Papyrus Ebers 
THE 
4 
Earliest Medical Work Extant 
BY 
Prof. H. Carrington Bolton, Ph.D. 
REPRINTED FROM 
The Weekly Drug News, Vol. IX., No. 15. 
New York : 
WEEKLY DRUG NEWS PRESS. 
1884. Papyrus Ebers 
THK 
Earliest Medical Work Extant 
HY 
Prof. h. Carrington Bolton, Ph.D. 
REPRINTED FROM 
The Weekly Drug News, Vol. IX., No. 15. 
New York : 
WEEKLY DRUG NEWS PRESS. 
1884. Papyrus Ebers, tlie Earliest Medical 
Work Extant. 
H. Carrington Bolton, Ph.D. 
The most ancient chemical manuscript extant is a 
Greek papyrus of Egyptian origin, preserved in the 
library of the University of Leyden, and supposed to 
date from the third century A. D., but the Astor Library, 
New York, a few years since, came into possession of a 
work far surpassing in antiquity the Leyden manuscript, 
and of infinitely greater interest and value to the stu- 
dent of the history of pharmacy. This remarkable 
work is a fac-simile of an Egyptian medical treatise, 
written in the sixteenth century B.C. and consequently 
more than 3,400 years old. 
G. F. Rodwell, F.R.S., author of “The Birth of 
Chemistry,” in a letter to the Editor of the Chemical 
News, referred to our knowledge of Egyptian chem- 
istry in the following language: “ When we remem- 
ber that the science originated in Egypt, and that the 
very name is derived from an Egyptian source, we can 
but hope that, in the progress of Egyptian discovery, 
as valuable information in regard to the history of 
chemistry as has already been found in regard to astron- 
omy, may be brought to light.” 
The Egyptian papyrus is a first response to the de- 
sire therein expressed The title reads, translated, thus: 
“Papyrus Ebers, the Hermetic Book of Medicine of 
the Ancient Egyptians, in Hieratic writing. Published, 
with Synopsis of Contents and Introduction, by George 
Ebers. With a Ilieroglyphic-Latin Glossary by Lud- 
wig Stern. Under the patronage of the Royal Bureau 
of Education in Saxony, Leipzig : William Engel- 
man, 1875, 2 vols., folio.” 4 
The papyrus, of which this work is a fac-simile repro- 
duction, was discovered by the archaeologist Ebers during 
his visit to Egypt in the winter of 1872-73. Ebers and 
his friend Stern were residing at Thebes, collecting 
archaeological data and there became acquainted with a 
well-to-do Arab from Luxor, who brought to them for 
sale a modern image of Osiris, and a papyrus of no 
special value. Suspecting that the Arab was holding in 
reserve objects of greater interest, Ebers offered him a 
considerable sum for any remarkable specimens in his 
possession. This induced the Arab to return on the 
following day, bringing with him a metallic case con- 
taining a papyrus roll enveloped in mummy cloths. 
Ebers immediately perceived he had a prize, but was 
unable to command the large sum of money demanded 
for it, until provided with the means through the liber- 
ality of a German gentleman, Max Gunther, traveling 
in that vicinity. According to the Arab’s account, the 
papyrus had been discovered fourteen years previously 
by a man since dead. The original papyrus was dis- 
covered between the bones of a mummy in a tomb of 
the Theban Necropolis. 
Ebers hastened back to Leipzig with his precious roll, 
and deposited it for safe keeping in the University Li- 
brary, of that city, and then, with the co-operation of an 
enterprising publisher and the assistance of royal pat- 
ronage, placed it at the disposal of the civilized world. 
The papyrus, as received by Ebers, consisted of a 
single solidly-rolled sheet of yellow brown papyrus of 
finest quality, 0.3 metre wide, and 20.23 metres long. 
It formed one enormous book, but was divided into no 
pages, which were carefully numbered. For purposes 
of preservation and exhibition in convenient form, the 
roll has since been cut into several lengths. The writ- 
ing, which is exceedingly clear and regular, is partly in 
black and partly in red ink, the latter occuring at the 
heads of sections and in the expression of weights and 
measures. The characters are known as Hieratic, being 
a cursive form of the Hieroglyphic, method of writing, 
and bearing the same relation to the latter that our or- 5 
dinary written hand does to printed characters. Hier- 
atic script resulted from attempts to simplify the forms 
and outlines of the ideographic characters employed in 
Hieroglyphic writing, which is essentially a combination 
of picture writing with a phonetic system. Hiero- 
glyphics, in ancient Egypt, was the written language 
of the people, and Hieratic writing was chiefly confined 
to the sacerdotal caste. 
The papyrus Ebers is so marvelously well preserved 
that not a single letter is lacking in the entire roll. The 
material of the papyrus itself, the inner bark of Cyperus 
Papyrus, was examined by Professor Schenck, Profes- 
sor of Botany in the University of Leipzig, who estab- 
lished its identity with that of similar rolls, and pro- 
nounced it of remarkably good manufacture. 
The age of the manuscript was determined by a con- 
sideration of three points: 
i. Palmographic investigation of the form of the 
written characters. 2. Occurence of names of kings. 
3. Examination of a calendar which occurs on the back 
of the first page. These data enabled Ebers to assign 
the writing to the middle of the sixteenth century, or, 
more precisely, 1552 B.C. Accepting this date — and 
it has been established beyond reasonable doubt—the 
writing was prior to the exodus of the Israelites ; in 
fact, according to the commonly received chronology, 
Moses, in 1552 B.C., was just 21 years of age. The 
authorship was not revealed, but it bears internal evidence 
of being one of the six Hermetic Books on Medicine, 
named by Clement of Alexandria (200 A. D.) 
The Egyptian priests, who were also the physicians, 
in order to give greater authority to their writings, were 
wont to ascribe them to their gods, and their codified 
medical knowledge was generally ascribed to the god 
Thuti (or Thoth). In proof of this Ebers quotes the 
following passage from page 1, lines 8 and 9, of the 
papyrus in question: “ Ra pities the sick ; his teacher 
is Thuti, who gives him speech, who makes this book, 
and gives the instruction to scholars, and to physicians 
in their succession.” This god Thuti, also written 6 
Thoth and Taaut, is the famous Ilermes Trismegistus 
of the Greeks, the same who was regarded by the al- 
chemists of the Middle Ages, with superstitious rever- 
ence, as the father of alchemy. 
However this may be, all historians accord in repre- 
senting Hermes as the inventor of arts and sciences. 
He first taught the Egyptians writing, invented arith- 
metic, geometry, astronomy and music; gave laws to 
the people, and regulated their religious ceremonies. 
At the time of Jamblichus, who lived A. D. 363, the 
priests of Egypt showed forty-two books, which they 
attributed to Hermes (Thuti). Of these, according to 
that author, thirty-six contained the history of all 
human knowledge ; the last six of which treated of an- 
atomy of disease, of affections of the eye, instruments 
of surgery, and medicines. The papyrus Ebers is in- 
disputably one of these ancient Hermetic works ; a study 
of the synopsis of the contents, given further on, will 
justify this belief. 
The receipts and prescriptions contained in this 
treatise are evidently collected from various sources, 
some of them being quoted from still more ancient 
writings. It bears internal evidence of having been 
used in the healing art, for the word “good” occurs in 
the margin in several places, written in a different 
handwriting from the body of the work, and with 
lighter colored ink. Ebers thinks the compilation was 
made by the College of Priests at Thebes, basing his 
conjectures partly on the locality in which it was dis- 
covered. The other great Egyptian Universities were 
located at Memphis, Heliopolis, Sais, and Chennu. 
Ebers gives a synopsis of the contents of the entire 
work, and a literal translation of the first two pages of 
the roll, reserving a commentary and fuller translation 
for a future publication. A hieroglyphic translation of 
a portion of the Hieratic manuscript also accompanies 
the plates ; the latter, 107 in number, are faithful and 
beautiful productions of the original papyrus, in the 
same yellow-brown color. The second volume con- 
tains a Hieroglyphic-Latin Glossary by Stern. Be- 7 
fore proceeding to give details of its contents, one more 
peculiarity is worth mentioning. Though the pages are 
carefully numbered the figures 28 and 29 are omitted, 
while the text is continuous. Ebers conjectures that 
the writer either accidentally forgot his count, or ab- 
stained from usiug these numbers for superstitious 
reasons, the discussion of which we cannot here enter 
upon. 
As already remarked the work is divided into chap- 
ters or sections. We cannot give Ebers’ synopsis in 
full, but a fair insight into the character of the treatise 
may be obtained from the selected headings of sections, 
and extracts here following : 
Contents of Papyrus Ebers. 
Heading of chapters (selected). The numbers refer 
to the pages of the papyrus. 
I. Of the preparation of medicines. 
25. Of salve for removing the uhau. 
47. Catalogue of the various uses of the Tequem tree. 
48. Medicines for curing the accumulation of urine and 
diseases of the abdomen. 
55. The book of the eyes. 
65. Medicaments for preventing the hair turning gray, 
and for the treatment of the hair.* 
66. Medicines for forcing the growth of the hair. 
79. Salves for strengthening the nerves, and medicines 
for healing the nerves. 
85. Medicines for curing diseases of the tongue. 
89. Medicines for the removal of lice and fleas. 
91. Medicines for ears hard of hearing. 
99. The Secret Book of the Physician. The science of 
the beating of the heart, and the science of the 
heart as taught by the priestly physician, Neb- 
secht. 
* Verily. “ there is no new thing under the sun ” (Eccl 1:9); 
hair invigorators, hair dyes, pain killers, and flea powders, were 
evidently fashionable 3,400 years ago 1 8 
Ebers encountered immense difficulties in the work 
of deciphering this papyrus ; as an example of the ob- 
stacles met, he gives the following literal translation of 
a diagnosis beginning on Plate XXXVI., line 4 :— 
“ Rules for the re het, that is, suffering in the pit of the 
stomach (pylorus or cardia). When thou findest any- 
body with the hardening of his re het, and when eating 
he feels a pressure in his bowels (chet), his stomach 
(het) is swollen, and he feels ill while walking, like 
one who is suffering from heat in the back (tau nu 
peht),then look at him when he is lying outstretched,* 
and if thou findest his bowels hot and a hardening in 
his re het, then say to thyself, this is a liver complaint 
(sepu pu n merest). Then make thyself a remedy ac- 
cording to the secrets in botanical knowledge from the 
plant pa chestet and from scraps of dates. Mix it and 
put it in water. The patient may drink it on four 
mornings to purge his body. If after that thou findest 
both sides of his bowels (chet), namely, the right one 
hot and the left one cool, then say of it: That is bile. 
Look at him again, and if you find his bowels entirely 
cold, then say to thyself: 11 is liver (Pmerest) is cleansed 
and purified; he has taken the medicine (sep nef sep), 
the medicine has taken effect.” 
The following is the translation of the first four lines 
of Plate I : 
“ The book begins with the preparation of the medi- 
cines for all portions of the body of a patient. I came 
from Heliopolis with the Great Ones from Het aat, the 
Lords of Protection, the Masters of Eternity and Sal- 
vation. I came from Sais with the mother goddesses 
who extended to me protection. The Lord of the Uni- 
verse told me how to free the gods from all murderous 
diseases.” 
* It is curious to note here that (according to Dunglison) 
Diodorus states that the priestly physicians of Egypt 
formed their diagnosis principally on the position which 
the patient assumed in bed. 9 
The work abounds in prescriptions, of which the 
following are samples: 
“Beginning of the Book of Medicines. To remove ill- 
ness from the stomach. 
“Rub up the seed of the Thehui plant with vinegar, 
and give the patient to drink. 
“ The same for sick bowels. 
Caraway seed 1-64 dram. 
Goose fat 34 dram. 
Milk x tenat. 
Boil, stir and eat. 
“ The same: 
Pomegranate seed 34 dram. 
Sycamore fruit (?) J dram. 
Beer 1 tenat. 
Treat as above.” 
In the original the arrangement "f the substances and 
quantities in two columns is the same as here given. 
The weights are written in red ink. 
Other prescriptions contained reference to pills made by 
mixing certain substances with honey, and rolling them 
into little balls. 
The weights and measures in this unique work de- 
serve more lengthy notice than space will permit. A 
series of special signs indicate measure of volume, and 
figures with dots above them represent weights. The 
unit of weight employed is believed by Ebers to bear a 
close relation to the later Arabic Dirhem or Drachm, 
which is equivalent to about 48 English grains. But, 
owing to the smallness of the quantities given in the 
recipes, the unit is probably double the dram in 
value. This unit and its divisions are represented in 
hieroglyphics thus: 10 
One di-dram 
One eighth di-dram 
One-sixteenth di-dram 
One-thirty-second di-dram 
One-sixty-fourth di-dram 
The fractions 1-8, 1-16, 1-32, 1-64 always recurring, 
and 1-16 predominating, a quaternary arrangement 
which was superstitiously regarded as beneficial. 
The unit of volume is thought to be the tenat, which 
is equivalent to six-tenths of a litre. This unit and its 
subdivisions are represented by arbitrary signs, of which 
the following is an attempt at reproduction: 
Unit or tenat 
H “ 
H •* 
K “ 
A + % or 5-6 
A + A or % 
M + Kor7-i2 “ 
A + A or % “ 11 
When equal parts of the components of a prescrip- 
tion are taken, it is indicated by a light, short, vertical 
dash, placed opposite each substance thus : | . 
The writer failed to detect any sign at the begin- 
ning of the several recipes equivalent to the now used 
by physicians and which, though generally regarded as 
the initial letter of the Latin word Recipe = take, has 
also been referred to an Egyptian source. This 1$ is 
said to have been originally the same as the symbol of 
Jupiter, and to have been placed at the beginning of 
formulae to propitiate the King of the Gods that the 
compound might act favorably. 
The symbols in common use for scruples 3, drams 
3 , and ounces § , are said to have been derived from 
inscriptions on the ancient monuments of Egypt; and 
the resemblance of our sign for dram to that of the 
tenat is certainly very striking. 
Ebers states in his preface that notwithstanding there 
are to be found in this great work many incantations 
and conjurations, from which the priestly physicians 
could not abstain, still there is no hocuspocus nor gib- 
berish in it; on the contrary, it shows that it was possi- 
ble to write in the sixteenth century B.C., complex 
recipes, and that they understood how to administer 
with care the medicines prescribed. Moreover, sorcery 
was forbidden in ancient times in the strongest manner, 
and the alchemistic Magi were punished in the reign of 
Rameses III. with death. The art of the physician 
was lost in the post-Christian era. Science became 
more and more tinged with magic, and gradually ob- 
scured and degraded by it. 
We cannot do better in conclusion than to quote the 
testimony of the late learned Librarian of the Astor,with 
reference to the intrinsic value of this papyrus; he says: 
“It is hardly possible to exaggerate the literary, scien- 
tific and historical importance of this remarkable docu- 
ment. It is the largest, best preserved, and most legi- 
ble text in the language of hieroglyphics, and does not 
speak vaguely of incomprehensible and fantastic ideas, 
but furnishes indubitable insight into different phases of 
the life of the ancient Egyptians.”