the progress of the saturation, the greater part of the silica which may be associated with the alkali is precipitated ; and hence the solution generally becomes turbid. It is to remove this earth, that filtration is directed. The processes of the different Pharmacopoeias appear to have seve- ral defects. Both Mr. Phillips and Mr. Brande are of opinion that the carbonate should be dissolved in at least five times its weight of wa- ter, a quantity of menstruum requisite to accommodate the compara- tive sparing solubility of the bicarbonate. The disadvantages of using too little water, are that some sesquicarbonate is apt to be generated, and that the bicarbonate is inconveniently precipitated, in the form of a crystalline deposite, in the progress of the operation. Hence it is, that part ti. Potassa. 937 in the two first processes quoted, so far from evaporation being neces- sary, as directed by them, to form crystals, there is a deficiency of water in the product to hold the crystals already formed in solution. The Dublin process is less obnoxious to this objection; as a larger propor- tion of water is used, and no heat is applied. The true principles which should regulate the strength of the alkaline solution, is to have sufficient water to prevent the premature crystallization of the solution, and yet not so much as to render evaporation with much heat necessary to bring it to the crystallizing point. The evaporation, when performed, must be done at a gentle heat, as at a high temperature the salt loses one- fourth of its carbonic acid, and becomes a sesquicarbonate. According to Mr. Phillips, muriatic acid is preferable to sulphuric,for disengaging the carbonic acid from the carbonate of lime; inasmuch as the former generates a soluble salt, while the latter, by giving rise to the insoluble sulphate of lime, interferes with the rapid and complete decomposition of the calcareous salt. This writer also suggests that the muriate of lime may be decomposed by sulphuric acid so as to recover the muriatic acid for future employment. In small operations, there can be no doubt that the muriatic acid, diluted with twice its bulk of water, is most convenient; but whenever the carbonic acid gas is required in large quantities, the comparative cheapness of sulphuric acid will cause it always to have the preference; and the clogging effect of the resulting sulphate of lime, may be in a great measure obviated by the use of a proper agitator. According to Berzelius, the cheapest method of obtaining the bicar- bonate of potassa is to suspend a concentrated solution of the purified carbonate in astoneware dish, placed in a cask over a liquid undergoing the vinous fermentation. The alkali is thus surrounded with an atmo- sphere of carbonic acid; and by absorbing it, becomes bicarbonate in the course of five or six weeks, and crystallizes. The distillers parti- cularly are enabled with great facility to prepare this salt by suspending the alkaline solution, over the wort, in the fermenting tun. The salt in powder called sal seratus, which is made in the New England States and perhaps elsewhere, is, we believe, prepared in this way. It is, how- ever, not a perfect bicarbonate. Properties, <^c—Bicarbonate of potassa is in the form of white in- odorous crystals, permanent in the air, and having the. shape of flat ir- regular eight-sided prisms with two-sided summits. It has a slightly alkaline taste, and acts but feebly on vegetable colours. It dissolves in four times its weight of cold water, and in five-sixths of its weight of boiling water, by which it is partially converted into sesquicarbonate. It is very sparingly soluble in alcohol. Exposed to a low red heat, it loses half its carbonic acid, and returns to the state of carbonate, which, when thus obtained, is free from silica, and otherwise very pure. Dis- solved in nitric acid, it should give a clear solution, the transparency of which is not disturbed by nitrate of baryta, nitrate of silver, or carbo- nate of soda. When perfectly saturated, its solution does not precipitate a solution of sulphate of magnesia. With this exception, its incompa- tibles are nearly the same as those of the carbonate; but calomel is not decomposed by it; and it produces a white precipitate with corrosive sublimate, instead of the brick-red one caused by the regular carbonate. It consists of two equiv. of carbonic acid 44, one equiv. of potassa 48, and one equiv. of water 9 = 101. It is, therefore, properly a bicarbonate, not a carbonate, as it is called by the London and Edinburgh Colleges. By an unfortunate confusion in nomenclature, the name " carbonate of 118 938 Potassa. part ii. potassa" is used in two senses in the different Pharmacopoeias; and as this circumstance may cause some perplexity to the reader, we subjoin the following tabular statement, which shows at one view the exact im- port of the different officinal names. Nature. U.S. and Dublin. London. Edinburgh. Ordinary carbonate. Saturated carbonate. Potas?se Carbonas. Potassae Bicarbonas. Potassse Subcarbonas. Potassse Carbonas. Sub-Carbonas Potassx. Carbonas Potassse. Thus it is perceived that the term " carbonate of potassa" means the ordinary carbonate when used in the U.S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, and the saturated carbonate, when employed by the London and Edin- burgh Colleges. The medical properties of this salt are the same as those of the car- bonate, to which it is preferable on account of its milder taste, and greater acceptability to the stomach. The dose is from twenty grains to a drachm. AQUA SUPER-CARBONATIS POTASSA. Ed. Water of Super-Carbonate of Potassa. " Take of Water ten pounds ; Purest Sub-Carbonate of Potassa [salt of tartar] an ounce. Dissolve, and expose the solution to a stream of Carbonic Acid gas, arising from Carbonate of Lime, in powder, Sul- phuric Acid, each, three ounces, Water three pounds, gradually and cau- tiously mixed. "The chemical apparatus invented by Dr. Nooth is well adapted for this preparation. But if a larger quantity of the liquor is required, an apparatus must be used capable of producing sufficient pressure. The solution should be kept in well stopped bottles." Ed. This preparation may be considered as a bicarbonate of potassa dis- solved in carbonic acid water; for from the great excess of carbonic acid present, the alkali probably passes into the state of bicarbonate. It is, however, altogether superfluous, in consequence of the general intro- duction into the shops of carbonic acid water (artificial Seltzer water), which may be readily employed for dissolving any desired proportion of the alkaline carbonate here employed, with the result of forming a much brisker preparation. This solution has the general sparkling qua- lities and acidulous taste of carbonic acid water; the alkaline taste of the carbonate being covered by the great excess of carbonic acid. It is intended merely to furnish a grateful form for the administration of the carbonate of potassa. (See Aqua Acidi Carbonid.) POTASSA NITRAS PURIFICATUM. Bub. Purified Nitrate of Potassa. "Take of Nitrate of Potassa one part. Dissolve it in two parts of boiling Water, filter the solution, and set it aside, so that on cooling crystals may form." Dub. The purified nitre of commerce is sufficiently pure for medicinal pur- poses ; so that this formula of the Dublin College is entirely unnecessa- ry. The properties of nitre, and the manner in which it is purified, have been fully explained under another head. (See Potassse Nitras.) Off. Prep. J&iher Nitrosus, Dub. SULPHAS POTASSA CUM SULPHURE. Ed. Sulphate of Potassa with Sulphur. " Take of Nitrate of Potassa, in powder, and of Sublimed Sulphur, equal wdghts. Mix them well together, and inject the mixture, by small PART II. Potassa. 939 portions at a time, into a red-hot crucible. When the deflagration is over, allow the salt to cool, and place it in a glass vessel well stopped." Ed. When the mixture, indicated in this formula, is thrown into a red- hot crucible, each successive portion melts, and the sulphur floats on the surface of the nitre with an appearance like a brown oil, burns vi- vidly, and gives rise to a copious evolution of sulphurous acid gas. The product of the deflagration is a white friable mass, intermixed appa- rently with undecomposed sulphur. The nature of this preparation is not well made out. On the suppo- sition that it is a sulphate of potassa, mixed with a certain portion of sulphur, as the Edinburgh name implies, its formation maybe thus ex- plained. By the combined influence of the sulphur and the heat employed, the nitric acid of the nitre is totally decomposed, and is thus enabled to furnish sufficient oxygen to convert a portion of the sulphur into sulphuric acid, which, as soon as formed, combines with the base of the nitre, to form the sulphate of potassa. This is left mixed with a portion of sul- phur, which has escaped combustion; but the greater part of the lat- ter undergoes ordinary combustion, and is dissipated as sulphurous acid fumes. Supposing the saline matter to be a sulphate containing a little free sulphur, this combustible is evidently used in great excess; but whether this excess is necessary to obtain the exact preparation desired by the Edinburgh College, is not easy to determine. Dr. Duncan says that the product amounts only to four-tenths of the materials employed. It is, therefore, smaller than it ought to be, even supposing that the residue consisted of nothing but sulphate of potassa. Dr. Duncan is of opinion that the preparation under consideration cannot be viewed as a sulphuretted sulphate, and for the following satis- factory reasons. In the first place, he states that it is more soluble in water than sulphate of potassa, and forms a yellowish solution, the wa- ter leaving undissolved only a small residue of a black colour, which is not sulphur. In the second place, he remarks that it exhales during solution a sulphureous smell, and its taste is sulphureous. These facts would seem to show that a small portion of sulphite of potassa is pre- sent in the preparation, or, at least, some sulphurous acid in a state of loose combination. Properties, fyc.—This salt has an acid and sulphureous taste, and an acid reaction with test paper. When pulverised, it yields a pale yel- lowish-white powder. It is soluble in eight times its weight of cold water. It is, however, not a uniform preparation; different specimens, apparently prepared with equal care, exhibiting some points of differ- ence in properties. It was called by the earlier chemists sal polychres- tus Glaseri. Its other properties coincide generally with those of sul- phate of potassa, which may be considered as its basis. Medical Properties and Uses.—The medical effects of this preparation differ but little, if at all, from those of the sulphate of potassa. Its ac- tion on the system is stated by Dr. Duncan to resemble that of the sul- phureous mineral waters which contain a portion of neutral salt. As, however, it is apt to be unequal in its composition, it ought, perhaps, to be discarded from the officinal list. The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm. POTASSA BISULPHAS. Dub. Potassa Supersulphas. Lond. Bisulphate of Potassa. Supersulphate of Potassa. "Take of Commercial Sulphuric Acid two parts; Carbonate of Po- 940 Potassa. part ii. tassa from Pearlashes a sufficient quantity; Water dxparts. Mix one part of the Sulphuric Acid with the Water, and saturate the mixture with the Carbonate of Potassa; then add the other part of the Acid to the liquor, and evaporate it, so that on cooling crystals may form." Dub. "Take of the salt which remains after the distillation of Nitric Acid two pounds ; Boiling Water four pints. Mix, that the salt may dissolve, and filter. Then boil down the solution to one-half, and set it aside that crystals may form. Pour off the liquid, and dry the crystals on bibu- lous paper." Lond. The Dublin process for forming this supersalt is more precise than the London, but at the same time less economical. The object being to obtain a salt, containing twice the quantity of sulphuric acid, existing in the neutral sulphate, it is plain that by dividing the sulphuric acid employed, into two equal parts, and saturating one of these parts with potassa, the resulting neutral sulphate must be converted into a bisul- phate by the addition of the other part. In explaining the London for- mula, it is only necessary to recall to the reader's attention, a part of explanations given under the head of Nitric Acid. It was there stated, that for the proper decomposition of nitre, for the purpose of obtaining nitric acid, it was necessary to use two equiv. of sulphuric acid, to one of the salt. Consequently, the salt which remains after the distil- lation of nitric acid, is really a bisulphate, and only requires to be dis- solved, and the solution filtered and duly evaporated, in order that it may be freed from accidental impurities and brought to the state of crystals. The quantity of water ordered by the London College is ex- cessive, and causes a waste of time and fuel to dissipate it subsequently by evaporation. Two pints of water instead of four, would probably form a solution of the proper medium strength, and this reduction would supersede the necessity of subsequent evaporation. If the solution is evaporated to a pellicle, the salt, on cooling, concretes into a mass; and if it be too dilute, the excess of acid remains in the water, and sulphate of potassa is obtained. Properties, fyc—-Bisulphate of potassa is a white salt, usually present- ing the form of minute prismatic crystals, and having an extremely acid taste. It is soluble in twice its weight of cold water, and in less than its weight of boiling water. Alcohol does not dissolve it, but when added to an aqueous solution, precipitates the neutral sulphate. Expos- ed to the air, it effloresces slightly on the surface, and when moderately heated, it readily melts, and runs like oil. At a red heat, it loses water and its excess of acid, and is reduced to the state of neutral sulphate. From its excess of acid, it acts precisely as an acid on the carbonates, causing them to effervesce. It is incompatible with alkalies, earths, and their carbonates, and with many of the metals and most oxides. This salt was formerly called sal enixum. It consists of two equiv. of sulphuric acid 80, one equiv. of potassa 48, and two equiv. of water 18=146. The name appropriated to it by the Dublin College, is, therefore, most precise. Medical Properties and Uses.—The bisulphate of potassa unites ape- rient properties with those of sulphuric acid, and may be given in cases of constipation with languid appetite, such as very often occurs in con- valescence from acute diseases. Dr. Paris states that it forms a grateful adjunct to rhubarb. It answers also, according to Dr. Barker, for pre- paring an aperient effervescing draught at little expense. Equal weights, a drachm for instance, of the bisulphate of potassa and carbonate of PART II. Potassa. 941 soda, may be dissolved separately, each in two fluidounces of water, then mixed, and taken in the state of effervescence. The dose of the bisul- phate is one or two drachms. POTASSA SULPHURETUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Sulphure- tum Potassa. Ed. Sulphuret of Potassa. " Take of Sulphur an ounce; Carbonate of Potassa two ounces. Rub the Carbonate of Potassa, previously dried, with the Sulphur: melt the mixture, in a covered crucible, over the fire; then pour it out, and when cold, put it into a bottle, which is to be well stopped." U.S. "Take of Washed Sulphur an ounce; Subcarbonate of Potassa two ounces. Rub them together, and place the mixture over the fire, in a covered crucible, until they unite." Lond. " Take of Sub-Carbonate of Potassa two parts; Sublimed Sulphur one part. Rub them together, and put them into a large coated crucible, and having fitted on the cover, surround it cautiously with live coals, so that at length the mixture shall melt. Keep the mass in a very close phial." Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa four parts; Sublimed Sulphur one part. Having previously mixed them, put them in a crucible, fit a cover to it, and expose them to a heat gradually raised until they unite." Dub. When carbonate of potassa is melted with an excess of sulphur, the carbonic acid is expelled. Three-fourths of the potassa are decomposed; its oxygen, by uniting with a part of the sulphur, generates sulphuric acid, which, by union with the undecomposed potassa, produces sulphate of potassa; while the potassium forms with the remaining sulphur a sulphuret of potassium, with more or less excess of sulphur. Thus the preparation under consideration, formerly called hepar sulphuris, or liver of sulphur, is not a sulphuret of potassa, but a mixture of sulphate of potassa and sulphuret of potassium, with excess of sulphur. In the first three formulae given above, the sulphur is melted with twice its weight of the carbonate; in the Dublin formula, with four times its weight. Berzelius says that the true hepar is formed by melting 100 parts of the carbonate with at least 94 of sulphur, and that the sulphuret of potas- sium formed contains five equiv. of sulphur to one of metal. These proportions give a great excess of sulphur, compared with those adopt- ed in the Pharmacopoeias. The ratio of the carbonate is smallest in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, in which it has been reduced to one-fourth the quantity directed in the edition of 1807. This proportion is evidently too small, and yet we are assured by Dr. Barker, that the present Dub- lin mode of preparing this substance is much preferable to the old one. Upon the whole, however, it seems probable that the proportions of the other Pharmacopoeias are most eligible; and we are the more inclined to this opinion, as they are recommended by M. Henry of Paris. The use of a large crucible, as directed by the Edinburgh College, is proper, as otherwise the extrication of the carbonic acid is apt to cause the fused mass to swell up so much as to overflow. When the fusion is com- pleted, the mass should be poured out on a marble slab, and, as soon as it concretes, should be broken into pieces, and immediately transferred to a well stopped bottle. The different Pharmacopoeias use the carbonate of potassa from pearl- ashes; but this is considered by some authorities not to be sufficiently pure. In the process of M. Henry, which is stated to be the best that has yet been devised, the purest carbonate of potassa is employed. His formula is as follows. Mix two parts of real salt of tartar with one of roll sulphur reduced to powder, and put the mixture into flat-bottomed 942 Potassa. part ii. matrasses, which should be only two-thirds filled by it. These are placed on a sand-bath, at equal distances, and the fire is applied, so as, at first, to produce only a gentle heat, which is afterwards increased. Care must be taken that the necks of the matrasses do not become obstructed. The heat is continued, until the matter is brought to the state of tranquil fusion, when it is allowed to cool. The mass obtained is compact, smooth, and of a fine yellow colour, and is broken in pieces and preserv- ed in close bottles. Properties, 8,-c.—Sulphuret of potassa, when properly prepared, is a hard and brittle substance, having a nauseous, alkaline, and bitter taste. Its colour is liver-brown, and hence its former name of hepar sulphuris. It is inodorous when dry, but emits a slightly fetid smell when moist, owing to the extrication of a small portion of hydrosulphuric acid gas. It is completely soluble in water, forming a liquid of a deep orange co- lour. During its solution, the sulphuret of potassium, by means of the elements of water, becomes changed into hydrosulphate of potassa. By exposure to the air it attracts moisture, and the same change takes place more slowly. The solution is decomposed by the mineral acids, which combine with the potassa, extricate hydrosulphuric acid, and precipitate the excess of sulphur in a state of hydrate. It is also incom- patible with the solutions of most of the metals, which are precipitated either as sulphurets or hydrosulphates. When this preparation is kept in bottles imperfectly stopped, it becomes white on the surface, in con- sequence of the oxidation of the elements of the sulphuret of potassium, which is thereby converted into sulphate of potassa. Medical Properties and Uses.—The sulphuret of potassa is said to be diaphoretic. It acts, moreover, as an antacid, and produces the general effects of sulphur upon the system. By some it is maintained to be se- dative, and directly to reduce the action of the heart. The complaints in which it has been most advantageously employed are chronic rheu- matism and gout, and various cutaneous affections. It has been given with less benefit in painters' colic, asthma, and chronic catarrh, and acquired a short-lived reputation as a remedy in croup, after the pub- lication of the essay to which the prize offered by Napoleon for the best dissertation on this disease was awarded. It is said, in some cases of cancer, to have assisted the palliative operation of hemlock. In consequence of its property of forming insoluble sulphurets when mix- ed with the metallic salts, it has been proposed as an antidote for some of the mineral poisons, such as corrosive sublimate, arsenious acid, the salts of copper, and the preparations of lead; but Orfila has proved that it does not prevent the effects of these poisons, but on the contrary is itself highly poisonous when given in large doses. Accord- ing to this author, it occasions death by corroding the stomach, and depressing the powers of the nervous system. Dissolved in water it has proved very efficacious as an external application in cutaneous diseases, and in scabies is an almost certain remedy. It may be used for this pur- pose in the form of lotion, bath, or ointment. For a lotion it may be dissolved in water in the proportion of from fifteen to thirty grains to the fluidounce, and for a bath, the same quantity or rather more may be added to a gallon of water. A very small proportion of muriatic or sulphuric acid may in either case be added to the solution. The dose of the sulphuret of potassa is from two to ten grains, re- peated several times a day, and given in pill with liquorice, or in solu- tion with syrup. In infantile cases of croup, from one to four grains were given every three or four hours. PART II. Potassa. 943 POTASSA SULPHURETI AQUA. Dub. Water of Sulphuret of Potassa. " Take of Washed Sulphur one part; Water of Caustic Potassa eleven parts. Boil for ten minutes and filter through paper. Keep the liquor in well stopped bottles. The specific gravity of this solution is 1.117." Dub. When sulphur is boiled with a solution of caustic potassa, a part of the water is decomposed, and its elements, by uniting to separate por- tions of sulphur, give rise to hyposulphurous and hydrosulphuric acids, which, by combining with the alkali, form a hyposulphite and hydrosul- phate of potassa in solution. Accordingly, this preparation is not a solution of sulphuret of potassa, as it is called by the Dublin College; neither is it identical with an aqueous solution of the preceding prepa- ration, though its name would naturally lead to that supposition. Properties, fyc.—This liquid has an unctuous feel and a deep orange colour. It is decomposed by acids, which cause an effervescence of hy- drosulphuric acid, and a milky appearance from the precipitation of sulphur. Upon exposure to the air it is gradually converted into a solu- tion of the sulphate of potassa. It has the same medical properties as the last preparation noticed; and is used internally and externally for the most part in cutaneous eruptions. The dose is from ten minims to a fluidrachm, diluted with water, and given two or three times a day. When used as a bath it imparts to the skin an orange colour. POTASSA TARTRAS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tartras Potas- sa. Ed. Tartrate of Potassa. Soluble Tartar. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa sixteen ounces; Supertartrate of Po- tassa [cream of tartar], in powder, three pounds; Boiling Water a gal- lon. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the Water; then gradually add the Supertartrate of Potassa, until effervescence ceases. Filter the solution through paper; then evaporate it till a pellicle forms, and set it aside to crystallize. Pour off the water, and dry the crystals upon bibulous paper." U.S. The London formula is essentially the same with the above, which was copied from it with some slight changes in phraseology. "Take of Sub-Carbonate of Potassa one part; Super-Tartrate of Po- tassa three parts, or a suffident quantity; boiling Water fifteen parts. Dissolve the Sub-Carbonate in Water, and gradually add to the solution the Super-Tartrate of Potassa in fine powder, so long as it excites ef- fervescence, which generally ceases before three times the weight of the Sub-Carbonate has been added; then filter the solution when cold through paper, and after due evaporation set it aside to crystallize." Ed. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlashes five parts; Bitar- trate of Potassa [cream of tartar] fourteen parts; boiling Water forty- five parts. Add the Bitartrate of Potassa, in very fine powder, to the Carbonate of Potassa, dissolved in the Water. Filter the solution through paper, and evaporate it, so that on cooling crystals may form." Dub. In these processes, the excess of acid in the supertartrate, is saturated by the potassa of the carbonate, the carbonic acid is extricated with effer- vescence, and the neutral tartrate of potassa is obtained. On account of the greater solubility of the carbonate than the supertartrate, the former is taken in a stated quantity and dissolved, and the latter is added to the solution formed to full saturation. As the salts are mixed in this order, 944 Potassa. part ii. the case may be considered as one in which a definite portion of carbo- nate of potassa in solution is saturated by the excess of acid of the su- pertartrate; and this manner of viewing the reaction comes to the same thing. As the cream of tartar is successively added, the mutual action of the salts should be promoted by constant stirring; and the addition should be continued so long as effervescence takes place, which is a bet- ter mode of proceeding than to add any specified quantity of the super- salt; since, from its variable quality, it is impossible to adjust precisely the proportion applicable to all cases. It is necessary that the solution should be exactly neutral, or a little alkaline; and hence, if, inadver- tently, too much cream of tartar is added, the proper state may be re- stored by adding a little of the alkaline carbonate. When the saturation has been completed, the solution is filtered to separate the tartrate of lime, which appears in white flocks, and which is always present in cream of tartar as an impurity. The evaporated liquor should then be placed in warm earthenware vessels, to ensure a slow refrigeration; and after remaining at rest for several days, the crystals begin to form. In order that the crystallization should proceed favourably, it is neces- sary, according to Baume, that the solution should be somewhat alka- line. Iron vessels should not be used in any part of the process; as this metal is apt to discolour the product. The proportions of the carbonate to the supertartrate taken in the different formulae, are somewhat different. In the U.S. and London process, they are to each other as 5 to 11.25; in the Edinburgh, as 5 to 15, and in the Dublin, as 5 to 14. The equivalent quantities would give the ratio of 5 to 13.5; so that the proportions of the Dublin Col- lege are the most accurate. Tartrate of potassa is sometimes made in the process for preparing tartaric acid. When thus obtained, the excess of acid in the supertar- trate is neutralized by means of carbonate of lime; which generates an insoluble tartrate of lime, and leaves the neutral tartrate in solution, from which it may be obtained by evaporation and crystallization. (See Addum Tartaricum.) Properties, fyc.—Tartrate of potassa, prepared according to the offi- cinal processes, is in the form of white crystals, which are slightly de- liquescent, and usually have the shape of irregular six-sided prisms with dihedral summits. Its taste is cooling and bitterish. It dissolves in its weight of cold water, and in much less boiling water, and is soluble in 240 parts of boiling alcohol. Exposed to heat, it undergoes fusion, swells up, blackens, and is decomposed; being converted into carbonate of potassa. For medicinal use, it should always be crystallized, but as it ordinarily occurs in the shops, it is in a white granular powder, ob- tained by evaporating the solution to dryness, while it is constantly stirred. In this state, it is said to require four times its weight of wa- ter for solution. It is never purposely adulterated, but if it be obtained by evaporation to dryness, it is liable to contain an excess either of car- bonate or supertartrate of potassa, when it will have an alkaline or acid reaction. It is decomposed by all the strong acids, and many acidulous salts, which cause the precipitation of minute crystals of supertartrate of potassa, by abstracting one equiv. of alkali from two of the salt. It is composed of one equiv. of tartaric acid 66, and one equiv. of potassa 48=114. According to Berzelius, the crystals contain no water of crys- tallization. Medical Properties and Uses.—Tartrate of potassa is a mild cooling purgative, operating, like most of the neutral salts, without much pain, part ii. Potassa. 945 and producing watery stools. It is applicable to febrile diseases, and is occasionally combined with senna, the griping effects of which it has a tendency to obviate. The dose is from a drachm to an ounce, accord- ing to the degree of effect desired. POTASSII IODIDUM. U.S. Potassa Hydriodas. Dub. Iodide of Potassium. Hydriodate of Potassa. "Take of Solution of Potassa two pints; Iodine a suffident quantity. Apply a gentle heat to the Solution, and add by degrees sufficient Iodine to saturate the Potassa, and to impart a brown colour to the liquid. Then pass Hydrosulphuric Acid through the solution, in a proper ves- sel, till it loses its brown colour, and retains the odour of the Acid. Filter through paper, and having poured hot water upon the residue, again filter. Boil the filtered liquors for a short time that the Hydro- sulphuric Acid may be driven off; then, if sulphur has been precipi- tated, remove it, and saturate any acid that may be present with Solu- tion of Potassa. Lastly, boil the liquor to dryness. Hydrosulphuric Acid is obtained from Sulphuret of Iron, by the addition of Sulphuric Acid diluted with four times its weight of water." U.S. " Take of Iodine one part; Sulphuret of Iron, in coarse powder, five parts; Sulphuric Acid seven parts; Distilled Water forty-eight parts; Water of Carbonate of Potassa a suffident quantity; Rectified Spirit dx parts. Mix the Iodine by trituration with sixteen parts of the Water, and put the mixture into a glass vessel. Pour the Acid, previously di- luted with thirty-two parts of the Water, on the Sulphuret, contained in a matrass; and by means of a tube adapted to the neck of the matrass, and reaching to the bottom of the vessel containing the Iodine and Wa- ter, transmit the gas through the mixture, until the Iodine entirely dis- appears. Filter the liquor, and immediately evaporate it, by a superior heat, to one-eighth part, and again filter it. Then gradually add as much Water of Carbonate of Potassa, as will be sufficient to saturate the acid, which is known by the cessation of the effervescence. Then expose the mixture to heat, until the residual salt is dry and of a white colour. On this pour the Spirit, and dissolve by the aid of heat. Lastly, from the remaining salt, pour off the solution, evaporate it to dryness, and keep the residuum in a close vessel." Dub. By these processes, hydriodate of potassa is obtained in solution, which by evaporation to dryness becomes iodide of potassium. The U.S. process is that recommended in 1825 by Dr. Turner of London. On adding iodine in slight excess to a warm solution of potassa, water is decomposed; and by its elements uniting with separate portions of iodine, iodic and hydriodic acids are generated, which by combining with the alkali, form severally the iodate and hydriodate of potassa in solu- tion. In the next step of the process, the hydrosulphuric acid furnishes hydrogen to the elements of the iodic acid, and converts it into hydrio- dic acid and water, while its own sulphur is precipitated, and is remov- ed by filtration. The solution thus becomes one exclusively of hydrio- date of potassa, and, upon being evaporated to dryness, yields iodide of potassium, in consequence of the hydriodate losing the elements of wa- ter. Should the solution at first contain some excess of iodine, the hy- drosulphuric acid will convert this also into hydriodic acid, which would remain in excess; and hence the direction is given to saturate any superabundant acid with solution of potassa before evaporating to dry- ness. The process which Berzelius recommends as the best, on account of 119 946 Potassa. part ii. its economy, resembles the one just described, and is as follows. Dis- solve iodine in caustic potassa, until the liquid begins to be coloured. Then evaporate it sufficiently to cause the iodate to crystallize, and boil the mother water, containing the hydriodate, to dryness, so as to obtain the iodide of potassium, which must be fused, in order to convert any iodate of potassa present into iodide. Berzelius states, that the solution of the mixed iodic salts may be at once evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass fused, so as to obtain iodide of potassium, without, first sepa- rating the iodate by crystallization; but that the process when xhus con- ducted is liable to the objection, that, during the fusion, the mass bub- bles up, and portions of it are thrown out of the vessel, giving rise to a loss. In the Dublin process, a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas being passed through water in which iodine is diffused, the gas becomes de- composed, its sulphur is precipitated, and its hydrogen, by combining with the iodine, generates hydriodic acid, which remains in solution. The sulphur being separated by filtration, and the solution duly concen- trated, the acid is converted into hydriodate of potassa by saturating it with carbonate of-potassa, the carbonic acid of which,. by being extri- cated, causes the effervescence. By evaporation to dryness the hydrio- date in solution becomes the iodide of potassium. But lest it should be contaminated with iodate or carbonate of potassa, the dry mass is di- rected to be digested with a portion of rectified spirit (alcohol), which takes up the iodide of potassium, and leaves these foreign salts behind. The alcoholic solution of the pure iodide is then evaporated to dryness, and thus obtained in the solid state. This process is not so eligible as that of the U.S. Pharmacopceia; as it requires the previous formation of hydriodic acid, and the use of al- cohol. An easier process than either of these is, according to Dr. Tur- ner, to add iodine to a solution of the officinal sulphuret of potassa, (which in this state may be considered as a hydrosulphate of potassa) as long as sulphur is precipitated. The iodine, by superior affinity, re- places the sulphur, and thus converts the hydrosulphate into the hy- driodate of potassa. The chief objection to this process is that the product is contaminated with sulphate of potassa, an impurity always present in the officinal sulphuret. The following process by MM. Baup and Caillot is stated by Cheval- lier to be generally followed in France, and to give a whiter product than any other. Introduce into a matrass or capsule 50 parts of dis- tilled water and 10 of iodine, and add gradually 5 parts of bright iron filings. Heat the mixture gently, and stir it occasionally, until from being of a deep brown colour, it becomes colourless, and then filter. By the reaction of the materials, a hydriodate of iron is formed in solution. This is then heated nearly to the boiling point, and accurately saturated by means of carbonate of potassa, the alkali of which forms a hydrio- date in solution, and precipitates the oxide of iron. By a new filtration, separate the oxide of iron, and evaporate the filtered liquor to a pelli- cle in a porcelain capsule. By the cooling of the solution, crystals of iodide of potassium will be formed, which are to be washed with a lit- tle water, drained, and dried on bibulous paper with a gentle heat. The same salt may be obtained also, by a similar process to the above, merely substituting zinc for the iron. Properties.*—Iodide of potassium is a deliquescent substance, of an opaque white colour, and acrid and slightly bitter taste. It generally crystallizes in cubes, but by careful evaporation it may be obtained in part n. Potassa.—Pulparum Extractio. 947 pyramids. It is soluble in about two-thirds of its weight of cold water, and is converted in the act of dissolving into hydriodate of potassa. It dissolves freely also in alcohol, and when a hot saturated alcoholic so- lution is allowed to cool, it deposites the salt in crystals. Its aqueous solution is capable of taking up a large quantity of iodine, and becomes an ioduretted hydriodate of a deep brown colour. Exposed to heat, it fuses readily into a mass having a crystalline and pearly aspect, and at a red heat is volatilized without decomposition. This latter property furnishes the means of detecting any fixed impurity, and its solubility in alcohol renders easy the discovery of any foreign substance insoluble in that menstruum. The most usual impurities contained in this salt, are chloride of sodium, and iodate and carbonate of potassa. The latter salts may be detected by their insolubility in alcohol; and if upon dis- tilling a small sample of the iodide with nitric acid, a liquid is obtained which is precipitated by nitrate of silver, it is proof of the presence of a chloride, which is probably chloride of sodium. Carbonate of potassa is sometimes fraudulently introduced; and Dr. Duncan makes mention of a spurious iodide of potassium sold at one period in Scotland, which contained 64 per cent, of this carbonate. At present,-fortunately, iodine is comparatively so cheap, that but little motive remains for these frauds. Compodtion.—Iodide of potassium consists of one equiv. of iodine 124, and one of potassium 40 = 164. It contains no water of crystalli- zation, a circumstance which removes all ambiguity as to whether it is an iodide or hydriodate. The Dublin name of hydriodate of potassa is, therefore, erroneous as applied to the solid salt; and though it may be supposed to become a hydriodate by solution, the question here re- lates to a solid and not to a liquid. Medical Properties and Uses.—This salt exhibits the same medical pro- perties as iodine, though in a less degree. The powers of iodine as a remedy, have been so fully discussed in another place, that we have very little to add here. (See lodinum.) Dr. Lugol considers it to be quite in- ferior to iodine as a therapeutical agent, and uses it, apparently, for no other purpose than to promote the solubility of iodine in water. It has, however, been preferred by some practitioners, for the purpose of pro- ducing the constitutional effects of iodine. Dr. Montgomery states it to have been used by Dr. De Renzy, of Ireland, with great success in hae- moptysis ; and Dr. Graves, another Irish physician, employed it with success in a very obstinate erythematic swelling of the hand. The dose is from one to two grains, or from fifteen to thirty drops of a solution made by dissolving thirty-six grains of the salt in a fluidounce of dis- tilled water. It is chiefly used as an external application in the form of ointment. (See Unguentum Potassse Hydriodatis.) Off. Prep. Unguentum Potassae Hydriodatis, Dub. PULPARUM EXTRACTIO. Extraction of Pulps. " Boil unripe pulpy fruits, and ripe ones if dry, in a small quantity of water, until they become soft; then express the pulp through a hair sieve, and boil it down to the consistence of honey, in an earthen vessel, over a gentle fire, stirring it continually in order to prevent it from burning. 948 Pulparum Extractio.—Pulveres. part it. "The pulp of Cassia fistularis is, in like manner, to be boiled out from the bruised pod, and afterwards reduced to a proper consistence by evaporating the water. "The pulp of fresh ripe fruits are to be expressed through the sieve, without previous boiling." Ed. " Fruits, of which the pulps are to be extracted, if unripe, or ripe and dry, are to be boiled in a little water until they become soft. Then the pulps, expressed through a hair sieve, are to be evaporated to a proper consistence." Dub. " Set pulpy fruits, if unripe, or ripe and dry, in a moist place to soft- en; then express the pulps through a hair sieve; afterwards boil them with a gentle fire, frequently stirring; lastly, evaporate the water by means of a water-bath, until the pulps become of a proper consistence. " Pour boiling water upon the bruised Cassia Pods, so that the pulp may be washed out, and press this first through a coarse sieve, and af- terwards through a hair sieve; then evaporate by means of a water- bath until the pulp acquires a proper consistence. " Of fruits which are ripe and fresh, express the pulp or juice through a sieve, without boiling." Lond. There are very few fruits the pulps of which are now employed in pharmacy. For these few the directions of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are greatly preferable to those of the London, which are in- deed impracticable, as dried fruits often do- not become sufficiently moist by merely exposing them in a damp place to admit of the subse- quent treatment ordered, and besides, would almost always become mouldy. PULVERES. Powders. The form of powder is convenient for the exhibition of substances which are not given in very large doses, are not very disagreeable to the taste, have no corrosive property, and do not deliquesce rapidly on ex- posure. As the effect of pulverization is to expose a more extended sur- face to- the action of the air, great caution should be observed to keep substances which are liable to be injured by such exposure, in closely stopped bottles. In many instances it is also important to exclude the light, which exercises a very deleterious influence over numerous me- dicinal agents when minutely divided. In relation to substances most liable to injury from these causes, the best plan is to powder them in small quantities and as they are wanted for use. Powders may be divided into the simple, consisting of a single sub- stance, and the compound, of two or more mixed together. The latter only are embraced under the present head. In the preparation of the compound powders, the ingredients, if of different degrees of cohesion or solidity, should be pulverised separately and then united. An ex- ception, however, to this rule, is the employment of one substance to facilitate by its greater hardness the minute division of another, as in the Powder of Ipecacuanha and Opium. Deliquescent substances, and those containing fixed oil in large proportion, should not enter into the composition of powders, the former, because by absorbing moisture, they render the preparation damp and liable to spoil, the latter, because they are apt to become rancid, and impart an unpleasant odour and taste to the mixture. part ii. Pulveres. 949 The lighter powders may in general be administered suspended in water or other thin liquid; the heavier, such as those of metallic sub- stances, require a more consistent vehicle, as syrup, molasses, honey, or some of the confections. Resinous powders, if given in water, require the intervention of mucilage or sugar. The Dublin College gives the following general directions for the pre- paration of powders. " The substances to be powdered, having been previously dried, are to be beaten in an iron mortar. The powder is then to be separated by sifting it through a hair sieve, and is to be kept in close vessels." PULVIS ALOES COMPOSITUS. Lond., Dub. Compound Powder of Aloes. " Take of Extract of the Spiked Aloe [Socotrine aloes] an ounce and a half; Guaiac an ounce; Compound Powder of Cinnamon half an ounce. Rub the Aloes and the Guaiac, separately, into powder; then mix them with the Compound Powder of Cinnamon." Lond. The Dublin College gives the same directions, substituting the hepatic for the Socotrine aloes, and their own aromatic powder for the compound powder of cinnamon of the London College. • The tendency of pulverised guaiac to concrete, and the excessively bitter taste of aloes, which is but imperfectly concealed by the aromatic addition, render the form of powder ineligible for the exhibition of these medicines. The preparation is a warm stimulant cathartic, but is little used. The dose is from fifteen to thirty grains. PULVIS ALOES ET CANELLA. U.S. Pulvis Aloes cum Canella. Dub. Powder of Aloes and Canella. " Take of Aloes [hepatic, Dub.] a pound; Canella three ounces. Rub them separately into very fine powder [[into powder, Dub.] and then mix them." U.S., Dub. This preparation has long been known under the name of hiera picra. The canella serves to correct the griping property, and imperfectly to cover the taste of the aloes; but the unpleasant bitterness of the latter is still very obvious in the mixture, which would be better given in the form of pill than of powder. It is a popular remedy in amenorrhoea, and may be used for all the purposes to which aloes is applied. It is sometimes administered, in domestic practice, infused in wine or spirits. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. PULVIS ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS. Ed. Compound Pow- der of Alum. "Take of Alum four parts; Kino one part. Rub them together to a fine powder." Ed. A solution of alum is decomposed by a solution of kino, and it is pro- bable that the same effect takes place when the two substances, mixed in the state of powder, are introduced into the stomach; but whether their astringency is materially affected by the change is uncertain. The preparation may be employed in diarrhoea and menorrhagia, and exter- nally to suppress hemorrhage, or as an astringent application to flabby indolent ulcers. The dose is from five to twenty grains. PULVIS AROMATICUS. U.S.,Ed., Dub. Pulvis Cinnamomi Compositus. Lond. Aromatic Powder. "Take of Cinnamon, Cardamom, Ginger, each, two ounces. Rub them together into a very fine powder." U. S. The Edinburgh process corresponds with that of the U.S. Pharma- copceia. The London College directs two ounces of cinnamon, an ounce 950 Pulveres. part ii. and a half of cardamom, an ounce of ginger, and half an ounce of long pepper; the Dublin College, two ounces of cinnamon^ an ounce of car- damom seeds freed from their capsules, an ounce of ginger, and a drachm of long pepper. The cardamom seeds should always, as directed by the Dublin Col- lege, be separated from their capsules; and the powder, when prepared, should be kept in well stopped bottles. The London and Dublin prepa- rations are more pungent than that of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, in con- sequence of the long pepper which they contain. These powders are stimulant and carminative, and may be given in the dose of from ten to thirty grains, in cases of enfeebled digestion accompanied with flatu- lence; but they are chiefly used as corrigents and adjuvants of other medicines. . Off Prep. Pulvis Aloes Comp., Lond., Dub.; Confectio Aromatica, U.S., Ed.; Confectio Opii, U.S., Ed. PULVIS ASARI COMPOSITUS. Ed., Bub. Compound Pow- der of Asarabacca. "Take of Leaves of Asarabacca three parts; Leaves of Marjoram, Lavender Flowers, each, one part. Rub them together into powder." Ed. " Take of dried Leaves of Asarabacca an ounce; dried Lavender Flowers a drachm. Rub them together to powder." Dub. This is an agreeable and efficacious errhine, useful in some cases of obstinate headach, toothach, and chronic ophthalmia. Five or six grains, snuffed up the nostrils at bed-time, excite sneezing and a copi- ous discharge of mucus, which continues to flow on the following day. f PULVIS CONTRAJERVA COMPOSITUS. Zone?. Compound Powder of Contrayerva. " Take of Contrayerva Root, in powder, five ounces; Prepared Oyster- shell a pound and a half. Mix them." Lond. This powder unites the gently stimulant and diaphoretic properties of the contrayerva with the antacid properties of the oyster-shell; but the preparation is quite obsolete. • PULVIS CRETA COMPOSITUS. Lond., Dub. Pulvis Car- bonatis Calcis Compositus. Ed. Compound Powder of Chalk. " Take of Prepared Chalk half a pound; Cinnamon Bark/owr ounces; Tormentil Root, Gum Arabic, each, three ounces; Long Pepper half an /ounce. Rub them separately into very fine powder, and then mix them. Lond., Dub. , .. " Take of Prepared Carbonate of Lime four ounces; Nutmeg half a drachm; Cinnamon Bark a drachm and a half. Rub them together to powder." Ed. In the Edinburgh preparation, the aromatics are in too small a quan- tity to serve any other purpose than to communicate a pleasant flavour to the carbonate of lime, which is the only active ingredient. The pow- der of the London and Dublin Colleges is, on the contrary, warm, stimu- lating, and astringent, as well as antacid; and is well calculated for the treatment of diarrhoea connected with acidity and unattended with in- flammatory symptoms. In such a combination, however, the proper proportion, and even the choice of the ingredients, varies so much with the symptoms of the case, that they might with propriety be left to ex- temporaneous prescription. The dose of the compound powder of chalk is from ten to twenty grains, given in mucilage or sweetened water, and frequently repeated. Off. Prep. Pulvis Cretae Compositus cum Opio, Lond., Duo. PART II. Pulveres. 951 PULVIS CRETA COMPOSITUS CUM OPIO. Lond., Dub. Compound Powder of Chalk with Opium. " Take of Compound Powder of Chalk six ounces and a half; Hard Opium, in powder, four scruples. Mix them." The addition of the opium greatly increases the efficacy of the com- pound powder of chalk in diarrhoea; and its equal diffusion through the powder presents this advantage, that it may be conveniently given in minute doses applicable to infantile cases. Two scruples of the powder contain a grain of opium. In the diarrhoea of adults from ten to twenty grains may be given for a dose, and repeated several times a day, or after each evacuation. ,,.,»»,.■,, T PULVIS IPECACUANHA ET OPII. U.S., Ed. Pulvis Ipe- cacuanha Compositus. Lond., Dub. Powder of Ipecacuanha and Opium. Dover's Powder. " Take of Ipecacuanha, in powder, Opium, in powder, each, a drachm; Sulphate of Potassa an ounce. Rub them together into a very fine pow- der." U.S. . . All the British Colleges employ the same ingredients as above, and in the same proportions. The London College, having ordered thern in the state of powder, simply directs them to be mixed together. The Edinburgh directions agree with those of our own Pharmacopoeia, ex- cept that the opium is not pulverised before being rubbed with the other ingredients. The Dublin College first rubs the opium and sulphate of potassa together into powder, and then mixes the pulverised ipecacuanha with them. T£e sulphate of potassa in this preparation serves, by the hardness ot its particles, to promote that minute division and consequent thorough intermixture of the opium and ipecacuanha, upon which the peculiar virtues of the compound depend. It also serves to dilute the active in- gredients and thus allow of their division into minute doses adapted to the complaints of children. This composition, though usually called Dover's powder, does not precisely correspond 'with that originally re- commended by Dr. Dover, which is prepared as follows. Four ounces of nitrate of potassa and the same quantity of sulphate of potassa, are melted together in a red-hot crucible, and afterwards very finely pow- dered; one ounce of opium, sliced, is then added, and ground to pow- der with the saline mixture; lastly, an ounce of ipecacuanha and an ounce of liquorice root, in powder, are mixed with the other ingredients. This process has been adopted in the Paris Codex. The powder of ipecacuanha and opium is an admirable anodyne dia- phoretic, not surpassed, perhaps, by any other combination in its pow- er of promoting the cutaneous secretion. Opium itself has a strong tendency to the skin, evinced both by the occasional diaphoresis and by the itching and tingling sensation which it excites. While the vessels of the skin are'stimulated by this ingredient of the powder, the secret- ing orifices are relaxed by the ipecacuanha, and the combined effect is much greater than that which results from either separately. At the same time the general stimulating influence of the opium, and its ten- dency to operate injuriously on the brain, are counteracted; so that the mixture may be given with safety in cases which might not admit of the use of opium alone. The preparation is applicable to all cases, not attended with much fever, or cerebral disease, or sick stomach, in which there is an indication for profuse diaphoresis, especially in painful af- fections, or those connected with unhealthy discharges. It is admirably 952 Pulveres. part ii. adapted to the treatment of the phlegmasiae, particularly rheumatism and pneumonia, when complicated with a typhoid tendency, or after a sufficient reduction of arterial excitement by the lancet or other mode of depletion. Under similar circumstances it is useful in dysentery, diarrhoea, and the various hemorrhages, especially that from the uterus. It is sometimes also given in dropsy. In the bowel affections, and when- ever the hepatic secretion is deranged, it is frequently combined with small doses of calomel. . Ten grains of the powder contain one grain of opium. 1 he dose is from five to fifteen grains, given diffused in water, or mixed with syrup, or in the form of bolus, and repeated at intervals of four, six, or eight hours, when it is desirable to maintain a continued diaphoresis. Its ac- tion may be materially promoted by warm drinks, such as lemonade, or balm tea, which, however, should not be given immediately after the powder, as they might provoke vomiting. „ , _ , _ , PULVIS JALAPA COMPOSITUS. Ed., Bub. Compound Powder of Jalap. , n i* j r» k -i c " Take of Jalap Root, in powder, one part {half a pound, Dub.J; Su- pertartrate of Potassa two parts [a pound, Dub.]. Rub them together to a very fine powder." Ed., Dub. ..... The supertartrate, by being rubbed with the jalap, is thought to fa- vour its more minute division, while it increases its hydragogue effect. A combination of these two ingredients, though with a larger propor- tion of cream of tartar, (see Jalapa,) is much used in this country as a cathartic in dropsy and scrofulous affections of the joints and glands. The dose of the officinal powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. PULVIS KINO COMPOSITUS. Lond., Bub. Compound Pow- der of Kino. n , . ,. „ , " Take of Kino fifteen drachms; Cinnamon Bark half an ounce; Hard Opium a drachm. Rub them separately to very fine powder, and then mix them." Lond., Dub. This is an anodyne astringent powder, useful in some forms ot diar- rhoea, but of which the composition would be better left to extempora- neous prescription, as the proportion of the ingredients should Vary with the circumstances of the case. Twenty grains contain one grain ol opi- um. The dose is from five grains to a scruple. ., PULVIS OPIATUS. Ed. Pulvis Cornu Usti cum Upio. Dona. Opiate Powder. „ _. . . ''Take of Opium one part; Prepared Carbonate of Lime nine parts. Rub them together to a fine powder." Ed. " Take of Hard Opium, in powder, a drachm; Hartshorn, burnt and prepared, an ounce; Cochineal, in powder, a drachm. Mix them. Lond. These powders are intended to afford the means of exhibiting opium in minute doses; and it is of little consequence whether the carbonate or phosphate of lime is employed, although the antacid property ot the former may in some instances prove advantageous. The cochineal ot the London preparation merely serves to give it colour. Ten grains ot the nowder contain one grain of opium. PULVIS PRO CATAPLASMATE. Dub. Powder for a Cata- P " Take of Flaxseed which remains after the expression of the oil one ■part; Oatmeal two parts. Mix them." Dub. This is a good material for the formation of poultices; but hardly de- serves a place among the officinal preparations. The unpressed flaxseed PART II. Pulveres. 953 meal is preferable to that which has been pressed, as the oil which it contains causes it to retain longer a soft consistence. PULVIS SALINUS COMPOSITUS. Ed., Dub. Compound Saline Powder. "Take of Muriate of Soda, Sulphate of Magnesia, each, four parts; Sulphate of Potassa three parts. Dry the salts with a gentle heat; then, having rubbed them separately to fine powder, mix them together, and keep the mixture in a well stopped bottle." Ed., Dub. This is an aperient powder, and may be taken with advantage in cos- tive habits, in the dose of two or three drachms, dissolved in half a pint of water or carbonic acid water, before breakfast. PULVIS SCAMMONII COMPOSITUS. Ed., Dub. Pulvis Scammonea Compositus. Lond. Compound Powder of Scammony. "Take of Scammony, Hard Extract of Jalap, each, two ounces; Gin- ger Root half an ounce. Rub them separately to a very fine powder; and then mix them." Lond., Dub. " Take of Scammony, Supertartrate of Potassa, equalparts. Rub them together to a very fine powder." Ed. It should be observed, that the compound of the Edinburgh College is essentially different from that of the London and Dublin Colleges; but we do not think that either of them is an eligible preparation. The cream of tartar in the former can serve little other purpose than to' as- sist in the pulverization of the scammony, which does not require any peculiar care in this respect. In the latter, though the ginger may tend to correct the griping property of the purgative ingredients, the extract of jalap too closely resembles the scammony in its mode of operation to exert any important modifying influence upon it. The dose of the Lon- don powder is from seven to fifteen grains, of the Edinburgh, from ten to twenty grains. PULVIS SENNA COMPOSITUS. Lond. Compound Pow- der of Senna. "Take of Senna Leaves, Supertartrate of Potassa, each, two ounces; Scammony half an ounce; Ginger Root two drachms. Rub the Scammo- ny separately, and the other ingredients together, to a very fine powder, and then mix them." Lond. The cream of .tartar in this preparation qualifies the action of the sen- na, while the scammony gives increased activity to the mixture, the dose of which would otherwise be too large for convenient administration. The ginger is added to prevent nausea and griping. The powder acts as a hydragogue cathartic in a dose varving from a scruple to a drachm. PULVIS TRAGACANTHA COMPOSITUS. Lond. Com- pound Powder of Tragacanth. " Take of Tragacanth, in powder, Gum Arabic, in powder, Starch, each, an ounce and a half; Refined Sugar three ounces. Rub the Starch and Sugar together to powder, then add the Tragacanth and Gum Ara- bic, and mix them all." Lond. This is applicable to the general purposes of the demulcents; but is chiefly employed in Great Britain as a vehicle for heavy, insoluble pow- ders. The dose is from thirty grains to a drachm, mixed with water or other mild liquid. 120 954 Quinia. part ii. QUINIA. Preparations of Quinia. QUINIA SULPHAS. U.S. Quinina Sulphas. Dub. Sul- phate of Quinia. " Take of Yellow Bark, in powder, a pound; Lime, in powder, four ounces; Sulphuric Acid, Alcohol, Animal Charcoal, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Bark for half an hour with eight pints of the Distilled Water, acidulated with a fluidounce of the Sul- phuric Acid. Strain the decoction through linen; then boil the residue with the same quantity of acidulated Water, and filter as before. Mix the filtered liquors, and gradually add the Lime, stirring constantly. Wash the precipitate with Distilled Water, and having dried it, digest it in Alcohol with a moderate heat. Pour off the tincture, and repeat the digestion several times, till the Alcohol is no longer rendered bit- ter. Mix the tinctures and distil over the alcohol, till a brown viscid liquid remains in the retort. Upon this substance, removed from the retort, pour as much Sulphuric Acid, largely diluted with water, as may be sufficient for its perfect saturation. Then add the Animal Charcoal, and having evaporated the liquor sufficiently, filter it while hot, and set it aside to crystallize." U.S. The process of the Dublin College is essentially the same with the above, though different in its details. Both were taken from the pro- cess of M. Henry Jun., of Paris, for which he received a prize from the French Academy of Sciences, and which, with some slight modifications, is now almost universally practised. This we shall present to our read- ers in full detail, premising, however, such an explanation of the more general directions of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, as may enable the stu- dent to understand each step of the process. The yellow bark (Calisaya, or royal yellow) is the variety selected, because this contains quinia in the largest proportion, and most free from admixture with cinchonia. The alkali exists in the bark combined with kinic acid, and probably, also, with one or more of the colouring principles, as suggested by M. Henry. As in this latter state it is of difficult solubility, if it be not insoluble in water, the whole of the qui- nia cannot be extracted from the bark by means of that liquid alone. Berzelius, however, attributes the difficulty of exhausting the bark to the circumstance, that water converts the native neutral kinates into soluble superkinates which are dissolved, and insoluble subkinates which remain. By adding sulphuric acid to the water in such quantities as to be in excess in relation to the quinia, the whole of the alkali combines with the acid to form a very soluble supersulphate, in which state it ex- ists, together with various impurities, in the decoctions procured by the first steps of the process. By the addition of lime to the filtered and mixed decoctions, the sulphate is decomposed, giving up its sulphuric acid to the lime, while the quinia is liberated, and being insoluble in water, is precipitated in connexion with the sulphate of lime, the water retaining most of the impurities. The precipitate having been washed in order to purify it from every thing soluble in water, the next step is to separate the quinia from the sulphate of lime. This is accomplished by the agency of alcohol, which dissolves the former, and leaves the latter untouched. The whole of the alkali having been abstracted, the part n. Quinia. 955 alcoholic solution of quinia is then sufficiently concentrated by evapora- tion, and diluted sulphuric acid added in such proportions as to form a neutral sulphate, which crystallizes when the liquor cools after concen- tration. The use of the animal charcoal is to deprive the salt of the colouring matter, which obstinately adheres to it through every stage of the process; and the object of the filtering is to separate the char- coal after it has performed this office. To the operator it is necessary to be acquainted not only with the outlines and general principles of a process, but with all its details, as the neglect of some points of little apparent importance may materially interfere with his success. It is to supply the deficiency of the process of the Pharmacopceia in this respect, that we introduce the following, extracted from the Dictionnaire des Drogues. Process of M. Henry.—Take 2000 parts of yellow bark, in powder, and 15,000 parts of water acidulated with 128 parts of sulphuric acid of 66° Baume* Put the powder into a copper vessel, add a little water, make a paste by means of a wooden spatula; then mix this paste with the remainder of the liquid, place the vessel over the fire, and carry the heat to the point of ebullition. At the expiration of an hour, allow the acid decoction to rest, then strain it through linen, treat the residue with a fresh quantity of acidulated water, and strain as before. This treatment is to be repeated till the bark is exhausted, which may be known by the liquid ceasing to acquire bitterness. Now mix together all the decoctions, and add sufficient lime mixed with water to saturate the acid contained in the liquor. The quinia and cinchonia, separated from their combination with the acid, are precipitated along with the sulphate of lime, and the excess of lime added. Collect this precipi- tate upon a linen cloth previously moistened, taking care to preserve the liquid which passes through, as it still contains a portion of alka- line matter. To prevent the injurious reaction of the lime, contained in this liquor, upon the quinia, acidulate it slightly with sulphuric acid; then evaporate it one-third, and decompose the sulphate of quinia by an excess of lime. The precipitate now produced, is to be united with the first, and both are to be washed with water, till this ceases to acquire colour or taste; the water is then to be allowed to drain off, and the precipitate afterwards to be dried by a gentle heat. When perfectly dry it is to be powdered, and digested in alcohol of 36° Baume, which, after some time, is to be decanted, and fresh portions successively added till they cease to extract any thing from the precipitate. Mix the alcoholic liquors, allow them to stand that the undissolved matter may subside, decant the clear portion, filter the remainder, introduce the whole into the water-bath of a still, and draw off three-quarters of the alcohol by distillation. There remains in the boiler a substance having the appear- ance of a resinous matter mixed with a small quantity of turbid liquor, which has a bitter taste and an alkaline reaction. Decant this liquor, and add to it water acidulated with sulphuric acid, so as to saturate the alkaline matter, taking care that the acid be not in excess. Litmus pa- per may be used to ascertain the neutrality of the mixture. During this operation the liquid should be kept hot. When it is allowed to cool, the sulphate of quinia precipitates. This is to be expressed, and boiled with water and a small quantity of animal charcoal previously washed with muriatic acid. After a few minutes of ebullition, filter the liquid while • Sufficiently near approximations are 4 pounds troy of bark, 24 pints of water, and S troy ounces of sulphuric acid. 956 Quinia. PART II. hot, and set it aside to crystallize. Drain the crystals, and afterwards dry them between folds of filtering paper at a temperature of 90° or 100° F. From the mother waters decolorized by charcoal, a new crop of crystals may be derived. A small quantity of sulphate of quinia may also be obtained from the viscid matter remaining in the water-bath of the still. For this purpose, saturate the matter with dilute sulphuric acid, evaporate one-half, add animal charcoal and boil for a few min- utes, and lastly, filter the boiling liquid. On cooling, it deposites crys- tals which are to be treated as before described. The mother waters contain sulphate of cinchonia, with a proportion of sulphate of quinia which has not crystallized. They may be applied to important practi- cal purposes. (See Quiniae Sulphas Impurus.) The following modification of the above process has been proposed by M. Bernardet. In the distillation of the alcoholic solution, the whole of the alcohol is to be drawn off by means of a water-bath, and the vis- cid residue treated with about 100 parts of alcohol, which completely dissolves it. Three thousand parts of water heated in a water-bath and acidulated with sulphuric acid so as to tinge litmus paper of a deep red, are then to be added, and the liquor filtered. The filtered solution is next to be boiled with common animal charcoal, not previously washed with muriatic acid as in the former case, which removes the colour, and by the carbonate of lime which it contains, serves to neutralize the ex- cess of sulphuric acid. To complete the process, it remains only to fil- ter anew, and to evaporate sufficiently. The sulphate of quinia is thus obtained very pure and white. Muriatic acid may be substituted in the process for the sulphuric. Other processes have been proposed, and attempts have been made to extract the quinia without the use of alcohol; but none have been found to unite equally with that described, the important requisites of economy and convenience. We have been informed by Mr. John Farr, of Philadelphia, who is largely concerned in the manufacture of sulphate of quinia, that the Calisaya bark employed by him, yields an average product of about two per cent, of the salt. Sulphate of quinia may be obtained from any of the varieties of Pe- ruvian, bark by the above process; but should any other than the Cali- saya bark be employed, a large proportion of sulphate of cinchonia will necessarily result from the operation, and, being much more soluble than the salt of quinia, will remain dissolved in the residuary liquor from which the latter will have crystallized. To separate it, the follow- ing method, originally suggested by Pelletier and Caventou, maybe em- ployed. Magnesia, lime, or a solution of potassa as employed by M. Callaud, is added to the mother waters in excess. The cinchonia is pre- cipitated together with a portion of quinia which has remained in the solution, and with the excess of magnesia or lime if one of these earths has been employed. The precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with hot water, then dried, and treated with boiling alcohol, which dissolves the vegetable alkalies. The alcoholic solution is filtered while hot, and the residue afterwards treated in the same manner with successive por- tions of alcohol, till it is quite exhausted. The solutions, having been mixed together, are now concentrated by the distillation of the alcohol, and allowed to cool, when they deposite cinchonia in the crystalline state. Successive evaporations and refrigerations afford new crops of crystals, and the process should be continued till no more can be ob- tained. The cinchonia thus procured, if impure, should be reconverted PART II. Quinia. 957 into a sulphate and treated as before, animal charcoal being employed to free it from colour.. The quinia which remains in the mother wa- ters, as it will not crystallize, may be obtained by evaporation to dry- ness, or may be converted into the crystallizable sulphate by the addition of sulphuric acid. To obtain the sulphate of cinchonia, mix the alkali with a small quantity of water, heat the mixture, and add gradually di- lute sulphuric acid sufficient to saturate it; then boil with animal char- coal previously washed with muriatic acid, and filter the liquor while hot. Upon cooling it will deposite crystals of the sulphate, and by re- peated evaporation and crystallization, will yield all the salt which it holds in solution. Properties.—Sulphate of quinia is in fine, silky, slightly flexible, needle- shaped crystals, interlaced among each other, or grouped in small star- like tufts. Its taste is intensely bitter, resembling that of the yellow bark. Exposed to a moderate heat it loses its crystalline form in consequence of the escape of its water of crystallization. At a temperature of 212° it be- comes luminous, especially when rubbed. At a still higher heat it melts, assuming the appearance of wax. It is very slightly soluble in cold wa- ter, requiring, according to M. Baup, 740 parts at 54° F. for solution, while at the boiling point it is dissolved in 30 parts. Its cold solution is opalescent. It is very soluble in alcohol, but only to a very small extent in ether. The diluted acids, even tartaric and oxalic acids, in excess, dissolve it with great facility. With sulphuric acid it forms a supersul- phate, which is much more soluble in water than the neutral salt, and crystallizes from its solution with much greater difficulty. It is this salt which remains in the mother waters when an excess of acid is added in the process for procuring the sulphate of quinia. According to M. Baup, it is soluble in 11 parts of water at 54° F., and in its own water of crys- tallization at the boiling point. It is very soluble in diluted, and some- what less so in absolute alcohol. The proportions of the constituents of the sulphates of quinia are stated somewhat differently by different chemists. We present the results as obtained by Robiquet. (Diet, des Drogues.) Neutral Sulphate, Subsulphate of Berzelius. Sulphuric acid - - 10 Quinia - - - - 80.9 Water - - - - 9.1 Super sulphate, Neutral Sulphate of Berzelius. Sulphuric acid - - 19.1 Quinia .... 63.5 Water .... 17.4 M. Baup, however, whose statement corresponds closely, so far as regards the proportions of the acid and base, with the analysis of Pel- letier and Caventou, and is confirmed by the experiments of Winkler and of Buchner, gives as the constituents of the neutral sulphate, 76.272 parts of quinia, 8.474 of sulphuric acid, and 15.254 parts of water in the hundred. According to the same author, the neutral sulphate effloresces on exposure to the air, losing all but 2 or 3 per cent, of its water of crystallization, while the supersalt is permanent, unless heated or ex- posed to the action of substances having a strong affinity for water. (Journ. de Pharm. vii. 403.) Sulphate of quinia is decomposed by the alkalies and alkaline earths. In solution, it affords precipitates with potassa, soda, and ammonia, which are partly soluble in an excess of alkali. Tartaric, oxalic, and gallic acids, and their soluble salts, are said to precipitate the solutions of quinia; but these acids have no such effect on the sulphate if added in excess. 958 Quinia. PART II. M. Henry asserts, that neither gallic acid nor a neutral gallate occa- sions a precipitate with the sulphate of quinia; and ascribes that which is formed by the tincture, and infusion of galls, to a combination of the quinia with tannin. Hence red wines, and astringent solutions generally, are incompatible with sulphate of quinia. (Journ. de Pharm. ii. 331.) The soluble salts of baryta occasion a precipitate insoluble in water and the acids. Adulterations.—The high price of sulphate of quinia has led to various attempts at adulteration. Sulphate of lime, sugar, mannite, starch, and stearin, are among the substances which have been fraudulently added. By attending to the degree of solubility of the sulphate in different menstrua, and to its chemical relations with other substances already described, there can be little difficulty in detecting these adulterations. The presence of any mineral substance not readily volatilizable, may be at once ascertained by exposing the salt to a red heat, which will com- pletely destroy the sulphate of quinia, leaving the mineral behind. Medical Properties and Uses.—Sulphate of quinia produces upon the system, so far as we are enabled to judge by observation, the same effects with Peruvian bark, without being so apt to nauseate and oppress the stomach. (See Cincfwna.) It may, therefore, be substituted for that re- medy in all diseases to which the latter is applicable; and in the treat- ment of intermittents it has proved so efficacious as to have almost entirely superseded the use of bark. It has the advantage over this re- medy, not only that it is more easily administered in large doses, and more readily retained by the stomach, but that in cases which require an impression to be made through the rectum or the skin, it is much more effectual, because, from the smallness of its hulk, it is more readily retained in the former case, and more speedily absorbed in the latter. Still we cannot be certain that there are not other active principles in bark besides the quinia and cinchonia, the latter of which possesses pro- perties analogous to those of the former; nor that the mode of combi- nation in which these principles exist, may not so modify their action as to render them more effectual in certain forms of disease. The ques- tion can be solved only by careful and long continued observation. In the mean time, we may resort to the bark if the sulphate of quinia fails ,to answer the ends in view; and instances have occurred under our own notice, in which it has proved successful in intermittents after the salt has failed. The sulphate of quinia may be given in pill or solution, or suspended in water by the intervention of syrup and mucilage. The form of pill is usually preferred. (See Pilulee*Quiniee Sulphatis.) The solution may be readily effected by the addition of a little acid of almost any kind to the water. Eight grains of the sulphate will dissolve in a fluidounce of water acidulated with about twelve minims of the diluted sulphuric acid, or aromatic sulphuric acid of the Pharmacopoeias; and this is the most eligible mode of exhibiting the medicine in the liquid form. The addi- tion of a small proportion of sulphate of morphia or of laudanum, will often be found advantageous when the stomach is disposed to be sicken- ed, or the bowels to be disturbed by the quinia. Twelve grains of the sulphate of quinia are equivalent to about an ounce of good bark. The dose varies exceedingly, according to the circum- stances of the patient and the object to be accomplished. As a tonic sim- ply a grain may be given three or four times a day, or more frequently in acute cases. In intermittents, from twelve to twenty-four grains should be given between the paroxysms, divided into smaller or larger doses ac- PART II. Quinia. 959 cording to the condition of the stomach or the length of the intermission. From one to four grains may be given at once, and some even advise the whole quantity. When the stomach will not retain the medicine, it may be given with nearly as much efficacy by enema; from six to twelve grains with two fluidounces of liquid starch, and from twenty to forty drops of laudanum, being injected up the rectum every six hours. Should circumstances render this mode of application impracticable, an equal quantity, diluted with arrow root or other mild powder, may be sprinkled, at the same intervals, upon a blistered surface denuded of the cuticle. The epigastrium, or the inside of the thighs and arms, would be the proper place for the blister. QUINIA SULPHAS IMPURUS. U.S. Impure Sulphate of Quinia. " Evaporate the liquor, poured off from the crystals of Sulphate of Quinia, to the consistence of a pilular mass." U.S. The only caution necessary in conducting this process, is to avoid such a degree of heat as would decompose the product to be obtained. This preparation has been known and employed for several years in Philadelphia, under the absurd name of extract of quinine. Experience having fully proved its efficiency as a medicine, it was, with great pro- priety, introduced into the last edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, with a name, which, though not exactly expressive of its nature, has the me- rit at least of not being incorrect, and could not perhaps be supplied by a better. It is of a dark brown colour, of a very bitter taste resembling that of quinia, and, when perfectly dry, is hard and brittle, breaking with a shining resinous fracture. It is partially soluble in water, entirely so in alcohol, and in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Different views have been advanced in relation to its chemical nature. Sertuerner, in the year 1829, announced that he had discovered in the mother waters remaining after the crystallization of the sulphate of quinia, a peculiar alkaline principle which he called chindidine, and to which he ascribed extraordinary powers in the cure of disease. Having been in the habit for several years previously to this period, of employing the substance obtained by the evaporation of these waters, and having found their ef- fects in all respects identical with those which we had been accustomed to procure from the salt of quinia, we could not but doubt the correct- ness of Sertuerner's conclusions, and were quite prepared for the con- tradiction which they soon afterwards met with from MM. Henry Jun. and Delondre. By these chemists it has been satisfactorily shown, that what Sertuerner mistook for a new alkali, was a mixture of cinchonia and quinia, with a peculiar yellowish resinoid matter, which prevented their crystallization. By the destruction of this matter, the nature of which has not been accurately investigated, the two alkalies were ob- tained separate. The active ingredients, therefore, of the preparation designated in the Pharmacopceia as the impure sulphate of quinia, are the sulphate of cinchonia and the sulphate of quinia. Medical Properties and Uses.—So far as we have been able to judge from much experience, the effects of this preparation upon the system are the same with those of the pure sulphate, for which it may be ad- vantageously substituted in all cases in which the cost of medicine is a matter of much consequence. If we have discovered any difference, it is that the impure sulphate is rather more apt to prove offensive to the stomach. It was first employed by the late Dr. Samuel Emlen, 960 Quinia.—Soda. PART II. about the year 1825, at the suggestion of Mr. John Farr, chemical ma- nufacturer, of Philadelphia. The dose is double that of the pure sulphate. It may be given in pill, (see Pilulse Quiniae Sulphatis Impuri,) or in the state of solution, or mix- ed with water by the intervention of mucilage. The solution may be readily effected by acidulating the water with sulphuric acid. We have seldom found intermittents to resist twenty-four grains of the impure sulphate given between the paroxysms; though a larger quantity may be employed with safety and with greater certainty of success. Off. Prep. Pilulae Quiniae Sulphatis Impuri, U. S. SODA. Preparations of Soda. SODA CARBONAS EXSICCATUS. U.S. Sodje Subcarbonas Exsiccata. Lond. Sodje Carbonas Siccatum. Dub. Dried Car- bonate of Soda. " Take of Carbonate of Soda any quantity. Expose it to heat, in a clean iron vessel, until it is thoroughly dried, stirring constantly with an iron spatula; then rub it into powder." U.S. The London College take a pound of the salt and expose it to a boil- ing heat; and in other respects treat it precisely as directed in the U.S. formula. " Liquefy the crystals of Carbonate of Soda in a silver crucible over the fire. Then, having increased the heat, stir the liquefied salt, until, by the evaporation of the water, it becomes dry. Reduce it to fine pow- der, and keep it in close vessels." Dub. Carbonate of soda contains ten equivalents of water of crystallization, and, when heated, readily undergoes the watery fusion. Upon conti- nuing the heat, the water is dried off, and a white porous mass remains, which is easily reduced to powder, and constitutes the preparation un- der consideration. Dried carbonate of soda is in the form of a white powder, and differs in no respect from the carbonate, except in being devoid of water of crystallization. (See Sodse Carbonas.) Medical Properties and Uses.—This preparation was introduced into regular practice on the recommendation of Dr. Beddoes, who extolled its virtues in calculous complaints. It is only applicable to the cure of such affections, when dependent on a morbid secretion of uric acid. Its advantage over the common carbonate is that it admits of being made up into pills, in consequence of being in the dried state. As the water of crystallization forms more than one-half of the carbonate, the dose of the dried salt must be reduced in proportion. From five to fifteen grains may be given three times a day in the form of pill, prepared with soap and-aromatics. The general medical properties of this salt have been given under another head. (See Sodae Carbonas.) Off. Prep. Sodae Sulphuretum, U. S. SODA CARBONATIS AQUA. Dub. Water of Carbonate of Soda. "Take of Carbonate of Soda any quantity. Dissolve it in Distilled Water, so as to form a solution of the specific gravity 1.024. A solu- tion of this density is obtained by dissolving an ounce of Carbonate of Soda in apint of Distilled Water." Dub. This preparation furnishes a solution of carbonate of soda of deter- PART II. Soda. 961 minate strength, each fluidounce of which contains half a drachm of the salt. It is convenient for prescribing the alkali in solution, and forming effervescing draughts, each fluidounce being saturated, on an average, by half a fluidounce of lemon juice. The dose is from one to two fluid- ounces, sufficiently diluted with water, and given two or three times a day. SODA BICARBONAS. U.S., Dub. SoDis Carbonas. Lond, Cab bon as Sod.2e. Ed. Bicarbonate of Soda. "Take of Carbonate of Soda [Subcarbonate, Lond.], a pound; Dis- tilled Water three pints. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda [Subcarbo- nate, Lond.], in the Distilled Water, and pass Carbonic Acid through the solution, till it is fully saturated; then set it aside to crystallize. Dry the crystals, wrapped in bibulous paper, and compressed. Eva- porate the remainirfg solution with a heat not exceeding one hundred and twenty degrees, so that more crystals may be produced. Let these be compressed and dried in the same manner as the former." U.S., Lond. "Carbonic Acid is obtained from Hard Carbonate of Lime, by the addition of dilute Sulphuric Acid." U.S. " Take of Sub-Carbonate of Soda two parts; Water three parts. Dis- solve the Salt in the Water, and pass through it a stream of Carbonic Acid gas, until it ceases to be absorbed. Then filter the liquor, and evaporate with a heat not exceeding one hundred and eighty degrees, so that it may form a crystalline mass. Carbonic Acid is most easily ob- tained from equal weights of Carbonate of Lime in powder, and of Sul- phuric Acid diluted with much water." Ed. "Take of Carbonate of Soda two parts; Water five parts. Dissolve, and in a proper apparatus, expose the solution to a stream of Carbonic Acid gas, evolved during the solution of White Marble in Dilute Mu- riatic Acid, until it ceases to absorb gas; and let it remain at rest that crystals may form. Then, with a heat not exceeding one hundred and twenty degrees, evaporate the solution that crystals may again be form- ed, which are to be mixed with those first obtained, dried, and preserv- ed in a close vessel." Dub. In these processes, the alkali combines with an additional quantity of carbonic acid, and a salt is formed, which, being less soluble than the original salt employed, precipitates in minute crystals. The solution poured off from these still contains a considerable quantity of the same salt, and hence the Pharmacopoeias direct its evaporation by heat, so as to obtain a new crop of crystals. The heat should be as moderate as possible, but still, with the observance of every precaution, it is impos- sible to prevent the loss of more or less carbonic acid, whereby the salt is deteriorated, and rendered variable in composition. Under these circumstances, the lower heat directed in the U.S., London, and Dublin processes, is preferable to that prescribed by the Edinburgh College. The principal objection to the officinal processes is, that so large a quantity of water is employed, as to make subsequent evaporation ne- cessary. This may be avoided in several ways. Thus Dr. Thomson recommends that a concentrated solution of the ordinary carbonate should be suspended in a distiller's fermenting tun. In this case the bi- carbonate, from its comparative sparing solubility, and the small quan- tity of water used, is nearly all deposited in crystals. Berzelius gives a better process, as follows. Mix intimately four parts of the effloresced carbonate of soda with one part of the crystallized salt reduced to fine 121 962 Soda. PART II. powder, and expose the mixture to the action of an atmosphere of car- bonic acid gas, generated either in a liquid undergoing the vinous fermen- tation, (see p. 937), or by the decomposition of carbonate of lime by sul- phuric acid. The saline matter obtained is then washed with cold water, to remove any carbonate which may not have been saturated. Berzelius does not explain why, in this process, the effloresced is mixed with the crystallized carbonate; but from the proportions employed, the reason, we think, is obvious; namely, to have present only sufficient water of crystallization to combine with the bicarbonate when formed. In this way, any excess of water is guarded against, which, by being liberated from combination, might render it necessary to resort to evaporation, and thus hazard the partial decomposition of the salt. The mode in which the salt under consideration is prepared in the United States, has been described by Mr. Franklin R. Smith of Phila- delphia, in an interesting paper, published in the first volume of the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. As this mode is some- what peculiar, we give an outline of the process, derived from Mr. Smith's paper. The ordinary carbonate of soda is placed in a box, and surrounded by an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas under pressure. As the bicarbonate combines with much less water of crystallization than is contained in the carbonate, a considerable portion of liquid is libe- rated, which is allowed to drain off. When the gas ceases to be ab- sorbed, the salt is taken out and dried. Upon examination it is found to have retained the original form of the pieces; but they have become of a porous and loose texture, presenting the appearance of numerous crys- talline grains, aggregated together, and having a snow-white colour. The above process, as Mr. Smith justly remarks, is much to be pre- ferred to those of the Pharmacopoeias, as solution and subsequent eva- poration are entirely avoided; but the partial liquefaction of the salt, in consequence of the liberation of the water of crystallization, is an ob- jection to it, which is obviated by the method already given from Ber- zelius, of having present only so much water of crystallization as may accommodate the new salt formed. Mr. Smith found, on analysis, that samples of reputed bicarbonate in our shops were intermediate, in the quantity of carbonic acid which they contained, between the bicarbonate and sesquicarbonate, and has shown that the variation depends upon the admixture of more or less of the ordinary carbonate. This he proved by washing a small portion of the recently prepared salt with a little water, which was found to remove carbonate; and the remaining salt, on analysis, proved to be the true bicarbonate. Mr. Smith then suggests whether the process of our ma- nufacturers would not be improved by washing the saline product with a small quantity of water; and it is seen above, that in the process quoted from Berzelius, this course is adopted. For further details, the reader is referred to the paper of Mr. Smith. Properties, fyc.—This salt, prepared according to the officinal direc- tions, is in the form of small crystals, or of a crystalline mass, of a snow-white colour and mild alkaline taste. It is soluble in thirteen times its weight of cold water; but boiling water decomposes it with disen- gagement of carbonic acid, and evaporation even at a gentle heat pro- duces the same effect on its solution. If obtained by evaporation to dry- ness, it forms white crusts, and so much carbonic acid is lost as to reduce it to the state of a sesquicarbonate. When exposed to a red heat, it loses the carbonic acid which it had acquired in the saturation, and returns to the state of the ordinary carbonate. The salt, however, which PART ii. Soda. 863 passes under the name of " bicarbonate of soda" in the shops, is gene- rally in the form of a white powder of uncertain composition, having been pulverised for the convenience of the apothecary. Of the perfect bicarbonate, every 85 parts lose, by complete decomposition by dilute sulphuric acid, 44 parts of carbonic acid. The incompatibles of this salt are the same with those of the ordinary carbonate, except that when fully saturated, it does not decompose the sulphate of magnesia without the aid of heat. Composition.—The officinal salt should consist of two equiv. of car- bonic acid 44, one of soda 32, and one of water 9 = 85; but it seldom or never has this composition. The first crop of crystals obtained in the U.S., London, and Dublin processes, may, in the moist state, be con- sidered as the true bicarbonate; but whenever the crystals are the pro- duct of evaporation, they contain less carbonic acid than the bisalt. The salt as obtained by the method of our manufacturers is intermedi- ate between the sesquicarbonate and bicarbonate, as determined by the analysis of Mr. Smith; while the product obtained by evaporation to dryness is a sesquicarbonate, corresponding in nature with the carbo- nate of Egypt and Hungary, called trona. On account of its variable composition, it is difficult to give it an appropriate name ; but " bicar- bonate of soda," in allusion to what its composition ought to be when perfect, is, perhaps, the least exceptionable. With regard to the offici- nal nomenclature of carbonated soda, precisely the same confusion pre- vails, which is explained under the head of bicarbonate of potassa. (See page 937.) Medical Properties and Uses.—This salt has the same medical proper- ties as the ordinary carbonate, but, from its mild taste, proves more acceptable to the palate and stomach; while its superabundant acid has no power to interfere with its action as an alkaline remedy. It is often resorted to in calculous cases, characterized by predominant uric acid; and from its higher neutralizing power on account of the smaller equiv. of soda, it may be considered preferable as an antacid to the correspond- ing salt of potassa. It is principally employed in making what are called soda and Seidlitz powders. (See page 49.) It is sometimes made up into lozenges with sugar and gum arabic, in the proportion of one part of the salt to nineteen of sugar, and employed as a remedy in in- digestion arising from acidity. Several lozenges, each weighing twen- ty grains, may be taken at a time. The dose is from ten grains to a drachm, and is taken most conveniently in a glass of carbonic acid water. AQUA SUPER-CARBONATIS SODA. Ed. Aqua Carbona- tis Sod.33 Acidula. Dub. Water of Super-Carbonate of Soda. Acidulous Water of Carbonate of Soda. " Take of Water ten pounds; Sub-Carbonate of Soda two ounces. Dis- solve, and pass through the solution a stream of Carbonic Acid gas arising from powdered Carbonate of Lime, Sulphuric Acid, each, three ounces, Water three pounds, gradually and cautiously mixed. Nooth's apparatus is well adapted for this process. But if a larger quantity of this solution is required, an apparatus must be used capable of furnish- ing sufficient pressure. The solution should be kept in well stopped vessels." Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Soda any quantity. Dissolve it in such a quan- tity of Water, that each pint may contain a drachm of Carbonate of Soda. Then, in an apparatus adapted for retaining the gas, subject it to a 964 Soda. part ii. stream of Carbonic Acid gas, evolved duiing the solution of pieces of White Marble in Muriatic Acid, diluted with six times its weight of water, until the Carbonic Acid is in excess." Dub. These preparations may be considered as solutions of bicarbonate of soda in carbonic acid water. They correspond with the solution for- merly called soda water, which was made by impregnating, under strong pressure, a weak solution of carbonate of soda with carbonic acid; but, at present, this name is applied, in popular language, to carbonic acid water without soda. The solution formed according to the Edinburgh formula, contains about two drachms of the carbonate to a pint; which makes it twice as strong as the Dublin preparation. These solutions, however, are entirely superfluous; as they may be made extemporane- ously by adding any desired proportion of carbonate of soda to carbo- nic acid water. (See Aqua Acidi Carbonid and Aqua Super-Carbonatis Pot&SSSR ^ SODA ET POTASSA TARTRAS. U.S., Bub. Soda Tar- tarizata. Lond. Tartras Sod.k et Potassje. Ed. Tartrate of Potassa and Soda. Tartarized Soda. Bochelle Salt. "Take of Carbonate of Soda [Subcarbonate, Lond.] twenty ounces; Supertartrate of Potassa [cream of tartar], in powder, two pounds; Boiling Water ten pints. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in the Water, and gradually add the Supertartrate of Potassa. Filter the solution through paper; then evaporate it until a pellicle forms, and set it aside to crystallize. Pour off the liquor, and dry the crystals on bibulous pa- per." U.S., Lond. " Take of Sub-Carbonate of Soda one part; Super-Tartrate of Potassa three parts, or a sufficient quantity; Boiling Water fifteen parts. To the Sub-Carbonate, dissolved in the Water, add gradually the Super-Tartrate in fine powder, as long as it produces any effervescence, which com-, monly ceases before three times the weight of the Sub-Carbonate has been added. Then filter the liquor after it is cold through paper, and after due evaporation, set it aside that crystals may form." Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Soda five parts ; Bitartrate of Potassa [cream of tartar], in very fine powder, seven parts ; Boiling Water fifty parts. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in the Water, and gradually add the Bitartrate of Potassa. Filter the liquor through paper, evaporate, and set it aside, so that on cooling crystals may form." Dub. This is a double salt, consisting of tartrate of potassa combined with the tartrate of soda. The theory of its formation is exceedingly simple, being merely the saturation of the excess of acid in the bitartrate of po- tassa, by means of carbonate of soda, the carbonic acid of which, be- ing extricated, causes the effervescence. The proper quantities of the materials for mutual saturation are 144 parts of carbonate to 189 of bi- tartrate, or one equiv. of each. This gives the ratio of 10 to 13.1. Now the carbonate is to the bitartrate as 10 to 12 in the U.S. and London formula, as 10 to 30 in the Edinburgh, and as 10 to 14 in the Dublin. The Dublin proportions are, therefore, the nearest to the theoretical quantities, while the Edinburgh present a great excess of bitartrate, supposing the whole quantity directed to be employed; but if the direc- tions of the Edinburgh College be strictly followed, the addition of the cream of tartar is desisted from as soon as effervescence ceases. As the salts employed are apt to vary in composition and purity,— the carbonate from the presence of more or less water of crystalliza- tion, and the bitartrate from that of tartrate of lime,—it is best in all part ii. Soda. 965 cases, after giving the nearest average proportion as a general guide, to present to the operator the alternative of using the cream of tartar to the point of exact saturation. Berzelius states that this salt may be formed by saturating six parts of cream of tartar by means of carbonate of potassa, and then adding to the resulting tartrate a solution of five parts of crystallized sulphate of soda. On evaporation, sulphate of potassa will first crystallize, and afterwards the tartrate of potassa and soda. The rationale is obvious. Properties.—Tartrate of potassa and soda is in the form of white, transparent, slightly efflorescent crystals, often very large, and having the shape, when carefully prepared, of right prisms, with ten or twelve unequal sides. As ordinarily crystallized, they are generally in half prisms, as if split in the direction of their axis. Its taste is saline and slightly bitter. It dissolves in two and a half times its weight of cold water, and in much less boiling water. (Berzelius.) When exposed to a strong heat, the tartaric acid is destroyed, and a mixture of the carbo- nates of potassa and soda is left. It sometimes contains tartrate of lime, which may be removed by solution and crystallization; but when its crystals are large and well defined, it may be assumed to be pure. It is incompatible with most acids, and with all acidulous salts except the bitartrate of potassa. It is also decomposed by the acetate and subace- tate of lead, and by the soluble salts of lime and of baryta. The way in which acids act in decomposing it, is by combining with the soda, and" precipitating bitartrate of potassa. This double salt was discovered by Seignette, an apothecary of Rochelle; and hence it is frequently called Sdgnelte's salt, or Rochelle salt. Composition.—Tartrate of potassa and soda consists of two equiv. of tartaric acid 132, one of potassa 48, one of soda 32, and, according to Berzelius, ten of water 90=302; or, considered as a double salt, of one equiv. of tartrate of potassa 114, and one of tartrate of soda 98, with the same quantity of water. According to some authorities, it contains only eight equivalents of water of crystallization; and Phillips and Brande have erroneously stated that it contains none. The probability is, that, according to the mode of crystallization, it may contain either eight or ten equiv. of water. Medical Properties and Uses.—This salt is a mild, cooling purgative, well suited to delicate and irritable stomachs, being among the least unpalatable of the neutral salts. As it is not incompatible with tartar emetic, it may be associated with that salt in solution. It is an ingredi- ent in the effervescing aperient called Seidlitz powders, the composition of which is given at page 49. The dose is from an ounce to an ounce and a half. SODA PHOSPHAS. U. S., Dub. Phosphas Sodje. Ed. Phos- phate of Soda. "Take of Bone, burnt to whiteness, and powdered, ten pounds; Sul- phuric Acid dxpounds; Carbonate of Soda a sufficient quantity. Mix the powdered Bone with the Sulphuric Acid, in an earthen vessel; then pour in a gallon of water, and stir them well together. Macerate for three days, occasionally adding a little water to prevent dryness, and frequently stirring the mixture. At the expiration of this time, pour in a gallon of boiling water, and strain through linen, gradually adding more boiling water, until the acid is entirely washed away. Set by the strained liquor that the dregs may subside, from which pour off the clear solution, and boil it down to a gallon. To this solution, poured off 966 Soda. part ii. from the dregs, and heated in an earthen vessel, add by degrees the Carbonate of Soda, previously dissolved in hot water, until effervescence ceases; then filter the liquor, and set it aside to crystallize. Having re- moved the crystals, add to the liquor, if necessary, a small quantity of Carbonate of Soda, so as accurately to saturate the phosphoric acid; then alternately evaporate and crystallize, so long as any crystals are produced. Lastly, preserve the crystals in a well stopped bottle." U. S. The above is the Edinburgh process, with some slight changes in the details, and with the substitution of "gallon" for the quantity "nine pounds" wherever it occurs in the original. " Take of burnt Bones, in powder, ten parts; Commercial Sulphuric Acid seven parts. Mix the powder, in an earthen vessel, with the Sul- phuric Acid, and gradually add seven parts of water, and stir the mix- ture. Digest for three days, occasionally adding a little water to prevent the matter from becoming dry, and continue the stirring: then add seven parts of boiling water, and strain through linen, repeatedly pouring on boiling water, until all the acid is washed out. Set the liquor by that the dregs may subside, from which pour it off when clear, and reduce it by evaporation to one-half. Then add eight parts of Carbonate of Soda, dissolved in hot water, and filter; and by alternate evaporation and re- frigeration, let crystals be formed, which are to be kept in a well stop- ped vessel. If the salt is not sufficiently pure, dissolve it again in water, and recrystallize." Dub. The incombustible part of bones, which is obtained by burning them to whiteness, consists of phosphate of lime, associated with some car- bonate of lime, &c, and is generally called the earth of bones. (See Os.) When this is mixed with sulphuric acid, the carbonate of lime is entirely decomposed, giving rise to effervescence. The phosphate of lime under- goes partial decomposition; part of the lime, being detached, precipi- tates as sulphate of lime, while the phosphoric acid set free, combines with the undecomposed portion of the phosphate, and remains in solution as a superphosphate of lime, holding dissolved a certain portion of the sulphate of lime. In order to separate the superphosphate from the pre- cipitated mass of sulphate of lime, boiling water is added to the mixture, and the whole is strained, and the sulphate washed as long as superphos- phate is removed, which is known by the water passing through in an acid state. The different liquids which have passed the strainer, consist- ing of the solution of superphosphate of lime, are mixed and allowed to stand, and by cooling a portion of sulphate of lime is deposited, which is got rid of by decantation. The bulk of the liquid is now reduced by eva- poration, and from the diminution of the water, a fresh portion of sulphate of lime becomes deposited, which is separated by subsidence and decan- tation as before. The superphosphate of lime is now saturated by means of carbonate of soda. The carbonic acid is extricated with effervescence, and the alkali, combining with the excess of acid of the superphosphate, generates phosphate of soda; while the superphosphate of lime, by the loss of its excess of acid, becomes the neutral phosphate, and precipi- tates. This precipitate is next separated by a new filtration; and the filtered liquor, consisting of the solution of phosphate of soda, is evapo- rated so as to crystallize. In the U.S. and Edinburgh process, the calcined bone is to the acid as 10 to 6; in the Dublin process as 10 to 7. The proportions recom- mended by Berzelius are intermediate—as 10 to 6.66. The acid, in the officinal processes, is added to the bone in the concentrated state, and PART II. Soda. 967 afterwards diluted with more or less water. In the process given by Berzelius it is first diluted with twelve times its weight of water. The Duhlin College prescribes the quantity of carbonate of soda to effect the saturation; but the exact quantity cannot be known beforehand, and must vary under different circumstances. All the writers state that this salt crystallizes more readily by allowing its solution to be slightly alka- line ; and what is remarkable, is, that a neutraj solution, when it crys- tallizes, leaves a supernatant liquid which is slightly acid and uncrys- tallizable. Hence it is necessary, after getting each successive crop of crystals, to render the mother water neutral or slightly alkaline, before it will furnish an additional quantity. M. Funcke, a German chemist, has given the following method for obtaining phosphate of soda, which is stated to be cheaper and more expeditious than the process above described. Add to the powdered Calcined bone, diffused in water, sufficient dilute sulphuric acid to de- compose all the carbonate of lime which it may contain. As soon as the effervescence has ceased, the matter is acted on with nitric acid, which dissolves the phosphate of lime, and leaves the sulphate. The ni- tric solution of the phosphate is then acted on by sulphate of soda, equal in quantity to the bone employed; and after the reaction is completed, the nitric acid is recovered by distillation. In consequence of a double decomposition, sulphate of lime and phosphate of soda are formed, the latter of which is then separated from the sulphate by the action of water, and crystallization in the usual manner. Properties, fyc.—Phosphate of soda is in the form of large, white, efflorescent crystals, which have the shape of oblique rhombic prisms, and possess a pure saline taste, free from all bitterness. With tests, it displays a slight alkaline reaction. It dissolves in four times its weight of cold water, and twice its weight of boiling water. Before the blow- pipe, it first undergoes the aqueous fusion, and afterwards, at a red heat, melts into a globule of limpid glass, which becomes opaque on cooling. It is not liable to any adulterations, but it sometimes contains carbonate of soda, from this salt being added in excess; in which case it will effer- vesce with acids. It is incompatible with neutral salts of lime, as also with neutral metallic solutions. This salt is found in several of the ani- mal fluids, particularly the urine. It consists of one equiv. of phosphoric acid 35.71, and one equiv. of soda 32=67.71. When heated gently, it loses twelve equiv. of water; but at a red heat, half an equiv. more of water is driven off, and the salt is altered in its properties, and becomes what is called the pyrophosphate of soda. Medical Properties and Uses.—This salt was introduced into regular practice about the year 1800, on the recommendation of Dr. Pearson of London. It is a mild purgative, and from its pure saline taste, is well adapted to the cases of children, and of persons of delicate stomach. The dose is from one to two ounces, and is best given in gruel, or weak broth, to which it communicates a taste, as if seasoned with common salt. SODA SULPHURETUM. U.S. Sulphuret of Soda. "Take of Sulphur an ounce; Dried Carbonate of Soda two ounces. Mix them, and melt the mixture over the fire, in a covered crucible; then pour out the melted mass, and when it is cold, put it into a bottle, which must be well stopped." U.S. This preparation is a mixture of sulphuret of sodium and sulphate of soda, which are formed in consequence of reactions precisely similar to 968 Soda.—Spiritus. part ii. those which occur in the preparation of sulphuret of potassa. (See Po- tassse Sulphuretum.) This sulphuret has precisely the same medical properties as the sul- phuret of potassa, and for this reason may be considered as a superfluous preparation in our Pharmacopceia. SPIRITUS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Spirits. SPIRITUS STILLATITII. Ed. Distilled Spirits. Spirits, according to the Pharmacopceia of the United States, are alcoholic solutions of volatile principles, obtained by distillation. By the London College the term is extended also to alcohol itself, and to certain solutions in that liquid prepared by simple maceration or diges- tion. The spirits are prepared chiefly from aromatic vegetable sub- stances, the essential oils of which rise with the vapour of alcohol, and condense with it in the receiver. Some of the oils, however, will not rise at the temperature of boiling alcohol, but may be distilled with water. In this case it is necessary to employ proof spirit or diluted alco- hol, with the water of which the oil comes over in the latter part of the process. As the proof spirit of the shops is often impregnated with fo- reign matters, which give it an unpleasant flavour, it is better to use alcohol which has been carefully rectified, and to dilute it with the due proportion of water, as directed by the U.S. Pharmacopceia. In prepar- ing the spirits, care should be taken to avoid the colour and empyreu- matic flavour arising from the decomposition of the vegetable matter by heat. Sufficient water must, therefore, be added to cover the vegeta- ble matter after the alcohol shall have been distilled; and as a general rule, the heat should be applied by means of a water-bath, or of steam. It is proper that the aromatic should be macerated for some days with the alcohol, before being submitted to distillation; as the oil,being thus dissolved, rises more readily with the spirituous vapour, than when confined in the texture of the vegetable. It is necessary, during the pro- cess, frequently to renew the water in the refrigeratory, as otherwise a considerable portion of the vapour will escape condensation and be lost. The aromatic spirits are used chiefly to impart a pleasant odour and taste to mixtures, and to correct the nauseating and griping effects of other medicines. They serve also as carminatives in flatulent colic, and agreeable stimulants in debility of stomach ; but their frequent use may lead to the formation of intemperate habits, and should, therefore, be avoided. The Edinburgh College gives the following general directions for the preparation of the distilled spirits. " To the substance to be distilled add nine pounds of Weaker Alcohol. Macerate for two days in a close vessel; then pour on sufficient water to prevent empyreuma, and distil nine pounds." SPIRITUS AMMONIA FCETIDUS. Lond., Bub. Tinctura Ass.asFCETiD.iE Ammoniata. Ed. Fetid Spirit of Ammonia. " Take of Spirit of Ammonia two pints; Assafetida two ounces. Ma- cerate for twelve hours; then, by a gentle fire, distil a pint and a half into a cooled receiver." Lond. "Take of Spirit of Ammonia two pints; Assafetida an ounce and a quarter. Macerate in a close vessel for three days, shaking occasionally; then pour off the clear liquor, and distil a pint and a half." Dub. part II. Spiritus. 969 " Take of Ammoniated Alcohol eight ounces; Assafetida half an ounce? Digest in a close vessel for twelve hours; then distil eight ounces by the heat of boiling water." Ed. This is a useless preparation. It differs from ammoniated alcohol only in containing a small proportion of the volatile oil of assafetida, which has little other effect than to communicate an unpleasant odour and taste to the spirit. It is colourless at first, but becomes brownish with age. SPIRITUS AMMONIA SUCCINATUS. Lond. Snccinated Spirit of Ammonia. "Take of Mastich three drachms; Rectified Spirit nine fluidrachms; Oil of Laven der fourteen minims; Oil of Amber four minims; Solution of Ammonia ten fluidounces. Macerate the Mastich in the Spirit, that it may be dissolved, and pour off the clear tincture; then add the other ingredients, and shake them all together." Lotid. This was intended as a substitute for the eau de luce. It has a milky appearance, owing to the separation of the mastich from its alcoholic solution by the water of ammonia. Its properties are essentially those of the ammoniacal ingredient, the mastich having no medical action, and the oils of lavender and amber being in too small proportion to serve any other purpose than that of imparting flavour. It is used chiefly as a powerful stimulant, applied to the nostrils, in cases of faint- ing and torpor. The dose for internal use is from ten to thirty drops. SPIRITUS ANISI. Lond. Spirit of Aniseed. " Take of Anise Seeds, bruised, half a pound; Proof Spirit a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours; then, by a gentle fire, distil a gallon." Lond. SPIRITUS ANISI COMPOSITUS. Dub. Compound Spirit of Aniseed. " Take of Anise Seeds, bruised, Angelica Seeds, bruised, each, half a pound; Proof Spirit a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distil a gallon." Dub. The dose of this and the preceding preparation, as stomachics and carminatives, is one or two fluidrachms. The compound spirit is a sim- plification of the Irish usquebaugh. SPIRITUS ARMORACIA COMPOSITUS. Lond., Dub. Com- pound Spirit of Horse-radish. " Take of fresh Horse-radish Root, sliced, dried Orange Peel, each, a pound; Nutmegs, bruised, half an ounce; Proof Spirit a gallon; Water suffident to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours; then, by a gentle fire, distil a gallon." Lond. This maybe used advantageously as an addition to diuretic remedies, in dropsy attended with debility, especially in the cases of drunkards. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms. SPIRITUS CARUI. Lond., Dub. Spiritus Cari Carui. Ed. Spirit of Caraway. " Take of Caraway Seeds, bruised, a pound andahalf\jn pound, Dub.]; Proof Spirit a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours; then, with a gentle fire, distil a gallon." Lond., Dub. The Edinburgh College prepares the Spirit from half a pound of the bruised seeds, according to their general directions. (See page 968.) The dose as a carminative is one or two fluidrachms. 122 970 Spiritus. part ii. SPIRITUS CINNAMOMI. Lond., Dub. Spiritus Lauri Cin- namomi. Ed. Spirit of Cinnamon. " Take of Oil of Cinnamon, by weight, five scruples; Rectified Spirit four pints and a half. Add the Spirit to the Oil, and pour on them so much water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to prevent empyreuma; then, by a gentle fire, distil a gallon." Lond. "Take of Cinnamon Bark, bruised, a pound; Proof Spirit a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distira gallon." Dub. The Edinburgh College prepares this spirit from a pound of bruised cinnamon, according to their general directions. (See page 968.) The spirit of cinnamon is an agreeable aromatic cordial, and may be given in debility of stomach in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. SPIRITUS COLCHICI AMMONIATUS. Lond. Ammoniated Spirit of Meadow-saffron. "Take of Seeds of Meadow-saffron, bruised, two ounces; Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia a pint. Macerate for fourteen days and filter." Lond. This should be placed among the tinctures. It may be employed for the same purposes as the wine of colchicum, in cases which require or admit of an active stimulant. The dose is from thirty drops to a flui- drachm. The preparation, however, is scarcely ever used in this country. SPIRITUS JUNIPERI COMPOSITUS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Compound Spirit of Juniper. " Take of Juniper [berries], bruised, a pound; Caraway [seeds], bruised, Fennel-seed, bruised, each, an ounce and a half; Diluted Alco- hol a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty- four hours; then, with a slow fire, distil a gallon." U. S. The London and Dublin processes are essentially the same with the above; the Edinburgh differs in directing nine pounds of diluted alco- hol, maceration for two days, and the distillation of nine pounds of spirit. According to the United States and London processes, the mace- ration is performed with both the diluted alcohol and water; according to those of Dublin and Edinburgh, only with the former, the water being added at the time of distillation. This spirit is a useful addition to diuretic infusions and mixtures in debilitated cases of dropsy. SPIRITUS LAVANDULA. U.S., Lond., Bub. Spiritus La- vandula SpiciE. Ed. Spirit of Lavender. "Take of fresh Lavender [flowers] two pounds; Alcohol a gallon; Water suffident to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours; then, with a slow fire, distil a gallon." U.S. The London process is the same with the above. The Dublin College employs a gallon of proof spirit, instead of rectified spirit or alcohol, and directs five pints only to be distilled. The Edinburgh College takes eight pounds of alcohol, and distils seven by means of a water-bath, omitting the addition of water to the materials. The Dublin process, in which proof spirit is employed, is said to yield a product less highly impregnated with the oil of lavender than the others. Mr. Brande asserts that the dried flowers produce as fragrant a spirit as the fresh. Spirit of lavender is used chiefly as a perfume, and as an ingredient in other preparations. The perfume usually sold under the name of lavender water, is not a distilled spirit, but an alcoholic so- lution of the oil, with the addition of other odorous substances. The following is given by Mr. Brande as one of the most approved recipes for part n. Spiritus. 971 preparing it. " Take of rectified spirit of wine five gallons, essential oil of lavender twenty ounces, essential oil of bergamotte five ounces, essence of ambergris (made by digesting one drachm of ambergris and eight grains of musk in half a pint of alcohol) half an ounce. Mix." Off Prep. Linimentum Camphorae Compositum, Lond., Dub.; Spi- ritus Lavandulae Compositus, U.S., Lond.,Ed., Dub. SPIRITUS LAVANDULA COMPOSITUS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Compound Spirit of Lavender. " Take of Spirit of Lavender three pints ; Spirit of Rosemary a pint; Cinnamon, bruised, an ounce; Cloves, bruised, two drachms; Nutmeg, bruised, half an ounce; Red Saunders, rasped, three drachms. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. The London College omits the cloves, and directs half an ounce only of cinnamon; the Edinburgh employs pounds instead of pints, and ma- cerates for seven instead of fourteen days; the Dublin orders half an ounce only of cinnamon; in all other respects, the processes of the British Colleges correspond with that of the U.S. Pharmacopceia. This is a delightful compound of spices, much employed as an adju- vant and corrigent of other medicines, and as a remedy for gastric un- easiness, nausea, flatulence, and general languor or faintness. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm, and is most conveniently adminis- tered dropped on a lump of sugar. SPIRITUS MENTHA PIPERITA. Lond., Ed., Dub. Spirit of Peppermint. " Take of Oil of Peppermint, by weight, six scruples and a half; Rec- tified Spirit four pints and a half. Add the Spirit to the Oil, and pour upon them so much water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may re- main to prevent empyreuma; then, by a gentle fire, distil a gallon." Lond. The Edinburgh College prepares this spirit from one pound and a half of peppermint, according to their general directions. (See page 968.) " Take of Oil of Peppermint, by weight, half an ounce; Rectified Spi- rit a gallon. Add the Spirit to the Oil, and pour on them as much wa- ter as will prevent empyreuma after distillation; then, by a gentle fire, distil a gallon." Dub. The effect of the London process is to afford a solution of the oil in proof spirit, as the difference between the four pints and a half of alco- hol employed and the gallon distilled must be supplied with water added immediately before distillation. The same is the case with the spirit of spearmint, and the spirit of cinnamon of the same Pharmacopoeia. The spirit of peppermint has no advantage over a simple solution of the oil in alcohol. Such a solution, under the name of essence of pepper- mint, is usually kept in the shops, and is much employed as a domestic remedy. (See Oleum Menthae Piperitae.) SPIRITUS MENTHA VIRIDIS. Lond., Dub. Spirit of Spearmint. This is prepared by the London and Dublin Colleges from the oil of spearmint, in the manner directed by the two Colleges respectively for the preparation of the spirit of peppermint. The two spirits are used for the same purposes, in the dose of from thirty drops to a fluidrachm. SPIRITUS MYRISTICA. U.S., Lond. Spiritus Myristica Moschata. Ed. Spiritus Nucis Moschata. Dub. Spirit of Nutmeg. "Take of Nutmeg, bruised, two ounces; Diluted Alcohol [Proof 972 Spiritus.—Spongia. part ii. Spirit, Lond., Dub.] a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours; then, with a slow fire, distil a gallon." U.S., Lond., Dub. This spirit is prepared by the Edinburgh College from two ounces of bruised nutmeg, according to their general directions. (See page 968.) The spirit of nutmeg is used chiefly for its flavour, as an addition to other medicines. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. SPIRITUS PIMENTA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Spiritus Myrti Pimenta. Ed. Spirit of Pimento. "Take of Pimento, bruised, two ounces; Diluted Alcohol [Proof Spi- rit, Lond.] a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours; then, with a slow fire, distil a gallon." U.S., Lond. The Dublin College directs three ounces of Pimento; in other respects its process is the same with the above. The Edinburgh College prepares it from half a pound of bruised pi- mento, according to,their general directions. (See page 968.) This preparation may be used for the general purposes of the aroma- tic spirits, in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. SPIRITUS PULEGII. Lond. Spirit of European Pennyroyal. This is prepared by the London College from seven scruples bywdght of the oil of pennyroyal, in the manner directed by the same College for the preparation of spirit of peppermint. It is never used in this country. SPIRITUS ROSMARINI. U.S., Lond. Spiritus Rorismarini Officinalis. Ed. Spiritus Rorismarini. Bub. Spirit of Rose- mary. "Take of Oil of Rosemary [by weight] an ounce; Alcohol [Rectified Spirit, Lond.] a gallon. Add the Alcohol to the Oil, and pour on them so much water, that, after the distillation, sufficient may remain to pre- vent empyreuma; then, with a slow fire, distil a gallon." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College takes two pounds of fresh rosemary tops and eight pounds of alcohol; and distils seven pounds by means of a water- bath. The Dublin College employs a pound and a half of the fresh tops and a gallon of proof spirit, and distils five pounds with a moderate heat. Spirit of rosemary is a grateful perfume, and is used chiefly as an in- gredient in lotions or liniments. Off. Prep. Linimentum Saponis Compositum, Lond. Dub. ; Spiritus Lavandulae Compositus, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. SPONGIA. Preparations of Sponge. SPONGIA USTA. U.S., Lond. Pulvis Spongia Usta. Dub. Burnt Sponge. " Take of Sponge any quantity. Cut it into pieces, and beat it, that any extraneous adherent matters may be separated; then burn it in a close iron vessel until it becomes black and friable; lastly, rub it into a very fine powder." U. S. The London and Dublin processes do not materially differ from the above. . The sponge is decomposed, the volatile matters being driven oft by the heat, and a black friable coal remaining, which consists of charcoal PART II. Spongia—Stannum.—Styrax. 973 mixed with phosphate and carbonate of lime, chloride of sodium, car- bonate of soda, and iodine in the state of hydriodate of soda. As the remediate value of burnt sponge depends chiefly upon the presence of iodine, it cannot be esteemed good unless it afford purple fumes when acted on by sulphuric acid assisted by heat. It is said that the prepara- tion is most efficient as a remedy when the sponge is kept on the fire no longer than is necessary to render it friable. The powder is then of a much lighter colour. Burnt sponge has been highly recommended in goitre, glandular swellings of a scrofulous character, and obstinate cu- taneous eruptions. It is most conveniently administered mixed with syrup or honey, in the form of an electuary, with the addition of some aromatic, as powdered cinnamon. The dose is from one to three drachms. STANNUM. Preparations of Tin. PULVIS STANNI. U.S. Stanni Pulvis. Ed., Dub. Powder of Tin. " Take of Tin any quantity. Melt it in an iron vessel over the fire, and, while it is cooling, stir it until it is reduced to a powder, which is to be passed through a sieve." U.S. " Take of very pure Tin any quantity. Having melted it over the fire, agitate it strongly while congealing, so that it may be converted into a powder, which, when cold, is to be passed through a sieve." Dub. The Edinburgh College have no formula for powdered tin, but include it in the list of the Materia Medica. Tin, being a very fusible metal, is easily granulated by fusion and subsequent agitation when in the act of congealing. The process is most conveniently performed, on a small scale, in a wooden box, the inside of which has been well rubbed with chalk. This may be afterwards washed away by water; and as the granulated powder is of unequal degrees of fineness, the coarser particles require to be separated by a sieve. For the properties of this metal see Stannum. Medical Properties and Uses.—Powder of tin is used exclusively as an anthelmintic, and is supposed to act by its mechanical properties. It is considered particularly adapted to the expulsion of the worm called Ascaris lumbricoides, and is sometimes employed to expel the tape worm, though for the latter purpose, oil of turpentine has proved more effica- cious. For internal exhibition it ought always to be free from oxidation. The dose usually given is from one to two drachms, mixed with molasses, for several successive mornings, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. Dr. Alston, however, recommends much larger doses for the expulsion of tape worm. He begins by giving an ounce on an empty stomach, which is followed for two successive days with half an ounce each day, and finally by a brisk cathartic. STYRAX. Preparations of Storax. STYRAX PURIFICATA. U.S., Lond. " Take of Storax, Alcohol, each, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Storax in the Alcohol, and strain the solution; then distil the Alcohol with a gentle heat, till the Storax acquires a proper consistence." U.S. 974 Styrax.—Sulphur. part ii. The purification of storax is directed by the London College In a similar manner. Storax, as found in the shops, is usually so much adulterated as to render its purification necessary, before it can be applied to the purposes for which it is officinally directed. As it is wholly soluble in alcohol, and little of its active matter is driven off at the boiling point of that fluid, there can be no chemical objection to the above process. Another method, sometimes followed, is to express between heated iron plates the balsam from the foreign matters with which it is associated; but if the process be not very carefully conducted, the heat employed to melt the storax will be sufficient to dissipate a portion of the benzoic acid, which is one of its essential ingredients. Off. Prep. Tinctura Benzoini Composita, U. S. SULPHUR. Preparations of Sulphur. SULPHUR PRACIPITATUM. U.S., Lond. Precipitated Sul- phur. Milk of Sulphur. " Take of Sulphur [sublimed and washed] a pound; Lime, fresh burnt, two pounds; Muriatic Acid a sufficient quantity; Water four gal- lons. Boil the Sulphur and Lime together in the Water; then filter the solution through paper, and drop into it sufficient Muriatic Acid to precipitate the Sulphur. Lastly, wash the precipitate repeatedly with water till it becomes tasteless." U. S. The London formula is essentially the same as the above, which was copied from it with a slight variation in the enumeration of the mate- rials, to accommodate it to the plan of our Pharmacopceia. In this process, water is decomposed, and its elements, by combining with separate portions of sulphur, give rise to bisulphuretted hydrogen, and hyposulphuric acid, which, uniting to the lime, forms a sulphuretted hydrosulphate and hyposulphite of lime. When muriatic acid is added to the filtered solution, muriate of lime is formed, a slight disengage- ment of sulphuretted hydrogen takes place, and sulphur is precipitated in the state constituting the preparation under consideration. The chief source of the precipitated sulphur is undoubtedly the excess present in the sulphuretted hydrosulphate; but it may be deemed probable, since sulphuretted hydrogen is but slightly disengaged, that the hydrosul- phuric and hyposulphuric acids, upon being set free by the muriatic acid, react on each other, so as to form water and a fresh portion of sulphur. A simpler way of explaining the process, is to suppose that the lime unites directly with the sulphur, so as to form a sulphuret of lime in solution, a compound for which we have analogies in the ex- istence of the chlorides of lime and soda. Assuming this to be the nature of the solution, the muriatic acid merely combines with the lime and precipitates the sulphur. This acid is the most eligible precipitant for the sulphur, as it forms a very soluble salt with lime, and is easily washed away. Sulphuric acid is altogether inadmissible for the purpose, as it forms an insoluble salt with lime, which becomes necessarily intermingled with the sulphur. Properties, fyc.—Precipitated sulphur is in the form of white friable lumps of a pale yellowish-green tint, consisting of smooth, finely divided particles, slightly cohering together, and devoid of taste, but possessing, PART II. Sulphur— Syrupi. 975 when recently prepared, a peculiar smell. From its colour it was former- ly called lac sulphuris. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in a boiling solution of caustic potassa. When of a brilliant white colour, the pre- sence of sulphate of lime may be suspected, in which case the sulphur will not be totally volatilizable by heat. It differs from sublimed sul- phur, in being in a state of more minute division, and, after being melt- ed, in presenting a softer and less brittle mass. Its peculiarities probably depend upon the presence of water, which, however, is in too small a quantity to constitute a hydrate, as it is sometimes supposed to be. Medical Properties and 'Uses.— Precipitated sulphur possesses the same medical properties with ordinary sulphur; but is preferred by some practitioners on account of its smoothness and freedom from colour. Its state of extreme division renders it more readily suspended in li- quids than sublimed sulphur; and its mode of preparation ensures it against the presence of acidity. It is sometimes selected for forming ointments, which have the advantage of appearance, in being of a lighter colour than when made of ordinary sulphur. The dose is from two to three drachms. (See Sulphur.) OLEUM SULPHURATUM. Lond, Ed. Sulphurated Oil. « Take of Washed Sulphur two ounces; Olive Oil a pint. To the Oil previously heated in a very large iron vessel, gradually add the Sulphur, and stir them constantly with a spatula till they unite." Lond. "Take of Olive Oil eight parts; Sublimed Sulphur one part. Boil them together, with a gentle fire, in a large iron pot, stirring them con- stantly till they unite." Ed. The iron pot should be sufficiently large to hold three times the quan- tity of the materials employed, as the mixture might otherwise boil over. As the vapours which rise are apt to take fire, a lid should be at hand, to cover the pot, and thus extinguish the flame, should the accident take place. Sulphur is soluble to a considerable extent in heated oil, from which, if the solution be saturated, it is deposited in the crystalline state on cooling. But it is not a mere solution which this process is intended to effect. The oil is partly decomposed, and the resulting preparation is an extremely fetid, acrid, viscid, reddish-brown fluid, formerly known by the name of balsam of sulphur. In order that it may be obtained, the oil must be heated to the boiling point. Sulphurated oil was formerly thought useful in chronic catarrh, con- sumption, and other pectoral complaints; but inconvenience has arisen from its acrid and irritating properties, and its internal use has been abandoned. It is said to be sometimes applied as a stimulant to foul ulcers. The dose is from five to thirty drops. —.«t»S8"" SYRUPI. Syrups. Syrups are concentrated solutions of sugar in watery fluids, either with or without medicinal impregnation. When the solution is made with pure water, it is named syrup or dmple syrup, when with water charged with one or more medicinal agents, it is called in general terms a medicated syrup, and receives its particular designation from the sub- stance or substances added. Medicated syrups are prepared by incorporating sugar with vegetable infusions, decoctions, expressed juices, fermented liquids, or simple 976 Syrupi. PART II. aqueous solutions. When the active matter of the vegetable is not rea- dily soluble in water, or is volatilized or decomposed by a heat of 212°, it is sometimes extracted by diluted alcohol, the spirituous ingredient of which is subsequently driven off. Medicated syrups are also occa- sionally prepared by adding a tincture to simple syrup and evaporating the alcohol. The quality and quantity of the sugar employed are points of import- ance. Refined sugar should always be preferred, as it often saves the necessity of clarification, and makes a clearer and better flavoured sy- rup than the impure kinds. The U.S. Pharmacopceia simply directs sugar, but explains that it is the purified or refined sugar which is indi- cated by this term. In relation to the quantity of sugar, if in too small proportion, fermentation is apt to occur, if too abundant, crystallization. The proper proportion is about two parts to one of the liquid. A some- what smaller quantity will answer where acids, such as lemon juice or vinegar, are used. As it is desirable, in many instances, that the active matters should be in as concentrated a state as possible in the syrup, it is often neces- sary to evaporate a large proportion of the watery fluid in which they are dissolved. This may be done either before the addition of the sugar or afterwards. In either case care is requisite not to employ a heat too great or too long continued, lest the active principles should be in-. jured. When these are very volatile or easily decomposed by heat, it is necessary to dispense with concentration altogether. Some substan- ces which are volatilized or decomposed at the temperature of boiling water, remain fixed and unaltered at that which is necessary for the eva- poration of alcohol. These, as before observed, may be dissolved in diluted alcohol; and the concentration effected by evaporating the spi- rituous part of the solvent. Independently of the injury which the me- dicinal ingredient of the syrup may sustain, the syrup itself is apt to become brown by a long continued application of heat, even when the degree is not excessive. It is recommended, therefore, that syrups which admit of concentration, should be boiled briskly over a lively fire, so as to accomplish the object as quickly as possible. It is important to be able to ascertain positively when they have attained the due con- sistence. An operator skilled in their preparation can judge with suffi- cient accuracy by various familiar signs;'—such as the slowness with which the parts of a drop of syrup coalesce when previously separated by the edge of a blunt instrument; and the receding of the last portion of each drop, when the syrup, after being cooled, is poured out drop by drop. A pellicle forming upon the surface of the syrup when it cools, indicates that it has been too much boiled. But these signs are not to be relied on except by those who have acquired much experience. The easiest method of ascertaining the proper point of concentration is by the use of Baume's hydrometer. This should stand at 30° in boiling syrup (30£ in hot weather), and at 35° in the syrup when it is cool. Another very accurate though less ready method is to ascertain the sp. gr. by weighing a portion of the liquid. Syrup when boiling should have a sp. gr. of about 1.261—when cold, about 1.319. Thomson and Duncan are mistaken in giving the proper sp. gr. of cold syrup as 1.385. We found that of a specimen of simple syrup made with two pounds and a half of sugar to a pint of water, to be 1.326 at 68° F.; and this con- sistence is rather too great for practical convenience in cold weather. A third method of ascertaining the proper point of concentration is by the thermometer, which, in boiling syrup of the proper consistence, PART II. Syrupi. 977 stands at 221° F. This indication is founded on the fact, that the boil- ing point of syrup rises in proportion to the increase of its density. When carefully prepared with double refined sugar, syrups generally require no other clarification than to remove any scum which may rise to their surface upon standing, and to pour them off from any dregs which may subside. Shouljl they, however, want the due degree of clearness, they may be filtered through flannel, or, when not likely to be injured by the treatment, may be clarified by means of the white of eggs or animal charcoal, as mentioned under the head of Syrupus. The medicated syrups are liable to undergo various alterations accord- ing to their nature and mode of preparation. The acid syrups, when too much boiled, often let fall a copious white precipitate, which is said to be a saccharine matter analogous to the sugar of grapes, produced by the reaction of the acid upon the sugar. Those which contain too lit- tle sugar are apt to pass into the vinOus fermentation, in consequence of the presence of matters which act as a ferment. Those which contain too much, deposiie a portion in the crystalline state, and the crystals, attracting the sugar remaining in solution, gradually weaken the syrup, and render it liable to the same change as when originally made with too little sugar. The want of a due proportion of saccharine matter fre- quently also gives rise to mouldiness, when air has access to the syrup. It is said that syrups enclosed, while yet hot, in bottles, are apt to fer- ment, because the watery vapour, rising to the surface and there con- densing, diminishes the proportion of sugar, so as to produce a com- mencement of chemical action, which gradually extends through the whole mass. When syrups undergo the vinous fermentation, they be- come covered at the surface with froth, produced by the disengagement of carbonic acid, and acquire a vinous odour from the presence of al- cohol, while their consistence is diminished by the loss of a portion of the sugar, which has been converted into that liquid. When the quan- tity of alcohol has increased to a certain point, the fermentation ceases or goes on more slowly, owing to the preservative influence of this prin- ciple; and as the active ingredient of the syrup has frequently under- gone no material change, the preparation may often be recovered by boiling so as to drive off the alcohol and carbonic acid, and concentrate the liquid sufficiently. A syrup thus revived is less liable afterwards to undergo change, because the principles which acted as ferments have been diminished or consumed. It is obvious that syrups which depend for their virtues upon a volatile ingredient, or one readily changeable by heat, cannot be restored to their original condition. At best, syrups are too apt to change, and various measures have been proposed for their preservation. According to Dr. Macculloch, the addition of a little sulphate of potassa, or of chlorate of potassa, which is a tasteless salt, prevents their fermentation. M. Chereau has found the sugar of milk effectual to the same end, in the instance of the syrup of poppies; and it may prove useful in others. The propor- tion which he employs is 32 parts of the sugar of milk to 1000 of the syrup. But the best plan is to make small quantities at a time, and to keep them, unless when wanted for immediate use, in bottles quite full and well stopped, which should be put in the cellar or other cool place. The London College directs that " syrups be kept in a place where the temperature never exceeds 55°." It would be difficult to comply with such a rule in this country. In relation to the preparation of syrups, the Dublin College gives the following general directions. " When no mention is made of the weight 123 978 Syrupi. part ii. of sugar or the mode of dissolving it, syrups are to be prepared accord- ing to the following rule. Take of Refined Sugar, in fine powder, twen- ty-nine ounces; the Liquor prescribed a pint. Add the Sugar by de- grees, and digest it with a medium heat [from 100° to 200° F.j in a covered vessel, frequently shaking, till it is dissolved; then set aside the solution for twenty-four hours; remove the scum, and pour off the syrup from the dregs if there be any." SYRUPUS. U.S. Syrupus Simplex. Lond., Ed., Dub. Syrup. Simple Syrup. "Take of Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half; Water apint. Dis- solve the Sugar in the Water by means of a water-bath, and set the so- lution aside for twenty-four hours; then remove the scum, and if there be any dregs, pour off the clear solution from them." U.S., Lond. "Take of Refined Sugar fifteen parts; Water dght parts. Dissolve the Sugar in the Water by a gentle heat, and boil a little so as to form a syrup." Ed. "Take of Refined Sugar, finely powdered, twenty-nine ounces; Water apint. Add the Sugar gradually to the Water, and digest it with a mo- derate heat in a close vessel till it is dissolved, frequently stirring; af- terwards pour off from the dregs if there be any." Dub. This syrup, when properly prepared, is inodorous, of a sweet taste without peculiar flavour, thick, viscid, nearly colourless, and perfectly transparent. If somewhat turbid, as it is apt to be when made with su- gar not well refined, it may be clarified by beating the white of an egg to a froth with three or four ounces of water, mixing this with the syrup, boiling the mixture for a short time that the albumen may coagulate, and taking off' the scum which rises to the surface, or separating it by filtration through paper or flannel. Two gallons of the syrup may be thus clarified. Any colour and peculiar flavour which it may possess, may be removed by treating it at the same time with a small propor- tion (about 5 per cent.) of animal charcoal. Syrup is very useful in the formation of pills and mixtures, and in various other pharmaceutical operations in which sugar in solution is required. Off. Prep. Confectio Opii, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Infusum Acaciae Ca- techu, Ed.; Syrupus Balsami Tolutani, Dub., Ed.; Syrupus Rhei Aro- maticus, U. S.; Syrupus Zingiberis, U. S.; Trochisci Glycyrrhizae et Opii, U.S., Ed. SYRUPUS ACACIA. U.S. Syrup of Gum Arabic. " Take of Gum Arabic four ounces; Sugar [refined] a pound; Boiling Water apint. Dissolve the Gum in the Water; then add the Sugar, and boil so as to form a syrup." U. S. This is a very convenient addition to pectoral and other mixtures in which the aid of gum arabic and sugar is required, either to suspend insoluble substances, or to impart demulcent properties. It may be clarified if necessary in the same manner with simple syrup. SYRUPUS ACETI. U.S., Ed. Syrup of Vinegar. " Take of Vinegar apint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Dissolve the Sugar in the Vinegar in the manner directed for Syrup." U.S. The Edinburgh College takes five parts of vinegar, and seven of refined sugar; and boils them so as to form a syrup. Syrup of vinegar forms with water a refrigerant and grateful drink in febrile complaints. It may be added to barley water and other farinaceous and mucilaginous beverages and mixtures, when a vegetable acid is not contra-indicated. PART II. Syrupi. 979 SYRUPUS ALLII. U.S. Syrup of Garlic. " Take of fresh Garlic, sliced, two ounces; Distilled Vinegar a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Macerate the Garlic in the Vinegar, in a glass vessel, for four days; then express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside; lastly, dissolve the Sugar in the clear liquor in the manner directed for Syrup." U.S. This preparation is made upon correct principles, as vinegar is a much better solvent of the active matter of garlic than water; but the proportion of the garlic might be increased with advantage to three times the amount indicated in the formula. The syrup is given in chronic catarrhal affections of the lungs, and is particularly beneficial in infantile cases, by the stimulus which it affords to the nervous system. A tea- spoonful may be given for a dose to a child a year old. SYRUPUS ALTHAA. Lond., Dub. Syrupus Althaa Offi- cinalis. Ed. Syrup of Marshmallow. "Take of fresh Marshmallow Root, bruised, half a pound; Refined Sugar two pounds; Water four pints. Boil down the Water with the Root to one half, and express the liquor when cool. Set it by for twenty-four hours that the dregs may subside; then pour off the liquor, and having added the Sugar, boil down to the proper consistence." Lond., Dub. The Edinburgh College takes one part of the root, ten parts of water, and four parts of sugar, and proceeds as above. This syrup contains a considerable quantity of starch besides muci- lage, and is very liable to ferment. It is simply demulcent; but is in- ferior to the mucilage of gum arabic, and in this country is very seldom prepared. SYRUPUS AURANTII CORTICIS. U.S. Syrupus Auranti- orum. Lond. Syrupus Citri Aurantii. Ed. Syrupus Aurantii. Dub. Syrup of Orange Peel. " Take of Orange Peel, bruised, two ounces; Boiling Water apint; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half. Macerate the Orange Peel in the Water, in a covered vessel, for twelve hours, and strain; then add the Sugar, and form a syrup with a gentle heat." U.S. The British Colleges direct the fresh peel of Seville oranges. The process of the London College agrees with the above, except that three pounds of refined sugar are directed, and its solution effected without heat. The Edinburgh College orders three ounces of the peel, a pound and a half of boiling water, and three pounds of refined sugar, proceed- ing as directed in the-U.S. Pharmacopceia. The Dublin College em- ploys eight ounces of the peel, six pints of boiling water, and the quan- tity of sugar indicated in its general directions (page 977); and dissolves the sugar without heat. In the preparation of this syrup, the solution of the sugar in the in- fusion of orange peel should be effected with as little heat as possible, in consequence of the volatile nature of the active principle of the peel; and, to facilitate the solution, the sugar should be previously powdered. The syrup has a pleasant flavour, for which alone it is employed. A fluidounce of the tincture of orange peel added to a pint of simple syrup, affords a preparation little inferior to the officinal, though the presence of the spirit may in some instances be objectionable. Off. Prep. Confectio Aromatica, U.S. Ed.; Confectio Scammonii, U.S.; Electuarium Cassiae, Dub. 980 Syrupi. part II. SYRUPUS COLCHICI. U.S. Syrupus Colchici Autumnalis. Ed. Syrup of Meadow-saffron. " Take of Vinegar of Meadow-saffron a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Dissolve the Sugar in the Vinegar of Meadow-saffron in the manner directed for Syrup." U.S. " Take of fresh Meadow-saffron Root, cut into thin slices, an ounce; Vinegar sixteen ounces; Refined Sugar twenty-six ounces. Macerate the Root in the Vinegar for two days, occasionally shaking the vessel; then strain with gentle expression, and having added the Sugar, boil a little so as to form a syrup." Ed. This preparation is much inferior to the wine of colchicum, and is very seldom used. The dose is from a fluidrachm to half a fluidounce, or more. SYRUPUS CROCI. Lond. Syrup of Saffron. "Take of Saffron an ounce ; Boiling Water apint; Refined Sugar two pounds and a half. Macerate the Saffron in the Water for twelve hours, in a lightly covered vessel; then strain the liquor, and add the Sugar." Lond. This is slightly stimulant, but is valued chiefly for its fine colour. SYRUPUS DIANTHI CARYOPHYLLI. Ed. Syrup of the Clove Pink. " Take of the fresh Petals of the Clove Pink, freed from their claws, one part; Boiling Water four parts; Refined Sugar seven parts. Macerate the Petals in the Water for twelve hours; then add the Su- gar to the filtered liquor, and dissolve it with a gentle heat so as to form a syrup." Ed. The only value of this preparation consists in its beautiful red colour, and agreeable flavour. A syrup closely resembling it in these respects, is sometimes prepared from an infusion of cloves and sugar, with the addition of a little cochineal. The genuine syrup may be distinguish- ed by the effect of alkalies, which change its colour to green, while they only vary the shade of red in the counterfeit. Neither of them is much used in this country. SYRUPUS LIMONIS. U.S., Bub. Syrupus Limonum. Lond. Syrupus Citri Medica. Ed. Lemon Syrup. "Take of Juice of Lemons, strained, a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Dissolve the Sugar in the Juice in the manner directed for Syrup." U.S., Lond. "Take of Juice of Lemons, strained after the dregs have subsided, three parts; Refined Sugar five parts. Dissolve the Sugar." Ed. " Take of Juice of fresh Lemons two pints. As soon as the dregs have subsided, put the Juice into a matrass, and subject it for fifteen minutes to the heat of boiling water. When cold, strain it through a sieve, and form a syrup." Dub. This syrup forms a cooling and grateful addition to beverages in fe- brile complaints, and serves to conceal the taste of saline purgatives given in solution. SYRUPUS MORI. Lond. Syrup of Mulberries. "Take of Mulberry Juice, strained, apint; Refined Sugar two pounds. Dissolve the Sugar in the Mulberry Juice in the manner direct- ed for Simple Syrup." Lond. This may be used for the same purposes with lemon syrup. In like manner syrups may be prepared from various summer fruits, such as PART II. Syrupi. 981 strawberries, raspberries, 8cc, and employed to flavour drinks. They are much used as grateful additions to carbonic acid water. SYRUPUS PAPAVERIS. Lond. Syrupus Papaveris Somni- feri. Ed., Dub. Syrup of Poppies. " Take of the dried Capsules of the White Poppy, bruised and freed from the seeds, fourteen ounces; Refined Sugar two pounds; Boiling Water two gallons and a half. Macerate the Capsules in the Water for twenty-four hours; then, by means of a water-bath, boil down to a gal- lon, and express strongly. Boil down the strained liquor again to two pints, and strain it while hot. Set it by for twelve hours that the dregs may subside, then boil down the clear liquor to a pint, and add the Sugar in the manner directed for Simple Syrup." Lond. " Take of the Capsules of the White Poppy, dried and freed from their seeds, one part; Boiling Water fifteen parts; Refined Sugar two parts. Macerate the sliced Capsules in the Water for twelve hours; then boil till only one-third of the liquor remains, and strain the decoction with strong expression. Boil the strained liquor to one-half, and again strain; lastly, add the Sugar, and boil a little so as to form a syrup." Ed. " Take of the Capsules of the White Poppy, dried, deprived of their seeds, and bruised, seventeen ounces; Boiling Water two gallons. Ma- cerate the Capsules in the W"ater for twenty-four hours; then, by means of a water-bath, boil down to a gallon, and strongly express. Boil down the strained liquor again to two pints, and strain it while hot. Set it by for twelve hours that the dregs may subside; then boil down the clear liquor to a pint, and form a syrup." Dub. The use of the water-bath in preparing this syrup, as directed by the London and Dublin Colleges, is superfluous, and delays the process. As the capsules contain variable proportions of the narcotic principle, the syrup prepared from them is necessarily of variable strength. It is, moreover, very apt to spoil. Its place might with great propriety be supplied by a syrup prepared from one of the salts of morphia, which would keep well and have the advantage of uniform strength. Four grains of the sulphate of morphia dissolved in a pint of syrup, would afford a preparation at least equal to the average strength of the syrup of poppies, and much more certain in its operation. The syrup of poppies is employed, chiefly in infantile cases, to allay cough, quiet restlessness, relieve pain, and promote sleep. The dose is from half a fluidrachm to a fluidrachm for an infant, from half a fluid- ounce to a fluidounce for an adult. SYRUPUS RHAMNI. Lond., Dub. Syrup of Buckthorn. "Take of the fresh Juice of Buckthorn Berries four pints; Ginger Root, sliced, Pimento Berries, in powder, each, half an ounce; Refined Sugar three pounds and a half. Set by the Juice for three days that the dregs may subside, and then strain it. To a pint of the clear Juice add the Ginger and Pimento; then macerate for four hours with a gentle heat, and strain. Boil down the remainder of the Juice to a pint and a half; mix the liquors, and add the Sugar in the manner directed for Simple Syrup." Lond. " Take of the fresh Juice of Buckthorn Berries two pints and a half; Ginger Root, sliced, Pimento Berries, bruised, each, three drachms. Set by the Juice that the dregs may subside, and then strain it. Add the Ginger and Pimento to ten ounces of the clear Juice, macerate for twenty-four hours, and filter. Boil down the remaining Juice to a pint, mix the liquors, and form a syrup." Dub. 982 Syrupi. part ii. The syrup of buckthorn is a brisk cathartic, but having an unplea- sant taste, and being apt to gripe violently, is very seldom employ- ed. The dose is from half a fluidounce to a fluidounce. The patient should drink freely of thin gruel or other demulcent drink during its operation. SYRUPUS RHEI. U.S. Syrup of Bhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two ounces; Boiling Water apint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Macerate the Rhubarb in the Water for twenty-four hours, and strain; then add the Sugar, and boil for a short time so as to form a syrup." U. S. This is a mild cathartic, adapted to the cases of infants, to whom it may be given in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. SYRUPUS RHEI AROMATICUS. U.S. Aromatic Syrup of Bhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two ounces and a half; Cloves, bruised, Cinnamon, bruised, each, half an ounce; Nutmeg, bruised, two drachms; Diluted Alcohol two pints; Syrup six pints. Macerate the Rhubarb and aromatics in the Diluted Alcohol for fourteen days, and strain; then, by means of a water-bath, evaporate the liquor to a pint, and while it is still hot, mix it with the Syrup previously heated." U.S. This process is a decided improvement upon that of the first edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, in which the rhubarb and spices were boiled long in water, and sugar and alcohol afterwards added to the strained decoction. The oils of the aromatics were thus driven off and wasted, water being able to take up but a small proportion; while the preparation was rendered too stimulant by the spirituous addition. By the pre- sent process the alcohol employed in the maceration, after having per- formed its office of extracting the virtues of the medicines, is evapo- rated at a temperature insufficient for the volatilization of the oils, and a syrup is obtained at least as strortig as that of the old Pharmacopceia, with less waste of materials, and without the objectionable presence of a large proportion of spirit. As the original formula had been in general use, and practitioners were accustomed to the preparation, it was thought advisable that the present should have as nearly as possible the same strength ; otherwise the proportion both of rhubarb and of spices might have been with great propriety augmented. The apothecary should be careful to em- ploy aromatics of the best quality, and to effect the evaporation of the tincture, according to the officinal direction, by means of a water-bath. The aromatic syrup of rhubarb is a warm stomachic laxative, too feeble for adult cases, but well calculated for the bowel complaints of infants, which are so frequent in our cities during the summer season, and as a remedy for which the preparation has been long in use under the name of spiced syrup of rhubarb. The dose for an infant with diar- rhoea is a fluidrachm repeated every two hours, till the passages in- dicate by their colour that the medicine has operated. SYRUPUS RHEI ET SENNA. U.S. Syrup of Bhubarb and Senna. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, Senna, each, an ounce and a half; Car- damom, bruised, three drachms; Boiling Water a pint; Sugar two pounds. Macerate the Rhubarb, Senna, and Cardamom in the Water, in a covered vessel, for twenty-four hours, and strain ; then add the Sugar, and boil for a short time so as to form a syrup." U.S. In the process of the former edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, the PART II. Syrupi. 983 infusion was injudiciously boiled down to one-half before the addition of the sugar, so that the virtues of the senna were necessarily impaired, while the oil of the cacdamom was in great measure driven off. In the present process this error is avoided. The syrup of rhubarb and senna is more active than the simple syrup of rhubarb, and may be used as a gentle tonic cathartic in the complaints both of children and adults. The dose for the former is a fluidrachm, for the latter, a fluidounce. SYRUPUS RHfAADOS. Lond. Syrupus Papaveris Rhceadis. Dub. Syrup of Red Poppy. " Take of the fresh Petals of the Red Poppy a pound; Boiling Water a pint and two fluidounces; Refined Sugar two pounds and a half. To the Water heated by a water-bath, gradually add the Petals, occasionally stirring; then, having removed the vessel, macerate for twelve hours; express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside; lastly, add the Sugar in the manner directed for Simple Syrup." Lond. " Take of the fresh Petals of the Red Poppy a pound; Boiling Water twenty fluidounces. Add the Petals gradually to the boiling water; then, having removed the vessel from the fire, macerate with a low heat for twelve hours; express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may sub- side; lastly, add the Sugar, and form a syrup." Dub. The object of introducing the petals into water heated by a water-bath, is that they may shrink by being scalded, as otherwise they could not be completely immersed in the quantity of water directed. After this has been accomplished, they should be immediately removed from the fire, lest the liquor should become too thick and ropy. The fine red colour of this syrup is its only recommendation. It has no medical virtues, and is very liable to ferment. SYRUPUS ROSA. Lond., Dub. Syrupus Rosa Centifolia. Ed. Syrup of Roses. "Take of the dried Petals of the Hundred-leaved Rose seven ounces; Refined Sugar six pounds; Boiling Water four pints. Macerate the Pe- tals in the Water for twelve hours and strain. Evaporate the strained liquor, by means of a water-bath, to two pints and a half; then add the Sugar in the manner directed for Simple Syrup." Lond., Dub. " Take of the fresh Petals of the Hundred-leaved Rose, one part; Boil- ing Wa.terfour parts; Refined Sugar three parts. Macerate the Petals in the Water for twelve hours; then add the Sugar to the strained liquor, and boil so as to form a syrup." Ed. This syrup is gently laxative, and, on account of its mildness, may be given with advantage to infants and persons of delicate habit. It is without the fragrance of the rose; but has a reddish colour which is rendered bright red by acids, and green or yellow by alkalies. The dose is from two fluidrachms to one or two fluidounces. SYRUPUS ROSA GALLICA. Ed. Syrup of Red Roses. "Take of the dried Petals of the Red Rose one part; Refined Sugar two parts ; Boiling Water nine parts. Macerate the Petals in the Water for twelve hours; then boil a little and strain. Add the Sugar to the strained liquor, and again boil a little, so as to form a syrup." Ed. The syrup of red roses is mildly astringent; but is valued more for its fine red colour, on account of which it is occasionally added to mixtures. Off. Prep. Electuarium Catechu Compositum. Ed. SYRUPUS SARSAPARILLA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Syrup of Sarsaparilla. w Take of Sarsaparilla, bruised, two pounds; Guaiacum Wood, rasped, 984 Syrupi. PART II. three ounces; Red Roses, Senna, Liquorice Root, bruised, each, two ounces; Oil of Sassafras, Oil of Anise, each^ue minims; Oil of Partridge- berry three minims; Sugar [refined] dght pounds; Diluted Alcohol ten pints. Macerate the Sarsaparilla, Guaiacum Wood, Roses, Senna, and Liquorice Root, in the Diluted Alcohol, for fourteen days; then express and filter through paper. Evaporate the tincture, by means of a water- bath, to four pints and a half; then add the Sugar, and dissolve it so as to form a syrup. With this when cold mix the oils previously triturated with a small quantity of the syrup." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges prepare their syrup of sarsaparilla by macerating a pound of the sliced root in a gallon of boiling water for twenty-four hours, then boiling down to four pints, straining the liquor while hot, adding a pound of refined sugar, and evaporating to the pro- per consistence. The syrup of the London and Dublin Colleges is necessarily a very weak if not inert preparation, the virtues of the sarsaparilla being in- jured or destroyed by the long boiling. That of the U.S. Pharmacopceia is prepared on more correct principles, and is a great improvement upon the syrup of the former edition, which was intended to represent the fa- mous French Sirop de Cuisinier. The Pharmacopceia of 1820 directed the sarsaparilla to be exhausted by long continued decoction in water, and was indefinite as to the degree of concentration. Now it has been proved that diluted alcohol more thoroughly extracts the acrid principle of the root, upon which its activity probably depends, than water, and that these principles are either dissipated or destroyed by the long continued application of a boiling heat. * In the present formula, therefore, which employs diluted alcohol as the menstruum, the root is more completely exhausted of its active matter, while the heat applied to the concentra- tion, being no higher than is requisite for the evaporation of the alcohol, is insufficient to injure the preparation. The spirituous menstruum has, moreover, the advantage of not dissolving the inert fecula, which en- cumbers the syrup prepared by decoction and renders it liable to spoil. The operator should be careful to comply exactly with the directions of the Pharmacopceia in relation to the period of maceration and the use of the water-bath. The essential oils being intended solely to commu- nicate a pleasant flavour, are used in very small proportion. Perhaps the pale or hundred-leaved roses might be substituted with propriety for the red, as, being slightly laxative, they accord better with the cha- racter of the preparation, and are, besides, more easily procured of good quality. We are confident that a syrup prepared according to the offi- cinal process will be found to possess the virtues of sarsaparilla in a high degree; but the practitioner shouid be aware that much of the root as found in the market is nearly or quite inert; and should be prepared to meet with disappointment in the use of this or any other preparation, unless satisfied of the good quality of the drug from which it is made. The dose of the syrup of sarsaparilla is half a fluidounce, equivalent to somewhat less than a drachm of the root, to be taken three or four times a day. SYRUPUS SCILLA. U.S. Syrupus Scilla Maritima. Ed. Syrup of Squill. " Take of Vinegar of Squill apint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Dis- * See a paper by J. Hancock, M. D., republished in the Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm. i. 295; a communication by M. Beral to the Journal de Pharmacie, xv. 657; and another by M. Soubeiran in the same Journal, xvi. 38. PART II. Syrupi. 985 solve the Sugar in the Vinegar of Squill in the manner directed for Sy- rup." U.S. The Edinburgh College takes four parts of the vinegar of squill and seven parts of refined sugar, in powder, and dissolves the sugar with a gentle heat so as to form a syrup. This syrup is much employed as an expectorant, especially in combi- nation with a solution of tartarized antimony. The dose is about a flui- drachm. In infantile cases of catarrh and other pectoral complaints, it is sometimes given in the same dose as an emetic. SYRUPUS SENEGA. U. S. Syrup of Seneka. " Take of Seneka, bruised, four ounces; Water a pint; Sugar [refined] a pound. Boil the Water with the Seneka to one-half, and strain ; then add the Sugar, and boil so as to form a syrup." U.S. The quantity of seneka is perhaps greater than the water is capable of exhausting; but an active preparation is ensured. The syrup may be given as a stimulant expectorant in the dose of one or two flui- drachms. SYRUPUS SENNA. Lond. Syrupus Cassia Senna. Ed. Sy- rup of Senna. " Take of Senna Leaves two ounces; Fennel Seeds, bruised, an ounce; Manna three ounces; Refined Sugar a pound; Boiling Water apint. Ma- cerate the Senna Leaves and Fennel Seeds in the Water with a gentle heat for an hour. Strain the liquor and mix with it the Manna and Su- gar; then boil down to the proper consistence." Lond. " Take of Senna Leaves two ounces; Boiling Water a pound and ahalf; Molasses eight ounces. Macerate the Leaves in the Water in a slightly covered vessel for four hours, and strain; then add the Molasses, and boil with a gentle heat to the consistence of a syrup." Ed. The London syrup is preferable to the Edinburgh in consequence of the aromatic ingredient, though the manna which it contains is apt to crystallize. The preparation is intended chiefly as a cathartic for chil- dren, to whom it may be given in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. We prefer the Syrupus Rhei et Sennae of the U.S. Pharmacopceia. SYRUPUS TOLUTANUS. Lond. Syrupus Toluifera Bal- sami. Ed. Syrupus Balsami Tolutani. Dub. Syrup of Tolu. "Take of Balsam of Tolu an ounce; Boiling Water a pint; Refined Sugar two pounds. Boil the Balsam in the Water for half an hour, in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and strain the liquor when cold; then add the Sugar in the manner directed for Simple Syrup." Lond. The Edinburgh College prepares this syrup by adding gradually one ounce of the tincture of balsam of tolu to two pounds of simple syrup just prepared, and before it has become cold after removal from the fire. The Dublin College pursues the same plan, using an ounce of the tincture to a pint and a half of syrup. The London process affords a syrup with a finer flavour than that pre- pared with the tincture. The same portion of balsam is, according to Mr. Brande, usually employed in successive operations, and it long con- tinues to impart odour and taste to boiling water. The syrup of tolu is wholly inert as a medicine, and is employed only to communicate its pleasant flavour to mixtures. SYRUPUS VIOLA. Dub. Syrupus Viola Odorata. Ed. Sy- rup of Violets. "Take of the fresh Petals of the Violet two pounds; Boiling Water five pints. Macerate for twenty-four hours; then filter the liquor through 124 986 Syrupi.—Tincturae. part ii. fine linen, without expression; lastly, add the Sugar [twenty-nine ounces for every pint of liquor] and form a syrup." Dub. "Take of fresh Violets two parts; Boiling Water dght parts; Refined Sugar fifteen parts. Macerate the Violets in the Water for twenty-four hours, in a covered glass or glazed earthenware vessel, then strain with- out expression, and add the Sugar." Ed. This syrup has a deep blue colour and an agreeable flavour. It is said that its colour is most beautiful when it is prepared in well cleaned pewter vessels; but the action of the metal has not been satisfactorily explained. As it is apt to fade by time, it is sometimes counterfeited with materials the colour of which is more permanent. The fraud may usually be de- tected by the addition of an acid or alkali, the former of which reddens the syrup of violets, the latter renders it green, while they produce no such change upon the counterfeit. The syrup acts as a gentle laxative when given to infants in the dose of one or two fluidrachms; but it is used chiefly as a test of acids and al- kalies. For the latter purpose, a syrup prepared from the juice of the red cabbage may be substituted in its place. It is very seldom kept in our shops. SYRUPUS ZINGIBERIS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Syrupus Amomi Zingiberis. Ed. Syrup of Ginger. " Take of Tincture of Ginger two fluidounces; Syrup a gallon. Mix the Tincture with the Syrup, and by means of a water-bath evaporate the alcohol." U.S. The London College macerates two ounces of sliced ginger, for four hours, in a pint of boiling water, and having strained the infusion, adds two pounds of refined sugar in the manner directed for simple syrup. The Edinburgh College macerates four ounces of bruised ginger, for twenty-four hours, in a pound of boiling water, strains, adds twenty-two ounces of refined sugar, and dissolves it with a gentle heat. The Dublin College macerates four ounces of the bruised root, for twenty-four hours, in three pints of boiling water, filters the liquor, and adds twenty-nine ounces of refined sugar to each pint. The process of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia is the most easy, and affords a syrup in every respect equal to the others, without being like them en- cumbered with the mucilage and starch of the root. In order that it may be of the proper strength, it is necessary that the tincture should have been made with the best Jamaica ginger. The syrup of ginger is much used as a warm stomachic addition to tonic and purgative infusions or mixtures, and to impart flavour to drinks, particularly to carbonic acid water. Off. Prep. Electuarium Catechu Compositum, Dub; Electuarium Opiatum, Ed. TINCTURE. Tinctures. Tinctures, in the pharmaceutical sense of the term, are solutions of medicinal substances in alcohol or diluted alcohol, prepared by ma- ceration or digestion. Solutions in ammoniated alcohol and ethereal spirit, are embraced under the same denomination, but are severally distinguished by the addition of an epithet expressive of their peculiar character. The advantages of alcohol as a menstruum are, that it dia- part n. Tincturae. 987 solves principles which are sparingly or hot at all soluble in water, and contributes to their preservation when dissolved. In no instance, how- ever, is pure absolute alcohol employed. The United States, London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, direct it of thesp.gr. 0.835, that of Dub- lin, of the sp. gr. 0.840. When of these densities it contains a consider- able proportion of water, and is capable of dissolving more or less of sub- stances which are insoluble in anhydrous alcohol, while its solvent power, in relation to bodies soluble in this fluid, is sufficient for all prac- tical purposes. In numerous instances, diluted alcohol or proof spirit is preferable to alcohol itself, as it is capable of extracting a larger pro- portion of those active principles of plants which require an aqueous menstruum, at the same time that it is strong enough to prevent spon- taneous decomposition, and has the advantages of being cheaper and less stimulating. The diluted alcohol of the different Pharmacopoeias is not of the same strength, that of the United States and Edinburgh consisting of equal measures of officinal alcohol and water, and having the sp. gr. 0.935, while that of London has the sp. gr. 0.930, and that of Dublin 0.919. The difference, however, is not very material. Alcohol or rectified spirit is preferred as the solvent, when the substance to be extracted or dissolved is nearly or quite insoluble in water, as in the in- stances of the resins, guaiac, camphor, and the essential oils. The presence of water is here injurious, not only by diluting the menstruum, but by exercising an affinity for the alcohol which interferes with its solvent power. Thus water added to an alcoholic solution of one of these bodies, produces a precipitate by abstracting the alcohol from it. Diluted alcohol or proof spirit is employed, when the substance is so- luble both in alcohol and water, and when one or more of the ingre- dients are soluble in the one fluid, and one or more in the other, as in the case of those vegetables which contain extractive or tannin, or the native salts of the organic alkalies, or gum united with resin or essen- tial oil. As these include the greater number of medicines from which tinctures are prepared, diluted alcohol is most frequently used. In the preparation of the tinctures, the medicine should be in the dry state, and properly comminuted by being bruised, sliced, or pulverised. It is usually better in the condition of a coarse than of a very fine powder, as in the latter it is apt to agglutinate, and thus present an impediment to the penetration of the menstruum. When several substances differ- ing in solubility are employed, they should be added successively to the spirit, those least soluble first, those most so last; as otherwise the menstruum might become saturated with the ingredient for which it has the strongest affinity, and thus be rendered incapable of dissolving a due proportion of the others. The Edinburgh College prepares tinctures by digestion with a heat from 90° to 100°, continued usually for seven days. Our own Pharma- copoeia follows that of London, in directing maceration at ordinary temperatures, and extending the period to two weeks. The latter plan is preferable, as it is most convenient, and equally effectual, the lower temperature being compensated by the longer maceration. When cir- cumstances require that the tincture should be speedily prepared, di- gestion may be resorted to. Care should always be taken to keep the vessel well stopped, in order to prevent the evaporation of the alcohol. The materials should be frequently shaken during the digestion or ma- ceration ; and this caution is especially necessary when the substance acted on is in the state of powder. The tincture should not be used till the maceration is completed, when it should be separated from the 988 Tincturae. part ii. dregs either by simply filtering it through paper, or, when force is re- quisite, by first expressing it through linen, and subsequently filtering. Tinctures should be kept in bottles accurately stopped, in order to pre- vent evaporation, which might, in some instances, be attended with serious inconvenience, by increasing their strength beyond the officinal standard. Medicines are most conveniently administered in tincture, which act powerfully in small doses, as the proportion of alcohol in which they are dissolved is too minute to produce an appreciable effect. Those which require to be given in large doses, should be cautiously employed in this form, lest the injury done by the menstruum should more than counterbalance their beneficial operation. This remark is particularly applicable to chronic cases of disease, in which the use of tinctures is apt to result in the establishment of fatal habits of intemperance. The tinctures of the weaker medicines are more frequently given as adju- vants of other remedies, than with the view of obtaining their own full effect upon the system. The following general direction is given in the U.S. Pharmacopceia. " The Tinctures should be prepared in stopped glass bottles, and should be often shaken during the maceration." An equivalent direction is given by the British Colleges. TINCTURA ALOES. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Aloes Socotorina. Ed. Tincture of Aloes. " Take of Aloes, in powder, an ounce; Liquorice [extract] three ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The British Colleges take half an ounce of Socotrine aloes, in powder, and an ounce and a half of liquorice. The London College macerates these with four fluidounces of rectified spirit and a pint of water for fourteen days; the Edinburgh College digests them with four ounces of stronger alcohol (alcohol, U.S.) and a pound of water for seven days; and the Dublin College, having previously dissolved the liquorice in eight ounces of boiling water, and added eight fluidounces of proof spirit, di- gests the whole for seven days. The tincture of the U.S. Pharmacopceia differs from those of the British Colleges in being prepared with a stronger spirit, and is there- fore more stimulating. The latter are little more than infusions, with the addition of sufficient alcohol to prevent spontaneous decomposition. The liquorice is added to cover the taste of the aloes; but it answers the end imperfectly; and the preparation, on account of its unpleasant bitterness, is little used, aloes being generally administered in the form of pill. The dose is from half a fluidounce to a fluidounce and a half. TINCTURA ALOES ATHEREA. Ed. Ethereal Tincture of Aloes. " Take of Socotrine Aloes, Myrrh, each, in powder, an ounce and a ludf; Saffron, cut, an ounce; Sulphuric Ether with Alcohol [Spirit of Sulphuric Ether] a pound. Digest the Myrrh with the Ether for four days; theu add the Saffron and Aloes. Digest again for four days, and when the dregs have subsided, pour off the tincture." Ed. This tincture differs from the following chiefly in consequence of the ether which it contains, and which may be found serviceable when spasm, or other irregular nervous action, accompanies the symptoms which call for the combined use of myrrh and aloes. It is very seldom employed in this country. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. PART II. Tincturae. 989 TINCTURA ALOES ET MYRRHA. U.S. Ed. Tinctura Aloes Composita. Lond., Dub. Tincture of Aloes and Myrrh. " Take of Aloes, in powder, Saffron, each, three ounces; Tincture of Myrrh two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through pa- per." U.S. The process of the London College differs from the above only in the specification of Socotrine aloes. The Dublin College omits the saffron, but in other respects gives the same directions. The Edinburgh Col- lege takes two ounces of myrrh, a pound and a half of alcohol, and half a pound of water; digests for four days; then adds an ounce and a half of Socotrine aloes and an ounce of saffron; digests again for three days; and finally pours off the tincture from the sediment. This tincture is a modification of the elixir proprietatis of Paracelsus. The saffron, which has been retained in compliance with former preju- dices, can add little to the efficacy of the preparation ; and being very expensive, might with great propriety be much reduced. It serves, how- ever, to impart a richness to the tincture, the want of which might be considered a defect by those accustomed to its use. The tincture is purgative, tonic, and emmenagogue; and is consider- ably employed in chlorosis, and other disordered states of health in fe- males, connected with suppressed, retained, or deficient menstruation, and with a constipated state of bowels. It may also be used as a stomachic laxative in cold, languid habits, independently of menstrual disorder. The dose is from one to two fluidrachms. TINCTURA ANGUSTURA. U.S., Dub. TincturaBonplan- dia Trifoliata. Ed. Tincture of Angustura Bark. "Take of Angustura Bark, bruised, two ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper. U.S. The Dublin process corresponds with the above, the bark being di- rected in coarse powder. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of the bark in coarse powder, and two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. This tincture contains the active principles of Angustura bark, and may be given in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. TINCTURA ASSAFffiTIDA. U.S., Lond. Tinctura Ferula Assafcetida. Ed. Tinctura Assafcetida. Dub. Tincture of Assafetida. . . . "Take of Assafetida four ounces; Alcohol [Rectified Spirit, Lond.] two pints. ■ Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S., Lond. . The Edinburgh College takes four ounces of assaletida, and two pounds and a half of alcohol, and digests for a week. The Dublin process dif- fers from that of the U.S. Pharmacopceia only in tritusating the assa- fetida with half a pint of water previously to the addition of the alcohol. This tincture becomes milky on the addition of water, in consequence of the separation of the resin. It possesses all the virtues of assafetida. The medium dose is a fluidrachm. Off". Prep. Enema Foetidum, Dub. TINCTURA AURANTII. Lond. Tincture of Orange Peel. " Take of fresh Orange Peel three ounces; Proof Spirit two pints. Ma- cerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. It is the peel of the Seville orange which is intended by the London College- and the outer part only should be used, the inner whitish por- tion being inert. Brande says that the tincture may be prepared, without 990 Tincturae. part ii. disadvantage, from the dried peel, of which two ounces are equal to three of the fresh. The tincture of orange peel is employed as a grateful addition to infusions, decoctions, and mixtures. It was omitted by mis- take in the late edition of the Dublin Pharmacopceia, as it is an ingre- dient of one of the officinal preparations of that work. Off. Prep. Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub. TINCTURA BENZOINI COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Tinc- tura Benzoes Composita. Dub. Compound Tincture of Benzoin. " Take of Benzoin three ounces; Purified Storax two ounces; Tolu [bal- sam] an ounce; Aloes, in powder, half an ounce; Alcohol two pints. Ma- cerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The processes of the British Colleges do not materially differ from the above, which was .taken originally from the London Pharmacopoeia. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges direct a digestion of seven days; and the former employs an additional ounce of the balsam of tolu instead of the two ounces of purified storax. This tincture is a stimulating expectorant, occasionally used in chro- nic catarrhal affections, but more frequently as a local application to in- dolent ulcers. It is the balsamum traumaticum of the older Pharmaco- poeias, and may be considered as a simplified form of certain complex compositions, such as baume de commandeur, Wade's balsam, Friars' balsam, Jesuits' drops, fyc, which were formerly in repute, and are still esteemed among the vulgar as pectorals and vulneraries. Turlington's balsam, which is a popular remedy in this country for such purposes, consists, as usually prepared in Philadelphia, of the ingredients of the officinal tincture, with the addition of Peruvian balsam, myrrh, and an- gelica root. It is scarcely necessary to state, that the application of these remedies to fresh wounds must frequently prove injurious, by inducing too much inflammation, and thus preventing union by the first intention. The compound tincture of benzoin is decomposed by water. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms. r TINCTURA BUCHU. Dub. Tincture of Buchu Leaves. " Take of the Leaves of the Diosma crenata two ounces; Proof Spirit apint. Macerate for seven days, and filter." Dub. This tincture has the virtues of buchu leaves, and may be given in the dose of from one to four fluidounces, either simply diluted with water, or as an addition to the infusion of the leaves. TINCTURA CAMPHORA. U.S., Ed. Spiritus Camphohjs. Lond. Tinctura Camphora sive Spiritus Camphoratus. Dub. Tincture of Camphor. u Take of Camphor/ow ounces; Alcohol two pints. Dissolve the Cam- phor in the Alcohol." U.S. The London and Dublin preparations are the same with ours. The Edinburgh College directs an ounce of camphor to a pound of alcohol; and allows the tincture to be prepared with a double or triple propor- tion of camphor. This is used chiefly as an anodyne embrocation in rheumatic and gouty pains, chilblains, and the inflammation resulting from sprains and bruises. It may also be employed internally; due regard being paid to the stimulant properties of the alcohol. The camphor is precipitated by the addition of water, but may be suspended by the intervention of su- gar. The dose is from five drops to a fluidrachm, first poured upon sugar, and then mixed with water. PART II. Tincturae. 991 TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS. U.S., Lond, Dub. Tinctura Cantharidis Vesicatoria. Ed. Tincture of Spanish Flies. "Take of Spanish Flies, bruised, three drachms; Diluted AlcoboUwo ■pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S., Lond. , e The Edinburgh College orders a drachm of the flies and a pound ol diluted alcohol; the Dublin College, two drachms of the former and a pint and a half of the latter; and both digest for a week. This tincture is one of the most convenient forms for the internal use of Spanish flies, the virtues of which it possesses to their full extent. (SeeCanthans.) It is occasionally employed externally as a rubeiacient; but its liability to vesicate should be taken into consideration, the dose is from twenty drops to a fluidrachm, repeated three or four times & TINCTURA CAPSICI. U. S., Lond., Dub. Tincture of Cayenne ^Take of Cayenne Pepper an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Ma- cerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S., Lond., Dub. This form of capsicum is a useful stimulant in very low states of the system with great gastric insensibility, as in malignant, scarlet, and ty- phus fevers, and in the cases of drunkards. It may also be used as a earele, diluted with rose water or some mucilaginous fluid, (bee Cap- dcum.) Applied by means of a camel's hair pencil to the relaxed uvula, it sometimes produces contraction, and relieves prolapsus of that part. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. - TINCTURA CARDAMOMI. U.S., Lond. Tinctura Amomi Repentis. Ed. Tincture of Cardamom. " Take of Cardamom, bruised,/owr ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper. U. S. The process of the Edinburgh College agrees with the above, except that two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol are used instead of two pints, and digestion for a week instead of maceration for two weeks. The London College takes three ounces of the bruised seeds and two pints of proof spirit, and macerates for fourteen days. This tincture is an agreeable aromatic, and may be advantageously added to tonic and purgative infusions. TINCTURA CARDAMOMI COMPOSITA. Lond., Dub. Com- pound Tincture of Cardamom. . " Take of Cardamom Seeds, Caraway Seeds, Cochineal, each bruis- ed, two drachms; Cinnamon Bark, bruised, half an ounce; Raisins, ston- td,four ounces; Proof Spirit two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filtThe Dublin College gives the same formula, omitting the cochineal and raisins, and directing the cardamom seeds freed from their husks This is a very agreeable aromatic tincture, occasionally used as a car- minative, in thedL of one or two fluidrachms, but more frequentlyas an addition to mixtures, infusions, fcc, which it renders pleasant to the Tinctura1 tlsctMZAond., Dub. Tinctura cwto™ Eietitheria. Ed. Tincture of Cascarilla. c c •< ,.,m " Take^of Calcarilla Bark, in powder, four ounces; Proof Spirit two mnti Macerate for fourteen- days, and filter." Lond. . , ^ The ESurgh College employs four ounces of the bruised bark, and twl pounds and a half of diluted alcohol; the Dubhn, four ounces of 992 Tincturae. PART II. the bark in coarse powder, and two pints of the menstruum. The former College digests, the latter macerates, for seven days. The tincture has the properties of cascarilla, but is never used in this country. TINCTURA CASTOREI. U. S, Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Castor. " Take of Castor, bruised, two ounces; Alcohol two pints. Macerate for seven days, and filter through paper." U.S. The London process corresponds with the above, except that the cas- tor is directed in powder. The Dublin College employs the same pro- portions, but specifies the Russian castor, ahid directs diluted alcohol or proof spirit, instead of alcohol or rectified spirit. The Edinburgh Col- lege takes an ounce and a half of castor in powder, and a pound of alco- hol, and digests for seven days. As castor yields little if any of its virtues to water, alcohol is a better solvent than proof spirit. It is said also to form a more grateful prepa- ration. The Russian castor should always be preferred when attainable. This tincture is used for the same purposes with castor in substance. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms. TINCTURA CASTOREI COMPOSITA. Ed. Compound Tinc- ture of Castor. " Take of Castor, in powder, an ounce; Assafetida half an ounce; Am- moniated Alcohol a pound. Digest for seven days, and filter through paper." Ed. This is an active stimulant and antispasmodic, applicable to cases of severe spasm of stomach, and to various hysterical and other nervous affections, unattended with inflammatory symptoms. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms. TINCTURA CATECHU. U.S., Lond., Bub. Tinctura Aca- cia Catechu. Ed. Tincture of Catechu. " Take of Catechu three ounces; Cinnamon, bruised, two ounces; Di- luted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S., Lond. The Dublin process differs from the above only in the period of mace- ration, which is seven days. The Edinburgh College orders three ounces of catechu, two ounces of cinnamon, and two pounds and a half of di- luted alcohol; and digests for a week. This is a grateful astringent tincture, useful in all cases to which catechu is applicable, and %^ which small quantities of spirit are not objectionable. It may often be-^advantageously added to cretaceous mix- tures in diarrhoea. The dose is from thirty minims to three fluidrachms, which may be given with sweetened water, or some mucilaginous liquid, or in Port wine when this is not contra-indicated. TINCTURA CINCHONA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Cin- chona Lancifolia. Ed. Tincture of Peruvian Bark. " Take of Peruvian Bark, in powder, six ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The British Colleges all designate the pale bark. The London College orders seven ounces to two pints-of proof spirit, macerating for fourteen days; the Edinburgh, four ounces to two pounds and a half, digesting for a week; the Dublin, four ounces to two pints, digesting for a week. Of these tinctures, those of the United States and London Pharma- copoeias are to be preferred, as they contain most bark; and in the bitter tinctures it is important that the alcohol should bear as small a propor- PART II. Tincturae. 993 tion to the tonic principles as possible. Even the strongest, however, cannot, in ordinary cases, be given in doses sufficiently large to obtain the full effect of the bark, without stimulating too highly. The tincture of cinchona is used chiefly as an adjunct to the infusion or decoction, to a dose of which it may be added in the quantity of from one to four fluidrachms. TINCTURA CINCHONA AMMONIATA. Lond. Ammoni- ated Tincture of Peruvian Bark. " Take of the Bark of the Cinchona lancifolia [pale bark] four ounces; Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia two pints. Macerate for ten days, and filter." Lond. This is an injudicious preparation, as the tonic properties of the bark are entirely lost in the stimulant action of the ammonia and alcohol. It is seldom if ever used. TINCTURA CINCHONA COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Compound Tincture of Peruvian Bark. " Take of Peruvian Bark, in powder, two ounces; Orange Peel [dried] an ounce and a half; Virginia Snakeroot, bruised, three drachms; Saffron, Red Saunders rasped, each, a drachm; Diluted Alcohol twenty fluid- ounces. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The British Colleges direct two scruples of cochineal in place of the red "saunders, and specify the pale bark as the variety to be used. The Dublin College employs only half an ounce of orange peel. The Edin- burgh College orders twenty ounces of alcohol (by weight), and digests for a week. In other respects, the processes correspond with that of the U.S. Pharmacopceia. This is the preparation commonly known by the name of Huxham's tincture of bark. It is an excellent stomachic cordial, and, though too feeble in the principles of cinchona to serve as a substitute for that tonic when its full effect upon the system is required, may be very usefully employed as an addition to the decoction or infusion, or to the salts of quinia, in low forms of fever, particularly in malignant intermittents, and typhoid remittents. Huxham was in the habit.of uniting with it the elixir of vitriol, the aromatic sulphuric acid of the Pharmacopoeias. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms. TINCTURA CINNAMOMI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Lauri Cinnamomi. Ed. Tincture of Cinnamon. " Take of Cinnamon, bruised, three ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S., Lond. The Dublin process differs from the above only in the quantity of cin- namon, which is three ounces and a half. The Edinburgh College takes three ounces of cinnamon and two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. This tincture has the aromatic and astringent properties of cinnamon, and may be used as an adjuvant to cretaceous mixtures, and astringent infusions or decoctions. The dose is from one to three or four fluidrachms. TINCTURA CINNAMOMI COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Compound Tincture of Cinnamon. " Take of Cinnamon, bruised, six drachms; Cardamom [seeds], bruis- ed, three drachms; Ginger, bruised, two drachms; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The London College orders, in addition to the ingredients above men- tioned, two drachms of powdered long pepper. The Edinburgh CoUege 125 994 Tincturae. part ii. orders of cinnamon and cardamom, each, an ounce; of diluted alcohol two pounds and a half; and digests for a week. This is a very warm aromatic tincture, useful in flatulence, spasm of the stomach, and gastric debility. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. TINCTURA SEMINUM COLCHICI. Bub. Tincture of Mea- dow-saffron Seeds. " Take of Meadow-saffron Seeds two ounces; Proof Spirit a pint. Ma- cerate for fourteen days, and filter." Dub. This tincture possesses the active properties of colchicum, and may be given whenever that medicine is indicated; but the wine, which con- tains less alcohol, is generally preferred. The dose is from ten to sixty drops. TINCTURA COLOMBA. U.S., Ed., Dub. Tinctura Calum- ba. Lond. Tincture of Columbo. '* Take of Columbo, bruised, two ounces and a half; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges are the same with the above, the columbo being sliced instead of bruised. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of the powdered root, and two pounds of di- luted alcohol, and digests for seven days. The tincture of columbo may be added to tonic infusions or decoc- tions, to increase their stimulant power; but, like all the other bitter tinctures, should be used with caution. It is especially applicable to the cases of drunkards. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms. TINCTURA CONII. Dub. Tinctura Conii Maculati. Ed. Tincture of Hemlock. " Take of Hemlock Leaves, dried, two ounces; Cardamom Seeds, bruised, an ounce; Proof Spirit apint. Macerate for seven days, and filter." Dub. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of the dried leaves, half an ounce of cardamom, and sixteen ounces (by weight) of diluted alcohol; digests for seven days, and filters through paper. This tincture affords a convenient method of administering hemlock, the virtues of which it possesses. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm. TINCTURA CROCI SATIVI. Ed. Tincture of Saffron. "Take of Saffron, cut into shreds, an ounce; Diluted Alcohol fifteen ounces [by weight]. Digest for seven days, and filter through paper." Ed. This tincture possesses all the properties of saffron; but is of little other use than to impart colour to mixtures. TINCTURA DIGITALIS. U.S., Lond,, Dub. Tinctura Digi- talis Purpurea. Ed. Tincture of Foxglove. "Take of Foxglove [dried leaves] four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College orders an ounce of the dried leaves, and eight ounces (by weight) of diluted alcohol; and digests for a week. The Dublin CoUege directs two ounces of the dried leaves, (the larger being rejected,) in coarse powder, and a pint of proof spirit; and macerates for a week. In preparing this tincture, great attention should be paid to the selec- tion of the leaves, according to the rules laid down under the head of Digitalis. From a neglect of these, it is apt to be weak or inefficient. We have observed, in our own experience, a decided superiority in the PART II. Tincturae. 995 tincture prepared from carefully preserved leaves imported from Eng- land. The tincture of foxglove possesses all the virtues of that narcotic, and affords a convenient method of administering it, especially in mix- tures. The dose is ten drops, to be repeated two or three times a day, and increased, if necessary, with great caution. (See Digitalis.) TINCTURA GALBANI. Dub. Tincture of Galbanum. " Take of Galbanum, cut into small pieces, two ounces ; Proof Spirit two pints. Digest for seven days, and filter." Dub. The tincture of galbanum is analogous in properties to that of assa- fetida, but weaker, and less nauseous. It is very seldom used. The dose is from one to three fluidrachms. TINCTURA GALLARUM. Ed., Dub. Tincture of Galls. " Take of Galls, in powder, four ounces ; Proof Spirit two pints. Di- gest for seven days, and filter." Dub. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of galls, and sixteen of di- luted alcohol, and digests as above. The tincture of galls is powerfully astringent; but is more used as a test than as a medicine. The close is from one to three fluidrachms. TINCTURA GENTIANA. U.S. Tinctura Gentiana Com- posita. Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Gentian. " Take of Gentian, bruised, two ounces; Orange Peel [dried] an ounce; Cardamom [seeds], bruised, half an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same with the above. The Edinburgh College substitutes for the carda- mom an equal weight of bruised canella alba, adds half a drachm of powdered cochineal to the other ingredients, and digests for a week with two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol. This is an elegant bitter, much used in dyspepsia, and as an addition to tonic mixtures in debilitated states of the digestive organs, or of the system generally. There is, however, much danger of its abuse, espe- cially in chronic cases. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. TINCTURA GUAIACI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Guaiaci Officinalis. Ed. Tincture of Guaiac. " Take of Guaiac, in powder, half a pound; Alcohol two pints. Ma- cerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. The London process agrees with that of the United States Pharma- copoeia. The Edinburgh College orders six ounces of guaiac and two pounds and a half of alcohol, and digests for a week. The Dublin Col- lege directs four ounces of the guaiac and two pints of alcohol, and ma- cerates for a week. This tincture is given in chronic rheumatism and gout, in the dose of from one to three fluidrachms three or four times a day. As it is de- composed by water, it is most conveniently administered in mucilage, sweetened water, or milk, by which the separated guaiac is held in tem- porary suspension. The following is a form of tincture of guaiac which Dr. Dewees has found very efficient in the cure of suppression of the menses, and dysmenorrhoea. "Take of the best Guaiac, in powder, four ounces; Carbonate of Soda or of Potassa one drachm and a half; Pimento, in powder, an otince; Diluted Alcohol a pound. Digest for a few days." The dose is a teaspoonful three times a day, to be gradu- ally increased if necessary. Within our own experience, this remedy has proved highly useful in painful menstruation, given in the intervals of < he attacks. The quantity of alkaline carbonate is too small to produce 996 Tincturae? part ii. any sensible effect, and the pimento can act only as a spice; so that the virtues of the tincture reside in the guaiac; and the officinal tincture would probably be found equally effectual. TINCTURA GUAIACI AMMONIATA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Ammoniated Tincture of Guaiac^ * " Take of Guaiac, in powder, four ounces; Aromatic Ammoniated Alcohol a pint and a half. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The processes of the British Colleges correspond with the above, ex- cept that the Edinburgh College directs a pound and a half of ammoni- ated alcohol instead of a" pint and a half, and both this and the Dublin CoUege shorten the period, the former of digestion, the latter of macera- tion, to a week. This tincture is very celebrated in the treatment of chronic rheuma- tism. It is more stimulating, and is thought to be more effectual than the preceding. Like that, it is decomposed by water, and should be administered in some viscid or tenacious vehicle which may hold the guaiac in suspension. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. TINCTURA HELLEBORI NIGRI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Black Hellebore. " Take of Black Hellebore, bruised, four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The London and Dublin processes correspond with the above, except that in the latter, the maceration is continued only for a week. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of the bruised root, fifteen grains of powdered cochineal, and fifteen ounces (by weight) of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. This tincture possesses the properties of black hellebore, and, upon the recommendation of Dr. Mead, has been much used in suppression of the menses. It is said to be peculiarly applicable to cases in which the grade of action is too high for the use of chalybeates. At best, however, it is an uncertain remedy, and should always be administered with caution, as it is sometimes violent in its action. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm, to be taken night and morning. TINCTURA HUMULI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Humuli Lupuli. Ed. Tincture of Hops. "Take of Hops^ue ounces ; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days; then express the liquor, and filter through paper." U.S. The London and Dublin processes differ from the above only in the omission of expression. The Edinburgh College employs two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. Hops are so light and bulky, that, in the proportion directed, they ab- sorb almost all the spirit, which, after the requisite maceration, can be separated only by strong pressure. As this absorption of the spirit ob- structs its proper action on all parts of the hops, it is necessary that the mixture should be frequently stirred during the maceration. By tho- roughly drying the hops and rubbing them between the hands, or by cutting and bruising them, they may be brought to a state of division which will in great measure obviate the disadvantages alluded to. As the virtues of hops depend chiefly if not exclusively on their lupulin, and as the quantity of this substance is not the same in different parcels, the tincture is necessarily unequal in strength; and the tincture of lupu- lin itself is greatly preferable. (See Tinctura Lupuli.) The tincture of hops is tonic and narcotic, and has been proposed as a substitute for part ii. Tincturae. "7 laudanum when the latter disagrees with the patient; but little reliance can be placed upon it. The conditidn of disease to which it appears to be best adapted, is the wakefulness, attended with tremors and general nervous derangement, to which habitual drunkards are liable, and which frequently prececles an attafck of mania a potu. The dose is from one to three fluidrachms. TINCTURA HYOSCYAMI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Hy- oscyami Nigri. Ed. Tincture of Henbane. " Take of Henbane [dried leaves], in powder,/owr ounces; Diluted Al- cohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College takes an ounce of the dried leaves and eight ounces (by weight) of diluted alcohol; the Dublin, five ounGes of the for- mer and two pints of the latter; and both Colleges digest for a week. This tincture may be advantageously substituted, as an anodyne and soporific, for that of opium, when the latter disagrees with the patient, or is objectionable on account of its property of inducing constipation. When the tincture of henbane purges, as it sometimes does, it should be united with a very small proportion of laudanum. The dose is a flui- drachm. TINCTURA IODINI. U.S. Iodinii Tinctura. Dub. Tincture of Iodine. "Take of Iodine half an ounce; Alcohol half a pint. Dissolve the Io- dine in the Alcohol." U.S. The Dublin College takes two scruples of iodine, and an ounce (by weight) of rectified spirit, mixes, dissolves the iodine with the aid of heat, and keeps the solution in a well stopped phial. The proportion of the Dublin College is one part of iodine to twelve of alcohol by weight, the same with that employed by Dr. Coindet. In the tincture of the United States Pharmacopoeia, the proportion is one of iodine to about 12.7 of alcohol, sufficiently near the former to allow the two preparations to be considered identical for all practical pur- poses. We prefer the first process, as it conforms with Jp«se for the other tinctures in the use1 of a measured quantity insteacfof a certain weight of the menstruum. Dr. Coindet employed 48 grains to the French ounce (poids demarc)=576~ grains; and it has been customary, in prepar- ing the tincture, to employ the same quantity to the troy ounce, without attention to the fact that the latter contains only 480 grains, and is inca- pable of dissolving the whole of the iodine, the tincture of Coindet being a saturated or nearly saturated solution. It is best to prepare the tinc- ture in small quantities only at a time, as there is reason to apprehend that the iodine may be acted on by the alcohol, and converted into iodu- retted hydriodic acid by union with its hydrogen. The iodine should be freed from moisture before being weighed out. The tincture should be kept in well stopped bottles, in order to prevent the evaporation of the alcohol, and the consequent crystallization of the iodine. The tincture of iodine has a deep brown colour. Sixteen minims, equal to about thirty-five drops, contain one grain of iodine. The dose is from ten to twenty drops,-which may be gradually increased to thirty or torty drops, three times a day. It should be given in sweetened water. TINCTURA JALAPA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Con- volvuli Jalapa. Ed. Tincture of Jalap. "Take of Jalap, in powder, dght ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. 998 Tincturae. part ii. The London and Dublin processes correspond with the above. The Edinburgh College takes three ounces of jalap and fifteen ounces (by weight) of diluted alcohol, and digests for seven days. This tincture possesses the medical virtues of jalap, and is sometimes added to cathartic mixtures in the quantity of one or two fluidrachms, to increase their activity. TINCTURA KINO. Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Kino. " Take of Kino, in powder, three ounces; Rectified Spirit two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. The Dublin College uses the same proportions, but employs proof spi- rit or diluted alcohol, and digests only for seven days. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of kino and a pound and a half of diluted alco- hol, and digests for a week. This tincture, prepared with the kino brought into the United States, almost always becomes gelatinous .when kept, and loses its astringency. It is, therefore, an ineligible preparation, and has been properly omitted in the last edition of the United States Pharmacopoeia. The tincture of catechu should be substituted, or the kino employed in the state of filtered watery solution. The dose of the tincture is one or two flui- drachms. It is chiefly used as an addition to cretaceous and other as- tringent mixtures, in diarrhoea. TINCTURA LOBELIA. U.S. Tincture of Indian Tobacco. " Take of Indian Tobacco [the herb]/owr ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. This tincture possesses the emetic and narcotic properties of lobelia, and is sometimes used in asthma, in the dos*e of one or two fluidrachms, repeated every two or three hours till its effects are experienced. TINCTURA LUPULIN A. U.S. Tincture of Lupulin. " Take of Lupulin/owr ounces; Alcohol two pints. Macerate for four- teen days, and filter through paper." U.S. This is much superior to the tincture of hops of the former United States Pharmacopoeia, in the place of which it was introduced into the last edition. In the original preparation, a certain quantity of hops was directed, from which the lupulin was to be separated by beating, and then digested in alcohol. As hops contain a variable, proportion of lu- pulin, a tincture thus prepared must be of unequal strength; an objec- tion, to which the tincture of hops, however prepared, is obnoxious. Besides, the amount of lupulin contained in any quantity of hops.upon which alcohol can conveniently act, is too small in proportion to the al- cohol, to afford a tincture of the due strength. The present tincture is, therefore, in all respects, preferable. The dose is one or two fluidrachms, to be given in sweetened water or some mucilaginous fluid. TINCTURA MOSCHI. U.S., Dub. Tincture of Musk. "Take of Musk two drachms; Alcohol a pint. Macerate for seven days, and filter through paper." U.S. The Dublin College employs the same ingredients, and in the same pro- portions, but uses the musk in powder, and digests for a week. . This tincture is much too feeble in musk to be capable of producing beneficial effects in any dose which would not contain too large a quan- tity of alcohol. Musk should alwavs be given in substance. TINCTURA MYRRHA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Myrrh. "Take of Myrrh, bruised, four ounces; Alcohol three pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. part ii. Tincturae. 999 The London process corresponds with the above. The Edinburgh Col- lege directs three ounces of powdered myrrh, twenty ounces (by weight) of alcohol, and ten ounces of water; and digests for seven days. The Dublin College takes three ounces of bruised myrrh, a pint and a half of proof spirit, and half a pint of rectified spirit; and digests for a week. Undiluted alcohol, as directed by the U.S. and London Pharmaco- poeias, is preferable as a solvent of myrrh* to that fluid mixed with wa- ter, because it forms a perfectly clear solution, which is not attainable with the latter menstruum. The tinctur^Ef myrrh is scarcely ever used internally. As a local application it is employed to stimulate indolent and foul ulcers, and promote the exfolfctim of bones, and, diluted with water, is applied to spongy gums, aphlcras sore mouth, and ulcerations of the throat. The dose, as a stimulant expectorant and emmenagogue, is from half a fluidrachm to a fluidrachm. Off. Prep. Tinctura Aloes et Myrdiae. U.S., Lond., Dub. TINCTURA NUCIS VOMICA. Dub. Tincture of Nux Vo- mica. "Take of Nux Vomica, rasped, two ounces; Rectified Spirit dght ounces. Macerate for seven days, and filter." Dub. The tincture is not an eligible form for administering the nux vo- mica, as it is equally uncertain with the medicine in substance, and has the disadvantage of excessive bitterness. The alcoholic extract, or strychnia, is preferable. The dose of the tincture is from five to twenty drops. TINCTURA OPII. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Opium. " Take of Opium, in powder, two ounces and a half; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges correspond with the above. The Edinburgh College directs two ounces of opium and two pounds of diluted alcohol, and digests for seven days. The proportion of opium in the Edinburgh formula is so nearly the same with that employed in the others, that the resulting tinctures may be considered identical. In the original edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, the proportion of an ounce of opium to the pint o£ diluted alcohol, was adopted, under the mistaken impression, that the pound of the Edin- burgh Pharmacopoeia, from which the process was taken, was equivalent to a pint, whereas it is in fact equal to no more than 0.79 of a pint of water,.or about 0.845 of a pint of the officinal diluted alcohol. The tincture was therefore much weaker than that used in Great Britain. The error was corrected in the last edition of the Pharmacopceia, so that uniformity in relation to this preparation has now been established. In the United States and Great Britain, this tincture is universally "known by the name of laudanum. As this term was formerly applied to other preparations of opium, and still continues to be so on the Conti- nent of Europe, the tincture is sometimes distinguished by the epithet liquidum, which, however, is seldom used in this country. Tinctura Thebaica is another title by which this preparation is known. About two-thirds of the opium used in the preparation of the tincture are dissolved, the residue consisting chiefly of inert matter. Allowing the opium to be wholly exhausted of its active principles, one grain would be represented by 12.8 minims; but a small quantity.of morphia has been detected in the residuary matter, so that the tincture is rather weaker than the proportion of opium employed would indicate. The tincture of opium is used for all the purposes to which opium 1000 Tincturae. part ii. itself is applied." (See "Opium.) The dose, equivalent to a grain of opium,, is about thirteen minims, or twenty-five drops. It should be recollected, that a fluidrachm or teaspoonful of laudanum (sixty mjnims) will afford, on an average, aboutone hundred and twenty drops. Laudanum, when long kept, with occasional exposure to the air, becomes thick, in conse- quence of the evaporation of a portion of the alcohol, atfd the deposition of opium. If given in this slAte, it often acts with unexpeteted^ejiergy, and cases of death have resulted in infants from its use in doses which would have been entirely safSfcf the tincture had been clear. Off. Prep. Enema Opii, Dw.; Linimentum Saponis cum Opio. Dub. TINCTURA OPII ACf|T,ATA. U.S. Acetated Tincture of Opium. - J "Take of Opium two ounces^ Vinegar twelve fluidounces; Alcohol half a pint. Rub the Opium with the Vinegar; then add the Alcohol, and, having macerated for fourte«days, filter through paper." U.S. This preparation was introduced into the last edition of our Phar- macopoeia as a substitute for the Jlcetum Opii or black drop of the ori- ginal work, the advantages of which it possesses, without being liable to the same objection of uncertainty of strength. The following direc- tions for the preparation of the black drop were given in the first edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. " Take of Opium half a pound; Vinegar three pints; Nutmeg, bruised, one ounce and a half; Saffron half an ounce. Boil them to a proper consistence; then add, Sugar four ounces; Yeast one fluidounce. Digest for seven weeks, then place in the open air until it becomes a syrup; lastly, decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a little ,m sugar to each bottle." The merest tyro will discover in this process' sources of uncertainty in the resulting preparation, which must very much detract from its value, and in fact render it unworthy of a place in a standard work. The boiling to a proper consistence, the digestion in the open air until a syrup is formed, the addition of a little sugar to each bottle, are all indefinite directions; and the practical result has been, that the black drop prepared according to them has no certain strength. The only advantage of the black drop over laudanum, is, probably, that the morphia exists in it in the slate of an acetate. This advantage is secured in the acetated tincture of opium, the strength of which is as uniform as that of the opium from which it is prepared. This tincture was originally employed by Dr. Joseph Hartshorne of Philadelphia. The black drop has long been used under the name of Lancaster or Quaker's black drop, and the process for preparing it was first published by Dr. Armstrong, who found it among the papers of a relative of the original proprietor in England. In the original process, however, verjuice, or the juice of the wild crab, was employed instead of vinegar. Other vegeta- ble acids also favourably modify the narcotic operation of opium; and* lemon juice has been employed in a similar manner with vinegar or ver- juice, and perhaps not less advantageously. The average product of the process for acetum opii, when carefully conducted, may be stated at two pints, and the strength of the preparation is such, that one drop is about equal to three of laudanum. The acetgted tincture of opium may often be advantageously used in cases in which laudanum or opium itself produces unpleasant effects, such as nausea and vomiting, intense headach, great nervous disorder, &c; but the introduction of the salts of morphia into use has in great measure superseded the necessity of the preparation. The dose is ten minims, or about twenty drops, equivalent to a grain of opium. PAST II. Tincturae. 1001 TINCTURA OPII AMMONIATA. Ed. Ammoniated Tinc- ture of Opium. "Take of Opium two drachms; Saffron, sliced, Benzoic Acid, each, three drachms; Oil of Aniseed half a drachm; Ammoniated Alcohol six- teen ounces. Digest for seven days, and filter through paper." Ed. This tincture is used in Scotland under tjie title of paregoric elixir; but differs both-in composition and strength ^fom the preparation known by that name in the United States. It £yy?m ployed in spasmodic com- plaints, such as whooping cough and MKima. Each fluidrachm con- tains about a grain of opium. • Wjt TINCTURA OPII CAMPHOBj|||v. U.S., Ed., Dub. Tinc- tura Camphora Composita. LonfHf^amphorated Tincture of Opium. Paregoric Elixir. ^f "Take of Opium, in powder, Bemroic Acid, Oil of Anise, each, a drachm; Liquorice [extract] half a^gpnee; Clarified Honey two ounces; Camphor-tew scruples; Diluted Alcomol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. None of the British Colleges employ liquorice or honey, and the Dub- lin alone, oil of anise. The Edinburgh College directs two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. In other respects their processes correspond with ours. v. This is the well known paregoric elixir. It is a very pleasant anodyne and antispasmodic, much used tp allay cough in chronic catarrh, asthma, consumption, pertussis, 8cc; to relieve nausea and slight pains in the stomach and bowels; and, in infantile cases, to procure sleep. Half a fluidounce contains rather less than a grain of opium. The dose for an infant is from five to twenty drops, for an adult from one to two flui- drachms. * TINCTURA- PIPERIS CUBEBA. Dub. Tincture of Cubebs. " TaHie of Cubebs four ounces; Proof Spirit two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Dub. This maybe used as a carminative, and has been applied with advan- tage to the treatment of gonorrhoea in the advanced stages. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. TINCTURA QUASSIA. U.S., Dub. Tinctura Quassia Ex- celsa. Ed. Tincture of Quassia. "Take of Quassia, rasped, an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The Edinburgh College uses two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for seven days; the Dublin College macerates for seven days; . in other respects their processes agree with ours. This tincture may be employed as an addition to tonic infusions or mixtures, in the quantity of one or two fluidrachms at a dose. It is a pure and intense bitter. TINCTURA RHEI. U.S., Lond., Ed. Tincture of Rhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, three ounces; Cardamom [seeds], bruis- ed, hay an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen clays, and filter through paper." U.S. The London College employs but two ounces of rhubaib, and adds two drachms of saffron; the Edinburgh employs two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. In other respects their pro- cesses are the same with the above. 126 1002 Tincturae. tart ii. TINCTURA RHEI COMPOSITA. Lond., Dub. Compound Tincture of Rhubarb. " Take of Rhubarb, sliced, two ounces; Liquorice Root, bruised,half an ounce; Ginger Root, sliced, Saffron, each, two drachms; Proof Spirit apint; Water twelve fluidounces. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. The Dublin College substitutes half an ounce of cardamom seeds, husk- ed and bruised, for the ginga«!employs as the menstruum two pints of proof spirit, and macerates^B|seven days. TINCTURA RHEI ETjtOES. U.S., Ed. Tincture of Rhu- barb and Aloes. Elixir SAgton. Sacred Elixir. "Take of Rhubarb, bruW^B/m drachms; Aloes, in powder, six drachms; Cardamom [seeds], t™ised, half an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteerrdays, and filter through paper." U.S. The Edinburgh College specifies Socotrine aloes, employs two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. TINCTURA RHEI ET GENTIANA. U.S., Ed. Tincture of Rhubarb and Gentian. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two ounces; Gentian, bruised, half an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The Edinburgh College employs two pounds and a half of diluted al- cohol, and digests for a week. The above tinctures of rhubarb are all in a greater or less degree purgative, stomachic, and tonic; but except in low states of the system, or in cases of individuals accustomed to the use of ardent spirits, they are too feebly cathartic in proportion to their stimulant power, to be advantageously employed, unless as adjuvants to other medicines. Com- bined with the neutral salts or other laxatives, or with tonic and sto- machic mixtures, infusions, &c., they serve to render them warmer and more cordial to the stomach, and often prove beneficial in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, the costiveness of cold inirritable habits, diarrhoea, and other analogous complaints. One of them is to be preferred to another, ac- cording as its peculiar composition may, in the judgment of the practi- tioner, appear to adapt it to the circumstances of the case under treat- ment. In low forms of fever, when the indication is to evacuate the bowels, and at the same time stimulate the patient, the simple tincture (tinctura rhei) may be very advantageously used in doses of two or three fluidrachms, repeated at proper intervals till it operates. The ordinary dose of these tinctures as purgatives is from half a fluidounce to a fluid- ounce;, as stomachics from one to two or three fluidrachms. TINCTURA RHEI ET SENNA. U.S. Tincture of Rhubarb and Senna. " Take of Rhubarb, bruised, an ounce; Senna two drachms; Coriander [seeds] bruised, Fennel-seed bruised, each, a drachm; Red Saunders, rasped, two drachms; Saffron, Liquorice [extract], each, half a drachm; Raisins, stoned, half a pound; Diluted Alcohol three pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. This is the stomachic so well known, and so much used in this country, under the name of Warner's gout cordial. It is a feeble pur- gative, usually very acceptable to the stomach, and well adapted to cases of costiveness with gastric uneasiness in persons of a gouty habit, and accustomed to the free use of wine or other stimulating drink. The dose is from half a fluidounce to two fluidounces. part n. Tincturae. \OQZ TINCTURA SANGUINARIA. U.S. Tincture of Blood-root. " Take of Blood-root, bruised,/ow ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. This will prove emetic in the dose of three or four fluidrachms; but it is rather intended to act as a stimulant to the stomach, or as an altera- tive, for which purposes it may be given in the quantity of from thirty to sixty drops. TINCTURA SAPONIS CAMPHORATA. U.S., Ed. Linimen- tum Saponis Compositum. Lond. Linimentum Saponis. Dub. Camphorated Tincture of Soap. "Take of Soap [Castile soap], in shavings, four ounces; Camphor two ounces; Oil of Rosemary half a fluidounce ; Alcohol two pints. Di- gest the Soap with the Alcohol in a water-bath till it is dissolved; then filter, and add the Camphor and Oil." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges take three ounces of hard soap, an ounce of camphor, and a pint of spirit of rosemary. The former dissolves the camphor in the spirit, then adds the soap, and macerates in a sand- bath till it is dissolved ; the latter digests the soap in the spirit till it is dissolved, and then adds the camphor. The Edinburgh process scarcely differs from that of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, half an ounce of the oil being employed instead of half a fluidounce, two pounds of alcohol in- stead of two pints, and the digestion being performed without a water- bath, and continued for three days. It is necessary, in preparing this tincture, that the soap employed should not have been made with animal oil, as otherwise a portion will be deposited as the solution cools. The soap indicated by the U.S. Phar- macopoeia is that "prepared from soda and olive oil,"commonly called Castile soap. The preparation is usually called soap liniment, a name which more properly belongs to the Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum of the Pharmacopoeia, or common opodeldoc. The camphorated tincture of soap is much used, as an anodyne and gently rubefacient embrocation, in sprains, bruises, and local rheumatic or gouty pains. Off Prep. Linimentum Saponis cum Opio. Dub. TINCTURA SAPONIS ET OPII. Ed. Linimentum Saponis cum Opio vel Linimentum -Anodynum. Dub. Tincture of Soap and Opium. "Take of Hard Soap, in shavings, four ounces; Opium an ounce; Camphor two ounces; Oil of Rosemary half an ounce; Alcohol two pounds. Digest the Soap and Opium in the Alcohol for three days ; then add to the filtered liquor the Camphor and Oil, and shake them well." .Erf. The Dublin College merely mixes four parts by measure of their lini- ment of soap (Tinctura Saponis Camphorata) with three parts of tincture of opium. This tincture is commonly known by the name of anodyne liniment, and is employed for the same purposes with the preceding, from which it differs only in containing opium. It is most conveniently prepared by extemporaneously mixing the camphorated tincture with laudanum, as directed by the Dublin College. TINCTURA SCILLA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Scilla Maritima. Ed. Tincture of Squill. " Take of Squill four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. 1004 Tincturae. PART II. The London process agrees with the above, freshly dried squill being directed. The Dublin College, using the same ingredients in the same proportions, directs that they should be macerated for seven days, then set aside, and the clear liquor decanted when the dregs have subsided. The Edinburgh College directs two ounces of the freshly dried squill and sixteen ounces (by weight) of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. This tincture possesses all the virtues of squill, and may be given for the same purposes, whenever the spirituous menstruum is not objection- able. The dose as an expectorant or diuretic is from ten to twenty minims (twenty to forty drops), and the latter quantity usually nauseates. TINCTURA SENNA. ^Lond. Tinctura Senna Composita. Dub. Tincture of Senna. ^ "Take of Senna Leaves three ounces; Caraway Seeds, bruised, three drachms; Cardamom Seeds, bruised, a drachm; Raisins, stoned, four ounces; Proof Spirit two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. The Dublin process differs from the above only in omitting the raisins, and quadrupling the quantities of the other ingredients. This tincture is the elixir salutis of the old Pharmacopoeias. It is a warm cordial purgative, useful in costiveness attended with flatulence, and in atonic gout, especially when occurring in intemperate persons. It is also added to cathartic infusions and mixtures. The dose is from two fluidrachms to a fluidounce or more. TINCTURA SENNA ET JALAPA. U.S. Tinctura Senna Composita. Ed. Tincture of Senna and Jalap. "Take of Senna three ounces; Jalap, bruised, an ounce; Coriander [seeds] bruised, Caraway [seeds] bruised, each, half an ounce; Carda- mom [seeds] bruised,two drachms; Sugar [refined]/owr ounces; Diluted Alcohol three pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of senna, an ounce of jalap, half an ounce of coriander seeds, and three pounds and a half of diluted alcohol; digests for seven days; then filters, and adds to the filtered liquor four ounces of refined sugar. This is another form of the elixir salutis, and scarcely differs from the preceding in virtues. It is given for the same purposes, and in the same doses TINCTURA SERPENTARIA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Aristolochia Serpentaria. Ed. Tincture of Virginia Snake- root. "Take of Virginia Snakeroot, bruised, three ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. . The London and Dublin Colleges give the same process with the above, the latter macerating only seven days. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of snakeroot, a drachm of powdered cochineal, and two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol; and digests for a week. This tincture possesses the tonic and cordial properties of the root, and may be advantageously added to the infusion of Peruvian bark in low states of the system. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. TINCTURA STRAMONII. U.S. Tincture of Thorn-apple. " Take of Thorn-apple Seed, bruised, four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. This tincture may be used for all the purposes for which stramonium PART II. Tincturae. 1005 is given, in the dose of from ten to twenty minims, repeated twice or thrice a day, and gradually increased till it obviously affects the system. TINCTURA TOLUTANI. U.S. Tinctura Toluifera Bal- sami. Ed. Tinctura Balsa mi Tolutani. Dub. Tincture of Tolu. "Take of Tolu [balsam] three ounces; Alcohol two pints. Macerate till the Tolu is dissolved, and then filter through paper." U.S. The Edinburgh College employs an ounce and a half of the balsam to a pound of alcohol; the Dublin College an ounce to the pint. The tincture of tolu has the properties of the balsam, and may be employed as an addition to expectorant mixtures in chronic catarrhal affections; but the proportion of alcohol is too large to allow of its ad- vantageous use in ordinary cases. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. In smaller quantities it is often employed to flavour cough mixtures. It is decomposed by water. Off. Prep. Syrupus Balsami Tolutani. Dub., Ed. TINCTURA VALERIANA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tincture of Valerian. " Take of Valerian, bruised, four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges correspond with the above, except that the latter continues the maceration only for a week. This tincture possesses the properties of valerian; but cannot be given in ordinary cases, so as to produce the full effects of> the root, without stimulating too highly in consequence of the large proportion of spirit. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms. TINCTURA VALERIANA AMMONIATA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Ammoniated Tincture of Valerian. " Take of Valerian, bruised, four ounces ; Aromatic Ammoniated Al- cohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The London process corresponds with the above. The Edinburgh College takes four ounces of powdered valerian, and two pounds and a half of ammoniated alcohol, and digests for a week. The Dublin Col- lege takes two ounces of the root, and a pint of the ammoniated spirit, and macerates for a week. The ammonia in this preparation is thought to assist the solvent powers of the alcohol, while it co-operates with the valerian in medical operation. The tincture is employed as an antispasmodic in hysteria and other nervous affections. The dose is one or two fluidrachms, and should be given in sweetened water, milk, or some mucilaginous fluid. TINCTURA VERATRI ALBI. Ed. Tincture of White Hel- lebore. "Take of White Hellebore Root, bruised, four ounces; Diluted Alco- hol sixteen ounces [by weight]. Digest for seven days, and filter through paper." Ed. This tincture has the active properties of the white hellebore. It has been given to assist the action of cathartics, to produce vomiting in maniacal and lethargic affections, and with a view to its alterative effect in cutaneous diseases. But it is a dangerous remedy, producing in overdoses violent purging and vomiting, and not easily regulated as regards the dose. It should always be given in small quantities at first, and cautiously increased till its effects are experienced. The dose to begin with is from five to ten minims. 1006 Tincturae—Trochisci. part ii. TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Tinctura Amomi Zingiberis. Ed. Tincture of Ginger. "Take of Ginger, bruised, eight ounces; Alcohol two pints. Mace- rate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The London and Dublin Colleges take two ounces of ginger and two pints of rectified spirit, and macerate, the former fourteen, the latter seven days. The Edinburgh College takes two ounces of bruised ginger, and two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, and digests for a week. The tinctures of the British Colleges are too weak with ginger to be applied advantageously to any other purpose than merely to impart flavour. We greatly prefer the process of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, which yields a preparation in which the virtues of the ginger are not completely swallowed up in the menstruum. In consequence of the mu- cilaginous matter contained in ginger, the tincture made with diluted al- cohol is apt to be turbid. Alcohol is therefore properly preferred by the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias. Good Jamaica ginger should be used. The tincture of ginger is a useful carminative, and may often be bene- ficially added to tonic and purgative infusions or mixtures, in debilitated states of the alimentary canaL It is, however, in this country, chiefly used for the preparation of syrup of ginger, for which purpose, it is necessary to employ the strong tincture of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Off. Prep. Syrupus Zingiberis. U. S. TROCHISCI. Troches. Troches or lozenges are small, dry, solid masses, usually of a flat- tened shape, consisting of powders incorporated with sugar and muci- lage. They are designed to be held in the mouth, and dissolved slowly in the saliva; and are therefore adapted for the administration of those medicines only which do not require to be given in very large quan- tities, and are destitute of any very disagreeable flavour. They are much more used, and more skilfully prepared, on the continent of Europe than in this country. Tragacanth, from the greater tenacity of its mucilage, is better suited to their formation than gum arabic, which is in most in- stances directed by the U.S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias. The fol- lowing directions for preparing them are taken from the Dictionnaire des Drogues. A mucilage of tragacanth is first prepared with cold water and strained. With this the powders, including sugar, are thoroughly mixed by rubbing upon a marble slab, and are thus formed into a paste, which is spread out by means of a roller upon the surface of the marble, previously powdered over with a mixture of sugar and starch. The thickness of the extended mass is rendered uniform by a frame upon which the ends of the roller are placed. The upper surface is now cov- ered with a thin layer of sugar and starch, and the mass is divided into small cakes of a particular shape by means of a punch. These cakes are placed upon paper, and having been exposed to the air for twelve hours, are carried into a drying room moderately heated. When per- fectly dry, they are thrown upon a sieve to separate the sugar and starch, and are then enclosed in bottles. In this way lozenges may be prepared from almost any medicine which the physician may deem it advisable to administer in that form. The following formula will serve as a guide. PART II. Trochisci. 1007 Take of citric acid, in powder, a drachm; refined sugar eight ounces; oil of lemons twelve minims; mucilage of tragacanth a sufficient quan- tity. Form them in the manner above directed into troches of twelve grains each. A species of lozenge is made by uniting the aromatic es- sential oils with sugar alone; but their preparation belongs to the con- fectioner rather than to the apothecary. The London and Dublin Phar- macopoeias have omitted troches altogether. TROCHISCI CALCIS CARBONATIS. U.S. Trochisci Car- bonatis Calcis. Ed. Troches of Carbonate of Lime. "Take of Prepared Carbonate of Lime four ounces; Gum Arabic an ounce; Nutmeg a drachm; Sugar six ounces. Rub them separately into powder; then mix them, and with water form theminto a mass, to be divided into troches, each weighing ten grains." U.S. "Powder them together, and form them with water into a mass fit for making troches." Ed. These are used as a gently astringent antacid in diarrhoea. TROCHISCI GLYCYRRHIZA ET OPII. U.S. Trochisci Glycyrrhiza cum Opio. Ed. Troches of Liquorice and Opium. " Take of Opium two drachms; Tincture of Tolu half a fluidounce; Sy- rup half apint; Liquorice [extract], softened by hot water, Gum Arabic, in powder, each, five ounces. Rub the Opium thoroughly with the Tinc- ture; then gradually add, first the Syrup and Extract, and afterwards the Gum, mixing them well together; lastly, dry the mass, and divide it into troches, each weighing ten grains." U.S. The Edinburgh College directs half an ounce (by weight) of tincture of balsam of tolu, and eight ounces (by weight) of simple syrup. In other respects, the process is the same with the above. In regard to these troches, Dr. Duncan, in his Dispensatory, states that " they are more easily prepared, and the uniform diffusion of the opium is more certainly attained, by previously drying and reducing to powder the opium and liquorice, which are to be intimately mixed with the powdered gum arabic. This is to be beat into a mass first with the tincture, and then the syrup, and if necessary a little water gradually added." A preparation equivalent to the above is much used in Phila- delphia under the name of Wistar's cough lozenges. A little oil of an- niseed or oil of caraway is usually mixed wilh the other ingredients; but this addition, though it improves the flavour, interferes, unless in very minute proportion, with the demulcent virtues of the preparation. These troches are demulcent and anodyne, and very useful in allaying cough, when the state of the case admits the employment of opium, of which each of them contains about one-seventh of a grain. TROCHISCI GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA. Ed. Troches of Liquorice. " Take of Extract of"Liquorice, Gum Arabic, each, one part; Refined Sugar two parts; Boiling Water a sufficient quantity. Dissolve and strain; then evaporate the solution, by a gentle fire, to the consistence proper for forming troches." Ed. These troches are useful in allaying cough, but are seldom employed ; having been superseded by refined liquorice, which answers the same purpose, without being so cloying to the palate. TROCHISCI GUMMOSI. Ed. Gum Troches. "Take of Gum Arabic four parts; Starch one part; Refined Sugar twelve parts. Powder them, and with Rose Water make a mass fit for the formation of troches." Ed. 1008 Trochisci.—Unguenta. PART II. These are useful in allaying the irritation of fauces which excites coughing, and may be employed at pleasure. TROCHISCI MAGNESIA. U.S. Troches of Magnesia. "Take of Magnesia/owr ounces; Gum Arabic an ounce; Nutmeg a drachm; Sugar six ounces. Prepare the Troches of Magnesia in the manner directed for those of Carbonate of-Lime." U.S. TROCHISCI CARBONATIS MAGNESIA. Ed. Troches of Carbonate of Magnesia. "Take of Carbonate of Magnesia six ounces; Refined Sugar three ounces; Nutmeg a scruple. Powder them, and with Mucilage of Traga- canth make a mass fit for the formation of troches." Ed. These and the preceding troches are useful in acidity of stomach, especially when attended with constipation. TROCHISCI NITRATIS POTASSA. Ed. Troches of Nitrate of Potassa. '' Take of Nitrate of Potassa one part; Refined Sugar three parts. Pow- der them, and with Mucilage of Tragacanth make a mass fit for form- ing troches." Ed. • These troches, held in the mouth and allowed slowly to dissolve, form a cooling application in excessive salivation; and are useful in the inci- pient stages of inflammation of the throat. For internal use, the nitre is more conveniently taken in the form of powder or solution. UNGUENTA. Ointments. These are fatty substances, softer than cerates, of a consistence resem- bling that of butter, and such that they may be readily applied to the skin by inunction. Many of them become rancid when long kept, and should, therefore, be prepared in small quantities at a time, or only when wanted for use. UNGUENTUM ACIDI NITROSI. Ed. Ointment of Nitrous Acid. "Take of Lard a pound; Nitrous Acid six drachms. Mix the Acid gradually with the melted Lard, and beat the mixture assiduously as it cools." Ed. If the mixture be kept for a short time on the fire, it becomes of a yellow colour, and emits fumes of nitrous acid. The lard is oxidized at the expense of a portion of the acid, and combines with the remain- der, assuming a firm consistence when it cools. The ointment thus prepared was originally employed by Alyon, under whose name it passes on the continent of Europe. It is useful in syphilitic ulcers, and in eruptive complaints, particularly psora ancf the different forms of porrigo; but it has been superseded by the ointment of nitrate of mer- cury, which is more efficient. . UNGUENTUM ACIDI NITRICI. Dub. Ointment of Nitric Acid. " Take of Olive Oil apound; Prepared Lard four ounces ; Nitric Acid five and a half fluidrachms. Melt the Oil and Lard together in a glass vessel, and when they begin to congeal, add the Acid, and stir the mix- ture constantly with a glass rod till it stiffens." Dub. This ointment possesses the same properties, and is used for the same purposes, with the preceding. PART II. Unguenta. 1009 UNGUENTUM ACIDI SULPHURICI. Dub. Ointment of Sulphuric Acid. " Take of Sulphuric Acid a drachm ; Prepared Lard an ounce. Mix them." Dub. In this process the acid is partly converted into sulphurous acid which escapes, and a portion of the lard is charred. The ointment is dark-co- loured and fetid. It was a favourite application with Dr. Duncan Senr. in scabies, and may be used with advantage in other eruptive affections, particularly ringworm. UNGUENTUM AQUA ROSA. U.S. Ointment of Rose Water. " Take of Rose Water, Oil of Almonds, each, two fluidounces; Sper- maceti half an ounce ; White Wax a drachm. Melt together, by means of a water-bath, the Oil, Spermaceti and Wax; then add the Rose Water, and stir the mixture constantly until it is cold." U.S. This preparation is much employed under the name of cold cream. , It is a white, very soft, and elegant unguent, deriving a grateful odour . from* the rose water, which remains incorporated with the other consti- tuents if kept enclosed in glazed vessels. It is a pleasant cooling ap- plication to irritated and excoriated surfaces; and may be used with great advantage in the chapped lips or hands so frequent in cold weather. UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDIS. U.S., Lond., Dub. Oint- ment of Spanish Flies. " Take of Spanish Flies, in powder, [very fine powder, Lond., Dub.] two ounces ; Distilled Water half apint; Resin Cerate dght ounces. Boil down the Water with the Spanish Flies to one half, and strain ; then mix the Cerate with the strained liquor, and evaporate to a proper con- sistence." U.S., Lond., Dub. By this process, the active matter of the flies is more uniformly dif- fused through the ointment, than when they are directly incorporated, in the state of powder, with the other ingredients. The preparation is thus better calculated to meet the end proposed, of maintaining the dis- charge from blistered surfaces, without producing undue irritation. It is said that the virtues of the flies are impaired by the boiling; but ex- perience has shown that considerable activity remains. It is necessary, after the strained decoction and cerate have been mixed, to stir constant- ly during the remainder of the process, in order to prevent the former from sinking to the bottom. It should be recollected, that this oint- ment is intended as a dressing for blisters, not to produce vesication. UNGUENTUM INFUSI CANTHARIDIS VESICATORIA. Ed. Ointment of Infusion of Spanish Flies. "Take of Spanish Flies, White Resin, Yellow Wax, each, one part; Lard, Venice Turpentine, each, two parts; Boiling Water four parts. Macerate the Spanish Flies in the Water for a night, and having strained the liquor with strong expression, boil it with the Lard till the Water is evaporated ; then add the Resin and Wax, and when these are melted, remove the mixture from the fire, and add the Turpentine." Ed. This ointment differs from the preceding only in containing Venice turpentine, which increases its stimulant properties. UNGUENTUM PULVERIS CANTHARIDIS VESICATO- RIA. Ed. Ceratum Cantharidis. Lond. Ointment of the Poio- der of Spanish Flies. "Take of Spanish Flies, in very fine powder, a drachm; Spermaceti Cerate dx drachms. To the Cerate softened by heat, add the Flies, and mix." Lond. 127 1010 Unguent a. part ii. " Take of Resin Ointment seven parts; Spanish Flies, in very fine powder, one part. Sprinkle the powder into the melted ointment, and stir the mixture constantly till it stiffens on cooling." Ed. This ointment, like the two preceding, is intended as a dressing for blistered surfaces, with a view to maintain the discharge. The flies should be very finely powdered, in order that they may be diffused as uniformly as possible through the mass. It is unfortunate that the term ceratum cantharidis has been conferred upon this preparation by the Lon- don College, as the same name is properly employed in the U.S. Phar- macopoeia to express the preparation of flies intended to be employed as a vesicatory. None of these ointments can be used in individuals liable to strangury from the external application of cantharides. UNGUENTUM CETACEI. Lond., Dub. Spermaceti Ointment. "Take of Spermaceti six drachms; White Wax two drachms; Olive Oil three fluidounces. Melt them together over a slow fire, and stir them constantly until cold." Lond. "Take of White Wax halfapound; Spermaceti a pound; Prepared Lard three pounds. Melt them ; and while they are concreting, stir them with a wooden spatula." Dub. This ointment is employed as a mild dressing for blisters, wounds, and excoriated surfaces. It should be made in small quantities at a time, as it is apt to become rancid when long kept. UNGUENTUM CONII. Dub. Ointment of Hemlock. " Take of fresh Hemlock Leaves, Prepared Lard, each, two pounds. Boil the Leaves in the Lard till they become crisp, and then express through linen." Dub. The narcotic principle of fresh hemlock is extracted by lard with the aid of heat. The resulting ointment may be advantageously used, as an anodyne application to irritable piles, painful glandular swellings and scirrhous tumours, and to cancerous and other painful ulcers. UNGUENTUM CUPRI ACETATIS. U.S. Unguentum Sub- Acetatis Cupri. Ed. Unguentum Cupri Subacetatis. Bub. Ointment of Acetate of Copper. "Take of Prepared Acetate of Copper, in powder, an ounce; Simple Ointment fifteen ounces. Add the Acetate of Copper to the Ointment previously melted over a gentle fire, and stir them constantly until they are cold." U.S. " Take of Resinous Ointment [resin cerate] fifteen parts; Sub-Acetate of Copper, in very fine powder, one part. Sprinkle the Sub-Acetate into the melted Ointment, and stir the mixture till it stiffens upon cooling." Ed. "Take of Prepared Subacetate of Copper half an ounce; Olive Oil an ounce; Ointment of White Resin [resin cerate] a pound. Rub the Sub- acetate with the Oil; then add them to the Ointment previously melted, and mix." Dub. This ointment is employed as a mild escharotic in fungous granula- tions, and, more or less diluted with lard, as a stimulating application to foul and flabby ulcers, scrofulous ulcerations of the edges of the eye- lids, disease of the external meatus of the ear with purulent discharge, and to certain cutaneous eruptions, particularly that form of porrigo de- nominated ringworm of the scalp. UNGUENTUM ELEMI. Dub. Ointment of Elemi. "Take of Resin of Elemi a pound; White Wax halfa pound ; Prepared t part xi. Unguenta. 1011 Lard four pounds. Make an ointment, and strain it through a sieve while hot." Dub. UNGUENTUM ELEMI COMPOSITUM. Lond. Compound Ointment of Elemi. "Take of Elemi a pound; Common Turpentine ten ounces; Prepared Suet two pounds; Olive Oil two fluidounces. Melt the Elemi with the Suet, and having removed them from the fire, immediately mix with them the Turpentine and Oil, and express through linen." Lond. This ointment is employed as a gentle stimulant to weak ulcers, and may be used for maintaining the discharge of issues and setons. It is the linimentum arcad of the older pharmacy. UNGUENTUM GALLA. U.S. Unguentum Gallarum. Dub. Ointment of Galls. "Take of Galls, in powder, [very fine powder, Dub.], an ounce; Lard seven ounces [eight ounces, Dub.]. Mix them." U.S., Dub. This is used chiefly in piles and prolapsus ani, though it may also be advantageously applied to indolent ulcers. To obviate the pain which it is liable to produce in irritable hemorrhoids, it is sometimes combined with powdered opium, in the proportion of a drachm of the powder to an ounce of ointment; but, thus modified, it requires to be used with caution. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI. U.S., Ed., Dub. Unguen- tum Hydrargyri Fortius. Lond. Mercurial Ointment. Strong Mercurial Ointment. "Take of Purified Mercury two pounds; Lard twenty-three ounces; Suet an ounce. Rub the Mercury with the Suet and a small portion of the Lard, till the globules disappear; then add the remainder of the Lard, and mix." U.S., Lond. " Take of Purified Mercury, Suet, each, one part; Lard three parts. Rub the Mercury diligently in a mortar, with a little of the Lard, until the globules entirely disappear; then add the remainder of the fats. This Ointment may also be made with double or triple the quantity of Mercury." Ed. " Take of Purified Mercury, Prepared Lard, equal weights. Rub them together in a marble or iron mortar, till the globules of mercury disap- Dear " Dub UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI MITIUS. Lond., Dub. Mild Mercurial Ointment. "Take of Strong Mercurial Ointment a pound; Prepared Lard two pounds. Mix them." Lond. ... r The Dublin College prepares this ointment with twice the quantity ot lard used in the preparation of the stronger ointment. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs only one mercurial ointment, which accords in strength with the strongest ointment of the London and Dublin Colleges, containing equal weights of mercury and fatty matter. When the physician wishes a weaker preparation, he may direct the ointment to be diluted with such a proportion of lard as may answer his nurDOses. The ointment of the Edinburgh College contains one part of mercurv and four of fat; and may also be prepared with two parts, or three Darts of the former; but even when strongest, it is not equal to our nffirfnJf ointment. The milder ointment of the London College con- uTn one p" "of mercury to five of fat, that of the Dublin Co lege one of the former to two of the latter. If the apothecary keep * milder.pre- paration in his shop, it should be that of the London College, which, 101B Unguent a. part ii. from the smaller proportion of mercury, is preferable to that of the Dub- lin College for the purposes to which the milder ointment is usually ap- plied. It should always be understood that the stronger ointment is intended by the physician, unless the contrary is expressly stated. In the preparation of the mercurial ointment, care is requisite that the mercury should be completely extinguished. The trituration is best performed in a marble mortar, as it is difficult to keep iron so clean as not to impart more or less oxide to the ointment. The mercury is known to be extinguished, when a portion of the mass, rubbed upon pa- per or the back of the hand, exhibits no metallic globules. To facilitate the process, which is very tedious, the addition of various substances has been proposed, calculated to hasten the disappearance of the metal. Turpentine and sulphur have been employed for this purpose, but are both inadmissible, the former because it renders the ointment too irri- tating, the latter because it forms with the mercury an inactive sulphu- ret.. Their presence in the ointment may be detected by the peculiar odour which they respectively emit when exposed to heat. Sulphur, moreover, gives the ointment a darker colour than it has when pure. Rancidity in the lard employed, also facilitates the extinguishment of the mercury, but is liable to the same objection as turpentine. M. Planche has proposed the oil of eggs; but M. Guibourt did not find it more effectual than fresh lard. The latter pharmaceutist recommends the addition of one-sixteenth of old mercurial ointment, which expe- rience has shown to be very useful in promoting the thorough mixture of the mercury and lard, and which is liable to no practical objection. The following plan of preparing the ointment has been proposed by M. Che- vallier. Having taken a pound of mercury and the same quantity of fresh lard, he introduces the metal with half the lard previously melted into a stone or glass bottle, shakes the mixture till it acquires the consistence of very thick syrup, then pours it into a mortar, and adds the remainder of the lard, stirring constantly. In this manner, according to Chevallier, a perfect ointment may be made in half an hour. But when prepared with lard alone, the ointment is apt, in hot weather, to become so soft as to allow the metal to separate. Hence the addition of suet in the processes of the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias; and even a larger proportion, as directed by the Edinburgh College, might be employed when the ointment is prepared for use in the summer season. Mercurial ointment has when newly prepared a bluish colour, which becomes darker by age. It was formerly thought to contain the mer- cury in the state of the protoxide; but it has been shown that most if not all of the metal can be separated from the lard by methods not calcu- lated to reduce the oxide; and chemists now generally admit that it exists in the preparation in a state of minute division, not of chemical combination. Some, however, still maintain that the metal is partially oxidized; and the darker colour which the ointment acquires by age is attributed to the further oxidizement of the mercury. Mr. Donovan considers the common mercurial ointment as consisting partly of un- combined metal and lard, and partly of a chemical compound of the protoxide and lard; and to the latter portion alone he attributes its medicinal activity. A mixture of lard and the black oxide has not the same effect, because there is no chemical union between the ingredients? and this union, in his opinion, is necessary to the absorption of the mercurial. Upon exposing such a mixture to a temperature of 350° F. and continually agitating it for two hours, he found that every ounce of lard dissolved and combined with twenty-one grains of oxide; and the part n. Unguenta. 1013 resulting compound was found to be equally effectual with the common ointment, and capable of being introduced into the system in one third of the time. (Paris's Pharmacologia). It has been proposed to substitute an ointment thus prepared for that made according to the officinal di- rections, as being more manageable, and of more uniform strength. In its preparation, care is requisite not to employ too high nor too low a temperature; as the former decomposes the oxide, and the latter is in- sufficient to effect its union with the lard. Mercurial ointment, when rubbed upon the surface of the body, pro- duces, in consequence of its absorption, the same general effects upon the system as the other preparations of the metal. It is resorted to either alone, when circumstances prevent or discourage the internal use of mercury, or conjointly with its internal use to produce a more speedy or powerful effect in urgent cases. It may also be advantageously em- ployed as a resolvent in local affections, as in the case of venereal bu- boes, and of chronic glandular swellings, upon which it may be made to operate directly by being applied in the course of the absorbents which pass through the enlarged glands. The proper quantity to be employ- ed at one time, with a view to salivation, is about a drachm, which should be applied night and morning, by means of friction, to the inner surface of the thighs, legs, or arms, and continued till the system is affected. In urgent cases, or in local affections, it may also be rubbed on other parts of trie body, or applied to blistered surfaces. The friction should on each occasion be continued till the whole of the ointment is absorb- ed. When frequently rubbed upon the same part, it is apt to produce a disagreeable eruption, which interferes with its continued application. Camphor is sometimes added in order to render it more easy of ab- sorption ; but, without producing this effect, it increases the liability of the ointment to irritate the skin, and is of no other advantage than to soften its consistence, when too firm from a large proportion of suet. The weaker ointment is employed only as an application to ulcers, and to certain cutaneous eruptions. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATI. U.S. Un- guentum Hydrargyri Prjecipitati Albi. Lond. Unguentum Hydrargyri Submuriatis Ammoniati. Dub. Ointment of Am- moniated Mercury. "Take of Ammoniated Mercury an ounce; Simple Ointment dght ounces. Add the Ammoniated Mercury to the Ointment previously softened over a gentle fire, and mix them." U. S. The London and Dublin Colleges employ a drachm of the ammoniated mercury, and an ounce and a half of lard, and proceed as above. This ointment is employed chiefly in cutaneous eruptions, such as psora, porrigo, and herpes. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS. US, Lond. Un- guentum Nitratis Hydrargyri Fortius. Ed. Unguentum Hy- drargyri Nitratis vel Unguentum Citrinum. Dub. Ointment of Nitrate of Mercury. Citrine Ointment. "Take of Purified Mercury an ounce; Nitric Acid eleven fluidrachms; fresh Neats-foot Oil nine fluidounces; Lard three ounces. Dissolve the Mercury in the Acid; then melt the Oil and Lard together, and when they begin to stiffen [upon cooling], add the solution, and mix them." U S "Take of Purified Mercury an ounce; Nitric Acid eleven fluidrachms ; Prepared Lard dx ounces; Olive Oil fourfluidounces. First dissolve the 1014 Unguenta. part ii. Mercury in the Acid; then, while the solution is hot, mix it with the Lard and Oil previously melted together." Lond. "Take of Purified Mercury one part; Nitrous Acid two parts ; Olive Oil nine parts; Lard three parts. Dissolve the Mercury in the Acid ; then beat up the solution strongly with the Lard and Oil when nearly stiff after having been melted together." Ed. u Take of Purified Mercury an ounce; Nitric Acid eleven drachms and a half; Olive Oil a pint; Prepared Lard four ounces. Dissolve the Mercury in the Acid, then mix the solution with the Oil and Lard pre- viously melted together, and form an ointment, in the manner directed for the Ointment of Nitric Acid." Dub. This ointment should be prepared in a glass, porcelain, or well glazed earthenware vessel. Dr. A: T. Thomson says that "the addition of the metallic solution to the melted mixture of lard and oil should be gradual, and made in abroad flat vessel; while the stirring should be performed by a wooden spatula, and continued till the ointment be per- fectly cool." When recently prepared, the ointment has a beautiful yellow colour and a soft consistence, which, however, it is apt to lose by time, ac- quiring a dirty greenish hue, and becoming so hard and friable as to be unfit for application unless mixed with lard. This change has been at- tributed by some to the use of too large a proportion of lard, which, they say, is oxidized and hardened by the excess of acid. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, the ointment, when prepared with only one- sixth of its weight of lard, retains its colour and consistence, if pre- served in close pots, while with a larger proportion "it becomes hard, brittle, and of a pale dirty yellow hue, marbled with green blotches." This, however, is a mistake. It is the olive oil which is hardened by the supernitrate of mercury, and the ointment is firmer when made with that oil alone than with a proportion of lard. Hence, in the last edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia,neats-foot oil has been substituted for that of the olive, and with decided advantage. We have had in our possession upwards of four months, a pot of ointment made according to the process of the Pharmacopceia, and, though it has partially assum- ed a greenish colour, it preserves a uniform, soft, unctuous consistence It was prepared with nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1.335.* Under the impression that the deterioration of the ointment is owing to the oxidizement of the oleaginous ingredients by the excess of nitric acid, it has been recommended to prepare it with a diminished quantity of acid, and at as low a temperature as possible. But this plan has not been found to answer the end in view. The following formula, which, Dr. Duncan informs us, yields the most perfect citrine ointment which he had seen, preserving a fine golden colour, and the requisite softuess, is in direct opposition to formerly received notions. It was originally employed by Mr. Duncan of Edinburgh. " Take of nitrous acid twelve ounces, mercury four ounces, olive oil twenty-six and a half ounces, lard fifteen ounces; dissolve the mercury in the acid, and pour the solutiou while still hot into the lard melted in the oil, and also still hot, and mix in a vessel capable of containing five times the quantity, as a violent effervescence takes place. If it should not froth up, the action must be assisted by heat." In relation to this process, we quote the following observations from the Edinburgh Dispensatory. " The differences be- • See " Remarks on the preparation of Citrine Ointment, by W. R. Fisher," in the Journ. of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, i. 171. PART II. Unguenta. - 1015 tween this and the officinal formulae are the much larger proportion of acid employed, and the higher temperature applied at the time of the mixture of the mercurial solution with the oily substances. The vio- lent effervescence probably arises from a disengagement of nitric oxide, and it would appear that the rapid oxygenizement did not harden the oily substances so much as a slower change, and that a higher oxygen- izement of the nitrate of mercury prevented its decomposition and gra- dual conversion into the state of protoxide, on which the slate colour of the officinal ointment, when long kept, probably depends. Mr. Dun- can now prepares it entirely with lard, and it preserves equally the de- sired colour and consistence." Medical Uses.—This ointment is much and very advantageously em- ployed, as a stimulant and alterative application, in various forms of porrigo, as tinea capitis and crusta lactea, in psoriasis and ptyriasis, in certain forms of herpes, in psoropthalmia and inflammation of the eye and eyelids connected with porrigo of the face or scalp, and in various other ulcerative and eruptive affections. It should be diluted with lard, unless in cases which require a very stimulant application. Some care is requisite in its use, to avoid the risk of salivation. When hard and friable, it must be rubbed up with fresh lard before it can be applied. UNGUENTUM NITRATIS HYDRARGYRI MITIUS. Ed. Milder Ointment of Nitrate of Mercury. " This is prepared in the same manner as the stronger ointment, with three times the quantity of Oil and Lard." Ed. This is a useless preparation, as it can answer no other purpose than a mixture of the stronger ointment with lard. UNGUENTUM OXIDI HYDRARGYRI CINEREI. Ed. Oint- ment of Gray Oxide of Mercury. " Take of Gray Oxide of Mercury one part; Lard three parts. Mix them thoroughly." Ed. This was intended to supply the place of the mercurial ointment, as a means of introducing mercury into the system by friction ; but it has not stood the test of experience, and is therefore little employed. It is said that the oxide of mercury is not absorbed with the lard. Dr. Paris conjectures, upon the foundation of Mr. Donovan's experiments, (see Unguentum Hydrargyri,) that if subjected for some hours to a heat of 800°, it would become active, in consequence of the occurrence of a chemical union between the ingredients, which would enable the mer- curial to be taken up by the absorbents. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI OXIDI RUBRI. U.S. Un- guentum Hydrargyri Nitrico-Oxydi. Lond, Unguentum Oxidi Hydrargyri Rubri. Ed. Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Nitrici. Dub. Ointment of Red Oxide of Mercury. " Take o£Red Oxide of Mercury, in very fine powder, an ounce; Sim- ple Ointment dght ounces. Add the Oxide of Mercury to the Ointment previously softened over a gentle fire, and mix them." U.S. " Take of Nitric Oxide of Mercury an ounce; White Wax two ounces; Prepared Lard six ounces. To the Wax and Lard, melted together, add the Nitric Oxide of Mercury, in very fine powder, and mix." Lond., Dub. . . " Take of Red Oxide of Mercury by Nitric Acid, in very fine pow- der, one part; Lard dght parts. Mix them thoroughly. Ed. The U.S. Pharmacopoeia contemplates the same red oxide of mer- 1016 Unguenta. part ii. cury as the British Colleges, that, namely, prepared from the nitrate, and usually called red precipitate. This ointment loses its fine red colour when long kept, probably in consequence of the conversion of the red oxide into the black. It is best to prepare it only in small quantities at a time. It is a highly use- ful stimulating ointment, much employed in indolent and foul ulcers, in porrigo of the scalp, and in chronic conjunctival ophthalmia, espe- cially when attended with thickening of the inner membrane of the eye- lids, or with specks upon the cornea. It may be diluted with lard if found too stimulating. UNGUENTUM IODINII. Dub. Ointment of Iodine. " Take of Iodine a scruple; Prepared Lard an ounce. Rub them to- gether so as to form an ointment." Dub. This ointment, when rubbed upon the skin, imparts to it an orange colour, which, however, slowly disappears with the evaporation of the iodine. It is useful as a local application in goitre and scrofulous swell- ings of the glands, operating probably through the medium of absorp- tion. When continued for some time, it occasionally produces a pustular eruption upon the portion of skin to which it is applied. UNGUENTUM PICIS NIGRA. Lond. Ointment of Pitch. " Take of Pitch, Yellow Wax, Yellow Resin, each, nine ounces; Olive Oil apint. Melt them together, and strain through linen." Lond. This is a stimulant ointment, applicable to the same purposes with the following. UNGUENTUM PICIS LIQUIDA. U.S., Lond, Ed, Dub. Tar Ointment. "Take of Tar, Suet, each, a pound. Add the Tar to the Suet pre- viously melted over a gentle fire, and stir them constantly till they are cold." c7.& The London and Dublin Colleges melt together equal parts of the tar and suet, and strain the mixture, the former through linen, the latter through a sieve. The Edinburgh College takes five parts of tar and two parts of yellow wax, and having melted the wax with a gentle heat, adds the pitch, and stirs constantly till the mixture stiffens. Tar ointment is highly useful as a stimulant application in various scabby eruptions, particularly in that form of porrigo usually called ti- nea capitis or scald head. It should be applied night and morning; and in bad cases the patient should constantly wear a cap thickly spread with the ointment upon its internal surface. UNGUENTUM PIPERIS NIGRI. Bub. Ointment of Black Pepper. " Take of Prepared Lard a pound; Black Pepper, in powder, four ounces. Make an ointment." Dub. This is highly irritating, and has been used as a remedy in tinea ca- pitis, but is not now employed. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI ACETATIS. Dub. Ceratum Plum- bi Acetatis. Lond. Unguentum Acetatis Plumbi. Ed. Oint- ment of Acetate of Lead. " Take of Simple Ointment twenty parts; Acetate of Lead, in very fine powder, one part. Mix them thoroughly. Ed. The Dublin College mixes an ounce of acetate of lead with a pound and a half of ointment of white wax. The London College melts two ounces of wax in seven fluidounces of olive oil; then adds two drachms part ii. Unguenta. 1017 of acetate of lead previously rubbed with a fluidounce of oil; and stirs with a wooden spatula till they are mixed. This is an excellent ointment in burns, and in other excoriated or ulcerated surfaces, particularly blisters in an inflamed state. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS. U.S., Dub. Un- guentum Carbonatis Plumbi. Ed. Ointment of Carbonate of Lead. " Take of Carbonate of Lead, in very fine powder, two ounces; Sim- ple Ointment a pound. Add the Carbonate of Lead to the Ointment previously softened over a gentle fire, and mix them." U.S. The Edinburgh College prepares this ointment by mixing thoroughly one part of carbonate of lead with five parts of simple ointment. The Dublin College employs the same proportions with the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia. This ointment is used for the same purposes as the preceding. UNGUENTUM POTASSA HYDRIODATIS. Dub. Ointment of Hydriodate of Potassa. "Take of Hydriodate of Potassa [Iodide of Potassium] a scruple; Prepared Lard an ounce. Rub them together so as to form an oint- ment." Dub. This is employed for the discussion of goitres, scrofulous tumours, and other indolent swellings; and is usually preferred to the ointment of iodine, as it does not like that discolour the skin. It is probably, how- ever, of inferior virtue; and certainly contains too small a proportion of the iodide. One drachm to the ounce of lard would not be too much, and may sometimes be exceeded. UNGUENTUM SAMBUCI. Lond., Dub. Elder Ointment. "Take of Elder Flowers, Prepared Lard, each, two pounds. Boil the Elder Flowers in the Lard till they become crisp, then express through linen." Lond. "Take of fresh Elder Flowers three pounds; Prepared Lard four pounds; Prepared Mutton Suet two pounds. Boil the Flowers in the Lard till they become crisp; then strain with expression; lastly, add the Suet, and melt them together." Dub. Elder flowers impart odour to lard without adding to its virtues. UNGUENTUM SCROPHULARIA. Dub. Ointment of Fig- wort. "Take of fresh Figwort Leaves, Prepared Lard, each, two pounds; Prepared Mutton Suet a pound. Boil the Leaves in the fat till they be- come crisp, then strain with expression." Dub. For the properties of this ointment, see Scrophularia Nodosa. UNGUENTUM SIMPLEX. U.S., Ed. Unguentum Cerjs Albas. Unguentum Ceras Flavad. Dub. Simple Ointment. "Take of White Wax a pound; Lard four pounds. Melt them to- gether with a gentle heat, and stir them constantly till they are cold." U.S. The Edinburgh College orders five parts of olive oil and two parts of white wax. The Dublin College makes two preparations, one with white, the other with purified yellow wax, in each case mixing the wax with lard in the same proportion as directed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. This is a useful emollient ointment, occasionally employed as a mild dressing to blistered or excoriated surfaces, but more frequently as a vehicle for the application of more active substances. It is the basis of several officinal ointments. 128 1018 Unguenta. part ii. UNGUENTUM STRAMONII. U.S. Ointment of Thorn- apple. "Take of fresh Thorn-apple Leaves, cut in pieces, a pound; Lard three pounds; Yellow Wax half a pound. Boil the Thorn-apple Leaves in the Lard, till they become friable; then strain through linen; lastly, add the Wax previously melted, and stir them till they are cold." U.S. Fresh narcotic vegetables yield their active principles and chlorophylle or green colouring matter to oleaginous substances, when heated with them; and several officinal ointments besides the present are prepared in this manner. In the pharmacy of the continent of Europe, olive oil is frequently employed as the solvent; and the resulting preparations are called olea infusa, Several of these are ordered by the Paris Codex, as the oils of henbane, thorn-apple, tobacco, Sec. Lard is preferred in British and American Pharmacy, as affording preparations of a more convenient consistence. The boiling takes place at a lower temperature than that necessary for the evaporation of the lard or oil, and is owing to the escape of the watery parts of the plants. It should be continued till all the water is driven off, as this, if allowed to remain, will render the ointment more liable to spontaneous decomposition; and, besides, the colouring matter of the narcotic is not freely extracted till after the dissipation of the water. The ointment of stramonium is a useful anodyne application in irrita- ble ulcers, in painful hemorrhoids, and in some cutaneous eruptions. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS. U.S., Lond., Ed.,Dub. Sulphur Ointment. " Take of Sulphur a pound ; Lard four pounds. Mix them." U.S. The London College employs three ounces of sublimed sulphur and half a pound of lard; the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, the same pro- portion as directed in the U.S. Pharmacopceia. Sulphur ointment is a specific for the itch. It should be applied every night till the complaint is cured; and it is recommended that only one- fourth of the body should be covered at a time. Four applications are usually sufficient to effect a cure. It is thought by some that powdered roll sulphur is more efficacious than the sublimed. The disagreeable odour of the ointment may be in some measure concealed by a little oil of lemons. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS COMPOSITUM. U.S., Lond. Compound Sulphur Ointment. "Take of Sulphur an ounce; Ammoniated Mercury, Benzoic Acid, each, a drachm; Oil of Lemons, Sulphuric Acid, each, a fluidrachm; Nitrate of Potassa two drachms; Lard half a pound. To the Lard pre- viously melted over a gentle fire add the other ingredients, and stir them constantly till they are cold." U.S. This ointment is essentially different from that which is directed, under the same name, by the London College. Though, perhaps, not more efficient than the simple sulphur ointment in the cure of itch, it has a less unpleasant smell, and may be advantageously applied to the cure of other eruptive affections, such as tinea capitis and crusta lactea. "Take of Sublimed Sulphur half a pound ; White Hellebore Root, in powder, two ounces; Nitrate of Potassa a drachm; Soft Soap half a pound; Prepared Lard a pound and a half. Mix them." Lond. This is thought to be more efficacious than the simple sulphur oint- ment ; but the white hellebore renders it also more irritating. PART II. Unguenta. 1019 UNGUENTUM TABACI. U.S. Tobacco Ointment. "Take of fresh Tobacco, cut in pieces, an ounce; Lard a pound. Boil the Tobacco in the Lard over'a gentle fire till it becomes friable; then strain through linen." U.S. In the former edition of the U.S. Pharmacopceia, this ointment, un- der the name of " Tobacco Liniment," was directed to be prepared with common dried tobacco; but in this condition the leaves do not yield their virtues to lard. The error was corrected in the last edition. Though the tobacco plant is not an object of general culture in the northern states, it may readily be produced in gardens, in quantities sufficient to supply any demand for the fresh leaves which can possibly arise. The remarks made under the head of Unguentum Stramonii, in relation to the preparation of ointments from the fresh narcotics, are applicable in this instance. Tobacco ointment is useful in irritable ulcers, and various cutaneous eruptions, particularly tinea capitis; but great care must be taken, espe- cially in infants, not to employ it in such quantities as to endanger the production of the constitutional effects of tobacco. UNGUENTUM TARTARI EMETICI. Dub. Tartar Emetic " Take of Tartrate of Potassa and Antimony a drachm; Prepared Lard an ounce. Rub the Salt into a very fine powder; then mix it with the Lard." Dub. This may be more conveniently prepared with simple ointment, as lard is too soft to be spread on linen, and simple ointment is sufficiently so to be applied by inunction. . The peculiar eruptive effect of tartar emetic may be procured m various ways, either by means of a strong solution, or of the powder sprinkled upon the surface of some adhesive plaster, or ol the oint- ment as above directed. The last method is, perhaps, the most con- venient, and most generally resorted to. The proportion ol tartar emetic may sometimes be advantageously increased to two or even three drachms, when a speedy effect is required, or the skin is not very sus- ceptible to its action. A small portion of the ointment may be rubbed twice a day, or more frequently, upon the surface to be affected, or it may be applied spread upon a piece of linen. Care should be taken that the cuticle be entire, and that the application be not too long continued, as otherwise very severe inflammation, and even gangrenous ulceration, may result. We have, however, in some instances of great urgency, applied the ointment to a surface recently scarified in the operation of cupping; but, under such circumstances, it should be used with much caution. UNGUENTUM VERATRI ALBI. U.S. Unguentum Veratri. Lond., Dub. Ointment of White Hellebore. "Take of white Hellebore [root], in powder, two ounces; Oil ol Lemons twenty minims ; Lard eight ounces. Mix them- U. S., l^ona. The Dublin College employs the same proportion of white hellebore and lard, but omits the oil of lemons. . . . This ointment is sometimes employed with advantage m the itch, it is less disagreeable, but also less certain than the sulphur ointment. UNGUENTUM VERATRI VIRIDIS. U.S. Ointment of Ame- ""Tak? of American Hellebore [root], in powder, twoounces; Oil of Lemons twenty minims ; Lard eight ounces. Mix them. U. a. 1020 Unguenta. — Vina Medicata. PART II. This may be employed for the same purpose as the ointment of white hellebore. UNGUENTUM ZINCI OXIDI. U.S. Unguentum Zinci. Lond. Unguentum Oxidi Zinci. Ed. Unguentum Zinci Oxydi. Dub. Ointment of Oxide of Zinc. "Take of Oxide of Zinc an ounce; Lard half a pound. Mix them." U.S., Lond. The Edinburgh College employs six parts of simple liniment, and one of prepared oxide of zinc; the Dublin, one pound of ointment of white wax (simple ointment), and two ounces of the prepared oxide. In the latter case the ointment is melted before the addition of the oxide. The oxide of zinc directed in the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias, is that obtained by precipitation, and being in the state of a fine powder, requires no previous preparation. That employed by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, being procured by the combustion of the metal, requires to be levigated before it can be used for the formation of the ointment. This preparation is employed as a mild astringent application in« chronic ophthalmia with a relaxed state of the vessels, in various cu- taneous eruptions, and in sore nipples and other instances of excoria- tion or ulceration. UNGUENTUM OXIDI ZINCI IMPURI. Ed. Ointment of Impure Oxide of Zinc. "Take of Simple Liniment five parts; Prepared Impure Oxide of Zinc one part. Mix them thoroughly." Ed. This is the old unguentum tulise, or tutty ointment. It has been su- perseded in most of the Pharmacopoeias by the last mentioned oint- ment, which is of a white instead of a gray colour, and is altogether a neater preparation. It is still, however, occasionally used in excoria- tions. VINA MEDICATA. Medicated Wines. The advantages of wine as a pharmaceutic menstruum are, that, in consequence of the alcohol it contains, it dissolves substances insoluble in water, and, to a certain extent, resists their tendency to spontaneous change, while, at the same time, it is less stimulant than rectified or proof spirit, both from its smaller proportion of alcohol, and from the modified state in which this fluid exists in its composition. The acid which it usually contains, serves in some instances to increase its sol- vent power. But most wines, particularly the lighter varieties, are liable to undergo decomposition; and even the strongest acquire such a liability, from the principles which they extract from vegetable sub- stances ; so that medicated wines, though they keep much better than infusions or decoctions, are inferior in this respect to the tinctures. The proportion of alcohol, moreover, is not constant; and the prepara- tions, therefore, made with them, are of unequal strength. From these causes, few medicated wines are at present retained. Indeed the London College has altogether discarded wine as a menstruum, and substituted in its place a mixture of water and proof spirit; still, however, retaining the title vina or wines for the preparations. We can see no advantage in this menstruum over wine of good quality, as, though of itself insus- *ART «• Vina Medicata. 1021 ceptible of change, the substances which it dissolves serve as a ferment, and promote its decomposition. In the choice of wine, the purest and most generous should be selected. Teneriffe, as directed by the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, Sherry, or Madeira, should be preferred. The medicat- ed wines, in consequence of their liability to change, should be prepar- ed in small quantities, without heat, and should be kept in well stopped bottles in a cool place. VINUM ALOES. U.S., Lond., Dub. Vinum Aloes Socoto- rinje. Ed. Wine of Aloes. " Take of Aloes, in powder, an ounce; Cardamom [seeds], bruised, Ginger, bruised, each, a drachm; Wine [Teneriffe] apint. Macerate for fourteen days, with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U. S. The Edinburgh process differs from the above only in using two pounds of Sherry wine instead of a pint of Teneriffe, and digesting for one week instead of macerating for two. "Take of Extract of the' Aloe spicata eight ounces; Canella Bark two ounces; Proof Spirit, Distilled Water, each, four pints. Rub the Aloes into powder with clean white sand; rub the Canella Bark also into powder; and upon these, mixed together, pour the Spirit and Water. Macerate for fourteen days, occasionally stirring, and filter." Lond. The Dublin College employs a menstruum consisting of three measures of Spanish white wine (Sherry), and one of proof spirit. In other re- spects its formula corresponds with that of the London College, one- half the quantity only being made, and the aloes being powdered with- out sand. The sand directed by the London College, assists in the pulverization of the aloes, and is said to prevent it from running together into masses when moistened by the fluid. The wine of aloes is a warm stomachic purgative, useful in constipa- tion dependent on a want of due irritability of the alimentary canal, and in complaints connected with this state of the bowels. It has long been used in chlorosis, amenorrhoea, dyspepsia, gout, paralysis, &c. It is said to leave behind it a more lax condition of the bowels than most other cathartics. The dose as a stomachic is one or two fluidrachms, as a purgative from half a fluidounce to two fluidounces. VINUM COLCHICI RADICIS. U.S. Vinum Colchici. Lond. Wine of Meadow-saffron Root. "Take of Meadow-saffron Root, bruised, half a pound; Wine apint. Macerate for fourteen days, with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S. " Take of fresh Meadow-saffron Root, sliced, a pound; Proof Spirit four fluidounces; Distilled Water eight fluidounces. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. This is intended to be a saturated vinous tincture of colchicum. The dried bulb is necessarily employed in this country, as the fresh is not kept in the shops. As the colchicum imported into the United States is of variable strength, the only method by which an active preparation can be ensured, is to employ a large quantity of the bulb in proportion to that of the menstruum. If the former should happen to be in excess, no other injury could result than a slight pecuniary loss, while a defi- ciency in the strength of the preparation would frequently be of serious detriment in urgent cases of disease. We have never been disappointed in obtaining the effects of colchicum from the wine which we knew to 1022 Vina Medicata. PART II. have been prepared according to the direction of the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia, while that which has been made with a smaller quantity of the bulb has often failed in our hands. The dose is from fifteen minims to a fluidrachm, to be repeated three or four times a day, or more frequently in severe cases, till its effects are experienced. In gout it is frequently given in connexion with magnesia; and in neuralgic cases we have found much advantage from combining it with the solution of sulphate of morphia, especially when we have desired to give it a direction rather to the skin than to the bowels. VINUM COLCHICI SEMINIS. U.S. Wine of Meadow-saffron Seed. "Take of Meadow-saffron Seed, bruised, an ounce; Wine [Teneriffe] a pint. Macerate for fourteen days, with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S. As the seeds of colchicum are less liable to injury than the bulb, and are therefore of more uniform strength, there is not the same necessity for preparing a saturated tincture. The proportion of the seeds in the above process is the same as that recommended by Dr. A. T. Thom- son in his Dispensatory. It would, perhaps, have been better, had two ounces been employed instead of one, so that the wine might have cor- responded in strength with the officinal tinctures of the British Colleges in which the seeds are employed. (See Tinctura Seminum Colchid, Dub., and Spiritus Colchici Ammoniatus, Lond.) Dr. Williams, who in- troduced the seeds into use, recommends that they should not be bruis- ed, as their virtues reside in their outer coat. The dose of this wine is one or two fluidrachms. VINUM GENTIANA COMPOSITUM. U.S.,Ed. Compound Wine of Gentian. " Take of Gentian, bruised, half an ounce; Peruvian Bark, in powder, an ounce; Orange Peel, bruised, two drachms; Canella, bruised, a drachm; Diluted Alcohol four fluidounces; Wine [Teneriffe] two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S. The Edinburgh CoUege takes the quantities above mentioned of gen- tian, Peruvian bark, Seville orange peel, and canella; pours upon them, previously sliced and bruised, four ounces of diluted alcohol; then, af- ter twenty-four hours, adds two pounds and a half of Sherry wine; and macerates for seven days. This is a stomachic bitter, sometimes employed to promote appetite and invigorate digestion. It is apt, however, to become sour when kept. The dose is from four to eight fluidrachms. VINUM IPECACUANHA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Wine of Ipecacuanha. "Take of Ipecacuanha, bruised, an ounce; Wine [Teneriffe] a pint. Macerate for fourteen days, with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S. The London College takes two ounces of the bruised root, twelve fluid- ounces of proof spirit, and twenty fluidounces of distilled water; the Dublin College, two ounces of the bruised root, and two pints of Sherry wine; both macerate, for two weeks. The Edinburgh College employs one part of the root and fifteen parts of Sherry wine, and macerates for a week. The preparations of the different Pharmacopoeias are of the same strength. Wine of ipecacuanha possesses all the virtues of the root, PART II. Vina Medicata. 1023 and may be used as a substitute when it is desirable to administer the medicine in a liquid form. As it is milder, without being less efficacious than antimonial wine, it is in some instances preferable as an emetic in infantile cases, especially when the antimonial, as not unfrequently hap- pens, is disposed to produce griping and irritation of the bowels. Un- der the same circumstances it may be used as an expectorant and dia- phoretic, and the effects of the Dover's powder may be obtained by combining it with laudanum or other liquid preparation of opium. The dose as an emetic, for an adult, is a fluidounce; as an expectorant and di- aphoretic, from ten to thirty minims. A fluidrachm maybe given as an emetic to a child one or two years old, and repeated every fifteen minutes till it operates. VINUM OPII. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Wine of Opium. Sy- denham's Laudanum. "Take of Opium two ounces; Cinnamon bruised, Cloves bruised, each, adrachm; Wine [Teneriffe] a pint. Macerate for fourteen days, with oc- casional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S. The London College takes an ounce of extract of opium, a drachm of bruised cinnamon, a drachm of bruised cloves, six fluidounces of proof spirit, and ten fluidounces of distilled water; and macerates for eight days. The Edinburgh College, to the same quantity of extract of opium, cinnamon, and cloves, adds sixteen ounces of Sherry wine, and mace- rates for a week. The Dublin College takes an ounce of Turkey opium, a drachm of cinnamon, a drachm of cloves, and a pint of Sherry wine, and macerates for eight days. The wine made according to the directions of the U.S. Pharmaco- poeia is a stronger preparation than that of the British Colleges, being a saturated vinous tincture of opium. It contains about the same pro- portions of the ingredients as the laudanum of Sydenham, from which it differs only in wanting a drachm of saffron. .The spices which it con- tains, are thought to adapt it to certain states of the stomach or system, in which the simple tincture of opium is found to produce unpleasant ef- fects; but the same end maybe obtained by an extemporaneous addition of some aromatic oil to the latter. Mr. Ware recommends it as a local application to the eye, in the latter stages of ophthalmia, when the vessels of the conjunctiva still remain turgid with blood. Two or three drops are introduced into the eye every morning till the redness disappears. The dose of the wine of opium is the same with that of the tincture. VINUM RHEI. U.S., Ed. Wine of Rhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two ounces; Canella, bruised, a drachm; Diluted Alcohol two fluidounces [two ounces, Ed.]; Wine a pint, [Sherry Wine fifteen ounces, Ed.]. Macerate for fourteen days [seven days, Ed.], with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S., Ed. This is a warm cordial laxative, applicable to debilitated conditions of the system or alimentary canal requiring evacuation of the bowels. The dose is from two to eight fluidrachms or more, according to the amount of effect required, and the condition of the patient. VINUM TABACI. U.S. Vinum Nicotians Tabaci. .Erf. Wine of Tobacco. " Take of Tobacco, cut in pieces, an ounce; Wine [Teneriffe] apint. Macerate for fourteen days, with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S. The Edinburgh College takes one part of dried tobacco leaves, and twelve parts of Sherry wine, and macerates for seven days. 1024 'Vina Medicata.—Zincum. part ii. The dose of the wine of tobacco as a diuretic, is from ten to thirty minims. It is verv seldom used. VINUM VERATRI ALBI. U.S. Vinum Veratri. Lond. Wine of White Hellebore. " Take of White Hellebore [root], bruised,/cwr ounces ; Wine [Tene- riffe] a pint. Macerate for fourteen days with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." U.S. The London College takes eight ounces of the sliced root, a pint of proof spirit, and a pint and a half of distilled water, and macerates for fourteen days. It is supposed that the wine of white hellebore, in consequence of the veratria which it contains, would act in the same manner with colchi- cum in the cure of gout and rheumatism ; but it is uncertain and occa- sionally violent in its operation, and is very little used; The dose is ten minims two or three times a day, to be gradually increased till the pe- culiar effects of the medicine are experienced. ZINCUM. Preparations of Zinc. ZINCI ACETAS. U.S. Acetate of Zinc. " Take of Sulphate of Zinc six ounces; Acetate of Lead dght ounces; Distilled Water a gallon. Dissolve the Sulphate of Zinc and Acetate of Lead severally in four pints of the Distilled Water; then mix the solu- tions, and filter through paper; lastly, evaporate the filtered liquor, so that upon cooling it may crystallize." U.S. Upon mingling the solutions of sulphate of zinc and acetate of lead together, a double decomposition takes place, resulting in the forma- tion of acetate of zinc which remains in solution, and sulphate of lead which precipitates. This latter is removed by filtration, and the clear liquor, by due evaporation, furnishes crystals of acetate of zinc. The proper quantities for mutual decomposition are 145 parts of the sulphate to 190 of the acetate, or one equiv. of each salt in the crystallized state. This ratio corresponds very nearly with that of the Pharmacopceia, which directs only a slight excess of the acetate. A better method, according to Dr. Turner, for preparing this salt, is to suspend a piece of zinc in a dilute solution of acetate of lead for a sufficient length of time. The zinc takes the place of the lead, acetate of zinc is formed, and the lead is precipitated on the surface of the zinc in an arborescent form, called arbor Saturni, or lead tree. The precipi- tation of lead is known to be complete, when sulphuretted hydrogen pro- duces in the solution a pure white precipitate. By this process the ace- tate of zinc is obtained quite pure. Properties, 8fc.—Acetate of zinc is in the form of white silky crystals, having the shape of hexagonal plates. It is very soluble in water, and slightly efflorescent in dry air. When heated before the blow-pipe on charcoal, it burns in the same manner with zinc. It is decomposed at a high temperature, and yields when distilled a considerable quantity of pyro-acetic spirit. It consists of one equiv. of acetic acid 51, one of oxide of zinc 42, and seven of water 63 = 156. Medical Properties and Uses.—Acetate of zinc is used as an external remedy only, for the most part as an astringent collyrium in ophthalmia, and injection in gonorrhoea, after the acute stage in these affections has PART II. Zincum. 1025 passed over. It is officinal, in the crystallized state, only in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges ordering it, the former in aqueous solution, the latter in tincture. (See the two following articles.) It is, however, an improvement, to have the salt officinal in the solid form; as this state permits of its being prescribed in any desired proportion in solution, according to the nature of the case to which it is to be applied. The average strength of the solution usually employed, is a grain of the salt to a fluidounce of distilled water. SOLUTIO ACETATIS ZINCI. Ed. Solution of Acetate of Zinc. " Take of Sulphate of Zinc a drachm; Acetate of Lead four scruples', Distilled Water twenty ounces [by weight]. Dissolve the salts separately, each in ten ounces of the Water. Mix the solutions, and after the pre- cipitate has subsided, filter the liquor." Ed. In this formula, precisely the same changes take place as in the last; but the acetate of zinc, instead of being obtained in a solid state by eva- poration, is allowed to remain in solution. The proportions also in which the salts are used are the same. From the amount of materials employ- ed, it may be determined by calculation, that each fluidounce of the solution will contain about three grains of the acetate of zinc. Medical Properties and Uses.—The medical properties of this solution are the same with those of acetate of zinc. The salts employed to form it were formerly frequently prescribed together, as an injection in gonor- rhoea; but as a double decomposition necessarily took place, the prescrip- tion was equivalent to ordering a solution of acetate of zinc, mingled with a portion of the insoluble sulphate of lead. This mode is objection- able, as the latter salt is probably inert, if not injurious to the urethra. ZINCI ACETATIS TINCTURA. Dub. Tincture of Acetate of Zinc. " Take of Sulphate of Zinc, Acetate of Potassa, each, one part. Rub them together, and add sixteen parts of Rectified Spirit. Macerate for a week, with occasional agitation, and filter through paper." Dub. In this process, the acetate of potassa first dissolves in the alcohol, and then reacts upon the sulphate of zinc; and in consequence of a double decomposition, sulphate of potassa and acetate of zinc are form- ed. Of these salts, the latter only is soluble in the alcohol, while the former remains undissolved, and is removed by the filtration. Properties, fyc.—This tincture is transparent and colourless, and when evaporated nearly to dryness, affords crystals of acetate of zinc, recog- nizable by their shape and silky appearance. (See Zinci Acetas.) It is much stronger tf chalk Compound powder of chalk with opium Compound powder of contrayerva Compound powder of jalap [Compound powder of 794 kino Compound powder of scammony Compound powder of senna Compound powder of tragacanth Compound resin cerate Compound saline pow- der Confection of the dog rose Confections Conium Conium maculatum Conserva citri aurantii Conserva rosae caninae 953 Conserva rosae gallica: 781jConserva rutae Conservae 953jConserve of roses 952 953 953 Compound soap plaster 809^01136^63 Compound solution of |Contrayerva alum Compound solution of sulphate of copper Compound spirit of aniseed Compound spirit of horseradish Compound spirit of juniper Compound spirit of lavender Compound spirit of sulphuric ether Compound tincture of benzoin Compound tincture of cardamom Compound tincture of castor Compound tincture of cinnamon Compound tincture of 919| Peruvian bark Compound tincture of 824 803 891 878 880 881 877 882 882 772 896 1011 786 782 246 246 784 786 785 786 782 785 783 248 727!Convolvulus jalapa 369 (Convolvulus macrorhizus 371 789iConvolvulus panduratus 249 Convolvulus scammonia 574 969 Copaiba 250 Copaifera Beyrichii 250 Copaifera bijuga 250 Copaifera cordifolia 250 Copaifera coriacea 250 Copaifera Guianensis 250 Copaifera Langsdorffii 250 Copaifera laxa 250 Copaifera Martii 250 Copaifera multijuga 250 Copaifera nitida 250 Copaifera oblongifolia 250 Copaifera officinalis 250 Copaifera Sellowii 250 Copper 262 Copper, acetate of 264 Copper as a poison 262 969 970 971 718 990 991 992 993 993 Copper, preparations of 787 920 920 of 1002 rhubarb Compound . gentian 1022 Concentration 687 Confectio amygdalae 783 Confectio aromatica 784 Confectio aurantii cor- ticis 784 Confectio aurantiorum 784 Confectio cassiae 784 Confectio opii 785 Confectio piperis nigri 785 Confectio rosae 785 Confectio rosae caninae 786 Confectio rutae 786 949| Confectio scammonii 786 Confectio sennae 786 Confectiones Confection of black pepper Confection of cassia Confection of opium 785 Confection of orange peel 784 Confection of roses 785 Confection of rue 786 Confection of scammony 786 Confection of senna 786 802 949 950 950 951 950 952 Copperas Coptis Coptis trifolia Coriander Coriandrum Coriandrum sativum Coriaria myrtifolia Cornu cervi elaphi Cornu ustum Cornus circinata Cornus Florida Cornus sericea Corrosive chloride of mercury Corrosive sublimate Corrosive sublimate as a poison Corrosive sublimate, tests for Cotula Cowhage Crab, edible 785 784JCrab stones Crabs' claws Crabs' eyes Cranesbill Crawfish Cream of tartar Cream of tartar, soluble 598 Cremorfrrtari 514 842 252 252 253 253 253 584 254 775 255 255 256 850 850 854 854 257 275 140 140 140 140 317 141 514 1054 • Creta Creta alba Creta praeparata Crocus Crocus of antimony Crocus sativus Croton cascarilla Croton Eleutheria Croton oil Croton tiglium Crowfoot Crown bark of Loxa Crucibles Crude antimony Crude borax Crude sal ammoniac Crude saltpetre 509, Crude sulphur Crystallization Crystal mineral Crystals of acetate of copper Crystals of nitrate of silver Crystals of tartar Crystals of Venus Cubeba Cubebs Cuckoo-flower Cucumber tree Cucumis colocynthis Cumini semina Cumin plaster Cumin seed Cuminum cyminum Cunila pulegioides Cupels Cupri acetas Cupri acetas crystalli Cupri acetas praeparatus Cupri ammoniati aqua Cupri subacetas Cupri subacetas prae- paratum Cupri sulphas Cuprum Cuprum ammoniatum Curcuma Curcuma angustifolia Curcuma longa Curcuma rotunda Curcuma zedoaria Curcuma zerumbet Cusparia febrifuga Cyanogen Cyanuret of iron Cyanuret of mercury Cyanuret of potassium Cycas circinalis Cycas revoluta Cydoniae semina Cydonia vulgaris Cynanchum Monspe- liacum Cynanchum oleaefolium 138 138 773 258 741 258 175 175 454 454 525 213 684 93 597 75 510 625 687 510 264 765 514 264 260 260 166 402 241 261 803 261 261 331 476 26 264 787 789 263 Index. Cynips quercusfolii Cytisin 309 108 D Dalby's carminative Damarra turpentine Dandelion Daphne Alpina Daphne gnidium Daphne laureola Daphne mezereum Daphnin Datura ferox Datura stramonium Daturia Dauci radix Dauci semina Daucus carota Deadly nightshade Decocta Decoction Decoction of barley Decoction of bittersweet Decoction of cabbage- tree bark Decoction of chamomile Decoction of dandelion Decoction of dogwood Decoction of elm bark Decoction of Iceland moss Decoction of liquor- ice root Decoction of logwood Decoction of marsh mallow Decoction of mezereon Decoction of oak bark Decoction of Peru- vian bark Decoction of pipsissewa 787 Decoction of poppy 265 Decoction of quince 262 seeds 788 Decoction of sarsaparilla 266 Decoction of seneka 408 Decoction of uva ursi 266 Decoction of white 267 hellebore 266 Decoctions 266 Decoctum aloes com- 85 positum 705 Decoctum althaeae 298 Decoctum anthemidis 862 nobilis 703 Decoctum chamaemeli 555 compositum 555 Decoctum cinchonae 267 Decoctum cornus 267 Floridae Decoctum cydoniae 574 Decoctum daphnes 584 mezerei 399 640 634 417 417 417 416 417 620 619 620 169 169 169 125 789 687 794 793 793 791 798 792 798 795 793 794 791 795 796 791 795 795 792 796 798 798 798 789 790 791 791 791 791 792 792 795 793 793 793 Decoctum dulcamara: Decoctum geoffroyae Decoctum glycyrrhizae Decoctum guaiaci compositum Decoctum haematoxyli Decoctum hordei Decoctum hordei com- positum Decoctum lichenis Decoctum malvae com- positum Decoctum mezerei Decoctum papaveris Decoctum polygalae senegae Decoctum pyrolae Decoctum quercus Decoctum sarsaparillae Decoctum sarsaparillae compositum Decoctum senegae Decoctum taraxaci Decoctum ulmi Decoctum uvae ursi Decoctum veratri albi Delphinia Delphinium Delphinium consolida Delphinium exaltatum Delphinium staphisagria 616 Deshler's salve 781 Deutoxide of lead - 497 Deutoxide of manganese 404 Dewberry root 542 Diamond 161 Dianthi caryophylli flores Dianthus caryophyllus Digestion 793 794 794 794 795 795 795 795 798 795 796 796 797 798 798 798 798 798 617 268 268 269 269 269 687 Digestive salt of Sylvius 502 Digitalin 271 Digitalis 269 Digitalis purpurea 269 Dill seeds 83 Dill water 758 Diluted acetic acid 699 Diluted alcohol 725 Diluted muriatic acid 707 Diluted nitric acid 707 Diluted solution of subacetate of lead 926 Diluted sulphuric acid 710 Diluted water of am- monia 736 Diosma crenata 273 Diospyros 274 Diospyros Virginiana 274 Dippel's animal oil 475 Dispensing of medicines 689 Distillation in vacuo 685 Distilled oils 436, 906 Distilled verdigris 264 Distilled vinegar 692 Distilled water 754 Index. 1055 502 680 544 544 540 95 285 255 255 256 Diuretic salt Division, mechanical Dock, blunt-leaved Dock, water Dog rose Dogs-bane Dog's tooth violet Dogwood Dogwood, round-leav- ed Dogwood, swamp Dolichos Dolichos pruriens Dolomite Dombeya excelsa Dorema ammoniacum Dorstenia contrayerva Dorstenia Drakena Dorstenia Houstonia Dose of medicines Double aqua fortis Dover's powder Dracontium Dragon-root Dried alum Dried carbonate of soda 960 Dried sulphate of iron 843 Drops, table of 1043 Drugs, garbling of 678 Drymis Winteri 669 Dryobalanops camphora 146 786 784 282 437 168 709 989 1002 1004 651 681 363 740 799 248 1031 33 951 276 111 726 Dry potassa Dry wines Dulcamara Dyers' alkanet Dyers' saffron E 510 566 Earth of bones East India refined salt- petre Eau de luce Effervescing draught 389, 1037 Egg 4^ Elain *>* Elais Guianensis 443 Elaterin 280 Elaterium 279 Elatin 280 Elder berries 559 Elder, common European 560 Elder ointment Elecampane Electuaria Electuaries Electuarium cassias Electuarium catechu compositum Electuarium lenitivum Electuarium opiatum Electuarium sennae com positum Electuary of catechu, compound Elemi Eleoptene Elettaria cardamomum Elixir of vitriol Elixir proprietatis Elixir sacrum Elixir salutis 275 Elm bark 275 Elutriation 400 Emetia 640| Emetic, tartar 72iEmplastra 249|Emplastrum adhassivum 808 248 Emplastrum ammoniaci 800 Emplastrum ammoniaci eum hydrargyro 801 Emplastrum aromaticum 801 Emplastrum assafoetidae 801 Emplastrum belladonnas 802 Emplastrum calefaciens 805 Emplastrum cantharidis 778 Emplastrum cantharidis vesicatoriae composi- tum Emplastrum cerae Emplastrum cumini Emplastrum epispasti- cum Emplastrum ferri Emplastrum galbani Emplastrum galbani compositum Emplastrum gummosum 804 Emplastrum hydrargyri 804 Emplastrum lithargyri Emplastrum lithargyri cum resina Emplastrum opii Emplastrum oxidi ferri rubri Emplastrum picis com- positum Emplastrum picis cum cantharide Emplastrum plumbi Emplastrum plumbi car- bonatis Emplastrum plumbi semivitrei Emplastrum resinae Emplastrum roborans 893 758 810 810 811 811 809 664 845 399 578 283 502 662 277 82 171 475 802 802 80 778 803 803 803 806 Emulsio Arabica Emulsio camphorae Enema catharticum Enema foetidum Enema opii Enema terebinthinae Enemata English port Ens martis Epsom salt Ergot Erigeron Canadense Erigeron heterophyllum 283 Erigeron Philadelphicum283 Erigeron pusilum 283 Eryngium 284 Eryngium aquaticum 285 Erythraea centaurium Erythronium Erythronium America- num Erythronium lanceola- tum Essence of bergamot Essence of peppermint Essence of roses Essence of spearmint Essential oils 436, 906 Essential salt of lemons 10, 38 Ether, aromatic spirit of 719 185 285 285 285 444 912 539 912 bill JliiSUU"1 iuuuioiw -—.---1- Emplastrum saponaceum 809 Euphorbium antiquo- _ ' , ._______• CdO rum 1017 354 _ 782 Emplastrum saponis 783 Emplastrum saponis 784! compositum Emplastrum simplex 784 Emplastrum thuris 786 Empyreumatic oils Ether, hydrated 715 Ether, nitric 719 Ether, nitrous 719 Ether, rectified sul- phuric 713 Ether, spirit of sulphuric 718 Ether, sulphuric 712 Ethereal oil 717 Ethereal tincture of aloes 988 808 Etherification, theory of 716 805Ethers 712 Ethiops mineral 871 803 Eucalyptus resinifera 377 (Eugenia caryophyllata 173 805 Eupatorium aya-pana 286 lEupatorium cannabinum 286 805 Eupatorium perfoliatum 286 806JEupatorium purpureum 287 Eupatorium teucrifolium 287 808 Euphorbia corollata 288 Euphorbia ipecacuanha 289 806 Euphorbia lathyris 442 808 Euphorbias gummi resina 290 803|Euphorbium 809 rum . 290 Euphorbium Canadensis 290 809 Euphorbium officinarum 290 802 803 689 785 Emulsio acaciae Arabica: 893 European centaury European rhubarb Evaporation Exostemma Caribaea Exostemma floribunda Electuarium opiatum . ~~ Amvffdali com- Exostemma flo E!ecrrJ"mLCnnxm°n 786 mtnls ** 893 Expressed oils Electuarium sennae 185 533 687 220 220 434 1056 Index. Expression Extract of aconite Extract of aloes, puri- fied Extract of black helle- bore Extract of broom tops Extract of butternut Extract of chamomile Extract of colocynth Extract of colocynth, compound Extract of dandelion Extract of deadly night- shade Extract of gentian Extract of hemlock Extract of henbane Extract of hops Extract of jalap Extract of lettuce Extract of logwood Extract of may-apple Extract of nux vomica Extract of oak bark Extract of opium Extract of Peruvian bark 821, Extract of Peruvian bark, resinous Extract of poppy Extract of quassia Extract of rhubarb Extract of rue Extract of sarsaparilla Extract of sarsaparilla, fluid Extract of thorn-apple Extract of wormwood Extracta Extracta per aquam Extracta per aquam et alcohol Extracta simpliciora Extraction of pulps Extractive Extracts Extractum aconiti Extractum aloes hepa- tic ae Extractum aloes purifi- catum Extractum anthemidis Extractum artemisiae absinthii Extractum belladonnae Extractum chamaemeli Extractum cinchonae, Lond. Extractum cinchonae, US. Extractum cinchonae lancifoliae Extractum cinchonae resinosum 683 819 820 826 833 827 820 823 824 833 821 825 825 826 826 827 828 825 830 828 830 829 822 822 830 830 831 831 831 832 833 821 811 818 Extractum colocynthidis 823|Ferri sulphas Extractum colocynthi- dis compositum Extractum conii Extractum elaterii Extractum gentianae Extractum glycyrrhizae Extractum haematoxyli Ferri sulphuretum 824 Ferri tartarum 825 279 825 291 825 Extractum hellebori nigri 826 Extractum humuli 826 Extractum hyoscyami 826 Extractum jalapae 827 Extractum juglandis 827 Extractum lactucae 828 Extractum nucis vomicae 828 Extractum opii 829 Extractum papaveris 830 Extractum podophylli 830 Extractum quassiae 830 Extractum quercus 830 Extractum rhei 831 Extractum rutae 831 Extractum sarsaparillx 831 Extractum sarsaparillae fluidum Extractum spartii sco- parii 833 Extractum stramonii 833 Extractum taraxaci 833 Ferrocyanate of iron Ferrocyanogen Ferroso-ferric oxide Ferrum 293 Ferrum ammoniatum Ferrum. Scobs Ferrum tartarizatum Ferula assafoetida Fetid clyster 819 819 947 812 811 819 P Faba Sancti Ignatii 292 False angustura 87 False barks 220 False sarsaparilla 10; Fat manna 406 Febure's remedy for cancer 18 Fennel seed 304 Fennel water 761 Fermentation, alcoholic 53 842 843 839 298 300 295 296 844 296 839 116 810 Fetid spirit of ammonia 968 Fever-root 647 Ficus 301 Ficus carica 301 Figs 301 Figwort leaves 577 Filix mas 302 Filters 682 Filtration without con- tact of, air 682 Fishery salt 609 Fixed air 757 Fixed oils 434 Flake manna 406 Flax 390 Flaxseed 390 Flaxseed oil 444 Fleabane, Canada 283 Fleabane, Philadelphia 283 Fleabane, various-leaved 283 Flea-brown oxide of lead 492 Flesh-coloured asclepias 114 Fermentation, saccharine 53 Fermentation, vinous Feronia elephantum Ferri acetas Ferri carbonas Ferri carbonas praeci- pitatus Ferri carbonas praepa- ratus Ferri cyanuretum Ferri et potassae tar- tras Ferri ferrocyanas 820! Ferri filum ] Ferri limatura 822 Ferri oxidum rubrum Ferri oxydi squamae Ferri oxydum nigrum Ferri phosphas Ferri ramenta Ferri rubigo 822 Ferri subcarbonas 820 820 820 821 821 821 821 Florentine orris 366 Flores martiales 845 Flowers 686 Flowers of benzoin 701 Flowers of sulphur 625 Flowers of zinc 1028 Fluid extract of sar- saparilla Foeniculum Foliated earth of tartar Forms in which medi- cines are exhibited Formulae for prescrip- tions Fowler's solution Foxglove Frankincense Frasera Frasera Carolinensis 839 Frasera Walteri 298 Fraxinus excelsior 296 Fraxinus ornus 296 Fraxinus parviflora 835 Fraxinus rotundifolia 297 Fuci and algae, ashes of 600 834 Fucus 306 841 Fucus vesiculosus • 306 296 Fumigation by nitric acid 36 838 Fuming sulphuric acid 837 ofNordhausen 43 53 5 835 837 837 838 298 832 304 502 1034 1035 766 269 457, 489 305 305 305 405 406 405 406 Funnel stands , *. 682 Furnace, black lead crucible 684 Furnaces , 683 Fusion 688 G Galbanum Galbanum plaster Galena Galipea cusparia Galipea officinalis Galipot Galla Galls Gamboge Gambogia Garcinia cambogia GardertHmgelica Garlick ^\- Gaseous ammTTnia , 307 803 - 491 86 86 639 308 308 311 311 311 84 59 ■^735, Gaultheria 3*To Gaultheria procumbens 313 Gelatin 476 Gentian 314 Gentian blue 316 Gentiana 314 Gentiana biloba 314 Gentiana Catesbaei 316 Gentiana chirayita 314 Gentiana lutea 314 Gentiana macrophylla 314 Gentiana punctata 314 Gentiana purpurea 314 Gentianin 315 Geoffraeae inermis cortex 316 Geoffroya inermis 317 Geoffroya Surinamensis 317 Index. Golden-rod Golden sulphur of anti- mony Goldthread Goulard's cerate Goulard's extract Grains of paradise, Grain tin Grana Molucca Grana paradisi Grana tiglia Granatum Granular limestone Gratiola officinalis Gravel-root Gravity, specific Gray oxide of mercury Green vitriol Guaiac Guaiaci lignum Guaiacin Guaiacum Guaiacum arboreum Guaiacum officinale Guaiacum sanctum Guaiacum wood Gum ammoniac Gum Arabic Gum Bassora Gummi-resinae Gum plaster Gum-resins Gum troches 1057 610 Hemlock spruce 489 Henbane 348 Henry's aromatic vinegar 13 Henry's magnesia 888 Henry's magnesian salts 400 Geranium Geranium maculatum Geum Geum rivale Geum urbanum Gillenia Gillenia stipulacea Gillenia trifoliata Ginger Ginseng Glass of antimony Glass of borax Glass of lead Glauber's salt Glauber's salt from sea- water, Gliadine Glue Gluten Glycerine Glycyrrhiza Glycyrrhiza echinata Glycyrrhiza glabra Glycyrrhiza lepidota Glycyrrhizin 1 oo 317 317 318 318 319 320 321 320 674 477 94 598 95 605 606 649 476 649 564 322 292 322 322 322 750 252 780 926 167 616 455 167 455 323 139 325 287 679 864 842 327 326 329 327 326 326 326 326 72 4 124 848 804 848 1007 Hepar sulphuris Hepatica Hepatica acutiloba Hepatica Americana Hepatica triloba Hepatic aloes Heptree Heracleum 941 334 334 334 334 64 540 335 H Haematoxylon Haematoxylon Campe- chianum 330 Hard carbonate of lime 139 Hardhack 613 Hard soap 564 Hard water 98 HaiTOWgate water 101 Hartshorn 254 Havana sugar 551 Heat, modes of applying 683 Hedeoma 331 Hedeoma pulegioides 331 Hedge hyssop 325 Helenium 354 Helianthus annuus, 423 Hellebore, American 659 Hellebore, black 332 Hellebore, white 657 Helleborus fcetidus 331 Helleborus niger 332 Helleborus orientalis 33 Helleborus viridis 333 Hematin • 330 Hemlock 246 Hemlock cataplasm 776 Hemlock gum 490 Hemlock pitch 489 Heracleum gummiferum 71 Heracleum lanatum 355 Heracleum Pyrenaicum 72 Heuchera 335 Heuchera Americana 336 Heuchera cortusa 336 Heuchera viscida 336 Hircin 591 Hiaido decora 337 Hirudo medicinalis 336 Hive-syrup 891 Hoffman's anodyne li- quor 718 Honey 411 Honey of borax 890 Honey of roses 890 Honey of squill, com- pound 891 Honey, preparations of 889 Hops 340 Hordein 340 Hordeum 339 Hordeum distichon 339 Hordeum perlatum 340 Hordeum vulgare 339 Horehound 409 Horehound, wild 287 Horsemint 418 Horse-radish 106 Hot bath 102 Howard's calomel 859 Huanuco bark 214 Humulus 340 Humulus lupulus 341 Hundred-leaved roses 538 Huxham's tincture of bark 993 Hydracids 697 Hydrargyri acetas 849 Hydrargyri chloridum corrosivum 850 Hydrargyri chloridum mite 856 Hydrargyri cyanuretum 862 Hydrargyri murias cor- rosivum 850 Hydrargyri nitrico-oxy- dum 866 Hydrargyri oxidum ni- grum 864 Hydrargyri oxidum ru- brum, U.S. 866 1058 Index. Hydrargyri oxydum ci- nereum 864 Hydrargyri oxydum ni- tricum 866 Hydrargyri oxydum ru- brum, Lond., Dub. 868 Hydrargyri oxydum sul- phuricum 869 Hydrargyri oxymurias 850 Hydrargyri persulphas 869 Hydrargyri submurias 856 Hydrargyri submurias ammoniatum 873 Hydrargyri sulphas fla- vus ' 869 Hydrargyri sulphuretum nigrum 871 Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum 872 Hydrargyrum 342 Hydrargyrum ammonia- tum 873 Hydrargyrum cum calcis carbonate 875 Hydrargyrum cum creta 875 Hydrargyrum cum mag- nesia. 875 Hydrargyrum praecipita- tum album 873 Hydrargyrum praecipita- tum per se 868 Hydrargyrum purifica- turn 849 Hydrated ether 715 Hydrated sesquicarbo- nate of ammonia 730 Hydrate of baryta 123 Hydrate of potassa 931 Hydriodate"of potassa 356, 945 Hydriodate of soda 356 Hydriodic acid 357 Hydrochlorate of am- monia 73 Hydrochloric acid 26 Hydrocyanic acid 702 Hydrocyanic acid, anhy- drous 705 Hydrocyanic acid, as a poison 706 Hydrocyanic acid, pro- cess at Apothecaries' Hall for 703 Hydrocyanic acid, Scheele's process for 703 Hydroferrocyanic acid 300 Hydrogen 1028 Hydrometer, Baume's 679, 1044 Hydrosublimate of mer- cury 859 Hydrosulphates 844 Hydrosulphuret of am- monia -.'*' 737 Hydrosulphurets 844 Hydro-Sulphuretum am- moniac 737 Hydrosulphuric acid 626,844 Hyoscyami n 350 Hyoscyamus . 348 Hyoscyamus albus 349 Hyoscyamus niger 349 Hyponitrous ether 721 Hyposulphuric acid 626 Hyposulphurous acid 626 Hyssop, common 352 Hyssopus officinalis 352 Iceland moss 386 Ichthyocolla 352 Icica icicariba 282 Ictodes foetidus 276 lgnatia amara 292 Illicium anisatum 89 Imperial beverage 515 Impure acetic acid from wood Impure carbonate of po tassa 504 Impure oxide of zinc 674 Impure oxide of zinc, prepared 1028 Impure potassa 504 Impure subcarbonate of potassa 504 Impure sulphate of quinia 959 Impure supertartrate of potassa 51 Incineration 688 Indian hemp 96 Indian physic 320 Indian tobacco 394 Indian turnip 111 Infusa 876 Infusion -687 Infusion of Angustura bark 877 Infusion of buchu 877 Infusion of cascarilla 878 Infusion of catechu, compound 878 Infusion of chamomile 877 Infusion of cloves 878 Infusion of columbo 879 Infusion of flaxseed 880 Infusion of foxglove 879 Infusion of gentian compound 880 Infusion of horse-radish 877 Infusion of mint, com- pound 881 Infusion of mint, simple 881 Infusion of orange-peel, compound 877 Infusion of Peruvian bark 878 Infusion of pink-root 884 Infusion of quassia 881 Infusion of rhubarb 881 Infusion of roses, com- pound 882 Infusion of sarsaparilla, compound 882 Infusion of senna 883 Infusion of senna with tamarinds 883 Infusion of simaruba 884 Infusion of slippery elm bark 884 Infusion of thorough- wort 880 Infusion of tobacco 884 Infusion of valerian 884 Infusion of Virginia snake-root 883 Infusion of wild-cherry bark 881 Infusions ^ 876 Infusum acaciae catechu 878 Infusum angusturae 877 Infusum anthemidis 877 Infusum armoraciae 877 Infusum armoraciae com- positum 877 Infusum aurantii compo- situm 877. Infusum buchu 877 Infusum calumbae 879 Infusum caryophyllorum 878 Infusum cascarillae 878 Infusum cassiae sennae 883 Infusum catechu compo- sit-im * 878 Infusum chamaemeli 877 Infusum cinchonae 878 Infusum colombae 879 Infusum rtisparix 877 Infusum digitalis 879 Infusum eupatorii per- foliati 880 Infusum gentianae com- positum 880 Infusum lini 880 Infusum lini compositum 880 Infusum menthae com- positum 881 Infusum menthae sim- plex 881 Infusum pruni Virgi- nianae 881 Infusum quassiae 881 Infusum rhei 881 Infusum rosae acidum 882 Infusum rosae composi- tum 882 Infusum rosae Gallicae 882 Infusum sarsaparillae ^compositum 882 Infusum sennae 883 Infusum sennae compo- situm 883 Index. 1059 Infusum sennae cum ta- marindis Infusum serpentariae Infusum simaroubae Infusum spigeliae Infusum tabaci Infusum ulmi Infusum Valerianae Inspissated juice of elder Inspissated juice of strong-scented let- tuce Inspissated juices 811, Inspissation Inula Inula helenium Iodic acid Iodide of potassium Iodides Iodine Iodine baths Iodine caustic Iodine in mineral waters 100, Iodine lotion Iodine ointment of Lugol Iodine rubefacient so- lution Iodinum Iodous acid Ioduretted hydriodate of potassa Ipecacuanha Ipecacuanha, Peruvian Ipecacuanha spurge Ipecacuanha, white Ipomaea jalapa Ipomaea macrorhiza Ipomaea turpethum Iris Florentina Iris Germanica Iris pseudo-acorus Iris tuberosa Iris versicolor Iron Iron, acetate of Iron, ammoniated Iron, black oxide of Iron, dried sulphate of Iron, ferrocyanate of Iron filings Iron, phosphate of Iron plaster Iron, precipitated car- bonate of Iron, preparations of Iron, prepared carbo- nate of Iron, prototartrate of Iron, red oxide of Iron, rust of Iron, sulphate of Iron, sulphuret of Iron, table of the pre- 883! parations of 883 Iron wire 884| Isinglass 884 Ivory-black 884 884 884 831 828 818 687 354 354 356 945 356 355 359 359 355 359 359 359 355 356 947 360 365 289 366 369 368 870 366 366 366 366 367 293 835 844 834 843 298 296 841 803 837 834 838 840 8^5 838 842 843 Jalap Jalapa Jamaica pepper James's powder Jamestown weed Jatropha curcas Jatropha manihot Jerusalem oak Jewell's calomel Juglans Juglans cathartica Juglans cinerea Juniper Juniper berries Juniperus Juniperus communis Juniperus lycia Juniperus sabina Juniperus Virginiana 296 296 352 162 368 368 485 752 619 633 633 191 859 372 372 372 373 373 373 374 457 548 375 K Kelp Kermes mineral Keyser's pills Kinate of cinchonia Kinate of quinia Kinic acid Kino Knives, apothecaries' Krameria Krameria ixina Krameria triandra 356, 600 749, 750 850 224 224 224 376 691 379 379 379 Labarraque's soda liquid 603 Labeling Lac sulphuris Lactuca Lactuca elongata Lactuca sativa Lactuca virosa Lactucarium Lake Lake water Lamp, alcoholic Lana philosophica Lapilli cancrorum Lapis calaminaris Larch, European Lard Large flowering spurge 288 Larix communis 637 691 975 382 381 382 381 382 237 99 683 1027 140 673 637 51 Larix Europaea 637 Larkspur 268 Laudanum 999 Laudanum, Sydenham's 1023 Lauri baccae et folia 384 Laurus camphora 145 Laurus cassia 231 Laurus cinnamomum 230 Laurus nobilis 384 Laurus sassafras 572 Lavandula 385 Lavandula spica 385 Lavandula vera 385 Lavandulae flores 385 Lavender 385 Lavender flowers 385 Lead 491 Lead, acetate of 493 Lead as a poison 492 Lead, carbonate of 495 Lead plaster 806 Lead, preparations of 925 Lead, red 497 Lead, sugar of 493 Lead tree 1024 Lead-water 926 Lead, white 495 Leeches 336 Leek root 501 Lemons 387 Lemons, essential salt of 38 Lemon syrup 980 Lenitive electuary 786 Leontodon taraxacum 634 Leopard's bane 107 Leptandra Virginica 661 Lettuce 382 Lettuce, strong-scented 381 Lettuce, wild 381 Levigation 681 Lichen 386 Lichen Islandicus 386 Lichen tartareus 393 Light wines 662 Lignum colubrinum 431 Lignum vitae 327 Lima bark 214 Limatura ferri purificata 834 Lime 137 Lime from white marble 137 Lime, preparations of 770 Limestone 139 Lime-water 771 Limes 388 Limon 387 Limonum oleum 444 Linimenta 884 Liniment of ammonia 885 Liniment of lime 885 Liniment of mercury 886 Liniment of Spanish flies 886 Liniment of subcatbon- ate of ammonia \^ 885 Liniment of turpentine 887 Liniments ^, 884 ,-&*•. 1060 Index. Linimentum xruginis 891 Linimentum ammoniae 885 Linimentum ammoniae fortius 885 Linimentum ammoniae subcarbonatis 885 Linimentum anodynum 1003 Linimentum aquae calcis 885 Linimentum calcis 885 Linimentum camphorae 885 Linimentum camphorae compositum 886 Linimentum cantharidis 886 Linimentum hydrargyri 886 Linimentum saponiscam phoratum Linimentum saponis compositum Linimentum saponis cum opio Linimentum simplex Linimentum terebin thinae Linseed Linum Linum catharticum Linum usitatissimum 1003 1003 887 Liquorice root Liriodendrin Liriodendron Liriodendron tulipifera Lisbon diet drink Litharge Litharge of gold Litharge of silver Litharge plaster Litharge, red Litharge, yellow Lithargyrus Lithia in mineral waters 100 Lithospermum tinctorium 82 322 393 392 392 797 498 499 499 806 499 499 498 Litmus Liver of sulphur Liverwort Lixiviation Lixivus cinis Lobelia Lobelia inflata Logwood 887Long pepper 390 Loosestrife 390 Loss by pulverization, 39H table of 390 Loxa bark 688 Lozenges of bicarbo- 622 nate of soda Liquefaction Liquidambar orientale Liquidambar styraciflua 622 Lunar caustic Liquid muriatic acid 26 Lupa hastata Liquids, separation of 683 Lupulin Liquor aethereus oleosus 717Lupulina Liquor aethereussulphu- Lute, fat ricus 712 Lute of plaster of Paris Liquor aluminis compo- Lutes situs 727 Lycopus Liquor ammoniae 732 Lycopus Virginicus Liquor ammoniae acetatis 736 Lythrum salicaria Liquor ammoniae hydro- | sulphatis 737i Liquor ammoniac subcar- bonatis Liquor arsenicalis Liquor barytae muriatis Liquor calcis Liquor calcis muriatis 7311 766 Mace 768 Maceration 771 Macis 774Madder Mahy's plaster 808 Malacca tin 616 Male fern 302 Mallows 403 Malt 340 Malt vinegar 13 Maltha 480 Malva 403 Malva alcea 68 Malva sylvestris 403 Manganese 404 Manganese, black oxide of 404 Manganeseous acid 404 393 Manganesic acid 404 941 Manganesii oxydum 404 334 Manna 405 687 Manna, Briancon 637 504 Manna sugar 553 394 Maranta 407 394 Maranta allouya 408 329 Maranta arundinacea 407 487 Maranta Indica 408 396 Maranta nobilis 408 Marble 139 680 Marbled soap 565, 566 214 Margaric acid 564 Marine acid 26 963 Marjoram, common 473 763 Marl 139 140i Marmor album 139 341Marrubium 409 3411 Marrubium vulgare 409 686 Mflrshmallow 67 686!Marsh rosemary 617 686^311 trefoil 415 396|Marsh water 99 396 Martin's cancer powder 18 396 Massicot 492 Masterwort 335 Mastich 410 31 Mastiche 410 Matonia cardamomum 168 426 Matricaria chamomilla 90 687 May-apple 499 425 May-weed 257 Liquor cupri ammoniati 789[Madeira wine f 847|Magistery of bismuth Magnesia 855 Magnesia alba iMagnesia, carbonate of 904lMagnesia, Henry's | Magnesia, sulphate of 925|Magnesiae carbonas Magnesiae subcarbonas 926 (Magnesiae sulphas 927 .Magnesiae sulphas purum 889 Liquor ferri alkalini Liquor hydrargyri oxy- muriatis Liquor morphiae sul- phatis Liquor plumbi subace- tatis Liquor plumbi subace- tatis dilutus Liquor potassae Liquor potassae arsenitis 766 IMagnesian salts, Henry's 400 542 Meadow-saffron root 663 238,239 770 Meadow-saffron seed 887 # • 238,241 398iMeasuremeirt, approxi- 397| mative 1043 888iMeasures and weights 399 397jMechanical division 678, 1038 397 399 Liquor potassae carbo natis Liquor potassae subcar- bonatis Liquor tartari emetici Liquorice (Magnesium 888 935!Magnolia 401 Magnolia acuminata 402 935 Magnolia glauca 402 747 Magnolia grandiflora 401 291 Magnolia tripetala 402 680 371 464 465 1020 Mechoacan Meconic acid Meconin Medicated wines Medicinal hydrocyanic acid 704 Medicines, art of pre- scribing 1031 Medicines, dispensing of 689 Medicines, dose of 1031 Index. 1061 Medicines, forms which exhibited 1034 Medicines, mode of ad ministering 1032 Medicines, preservation of 678 Mel 411 Mel boracis 890 Mel despumatum 889 Mel rosx 890 Mel scillx compositum 891 Mel subboratis sodx 890 Melaleuca cajuputi Melaleuca leucadendron 439 243 413 414 414 415 415 1011 Melampodium 333 Melia azedarach 122 Melissa officinalis 412 Mellita 889 Meloe majalis 152 Meloe proscarabxus 152 Meloe trianthemx 152 Menispermum cocculus 234 Menispermum palma turn Mentha piperita Mentha pulegium Mentha viridis Menyanthes Menyanthes trifoliata Mercurial ointment Mercurial pills Mercurial plaster Mercurius Mercury Mercury, acetate of Mercury, ammoniated Mercury, black oxide of 864 Mercury, black sulphu- ret of Mercury, corrosive chlo- ride of •**" Mercury, cyanuret of Mercury, gray oxide of Mercury, hydrosubli- mate of. Mercury, mild chloride of Mercury, persulphate of 869 Mercury, preparations of 849 Mercury, protonitrate of 865 Mercury, prussiate of 862 Mercury, purified 849 Mercury, red oxide of 866 Mercury, red sulphuret of HI Mercury, submuriate of 856 Mercury, table of the preparations of «>4< Mercury with carbo- nate of lime °75 Mercury with chalk 875 Mercury with magnesia 875 Mercury, yellow sui phate of Metallic manganese Mezereon Mezereum Mild chloride of mer cury Mild mercurial oint ment Mild volatile alkali Milder common caustic 932 Milder ointment of ni- trate of mercury 1015 Milk of sulphur 974 Mindererus, spirit of 736 Mineral, ethiops 871 Mineral, kermes 749, 750 Mineral tar Mineral, turpeth Mineral water Mineral waters Minium Mint Mistura ammoniaci Mistura amygdalx Mistura assafoetidx 4041 Mucilage of gum Arabic 905 416 Mucilage of starch 905 416 Mucilage of tragacanth 905 Mucilages 904 856 Mucila'gines 904 Mucilago acaciae 905 1011 Mucilago amyli 905 729 Mucilago astragali tra- gacanthx 905 Mucilago gummi Arabici905 Mucilago gummi traga- canth?; 905 Mugwort 110 Mulberries 419 Mullein leaves 660 Murias ammonix 73 Murias ammonix et ferri 844 Murias barytx 767 Murias hydrargyri corro sivus Murias sodx Muriate of ammonia Muriate of baryta 480 869 756 100 497 414 893 893 894 850 607 73 767 Mistura calcis carbonatis 894 Mistura camphorx Mistura camphorx cum magnesia Mistura cornu usti Mistura cretx 921 Mistura ferri aromatica 804 Mistura ferri composita 758 895 895 894 895 Muriate of baryta as a poison Muriate of iron, tincture of Muriate of lime Muriate of soda Muriatic acid Muriatic acid gas 896 Muriatic acid, table of 769 845 136 607 26 29 342 342 849 873 871 850 862 864 859 856 896 896 892 895 869 Mistura guaiaci Mistura moschi Misturx Mixture of burnt harts- horn Mixture of camphor with magnesia 895 Mixture of carbonate of lime 894 Mixture of guaiac 896 Mixture of iron, aro- matic 895 Mixture of iron, com- pound 896 Mixtures 892 Mode of administering medicines 1032 Molasses 549, 553 Momordica elaterium Monarda Monarda punctata Monkshood Mori baccx Morphia Morphix acetas Morphix sulphas Mortars Morus alba Morus nigra Morus rubra Moschus Moschus moschiferus Moxa the specific gravity of 28 418 418 50 419 897 903 903 680 419 419 419 419 420 422 Muriatis calcis aqua Muriatis ferri liquor Muscovado sugar Musk Musk mixture Must Mustard Mustard cataplasm Mustard seeds, black Mustard seeds, white Mylabris cichorii Mylabris pustulata Mynsicht's acid elixir Myrica cerifera Myricin . Myristica Myristica Malabarica Myristica moschata Myristica tomentosa Myroxylon Myroxylon Peruiferum Myroxylon Toluiferum Myrrh Myrrha Myrtus pimenta Naphtha Naphtha, artificial Narcein 774 845 549 419 896 662 593 777 593 593 152 152 709 188 187 424 426 425 426 427 427 642 428 428 484 479 479 465 1062 Index. 376 Oi 438 Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Narcotin 463 Oi Native red antimony 94 O Native soda 599 Oi Natron Nauclea gambir Neats-foot oil Neutral mixture 389, 1037 Neutral muriate of the protoxide of mercury Nicotiana fruticosa Nicotiana paniculata Nicotiana quadrivalvis Nicotiana rustica Nicotiana tabacum Nicotianin Nicotin Nightshade, deadly Nightshade, woody Nihil album Nitras argenti Nitras potassx Nitrate of potassa Nitrate of potassa as a poison 511 Nitrate of potassa, puri- fied 938 Nitrate ofVilver 763 Nitrale of silver as a poison 765 Nitrate of silver, crystals of 765 Nitrate of soda 34, 510 Oi 858 628 628 628 628 627 629 628 125 277 1027 763 507 507 Nitre Nitre-beds, artificial Nitre, sweet spirit of Nitric acid Nitric acid as a poison Nitric acid fumigation Nitric acid, table of the specific gravity of Nitric ether Nitro-muriatic acid Nitro-muriatic oxide of antimony Nitrous acid Nitrous ether Nitrous powders Nitrum Nordhausen, fuming sui pburic acid of Nutmeg Nux moschata Nux vomica of caraway of cassia of chamomile of cinnamon of cloves of euphorbia of fennel of horsemint of juniper of lavender . of lemons of mace of nutmeg of origanum of partridge berry of pennyroyal, Ame rican of pennyroyal, Eu ropean of peppermint of pimento of rosemary of rue of sassafras of savine of spearmint of spike of sweet marjoram of turpentine of turpentine, rec- ified of vitriol of wine of wormseed 909 441 909 441 440 442 910 912 910 911 444 445 445 912 910 507 Oi 508 Oi 7210; 30 Oils, empyreumatic 36 Ointment, mercurial 36tOintment, mercurial, j mild 35|Ointment, mercurial, 719 strong 708jOintment of acetate of copper 739,Ointment of acetate of lead 31,35 719 Ointment of Ameri- 511 507 43 424 426 430 o Oak bark Oatmeal (Edema arsenicalis Oil, ethereal Oil of almonds Oil of amber Oil of amber, rectified Oil of anise 522 121 17 717 438 623,914 914 909 can hellebore Ointment of ammo- niated mercuiy Ointment of black pepper Ointment of carbonate of lead Ointment of elemi Ointment of elemi, compound Ointment of figwort Ointment of galls Ointment of gray oxide of mercury Ointment of hemlock Ointment, of hydrio- date of potassa Ointment of impure oxide of zinc Ointment of infusion of Spanish flies Ointment of iodine Ointment of nitrate of mercury Ointment of nitric acid Ointment of nitrous acid Ointment of oxide of zinc Ointment of pitch Ointment of protio- dide of mercury Ointment of red oxide of mercury 910 Ointment of rose- water 913 Ointment of Spanish 911 flies 913 Ointment of sulphuric acid Ointment of the pow- der of Spanish flies Ointment of thorn- apple Ointment of white hellebore Ointment, simple Ointments Olea Olea destillata Olea essentialia Olea Europxa Olea expressa Olea fixa Olea volatilia Oleic acid Oleo-saccharum Oleum xthereum Oleum ammoniatum Oleum am'ygdalx Oleum anisi Oleum anthemidis Oleum bubulum Oleum cajuputi Oleum camphoratum Oleum cari Oleum carui Oleum caryophylli Oleum chenopodii Oleum cinnamomi Oleum euphorbix Oleum fixum coci bu tyracex Oleum foeniculi 913 913 914 913 912 911 912 452 915 41 717 910 434 689 1011 1011 1011 1010 1016 1019 1013 1016 1017 1010 1011 1011 101 1017 Oleum gaultherix Oleum hedeomx Oleum juniperi 1015 Oleum Javandulx 101^) Oleum limonis Oleum lini Oleum lini cum calce Oleum menthx pipe- rita 1020 1009 1016 1013 1008 1008 1020 1016 359 1015 1009 1009 1009 1009 1018 1019 1017 1008 434 436, 906 436, 906 446 434 434 436, 906 564 553 717 885 438 909 909 438 439 885 909 909 440 910 441 442 443 910 910 910 910 911 444 444 885 911 Index. 1063 Oleum menthx viridis Oleum monardx Oleum myristicx Oleum olivx Oleum origani Oleum origani marjo- ranx 912|Oxidum hydrargyri ru- 912 brum per acidum ni- 445 446 912 Oleum pimentx Oleum pulegii Oleum ricini Oleum rosmarini Oleum rutx Oleum sabinx Oleum sassafras Oleum sesami Oleum succini Oleum succini rectifi catum Oleum tartari per de liquium Oleum terebinthinx Oleum terebinthinx rectificatum Oleum tiglii Olibanum Olivx oleum Olive oil Olive oil soda soap Onion Opiate powder Opium Opium, India Opium plaster Opium, Turkey Opobalsamum . Opodeldoc Opoponax Orchill Orchis mascula Origanum Origanum marjorana Origanum marjoranoi- des Origanum vulgare Os Ossa Ostrea edulis Ovum Oxacids Oxalate of lime Oxalate of potassa Oxalic acid Oxalic acid as a poison Oxalis acetosella Oxide of manganese Oxide of zinc Oxidum antimonii cum phosphate calcis Oxidum arsenici Oxidum ferri nigrum Oxidum ferri nigrum purificatum Oxidum ferri rubrum Oxidum hydrargyri ci- nereum tricum 866 Oxidum plumbi rubrum 497 Oxidum plumbi semi- vilreum 498 912 Oxidum zinci 1026 913 Oxidum zinci impurum 674 913 Oxidum zinci impurum 448 praeparatum 1028 913 Oxymel 891 913 Oxymel colchici 892 913 Oxymel cupri subacetatis 891 914 Oxymel of meadow- 4511 saffron 914 914 933 452 915 454 457 446 446 566 61 952 458 465 805 461 82 886 472 393 556 473 474 474 473 475 475 641 476 697 38 •38 37 39 10 404 1026 Oxymel of squill Oxymel of subacetate of copper Oxymel scillx Oxymel simplex Oxymuriate of lime Oxysulphuret of anti- mony Oyster Oyster-shell Oyster-shell lime Oyster-shell, prepared 751 15 297 Pale bark Palm oil Palm soap Panax quinquefolium Papaveris capsulae Papaver orientale Papaver rhoeas Papaver somniferum Paregoric elixir Parsley root Partridge-berry Pastinaca opoponax Peach leaves Pearlashes Pearl barley Pearl white Pellitory root Pennyroyal Pennyroyal, European Pennyroyal water Pepper, black Pepper, long Pepper, white Peppermint Peppermint water Peracetate of mercury Periploca scammone Peroxide of lead Peruvian bark 197 Peruvian ipecacuanha 365 Petroleum 479 Petroleum Barbadense 479 Petroselinum 480 Philadelphia fleabane 283 Phoenix farinifera 555 Phosphas sodx 965 Phosphate of iron 841 Phosphate of soda 965 Phosphorus 481 Phosphorus, ethereal solution of Phytolacca decandra Phytolacca baccx Phytolaccx radix Picrotoxin Pills Pills, compound ca- thartic Pills, making of Pills of aloes and assa- fetida . Pills of aloes and myrrh 917 Pills of aloes, compound 917 Pills of ammoniaret of copper Pills of colocynth, com- pound Pills of copaiba Pills of galbanum, com- 197, 213 pound 443 Pills of gamboge, com- 566 pound 477 Pills of impure sulphate 478 of quinia 458 pills of iron, compound 920 537 Pills of mild chloride 892 892 891 892 891 141 749 641 641 770 77 482 483 482 482 235 916 918 690 917 918 919 919 920 920 923 834 458 of mercury 922 1001 Pills of opium 923 480 Pills of rhubarb, com- 313 pound 923 472 pills of squill, compound 924 78 Pills of storax 924 505 pills of subcarbonate 340 of soda 924 130 pills of submuriate of 520 mercury, compound 922 331 Pills of sulphate of iron, 414 compound 924 762 pills of sulphate of quinia 923 485 Pilulx 916 487 Pi lube aloes 917 486 Pilulx aloes compositx 917 413'pilulx aloes et assafoetidx 917 761 Pilulx aloes et myrrhx 917 850 Pilulae ammoniareti cupri 918 574'Pilulx assafoetidx 918 492 Pilulx assxfoetidx com- Peroxide of manganese 404 positx 920 Peroxide of potassium 510 Pilulae calomelanos 922 Peroxide of tin 616 Pilulx calomelanos com- 835 Persica vulgaris 78! positx 922 Persimmon 274 Pilulx cambogix com- 864|Persulphate of mercury 869^ positx 920 1064 Index. 920 921 922 922 923 923 923 923 924 924 484 484 484 762 88 452 636 611 488 636 637 489 640 637 638 636 640 637 Pilulx catharticx com- positz 918 Pilulx colocynthidis compositx 919 Pilulx copaibx 919 Pilulx e styrace 924 Pilulx ferri compositx 92u Pilulx galbani compositx 920 Pilulx gambogix com- positx Pilulx hydrargyri Pilulx hydrargyri chlo- ridi mitis Pilulx hydrargyri sub- muriatis compositx Pilulx opii Pilulx quinix sulphatis Pilulx quinix sulphatis impuri Pilulx rhei compositx Pilulx saponis cum opio 923 Pilulx scillx compositx 924 Pilulx subcarbonatis sodx Pilulx sulphatis ferri compositx Pimenta Pimenta vulgaris Pimento Pimento water Pimpinella anisum Pini oleum volatile Pini resina liquida Pink-root Pinus abies Pinus australis Pinus balsamea Pinus Canadensis Pinus Damarra Pinus larix Pinus maritima Pinus tpafostris Pinus-picea Pinus sylvestris Pinus txda Piper Piper cubeba Piper longum Piper nigrum Piperin Pipsjssewa Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia terebinthus Pix abietis Pix Burgundica Pix Canadensis Pix liquida Pix nigra Plants, collecting of 677 Plants, drying of 677 Plaster measurer 689 Plaster of ammoniac with mercury 801 Plaster of carbonate of lead 808 Plaster of deadly night- Potassa, preparations of 927 shade 802 Potassa, pure hydrate of 931 Plaster of pitch with Potassa, purest carbo- Spanish flies 805 nate of Plaster of Spanish flies 778 Potassa, sesquicarbo Plasters 799 nate of Plasters, spreading 689, 799 Potassa, solution of Pleurisy-root Plumbago Plumbi acetas Prumbi carbonas Plumbi oxidum semi- vitreum Plumbi subcarbonas Plumbum Plunket's caustic Podophyllum Podophyllum peltatum Poison-oak Poke berries Poke root Polychroite Polygala amara Polygala rubella Polygala senega Polygalin Polygonum bistorta Polypodium filix mas Pomegranate Pompholix Ponderous spar Poppy, black Poppy capsules Poppy, red Poppy, white Populus tremula Porri radix Portable soap Port, English Port wine Portiandia grandiflora Potashes Potashes, varieties of Potassa 637| Potassa, acetate of 485(Potassa, alcoholic 260Potassa, bicarbonate of 487!Potassa, bisulphate of 486 Potassa, bitartrate of 486 Potassa, carbonate of 192 Potassa, caustic 410|Potassa caustica 638 Potassa caustica cum 488; calce 488 Potassa cum calce 489 Potassa, dry 490 Potassa fusa 491 Potassa, hydrate of 115 Potassa, sulphate of 161: Potassa, sulphuret of 493 495 498 495 491 18 499 499 643 483 483 259 501 501 581 581 131 302 323 1027 124 458 478 537 458 558 501 475 664 663 219 505 934 937 927 512 941 Potassa, supersulphate of 939 Potassa, supertartrate of 514 Potassa, tartrate of Potassa with lime Potassx acetas Potassx bicarbonas Potassx bisulphas Potassx bitartras - Potassx carbonas, Lond. 936 Potassx carbonas, U.S."' 932 Potassx carbonas e" lix- ivo cinere Potassx carbonas e" tar- tari crystallis Potassx carbonas im- purus Potassx carbonas puris- simus Potassx carbonatis aqua 935 Potassx causticx aqua 927 Potassx hydriodas Potassx nitras Potassx nitras purifica- tum Potassx subcarbonas Potassx sulphas 943 931 502 936 939 514 932 934 504 934 945 507 938 932 512 Potassx sulphureti aqua 943 Potassx sulphuretum Potassx supersulphas Potassx supertartras Potassx tartras Potassii iodidum Potassium 506 Potassium, cyanuret of 930JPotassium, iodide of 502| Potato flies 931;Potentilla tormentilla 936!Potio carbonatis calcis 939, Powder, antimonial 515,Powder folder Potassa, hydriodate of Potassa impura Potassa, impure carbo- . nate of Potassa, impure super- tartrate of Potassa, nitrate of 932 930 930 931 931 502 930 930 945 504 504 513 .507 Powder for a cataplasm Powder of Algaroth Powder of aloes, com- pound Powder of aloes and canella Powder of alum, com- pound Powder of asarabacca, compound Powder of chalk, com- pound Powder of chalk with opium, compound Powder of contrayerva, compound 941 939 514 943 945 502 703 945 156 643 894 751 690 952 739 949 949 949 950 950 951 950 Index. 1065 Powder of ipecacuanha and opium Powder of jalap, com- pound Powder of kino, com- pound Powder of scammony, compound Powder of senna, com- pound Powder of tin Powder of tragacanth, compound Powdering, methods oi' Powders, Powders, Seidlitz Powders, soda Precipitated calomel Precipitated carbonate of iron Precipitated carbonate of lime Precipitated phosphate of lime Precipitateu! sub-muri- ate o£ mercuvy Precipitated sulphur Precipitated sulphuret of antimony Precipitate per sc Precipitate, red Precipitate, white Precipitating jars Precipitation Prepared acetate of copper Prepared calamine Prepared carbonate of iron Prepared carbonate of lime v. Prepared carbonate of * zinc Prepared impure oxide ofzinc 1028 Prepared lard 51 ' Prepared oyster-shell 77 Prepared sulphuret of antimony 748 Prepared tutty Prescribing medicines, art of 10, Prescriptions, formulae 951 952 952 953 95 973 95: 680 948 49 491 861 837 772 774 861 974 749 868 866 873 681 688 787 1025 838 773 1025 Protoxide of lead 492 Protoxide of manganese 404 ------••- '••-- 616 516 516 517 517 518 298 298 862 702 365 562 377 563 561 492 947 948 949 751 949 950 51, for Prickly ash Pride of India Prinos Prinos verticillatu Proof spirit Proof vinegar Protacetate of mercury Protiodidc of mercury ointment Protonitrate ol mcrcui) prototartrate of iron lo-l 1035 670 122 515 515 725 13 350 Protoxide of tin Prunes Prunum Prunus domestica Prunus lauro-cerasus Prunus Virginiana Prussian blue Prussiate of iron Prussiate of mercury Prussic acid Psychotria emetica Pterocarpi lignum Pterocarpus erinaceu Pterocarpus santalinus Puccoon Puce oxide of lead Pulpai urn extractio Pulveres Pulvis aloes compositus 949 Pulvis aloes et canellx 949 Pulvi3 aluminis compO' situs Pulvis antimonialis Pulvis aromaticus Pulvis asari compositus Pulvis carbonatis calcis compositus Pulvis cinnamomi com-. positus Pulvis contrajervx com- positus Pulvis cornu usti cum opio 952 Pulvis cornu cervini usti 775 Pulvis cretx compositus 950 Pulvis cretx compositus cum opio 951 Pulvis hydrargyri cine- reus 865 Pulvis ipecacuanhx com- positus Pulvis ipecacuanhx et opii °51 Pulvis jalapx compositus 952 Pulvis kino compositus 952 Pulvis opiatus 952 Pulvjp pro cataplasmate 952 Pulvis salinus composi- tus 953 Pulvis scammonii com- positus . 953 Pulvis sennx compositus 95o Pulvis spongix ustx 972 Pulvis stanni Pulvis tragacaiithx com poMlus Punica granatum Pure charcoal Pine hydrate ufpotas.. Pure sulphate ot iii.y riesia J| 1'iwe sulphuric .\Swr Pule water Purest carbonate of po- tassa 934 Purging agaric 1°1 Purging cassia 177 Purging flax 391 Purging nuts W.J Purified extract of aloes 820 Purified iron filings 834 Purified mercury 849 Purified nitrate of po- tassa • 938 Purified storax 973 Purified sugar 553 Pyrethrum 520 Pyrmont water 100 Pyroacetic spirit 698 Pyrola umbellata 192 Pyroligneous acid 14 Pyrophorus 70 Pyrophosphate of soda 967 Pyrotartaric acid 48, 514 Pyrus cydonia 267 Q 31 Quadroxalate of potassa Quassia Quassia amara Quassia excelsa Quassia simaruba Quassin Queen's-root Quercitron Quercus xgilops Quercus alba Quercus cenis Quercus excelsa Quercus falcuta Quercus ilex Quercus infectoria Quercus montana Quercus pedunculata Quercus prinus Quercus robur 309, 523 Quercus tinctoria 523 Quicklime 137 Quicksilver 342 Quince seeds 267 Quinia 224 Quinia, preparations of 954 Quinix sulphas 954* Quinix sulphas impurus 959 38 520 521 521 592 522 618 524 309 522 309 309 523 309 309 523 523 523 359 865 840 953 324 160 931 '"889 R Radical vinegar 699 Radix caryophyllatx 320 Rain water 98 Raibins 653 Ranunculus 525 „ Ranunculus acris 525 7 lljuanunculus bulbosus 525 97'llanunculus flammula 525 1066 Index. 525 525 688 714 914 Ranunculus repens Ranunculus sceleratus Rectification Rectification of ether Rectified oil of amber Rectified oil of turpen- tine Rectified sulphuric ether 713 Red bark 197, 217 Red cedar 375 Red lead 497 Red oxide of iron 835 Red oxide of lead 497 Red oxide of manganese 404 Red oxide of mercury, Lond., Dub. Red oxide of mercury, U.S. Red pepper Red poppy petals Red precipitate Red roses Red saunders Red sulphuret of mer- cury Red tartar Red wines Red wine vinegar Refined sal ammoniac Refined saltpetre Refined sugar Regulus of antimony Resin Resin, white Resin, yellow Resina Resina alba Resina flava Resinous extract of Pe ruvian bark Resin plaster Retort Rhabarbarin Rhabarbarum Rhamni baccx Rhamnus catharticus Rhapontic rhubarb Rhatany Rheum Rheum australe Rheum Britannicum Rheum compactum Rheum palmatum Rheum Rhaponticum Rheum Russicum vel Turcicum 532 Rheum Sinense vel Indicum 531 Rheum undulatum 530 Rhododendron, yellow- flowered 536 Rhododendrum chry sanihum 536 Rhceados petala 537 Rhubarb 128 Rhubarb, Chinese Rhubarb, European Rhubarb, Rhapontic Rhubarb, Russian Rhubarb, Turkey Rhus glabrum 915 Rhus pumilum Rhus radicans Rhus toxicodendron Rhus vernix Richardsonia Brazi- liensis Richardsonia emetica Ricini oleum Ricinus communis River water Rocella tinctoria Roche alum Rochelle salt Roll sulphur Roman alum Roman cement - Rosa canina Rosa centifolia Rosa Gallica Rosemary Roses, hundred-leaved Roses, red Rose water Rosmarinus Rosmarinus officinalis Rough wines Round-leaved dogwood Rubia Rubia tinctorum Rubus trivialis Rubus villosus Rue leaves Rufus's pills Rumex acetosa Rumex acetosella Rumex acutus Rumex Alpinus Rumex aquaticus Rumex Britannica Rumex crispus Rumex obtusifolius Rumex patientia Rumex sanguineus Rumex scutatus Russian rhubarb Rust of iron Rutx folia Ruta graveolens 868 866 159 537 866 539 562 872 513 662 11 75 509,510 551 91 ,526 *527 527 526 526 526 82: 808 685 535 528 527 527 534 379 528 530 533 530 530 530 531 533 534 532 532 538 645 644 644 645 366 366 448 448 99 393 70 964 625, 626 70 686 540 539 539 540 538 539 762 540 540 663 255 541 541 543 543 546 918 9 9 544 544 544 545 545 545 544 544 9 532 838 546 546 Saccharum non purifi- catum 5*9 Saccharum officinarum 550 Saccharum purificatum 549 493 663 1002 171 258 554 559 555 555 555 937 1,874 73 512 940 Saccharum Saturm Sack Sacred elixir Safflower Saffron Sagapenum Sage Sago Sagus Ruffia Sagus Rumphii Sal xratus Sal alembroth Sal ammoniac Sal de duobus Sal enixum Sal polychrestus Glaseri 939 85! S Sabbatia 546 Sabbatia angularis 547 Sabina 548 Saccharates 553 Saccharide fermenta- tion 53 Saccharum £49 Sal prunelle 510 Salep 556 Salicin 558 Salicornia 600 Saline powder, com- pound 953 Saline waters 101 Salix 557 Salix alba 557 Salix caprea 557 Salix fragilis 557 Salix helix 558 Salix nigra 557 Salsola kali 600 Salsola soda 600 Salt, common 607 Salt, Epsom 399 SaltofSeignette 965 Salt of sorrel 10,38 Salt of tartar 934 Salt of wisdom 853 Salt, Rochelle 964 Saltpetre 507 Salvia officinalis 559 Sambucus 559 Sambucus Canadensis 560 Sambucus nigra 560 Sandarach 374 Sand bath 684 Sanguinaria 561 Sanguinaria Canadensis 561 Sanguinarina 562 Sanguisuga medicinalis 337 Sanguisuga officinalis 337 Santalin 563 Santalum 562 Sapo 563 Sapo durus 563 Sapo mollis 563 Sapo vulgaris 563 Saponification 564 Saratoga (Congress spring) water 101 Sarsaparilla S68 Sassafras medulla 572 Index. 1067 Sassafras pith 573 Sassafras radicis cortex 572 Sassafras root, bark of 572 Savine 548 Scabious 284 Scales of the oxide of iron 297 Scammonium 573 Scammo.iy 573 Schuylkill water 99 Scilla 575 Scilla maritima 576 Scillitin 576 Sclerotium clavus 578 Scrophularia nodosa 577 Scurvy grass 237 Sea water 101 Sea-wrack 306 Secale cereale 578 Secale cornutum 578 Seidlitz powders 49 Seidlitz water 101 Seignette's salt 965 Selinum galbanum 307 Seltzer water 100 Seltzer water, artificial 756 Semen contra 110 Semivitrified oxide of lead • 498 Senega 580 Seneka 580 Seneka oil ' 480 Senna 582 Senna, American 178 Separatory 683 Serpentaria 587 Sesamum 590 Sesamum Indicum 590 Sesamum Orientale 590 Sesquicarbonate of po tassa 937 Sesquicarbonate of soda 599, 963 Sevum Sevum prxparatum Shell limestone Shells Shells of crustaceous animals Sherry wine Sieves Signs and abbreviations, Simple ointment Simple syrup Sinapis Sinapis alba Sinapis nigra Sinapisms Single aqua fortis Skunk cabbage Slippery elm bark Smilax China Smilax Cumanensis Smilax officinalis Smilax sarsaparilla Smilax syphilitica Snakeroot, black Snakeroot, Seneka Snakeroot, Virginia Snow water Soap Soap, almond Soap, alumino-ferru- ginous Soap balls Soap, Castile Soap cerate Soap, common yellow Soap, hard Soap, marbled 565, 566 Soap of soda, amyg- daline Soap, palm Soap plaster Soap, soft Soap, Slarkey's Soap, transparent Soap, white Soaper's salts Soaps, insoluble Soaps, soluble Socotrine aloes Soda, acetate of Soda, biborate of Soda, bicarbonate of 591 Soda, borate of 591 Soda, carbonate of 139 Soda, chloride of 139 Soda, chlorite of Soda, commercial car bonate of 1017 Soda soap, animal oil 567 978|Soda soap, olive oil 566 593 Soda, sulphate of 605 593 Soda, sulphuret of 967 593:Soda tartarizata 964 777|Soda, tartarized 964 33 Soda, vitriolated 605 276 Soda water 756, 964 652 Sodx acetas 596 569 Sodx bicaibonas 568'Sodx boras 569 Sodx carbonas, Lond. 569 Sodx carbonas, U.S. 568|Sodx carbonas exsic- 1961 catus 58l!Sodx carbonas venale 587JSodae carbonatis aqua 98!Sodx chloridum 5631 Sodx et potassx tartras 566 Sodx murias |Sodx phosphas 565 Sodx subboras 140 663 681 table of Silicate of zinc Silk-weed, common Silver Silver, nitrate of Silver, preparations of Simaruba Simaruba amara Simaruba officinalis Simple cataplasm Simple cerate Simple infusion ot mint Simple liniment 1035 673 114 105 763 76 591 592 591 777 782 881 887 566 567 781 566 564 566 566 809 563 566 566 566 601 564 564 63 596 598 961 597 602 603 604 599 Soda, dried carbonate of 960 Soda impura 599 Soda liquid, Labar- raque's Soda, muriate of Soda, native Soda, nitrate of Soda of commerce, artificial 60 607 599 510 600 Soda of vegetable origin 599 Soda, phosphate of Soda powders Soda, preparations of Soda, pyrophos- phate of Soda, sesquicarbonate of 599 965 49 960 967 Sodx subcarbonas Sodx subcarbonas ex siccata Sodx sulphas Sodx sulphuretum Sodii chloridum Sodium Sodium, chloride of Soft soap Soft water SoJania Soflmutn dulcamara Solidagp. . Solidag\odora Solidago ^irgaurea Solids from liquids, separation of Soluble cream of tartar Solubl&artar Solutio^cetatis zinci Solutio arsenicalis Solutio calcis Solutio muriatis barytx Solutio muriatis calcis Solutio sub-carbonatis ammonix Solutio sulphatis cupri composita Solutio sulphatis zinci Solution of acetate of ammonia Solution of acetate of zinc Solution of alkaline iron, Solution of ammoni- ated copper Solution of arsenite of 961 597 961 602 960 599 960 603 964 607 965 597 602 960 605 967 607 595 607 potassa Solution of carbonate of potassa Solution of hydrosul- phate of ammonia 563, 565, 567 98 278 277 610 610 610 681 598 943 1025 766 771 768 774 731 789 1030 736 1025 847 789 766 935 737 1068 Index. Solution of muriate of baiyta Solution of muriate of lime Solution of oxymuriate of mercury Solution of potassa Solution of subacetate of lead Solution of subcarbo- nate of ammonia Solution of siilrjjrtfcte of zinc ..Iii' Sorrel leaves 4*: South American salt- petre Southernwood Spanish flies Spartium Spartium scoparium Spa water Spearmint Spearmint water Specific gravity Specific gravity bottle Speltre Spermaceti Spermaceti cerate Spermaceti ointment Sphacelia segetum Spigelia Spigelia anthelmintica Spigelia Marilandica Spirxa Spirxa tomentosa Spirxa trifoliata Spirit lamp Spirit of aniseed Spirit of aniseed, com pound Spirit of caraway |J Spirit of cinnamon Spirit of hartshorn Spirit of horse-radish, compound Spirit of juniper, com- pound Spirit of lavender Spirit of lavender, compound Spirit of Mindererus Spirit of nitre Spirit of nitric ether Spirit of nutmeg Spirit of pennyroyal, Spirit of peppermint Spirit of pimento Spirit of rosemaiy Spirit of sea-salt Spirit of spearmint Spirit of sulphuric ether 718 Spirited wine 52 Spirit, proof 725 Spirit, pyroacetic 698 768 774 855 927 925 731 1030 9 510 109 152 610 611 100 414 761 679 679 672 190 779 1010 578 611 611 611 613 613 320 68 969 969 969 970 254 969 970 970 971 736 30 721 971 972 971 972 972 26 971 Spirit, table of the dif- ferent officinal kinds of 52 Spirits 968 Spirituous wines 662 Spiritus 968 Spiritus xthercus ni- trosi) s 721 Spiritus xtheris aroma- ticus ' 719 Spiritus xtheris nitrici 721 Spiritus xtheris nitrosi 721 Spiritus xtheris sulphu rici 718 Spiritus xtheris sulphu rici compositus 718 Spiritus ammonix 727 Spiritus ammonix aro- maticus 728 Spiritus ammonix fce- tidus 968 Spiritus ammonix succi- nate 969 Spiritus anisi 969 Spiritus anisi compositus 969 Spiritus armoracix com- positus 969 Spiritus camphorx 990 Spiritus carui 969 Spiritus cinnamomi 970 Spiritus colchici ammo niatus 970 Spiritus juniperi com positus 970 Spiritus lavandulx 970 Spiritus lavandulx com positus 971 Spiritus menthx pipe ritx 971 Spiritus menthx viridis 971 Spiritus myristicx 971 Spiritus nucis moschata: 971 Spiritus pimentx 972 Spiritus pulegii 972 Spiritus rectificatus 52 Spiritus rosmarini 972 Spiritus stillatitii 968 Spiritus tenuior 725 Sponge 614 Spongia 614 Spongia officinalis 614 Spongia usta 972 Spotted winter green 193 Spreading of plasters 689 Spring water 99 Spunk 131 Spurge, ipecacuanha 289 Spurge, large flowering 288 Spurred rye >• 578 Squill 575 Squirting cucumber 279 Stag's horn 254 Stalagmitis cambo- gioides 311 Stanni limatura 615 Stanni pulvis 973 Stannum 615 Staphisagrix semina 616 Star aniseed 89 Star grass 58 Starch 79 Starch as a test for iodine 357 Starkey's soap 566 Statice 617 Statice Caroliniana 617 Statice limonium 617 Stavesacre seeds 616 Stearic acid 564 Stearin 52, 564 Stearoptene 437 Steel 295 Stibium 91 Still and worm, common 685 Still, small 685 Stillingia 618 Stillingia sylvatica 618 St. Lucia bark 220 Storax 621 Storax pills 924 Stoved salt 609 Strainers 682 Stramonii folia 618 Stramonii semen 618 Strasburg turpentine 640 Stream tin 615 Strengthening plaster 803 Strongest common caustic 931 Strong mercurial oint- ment 1011 Strong-scented lettuce 381 Strychnia 431 Strychnos nux vomica 430 Strychnos pseudo-quina 220 Styracis balsamum 621 Styracis benzoini balsa- mum ' 128 Styrax 620 Styrax benzoin 128 Styrax officinale 621 Styrax purificata 973 Sub-acetas cupri 263 Sub-boras sodx 597 Sub-carbonas ammonix 729 Subcarbonas ferri prx- paratus 838 Sub-carbonas potassx 932 Sub-carbonas potassx impurus 504 Sub-carbonas potassx purissimus 934 Sub-carbonas sodx 602 Sub-carbonas sodx impurus 599 Subcarboflate of potassa 932 Sublimate 686 Sublimation G86 Sublimed sulphur 625, 626 Sublimed white arsenic 765 Index. 106*9 861 769 869 969 819 821 821 825 Sub-murias hydrargyri mitis Sub-murias hydrargyri prxcipitatus 861 Submuriate of antimony 739 Submuriate of mercury 856 Sub-muriate of mercury, precipitated Subnitrate of bismuth Sub-sulphas hydrargyri flavus Succinated spirit of am- monia Succinic acid 623, 708 Succinum 62o Succi spissati 811, 818 Succus spissatus aco- niti Succus spissatus atropx belladonnx Succus spissatus bella- donnx Succus spissatus conii Succus spissatus hyoscy- ami Succus spissatus lactucx sativx Succus spissatus lactu- cx virosx Succus spissatus sam- buci Suet Sugar Sugar, brown Sugar-candy Sugar, Havana Sugar-house molasses Sugar maple Sugar, Muscovado • Sugar of diabetes Sugar of grapes Sugar of lead Sugar of liquorice Sugar of milk Sugar of mushrooms Sugar, purified Sugar, white Sulphas barytx Sulphas cupri Sulphas ferri [Sulphate of magnesia, 856 process for on a large scale Sulphate of morphia Sulphate of potassa Sulphate of potassa with sulphur Sulphate of quinia Sulphate of quinia, impure Sulphate of soda Sulphate of zinc Sulphate of zinc, pro- cess for on a large scale Sulphate of zinc, so- lution of Sulpho-salts Sulpho-sinapisin Sulphovinic acid Sulphur iSulphuric ether Sulphurous acid 712 626 537 Sulphur antimoniatum fuscum 749 Sulphur, crude 625 826 Sulphur, flowers of 62 Sulphur, golden 750, 751 400 Sumach 903 Super-carbonate of soda, 512 water of Super-sulphate of po- 938 tassa 954 Super-tartras potassx Super-tartras potassx 959 impurus 605 Supertartrate of potassa 514 1028 Suspension of sub- stances, means of Swamp dogwood 1029 Swamp hellebore Swamp sumach 1031 Sweet almonds 626 Sweet flag 594 Sweet marjoram 716, 717 Sweet principle of oils 624 Sweet spirit of nitre 963 939 514 513 690 256 659 645 77 134 474 564 721 828 828JSufphur lotum 624 Sulphur, milk of 974 Sulphur, native 624 Sulphur ointment Sulphur ointment, com- pound 1018 Sulphur prxcipitatum 974 Sulphur, precipitated 974 831 591 549 549 552 551 551 549 549 553 553 493 553 553 Sulphur, preparations of 974 Sulphur, roll 625 Sulphur sublimatum 624 Sulphur, sublimed 625 Sulphur vivum 625 Sulphur, washed 626 Sulphuret of antimony 93 Sulphuret of arsenic 17 Sulphuret of iron 843 Sulphuret of potassa 941 553l Sulphuret of soda 967 553lSulphurcttcd hydrogen 553 626, 844 121 Sulphuretted water 101 265 Sulphuretum antimonii 93 842 Sulphuretum antimoni Sweet spirit of nitre, process for on a large scale 723 Sweet wines 662 Sydenham's laudanum 1023 Symplocarpus fcetidus 276 Syrup 552, 978 Syrup of buckthorn 981 Syrup of garlic 979 Syrup of ginger 986 Syrup of gum arabic 978 Syrup of marshmallow 979 Syrup of meadow-saffron 980 Syrup of mulberries Syrup of orange peel Syrup of poppies Syrup of red poppy Syrup of red roses Syrup of rhubarb Syrup of rhubarb and senna Syrup of rhubarb, aro- matic Syrup of roses Syrup of saffron Syrup of sarsaparilla Syrup of seneka Syrup of senna Syrup of squill 980 979 981 983 983 982 982 982 983 980 983 985 985 984 399 512 Sulphas ferri exsiccatus 843 prxcipitatum r on^i Cilr.l\iu>nfiiin ill' Sulphas inagnesix Sulphas potassx Sulphas potassx cum sulphure 9o8 Sulphas sodx 605 Sulphas zinci 10^° Sulphate of alumina and potassa Sulphate of ammonia Sulphate of baryta Sulphate of cinchonia Sulphate of copper Sulphate of iron Sulphate of magnesia Sulphuretum antimoni pvxparatum Sulphuretum ferri Sulphuretum hydrar- gyri nigrum Sulphuretum hydrar- gyri rubrum 68ISulphurctum potassx 734 124 22 265 842 399 749 Syrup of the clove pink 980 Syrup of Tolu 985 748 Syrup of vinegar 978 843 Syrup of violets 985 Syrupi 975 871 Syrup^ 975 SynqHrs* 978 872 Syrupus acacix 978 941 Syrupus aceti 978 41 Syrupus allii 979 Syrupus althaex 979 Sulphuric acid Sulphuric acid as a poison 4a _,-- Sulphuric acid, manu- Syrupus aurantn cort.es 979 facture of 42 Syrupus balsami Tolu- Sulphuric acid, table of tani 985 the specific gravity of 44lSyrupus colchici 980 1070 Index. 980 549 980 980 981 983 983 983 983 984 985 985 978 985 Syrupus croci 980 Syrupus dianthi cary- ophylli Syrupus empyreumati- cus Syrupus limonis Syrupus mori Syrupus papaveris Syrupus papaveris rhcea- dis 983 Syrupus rhamni 981 Syrupus rhei 982 Syrupus rhei aromaticus 982 Syrupus rhei et sennx 982 Syrupus rhoeados Syrupus rosx Syrupus rosx Gallicx Syrupus sarsaparillx Syrupus scillx Syrupus senegx Syrupus sennx Syrupus simplex Syrupus Tolutanus Syrupus violx Syrupus zingiberis Tartar, white 513 Tartarean southernwood 110 T Tabacum Table of drops Table of signs and ab- breviations Table of the value in sp. gr. of Baume's and Beck's hydro- meter Tables of weights and measures Tamarindi pulpa Tamarinds Tamarindus Tamarindus Indica Tanacetum Tanacetum vulgare Tansy Tapioca Tar Tar, Barbadoes Tar ointment Tar water Taraxacum Tartar Tartar, cream of Tartar, crystals of Tartaric acid 46 Tartarized antimony 740 Tartarized soda 964 Tartarum 513 Tartarum vitriolatum 512 Tartras antimonii 740 Tartras potassx 943 Tartras potassx et ferri 839 Tartras sodx et potassx 964 Tartrate of antimony and potassa Tartrate of iron and po- tassa , 839 Tartrate of potassa aP43 Tartrate of potassa and soda 964 Tasteless ague drop 766 Tea-berry 313 Temperature, officinal, for different opera- tions 692 985JTeneriffe wine 663 986 Tepid bath 102 Terebinthina 636 Terebinthina Canadensis 636 JTerebinthina Chia 636 iTerebinthina Veneta 636 627 Terebinthina vulgaris 636 1043 Terebinthinx oleum 452 Testa 641 1035 Testa prxpara'a 773 Testx 641 Thermometers, compa- I rative value of the 1044 degrees of 104i Thorn-apple leaves 618 1038 Thorn-apple seed 618 631 Thoroughwort 286 631 Thus 489 631/Thuya articulata 374 631,Tiglii oleum 454 632 Tin 615 632Tin, peroxide of 616 632|Tin, preparations of 973 633 Tin, protoxide of 616 490|Tincal 597 479,Tinctura aloe's 988 1016,Tinctura aloe's xtherea 988 761 [Tinctura aloe's composita 989 634|Tinctura aloe's et myrrhx 989 46, 513ITinctura angusturae 98_9 514iTinctura aromatica am 5141 moniata 728 Tinctura camphorx composita 1001 Tinctura cantharidis 991 Tinctura capsici 991 Tinctura cardamom! 991 Tinctura cardamomi composita 991 Tinctura cascarillx 991 Tinctura castorei 992 Tinctura castorei com- posita 992 Tinctura catechu 992 Tinctura cinchonae 992 Tinctura cinchonx am- moniata 993 Tinctura cinchonx com- posita 993 Tinctura cinnamomi 993 Tinctura cinnamomi composita 993 Tinctura colombx 994 Tinctura conii 994 Tinctura croci sativi 994 Tinctura digitalis 994 Tinctura ferri acetatis 836 Tinctura ferri acetatis cum alcohol 836 Tinctura ferri ammoniati 845 Tinctura ferri muriatis 845 Tinctura galbani 995 Tinctura gallarum 995 Tinctura gentianx 995 Tinctura guaiaci 995 Tinctura guaiaci ammo- niata 996 Tinctura hellebori nigri 996 Tartar emetic ,^ 740lTincturaassxfcetidxam- Tartar emetic as a pwm>n 746| moniata 968 Tartar emetic, Henry's jTinctura assafoetidx 989 process for 743 [Tinctura aurantii 989 Tartar emetic ointment 1019 Tinctura balsami To- Tartar emetic, Phil- lips's process for Tartar, red Tartar, salt of Tartar, soluble i lutani 1005 743 Tinctura benzoini com- 513,' posita 990 934Tmctura buchu 990 943 Tinctura camphorx 9901 'inctura humuli 996 Tinctura hyoscyami 997 Tinctura iodini 997 Tinctura jalapx 997 Tinctura kino 998 Tinctura lobelix 998 Tinctura lupulinx 998 Tinctura moschi 998 Tinctura muriatis ferri 845 Tinctura myrrhx '998 ' Tinctura nucis vomicx 999 Tinctura opii 999 Tinctura opii acetata 1000 Tinctura opii ammoniata 1001 Tinctura opii campho- rata 1001 Tincturapiperiscubebx 1001 Tinctura quassix 1001 Tinctura rhei 1001 Tinctura rhei composita 1002&. Tinctura rhei et aloes 1002T Tinctura rhei et gen- tianx 1002 Tinctura rhei et sennx 1002 Tinctura sanguinarix 1003 Tinctura saponis cam- phorata 1003 Index. 1071 Tinctura saponis et °pii . 1003 Tinctura scillx 1003 Tinctura senainum col- chici Tinctura sennx Tinctura sennx com- posita Tinctura sennx et ja- lapx Tinctura serpentarix Tinctura stramonii Tinctura Tolutani Tinctura valerianx Tinctura valerianx am- moniata Tinctura veratri albi Tinctura zingiberis Tincturx Tincture of acetate of iron Tincture of acetate of iron with alcohol Tincture of acetate of zinc Tincture of aloes Tincture of aloes and myrrh Tincture of aloes, ethe- real Tincture of ammoniated iron Tincture of angustura bark Tincture of assafetida Tincture of benzoin, compound Tincture of black helle- bore Tincture of blood-root Tincture of buchu leaves Tincture of camphor Tincture of cardamom Tincture of cardamom, compound Tincture of cascarilla Tincture of castor Tincture of castor, compound Tincture of catechu Tincture of cayenne pepper Tincture of cinnamon Tincture of cinnamon, compound Tincture of columbo . Juncture of cubebs ' TTincture of foxglove Tincture of galbanum Tincture of galls Tincture of gentian Tincture of ginger Tincture of guaiac 994 1004 1004 1004 1004 1004 1005 1005 1005 1005 1006 986 836 836 1025 988 989 988 845 989 989 990 996 100, 990 990 991 991 991 992 992 992 991 993 993 994 1001 994 995 995 995 1006 995 996 994 997 Tincture of guaiac, am moniated Tincture of hemlock Tincture of henbane Tincture of hops Tincture of Indian to- bacco Tincture of iodine Tincture of jalap Tincture of kino Tincture of lupulin Tincture of meadow- saffron Tincture of muriate of iro;i 845 Tincture of musk 998 Tincture of nux vomica 999 999 Tormentilla erecta Touchwood Toxicodendron Tragacanth 996iTragacantha Tragacanthin 998 Transparent soap 997 997 998 998 994 Tincture of opium Tincture of opium, acetated Tincture of opium, ammoniated Tincture of opium, camphorated Tincture of orange peel Tincture of Peruvian bark Tincture of Peruvian bark, compound Tincture of quassia Tincture of rhubarb Tincture of rhubarb and aloes Tincture of rhubarb and gentian Tincture of rhubarb and senna Tincture of Rhubarb, compound. Tincture of saffron Tincture of senna Tincture of senna and jalap Tincture of: soap and opium / Tincture of Spanish flies Tincture of squill Tincture of thorn-apple 1004 Tincture of Tolu 1005 Tincture of valerian 1005 Tincture of Virginia snakeroot 1004 Tincture of white helle- 1000 1001 1001 989 992 993 1001 1001 1002 1002 1002 1002 994 1004 1004 1003 991 1003 bore Tinctures Tobacco Tobacco ointment Tolu Toluifera balsamum Tolutanum Toothach tree Tormentil Tormentilla 1005 986 627 1019 641 642 641 104 643 643 643 131 643 646 646 125 566 647 648 684 648 649 649 648 1006 Triosteum Triosteum perfoliatum Tripods, as supports Tritici farina Triticum xstivum Triticum compositum Triticum hybernum Troches Troches of carbonate of lime 1007 Troches of carbonate of magnesia 1008 Troches of liquorice 1007 Troches of liquorice and opium 1007 Troches of magnesia 1008 Troches of nitrate of potassa 1008 Trochisci 1006 Trochisci calcis carbo- natis 1007 Trochisci carbonatis magnesix 1008 Trochisci glycyrrhizx et opii 1007 Trochisci glycyrrhizx glabrx 1007 Trochisci gummosi 1007 Trochisci magnesix 1008 Trochisci nitratis po- tassx 1008 Trona 599,963 Tulip-tree bark 392 Tunbridge water 101 Turkey opium 461 Turkey rhubarb 532 Turlington's balsam 990 Turmeric 266 Turner's cerate 782 Turpentine 636 Turpeth mineral 869 Tussilago 650 Tussilago farfara 651 Tutia 674 Tutty 674 Tutty ointment 1020 Tutty, prepared 1028 u Ulmi cprtijex Ulmus' %r- Ulmus Americana Ulmus campestris Ulmus fulva Ulmus rubra Umbrella tret 651 652 652 651 652 652 402 1072 Index. Unguenta 1008 Unguentum plumbi Vinegar of meadow- Unguentum acetatis | carbonatis 101? saffron 694 plumbi 10l6Unguentum potassx Vinegar of opium 694 Unguentum acidi nitr'u i 1008,1 hydriodatis 1017 ' Vinegar of squill 695 Unguentum acidi ni- Unguentum pulveris Vinegar, radical 699 trosi 100S cantharidis vesica- Vinous fermentation 53 Unguentum acidi sul- | torix 100S Vinum 661 phurici 1009 Unguentum resmx Vinum album Hispanum 661 Unguentum aqux rosa 1009 albx 78C Vinum aloe's 1021 Unguentum calamiiix 782 Unguentum resinosum 78C Vinum antimonii 747 Unguentum cantharidis 1009 Unguentum sambuci 1017 Vinum colchici radicis 1021 Unguentum carbouatk Unguentum scrophu- Vinum colchici seminis 1022 plumbi 1017 Iarix 1017 Vinum ferri 840 Unguentum cerx albx 1017 Unguentum simplex 1017 Vinum gentianx com- Unguentum cerx flavx 1017 Unguentum stramonii 1018 positum 1022 Unguentum cetacei 1010 Unguentum sub-acetatis Vinum ipecacuanhx 1022 Unguentum citrinum 1013 cupri 1010 Vinum opii 1023 Unguentum conii 1010 Unguentum sulphuris 1018 Vinum rhei 1023 Unguentum cupri ace- Unguentum sulphuris Vinum tabaci 1023 tatis 1010 compositum 1018 Vinum veratri albi 1024 Unguentum elemi 1010 Unguentum tabaci 1019 Viola 667 Unguentum elemi com- Unguentum tartari Viola odorata 667 positum 1011 emetici 1019 Viola pedata 668 Unguentum gallx 1011 Unguentum tutix 1020 Viola tricolor 668 Unguentum hydrargyr 1011 Unguentum veratri alb 1019 Violet 667 Unguentum hydrargyr Unguentum veratri vi- Violine 668 ammoniati 1013 ridis 1019 Virginia snakeroot 587 Unguentum hydrargyr Unguentum zinci 1020 Vitellus ovi 476 fortius 1011 Unguentum zinci oxidi 1020 Vitis vinifera 653 Unguentum hydrargyri Ustulation 688 Vitrified sulphuretted mitius 1(*1 Uva passa 653 oxide of antimony 94 Unguentum hydrargyr" Uva ursi 654 Vitriolated soda 605 nitratis 1013 Uvaria Zeylanica 261 Vitriolated tartar 512 Unguentum hydrargyri Vitriol, green 842 nitrico-oxydi 1015 Vitriol, white 1028, 1029 Unguentum hydrargyri V Volatile alkali, mild 729 oxidi rubri 1015 Volatile oils 436 Unguentum hydrargyri Vaccinium vitis Idxa 655 oxydi nitrici 1015 Valerian 656 Unguentum hydrargyri Valeriana 656 w prxcipitati albi 1013 Valeriana dioica 657 Unguentum hydrargyri Valeriana officinalis 656 Wake-robin 111 submuriatis ammo- Valeriana phu 657 Warm bath 102 niati 1013 Vapour bath 102 Warming plaster 805 Unguentum infusi can- Vareck 356 ,600 Warner's gout cordial 1002 tharidis vesicatorix 1009 Various-leaved fleabane 283 Washed sulphur 626 Unguentum iodinii 1016 Vegetable acids 697 Water 97 Unguentum nitratis hy- Vegetable charcoal 161 Water avens 318 drargyri fortius 1013 Vegetable wax . 188 Water bath 684 Unguentum nitratis hy- Venice turpentine 639 Water, distilled 754 drargyri mitius 1015 Veratria 658 Water dock root 544 Unguentum oxidi hy- Veratrum album 657 Water eryngo 285 drargyri cinerei 1015 Veratrum sabadilla 658 Water of ammonia 732 Unguentum oxidi hy- Veratrum viride 659 Water of ammonia as a drargyri rubri 1015 Verbascum thapsus 660 poison 735 Unguentum oxid^wnci 1020 Verdigris 263 Vater of ammonia, di- Unguentum oxi^^pci Verdigris, distilled 264 luted 736 impuri ^^ 1020 Vermilion 873 ' SVater of ammonia, table Unguentum picis liqui- Veronica 661 of the strength of 735 dx 1016 Veronica beccabunga 6611 Water of carbonate of Unguentum picis nigra: 1016 Veronica officinalis 661 soda 960 Unguentum pipcris ui- Veronica Virginica 661 i Vater of cassia 760 Spi , , . 1016 Vina medicata 1020 Vater of cherry-laurel 761 Unguentum plumbi Vinegar 10' Vater of lemon peel 761 acetatis 1016 Vinegar, distilled 692 i Vater of orange peel 758 Index. 1073 Water of sulphuret of potassa Water of super-carbo- nate of potassa Water of super-carbo- nate of soda Water of the ocean Water, soda Wax plaster Wax, vegetable Wax, white Wax, yellow Weights and measures Weights and measures, tables of 1038 Well water 99 Welter's tube of safety 685 943 938 963 101 756, 964 802 188 187 186 678 648 131 15 515 657 366 495 139 593 522 Wheat-flour White agaric White arsenic White flux White hellebore White ipecacuanha White lead White marble White mustard seeds White-oak bark White of eggs as an an- tidote for corrosive sublimate 854 White oxide of bismuth 769 White pepper 486 White poppy 458 White precipitate ois White soap 566 White sugar 549, 55o White tartar 51 White turpentine 638 White vitriol 1028,1029 White walnut White wax White wines _ White wine vinegar Wild briar Wild chamomile Wild-cherry bark Wild cucumber Wild ginger Wild horehound Wild lettuce Wild potato Willow Wine 372 187 662 11 540 257 518 279 113 287 381 249 557 661 Wine, Madeira 663 Wine of aloes 1021 Wine of gentian, com- pound 1022 Wine of ipecacuanha 1022 Wine of iron 840 Wine of meadow-saffron root 1021 Wine of meadow-saffron seed 1022 Wine of opium 1023 Wine of rhubarb 1023 Wine of tobacco 1023 Wine of white hellebore 1024 Wine, oil of Wine, Port Wine, Sherry Wine, Teneriffe Wine-whey Wines, acidulous Wines, astringent Wines, domestic Wines, dry Wines, light Wines, medicated Wines of different coun- tries Wines, red Wines-, rough Wines, sparkling Wines, sweet Wines, table of the strength of Wines, white Wintera Wintera aromatica Winter-berry Winter green Winter's bark Witherite Wolfe's apparatus Wolfsbane Wood charcoal Wood-sorrel Woody nightshade Wormseed Wormseed of Europe Wormwood Xanthorhiza 670 Xanthorhiza apiifolia 670 Xanthorhiza tinctoria 670 Xanthoxylin 671 Xanthoxylum • °70 Xanthoxylum fraxineum 671 Xylobalsamum 82 717 663 663 663 667 663 663 665 662 662 1020 Yeast 189 Yeast cataplasm 776 Yellow bark 197, 215 Yellow-flowered rhodo- dendron leaves Yellow-root Yellow sulphate of mer cury Yellow wax 536 670 869 186 z 663 662 663 66 662 665 662 669 Zamia lanuginosa Zedoary Zinc Zinc, acetate of Zinc, carbonate of Zinc, flowers of Ziijc, impure oxide of Zinc, oxide of Zinc, preparations of Zinc, silicate of Zinc, suboxide of ,^ Zinc, sulphate of 669 Zinc, superoxide of 516 Zinc, table of the pre- 192 parations of 669 Zinci acetas 123 Zinci acetatis tinctura 685 Zinci carbonas 50 165 9 277 191 110 109 555 266 672 1024 673 1027 674 1026 1024 673 1027 1028 1027 673 1024 1025 673 Zinci carbonas impurum 07J Zinci carbonas impurum Xanthin prxparatum Zinci carbonas prxpa- ratus Zinci oxidum Zinci sulphas Zincum Zingiber Zingiber officinale 542 Zymome 1025 1025 1026 1028 672 674 674 649 THE END. 135 * VALUABLE MEDICAL. BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY GRIGG & EIXIOT. COOPER'S FIRST LINES OF THE PRACTICE OF SURGERY: designed as an Introduction for Students, and a concise Book of Re- ference for Practitioners. By Samuel Cooper, M. D. With Notes by Alexander H. Stephens, M. D., and additional Notes, and an Ap- pendix, by Dr. S. M'Clellan. Third American, from the last London edition, revised and corrected. With several new plates and wood cuts, in 2 vols. 8vo. This work is highly esteemed by all the distinguished of the Medical Profession; and, in many of our Medical Schools, is used as a Text Book. EBERLE'S PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.—A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Medicine, in 2 vols. 8vo. By John Eberle, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Obstetrics in the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. 2d edition, improved. This is one of the most valuable works on the Practice of Medicine, that has ever issued from the American or English Press. The distinguished editor of the North American Medical and Surgical Journal, speaking of this work, says,—" The work of Dr. Eberle is confessedly one of very great merit. It does much credit to his industry and learning, while it places in a very favourable point of view his abilities as a practitioner. The talents, industry, and va- riety of research necessary for the production of a system of Practical Medicine, are possessed by few, and when we say, as we do with great candour, that the treatise be- fore us will bear a very favourable comparison with any modern work of the same class, while it is far superior, as well in regard to the soundness of its pathological views, generally speaking, as to the excellence of its therapeutic precepts, to the more popu- lar of the English systems, we confer upon it and its author no mean praise." The April number of Johnson's London Medico-Chirurgical Review, speaking of this work, observes,—" That this is a very respectable compilation; in fine, superior to Thomas's Practice of Physie in this country." Although designed chiefly for professional men, it will be found a valuable practical manual for private or domestic reference. If heads of families were to purchase and consult this work instead of the empirical and in many respects misleading compounds so common, they would have the satisfaction of being assured, that nothing but sound and well tested practical directions would be offered them,—at the same time they would acquire correct notions concerning the character and systems of diseases. Every person of good understanding may comprehend the practical rules laid down in this work. A TREATISE ON THE MATERIA MEDICA AND THERA- PEUTICS, in 2 vols. Third edition, improved and greatly enlarged. By John Eberle, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Obstetrics in the Jefferson Medical College; Member of the American Philoso- phical Society, Corresponding Member of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, &c. MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTS OF OPERATIVE SURGERY: arranged so as to afford a concise and accurate description of the pre- sent state of the Science in Paris. From the French of A. Tavernier, Doctor of Medicine of the Faculty of Paris, late Surgeon to the Third Regiment of Artillery, &c. &c. &c. By S. D. Gross, M. D. MANUAL OF PRACTICAL OBSTETRICS: arranged so as to afford a concise and accurate description of the Management of Preterna- tural Labours; preceded by an account of the Mechanism ot Natural Labour. From the French of Julius Hutin, Doctor ot Medicine of the Faculty of Paris, Professor of Obstetrics, and of the Diseases of Women and Children, &c. Sec. Sec. By S. D. Gross, M. D. HUFELAND ON SCROFULOUS DISEASES. 1 vol. 12mo. TURNER'S ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY; iicluding all - the Recent Discoveries and Doctrines of the Science, to