EXTRAORDINARY OBJECTS- 
EXTRAORDINARY STORIES: 
CELEBRATING THE 
NLM COLLECTIONS 
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE 
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH 
8600 ROCKVILLE PIKE • BLDG. 38 
BETHESDA • MARYLAND • 1996 
Illustration fron Jan Cemy's 'Knieha Lekarska Kteraz Slowe Herbarz...' (Numberg, 1517) 
I Extraordinary Objects - Extraordinary Stories: Celebrating the NLM Collections. 
Bethesda, Maryland: Published by the Friends of the National Library of Medicine in conjunction with an exhibit at the 
National Library of Medicine from July - October, 1996. 
Acknowledgements 
Funding to publish this catalog was provided by Elsevier Science, Inc. 
Exhibit Curators - Margaret Kaiser and Sheila O'Neill 
Conservator - Martha-Lucia Sierra 
Exhibit Assistants - Cynthia Ronzio and A. Karl Yergey 
Graphics - Joseph Fitzgerald and Troy Hill 
Editorial assistance was provided by Gretchen Hermes and Elizabeth Tunis. 
Special assistance was provided by Dr. Victoria A. Harden, NIH Historian and Curator, Stetten Museum. 
We wish to thank Dr. Marshall Nirenberg for allowing us to quote from his unpublished oral history interview with Dr. 
Ruth Harris. 
We also wish to thank Dr. Elizabeth Fee for her guidance and encouragement throughout this project. 
Single copies of this catalog may be obtained without charge by writing to; 
Elizabeth Fee, Ph.D. 
Chief, History of Medicine Division 
National Library of Medicine 
8600 Rockville Pike 
Bethesda, Maryland 20894 EXTRAORDINARY OBJECTS- 
EXTRAORDINARY STORIES: 
CELEBRATING THE 
NLM COLLECTIONS 
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE 
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH 
8600 ROCKVILLE PIKE • BLDG. 38 
BETHESDA • MARYLAND • 1996 EXTRAORDINARY OBJECTS- 
EXTRAORDINARY STORIES: 
CELEBRATING THE 
NLM COLLECTIONS 
As we near the end of the 20th century, we have a heightened sense of 
the past, as well as the present. Through the history of medicine we 
can see how fundamental concepts of knowledge 
about nature and the body have been redefined 
over the centuries. This exhibit of books, manu- 
scripts, and ephemera from the National Library of 
Medicine’s historical collections represents the diver- 
sity of medical thought and practice over time. 
On display is a sampling of the Library’s most val- 
ued acquisitions treasures from the last five hun- 
dred years of Western medical history. These primary sources repre- 
sent both the extraordinary moments of discovery, as well as the com- 
mon and everyday practices of healing and health care. Unique in 
form and substance, these remarkable books and documents are arti- 
facts of our cultural heritage, offering a glimpse into other times and 
places. 
This exhibit is a celebration of the Library's rich and diverse historical 
collections, as well as a tribute to donors, the Friends of the NLM, and 
Library volunteers. Their contributions to the Library are warmly 
appreciated and acknowledged with gratitude. Celebrating the NLM 
Collections. 
assumptions and redefining its 
future goals. In the midst of 
these constant changes, medical 
concepts and practices, under- 
stood in the context of their peri- 
od and culture, can provide a 
common lens through which to 
look at society. During all of 
human history, people have 
encountered traumatic injury, 
disease, and chronic illness; 
practitioners and their patients 
have found ways of responding 
to these problems. By studying 
the documents they leave behind 
(correspondence, diaries, news- 
papers, photographs, and songs, 
to name a few), we gain a feeling 
of kinship with them—and some- 
times reach insights relevant to 
current medical problems. 
includes a wide variety of for- 
mats and literature types, from 
the great works, such as William 
Harvey's De Motu Cordis (1628), 
to biographical works, personal 
narratives, first-hand accounts, 
diaries, and ephemeral materials, 
such as broadsides and pam- 
phlets. These primary sources 
are unique reflections of the 
times in which they were creat- 
ed. 
Every great library has its 
treasure chest of rare and valu- 
able books and manuscripts, 
carefully preserved and often 
protected from public view. 
Exhibits offer an opportunity to 
present some of these collections 
to the public, allowing viewers 
to appreciate their beauty. 
reflect on their meanings, and 
consider their connections to the 
present. In many ways. 
historical exhibits are about the 
creation of cultural memory 
through the preservation and 
presentation of history. 
Brief History of the Historical 
Collections 
In 1865, when Dr. John Shaw 
Billings assumed the director- 
ship of the Library of the 
These treasures, collected 
from other times and places, 
reflect the long history of human 
cultural achievement. The 
objects on display in this exhibit 
are representative of the wide 
variety of published and unpub- 
lished sources collected by the 
Library—books, manuscripts, 
diaries, letters, reports, lecture 
notes, illustrations, photographs, 
and a range of ephemeral mate- 
rials, such as broadsides, health 
certificates, and diplomas. The 
materials represent the major 
specialities of Western medicine 
since Gutenberg's invention of 
printing from moveable type in 
the mid-fifteenth century. One 
important story underlying the 
earlier items on display is the 
social transformation brought 
about by printing technology. 
With the invention of printed 
text and pictures, books became 
powerful vehicles of knowledge, 
validating and preserving the 
observations of their authors. 
Recognizing that human expe- 
rience rests upon the daily round 
of seemingly ordinary activity, 
our definition of cultural trea- 
sures has expanded to include 
much that at one time would 
have been deemed unimportant. 
What we define today as gems 
of human culture may be objects 
that were never intended to be 
preserved for posterity. We 
cherish them all, ordinary and 
exceptional, because they are 
essential to our exploration and 
understanding of who we are 
and what we can become. 
Surgeon General's Office (now 
the National Library of 
Medicine), the Library already 
had a small medical collection, 
initially assembled by Surgeon 
General Joseph Lovell. But the 
pre-eminence of the history of 
medicine collection at NLM as 
we know it today, owes much to 
the creative spirit and tireless 
efforts of Dr. Billings. During his 
tenure (1865-1895), Billings 
acquired many early works, 
including incunabula (books 
printed before 1501), as well as 
manuscripts, prints, and pho- 
tographs. By 1880, when the 
first volume of the Index- 
Catalogue of the Library of the 
Surgeon General's Office was pub- 
lished, the Library contained 
some 50,000 books and 60,000 
pamphlets. As Principal 
Building the Collections 
The National Library of 
Medicine's historical acquisitions 
program is based on a broad 
interpretation of medical 
thought and practice. The 
Assistant Librarian, Fielding H. 
Garrison continued the Library's 
interest in the history of medi- 
cine. Garrison produced a list 
of classic texts in the history of 
medicine, which served as the 
basis for the famous Garrison 
and Morton bibliography, and in 
1913, published his Introduction 
Historical sources can inspire 
us to understand our present 
through connections to, and con- 
trasts with, the past. The field 
of medicine is continually 
NLM's goal is to collect medical 
history in its fullest—not only the 
exquisite and rare, but also the 
ordinary and commonplace, not 
only the "firsts," but also the 
everyday. Thus, the collection 
remaking itself, challenging past to the History of Medicine. 
published medical literature, 
including books, journal vol- 
umes, pamphlets, and theses, 
printed from the 15th through 
the early 20th century; manu- 
scripts ranging in date from the 
11th century to the present; and 
fine prints, and other graphic 
materials from the 15th century 
to the present. The collection 
consists of more than 600,000 
printed works, 3,000 linear feet 
of modern manuscripts, 3,000 
historical audiovisuals, and 
60,000 historical prints and pho- 
tographs. 
way to the Library often through 
circuitous routes. Some arrive 
in pristine condition, others in 
varying degrees of deterioration. 
The Library provides basic first 
aid and restoration onsite by 
way of cleaning and repair, and 
specialized rehousing. Micro- 
filming, deacidification, and 
highly specialized treatment and 
repair are done offsite at a 
In the summer of 1942, rare 
items in the collection were 
moved from Washington, D.C. 
to a safer wartime location in 
Cleveland's Dudley Allen 
Memorial Library. The history 
collection was referred to as the 
"Cleveland branch" until 1945, 
when it was renamed the 
History of Medicine Division. It 
remained in Cleveland until 1962 
when the new building for the 
Library—now the National 
regional, state-of-the-art conser- 
vation center. 
The National Library of 
Library of Medicine—was 
opened in Bethesda. The histor- 
ical collection was insured for six 
million dollars, packed into four 
vans, and sent to Washington in 
the company of Pinkerton detec- 
tives. 
Medicine's historical collections 
are a cultural repository that 
continues to be added to and 
preserved through an active 
acquisitions and conservation 
program. And as we move into 
the twenty-first century, we look 
forward to sharing our treasures 
with an even broader audience 
of users through the creation of 
digital collections on the World 
Wide Web. 
Preservation of the Collections 
Special collections, by their 
very nature, represent a wide 
diversity in format, physical 
condition, and degrees of artifac- 
tual and informational value. 
The collections at NLM are 
drawn from one thousand years 
of history and have made their 
Scope of the Collections 
The History of Medicine 
Division maintains a pre-emi- 
nent collection of the world's ANATOMY 
The study of human 
anatomy through dis- 
section only began to be 
accepted in medical schools 
in the 15th and 16th centuries. 
Illustrated printed textbooks 
then became a necessary 
requirement for the teaching 
of anatomical dissection, and 
could be used even in the 
absence of a cadaver. Andreas 
Vesalius (1514-1564) was the 
first to meet this need with 
the publication of De Humani 
Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem in 
1543. This classic medical text 
greatly influenced the accep- 
tance of dissection in medical 
schools, which in turn played 
a central role in advancing 
anatomical knowledge of the 
human body in the 15th and 
16th centuries. 
Ketham, Johannes de. Fasciculus Medicine. Venice, 1500. 
Fasciculus Medicine, first published in 1491, is the earliest medical treatise to include illustrations. The 
text is comprised of medical essays, including Mondino dei Luzzi's Anothomia (1316), the first known 
manual of dissection and the foremost text in the teaching of anatomy for more than two hundred 
years. This illustration of a dissection scene depicts the traditional role of the physician, elevated and 
seated, while a demonstrator performs the dissection. 
3 ANATOMY 
Picture printing in the 16th century permitted and encouraged 
anatomists and naturalists to invest care and skill in their illustra- 
tions as records of their own observations. Repudiations by 
authors of pirated or plagiarized editions made clear that control 
was an issue in the pictorial representation of one's own observa- 
tions. 
Vesalius, Andreas (1514-1564). 
Zergliederung dess 
Menschlichen Kdrpers, oder 
Verfass der Anatomiae, insofern 
dieseVoe Mahlern und 
Bildhauern, ja insgemein alien 
undjeden Kuenstlern... ingle- 
ichem auch denen der Medicin 
und Chirurgie zugethanen sehr 
dienlich und erwuenscht ist. 
Augsburg, 1723. 
This second edition of Zer- 
gliederung dess Menschlichen 
Kdrpers (Dissection of the 
Human Body) contains nine- 
teen illustrations made from 
the original wood-blocks used 
in Vesalius' De Humani 
Corporis Fahrica (1543). 
Vesalius was an experienced 
dissector and his anatomical 
drawings, based on direct 
observation, are notable for 
their accuracy as well as artis- 
tic beauty. The muscle figure 
shown here is one of a series 
of full page illustrations 
which are linked by a contin- 
uous landscape view of the 
Colli Euganei region near 
Padua, Italy. The portrayal 
of "living" skeletons and mus- 
cle figures, used also by 
Leonardo da Vinci, presents 
anatomy in a visually animat- 
Ed form. ANATOMY 
A letter by Vesalius, printed 
at the beginning of the 1543 
edition of the Fahrica, marks 
the first appearance of the 
problem of plagiarism in 
medical illustration. In the 
letter, Vesalius accuses partic 
ular authors and publishers 
of having stolen from his 
Tabulae Anatomicae. 
Vasse, Loys. L 'Anatomic du 
Corps Humain. Paris, 1558. 
This French translation of 
Vasse's collection of Galen's 
anatomical writings contrasts 
with the lavishly illustrated 
folio anatomies of Vesalius 
and Valverde. A follower of 
Galen, Vasse did not at first 
appreciate the value of 
Valverde, Juan. Anatomia del 
Corpo Humano. Rome, 1559. 
features contained in the 
Valverde anatomy include the 
now famous "flayed figure" 
shown here, done by 
including illustrations in 
anatomical texts. Later, when 
he did publish a folio edition 
with four accompanying 
plates, he was accused of 
plagiarizing from the work of 
Vesalius. 
The anatomical textbook, 
Anatomia, by Juan de 
Valverde de Hamusco, is the 
most successful of the 
Valverde's friend, the artist 
Caspar Becerra, who had 
worked with Michelangelo in 
the Sistine Chapel of the 
Vatican. 
Vesalian "plagiarisms." There 
are forty-two engraved plates, 
the majority of them bor- 
rowed from Vesalius' De 
Humani Corporis Fahrica. New 
5 SURGERY 
Up to the 19th century, surgery was still being performed by barber surgeons, for whom hair-cutting 
and shaving was their primary means of income. The growth of hospitals and spread of anatomy 
schools in the 18th century, boosted surgery's prestige. By 1800, surgery as a field of medical practice 
was no longer associated with the traditional barber and bleeder. The status of surgery continued to 
grow into the 20th century and the professional and social position of the surgeon today is one of con- 
siderable prestige. 
Ryff, Walther Hermann (d.1548). 
Die kleyner Chirurgi. Strassburg, 
1542. " 
Ryff was a physician and surgeon 
of Strassburg and wrote books on 
distilling and anatomy. This is his 
first work on the topic of surgery. 
Surgery was regarded as manual 
labor and surgical illustrations 
show operations and implements. 
Surgical textbooks of the 16th cen- 
tury are full of such illustrations. 
Shown are two instruments used 
to remove a bladder stone by 
opening and stretching the urethra. 
6 SURGERY 
Morton, William Thomas 
Green (1819-1868). 
To Surgeons and Physicians. 
Boston, 1846. 
Hunter, William (1718-1783). 
"Anatomical, Physiological, 
and Surgical Lectures given 
by Dr. Hunter in Litchfield 
Street." London, 1760. 
This printed letter from Dr. 
William T. G. Morton is a sin- 
gle page circular, folded and 
mailed to his Boston medical 
colleagues in November, 
Cline, Henry. "Lectures on 
Surgery." London, c. 1790. 
This 18th century manuscript 
of surgical lectures, in pris- 
tine condition, covers an 
extensive range of proce- 
dures, including mastectomy, 
cataract removal, lithotomy, 
and tonsillectomy. Influenced 
greatly by the prominent 
London surgeon, William 
Hunter, Cline was described 
by students as "a cautious, 
sound, and successful sur- 
geon, an excellent lecturer." 
Some considered him "the 
greatest the staff of St. 
1846. The letter announces 
Morton's discovery of ether 
and represents his earliest 
public statement on its use. 
Ether had been successfully 
used as an anesthetic as early 
as 1842 by Crawford Long, 
but his findings were not 
published until after Morton 
had already announced the 
anesthetic effects of the com- 
pound. 
This manuscript contains 
William Hunter's detailed 
lectures given from his home 
in Covent Garden on physi- 
ology, surgery, anatomical 
preparations, and dissection. 
Hunter was considered an 
eloquent lecturer and his 
talks attracted large audi- 
ences, including medical 
practitioners, students, and 
members of the public. 
Hunter was a well-known 
proponent of dissection and 
his lectures were among the 
first permitted to be heard 
after the relaxation of the 
Thomas' has ever known." 
Lecture notes such as these 
are extremely valuable 
sources of medical informa- 
tion. 
London surgeons' rules 
against human dissection in 
1745. 
7 SURGERY 
Brown, Joseph B. "Memoranda of Cases: Case Book, June 5, 
1845 - June 15,1849". Detroit, 1845-1849. 
Joseph B. Brown's remarkable notebook chronicles surgical treat- 
ments of prison inmates with a variety of injuries and physical 
deformities. The notebook includes sketches by Brown and 
descriptions of patients, such as John Thompson, the patient 
shown here. This illustration drawn by Brown shows exactly how 
Thompson's harelip and cleft palate were repaired. Brown treated 
deformities with plastic surgery, which had been introduced as 
early as 1786. 
8 Epidemics continued to dev- 
astate cities and countries 
well into the 19th century. 
The organization of physi- 
cians, hospitals, and public 
health activities arose out of 
the rapid changes brought 
about by the Industrial 
Revolution. Since World 
War 11, more and more coun- 
tries have developed public 
health programs to control 
disease and improve the 
health of their populations. 
Today, the World Health 
Organization serves as a 
coordinating body among the 
countries of the world to 
maintain the health of the 
world's population. 
Hydrophobia. An Account of 
the Awful and Lamentable End 
of a Whole Family. Glasgow, 
1824. 
This broadside, printed in 
Newcastle, circa 1824, relates 
the story of the "lamentable 
end" of a family stricken with 
hydrophobia after drinking 
milk from a cow which had 
been bitten by a mad dog. 
Hydrophobia, or fear of 
water, was a symptom of 
rabies. An "efficacious" treat- 
ment for hydrophobia is pro- 
vided for the readers' benefit. 
Broadsides such as this were 
a way for town officials to 
warn the public of health 
hazards. 
A gift to the Library from 
Worth Daniels, Jr., M.D. 
9 PUBLIC HEALTH 
Pregon y Vando, cjue por 
Mandado de su Magestad se ha 
Publicado en su Carte, para que 
se Guarde en Ella, y en las 
Demas Ciudades, Villas, y 
Lugares Destos Reims, 
Conforme a lo Acordado por el 
Consejo. Madrid, 1630. 
In response to a plague out- 
break ravaging Milan in the 
1600s, strict measures were 
imposed. This extremely rare 
quarantine proclamation, 
issued in 1630 by Philip IV of 
Spain, restricts entry into 
Spain to those holding a cer- 
tificate of health. 
Gratis. Noi Priori Della Terra. 
[Viterbo, 1657?] 
stature, clothing, hair, the 
presence of a beard, and any 
other distinguishing marks. 
A gift to the Library from 
Sheldon G. Cohen, M.D. in 
memory of his parents, 
Samuel and Dorothy G. 
Cohen. 
This is a health certificate 
issued in Viterbo, near Rome, 
following the great plague 
outbreaks of 1656 in Rome, 
Genoa, and Naples. Such cer- 
tificates, carried by travelers, 
declared their bearers were 
free of contagion and permit- 
ted their travel from city to 
city during the pestilence. 
The traveler was identified by 
The quarantine, or the passive 
isolation of healthy people, 
was common after the 1450s 
and was one of the earliest 
public health practices. 
10 PUBLIC HEALTH 
Chamberet, Jean-Baptiste- 
Joseph-Anne-Cesar Tybras 
de. Manuscript report, 
"Rapport sur le Cholera mor- 
bus observe en Pologne," a 
cholera passport, and map. 
1831. 
Between 1829-1830, cholera 
claimed more than 900,000 
lives worldwide. In 1831, 
Jean-Baptiste de Chamberet, 
a highly distinguished mili- 
tary surgeon, was sent to 
Poland with a French medical 
team to study the cholera 
epidemic and develop a pro- 
gram to limit the spread of 
infection. A copy of his 
report is shown here, as well 
as the cholera passport he 
used to gain access to hospi- 
tals in the stricken regions. 
This small map is one of two 
included in the collection. 
11 PHARMACY 
Herbals were a popular source of information about medicinal remedies throughout medieval Europe, 
although works of medical botany had been produced since antiquity. Until there was moveable 
type, the variability of hand-copied illustration limited the didatic use of pictures in favor of text. 
Printed books in turn inherited from their manuscript predecessors this tendency to present illustra- 
tions subordinate to text 
Cerny, Jan. Knieha Lekarska Kteraz 
sloive Herharz: aneb Zelinarz: zvelmi 
uziteczna: z mnohych knieh latinskych. 
y zskutecznych praezij wybrana: poezi- 
na se sstiastnie. Nurnberg, 1517. 
Cerny was a master of botanical 
description; his work presents infor- 
mation on over 440 plant, animal, 
mineral, and chemical remedies. The 
woodcut illustrations were added by 
the editor who took them from an 
earlier work by Johann von Cube. 
This copy, one of only five known 
copies, has fifty leaves of manuscript 
pharmaceutical recipes. It is hand 
colored and includes extensive anno- 
tations. 
12 PHARMACY 
Culpeper, Nicholas (1616- 
1654). The English Physitian, 
or an Astrologo-Physical 
Discourse of the Vulgar Herbs 
of this Nation. London, 1652, 
A rare first edition, this pop- 
ular English herbal was print- 
ed in London in 1652. 
Culpeper provides recipes for 
the ordinary person seeking 
treatment for common ill- 
nesses; the book was so pop- 
ular that in the first year it 
was printed, two counterfeit 
editions were also published. 
Culpeper was an astrological 
herbalist who incurred the 
wrath of the Royal College of 
Physicians of London by 
Di Petris, Andrea. "II Bottanico Curioso in cui si vede le vive 
Piante Delineate, et Miniate al Naturale, Locodove nascono. 
Forma, Qualita, et Virtu Loro, Cavati da Gravi Antichi, et 
Moderni Autori, et dalla Esperienza Quotidiana Probata, Come 
anco di quelle non pui mai trovati, ne men scritte d'altri Autori, le 
quale con Somme Dilligenza, Gustate, Considerate, et Probate in 
diversi modi et maniere." Padua, 1730. 
publishing an unofficial 
translation of the London 
Pharmacopoeia. The English 
Physitian enjoyed large com- 
mercial sales, but did not win 
the acceptance of the London 
This carefully written and illustrated manuscript documents 
herbal medicines from the region surrounding Padova, Italy. 
Over 200 herbs and plants are described by Di Petris in this 
exceptionally rare manuscript. Colorful botanical drawings 
enhance the detailed descriptions of physical structure, geograph- 
ical locations, medicinal uses, and associated folklore. 
medical profession. 
13 PHARMACY 
Frauendoerffer, Philipp. 
Tabula Smaragdina Medico- 
Pharmaceutica. Norimbergae, 
1699. 
Frauendoerffer, a physician 
and pharmacist, compiled 
this list of six hundred phar- 
maceutical preparations, 
drawn from ancient and 
more contemporary sources 
of the period. This edition, 
printed in Nuremberg in 
1699, was the first of many 
editions of this popular work. 
It includes a list of diseases 
with their chemical treat- 
ments. 
Royal College of Physicians 
of London. Pharmacopoeia 
Collegii Regalis Londini. 
London, 1682. 
This London Pharmacopoeia 
was printed in 1682. This 
beautiful pocket edition is 
bound in contemporary black 
morocco, with spine gilt in 
compartments, gilt panelled 
sides with acorn ornaments, 
and silver clasps and corner 
pieces. 
14 PHARMACY 
Tissot, Johann Jacob. 
Catalogus Medicamentorum tam 
Simplicium quam 
Compositorum ut & Chymica 
Arte Praeparatorum, quae hoc 
tempore in Pharmacopolio. 
Bremen, 1713. 
This is a list of pharmaceuti- 
cals offered for sale in Tissot’s 
pharmacy in Bremen. The 
drugs are listed alphabetical- 
ly, giving both the Latin 
name and its German equiva- 
lent. The prices have been 
added by an 18th century 
hand. 
15 MILITARY MEDICINE 
The two objectives of military medicine, to keep the army in good health, and to treat those fallen in 
combat, have produced many medical innovations and inventions through the centuries, especially in 
the areas of surgery and the control of infectious diseases. Ambroise Fare's treatise on gunshot 
wounds, Dominique Jean Larrey's "flying ambulances", Silas Weir Mitchell's work on injuries of 
nerves, and Walter Reed's work on yellow fever are all triumphs of military medicine. General 
Washington's concern for the health of the troops of the Continental Army and his attempts to 
improve their living conditions are well documented. Unfortunately, sanitation and hygiene left 
much to be desired and more soldiers died from disease than from battle in both the American 
Revolutionary War and the Civil War. 
Letter from George Washington to the Honorable Joseph Jones, Esq., written at 
Army headquarters in Bergen County, New Jersey, September 9,1780. 
General George Washington's letter to Congressman Joseph Jones recommends 
Doctors Craik and Cochran for continued service in the Army's Medical 
Department. The Department was being reorganized as a result of continued 
high rates of illness, lack of supplies, and professional jealousies between 
physicians. This letter, written thirteen months before the British surrender at 
Yorktown, indicates that General Washington "ha[d] nothing more at heart, 
than the health of the troops." 
16 MILITARY MEDICINE 
George Washington, 
Instructions for Soldiers in the 
Service of the United States. 
Concerning the Means of 
Preserving Health. Fishkill, 
New York, 1777. 
General George Washington 
issued this broadside to 
emphasize the importance of 
cleanliness as a means of pre- 
serving health. Citing the 
biblical example of the 
"army" of Israelites under the 
command of "general" Moses, 
Washington indicates that his 
soldiers, like Moses' soldiers, 
should wash, stay dry, and 
frequently change their 
clothes and bedding in order 
to prevent disease. 
17 MILITARY MEDICINE 
"Enrolled. An Act to Reorganize 
and Promote the Efficiency of the 
Medical Department of the 
Provisional Army." Signed by 
Thomas S. Bocock and Robert M. T. 
Hunter. October 4,1862. 
This very rare document shows the 
rank and financial compensation of 
medical officers in the Army of the 
Confederate States of America. 
Signed by the leaders of the 
Confederate House of 
Representatives and Senate, the 
document shows that medical offi- 
cers' pay was equivalent to that of 
men of similar rank in the 
Confederate cavalry. 
18 The first hospitals in Western Europe were essentially almshouses, providing refuge for the sick and 
the poor. In the 19th century, in response to population increases, there was a notable growth in the 
number of hospitals. By 1800, new anatomical and clinical approaches to medicine had developed 
and the hospital gradually ceased to be primarily a site of charity, care, and convalescence. The 
"clinic" became central to medicine as the principle site for bringing laboratory research and bedside 
observation together. 
Nightingale, Florence (1820- 
1910). Notes on Matters 
Affecting the Health, Efficiency, 
and Hospital Administration of 
the British Army, Founded 
Chiefly on the Experience of the 
Late War. London, 1858. 
This rare copy of Notes is con- 
sidered to be one of the most 
significant printed reports on 
wartime hospital organiza- 
tion and administration, yet it 
is probably Nightingale's 
least known work. Prepared 
at the request of the British 
Secretary of State for War, the 
book includes an account of 
Nightingale's experience in 
the Crimean War and details 
her recommendations for the 
improvement of hospital 
administration and sanita- 
tion. 
19 HOSPITALS 
Der Pesthof. Hamburg, 1746. 
This broadside is one in a 
series of appeals, written in 
verse, to encourage contribu- 
tions for the construction of a 
new hospital in Hamburg, 
Germany. The Hamburg 
Plague Hospital had become 
a municipal hospital and 
poorhouse, and its resources 
were stretched to the limit. 
The broadside shows the hos- 
pital's severe over-crowding, 
as well as the variety of cases 
being treated at one time. In 
the background, mentally ill 
patients are shown housed in 
cells. In the foreground, a 
patient suffers from elephan- 
tiasis and a surgeon performs 
an amputation. 
20 HOSPITALS 
Medical Journal of the U.S. 
Brig 80/zzh, October 1, 1862 to 
February 22,1864. 
During the American Civil 
War, the U.S. Brig Bohio was 
stationed in the Gulf of 
Mexico on blockade duty. 
For nearly a year and a half. 
Surgeon's Steward, 
F. Higman, kept this medical 
journal. His daily entries 
describe symptoms, diagno- 
sis, and treatment of approxi- 
mately 180 seamen. This 
very rare journal provides 
unique documentation on 
health conditions aboard a 
navy ship during the Civil 
War. 
Stearns, Amanda Akin. 
Amory Square Hospital nurs- 
ing diary, 1848-1864. 
Nurse Stearns kept this diary 
while working in the Armory 
Square Hospital in 
Washington, D.C., during the 
spring and summer of 1864. 
She writes of hospital affairs 
and relates Civil War anec- 
dotes told to her by soldiers 
recuperating in the hospital. 
In 1909, her diary was pub- 
lished as The Lady Nurse of 
Ward E. The many deletions 
and word changes through- 
out the diary suggest that 
Nurse Stearns intended her 
diary for publication. 
21 MIDWIFERY 
Traditionally reserved to females, the role of birth helper was known in England as "midwife". Male 
attendents had rarely been present at the birth of a child, but by the end of the 17th century male mid- 
wifery had become the fashion in certain parts of Europe. Obstetrical skills improved in the 18th cen- 
tury, bringing about a radical transformation of childbirth. In England, and later in North America, 
the traditional "granny midwife" became displaced by a male operator, the "man-midwife". Today, the 
American College of Nurse Midwives, with a membership of over 8,000, is an international organiza- 
tion committed to the improvement of maternal-child health care worldwide, with programs estab- 
lished in many underserved areas of the world. 
Albertus Magnus, (1193-1280). 
Secreta Mulieru[m] & Virorum 
Nuperrime Correcta & Eme[n]data. 
Paris c. 1500. 
This extremely rare medieval 
treatise on gynecology is signifi- 
cant for its theories of conception, 
nutrition of the fetus, and the role 
of astrology in procreation. The 
text explores the influence of the 
planets on the fetus and its posi- 
tions, as well as on stillbirths, 
signs of pregnancy, and sterility. 
Authorship of the treatise has 
been traditionally attributed to 
the 13th century Dominican 
philosopher, Albertus Magnus 
(Albert the Great, Bishop of 
Ratisbon). 
22 MIDWIFERY 
MacKenzie, Colin (d. 1775) 
and Lowder, William (d. 
1801). "Lectures on the 
Theory and Practice of 
Midwifery." London, c. 
1775. 
Haighton, John. "Lectures on 
Midwifery," delivered by Dr. 
Haighton and taken down by 
Giles Roberts. London, 1795. 
This well-preserved manu- 
script notebook contains the 
lecture notes of Doctors Colin 
MacKenzie and William 
Compiled by the apothecary 
and man-midwife, Giles 
Roberts, this text describes 
the anatomy and physiology 
of pregnancy. Known as "an 
excellent obstetric operator" 
by his admirers, Haighton’s 
detractors called him "the 
Merciless Doctor" for his 
ruthless and numerous physi- 
ological experiments. 
Lowder, who were in the 
forefront of obstetrics in 18th 
century London. MacKenzie, 
a student of Smellie, was 
instrumental in the discovery 
of the relationship between 
the circulatory systems of 
mother and fetus. Lowder 
perfected the vectis, a forceps 
with a single blade. 
Smellie, William (1697-1763). 
Midwifery diploma. England, 
1750. 
This signed diploma certifies 
that John Mapples attended 
Doctor William Smellie's 
midwifery courses. Smellie 
was a dominant figure 
among 18th century obstetri- 
cians and a successful teacher 
of midwifery. Over a period 
of ten years, Smellie gave 
nearly 300 lectures and pub- 
lished, A Treatise on the Theory 
and Practice of Midwifery 
(London, 1752), in which he 
provides an accurate descrip- 
tion of parturition and advo- 
cates the safe use of forceps 
in delivery. 
23 MIDWIFERY 
This diploma certifies that 
Lalla Mary Goggans success- 
fully completed midwifery 
training in 1942. Goggans' 
early work was with the 
granny midwives in West 
Florida. 
American College of Nurse-Midwives Archives 
(1946-1976). 
These items - a diploma and photograph - are from 
the archives of the College. The College is a profes- 
sional organization representing certified nurse 
midwives practicing in the United States and inter- 
nationally. It has established programs in many 
underserved areas of the developing world to 
improve maternal-child health care. 
24 CHILDREN'S HEALTH 
Until the latter half of the 19th century there was no distinction 
made between medical care for adults and children. For the most 
part, children of the poor had little or no access to medical atten- 
tion. Epidemics of plague, measles, smallpox, scarlet fever, chick- 
en pox, diphtheria, and other acute febrile illnesses took an espe- 
cially heavy toll on the young. In America, in the years following 
the Civil War to the turn of the century, the subject of child health 
became a public health issue. In 1912, the Children's Health 
Bureau was created, marking the entry of the federal government 
into the general field of child health care. By 1931, when the 
American Academy of Pediatrics held its first meeting, the results 
of pediatric and scientific research had raised the general stan- 
dards of child health care in America and lowered the rate of 
infant and child mortality. 
Sainte-Marthe, Scevole de. (1536- 
1623) Paedotrophiae Libri Pres. Paris, 
1584 
This book, the first edition of a 
didactic poem about the care and 
feeding of children, was written by 
the poet Sainte-Marthe after his 
infant son survived a serious ill- 
ness. The first part of the poem 
deals with prenatal care, the second 
with infancy, and the third with the 
common diseases of childhood. 
25 CHILDREN'S HEALTH 
Atlas der Hygiene des Kindes. 
Berlin, c. 1922. 
This illustration is one of 
ninety-eight plates designed 
as a pediatric care teaching 
aid. The graphs, photo- 
graphs, and illustrations, 
drawn by contemporary 
artists, give practical informa- 
tion and guidance to mothers 
and other child-care 
providers. These messages 
are conveyed through 
images, with minimal com- 
mentary. These colorful 
plates are examples of early 
directives on "modern" child- 
care in Germany after World 
War I. 
26 CHILDREN'S HEALTH 
Letter from Margaret Mead 
to Lawrence K. Frank, July 
10,1931. 
The influence of Freudian 
psychoanalytical theory on 
American anthropology 
resulted in the growth of cul- 
ture and personality studies 
in the 1920s and 19305. In 
this period, anthropologist 
Margaret Mead carried out 
her now famous studies in 
Samoa and New Guinea, in 
which she examined the 
enculturation processes by 
which children are brought 
into adulthood. 
In this letter. Mead writes to 
Lawrence K. Frank, request- 
ing guidance with her pro- 
posed research among the 
"primitive" children of New 
Guinea. Frank was a leading 
figure in child psychology 
and in the forefront of the 
movement in the 1920s and 
1930s to establish child-study 
institutes in the United States. 
From the Lawrence K. Frank 
Papers, 1914-74. 
27 CHILDREN'S HEALTH 
These photographs and comments 
come from an unpublished manu- 
script, "How Your Child Develops 
Through Play/' written by Lois Meek 
Stolz in 1940. An early pioneer in the 
child development movement, Stolz 
advanced a holistic approach to the 
socialization of children in the belief 
that understanding children's feel- 
ings, motivations, and actions was 
key to effective childrearing. 
From the Lois Meek and Herbert 
Rowell Stolz Papers, 1917-1984. 
28 GENETICS 
Many illnesses are caused by a defect in a single gene: a single segment of the hereditary 
material or DNA. Genetic techniques are already used to diagnose and treat such disorders. In the 
late 1990s we are witness to one of the great adventures of human biology - The Human Genome 
Project. The sequencing of the human genome is the equivalent of exploring the fine structure of mat- 
ter. The Human Genome Project aims to identify the position of every gene in every chromosome, 
and the order of every one of the millions of base pairs. The National Institutes of Health in Bethesda 
is one of the leading laboratories in the world carrying out this research. 
Nirenberg, Marshall W. (1927 ). Notes on the Genetic Code, ca. 1964-1966. 
In 1968 Marshall W. Nirenberg shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology with Robert W. 
Holly and Har Gobind Khorana. Nirenberg's work on the genetic code involved description of the 
mechanisms by which protein synthesis was directed in living cells. Deciphering the genetic code has 
allowed us to understand for the first time how life processes in all living things are governed. 
29 GENETICS 
King Gustav of Sweden pre- 
senting the Nobel Prize in 
Medicine or Physiology to 
Marshall W. Nirenberg. 1968. 
Co-workers Heinrich Matthaei and Marshall 
Nirenberg in the laboratory, c. 1961. 
30