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No. 1. 
QUESTIONS 
ON 
Human Anatomy. 
BY, 
SAMUEL O. L. POTTER, M.A., M.D., 
•»♦ 
Author of “An Index of Comparative Therapeutics,” and of the Lea Prize 
' Essay of Jefferson Medical College, on “ Dyslalia, a Study 
of Speech and Its Defects.” 
WITH SIXTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS 
PHILADELPHIA: 
P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO., 
1012 Walnut Street. 
1882. Copyright, 
1882, 
By P. Blakiston, Son & Co. PREFACE. 
This little book contains a series of questions and answers, 
comprising a concise description of the bones, articulations, 
muscles, arteries, veins, absorbents and nerves of the human 
body, including the heart and brain as essential parts of the 
circulatory and nervous systems respectively. Intended especi- 
ally for the use of the medical student in preparing for the 
exercises of the quiz-room and for final examination, it includes 
the essential points of the structures named above, arranged in 
such a manner as to facilitate their acquirement in the shortest 
possible time. With this object I have omitted all superfluous 
description, and have confined the matter to those points which 
must be known in order to pass. In the general descriptions I 
have closely followed Gray, and have retained the Latin names 
so universally used by anatomists, believing that in both these 
respects my course would be that most acceptable to the 
student. For many of the special arrangements I am indebted 
to the lectures of Professor W. H. Pancoast, of Jefferson Medical 
College, and to the quizzes of Dr. Henry Morris, Assistant to 
the Chair of Anatomy in the same Institution. 
Philadelphia, 1882. 
S. O. L. P. TABLE OE CONTENTS. 
PAGE 
OSTEOLOGY 9 
BONES OF THE HEAD 12 
The Orbits 29 
The Foss.® 31 
The Sutures and Fontanelles 33 
The Wormian Bones 33 
The Hyoid Bone 33 
Table of the Foramina at the Base of the Skull 34 
BONES OF THE TRUNK 36 
The Vertebral Column 36 
The Thorax 38 
The Sternum 38 
The Ribs 38 
THE PELVIS 4° 
BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY 43 
The Shoulder 43 
The Arm... 45 
The Fore-arm 47 
The Hand 48 
BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY 50 
The Thigh , 50 
The Leg 51 
The Foot S3 
ARTICULATIONS 55 
MUSCLES AND FASCIA 67 
THE HEAD 68 
THE EAR 71 
THE NECK 71 
THE LARYNX AND EPIGLOTTIS 75 
THE BACK 76 
vii VIII 
PAGE 
THE ABDOMEN 80 
THE THORAX * 82 
THE PERINEUM 83 
THE SHOULDER AND ARM 85 
THE FOREARM 87 
THE HAND 9o 
THE HIP AND THIGH 9i 
THE LEG 95 
THE FOOT 97 
THE HEART 99 
ARTERIES 102 
THE CIRCLE OF WILLIS.. 106 
ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSES it4 
VEINS II5 
ABSORBENTS tlg 
NERVOUS SYSTEM l2a 
THE BRAIN I20 
THE SPINAL CORD I2g 
THE CRANIAL NERVES I2g 
THE SPINAL NERVES i32 
THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE I36 
CONTENTS. QUESTIONS 
ON 
HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Define the term Anatomy.—Derived from the Greek dea ana, through, 
and Tt/xvs£v temnein, to cut, it strictly means dissection, but is technically 
applied to that science which treats of the structure of organized bodies. 
What are the divisions of Descriptive Human Anatomy ?—They 
are,— Osteology, the anatomy of the bones; Syndcsmology, of the joints; 
Myology, of the muscles; Angiology, of the vessels; Neurology, of the nerves; 
Splanchnology, of the internal viscera; Adenology, of the glands ; Derma- 
tology, of the skin ; Genesiology, of the generative organs. 
State the number of Bones in the adult human skeleton.—It is va- 
riously stated by different anatomists. Excluding the teeth, the Wormian and 
sesamoid bones, and the ossicles of the middle ear, the whole number would 
be 200; excluding also the two patellae, and the hyoid bone, would leave in 
the skeleton proper, 197 bones. 
Describe the Long Bones.—They number 90, act as supports, or levers, 
and are known by having a medullary canal in the centre of each, a shaft 
(.diaphysis), and two extremities. They are developed by osseous deposit in 
cartilage. 
Describe the Short Bones.—Numbering 30, they are found where strength 
is required, but limited motion. They also are developed by osseous deposit 
in cartilage. 
Describe the Flat Bones.—They number 38, protect the viscera by form- 
ing walls around them, and afford extensive attachment for muscles. They 
are developed by osseous deposit in membranes, and consists of two dense 
layers, separated by a cellular or cancellated osseous tissue, the diploe. 
What are the Irregular Bones?—They are 39 in number, and include 
the vertebrse, the temporal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones, and the bones of 
the face. 10 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Name the Bones of the Head.—They number 22, and comprise the— 
Cranial Bones (8)—the frontal, 2 parietal, occipital, 2 temporal, the sphenoid 
and the ethmoid bones. 
Facial Bones (14)—2 superior maxillary, 2 malar, 2 nasal, 2 lachrymal, 2 
palate, and two inferior turbinated bones. 
Name the Bones of the Trunk.—They number 53, as follows, viz.— 
Vertebra (24)—7 cervical, 12 dorsal, and 5 lumbar vertebrae. 
Thorax (25)—7 pairs of true ribs, 3 pairs of false ribs, 2 pairs of floating ribs, 
and the sternum, [with the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae]. 
Pelvis (4)—the sacrum, the coccyx, and 2 ossa innominata; each os in- 
nominatum consisting of 3,—the ilium, ischium, and pubes. 
Name the Bones of each Upper Extremity.—They number 32, as 
follows:— 
Shoulder (2)—the clavicle and scapula. 
Arm (1)—the humerus. 
Forearm (2)—the radius and ulna. 
Hand (27)—8 carpal bones,—the scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, pisiform, 
trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform,—5 metacarpal, and 14 
phalanges. 
Name the Bones of each Lower Extremity.—They number 29, viz.— 
Thigh (1)—the femur. 
Leg (2)—the tibia and fibula. 
Foot (26)—7 tarsal bones,—the astragalus, os calcis, scaphoid, cuboid, ex- 
ternal middle and internal cuneiform,—5 metatarsal, 14 phalanges. 
Name the Unclassified Bones.—They are the— 
Patella (2), which are sesamoid bones, each developed in the tendon of the 
quadriceps extensor femoris muscle. 
Hyoid Bone (1)—the tongue-bone, not articulated to the skeleton. 
Malleus, Incus, Stapes (3 pairs)—the bones of the middle ear. 
Sesamoid Bones, of variable number, situated in the tendons of the gastrocne- 
mius and peroneus longus muscles, and in the flexor tendons of the great toe 
and the thumb. 
Wormian Bones, (ossa triqueta), sometimes found in the cranial sutures, are 
not constant in number or size. 
Name the principal Eminences on Bones.—Heads, are convex and 
smooth, for articulation in movable joints. Condyles, are irregularly-shaped 
heads. Trochanters, when for turning the bone. Tuberosities, are broad 
uneven prominences. Tubercles, are small tuberosities. Spines, or Spinous 
processes, when sharp and slender. Apophysis, is a process which has been an BONES. 
Epiphysis, or separated from the shaft by cartilage, but has become united 
thereto by ossification. 
What other names are given'to bony prominences ?—There are sev- 
eral adjectives applied to them from their fancied resemblances, such as— 
azygos, without a fellow ; clinoid, like a bed ; coracoid, like a crow’s beak ; 
coronoid, like a crown; hamular, hook-like; malleolar, like a mallet; mas- 
toid, like a nipple; odontoid, tooth-like; pterygoid, wing-like; rostrum, a 
beak; spinous, thorn-like ; styloid, pen like; squamous, scaly; vaginal, en- 
sheathing, etc. 
Name the Cavities of bones.—Articular cavities are called cotyloid, cup 
like; glenoid, shallow; trochlear, pulley-like; facet, if smooth; alveolar, or 
alveoli, when socket-like. Non-articular cavities are named fossae, sinuses, 
aqueducts, foramina, canals, fissures, notches, cells, grooves, depressions, etc. 
What is the Composition of Bone ?—Organic or animal matter, about 
consisting of gelatin, vessels and fat. Inorganic, or mineral, about 
%rds, consisting of phosphate and carbonate of calcium (62y3 per cent.), 
with fluoride of calcium, phosphates of magnesium, sodium, and chloride of 
sodium (41/5 per cent.). Heat will remove the organic matter and leave the in- 
organic ; dilute nitric or hydrochloric acid will remove the inorganic, and leave 
the organic. In old age the inorganic constituents predominate, and the 
bones are brittle; in youth the organic predominate, and epiphyseal disloca- 
tion is more common than fracture, especially in the long bones of the extremities. 
Describe the Structure of Bone.—Bone is composed of an outer com- 
pact layer, and an inner cellular or spongy structure. It is surrounded, except 
at the articular cartilages, by a vascular fibrous membrane, the periosteum, which 
receives the insertions of all tendons, ligaments, etc.; and the central cavity of 
long bones is lined by a similar structure, the endosteum. A transverse sec- 
tion of bone, examined microscopically, shows— 
Haversian canals, diameter inch, for the passage of vessels. 
Canaliculi, diameter inch, radiating from the canals, and connecting 
them with the lacunae. 
Lacunce, arranged circularly around the canals, and contain the bone-cells, 
appearing as irregular dark spaces. 
Haversian spaces, connect the canals with the medullary spaces, and divide 
one Haversian system from another. An Haversian system comprises an 
Haversian canal with its lamellae, lacunae, and canaliculi. 
Concentric lamella of bone tissue, around the canals. 
Circumferential lamella, are bone layers binding the canals together. 
Interstitial lamella, woven in between the concentric lamellae. 12 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
What is the Marrow of bone ? A substance consisting of fat in varying 
proportion and extractive matters, found in the medullary canal, the cancel- 
lous texture, and the large Haversian spaces. 
What Vessels are found in bones? Arteries, veins, and some say 
lymphatics. The arteries are,—the nutrient, entering at the nutrient foramen ; 
the articular, nourishing the cancellous structure; and the periosteal, which 
supply the periosteum and the compact structure. The veins emerge from the 
ends, the shaft, and from the nutrient foramen. 
Describe the process of Ossification. The site of bone is first occupied 
by a mucoid substance, which becomes temporary caitilage (blastema) in the 
second month of foetal life. The young bone-cells (osteo-blasts) are then de- 
posited in the cartilage at certain points, and their deposition and subsequent 
pressure cause the absorption of the cartilage. In most of the bones of the 
head and face, ossification is intra-membranous instead of intra-cartilaginous. 
The first bones in which ossification appears are the clavicle and inferior max- 
illary (5th to 7th foetal week); the last is the pisiform bone (12th year). 
Epiphyses ossify after birth and become united to the bone about the age of 
puberty, and in the inverie order to that in which their ossification began, ex- 
cept the lower end of the fibula, which ossifies and is joined to the shaft earlier 
than its upper end. 
THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 
THE FRONTAL BONE. 
Describe the points on its vertical portion. They are as follows,— 
Externally,— 
Frontal eminences, one on each side of the median line. 
Depression, marking the site of the frontal suture before obliteration. 
Supercilia7-y ridges, behind which are the frontal sinuses. 
Supraorbital notches or foramina, in the supraorbital arches, at about their 
inner third, for the supraorbital vessels and nerves. 
Nasal eminence, at lower end of the frontal depression. 
External angular processes, articulate with the malar bones and form the 
anterior part of the temporal ridges. 
Internal angular processes, articulate with the lachrymal bones. 
Nasal spine and notch, between the internal angular processes. 
Internally,— 
Groove, for superior longitudinal sinus and the falx cerebri. 
Frontal crest, for attachment of the falx cerebri. 
Foramen ccecum, for a small vein to the longitudinal sinus. 
Depressions and elevations, for convolutions of the brain. THE PARIETAL BONES. 
Between the two tables of the vertical portion in the adult are the— 
Frontal sinuses, two spaces at the anterior inferior part of the bone, which 
are lined with mucous membrane, and open into the middle meatus of 
the nose by means of an infundibulum for each. 
Describe its horizontal portion, or orbital plates. They each present 
the following points, viz.— 
Fossa, for the lachrymal gland, near the external angular process. 
Depression, at the nasal margin for the pulley of the superior oblique muscle. 
Ethmoidal notch, having the following foramina on its margin. 
Anterior ethmoidal foramen, for anterior ethmoidal vessels and the nasal 
branch of the ophthalmic nerve. 
Posterior ethmoidal foramen, for posterior ethmoidal vessels. 
Grooves, on the cranial surface, for branches of the anterior and middle 
meningeal arteries. 
Describe its articulations, development and muscles. The frontal 
articulates with 12 bones,—the sphenoid, ethmoid, 2 parietal, 2 nasal, 2 super- 
ior maxillary, 2 lachrymal and 2 malar. It is developed by 2 centres in mem- 
brane, one for' each lateral half. The muscles attached to it are 3 pairs,—the 
temporal, corrugator supercilii, and orbicularis palpebrarum. 
THE PARIETAL BONES. 
Describe their general characteristics. They are two quadrilaterally 
shaped bones situated at the superior and lateral regions of the cranium. The 
superior border of each joins the other by the sagittal suture; the anterior 
border joins the frontal bone by part of the coronal suture; the posterior 
border articulates with the occipital, forming the lambdoidal suture; the in- 
ferior border with the sphenoid and temporal bones. Forming the lateral 
walls of the skull they are named parietal, from paries, a wall. 
Describe the points on each Parietal bone. Externally the bone is 
concave and presents for examination,— 
Temporal ridge, continuous with the same on the frontal bone. 
Parietal emine7ice, the point where ossification commenced. 
Parietal foramen, close to the upper border, transmits a vein to the supe- 
rior longitudinal sinus. Is not constant. 
Internally, the bone is concave, and marked by— 
Depressions for the Pacchionian bodies, and for the cerebral convolutions. 
Furrows, for branches of the middle meningeal artery. 
Groove, for the lateral sinus, at the posterior inferior angle. 
Half groove, along the upper border, for the superior longitudinal sinus of 
the dura mater. 14 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Describe their articulations, development, and muscles. Each parie- 
tal bone articulates with 5 bones,—the frontal, occipital, sphenoid, temporal, 
and opposite parietal. It is developed from 1 centre in membrane. The only 
muscle attached to it is the temporal. 
THE OCCIPITAL BONE. 
Describe its general features and surfaces. It is trapezoidal in form, 
curved upon itself, and placed at the posterior and inferior region of the 
cranium. Externally its surface is convex and presents for examination the 
following, viz.— 
External occipital protuberance, and crest, for the attachment of the 
ligamentum nuchae. 
Superior and inferior curved lines, extending outwards on each side of the 
external occipital crest. 
Foramen magnum, transmitting the spinal cord and its membranes, the 
vertebral arteries, and the spinal accessory nerves. 
Condyles, 2 in number, for articulation with the atlas vertebra. 
Tubercles, one on each condyle, for the check ligaments. 
Anterior condyloid foramina, 2, for the hypoglossal nerves. 
Posterior condyloid foramina, 2, (often absent) for veins. 
<Jugular processes, 2, each helping to form the foramen lacerum posterius 
basis cranii. 
Internally, the surface is concave, showing— 
Fossce, 4, for the cerebellar and posterior cerebral lobes. 
Internal occipital protuberance, where the cranial sinuses meet to form the 
torcular (wine-press) Herophili. 
Crucial ridge, the vertical portion for the falx cerebri and falx cerebelli; 
the transverse portion for the tentorium cerebelli, having also a groove for 
the lateral sinus. 
Groove, for the lateral sinus, and the inferior petrosal sinus, along the 
postero-lateral border. 
Internal openings of the foramina described above. 
Describe the Basilar Process of the Occipital. It lies in front of the 
foramen magnum, articulates with the body of the sphenoid bone, smooth and 
grooved internally for the medulla oblongata, which lies upon it; rough 
inferiorly for the attachment of muscles, and presenting the— 
Pharyngeal spine, for the attachment of the superior constrictor muscle of 
the pharynx and its tendinous raphe. 
Describe its articulations and development. The occipital articulates 
with 6 bones,—the 2 parietal, 2 temporal, sphenoid, and atlas. It is 
developed by 4 centres, one each for the posterior part, the basilar process, THE TEMPORAL BONES. 
15 
and the two condyles; its ossification being completed about the 6th year of 
age. 
What muscles are attached to the occipital bone? There are 12 
muscles attached on each side to the following portions, viz.— 
Superior curved line 3—the occipito-frontalis, trapezius, and sterno-cleido- 
mastoid. 
Space between the curved lines 2—the complexus and splenius. 
Space below the inferior curved line 3—the obliquus capitis superior, rectus 
capitis posticus major and minor. 
Basilar process 3—the superior constrictor of the pharynx, rectus capitis 
anticus major and minor. 
Jugular process 1—the rectus capitis lateralis. 
THE TEMPORAL BONES. 
Describe their situation and divisions. They are situated at the 
inferior lateral portions of the skull, and contain the organs of hearing. 
Each bone is divided into 3 parts, the squamous (scale-like),« mastoid 
(nipple-like)/ and petrous (hard) p and it is named from being the site of 
the first gray hairs [tempus, time). 
Describe the Squamous portion. It is a semicircular plate, smooth 
externally, and grooved internally for the middle meningeal artery, with 
depressions for the cerebral convolutions. Externally are seen the— 
Zygomatic process,d or zygoma, 
arising by 3 roots, and extend- 
ing forwards to articulate with 
the malar bone. 
Zygomatic tuberclep at the base 
of the process, for the ex- 
ternal lateral ligament of the 
lower jaw. 
Eminentia articularis, formed by 
the anterior root of the zy- 
goma. 
Glenoid fossa,g between the an- 
terior and middle roots of the 
zygoma; its anterior part re- 
ceives the condyle of the lower jaw, and is covered with cartilage; its 
posterior part lodges the parotid gland. 
Glasserian fissure, divides the glenoid fossa; it transmits the laxator 
tympani muscle, the tympanic artery, and the processus gracilis of the 
malleus. 
Fig. i. 16 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Opening of the canal of Hugier, lies in the angle between the squamous 
and petrous portions of the * bone; and transmits the chorda tympani 
nerve. 
Temporal ridge,f in part. 
Describe the Mastoid portion. It projects like a nipple from the 
inferior portion of the bone posteriorly. Internally it is grooved for the 
lateral sinus;9 externally are seen the— 
Mastoid foramen f the largest of several foramina, for a vein. 
Mastoid process, at the tip, for the sterno-cleido-mastoid, splenius, and 
trachelo-mastoid muscles. 
Digastric fossa f for the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. 
Occipital groove,8 for the occipital artery. 
Mastoid cells, in the interior of the mastoid process, open on the posterior 
wall of the middle ear, and are lined with mucous membrane. 
Describe the Petrous Portion. It is very hard, pyramidal in form, con- 
tains the internal and middle ear, projects inwards and forwards, and presents 
a base, an apex, three surfaces, and three borders. 
On the Base are seen, the— 
Meatus auditorhis externusp the ex- 
ternal opening of the ear. 
Auditory process, a bony ring for the 
external cartilage of the ear. 
Apex lies internally, at the base of the 
skull, forming the outer boundary of 
the foramen lacerum medium, and 
contains the internal carotid canal. 
Anterior Surface, presents from within, 
outwards— 
Opening of the carotid canal,11 for 
the internal carotid artery and 
plexus. 
Depression, for the Gasserian ganglion of the 5th pair of cranial nerves. 
Hiatus Fallopii, for great petrosal nerve and an artery. 
Foramen, for small petrosal nerve. 
Eminence, over the superior semicircular canal of the ear. 
Depression, over the tympanum. 
Posterior Surface, presents— 
Meatus auditorius interims,transmits the 7th pair of nerves and the au- 
ditory artery, and lodges a process of dura mater. 
Opening of the aqucductus vestibuli,13 transmits to the vestibule a small 
artery and vein, and lodges a process of dura mater. 
Fig. 2. THE TEMPORAL BONES. 
17 
Inferior surface, presents from within outwards— 
Rough quadrilateral surface,19 for the'origin of the tensor tympani and 
levator palati muscles. 
Opening of the carotid canal, transmitting the internal carotid artery, and 
the carotid plexus of the sympathetic nerve. 
Aqueductus cochlea, transmitting a vein to the cochlea. 
Jugular fossa, a depression for the sinus of the internal jugular vein, form- 
ing with the occipital bone the foramen lacerum posterius, which trans- 
mits that vein and the 8th pair of cranial nerves. 
Foramen for Jacobson's nerve, (tympanic branch of the glosso-pharyngeal), 
in the ridge between the jugular fossa and the carotid foramen. 
Foramen for Arnold's nerve, (auricular branch of the pneumogastric), in 
the outer wall of the jugular fossa. 
Jugular surface, for articulation with the jugular process of the occipital 
bone. 
Vaginal process,l ensheathing the root of the styloid process. 
Styloid process,14 a long projection for the stylo-pharyngeus, stylo-hyoid, 
and stylo-glossus muscles (3); and the stylo-hyoid and stylo-maxillary 
ligaments (2), which are attached thereto. 
Stylo mastoid foramen,15 between the styloid and mastoid processes, for 
the exit of the facial nerve, and the entrance of the stylo-mastoid artery. 
Auricularfissure, for the exit of Arnold’s nerve. 
In the angle between the petrous and squamous portions, are seen the— 
Processus cochleariformis, a lamina separating the following canals. 
Opening of the canal for the tensor tympani muscle. 
Osseous opening of the Eustachian tube » inferiorly. 
The Anterior Border articulates partly with the spinous process of the 
sphenoid bone. 
The Posterior Border assists in forming the jugular foramen, and is grooved 
for the inferior petrosal sinus. 
The Superior Border separates the anterior fossa of the skull from the middle 
fossa; to it is attached the tentorium cerebelli, and it is grooved for the supe- 
rior petrosal sinus.10 
Describe its articulations and development. The temporal articulates 
with 5 bones,—the occipital, parietal, sphenoid, malar, and inferior maxillary. 
It is developed by 4 centres, one each for the squamous portion, styloid pro- 
cess, and auditory process, and one for the petrous and mastoid portions. Its 
ossification is completed about the 2nd or 3rd year. 
What muscles are attached to it ? There are 14 muscles attached to 
the following-named portions. To the— 
Squamous portion 2,—the temporal and masseter. 18 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Mastoid portion 6,—the occipito-frontalis, sterno-cleido-mastoid, splenius 
capitis, trachelo-mastoid, digastric, and retrahens aurem. 
Petrous portion 3,—the tensor tympani, levator palati, and stapedius. 
Styloid process 3,—the stylo-glossus, stylo-hyoid, and stylo-pharyngeus. 
THE SPHENOID BONE. 
Describe its position and form. Wedged in between the bones of 
the skull anteriorly, it resembles a bat with out-stretched wings. It is named 
from the Greek word <r<prjv sphane, a wedge, enters into the formation of 
5 cavities, 4 fossae, 3 fissures, and has— 
A Body. 
2 Greater Wings.2 
2 Lesser wings.1 
io points of ossification. 
2 Pterygoid processes. 
2 Styloid processes. 
6 Clinoid processes. 
3 Lesser processes. 
12 Foramina. 
12 pairs of Muscles. 
12 Articulations. 
Describe the Body of the Sphenoid Bone. Placed in the median line, 
cuboid in shape, it presents on its Upper Surface from before backwards, the 
following points, viz.— 
Ethmoidal spine,3 ar- 
ticulating with the 
ethmoid bone. 
A smooth surface, 
grooved for the ol- 
factory nerves. 
Optic groove, support- 
ing the commissure 
of the optic nerves. 
Olivary process, an 
olive-shaped emi- 
nence behind the 
optic groove. 
Middle clinoid processes, bounding the sella Turcica in front. 
Sella Turcica,16 (Turkish saddle), lodges the pituitary body and the 
circular sinus of the brain. 
Dorsum sellce, (back of the saddle), grooved for the 6th nerves. 
Posterior clinoid processes,6 for attachment of the tentorium cerebelli. 
Grooves, laterally, for the cavernous sinus and internal carotid artery. 
The posterior surface is rough and quadrilateral:15 it articulates with 
the basilar process of the occipital bone, ossification being completed from 
the 18th to the 20th year. 
Fig. 3. THE SPHENOID BONE. 
19 
The anterior surface is nearly vertical, and presents the— 
Lamella, in the median line, articulating with the perpendicular plate of 
the ethmoid bone, and forming part of the nasal septum. 
Openings of the sphenoidal sinusesp or cavities in the body of the bone 
which exist in adults, not in children. 
Sphenoidal turbinated bones, (pyramids of Wistar), which partially close 
the sinuses, and articulate with the ethmoid and palate bones. 
The inferior surface helps to form the nasal fossae, and presents the— 
Rostrum,d which articulates with a groove on the vomer. 
Vaginal processes, one on each side of the rostrum. 
Pterygopalatine grooves, which, with the sphenoidal processes of the palate 
bones, form the pterygo-palatine canals, for the transmission of the 
pterygo-palatine arteries and nerves. 
Describe the Greater Wings of the Sphenoid. Each wing, on its 
superior surface, presents the following points, viz.— 
Foramen rotun- 
dum,% for the 
superior max- 
illary division 
of the 5th. 
Foramen ovale,9 
for the inferior 
maxillary divi- 
sion of the 5th 
nerve, the 
small petrosal 
nerve, and the 
small men- 
ingeal artery. 
Foramen Vesalii, transmitting a small vein. 
Foramen spinosum,10 transmitting the middle meningeal artery. 
The anterior surface, assists in forming the external wall of the orbit, 
the spheno-maxillary and sphenoidal fissures. It articulates with the frontal 
and malar bones, and presents a— 
Notch, transmitting a branch of the ophthalmic artery. 
Spine, for part of the lower head of the external rectus muscle. 
External orbital foramina, transmitting arterial branches. 
The external surface presents the following points.— 
Pterygoid ridge, dividing the temporal fossa from the zygomatic. 
Spine of the sphenoidto which are attached the external laternal liga- 
ment of the lower jaw, and the laxator tympani muscle. 
Fig. 4. 20 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
The circumference is partly serrated for articulation with the temporal and 
frontal bones, and partly smooth for the anterior margin of the foramen 
lacerum medium and the inferior margin of the sphenoidal fissure, which 
margins it assists in forming. 
Describe the Lesser Wings1 of the Sphenoid. Called also the Pro- 
cesses of Ingrassias,® they terminate internally in the anterior clinoid pro- 
cesses ;5 their anterior borders articulate with the orbital plate of the frontal 
bone, the posterior are free, dividing the anterior cerebral fossa from the 
middle. Connected intimately with each of these wings are the— 
Optic foramen f formed by the separation of its roots, and transmitting the 
optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery. 
Sphenoidal fissure,7 or foramen lacerum is bounded above by 
the lesser wing, below by the greater wing, and transmits the 3d, 4th, 
ophthalmic division of the 5th, and the 6th nerves, the ophthalmic vein, 
branches of the lachrymal and middle meningeal arteries, some filaments 
of the sympathetic nerve, and a process of the dura mater. 
Describe the Pterygoid Processes of the Sphenoid. The wing-like 
processes descend, one on each side of the body, and divide each into two 
thin, bony plates/'” connected together anteriorly, and presenting— 
Pterygoid fossa, between the plates posteriorly, the origin of the external 
pterygoid muscle. 
Scaphoid fossa, at the base of the internal plate, serves as the origin of the 
tensor palati muscle. 
Hamularprocess, a hook-like projection at the apex of the internal plate, 
around which plays the tendon of the tensor palati muscle. 
Vidian canal,14 at the root of the process, for the Vidian nerve and vessels. 
Triangular notch, at the end of the process, articulates with the pterygoid 
process of the palate bone. 
With what bones does the Sphenoid articulate ? With 12, the other 
7 bones of the cranium and 5 of the face,—the vomer, two malar, and two 
palate. 
How is the Sphenoid developed ? By 10 centres, as follows.—2 for the 
greater wings, 2 for the lesser wings and anterior part of the body, 2 for the 
posterior part of the body, 2 for the pterygoid processes, and 2 for the sphe- 
noidal turbinated processes. Ossification begins in the 2d foetal month, and is 
completed about the 1 ith year, by the union of the turbinated processes with 
the body. 
What muscles are attached to the Sphenoid bone? There are 12 
pairs, as follows, viz.— 
Orbital muscles, 6—all except the inferior oblique of the eye. THE ETHMOID BONE. 
21 
Muscles of mastication, 3,—the temporal, external and internal pterygoids. 
Superior constrictor, tensor palati, and laxator tympani, 3. 
THE ETHMOID BONE. 
Describe its general characteristics. It is a spongy, light bone, de- 
pending from the ethmoidal notch of the frontal, and from between its orbital 
plates. It consists of a body and two lateral masses, and is named from the 
Greek word rflpjiq, aythmos, a sieve. 
What are the points on its body ? The body-* consists of a horizontal 
or cribriform plate, and a perpendicular plate, and presents the— 
Crista gallic or cock’s comb, projecting up- 
wards, for the attachment of the anterior 
end of the falx cerebri. 
Cribriform plate,d on each side of the crista 
galli. It is concave for the olfactory 
bulbs,* and perforated for the transmission 
of the olfactory nerves, the nasal branch 
of the ophthalmic nerve, and numerous 
small vessels. 
Perpendicular plate,a assists to form the nasal 
septum, is usually inclined to one side, 
grooved for filaments of the olfactory 
nerves, and has attached to it the cartilage of the nose. 
Fig. 5. 
Describe the lateral masses. They consist of a number of cellular 
cavities, and each one presents the following points, viz.— 
Ethmoid cells, the anterior opening by the infundibulum into the middle 
meatus of the nose, the posterior into the superior meatus. 
Os planum,h or orbital plate, helps to form the inner wall of the orbit, and 
is notched superiorly to form with the frontal bone the two ethmoidal 
foramina. 
Unciform process, descends to articulate with the inferior turbinated, and 
forms part of the inner wall of the antrum. 
Superior turbinated process,f curves downwards and outwards. 
Middle turbinated process,s is larger and more curved than the superior. 
These processes bound the superior meatus of the nose, and are often 
called the superior and middle turbinated bones. 
Describe its articulations, development, and muscles. The ethmoid 
articulates with 13 bones, viz.—all those of the face except the malar, and 
the frontal and sphenoid of the cranium. It is developed by 3 centres, one 
for each lateral mass, and one for the body, ossification being completed about 
the 6th year. There are no muscles attached to it. 22 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
THE NASAL BONES. 
Describe them. They are 2 small bones forming the bridge of the nose 
by articulation with each other in the median line. They are convex 
externally, concave internally and grooved for the external branch of the 
nasal nerve and for small arteries. They each articulate with 4 bones,—the 
frontal, ethmoid, superior maxillary, and the opposite nasal; are each 
developed by one centre of ossification, and have no muscles attached to them. 
THE SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES. 
Describe them. They are 2 hollow bones, together forming the upper 
jaw. Each bone consists of four processes, and a body which possesses a 
large cavity, the antrum of Highmore. 
Describe the antrum of Highmore. It is a pyramidal cavity in the 
body of the bone, and opens into the middle meatus of the nose by an 
aperture which is very small in the recent subject, admitting only a small 
probe. Its walls are very thin, and are covered internally by a mucous 
membrane. It presents the— 
Aperture, partly closed by the articulation of the unciform process of the 
ethmoid with the ethmoidal process of the inferior turbinated; and that 
of the maxillary process of the palate with a fissure in the superior 
maxillary; also by the maxillary process of the inferior turbinated 
which hooks over the lower edge of the orifice. 
Posterior dental canals, on the posterior wall of the cavity. 
Processes in its floor, formed by the alveoli of the 1st and 2nd molar teeth, 
the roots of which occasionally perforate it. 
What other points are presented by the body? The body has 4 
surfaces, the facial externally, the zygomatic 
posteriorly, the orbital superiorly, and an 
internal surface forming part of the outer 
wall of the nose and the cavity of the 
mouth. It presents the— 
Incisive fossa,2 on the facial surface, 
above the incisor sockets, for the origin 
of the depressor alse nasi muscle. 
Canine fossa,1 more externally, for the 
levator anguli oris. 
Infraorbital foramen,3 above the ca- 
nine fossa, transmitting the infraor- 
bital vessels and nerve, from the in- 
fraorbital canal in the orbital surface 
of the bone. 
Fig. 6. THE SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES. 
23 
Maxillary tuberosity, articulates with the tuberosity of the palate bone. 
Turbinated crests, inferior and superior, on the inner surface, bounding 
horizontal grooves which correspond to the meati of the nose. 
Vertical grooves, on the inner surface, one assisting to form the nasal duct, 
the other to form the posterior palatine canal. 
Rotigh surface, for articulation with the palate bone. 
Orbital surface, articulating with the lachrymal, ethmoid and palate bones 
interiorly, partly bounding the spheno-maxillary fissure exteriorly, and 
forming the lower margin of the orbit anteriorly. 
Infraorbital groove, along the orbital surface, ending in the infraorbital 
canal and foramen. (See ante.) 
Depression, for the origin of the inferior oblique muscle of the eye. 
Describe its processes. They number 4, as follows.— 
Malar process,4 is triangular, looks outwards from the body, and is rough 
for articulation with the malar bone. 
Nasal process,8 is thin anteriorly and serrated superiorly for articulation 
with the nasal bone; posteriorly it is smooth and articulates with the lachry- 
mal. It presents the— 
Turbinated crests, superior and inferior, the former articulating with the 
middle turbinated process of the ethmoid bone. 
Outer surface, gives origin to the orbicularis palpebrarum and levator labii 
superioris alseque nasi muscles, and the tendo oculi. 
Groove on the posterior border, helping to form the nasal duct. 
Alveolar process, forms the curved line of the teeth, and presents— 
Alveoli, or sockets, for 8 teeth in the adult, 5 in the child. 
Palate process, forms part of the floor of the nasal cavity, and the roof of 
the mouth. It articulates with the vomer, the palate bone, and with its 
fellow process, and presents the— 
Incisive foramen, or foramen of Stenson, leading into the anterior palatine 
canal, for the anterior palatine vessels. 
Foramina of Scarpa, 2, transmitting the naso-palatine nerves. 
Groove on the under surface, for the protection of the vessels and nerves. 
Orifice of the posterior palatine canal, at the posterior end. 
Nasal crest, at the articulation of the two processes with the vomer. 
Anterior nasal spine, the anterior extremity of the nasal crest. 
Describe its articulations and development. The superior maxillary 
articulates with 9 bones,—the frontal,12 ethmoid,14 vomer,13 nasal,15 lachry- 
mal, malar, palate, inferior turbinated and opposite superior maxillary.10 It 
is developed probably by 4 centres,—one for the facial and nasal parts, another 
for the orbital and malar, a third for the incisive, ana a ourth for the palate 
portion. 24 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
What muscles are attached to it? There are n, viz.—the orbicularis 
palpebrarum, and levator anguli oris alaeque nasi, 2, to the nasal process;—the 
levator labii superioris, levator anguli oris, compressor naris, depressor alae 
nasi, orbicularis oris, and inferior oblique of the eye, 6, to the body ;—the buc- 
cinator, I , to the alveolar process ;—the masseter, 1, to the malar process ;— 
and the external pterygoid, 1, to the tuberosity. 
THE LACHRYMAL BONES. 
Describe them. They are two small quadrilateral-shaped bones, situated 
in the anterior part of the inner wall of the orbit. Each presents a— 
Groove, on the external surface, forming part of the nasal duct. 
Ridge, also externally, for attachment of the tensor tarsi muscle. 
Furrow, internally, corresponding to the ridge on the external surface. 
Hamularprocess, projecting downwards to articulate with the lachrymal 
process of the inferior turbinated bone. 
Internal surface, closes the anterior ethmoidal cells. 
Describe its articulations, development, and muscles. The lachry- 
mal articulates with 4 bones,—the frontal, ethmoid, superior maxillary, and 
inferior turbinated. It is developed from one centre, and has but one muscle 
attached to it, the tensor tarsi, or Horner’s muscle. 
THE MALAR BONES. 
Describe them. The cheek bones are situated at the outer and upper 
part of the face, aiding to form the cavities of the orbits and the temporal 
and zygomatic fossae. Each presents an— 
External surface, convex, for attachment of the zygomatic muscles. 
Foramen, externally, for the malar branch of the temporo-malar nerve. 
Foramen,c internally, for the temporal branch of the same nerve. 
Frontal process,a articulates with the external angular process of the frontal. 
Orbital process,b projecting backwards, forming part of the floor and outer 
wall of the orbit, as well as part of the temporal fossa, and bounds the 
spheno-maxillary fissure anteriorly. 
Zygomatic process,/ projecting backwards to articulate 
with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone by a 
serrated edge. 
Upper border,b forms the outer and inferior margin of 
the orbit. 
Lower border, thick and rough, for the origin of the 
masseter muscle. 
Anterior border,d articulates with the superior maxillary bone. 
Posterior border, terminates the temporal fossa below. 
Fig. 7. THE palate bones. 
25 
Name its articulations, centres, and muscles. The malar articulates 
with 4 bones,—the frontal, sphenoid, temporal, and superior maxillary. It is 
developed by one centre of ossification, and has 5 muscles attached to it,—the 
levator labii superioris, zygomaticus major and minor, masseter and temporal. 
THE PALATE BONES. 
Describe them. They are two irregularly-shaped bones, situated pos- 
teriorly in the nares. Each bone assists in forming the floor and outer wall 
of the nose, the roof of the mouth, the floor of the orbit, the inner wall of 
the antrum, the zygomatic, spheno-maxillary and pterygoid fossae, and 
presents the following points. 
Horizontal plate,« completes the nasal floor and hard palate; has a— 
Ridge, on the inferior surface, for the tensor palati aponeurosis. 
Groove, assisting to form the posterior palatine canal. 
Foramina, transmitting the anterior and posterior 
palatine nerves. 
Anterior border, is serrated, and joins the superior 
maxillary bone. 
Posterior border, is free and concave, for the attach- 
ment of the soft palate. 
Inner border,d is thick, and articulates with its fel- 
low, forming a groove for the reception of the vomer. 
Its posterior extremity is the— 
Posterior nasal spine, for the origin of the azygos 
uvulae muscle. 
Vertical plate/ a broad and thick lamella, presents the following:— 
Superior turbinated crest, on the inner surface. Below it is the— 
Inferior turbinated crest,g dividing the middle meatus of the nose from the 
inferior, and articulating with the inferior turbinated bone. 
Posterior border, articulates with the pterygoid process of the sphenoid. 
Groove, on the external surface, helping to form the posterior palatine canal. 
Two smooth surfaces, externally, one forming the inner wall of the zygo- 
matic fossa; the other, part of the inner wall of the antrum. 
Two rough surfaces, also externally, one for articulation with the superior 
maxillary; the other with the pterygoid process of the sphenoid. 
Deep notch, which by articulation with the sphenoid bone, forms the 
spheno-palatine foramen f for the spheno-palatine nerves. 
Pterygoid process/ is wedged into the notch between the plates of the 
pterygoid process of the sphenoid, with which it articulates laterally. In it 
are the— 
Palatine foramina, for the external and posterior palatine nerves. 
Posterior surface, aids in forming the pterygoid fossa. 
Fig. 8. 26 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Orbital process,2’ triangular in shape, large and hollow. It has— 
Three articular surfaces, for the sup. maxillary, sphenoid, and ethmoid. 
Two free surfaces, the orbital forming part of the floor of the orbit, the 
external aiding to form the zygomatic fossa. 
Rounded border, forms a part of the spheno-maxillary fissure. 
Sphenoidal process,/ projects backwards, articulates superiorly with the 
body of the sphenoid, and externally with the pterygoid process of the 
sphenoid. On its upper surface is a— 
Groove, which assists in forming the pterygo-palatine canal. 
Inner surface, forms part of the outer wall of the nasal fossa. 
Describe its articulations, development and muscles. The palate 
articulates with 6 bones,—the sphenoid, ethmoid, vomer, superior maxillary, 
inferior turbinated, and its fellow palate bone. It is developed by one centre 
at the junction of the two plates. There are 5 muscles attached to it,—the 
azygos uvulae, internal and external pterygoids, superior constrictor, and 
tensor palati. 
THE INFERIOR TURBINATED BONES. 
Describe them. They are two thin curved osseous plates situated in the 
nasal fossae, their convex surfaces presenting inwardly. Each bone is at- 
tached above to the inferior turbinated crests of the superior maxillary and 
palate bones, and presents the following: viz.— 
Lachrymal process,3 aiding to form the nasal 
duct, by articulation with the lachrymal and 
superior maxillary bones. 
Ethmoidal process,1 articulating with the unci- 
form process of the ethmoid, thus helping to 
partially close the aperture of the antrum. 
Maxillary process,4 also helps to partially close the aperture of the antrum, 
by hooking7 over the lower edge of that orifice. 
Free borderp below, coming to about ]/2 inch above the floor of the nose. 
Fig. 9. 
Name its articulations, centres, and muscles. The inferior turbinated 
articulates with 4 bones,—the ethmoid, lachrymal, palate, and superior max- 
illary. It is developed by one centre, and has no muscles attached to it. 
THE VOMER. 
Describe it. The vomer (plough-share) forms the postero-inferior part 
of the nasal septum, but is usually bent to one 
side. Its— 
Superior border,1 2 has a groove and two alae 
or wings, for articulation with the rostrum 
and vaginal processes of the sphenoid hone. 
Fig. io. THE INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE. 
27 
Anterior border,3 is grooved for the ethmoidal plate and the nasal cartilage. 
Inferior border,4 the longest, articulates with the nasal crest of the superior 
maxillary and palate bones. 
Posterior border, is free and presents towards the pharynx. 
Naso-palatine grooves, laterally, for the naso-palatine nerves. 
Furrows, on the lateral surfaces,6 for vessels and nerve-filaments. 
Name its articulations, centres, and muscles. The vomer articulates 
with 6 bones,—the sphenoid, ethmoid, 2 superior maxillary, and 2 palate 
bones. It is developed by one centre, which appears about the 6th foetal week 
in cartilage between two laminae which coalesce after puberty. It has no 
muscles attached to it. 
THE INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE. 
Describe its general characteristics. The inferior maxillary bone forms 
the lower jaw, receives the inferior teeth, and is the second bone of the body 
in which ossification appears, the clavicle being the first. It consists of a 
body and two rami. 
Describe the Body of the bone. It is shaped somewhat like a horse- 
shoe, and presents for examination the following : viz.— 
Alveolar portion, above the oblique line, containing on its upper border 
alveoli for 16 teeth in the adult, for io in the child. 
Symphysis, a vertical ridge on the median line, marking the junction of 
the two symmetrical portions of which the bone originally consisted. 
Mental process, a prominent triangular eminence, forming the chin. 
Externally on each side from the symphysis backwards, are the— 
Incisive fossa, above the chin, for 
the origin of the levator menti. 
Mental foramen, below the 2d 
bicuspid alveolus, transmitting 
the mental artery and nerve. 
External oblique line, for the ori- 
gins of the depressor labii in- 
ferioris and depressor anguli 
oris muscles from its anterior 
half. 
Groove, near the angle, for the 
facial artery. 
Internally, on each side from the median depression backwards, are the— 
Genial ttibercles, the superior for the genio-hyo-glossus muscle; the inferior 
for the genio-hyoid. 
Mylo-hyoid ridge, obliquely backwards, for the mylo-hyoid muscle. 
Fig. ii. 28 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Sublingual fossa, near the genial tubercles, for the sublingual gland. 
Fossa, below the sublingual, for the anterior belly of the digastric muscle. 
Submaxillary fossa, below the ridge, for the submaxillary gland. 
Describe the Rami of the inferior maxillary. The rami, or ascending 
portions of the bone, are two in number, and each present the— 
Coronoidprocess, anteriorly, for the insertion of the temporal muscle. 
Condyloid process, posteriorly. Its condyle articulates with the glenoid 
fossa of the temporal bone, its neck receives the insertion of the external 
pterygoid muscle, its tubercle has attached to it the external lateral liga- 
ment of the lower jaw. 
Sigmoid notch, a deep depression separating the above-named processes 
from each other, and crossed by the masseteric vessels and nerve. 
Groove, on the coronoid process internally, and prolonged downwards 
upon the body, for the attachment of the buccinator muscle. 
Ridges, on the external surface, for the insertion of the masseter. 
Spine, a projection on the internal surface, for the attachment of the internal 
lateral ligament of the jaw. 
Inferior dental canal, opening behind the spine, lies within the ramus and 
body of the bone for the inferior dental vessels and nerve. It commu- 
nicates with each alveolus and with the mental foramen. 
Mylo-hyoidgroove, below the spine, for the mylo-hyoid vessels and nerve. 
Rough surface, behind the groove, for the internal pterygoid muscle. 
Angle of the jaw, at the junction of the posterior border of the ramus 
with the inferior border of the body, for the insertion of the masseter 
and internal pterygoid muscles, and the stylo-maxillary ligament. 
Describe the articulations and development of the inferior max- 
illary bone. It articulates with one pair of bones,—the temporal. It is the 
earliest formed bone in the body except the clavicle, and is probably developed 
by 2 centres, one for each lateral half, the two halves coalescing at the 
symphysis about the 1st year of age. In adult life the ramus arises almost 
vertically from the body, and the dental canal lies about the middle of the 
body. In old age the ramus extends obliquely backwards, the angle becoming 
very obtuse; and the alveolar portion being absorbed, the dental canal is near 
the superior border. 
What muscles are attached to the inferior maxillary ? They 
number 15 pairs,—the masseter, internal and external pterygoids and tem- 
poral, 4, to the ramus ;—the genio-hyo-glossus, genio-hyoid, mylo-hvoid, digas- 
tric, and superior constrictor, 5, to the internal surface of the body;—the 
depressor labii inferioris, depressor anguli oris, levator menti, orbicularis oris, 
platysma myoides, and buccinator, 6, to the external surface of the body. THE ORBITS. 
29 
THE ORBITS. 
Describe the orbital cavities. The orbits are 2 conoidal cavities, 
situated between the forehead and the face, their bases outwards, their apices 
pointing backwards, the lines of axial prolongation meeting at the sella 
turcica of the sphenoid bone. They contain the organs of vision with their 
appendages, and are each formed by 7 bones,— the frontal,1 ethmoid,2 sphe- 
noid,3 4 5 lachrymal,6 superior maxillary,7 palate,8 and malar,9 of which 
the first three are common to both orbits. Each orbit communicates with 1 
cavity and 4 fossae, as follows, viz.— 
Cavity of the cranium, by the optic foramen11 and sphenoidal fissure.10 
Fossce (4)—the nasal, temporal, zygomatic, and spheno-maxillary,—by the 
nasal duct12 and the spheno-maxillary fissure.13 
What Foramina communicate with each orbit ? Nine,—the optic 
foramen,11 sphenoidal fissure, 10 anterior21 and posterior22 ethmoidal fora- 
mina, supra-orbital,14 infraorbital,15 and malar foramina,1® the nasal duct,12 
and the spheno-maxillary fissure.13 
Describe the roof of the orbit. Formed by the orbital plate of the 
frontal bone anteriorly,1 and the 
lesser wing of the sphenoid4 poste- 
riorly, it is concave, and presents 
the— 
Lachrymal fossa,17 at its outer 
angle, for the lachrymal gland. 
Depression,18 at the inner angle, 
for the pulley of the superior 
oblique. 
Describe the Floor of the 
Orbit. Formed by the orbital sur- 
face of the superior maxillary bone,7 
and the orbital process of the malar9 
and palate bones,8 it is nearly flat 
and presents the— 
Palato - maxillary suture pos- 
teriorly. 
Infraorbital canal, and a depres- 
sion for the superior oblique 
muscle of the eye, anteriorly. 
Infraorbital groove,19 poste- 
riorly. 
Fig. i2. 30 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Describe the Inner Wall of the Orbit. Formed by the nasal process 
of the superior maxillary bone,20 the lachrymal,6 the os planum of the 
ethmoid,2 and the body of the sphenoid,3 it presents— 
A groove, for the lachrymal sac, and the lachrymal crest, anteriorly. 
2 Sutures,—the ethmo-lachrymal, and the ethmo-sphenoidal. 
Describe the Outer Wall of the Orbit. Formed by the orbital pro- 
cess of the malar bone,9 and the greater wing of the sphenoid,5 it presents 
the 07-ifices16 of the malar canals, and the spheno-tnalar suture. 
Describe the Angles of the Orbit. They present the following points. 
In the superior external angle. 
Sphenoidalfissure,10 or foramen lacerum anterius, transmits the 3rd, 4th, 
ophthalmic division of the 5th, and the 6th nerves, the ophthalmic vein, 
branches of the lachrymal and middle meningeal arteries, filaments of 
the sympathetic nerve, and a process of the dura mater. 
Articulations,—the fronto-malar, and fronto-sphenoidal. 
In the superior internal angle. 
Suture,—the lachrymo-ethmo-frontal, in which are the following foramina. 
Anterior ethmoidal foramen,21 transmitting the anterior ethmoidal artery’ 
and the nasal nerve. 
Posterior ethmoidal foramen,22 transmitting the posterior ethmoidal artery 
and vein. 
In the inferior external angle. 
Spheno-maxillary fissure,1* (described under the Zygomatic Fossa) 
In the inferior internal angle. 
A Suture, the ethmo-maxillo-palato-lachrymal. 
What other points are connected with the Orbit ? Two, the supra- 
orbital notch, and the optic foramen, as follows, viz.— 
‘Supraorbital notch or foramen,14 at the junction of the inner and middle 
thirds of the upper circumference, transmitting the supraorbital artery, 
veins, and nerve. A line prolonged from this notch through the interval 
between the bicuspid teeth of either jaw, will cross both the infraorbital 
and mental foramina, and the canine fossa of the superior maxillary bone. 
Optic foramen,11 at the apex, is formed by the two roots of the lesser wing 
of the sphenoid, and transmits the optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery. 
From around its margin arises a tendinous ring, the common origin of the 
4 recti muscles of the eye. 
What Muscles arise within the Orbit ? The four recti and two 
oblique of the eye, the levator palpebrce, and the tensor tarsi (8 in all). THE FOSS^:. 
31 
THE FOSSAE. 
Describe the Nasal Fossae. Together they form the cavity of the nose, 
being separated from each other by the septum nasi.11 They open in front 
by the anterior nares, behind by the posterior nares; and extend from the 
palate processes of the superior maxillary and palate bones17 upwards to the 
base of the cranium. They are formed by 14 bones,—the ethmoid, sphenoid, 
frontal, vomer, 2 nasal, 2 superior maxillary, 2 lachrymal, 2 palate, and 2 
inferior turbinated. 
Describe the Septum Nasi.11 It forms the inner wall of each nasal 
fossa, and is formed chiefly by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, 
the vomer, and the triangular cartilage of the septum; to a less extent by 5 
other bones,—the rostrum of the sphenoid, the nasal spine of the frontal, and 
the crests of the nasal, palate, and superior maxillary bones. 
Describe the points presented by each Nasal Fossa. They are— 
On the roof. 
Openings, posteriorly, into the sphenoidal sinuses. 
Olfactory foramina, and the nasal slit, in the cribriform plate of the eth- 
moid bone. 
On the floor. 
Orifice of the anterior palatine canal. 
Suture, between the bones forming the hard palate. 
Nasal spines, anterior and posterior, and the ridge connecting them. 
On the outer wall, from above downwards. 
Superior turbinated process of 
the ethmoid. 
Superior meatus of the nose, into 
which open 3 orifices,—those 
of the posterior ethmoidal and 
the sphenoidal sinuses, and the 
spheno-palatine foramen. 
Middle turbinated'1 process of 
the ethmoid. 
Middle meatus of the nose, into 
which open 2 orifices,—those 
of the antrum14 and infundi- 
bulum,—the latter draining the anterior ethmoidal cells,8 and the frontal 
sinus. 
Inferior turbinated bone,10 below which is the — 
Fig. 13. 32 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Inferior meatus of the nose, the largest; into it open 2 orifices,—those of 
the lachrymal, and anterior palatine canals. To these may be added the 
anterior and posterior nares. 
Describe the Temporal Fossa. Situated on each side of the cranium, 
it is shallow above and behind, but deep in front and below; and is formed 
by parts of 5 bones,—the frontal, sphenoid, temporal, parietal and malar. It 
is bounded above and behind by the temporal ridge, in front by the malar 
frontal and sphenoid bones, and below by the zygoma and the pterygoid ridge 
on the greater wing of the sphenoid. It is traversed by 6 sutures,—the 
spheno-malar, spheno-frontal, spheno-parietal, spheno-temporal, fronto-parietal, 
and temporo-parietal. It opens below into the zygomatic fossa; and lodges 
the temporal muscle, and the deep temporal vessels.- 
Describe the Zygomatic Fossa. Extending downwards from the tem- 
poral fossa, it is thus bounded,— 
In front, by the tuberosity of the superior maxillary bone. 
Externally, by the zygoma, and the ramus of the inf. maxillary. 
Internally, by the external plate of the pterygoid process. 
Above, by the temporal fossa, the squamous portion of the temporal bone, 
and the greater wing of the sphenoid. 
What Fissures open into the Zygomatic Fossa ? Two, the— 
Spheno-maxillary fissure, between the greater wing of the sphenoid externally, 
and the superior maxillary and palate bones internally. It connects the 
orbit with the zygomatic, temporal, and spheno-maxillary fossae; and trans- 
mits the infraorbital artery, the superior maxillary nerve and its orbital 
branches, and the ascending branches of Meckel’s ganglion. 
Pterygo-maxillary fissure, between the tuberosity of the superior maxillary 
bone and the pterygoid process of the sphenoid. It transmits branches of 
the internal maxillary artery, and connects the zygomatic fossa with the 
spheno-maxillary. 
Below, by the alveolar border of the inferior maxillary bone. 
Describe the Spheno-Maxillary Fossa. It is a triangular cavity be- 
tween the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone and the tuberosity of the 
superior maxillary, and is situated at the junction of the spheno-maxillary, 
pterygo-maxillary, and sphenoidal fissures. Into it open— 
3 Fosses,—the orbital, zygomatic, and nasal. 
2 Cavities,—the cranial, and buccal. 
3 Foramina,—the Vidian and pterygo-palatine canals, and the foramen 
rotundum, posteriorly; the spheno-palatine foramen on the inner wall; 
and the posterior palatine canal inferiorly;—occasionally also the acces- 
sory palatine canals. THE SUTURES AND FONTANELLES. 
33 
THE SUTURES AND FONTANELLES. 
Name the Sutures of the skull. There are 17. 
At the Vertex of the skull are 5, the— 
Sagittal, or interparietal. 
2 Coronal, or fronto-parietal. 2 Lambdoid, or occipito-parietal. 
At the sides of the skull are 4, the— 
2 Spheno-parietal. 2 Temporo-parietal. 
At the base of the skull are 5, the— 
2 Temporo-occipital. Basilar, in the central line of the base. 
2 Temporo-sphenoidal. 
In the Mesial line, besides the sagittal and basilar, are 3, the— 
Spheno-ethmoidal. Spheno-frontal. Ethmo-frontal. 
Describe the Facial Sutures. The most important are the following, but 
the sutures of the face are very numerous. 
Zygomatic stiture, at the temporo-malar articulation. 
Transverse suture,, extending from one external angular process of the 
frontal bone across to the other, and connecting that bone with the malar, 
sphenoid, ethmoid, lachrymal, superior maxillary, and nasal bones. 
Symphysis of the chin, the site of a foetal suture. 
How are the Sutures formed ? By dentations of the external tables in- 
terdigitating with each other, the adjacent edges of the internal tables lying in 
unjoined proximity. The sutures are not formed until a long time after the 
formation of the skull, probably to permit of the marginal growth of the bones. 
What are the Fontanelles ? They are 6 membranous intervals in the in- 
fant’s skull, corresponding in situation with the angles of the two parietal bones. 
They are as follows, viz.— 
Anterior, at the junction of the sagittal and coronal intervals. 
Posterior, at the junction of the sagittal and lambdoid intervals. 
Lateral fontanelles, 4, two at the anterior inferior angles, and two at the 
posterior inferior angles of the parietal bones. 
Describe the Wormian Bones. They are supernumerary small pieces 
of bone, irregularly shaped, and developed by special centres in unclosed por- 
tions of the cranial sutures and fontanelles, being more frequent in the lamb- 
doid suture. They are also called “ossa triqueta” from their triangular form. 
Describe the Hyoid Bone. It is shaped like a horse-shoe, has no articu- 
lation with the skeleton, but supports the tongue. It consists of a body, two 
greater, and two lesser cornua or horns. On the body is a crucial ridge, with 
a tubercle at the centre. It is developed by 5 centres,—one for the body and 
one for each horn. Attached to it are 10 muscles, 3 ligaments, and 1 mem- 
brane, as follows ; viz.— QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
To the body,—the genio-, mylo-, stylo-, sterno-, thyro-, omo-hyoid, the genio- 
hyo-glossus, and the hyo-glossus muscles; also the pulley of the digas- 
tric, the hyo-epiglottic ligament, and the thyro-hyoid membrane. 
To the greater cornu,—the hyo-glossus, middle constrictor muscles, and part 
of the thyro-hyoid;—also the thyro-hyoid ligament. 
To the lesser cornu,—the stylo-hyoid ligament. 
TABLE OF THE FORAMINA AT THE BASE OF THE SKULL, 
with the various structures transmitted by each. 
Anterior Fossa contains i single foramen and 5 in pairs, viz.— 
Foramen ccecum,—lodges a fold of dura mater, and transmits a vein to the 
longitudinal sinus from the nose, sometimes one from the frontal sinus. 
Ethmoidalfissure,—the nasal nerve, and the anterior ethmoidal artery. 
Olfactory,—olfactory nerves, and nasal branches of the ethmoidal arteries. 
Anterior ethmoidal,—anterior ethmoidal artery and the nasal nerve. 
Posterior ethmoidal,—posterior ethmoidal artery and vein. 
Optic foramen,—optic nerve and ophthalmic artery. 
Middle Fossae contain 8 pairs, viz.—_ 
Foramen lacerum anterius, or Sphenoidal fissure,P —the 3rd, 4th, oph- 
thalmic division of the 5th, and the 6th cranial nerves, and filaments of 
the sympathetic ; ophthalmic vein, 
a branch of the lachrymal artery, 
orbital branches of the middle 
meningeal artery, and a process 
of dura mater. 
Foramen rotundum,—superior max- 
illary division of the 5th cranial 
nerve. 
Foramen Vesalii, — a small vein. 
This foramen is often absent. 
Foramen ovale,l — inferior max- 
illary division of the 5th nerve, 
lesser petrosal nerve, and the 
small meningeal branch of the 
internal maxillary artery. 
Foramen spinosum,m—middle men- 
ingeal artery, meningeal veins, and 
sympathetic filaments from the 
cavernous plexus. 
Fig. 14. THE CRANIAL FORAMINA. 
35 
Foramen lacerum medium,4 — internal carotid artery, carotid plexus, 
large petrosal nerve, and a branch from the ascending pharyngeal artery. 
Small foramen,—lesser petrosal nerve. 
Hiatus Fallopii,—large petrosal nerve, branch of middle meningeal artery. 
Posterior Fossa contains 6 pairs and 1 single, viz.— 
Meatus auditorius interims,—facial and auditory nerves, auditory artery. 
Aqueductus vestibuli,—small artery and vein, process of dura mater. 
Foramen lacerumposterius,r —glosso-pharyngeal, pneumo-gastric and spinal 
accessory nerves, internal jugular vein, meningeal branches of the as- 
cending pharyngeal and occipital arteries. 
Mastoid foramen, (often absent),—small vein, occasionally the mastoid 
artery. 
Anterior condyloid foramen,—hypoglossal nerve, meningeal branch from 
the ascending pharyngeal artery. 
Posterior condyloid foramen,™ (often absent), posterior condyloid vein. 
Foramen magnum,k —medulla oblongata and its membranes, the vertebral 
arteries, and the spinal accessory nerves. 
Externally, at the base of the skull are 10 pairs, viz.— 
Opening of the Eustachian tube,—air to the middle ear. 
Opening of tensor tympani canal,—the tensor tympani muscle. 
Orifice of the Vidian canal,—the Vidian nerve, and vessels. 
Glasserian fissure,« —laxator tympani muscle, tympanic artery, processus 
gracilis of the malleus. 
Orifice of the canal of Hugier,—chorda tympani nerve. 
Foramen for facobson's nerve,—tympanic branch of glosso-pharyngeal. 
Foramen for Arnold's nerve,—auricular branch of pneumogastric. 
Opening of the aqueductus cochlece,—vein to the cochlea. 
Stylo-mastoid foramen,t —facial nerve, stylo-mastoid artery. 
Auricular fissure,—exit of Arnold’s nerve. 
Face, presents 3 pairs, viz.— 
Supraorbital foramen or notch,—supraorbital artery, vein and nerve. 
Infraorbital foramen,—infraorbital artery and nerve. 
Mental foramen,—mental artery and nerve. 
Palate presents, on each side at least 6 pairs, viz.— 
Incisive foramina,b (one or two),—nerves and vessels to the incisor teeth. 
2 Anterior palatine,—anterior palatine vessels, naso-palatine nerves. 
Posterior palatine,—posterior palatine vessels, anterior palatine nerve. 
Accessory palatine foramina (one or two),—posterior palatine nerves. 
Pterygo-palatine foramen,—pterygo-palatine vessels. QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
THE BONES OF THE TRUNK. 
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 
What characteristics are common to the Vertebrae ? Each vertebra 
consists of a body and an arch, the latter being formed by 2 pedicles and 2 
laminae, which support 7 processes. 
Body6 is thick and spongy, convex in front7 from side to side, concave ver- 
tically, and on the upper and lower surfaces, which are surrounded by a 
bony rim. Anteriorly are small foramina for nutrient vessels, posteriorly a 
large foramen for the exit of the venae basis vertebrarum. 
Pedicles, project backwards from the body, inclining outwards. They are 
notched above and below, thus forming with the adjacent notches, the 
intervertebral foramina for the entrance of vessels and the exit of the 
spinal nerves. 
Lamince,"1 are two broad plates, meeting in the spinous process behind, and 
rough on their upper and lower borders for the attachment of the liga- 
mentum subflava. 
Transverse processes,4 one 
on each side, projecting 
outwards. 
Articular processes, two on 
each side, superior3 and 
inferior,5 project from the 
junction of the laminae 
and pedicles, and articu- 
lating above and below 
with the articular pro- 
cesses of the adjacent 
vertebrae. Their superior 
facets look upwards in 
the cervical region, out- 
wards in the dorsal, and 
inwards in the lumbar. 
Spinous process,1 projects 
backwards from the junc- 
tion of the laminae with 
each other, sometimes 
very obliquely. 
Spinalforamen,9 is the space enclosed by the body, pedicles, and laminae; 
and which, when the vertebrae are articulated, forms part of the spinal 
canal. 
Fig. 15. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 
37 
How are the Vertebrae distinguished? As cervical (7), dorsal (12) 
and lumbar (5). Each of these divisions has several peculiar features, but 
their especial characteristics are as follows. 
The cervical vertebrce are pierced at the bases of their transverse processes, by 
the vertebral foramina, which transmit the vertebral artery, vein, and plexus. 
The dorsal vertebrce have facets and demifacets on their bodies, for articula- 
tion with the heads of the ribs. 
The lumbar vertebrce are marked by the absence of the foramina and facets 
which distinguish the other two classes. 
What are the Peculiar Vertebrae ? They are 9 in number,—the atlas 
or 1st cervical, the axis or 2d cervical, the vertebra prominens or 7th cervical, 
the 1st 9th 10th nth and 12th dorsal, and the 5th lumbar. 
The atlas is a bony ring supporting the head. A bony arch takes the place 
of a body, and its spinous process is a mere tubercle. Its lateral masses 
form its chief bulk, supporting large articular processes which all look 
inwards, the superior articulating with the condyles of the occipital bone. 
The axis is marked by its odontoid process projecting upwards from the 
body into the anterior p2rt of the spinal foramen of the atlas, where it 
articulates with the anterior arch, and receives the occipito-axoid and the 
check ligaments. 
The vertebra prominens has a long and prominent spinous process which 
ends in a tubercle for the ligamentum nuchse. 
The dorsal vertebrce. The 1st has one facet and a demifacet. The 9th has 
a demifacet only. The 10th has but one facet on the body and one on 
the transverse process. The nth and 12th have each but one facet on 
the body, and none on the transverse processes. The 12th resembles a 
lumbar vertebra in size and shape. 
The pth lumbar is much deeper in front than behind; its spinous process is 
small, but its transverse processes are large and thick, and point slightly 
upwards. 
What important relations have certain vertebrae ? 
The 3d cervical corresponds to—the bifurcation of the common carotid artery, 
and the superior cervical ganglion. 
The pth cervical, to—the junctions of the larynx with the trachea, and the 
pharynx with the oesophagus, and the middle cervical ganglion of the 
sympathetic. 
The 2d lumbar, to—the junction of the duodenum with the jejunum, the 
commencement of the thoracic duct and the portal vein, the origin of 
the superior mesenteric artery, the lower margin of the pancreas, the 
opening of the ductus communis choledochus, the lower end of the spinal 
cord, and the crura of the diaphragm. 
[The false vertebrae are described as bones of the pelvis.] 38 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
THE THORAX. 
What is the Thorax ? An osseo-cartilaginous cage formed by the bodies 
of the dorsal vertebrae posteriorly, the ribs and costal cartilages laterally, and 
the sternum in front. Its shape is conical, the axis inclined forwards, the base 
below and closed by the diaphragm. 
What structures pass through its apex ? The trachea, oesophagus, 
large vessels of the neck, pneumogastric, phrenic and sympathetic nerves, 
thoracic duct, and in inspiration the apex of the lung. 
What structures are contained in its cavity ? The trachea, bronchi 
and lungs, the heart and great vessels, internal mammary arteries, azygos and 
bronchial veins, pneumogastric, phrenic and splanchnic nerves, oesophagus, 
thoracic duct, lymphatic vessels and glands. 
THE STERNUM. 
Describe it. I he sternum, or breast-bone, consists of 3 parts,—the manu- 
brium,« or handle; the gladiolus/ or sword; and the ensi- 
form or xiphoid appendix.c It presents the— 
Interclavicular notch, on border. 
Manubrium,a articulates with the clavicle,1st costal 
cartilage,*' and a part of the 2nd./■ 
Gladiolus, articulates with the costal cartilages from the 
3rd to the 6th inclusive, and partly with the 2nd and 7th. 
Ensiform appendix (the tip), articulates with the carti- 
lage of the false ribs, and in part with the 7th costal 
cartilage./- ■ - 
Describe its development and muscles. The ster- 
num is developed by six centres, one each for the manubrium 
‘and ensiform appendix, and four for the gladiolus. The 
muscles attached to it are 9 pairs and one single muscle,— 
the sterno-cleido-mastoid, sterno hyoid, and sterno-thyroid, 3, 
to its upper part;—the rectus abdominis, external and internal oblique, trans- 
versalis and the diaphragm, 5, to its lower part;—the pectoralis major, I, an- 
teriorly ;—and the triangularis sterni, 1, posteriorly. 
Fig. 16. 
THE RIBS. 
Describe them. There are 12 ribs on each side, of which 7 are “ true 
ribs,” being each connected to the sternum by a separate cartilage ;—and 5 are 
“ false ribs.” Three of the latter are connected by their cartilages to the carti- 
lage of the 7th rib, while two are called “ floating ribs,” having each one ex- 
tremity free. 
What are the characteristics common to most of the ribs ? They each 
consist of a head, neck, and shaft, and present the following points, viz.— THE RIBS. 
39 
Head,a is divided by a ridge into two facets, which articulate with the facets on 
the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae; the ridge giving attachment to the in- 
ter-articular ligament. 
Neck, about an inch long, having attached to its upper border the anterior 
costo-transverse ligament, to its posterior surface the middle costo-trans- 
verse ligament; its anterior surface is smooth. 
Tuberosityf 
at the junc- 
tion of the 
neck with 
the shaft, 
has a facet 
for articula- 
tion with 
the trans- 
verse pro- 
cess of the 
next lower 
vertebra, and a rough surface for the posterior costo-transverse ligament. 
Shaft, twisted on itself, is concave internally, convex externally, its upper 
border round and smooth, its lower border for the intercostal 
vessels and nerves. At its external is an oval depression for 
the insertion of the costal cartilage. 
Angle,e just in front of the tuberosity, is marked by a rough line, to which 
are attached the muscles of the deep layer of the back. 
Fig. 17. 
How are they developed ? Each rib has 3 centres, one each for the 
head, shaft, and tuberosity. The last two ribs, having no tuberosity, are de- 
veloped each by two centres. 
Describe the peculiar ribs. They are the 1st, 2nd, ioth, nth and 12th. 
They respectively present the following peculiarities, viz.— 
1st Rib, is broad, short, not 
twisted, has no angle, only one 
facet on the head;« but on its 
upper surface are seen two 
grooves for the subclavian ar- 
teryo' and vein/ and between 
them a tubercleg for the scale- 
nus anticus muscle. 
2nd Rib, is not twisted, its tuber- 
osity and angle are very close 
together, and its upper surface presents rough surfaces for the serratus 
magnus and scalenus posticus muscles. 
Fig. 18. 40 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
/oth Rib, has but one facet on its head. 
nth Rib, has no neck, no tuberosity, and but one facet on its head. 
J2th Rib, has neither neck, angle, tuberosity nor groove, and but one facet. 
THE PELVIS 
Describe the Pelvis. It is formed by the sacrum, coccyx, and two ossa 
innominata, and is divided into,—the false pelvis, comprising the upper and 
expanded portion,—and the true pelvis, below the ilio-pectineal line. The 
false pelvis corresponds to the iliac fossae, and is marked by its walls being 
deficient anteriorly between the iliac borders, and posteriorly between the 
sacrum and the posterior iliac spines. The true pelvis has a— 
Brim or inlet, bounded in front by the crest and spine of the pubes, behind 
by the promontory of the sacrum, laterally by the ilio-pectineal line. Its 
axis corresponds to a line from the umbilicus to the middle of the coccyx. 
Its average diameters in the female are,—4 inches antero-posteriorly,4 over 
5 inches transversely,2 under 5 inches obliquely.* In the male each of 
these measurements is about 
y2 an inch less. 
Cavity, is a short curved 
canal, connecting the brim 
with the outlet. In front its 
depth is about inch, 
posteriorly 4 to inches 
in the female, \}/2 to 
inches in the male. Its 
diameter is about inches 
in the female, 4yz inches in 
the male, all around. 
Outlet, is bounded by the pubic arch above, the tip of the coccyx behind, 
and the tuberosities of the ischii laterally. Its axis, if prolonged, would 
touch the promontory of the sacrum. Its diameters in the female are 
each about inches, in the male about 3 inches. 
Fig. 19. 
State the chief differences between the male and female pelves. The 
male pelvis is marked by strength of the bones, prominence of the muscular 
impressions, a deep and narrow cavity, and large obturator foramina. The 
female pelvis has lighter bones, broader iliac fossae, the spines being further 
apart, greater diameters at every point, the sacrum less curved, and the pubic 
arch wider. 
Describe the Sacrum. The “ sacred bone ” is triangular, curved, with its 
convexity backwards, and is situated base upwards between the ossa innominata, 
forming with the coccyx the posterior wall of the pelvis. The bone is formed 
by the coalescence of 5 vertebrae, and presents the following points, viz.— THE PELVIS. 
41 
,y Ridgesf transversely across both surfaces, mark the union of its original 
segments. 
8 Anterior sacral foramina, for the anterior sacral nerves. 
8 Grooves,5 shallow and broad, for the aforesaid nerves. 
Promontory, at its junction with the last lum- 
bar vertebra. 
8 Posterior sacral foramina, for the posterior 
sacral nerves. 
Tubercles, representing the spinous processes of 
the segments. 
Groove, posteriorly, on each side of the spinous 
tubercles. 
2 Cornua, at the posterior inferior portion of 
the bone. 
Auricular surf'ace,3 on each side, articulates 
with the ilium. 
Notch, laterally and inferiorly, for the 5th sacral nerve. 
Base,2 has all the characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae, with the last of 
which it articulates. 
Apex,16 has an oval surface for articulation with the coccyx. 
Sacral canal, the continuation of the spinal, is incomplete posteriorly at its 
lower end. It transmits the cauda equina; into it open the sacral fora- 
mina laterally. 
Fig, 23. 
Describe the Coccyx. It consists of 4 or 5 rudimentary vertebrse coalesced 
into a triangular bone, the base1 of which articulates with the apex of the 
sacrum. Its posterior surface is rough for muscles and liga- 
ments, its anterior surface is smooth and marked by ridges 
at the junction of its constituent vertebrae. It presents the 
following points.— 
2 Cornua,2 superiorly, articulating with the sacral cornua 
to form foramina for the 5th sacral nerves. 
Apex, is sometimes bifid and turned to one side. 
Describe the Ossa Innominata. The unnamed bones are placed one 
on each side of the osseous pelvis, and are each formed by the union, about 
puberty, of three bones,—the ilium, ischium, and pubes. The innominate bone 
as a whole presents the following points, viz.— 
Acetabulum, or cotyloid cavity, receives the head of the femur. It is situ- 
ated at the junction of the three bones, the ilium and ischium each forming 
about two-fifths, and the pubes one-fifth of it. A depression in its centre 
lodges a mass of fat containing vessels for the nourishment of the synovial 
Fig. 21. 42 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
membrane. The cotyloid notch is a deficiency in its lower anterior margin, 
transmitting nutrient vessels to the joint; to the edges of the notch are 
attached the ligamentum teres, and it is bridged over by the transverse 
ligament, a continuation of the cotyloid ligament which surmounts the 
brim of the acetabulum. 
Obturator, or thyroid foramen,8 on the anterior surface between the pubes 
and ischium, large and oval in the male, small and triangular in the 
female; is closed by the obturator membrane, except above where the 
obturator nerves and vessels pass through it. 
Describe the Ilium. It is the superior part of the innominate bone, and 
presents the following points, viz.— 
Crest,1 along its upper border, having an outer and inner lip for muscular 
attachment, and ending in the superior spines. 
Anterior superior spine,2 to which is attached the sartorius and tensor 
vaginae femoris muscles, and Poupart’s liga- 
ment. 
Anterior inferior spine P for the straight tendon 
of the rectus femoris. 
Notch, between the above-named spines, trans- 
mitting the external cutaneous nerve, and 
lodging some fibres of the sartorius. 
Posterior superior spine,19 for the attachment of 
the erector spina; muscle, and the oblique 
part of the sacro-sciatic ligament. 
Posterior inferior spine,17 for the great sacro- 
sciatic ligament. 
Great sacro-sciatic notch,16 below the last-named 
spine, transmits the great sciatic, superior 
gluteal, and pudic nerves, the pyriformis muscle, and the sciatic, pudic 
and gluteal vessels, and a nerve supplying the obturator externus muscle. 
Curved lines,21 superior middle and inferior, on the outer surface of the 
bone, from the spaces between which arise the glutei muscles. 
Groove, above the acetabulum, for the reflected tendon of the rectus femoris 
muscle. 
Linea ilio-pectinea, in part; on the inner surface, above which is a smooth 
surface, the venter of the ilium. 
Auricular surface,18 rough, articulates with the sacrum. 
Fig. 22. 
Describe the Ischium. It is the lowermost portion of the innominate 
bone, and presents the following points, viz.— 
Body, forms two-fifths of the acetabulum, and the external margin of the obtu- BONES OF THE SHOULDER. 
rator foramen; on it is a broad groove for the tendon of the obturator 
externus muscle. . Its posterior margin assists in forming the great sacro- 
sciatic notch. 
Spine,14 for the gemellus superior, coccygeus, and levator ani muscles, and 
the lesser sacro-sciatic ligament. 
Lesser sacro-sciatic notch,18 below the spine, transmits the obturator muscle, 
its nerve, and the pudic vessels and nerve as they re-enter the pelvis, hav- 
ing crossed the spine of the ischium. The sacro-sciatic notches are con- 
verted into foramina by the sacro-sciatic ligaments; the greater notch by 
the lesser ligament, the lesser notch by the greater ligament. 
Tuberosity,12 the lowest and most prominent part, gives attachment to the 
greater sacro-sciatic ligament, and to several muscles. On it one rests 
when sitting. 
Ascending ramus, bounds the obturator foramen inferiorly, articulates with 
the descending ramus of the pubes, and gives attachment to the obturator 
membrane and several muscles. 
Describe the Pubes. The pubic or pectineal bone forms the anterior 
portion of the innominate. It presents the following, .viz.— 
Body, lies between the rami, with its fellow forms the symphysis, giving 
origin to several muscles and ligaments. 
Crest,9 is the upper part of the body, terminates externally in the spine, 
and internally in the angle. 
Spine, affords attachment to one end of Poupart’s ligament. 
Linea ilio-pectinea, in part; gives attachment to the conjoined tendon, Gim- 
bernat’s ligament, and the triangular ligament. 
Horizontal ramus, forms part of the brim of the pelvis, of the margin of 
the obturator foramen, and of the acetabulum. On its under surface is a 
groove for the obturator vessels and nerve. 
Pectineal eminence,5 gives attachment to the psoas parvus muscle. 
Descending ramus,11 flat and thin, joins the ascending ramus of the ischium, 
and bounds the obturator foramen internally. 
What Muscles are attached to the Os Innominatum ? 36, compris- 
ing those of the abdomen, thigh, perineum, floor of the pelvis, and rotators 
of the hip-joint. 
BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 
THE SHOULDER. 
What Bones form the Shoulder ? The clavicle and scapula connecting 
the arm with the trunk, and in this respect homologous to the innominate 
bone in the lower part of the body. 44 
questions on human anatomy. 
Describe the Clavicle. The collar- or key-bone, is a short bone by 
structure, having no medullary canal; and is curved like the letter f, its inner 
two-thirds being cylindrical, and convex anteriorly; its outer third flattened, 
and concave anteriorly. It is placed horizontally between the sternum and 
the scapula, and is the most elastic bone in the body. It presents, from within 
outwards, the following points, viz.— 
Facets, for articulation with the sternum and the cartilage of the first rib, 
at its sternal end. 
Impression for the rhomboid, or costo-clavicular ligament. 
Groove, on the lower surface, for the subclavius muscle. 
Tubercle, for the conoid part of the costo-clavicular ligament. 
Oblique line, for the trapezoid part of the same ligament. 
Facet, on the acromial end, for articulation with the scapula. 
Nutrient foramen, in the subclavian groove. 
Describe the Scapula. The shoulder blade is a large, flat, and triangular 
bone, situated on the posterior and lateral portion of the thorax, from the 2d 
rib to the 7th, inclusive. 
The Venter, or anterior surface, presents from within outwards,— 
Ridges, giving attachment to the subscapularis muscle. 
Marginal surface, along the inner border, for the attachment of the serratus 
magnus muscle. 
Subscapular fossa, and angle, for the subscapularis muscle. 
The Dorsum, or posterior surface, presents the following, viz.— 
Spine, a bony ridge, which affords attachment to the trapezius and del- 
toid muscles, and ends in the acromion process. 
Supraspinous fossa, above the spine, for the supraspinatus muscle. 
Jnfraspinous fossa, below the spine, larger than the supraspinous, con- 
vex at its centre, lodges the infraspinatus muscle, and the nutrient 
foramen. 
Marginal surface, along the external border, to which are attached the teres 
minor muscle above, the teres major below, and sometimes a few fibres 
of the latissimus dorsi at the lower angle. 
Groove crossing the margin, for the dorsalis scapulae vessels. 
Smooth surface, behind the root of the spine, over which the trapezius 
muscle glides. 
The Acromion process, or “ summit of the shoulder,” extends from the 
spine, and projects over the glenoid cavity, articulating with the clavicle by 
an oval facet. It affords attachment to the deltoid and trapezius muscles, 
and by its apex to the coraco-acromial ligament. 
The Coracoid process, or “ crow’s beak,” projects from the upper border 
and neck of the bone over the inner and upper part of the glenoid cavity. BONES OF THE ARM. 
45 
Into it is inserted one muscle, the pectoralis minor; the coraco-brachialis, 
and the short head of the biceps arise from it by a common tendon ; and 
3 ligaments are attached to it,—the conoid, trapezoid, and coraco-acromial. 
The Superior Border presents the— 
Suprascapular notch, converted into a foramen for the suprascapular nerve 
by the transverse ligament, over which passes the suprascapular artery. 
The omo-hyoid muscle is attached to the border just internal to the 
notch. 
The Axillary Border is the thickest, and presents, a— 
Rough surface, for the long head of the triceps muscle, just below the 
glenoid cavity. 
Groove, the origin of a part of the subscapularis muscle. 
The Vertebral Border is the longest, and presents an— 
Anterior lip, for the attachment of the serratus magnus. 
Posterior lip, for the supra- and infra-spinatus muscles. 
Interspace, between the lips, for the levator anguli scapulae, the rhom- 
boideus minor, and the fibrous arch of the rhomboideus major muscles. 
Other points of interest on the bone are the—- 
Superior angle, affords attachment to part of the serratus magnus, levator 
anguli scapulae and supra-spinatus muscles. 
Inferior angle, affords attachment to part of the serratus magnus and 
teres major muscles, and occasionally to a few fibres of the latissimus 
dorsi. 
Glenoid cavity, at the external angle or head of the bone, a shallow 
cavity for the reception of the head of the humerus. It is deepened by 
the glenoid ligament which is attached around its margin; and at its 
upper part gives origin to the long head of the biceps flexor cubiti 
muscle. 
Neck, is the contracted part of the bone behind the glenoid cavity; from 
it arises the anterior root of the coracoid process. 
THE ARM. 
Describe the Humerus. It is the only bone in the arm, and articulates 
with the scapula above, and with the ulna and radius below. It presents the 
following points, viz.— 
Headp is nearly hemispherical, and smooth for articulation with the gle- 
noid cavity of the scapula. 
Anatomical neck,c is a constriction in the bone, just below the head, for the 
attachment of the capsular ligament. 
Greater tuberosity 3 small facets for the insertions of the supra- 
spinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor muscles. 46 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Lesser tuberosity,e on the inner side of the bone, gives insertion to the 
subscapularis muscle. 
Bicipital groove,/ lies vertically between the tuberosities for the upper third 
of the bone, and lodges the tendon of the long head of the biceps flexor 
cubiti. Into its inner or posterior lip h are inserted the teres major and 
latissimus dorsi muscles, while its outer or anterior receives the in- 
sertion of the tendon of the pectoralis major, which covers the groove. 
Surgical neck, is situated immediately below the tuberosi- 
ties, and is a slight constriction in the upper part of the 
shaft. 
Shaft,a is cylindrical above, prismatic and flattened below. 
Rough surface,l for the insertion of the deltoid muscle, 
about the middle of the external surface of the shaft. 
Musculo-spiral groove, lodging the musculo-spiral nerve, 
and the superior profunda artery, is situated on the pos- 
terior surface of the shaft, separating the origins of the 
outer and inner heads of the triceps muscle. 
Orifice j of the nutrient canal, about the middle of the 
shaft. 
Condyloid ridges,op internal and external, arising from 
the respective condyles, extending upwards along the 
shaft. 
External condyle,”1 gives attachment to the external 
lateral ligament and the extensor and supinator group 
of muscles. 
Internal condyle,»lower and more prominent than the 
other, gives attachment to the internal lateral ligament 
and the flexor and pronator group of muscles of the 
fore-arm. 
Radial headf forms the external part of the inferior articular surface ; for 
articulation with the radius. 
Trochlear surfaced articulates with the greater sigmoid cavity of the ulna; 
is a deep depression between two borders, and extends from the anterior 
to the posterior surface of the bone. 
Coronoidfossa,1 in front of the trochlea, receives the coronoid process of 
the ulna when the fore-arm is flexed. 
Olecranon fossa, behind the trochlea, receives the tip of the olecranon pro- 
cess, when the fore-arm is extended. 
Fig. 23. BONES OF THE FORE-ARM. 
47 
THE FORE-ARM. 
Describe the Ulna. The elbow-bone is the internal bone of the fore- 
arm. It is larger and longer than the radius, forming the greater portion of 
the articulation with the humerus. It does not enter into the formation of 
the wrist-joint, being excluded therefrom by an interarticular fibro-cartilage. 
It presents the following, viz.— 
Olecranon process,d at the upper extremity, forming the elbow. It is 
curved forwards, its apex being received into the olecranon fossa of the 
humerus when the fore-arm is extended. Its posterior surface gives in- 
sertion to the tendon of the triceps. In its function and structure it 
resembles the patella. 
Coronoidprocess/ below the olecranon, projects forwards, its apex being 
received into the coronoid fossa of the humerus when the fore-arm is 
flexed. Its upper surface is concave for articulation with the humerus, 
its lower surface rough for the insertion of the brachialis anticus muscle. 
Its inner surface has a margin for the internal lateral ligament, a tubercle 
for the flexor sublimis digitorum, and a ridge for the pronator radii teres. 
Greater sigmoid cavityp lies between the processes, and is divided by a 
vertical ridge into two unequal parts. It articulates with the trochlear 
surface of the humerus. 
Lesser sigmoid cavity c lies external to the coronoid 
process; is oval and concave, articulating with the 
head of the radius, and giving attachment to the 
orbicular ligament. 
Shaftp large and prismatic above, smaller and rounded 
below, has the nutrient foramen f on its anterior 
surface, and a prominent margins externally to which 
is attached the interosseous membrane. The shaft 
gives attachment to 9 of the 12 muscles of the fore- 
arm. 
Head/ at the carpal end, articulates with the lesser 
sigmoid cavity of the radius, and the fibro-cartilage 
of the wrist-joint. 
Styloid process,* projecting from the head internally 
and posteriorly, its apex gives attachment to the inter- 
nal lateral ligament, and a depression at its root to 
the fibro-cartilage of the joint. 
Groove, for the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris 
Fig. 24. 48 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Describe the Radius. The radius lies externally to the ulna when the 
forearm is in supination; it is prismatic in form with the base below where it 
articulates with the carpus. The bone is curved outwards and is shorter than 
the ulna, by the length of the olecranon. It presents the following points from 
above downwards, viz.— 
Headf cylindrical and cup-shaped, articulating with the radial head of the 
humerus, and the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna, and playing within the 
orbicular ligament. 
Neck/ the constricted part below the head. 
Tuberosity,m rough behind for the insertion of the biceps, and smooth in 
front where it is covered by a bursa. 
Shaft, j prismoid in form, presents a sharp border internally for the attach- 
ment of the interosseous membrane, the nutrient foramen is on its an- 
• terior surface. It gives attachment to 8 of the 12 muscles of the forearm. 
Sigmoid cavity, at the internal side of the carpal end, is shallow, and articu- 
lates with the head of the ulna. 
Articular surface,o is divided by a ridge into two facets for articulation with 
the semilunar and scaphoid bones of the carpus. 
Styloid process,P externally, gives attachment by its apex to the external lat- 
eral ligament, and by its base to the supinator longus muscle. 
Grooves, on the posterior and external surfaces of the lower extremity, for 
the tendons of the 8 extensor muscles of the thumb, and those of the 
radial side of the wrist, and fingers. 
THE HAND. 
How are the bones of the hand divided ? Into the carpus (8), the meta- 
carpus (5), and the phalanges (14). Total 
27 bones. 
Name the bones of the Carpus. 
They are placed in two rows, one row in 
front of the other, with four bones in each 
row, as follows,—the left hand being in supi- 
nation, naming from without inwards, viz.— 
1st, or proximal row,— Semi- 
lunar,-£ Cuneiform,C Pisiform.P 
2nd, or distal row,—Trapezium,?’ Trape- 
zoid,?’ Unciform. U 
State the number of Articulations in 
the Carpus. 34, as follows,—the number 
after each bone representing the number of 
its articulations, viz.— 
Fig. 25. BONES OF THE HAND. 
49 
Scaphoid, 5. 
Trapezium, 4. 
Semilunar, 5. 
Trapezoid, 4. 
Cuneiform, 3. 
Os-magnum, 7. 
Pisiform, I. 
Unciform, 5. 
What peculiarities have the Carpal bones ? The first three enter into 
the formation of the wrist-joint, the pisiform does not, but is wholly without it, 
and may be considered a mere appendage of the carpus. When the hand 
is in pronation— 
' The Scaphoid, or boat-shaped bone, has a tuberosity on its outer side, its 
largest articular facet is uppermost, and a transverse groove crosses its 
posterior surface. 
The Semilunar bone has a crescentic facet externally, and a convex facet 
superiorly. 
The Cuneiform bone is wedge-shaped, its convex surface above, and has an 
isolated facet for the pisiform articulation. 
The Pisifo?-m bone is the smallest, and has but one facet, which lies pos- 
teriorly when the bone is in position. 
The Trapezium has a deep groove for the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis, 
and a saddle-shaped facet, inferiorly. 
The Trapezoid is small and quadrilateral, bent on itself, with a saddle- 
shaped facet looking downwards. 
The Os-magnum has a head looking upwards, a neck, and a body ; is the 
largest bone of the carpus, and has a tubercle on the inner side of the base. 
The L/nciform bone is triangular, with a concavity which lies to the outer 
side; and the unciform process, long and curved, projecting from its palmar 
surface. 
Describe the Metacarpus. The 5 metacarpal bones are placed between 
the carpus and the phalanges, are long bones, and each has a head, shaft, and 
base. Their heads articulate with the respective phalanges. 
1st Metacarpal boned articulates with the trapezium, is shorter than the 
others by one-third, and its base has but one articular facet. This bone is 
classed among the phalanges by Professor W. H. Pancoast. 
2nd Aletacarpal bone/ articulates with 3 bones of the carpus,—the 
trapezium, trapezoid, and os-magnum; its base is large and has four 
articular facets. 
3rd Metacarpal bone,f articulates with one bone of the carpus,—the os 
magnum; its base has a projecting process on the radial side, and two 
small facets on the opposite side. 
4th Metacarpal bone,g does not articulate with any bone of the carpus, but 
does with the adjacent metacarpal bones; its base is small, and has two 
circular facets, one on each side. 
pth Metacarpal bonep articulates with one carpal bone,—the unciform ; its 
base has one lateral articular facet. 50 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Describe the Phalanges. The finger-bones are 14 in number (15 accord- 
ing to Pancoast), three to each finger, and two to the thumb. They are long 
bones, and each has a base, a shaft, and a digital extremity. The bases of the 
first row articulate with the heads of the metacarpal bones. The digital ex- 
tremities of the first and second rows have each two small lateral condyles, 
while in the terminal row they are rough for the attachment of the sensitive 
pulp of the fingers. 
BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 
THE THIGH. 
Describe the Femur. The thigh-bone is nearly cylindrical, and is the 
longest, largest and strongest bone in the body. In the 
vertical position of the skeleton it forms one side of a 
triangle, of which the base is the breadth of the pelvis, 
and the apex at the knee-joints. The base of this trian- 
gle is longest in the female, and consequently that sex is 
usually knock-kneed. 
Ilcadp articulates with the acetabulum, forms about two- 
fifths of a sphere, and has an oval depression" below 
its centre for the attachment of the ligamentum teres. 
Neckf connects the head with the shaft, is pyramidal 
and flattened; its obliquity varies with age, being 
less before puberty, about 120 to 125 degrees in the 
adult, and nearly horizontal to the shaft in old or 
debilitated subjects. 
Great trochanter d a broad, rough, quadrilateral pro- 
cess directed outwards and backwards from the sum- 
mit of the shaft to within three-fourths of an inch of 
the level of the head. On its outer surface the tendon 
of the gluteus maximus plays over a bursa. It gives 
insertion to the obturator interims, two gemelli, 
pyriformis, and gluteus minimus and medius muscles. 
Digital fossa, on the inner surface of the great troch- 
anter, gives insertion to the obturator externus muscle. 
Lesser trochanter,e at the inferior root of the neck 
posteriorly, is small and conical, and affords insertion to the tendon ol 
the psoas magnus muscle, the tendon of the iliacus being inserted 
immediately below it. 
Inter-trochanteric lines, anterior and posterior, the latter the most promi- 
nent; to the anterior is attached the capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 
I.inea quadrati, extends from the middle of the posterior inter-trochanteric 
line about two inches down the shaft, and gives attachment to the quadra- 
tic femoris muscle. 
Fig. 26. BONES OF THE LEG. 
51 
Shaft, is slightly curved forwards, broad and cylindrical at each end, and 
narrow and triangular in the centre. Its nutrient foramen perforates its 
posterior surface below the centre. From its anterior surface arise the 
crureus and sub-crureus muscles. 
Linea aspera, gg a crest lying along the central third of the shaft posteriorly; 
bifurcating above towards each trochanter, also below towards the two 
condyles. To its outer lip is attached the vastus externus, to its inner lip, 
the vastus internus; and between them, the pectineus, adductor brevis, 
and gluteus maximus above the short head of the biceps below, and the 
adductors longus and magnus along the greater portion of the space. 
Groove, crossing the internal condyloid ridge, and lodging the femoral artery. 
Popliteal space,h triangular and smooth, lying between the condyloid ridges, 
for the popliteal artery. 
External condyle,i broader and shorter than the internal, so as to form a 
horizontal articulation, the bone being inclined towards the median line. 
It gives attachment to the external lateral ligament, and the popliteus and 
gastrocnemius muscles. 
Internal condyle,l the longest by half an inch; it gives attachment to the 
internal lateral ligament and the gastrocnemius muscle. 
Inter-condyloid notch,k lodges the crucial ligaments. In front the condyles 
are continuous with each other, forming a concave depression or trochlea 
for the patella. . 
Outer tuberosity, on the external condyle, for the attachment of the exter- 
nal lateral ligament. 
Groove, below the outer tuberosity, for the tendon of the popliteus muscle, 
terminating in a depression whence the muscle takes its origin. 
Inner tuberosity, on the internal condyle, for the attachment of the internal 
lateral ligament. 
Tubercle, above the inner tuberosity, for the insertion of the tendon of the 
adductor magnus muscle. 
Depression, behind the tubercle, for the tendon of the inner head of the 
gastrocnemius. 
THE LEG. 
Describe the Tibia. The shin-bone ranks next to the femur in respect to 
size and length. Its form is prismoidal, the upper extremity being much 
larger than the lower. 
Head, expands into two lateral tuberosities,which articulate with the con- 
dyles of the femur. 
Spine,d projects vertically between the two articular surfaces, is bifid, af- 
fording attachment to the semilunar fibro-cartilages, and by depressions 
in front and behind its base to the crucial ligaments of the joint. 52 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
anteriorly on the head, between the tuberosities, for the insertion 
of the ligamentum patellae. 
Popliteal notch, posteriorly between the tuberosities, affords attachment to 
the posterior crucial ligament. 
Groove, on the inner tuberosity posteriorly, for the insertion of the tendon 
of the semi-membranosus muscle. 
Facet, on the outer tuberosity posteriorly and looking 
downwards, for articulation with the head of the 
fibula. 
Popliteal line, obliquely across the upper part of the 
shaft posteriorly, affords attachment to the fascia of 
the popliteus, and parts of the soleus, flexor longus 
digitorum, and tibialis posticus muscles. 
Nutrient canal, the largest in the skeleton, opens just 
below the popliteal line, its orifice looking upwards. 
Shafts has three sharp ridges,—one in front, the crest 
or shin,/ and one on either side, to the external of 
which is attached the interosseous membrane. 
Lower extremity,g is smaller than the upper, grooved 
posteriorly for the tendon of the flexor longus pol- 
licis; externally has a rough triangular depression 
for articulation with the fibula, and for the attach- 
ment of the inferior interosseous ligament. Its in- 
ferior surface is concave and smooth for articulation 
with the upper surface of the astragalus. 
Internal malleolus,h projects downwards from the in- 
ternal side of the lower extremity. It articulates 
with the astragalus, is grooved posteriorly for the 
tendons of the tibialis posticus and flexor longus 
digitorum muscles, and affords attachment to the in- 
ternal lateral ligament. 
Describe the Fibula. It is a long slender bone, placed nearly parallel 
with the tibia on the outer side of the leg. It is also called the peroneus, or 
peroneal bone. 
Head,j articulates with the external tuberosity of the tibia by a flat facet. 
Externally it has a prominence for the attachment of the long external 
lateral ligament of the knee-joint. 
Fig. *7. 
Styloid process, projects upwards from the head posteriorly, and gives inser- 
tion to the tendon of the biceps muscle, and the short external lateral 
ligament of the knee-joint. 
Shaft i is triangular and twisted on itself, having three marked ridges, the BONES OF THE FOOT. 
53 
innermost of which is sharp for the attachment of the interosseous mem- 
brane. The shaft arches backwards, and gives attachment to 8 of the 12 
muscles of the leg. 
Nutrient canal, opens about the centre of the shaft posteriorly, its orifice 
looking downwards. 
External malleolus,k is the lower extremity of the bone. It is larger and 
longer than the internal, articulates with the astragalus by a triangular 
facet, and is grooved posteriorly for the tendons of the peroneus 
longus and brevis muscles. Its edge affords attachment to the external 
lateral ligament of the ankle-joint. 
THE FOOT. 
How are the bones of the Foot divided? Into the tarsus (7), meta- 
tarsus (5), and phalanges (14). Total 26 bones. 
Name the bones of the Tarsus. They are placed in two rows side by 
side, two bones in the external row, five in the internal, as follows, viz.— 
Internally,— Astragalus.« Scaphoid.3 Cuneiform.*fg 
Externally,— Os calcis.r Cuboid.^ 
How many Articulations are in the Tarsus ? 2S, each bone articulat 
ing with four others, except the os calcis, which artic- 
ulates with two, and the external cuneiform with six 
bones. 
What peculiarities have the tarsal bones ? 
They may be divided transversely at the astragalo- 
scaphoid-calcaneo-cuboid articulation, the site of 
Chopart’s operation. 
The Astragalus,a has a rounded head, a convex 
surface on which is a broad articular facet, and 
on its inferior surface a deep groove between 
two articular facets. 
The Os calcis,c is a large bone, having on its upper 
surface a deep groove for the interosseous liga- 
ment, between two articular surfaces; ante- 
riorly a large irregular portion, the head; and 
posteriorly an elongated portion forming the 
heel. On its internal surface is a projection, the 
sustentaculum tali, which supports the internal 
articulating surface; below which process the 
bone is deeply grooved for the plantar vessels 
and nerves and the flexor tendons. To the os 
calcis are attached 8 muscles and the plantar fascia 
Fig. 28. 54 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
The Scaphoid boned is boat-shaped, has three facets anteriorly for the 
cuneiform bones, a concave surface posteriorly for the astragalus, and a 
facet externally for the cuboid bone. A tubercle is situated on the lower 
surface internally, for the insertion of the tibialis posticus muscle. 
The Cuboid bone/ has three articular surfaces, and a groove inferiorly for 
the tendon of the peroneus longus. 
The Internal Cuneiform bone,e the largest of the three, has a tubercle on 
its plantar surface for the insertion of parts of the tendons of the tibialis 
anticus and tibialis posticus muscles. 
The Middle Cuneiform bone,/ is small and wedge-shaped with the narrow 
end downwards. Its anterior surface is considerably behind the line of 
the tarso-metatarsal articulation, thus forming a recess into which the 
base of the second metatarsal bone fits. 
The External Cuneiform bone.g is also wedge-shaped, but longer than the 
middle one; and affords origin to one muscle, the flexor brevis pollicis. 
Describe the Metatarsus. The metatarsal bones* are 5 in number, are 
long bones, having each a shaft and two extremities. Their bases articulate 
with the tarsal bones and with each other; their heads with the first row of 
phalanges. 
1st Metatarsal is large but shorter than the others, and forms the inner 
border of the foot, articulating with the internal cuneiform. 
2d Metatarsal, is the longest; its base has three facets for articulation with the 
three cuneiform bones in the recess formed by the shortness of the middle 
cuneiform. 
3d Metatarsal, has turn facets on the inner side of its base, besides the 
facets for the internal cuneiform and the 4th metatarsal bone. 
4th Metatarsal, articulates with the cuboid bone, and also with the internal 
cuneiform. 
3th Metatarsal, articulates obliquely with the cuboid bone, and has a tuber- 
cular projection on the outer surface of its base, which forms the guide to 
Key’s operation. 
Describe the Phalanges of the Foot. They number 14 as in the hand, 
the great toe having two, the other toes three each. They are long bones, 
each having a base, a shaft and an anterior extremity. They are convex 
above, concave below, and articulate by the bases of the first row with 
the bones of the metatarsus. The anterior extremities of the distal pha- 
» are expanded into surfaces for the support of the nails and pulp of 
the toes. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
55 
THE ARTICULATIONS. 
Synarthrosis, immovable; 2. Amphiarthrosis, synchondrosis, or symphysis, 
having limited motion; 3. Diarthrosis, having free motion. 
Into what classes are the Articulations divided? Into three,—1. 
How are the Synarthroses subdivided ? Into three divisions,—Stitura, 
by indentations; Schindy'lesis, by a plate of bone into a cleft in another; 
and Gomphosis, by a conical process into a socket. The Sutura are again sub- 
divided into—.S’, dentata, having tooth-like processes; S. serrata, with ser- 
rated edges; S. limbosa, having beveled margins and dentated processes; S. 
squamosa, with thin beveled margins overlapping each other; S. harmonia, 
contiguous rough surfaces opposed to each other. The first three are also 
named Sutura vera (true sutures) having indented borders; the last two 
Sutura notha (false sutures) being formed by rough surfaces. 
How are the Diarthroses divided ? Into four divisions,—Arthrodia, 
gliding joint; Enarthrosis, ball-and-socket joint; Ginglymus, hinge-joint; 
and Diarthrosis rotatorius, a ring surrounding a pivot. 
Give an example of each of the above-named articulations 
Synarthrosis,—bones of cranium and face, except the lower jaw. 
Sutura dentata,—the inter-parietal suture. 
Sutura serrata,—the inter-frontal suture. 
Sutura limbosa,—the fronto-parietal suture. 
Sutura squamosa,—the tempora-parietal suture. 
Sutura harmonia,—the intermaxillary symphysis. 
Schindy'lesis,—rostrum of sphenoid with the vomer. 
Gomphdsis,—the teeth in their alveoli. 
Amphiarthrdsis,—the bodies of the vertebrae, the sacro-iliac and pubic sym- 
physes. 
Diarth rdses,— 
Arthrodia,—sterno-clavicular articulation. 
Enarthrosis,—hip-joint, shoulder-joint. 
Ginglymus,—elbow-joint, ankle-joint, knee-joint. 
Diarthrosis rotatorius,—the superior radio-ulnar, and atlo-axoid articula- 
tions. 
Name the varieties of motion in joints? There are seven varieties, 
viz.—flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation, circumduction, and 
gliding movement. 
What structures enter into the formation of joints ? There are five, 
viz.—the articular lamella of bone, ligaments, cartilage, fibro-cartilage, and 
synovial membrane. 56 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Articular lamella of bone differs from ordinary bone tissue in being more 
dense, containing no Haversian canals nor canaliculi, and having larger 
lacunae. 
Ligaments are bands of white fibrous tissue, except the ligamentum sub- 
flava and the ligamentum nuchae, which are both composed purely of 
yellow elastic tissue. 
Cartilage is temporary or permanent. The first forms the original frame- 
work of the skeleton, and becomes ossified. Permanent cartilage is not 
prone to ossification, and is divided into three varieties, articular, cover- 
ing the ends of bones in joints; costal, forming part of the skeleton ; reti- 
cular, arranged in lamellae or plates to maintain the shape of certain parts. 
Fibro-cartilage, is interarticular (menisci), separating the bones of a joint; 
connecting, binding bones together; circumferential, deepening cavities; 
stratiform, lining grooves. 
Synovial membranes secrete the synovia, a viscid, glairy fluid, and resemble 
the serous membranes in structure. They are articular, lubricating 
joints; bursal, forming closed sacs (bursx); vaginal, ensheathing tendons. 
Describe the Vertebral Articulations. They are formed by the ad- 
jacent surfaces of the bodies of the vertebrae, and their articular processes, 
and are connected by the following ligaments, etc.—(See Fig. 31). 
Intervertebralfibro-cartilages, between the bodies of all true vertebrae, ex- 
cept the axis and atlas. 
Anterior common ligament,1 along fronts of the bodies. 
Posterior common ligament, along backs of the bodies. 
Ligamenta sub/lava, connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae. 
Capsular f surround the articular processes, and are lined by synovial 
membrane. 
Supra-spinous and inter spinous, connect the spinous processes. 
Inter-transverse, 3 connect the transverse processes. 
Describe the Occipito-atloid Articulation. It is a double arthrodia 
formed by the condyles of the occipital 
bone with the superior articular surfaces 
of the atlas, and has 7 ligaments, viz.— 
2 Anterior occipito-atloid,a from the an- 
terior margin of the foramen magnum 
to the anterior arch of the atlas. 
Posterior occipito-atloid, from the pos- 
terior margin of the foramen magnum 
to the posterior arch of the atlas. It 
is perforated by the vertebral arteries 
and sub-occipital nerves. 
Fig. 29 THE ARTICULATIONS. 
2 Lateral, from the jugular processes of the occipital bone, to the bases of 
the transverse processes of the atlas. 
2 Capsular,d around the articular surfaces, lined by synovial membrane. 
Describe the Occipito-axoid Articulation. Formed by the occipital 
bone and the odontoid process of the axis, which do not articulate with each 
other strictly, but are connected by 4 ligaments. 
Occipito-axoid,1 (apparatus ligamentosus colli), a continuation of the pos- 
terior common spinal ligament, to the basilar process of the occipital bone. 
2 Lateral occipito-odontoid,5 (check ligaments), from the head of the odon- 
toid process to the sides of the occipital condyles. 
Vertical occipito-odontoid (ligamentum suspensorium), from the anterior 
margin of the foramen magnum to the odontoid apex. 
Describe the Atlo-axoid Articulation. It is a double arthrodia between 
the articular processes, a double diarthrosis rotatorius between the atlas and 
the odontoid process, and has 6 ligaments, and 4 synovial membranes. 
2 Anterior and 1 posterior atlo-axoid, continuations of the anterior and pos- 
terior commoan spinal ligaments. 
2 Capsular, surrounding the articular surfaces, each lined by a synovial 
membrane. 
Transverse, or cruciform ligament, divides the spinal foramen of the atlas 
into two portions, stretching across between the tubercles on the inner 
sides of the articular processes. It holds the odontoid process in place, 
having a synovial membrane interposed. Another synovial membrane is 
situated between the process and the anterior arch. The transverse liga- 
ment sends two vertical slips, one upwards the other downwards, from 
which it is named the cruciform ligament. 
Describe the Temporo-maxiliary Articulation. A double arthrodia 
between the condyle of the lower jaw and the anterior part of the glenoid 
cavity of the temporal bone. It has two synovial membranes with an inter- 
articular fibro-cartilage between them, and 4 ligaments, viz.— 
External lateral, from the tubercle of the zygoma, 1o the outer -ide of the 
neck of the condyle of the 
lower jaw. 
Internal lateral,d from the 
spine of the sphenoid, to 
the margin of the inferior 
dental foramen. 
Stylo-maxillary,f from the 
styloid process of the tem- 
poral bone, to the angle of 
the inferior maxillary. 
Fig. 30. 58 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Capsular,c from the edge of the glenoid cavity and the eminentia articu- 
laris, to the neck of the inferior maxillary condyle. 
Nerves, are derived from the auriculo-teinporal, and masseteric branches of 
the inferior maxillary. 
Describe the Costo-vertebral Articulations. They are each a double 
arthrodia between the head of the rib and the bodies of two adjacent verte- 
brae, except in the ist, ioth, nth, and 12th ribs, which are each a single arth- 
rodia, as they articulate with but one vertebra each. Their ligaments are 3, 
viz— 
Anterior coslo-vertebral,2 or stellate ligament, consists of three bundles, 
which fasten the anterior part of 
the head of the rib to the inter- 
vertebral disk and the two adja- 
cent bodies. 
Inter-articular costo-vertebral, in the 
interior of the joint, from the crest 
on the head of the rib to the inter- 
vertebral disk; on each side there 
is a separate synovial membrane. 
Capsular, surrounding the articular 
surfaces. 
Describe the costo-transverse Articulations. They are ten arthrodial 
articulations between the tubercles of the first ten ribs and the transverse pro- 
cesses of the vertebrae next below. Their ligaments are 3, viz.—anterior, 
middle, and posterior costo-transverse. 
Fig. 31. 
Describe the Costo-sternal Articulations. One a synarthrodial, six are 
arthrodial articulations, between the costal cartilages and the margin of the 
sternum. The first has no synovial membrane, the second only has an inter- 
articular fibro-cartilage. Each has 3 ligaments,—the anterior and posterior 
costo-sternal, and a capsular. The costo-xiphoidligament connects the xiphoid 
appendix to the cartilage of the 6th or 7th rib. 
How are the Costal cartilages connected with the ribs and with each 
other ? With the ribs by a depression on the end of each rib, strengthened 
by the blending together of the periosteum and the perichondrium. The carti- 
lages of the lower ribs, sometimes from the 5th to the 10th inclusive, articu- 
late with each other by their borders and for each a capsular and an intercostal 
ligament, with 3 synovial membranes for the three articulations between *the 
6th and the 9th cartilages. 
What are the Ligaments of the Sternum ? An anterior sternal and 
a posterior sternal ligament, with a layer of cartilage between the manubrium 
and the gladiolus. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
59 
Describe the Sacro-vertebral articulation. It is similar to the other 
vertebral articulations, but has two additional ligaments on each side, viz.— 
Lumbosacral, from the transverse processes of the 5th lumbar vertebra to 
the base of the sacrum laterally and anteriorly. 
Lumbo-iliac, from the apices of the transverse processes of the 5th lumbar 
vertebra to the crest of the ilium. 
Describe the Sacro-coccygeal Articulation. It is an amphiarthrodial 
joint, and has 3 ligaments, viz.— 
Anterior sacro-coccygeal. 
Interarticularfibro-cartilage, in the joint. 
Posterior sacro-coccygeal. 
Describe the Sacro-iliac Articulation. It is an amphiarthrodial 
joint, formed by the auricular surfaces of the sacrum and ilium. Its liga- 
ments on each side are as follows, viz.— 
Anterior sacro-iliac. 
Posterior sacro-iliacA 
Oblique sacro-iliac. 
Describe the Sacro-ischiatic Articulation. Its ligaments convert the 
sacro-sciatic notches into foramina, the greater notch by the lesser ligament 
the lesser notch by the 
greater ligament. These 
foramina are described 
under the ilium and is- 
chium bones. 
Great sacro-sciatic 
ligament,1314 from 
the posterior inferior 
spine of the ilium 
and the posterior sur- 
faces and margins of 
the sacrum and coc- 
cyx, to the inner 
margin of the tuber- 
osity and the ascend- 
ing ramus of the 
ischium. 
Lesser sacro-sciatic ligament,15 16 from the margins of the sacrum and 
coccyx, into the spine of the ischium. 
Fig. 32. 
Describe the Pubic Articulation. It is an amphiarthrodial joint, 
formed by the two pubic bones. It has an interarticular fibro-cartilage and 4 
ligaments, viz.— 
A nterior pubic. 
Posterior pubic. 
Supra-pubic. 
Sub-pubic, forming a fibrous arch between the rami. 60 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Describe the Sterno-clavicular Articulation. It is an arthrodial joint, 
formed by the sternal end of the clavicle with the sternum and the cartilage 
of the first rib. It has an interarticular fibro-cartilage, 2 synovial membranes, 
and 4 ligaments, viz.— 
Anterior sterno-clavicular. 
Posterior sterno-clavicular. 
Interclavicula r. 
Costo-clavicular or Rhomboid. 
Describe the Scapulo-clavicular Articulation. It is an arthrodial 
joint, formed by the outer extremity of the clavicle and the acromion process 
of the scapula. It frequently has an interarticular fibro-cartilage and 2 
synovial membranes; usually but one synovial membrane is present, and 3 
ligaments, viz.— 
Superior acromio-clavicular.1 
Inferior acromio-clavicular. 
Coraco-clavicular‘- 
divided into— 
rrapezoid, externally. 
Conoid, internally. 
What are the proper ligaments of the Scapula ? They are 2, the 
coraco-acromial, and the transverse, as follows.— 
Coraco-acromial,3 completes the vault par- 
tially formed by the two processes over 
the head of the humerus. 
Transverse,4 from the base of the coracoid 
process to the margin of the suprascapular 
notch, converting it into a foramen, for 
the supra-scapular nerve. 
Describe the Shoulder-joint. It is an 
enarthrodial joint, formed by the head of the 
humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. 
It has a synovial membrane which is reflected 
upon the tendons of the biceps, subscapularis, 
and infraspinatus muscles, and communicates 
with bursae beneath the two latter tendons. 
Its arteries are derived from the anterior and 
posterior circumflex and the suprascapular; 
its nerves from the circumflex and the suprascapular. It has 3 ligaments, 
Capsular,5 from the margin of the glenoid cavity to the anatomical neck of 
the humerus ; has 3 openings for the reflexions of the synovial membrane 
over the tendons. 
Coraco-humeral,6 intimately united with the capsular, extends from the cora- 
coid process to the greater tuberosity. 
Glenoid, a fibro-cartilaginous ring, continuous above with the tendon of the 
Fig. 33. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
61 
long head of the biceps,7 and attached around the mar- 
gin of the glenoid cavity in order to deepen the articular 
surface. 
Describe the Elbow-joint. It is a ginglymus articulation, 
formed by the lower end of the humerus with the greater 
sigmoid cavity of the ulna and the head of the radius. Its 
synovial membrane is reflected over the ligaments, and dips 
down between the surfaces of the superior radio-ulnar ar- 
ticulation. Its arteries are derived from the anastomotica 
magna, radial ulnar and interosseous recurrent, superior and 
inferior profunda arteries. Its nerves are branches of the 
ulnar and the musculo-cutaneous. It has 4 ligaments.— 
Anterior, from the inner condyle and anterior surface of 
the humerus to the orbicular ligament of the radius and 
the coronoid process of the ulna. 
Posterior, from the posterior surface of the humerus to the 
olecranon process of the ulna. 
External lateral,* from the external condyle of the 
humerus to the orbicular ligament of the radius. 
Internal lateral, from the internal condyle of the humerus 
to the coronoid and olecranon processes of the ulna. 
Describe the Radio-ulnar Articulations. They are three in number, as 
follows: viz.— 
Superior radio-ulnar articulation, is a lateral ginglymoid joint, formed 
by the head of the radius and the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna. Its 
synovial membrane is a continuation of that in the elbow-joint. It has one 
ligament, the— 
Orbicular ligament,5 forms four-fifths of a circle and surrounds the neck of 
the radius. It is attached to the margins of the lesser sigmoid cavity of 
the ulna, and to the external lateral ligament of the elbow-joint. 
Middle radio-ulnar articulation, is formed by the shafts of the radius 
and ulna, which do not touch each other, but are connected by 2 ligaments, as 
follows :—viz.— 
Oblique ligament, from the tubercle at the base of the coronoid process of 
the ulna to the shaft of the radius. 
Interosseous membrane,9 obliquely downwards from the interosseous ridge 
on the radius to that on the ulna. Through the interval between its upper 
border and the oblique ligament, the posterior interosseous vessels pass. 
Inferior radio-ulnar articulation, is a lateral ginglymoid joint, formed 
by the head of the ulna and the sigmoid cavity of the radius. Its synoviai 
mettibrane (membrana sacciformis) is very loose, and sometimes communicates 
Fig. 34. 62 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
with that of the wrist-joint through an opening in the triangular fibro-carti- 
lage which separates the head of the ulna from the wrist-joint, and acts as one 
of the ligaments of this articulation, w'hich are 3, viz— 
Anterior radio-ulnar. 
Triangular inter articular fibro-cartilage. 
Posterior radio-ulnar. 
Describe the Wrist-joint. It is chiefly an enarthrodial articulation though 
incapable of rotation, and is formed by the lower end of the radius and the tri- 
angular fibro-cartilage, with the scaphoid semilunar and cuneiform bones of the 
carpus. Its arteries are the anterior and posterior carpal from both the radial 
and ulnar, the anterior and posterior interosseous and ascending branches from 
the deep palmar arch. Its nerves are derived from the ulnar; it is lined by a 
synovial membrane, and has 4 ligaments, viz.— 
External lateral, (radio-carpal.) 
Internal lateral, (ulno-carpal.) 
Anterior. 
Posterior. 
Describe the Carpal Articulations. They are in three sets, (1) between 
the bones of the first row, (2) between the bones of the second row, (3) be- 
tween the two rows of bones. 
(1) The scaphoid, semilunar, and cuneiform bones are connected together 
by 2 dorsal, 2 palmar, and 2 interosseous ligaments. The pisiform bone 
has a separate capsular ligament and synovial membrane and two fasci- 
culi connecting it with the unciform and the 5th metacarpal. 
(2) The four bones of the second row are connected together by 3 dorsal, 
3 palmar, and 3 interosseous ligaments. 
(3) The two rows of bones are united by a dorsal, a palmar, and 2 lateral 
ligatnents, the last named being continuous with the lateral ligaments of 
the wrist-joint. 
Describe the Carpo-metacarpal Articulations. That of the thumb 
with the trapezium is an enarthrodial joint, having a capsular ligament and a 
separate synovial membrane. The four inner metacarpal bones form four 
arthrodial joints with the adjacent carpal bones by 6 dorsal, 8 palmar, and 
2 interosseous ligaments, irregularly disposed. 
Describe the Synovial Membranes of the Wrist. They number 5, and 
are situated as follows, viz.— 
The first, or menibrana sacciformis, between the head of the ulna, the sig- 
moid cavity of the radius, and the triangular inter-articular fibro-cartilage. 
The second, between the lower end of the radius, the triangular fibro-carti- 
lage, and the scaphoid, semilunar, and cuneiform bones of the carpus. 
The third, between all the carpal bones except the pisiform, and between 
the bases of the inner four metacarpal bones; but it extends only half- 
way into the two intervals between the three proximal bones of the 
carpus. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
63 
The fourth, between the trapezium and the metacarpal bone of the thumb. 
The fifth, between the cuneiform and pisiform bones. 
Describe the Metacarpo-metacarpal Articulations. The four inner 
metacarpal bones are connected together at their bases by dorsal, palmar, and 
interosseous ligaments ; and at their digital extremities by the transverse liga- 
ment. 
Describe the remaining articulations of the hand. The metacarpo- 
phalangeal and the phalangeal articulations are all ginglymoid joints, and each 
has an anterior and 2 lateral ligaments, the former being lined each with a 
synovial membrane. There are no posterior ligaments to these articulations, 
the extensor tendons of the hand supplying their places. 
Describe the Hip-joint. It is a true enarthrodial articulation, formed by 
the head of the femur with the acetabulum of the os iunominatum. Its syno- 
vial membrane is extensive, investing most of the head and neck of the femur, 
the capsular cotyloid and teres ligaments, and the cavity of the acetabulum. 
Its arteries are derived from the obturator, sciatic, internal circumflex and 
gluteal. Its nerves are branches from the sacral plexus, great sciatic, obtura- 
tor and accessory obturator. It has 5 ligaments, as follows: viz.— 
Capsular, from the margin of the acetabulum and the transverse ligament, 
into the base of the neck of the femur above, the anterior inter-trochan- 
teric line in front, and to the middle of the neck of the bone, behind. 
Ilio-femoral or Y-ligament, from the anterior inferior spine of the ilium, 
into the anterior inter-trochanteric line by two fasciculi. It is a dissected 
portion of the capsular ligament which is very strong anteriorly. 
Ligamentum teres, from a depression on the head of the femur into the 
margins of the cotyloid notch of the acetabulum and into the transverse 
ligament, by two fasciculi. 
Cotyloid, a fibro-cartilaginous band surrounding the margin of the acetabu- 
lum in order to deepen its cavity. 
Transverse, that part of the cotyloid ligament which crosses over the cotyloid 
notch converting it into a foramen. 
Describe the Knee-joint. It is a ginglymus articulation, formed by the 
condyles of the femur with the head of the tibia, and the patella in front. Its 
synovial membrane is the largest in the body, being reflected for two or three 
inches over the anterior surface of the femur, where it is supported by the 
subcrureus muscle, also over its condyles, the patella, semilunar cartilages, 
crucial ligaments and head of the tibia; and is prolonged through an open- 
ing in the capsular ligament beneath the tendon of the popliteus. Its arteries 
are derived from the anastomotica magna, the five articular branches of the 
popliteal, and the recurrent branch of the anterior tibial. Its nerves are branches 64 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
of the obturator, anterior crural, external and internal popliteal. It has 14 
ligaments, of which 6 are external and 8 internal, as follows:— 
Anterior, or ligamentutn patella, is a continuation of the tendon of the rectus 
femoris muscle, extending from the apex of the pa- 
tella to the lower part of the tubercle of the tibia. 
Posterior, or ligamentutn IVinslowii,1 from the inner 
tuberosity of the tibia to the external condyle of 
the femur, being partly derived from the tendon 
of the semimembranosus muscle.2 
Internal later alp from the internal condyle of the 
femur to the internal surface of the tibia and 
semilunar cartilage. 
2 External lateral* from the external condyle of the 
femur to the head of the fibula. These ligaments 
are a long anteriorly and a short posteriorly, sepa- 
rated by the tendon of the biceps. 
Capsular, is only present where intervals are left by 
the preceding ligaments. It is thin but very strong. 
The Internal ligaments are as follows :— 
Anterior Crucial,2 from the depression in front of the spine of the tibia, to 
the inner side of the outer condyle of the femur. 
Posterior crucial,3 from the same depression, to the outer side of the inner 
condyle. [To remember the positions and insertions of these crucial liga- 
ments, let the student cross his index fingers over each knee in succession ; 
when over the right knee placing the right finger in front, when over the 
left knee the left finger in front. The positions of the fingers will then 
in each case correspond with those of the respective crucial ligaments.] 
2 Semilunar fibro-cartilages,* external and internal, 
are situated between the articular surfaces, and 
attached to the depressions in front and behind 
the spine of the tibia. 
Transversep is a connecting slip between the semi- 
lunar fibro-cartilages anteriorly. 
Coronary,’’ are short bands connecting the outer 
margins of the fibro-cartilages to the tibia and the 
adjacent ligaments. 
Ligamentutn mucosum, is a triangular fold of the 
synovial membrane which at the lower border of 
the patella is given off to the intercondyloid notch 
of the femur. 
Ligamcnta alaria, are fringes on the sides of the 
ligamentum mucosum and are attached to the sides of the patella. 
Fig. 35. 
Fig. 36. THE articulations. 
65 
Bursce in the vicinity of this joint are 5, viz.—one under the ligamentum 
patellae,9 one between the patella and the skin; one between the internal 
lateral ligament and the tendons crossing it; sometimes one replacing the 
synovial pouch on the anterior surface of the femur; and occasionally one 
in the popliteal space replacing the synovial pouch usually situated therein. 
Describe the Tibio-fibular Articulations. They are 3 in number, as 
follows; viz.— 
Superior tibio-fibular articulation, is an arthrodial joint, formed by 
the contiguous surfaces of the bones. It has a synovial membrane which is 
sometimes continuous with that of the knee-joint, and 2 ligaments, the— 
Anterior and posterior superior tibio-fibular,1which connect the head of 
the fibula with the outer tuberosity of the tibia. 
Middle tibio-fibular articulation. The shafts of these bones do not 
touch each other, but are connected by the interosseous membrane extending 
between their contiguous borders, and perforated, above for the anterior tibial 
artery, below for the anterior peroneal vessels. 
Inferior tibio-fibular articulation, is an amphi-arthrodial joint, 
formed by the contiguous rough surfaces on the bones. Its synovial mem- 
brane is derived from that of the ankle-joint, and it has 4 ligaments, viz.— 
Itiferior interosseous, continuous with the interosseous membrane. 
Anterior and posterior inferior tibio-fibular, from the margins of the ex- 
ternal malleolus to the front and back of tibia. 
Transverse, posteriorly between the two malleoli. 
Describe the Ankle-joint. It is a ginglymoid articulation, formed by the 
lower ends of the tibia and fibula and their malleoli, with the astragalus. Its 
synovial membrane is prolonged upwards between the tibia and fibula for a 
short distance. Its arteries are derived from the malleolar branches of the 
anterior tibial and peroneal arteries; and its nerves from the anterior tibial 
nerve. It has 3 ligaments, viz.— 
Anterior, connecting the margins of the tibia and astragalus. 
Internal lateral, or Deltoid ligament, from the internal malleolus to the 
three adjacent tarsal bones. 
External lateral, by anterior posterior and middle fasciculi, from the ex- 
ternal malleolus to the astragalus and os calcis. 
Describe the Tarsal Articulations. They are in three sets, (1) between 
the bones of the first row, (2) between the bones of the second row, (3) 
between the two rows of bones. 
(i.) The astragalus and os calcis are united by 3 ligaments. 
External calcaneo-astragaloid. 
Posterior < alcaneo-astragaloid. 
Interosseous. 66 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
(2.) The scaphoid, cuboid, and three cuneiform bones are united by an 
irregular number of dorsal and plantar and 4 interosseous ligaments, 
which latter are arranged transversely. 
(3.) The two rows of bones are united by 7 ligaments viz.— 
Superior astragalo-scaphoid. 
Superior calcaneo-cuboid. 
Superior calcaneo-scaphoid. 
Inferior calcaneo-scaphoid. 
Short calcaneo-cuboid. 
Long calcaneo-cuboid. 
Interosseous, or internal calcaneo-cuboid. 
Describe the Tarso-metatarsal Articulations. They are five arthro- 
dial joints formed by the bases of the metatarsal bones with the adjacent bones 
of the tarsus, the 2nd metatarsal bone articulating with all three cuneiform in 
the recess formed by the shortness of the second cuneiform. They are united 
by dorsal, plantar and j interosseous ligaments. The 2nd metatarsal bone 
has three dorsal ligaments, one from each cuneiform bone. The interosseous 
ligaments pass from the 2nd and 3rd metatarsal bones to the internal and 
external cuneiform. 
Describe the Synovial Membranes of the Tarsus and Metatarsus. 
They are 6 in number, and are situated as follows: viz.— 
The first, between the os calcis and the astragalus, behind the interosseous 
ligament. 
The second, between the same bones in front of the interosseous ligament, 
also between the astragalus and the scaphoid. 
The third, between the os calcis and the cuboid. 
The fourth, between the scaphoid and the three cuneiform bones, running 
backwards between the scaphoid and the cuboid, forwards between the 
cuneiform bones, between the external cuneiform and the cuboid, between 
the middle and external cuneiform and the bases of the second and third 
metatarsal, passing also between the bases of these bones and the fourth 
metatarsal. 
The fifth, between the cuboid and the fourth and fifth metatarsal bones, also 
running forwards between their bases. 
The sixth, between the internal cuneiform and the base of the first meta- 
tarsal bone. 
Describe the Metatarso-metatarsal Articulations. The metatarsal 
bones are connected together, except the first, at their bases by dorsal, plantar, 
and interosseous ligaments ; and all five are connected at their digital extremi- 
ties by the transverse metatarsal ligament. 
Describe the remaining articulations of the foot. The metatarso- 
phalangeal and the phalangeal articulations are similar to those in the hand, 
each having an anterior or plantar, and two lateral ligaments. The extensor 
tendons of the foot supply the places of posterior ligaments. THE MUSCLES AND FASCIHS. 
67 
THE MUSCLES AND FASCIAE. 
What are the Muscles ? They are the active organs of locomotion, 
formed of bundles of reddish fibres endowed with the property of shortening 
themselves upon irritation, which is called muscular contractility, and chemi- 
cally consisting of syntonin, or muscular fibrin. 
How are the muscles divided ? Into two great classes, (i) Voluntary, 
striped, or muscles of animal life, comprise those which are under the con- 
trol of the will. (2) Involuntary, unstriped, or muscles of organic life, are 
those which are not under the control of the will. 
Voluntary muscular fibre consists of fasciculi about inch in diameter, 
each surrounded by a tubular membranous sheath, the perimysium; and marked 
by fine striae passing around them in curved parallel lines about xto oiT 'nc'h 
apart. These fasciculi are formed of fibrillce each about inch thick, 
also striated, presenting the appearance of a row of minute particles, the 
“ sarcous elements” of Bowman, and surrounded by cellular tissue, the sarco- 
lemma. 
Involuntary muscular fibre consists of flattened fusiform or spindle-shaped 
fibres, averaging about y oVit inch in breadth, consisting of elongated cells, and 
bound together in bundles by areolar tissue. These fibres are found in the 
alimentary canal, in the posterior wall of the trachea, in the bronchi, the ducts 
of certain glands, in the ureters, bladder, urethra, genitalia of both sexes, 
walls of all arteries and most veins and lymphatics, in the iris and ciliary 
muscle, and in the skin. 
What are Tendons and Aponeuroses ? Tendons are white glistening 
cords or bands formed of white fibrous tissue almost entirely, have few vessels 
and no nerves, and serve to connect the muscles with the structures on which 
they act. Aponeuroses are fibrous membranes, of similar structure and appear- 
ance, and serve the same purpose. 
What are Fasciae. They are laminae of variable thickness which invest 
(fascia, a bandage) the softer structures. The superficial fascia is composed 
of fibro-areolar tissue, and is found beneath the skin almost over the whole 
body. The deep fascia is of aponeurotic structure, dense, inelastic and fibrous, 
ensheathing the muscles and affording some of them attachment, also the 
vessels and nerves, and binding down the whole into a shapely mass. 
To what structures are muscles attached ? To the periosteum and 
perichondrium of bone and cartilage, to the subcutaneous areolar tissue, and 
to ligaments. In the latter case only are their tendons in direct contact with 
the tissue on which they are to act. 
How many muscles are double-bellied ? Five,—the occipito-frontalis, 
biventer cervicis, digastric, omo-hyoid, and the diaphragm. 68 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Describe each Muscle of the body, giving its origin, insertion, action, 
and nervous supply. 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 
Occipito-frontalis,« from the external two-thirds of the superior curved line 
of the occipital bone, and the mastoid process of the temporal; also from the 
pyramidalis nasi, corrugator supercillii, and orbicularis palpebrarum fibres, 
—into an aponeurosis or “galea capitis,” which covers the vertex of the 
skull. Action, chiefly as a muscle of facial expression. Nei'ves, facial, 
supra-orbital, small occipital. 
Attollens aurem, from the occipito frontalis aponeurosis,—into the pinna of 
the ear superiorly. Action, to raise the pinna. Nei've, small occipital 
branch of the cervical plexus. 
Attrahens aurem from the lateral cranial aponeurosis,—into the helix of 
the ear anteriorly. Action, to draw the pinna forwards. Nerves, facial, 
and auriculo temporal branch of the inferior maxillary. 
Retrahens aurem, from the mastoid process of the temporal bone, into the 
concha. Action, to retract the pinna. Nerve, facial. 
Orbicularis palpebrarum, from the internal angular process of the frontal 
bone, the nasal process of the superior maxillary, and the borders of the 
tendo oculi, — into the skin of the eyelids, forehead, temple, and cheek, 
blending with the occipito-frontalis, and the corrugator supercilii. Action, 
to close the eyelids. Nerve, facial. 
Corrugator supercilii, from the inner end of the superciliary ridge of the 
frontal bone,—into the orbicularis palpebrarum. Action, to draw eyebrow 
downwards and inwards. Nerve, facial. 
Tensor tarsi (Horner’s muscle), from the crest of the lachrymal bone, into 
the tarsal cartilages by two slips. Action, to compress the puncta lachry- 
malia against the globe of the eye, and to compress the lachrymal sac. 
Nerve, facial. 
Levator palpebrae superioris, from the lesser wing of the sphenoid,—into 
the upper tarsal cartilage. Action, to lift the upper lid. Nerve, 3rd cranial, 
or motor oculi. 
Rectus superior, from the upper margin of the optic foramen and the 
sheath of the optic nerve,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, to rotate the 
eyeball upwards. Nerve, 3rd cranial. 
Rectus inferior, from the ligament of Zinn,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, 
rotates the eyeball downwards. Nerve, 3rd cranial. 
Rectus internus,the ligament of Zinn,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, 
rotates the eyeball inwards. Nerve, 3rd cranial. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 
69 
Rectus externus, by two heads, the upper from the outer margin of the 
optic foramen, the lower from the ligament of Zinn and a bony process at 
lower margin of the sphenoidal fissure,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, to 
rotate the eyeball outwards. Nerve, 6th cranial, or abducens. 
Between the two heads of the external rectus pass the 3rd, nasal branch of the 
5th, and the 6th cranial nerves, and the ophthalmic vein. 
Obliquus superior, from about a line above the inner margin of the optic 
foramen, its tendon passing through a “pulley” near the internal angular 
process of the frontal bone and thence beneath the rectus superior,—into 
the sclerotic coat at right angles to the insertion of the rectus superior. 
Action, to rotate the eyeball on its antero-posterior axis. Nerve, 4th cra- 
nial, or patheticus. 
Obliquus inferior,fro?n the orbital plate of the superior maxillary,—into 
the sclerotic coat below the insertion of the external rectus and at right 
angles thereto. Action, to rotate the eye on its antero-posterior axis. 
Nerve, 3rd cranial. 
Pyramidalis nasi/ from the occipito-frontalis,—into the compressor naris. 
Action, to depress the eyebrow. Nerve, facial. 
Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi/ from the nasal process of the 
superior maxillary bone,—into the cartilage of the ala of the nose and into 
the upper lip. Action, to elevate the upper lip, and dilate the nostril. 
Nerve, facial. 
Dilator naris anterior, from the cartilage of the ala,—into the border of 
its integument. Action, to dilate the nostril. Nerve, facial. 
Dilator naris posterior, y>ww the nasal 
notch of the superior maxillary and 
the sesamoid cartilages,—into the in- 
tegument at the margin of the nostril. 
Action, to dilate the nostril. Nerve, 
facial. 
Compressor naris,d from the superior 
maxillary above the incisive fossa,— 
into the fibro-cartilage of the nose, 
being continuous with its fellow and 
the pyramidalis nasi aponeurosis. Ac- 
tion, to dilate the nostril. Nerve, facial. 
Compressor narium minor, from the 
alar cartilage,—into the skin at the 
end of the nose. Action, to dilate the 
nostril. Nerve, facial. 
Fig. 37. 70 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Depressor alae nasi, from the incisive fossa of the superior maxillary,— 
into the septum and ala of the nose. Action, to contract the nostril. 
Nerve, facial. 
Levator labii superioris,/ from the lower margin of the orbit,—into the 
upper lip. Action, to elevate the lip. Nerve, facial. 
Levator anguli oris/ from the canine fossa of the superior maxillary,—into 
the angle of the mouth. Action, as named. Nerve, facial. 
Zygomaticus major/from the malar bone,—into the angle of the mouth. 
Action, to raise the lip outwards. Nerve, facial. 
Zygomaticus minor,g from the malar bone anteriorly,—into the angle of 
the mouth, blending with the levator labii superioris. Action, to raise the 
lip outwards. Nerve, facial. 
Levator labii (Levator menti), from the incisive fossa of the infe- 
rior maxillary bone,—into the integument of the lower lip. Action, as 
named. Nerve, facial. 
Depressor labii (Quadratus menti), from the external oblique 
line of the inferior maxillary bone,—into the lower lip. Action, as named. 
Nerve, facial. 
Depressor anguli oris« (Triangularis menti),from the external oblique line 
of the inferior maxillary,—into the angle of the mouth. Action, as named. 
Nerve, facial. 
Orbicularis oris/’ by accessory fibres (accessorii orbicularis superioris and in- 
ferioris, and naso-labialis) from the nasal septum and the superior and in- 
ferior maxillary borders,—into the buccinator and other adjacent muscles, 
forming the sphincter of the mouth. Action, to close the mouth. Nerve, 
facial. 
Buccinator,/ from the posterior alveolar processes of both the maxillary 
bones and the pterygo-maxillary ligament,—into the orbicularis oris. Ac- 
tion, to compress the cheeks. Nerves, facial, and the buccal branch of the 
inferior maxillary. 
Risorius,/hwz the fascia over the masseter muscle,—into the angle of the 
mouth. Action, the laughing muscle. Nerve, facial. 
Masseter/ from the anterior two-thirds and the inner surface of the zygoma 
and the malar process of the superior maxillary,—into the angle, ramus and 
coronoid process of the lower jaw. Action, to raise the back part of the 
lower jaw; a muscle of mastication. Nerve, inferior maxillary. 
Temporal, from the temporal fossa and temporal fascia,—into the coronoid 
process of the inferior maxillary. Action, to bring the incisor teeth together; 
the biting muscle. Nerve, inferior maxillary. MUSCLES OF THE EAR AND NECK. 
71 
internal pterygoid, from the pterygoid fossa of the sphenoid bone, and the 
tuberosity of the palate,—into the angle and inner surface of the ramus of 
the jaw, as high as the dental foramen. Action, raises and draws for- 
ward the lower jaw; a triturating muscle of mastication. Nerve, inferior 
maxillary. 
External pterygoid, by 2 heads, the upper from the pterygoid ridge on the 
greater wing of the sphenoid, the lower from the external pterygoid plate, 
and the tuberosities of the palate and superior maxillary bones,—into a 
depression in front of the condyle of the inferior maxillary, and the inter- 
articular fibro-cartilage. Action, to draw the jaw forwards; a triturating 
muscle of mastication. Nerve, inferior maxillary. 
Between the two heads of the external pterygoid muscle passes the internal 
maxillary artery. 
MUSCLES OF THE EAR. 
Tensor tympani, from the under surface of the petrous portion of the tem- 
poral bone, the cartilaginous Eustachian tube, and its own osseous canal,— 
into the handle of the malleus. Action, to draw the membrana tympani 
tense. Nerve, branch from otic ganglion. 
Laxator tympani major, from the spinous process of the sphenoid and the 
cartilaginous Eustachian tube,—through the Glaserian fissure to the neck 
of the malleus just above the processus gracilis. Action, to relax the mem- 
brana tympani. Nerve, tympanic branch of the facial. 
Laxator tympani minor, from the back of the external meatus,—passes be- 
tween the layers of the membrana tympani into the handle of the malleus 
and processus brevis. Action, to relax the membrana tympani. Consid- 
ered a ligament by many anatomists. 
Stapedius, from the interior of the pyramid,—through the orifice at its apex 
into the neck of the stapes. Action, to 'depress the base of the stapes. 
Nerve, filament from the facial. 
MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 
Platysma myoides,/hw« the clavicle, the acromion, and the fascia covering 
the pectoral, deltoid and trapezius muscles,—into the lower jaw, the angle 
of the mouth, and the cellular tissue of the face. Action, to wrinkle the 
skin, and depress the mouth. Nerves, facial and superficial cervical. 
Sterno-cleido-mastoid,11 by two heads from the sternum12 and the cla- 
vicle13 at its inner third,-—into the mastoid process of the temporal bone, 
and the superior curved line of the occipital. Action, to depress and 
rotate the head. Nerves, spinal accessory, and branches of the cervical 
plexus. QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Between the sternal and 
clavicular origins is a 
fossa, the fonticulus 
gutturis, which rises 
and falls during la- 
bored breathing. 
Sterno-hyoid ,l*from 
the posterior surface 
of the sternum and 
the sternal end of the 
clavicle,—into the 
body of the hyoid 
bone. Action, to de- 
press the hyoid bone. 
Nerve, a branch from 
the communicating 
loop between the de- 
scendens and com- 
municans noni. 
Sterno-thyroid,1 * from the posterior surface of the sternum and the cartilage 
of the 1st rib,—into the oblique line on the ala of the thyroid cartilage. 
Action, to depress the larynx. Nerve, a branch from the communicating 
loop between the descendens and communicans noni. 
Thyro-hyoid,16 from the oblique line on the thyroid cartilage,—into the 
body and greater cornu of the hyoid bone. Action, to elevate the larynx. 
Nerve, hypoglossal. 
Omo-hyoid,17 18 from the upper border of the scapula and the transverse 
ligament,—into the body of tha hyoid bone. It has a tendon in its centre 
which is bound down to the cartilage of the 1st rib by a loop of the deep 
cervical fascia. Action, to depress the hyoid bone, and draw it backwards. 
Nerve, branch from the communicating loop between the descendens and 
communicans noni. 
Digastric, by two bellies, the posterior one1 from the digastric groove of the 
mastoid process of the temporal bone; the anterior2 from a fossa on the 
inner surface of'the inferior maxillary, near its symphysis,—into a central 
tendon3 which perforates the stylo-hyoid muscle, and is bound down to the 
body of the hyoid bone by an aponeurotic loop. Action, to raise the hyoid 
bone and tongue. Nerves, facial, and mylo-hyoid branch of the inferior dental. 
Fig. 38. 
Stylo-hyoid,4 from the styloid process of the temporal bone near its base,— 
into the body of the hyoid bone. Action, to elevate and retract the hyoid 
bone. Nerve, facial. This muscle is perforated by the digastric. MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 
73 
Mylo-hyoid,5 from the mylo-hyoid ridge of the lower jaw,—into the body 
of the hyoid bone and a fibrous raphe in the median line running from the 
hyoid bone to the chin. Action, elevates the hyoid bone and draws it for- 
wards, also forms the floor of the mouth. Nerve, mylo-hyoid branch of 
inferior dental. 
Genio-hyoid f from the inferior genial tubercle of the inferior maxillary,— 
into the body of the hyoid bone. Action, same as the mylo-hyoid. Nerve, 
hypoglossal. 
Genio-hyo-glossus, from the superior genial tubercle of the inferior max- 
illary,—into the body of the hyoid bone, the side of the pharynx, and the 
whole length of the under surface of the tongue, forming a fan-like muscle. 
Action, to retract and protrude the tongue. Nerve, hypoglossal. 
Hyo-glossus8 (the basio-kerato-chondro-glossus,) from the body of the hyoid 
bone, its lesser cornu, and the whole length of its greater cornu,—into the 
side of the tongue. Action, to draw down the side of the tongue. Nerve, 
hypoglossal. 
Stylo-glossus,9 from the styloid process and the stylo-maxillary ligament,— 
into the side of the tongue and the hyo-glossus muscle. Action, to elevate 
and retract the tongue. Nerve, hypoglossal. 
Lingualis, lies between the hyo-glossus and the genio-hyo-glossus, from the 
base to the tip of the tongue, along its under surface ; some of its fibres being 
attached to the hyoid bone. Action, to elevate the centre of the tongue. 
Nerve, chorda tympani. 
Inferior constrictor, from the sides of the cricoid and thyroid cartilages,— 
into the fibrous raphe of the pharynx. Action, to contract the pharyngeal 
calibre. Nerves, glosso-pharyngeal, pharyngeal plexus, and external laryn- 
geal. 
Middle constrictor, from the cornua of the hyoid bone and the stylo-hyoid 
ligament,—into the pharyngeal raphe. Action, to constrict the pharnyx. 
Nerves, glosso-pharyngeal, pharyngeal plexus. 
Silperior constrictor, from the lower third of the margin of the internal 
pterygoid plate and its hamular process, the contiguous part of the palate 
bone, the tendon of the tensor palati, the pterygo-maxillary ligament, part 
of the alveolar process of the lower jaw and the side of the tongue,—into 
the pharyngeal raphe and the pharyngeal spine of the occipital bone. 
Action, to constrict the pharnyx. Nerves, glosso-pharyngeal, pharyngeal 
plexus. 
Stylo-pharyngeus,10the inner side of the base of the styloid process, 
—into the constrictor and palato-pharyngeus muscles, and the thyroid car- 74 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
tilage. Action, to elevate the pharynx. A7erves, glosso-pliaryngeal, pharyn- 
geal plexus. The former nerve crosses this muscle in passing to the tongue. 
Levator palati, from the under surface of the apex of the petrous portion of 
the temporal bone and from the Eustachian tube,—into the posterior surface 
of the soft palate. Action, to elevate the soft palate. Nerve, facial, through 
the Vidian and petrosal. 
Tensor palati,from the scaphoid fossa of the sphenoid bone, and the Eusta- 
chian tube,—reflected around the hamular process, into the anterior surface 
of the soft palate, and the horizontal portion of the palate bone. Action, 
to tense the palate. Nei-ve, a branch from the otic ganglion. 
Azygos uvulae, from the posterior nasal spine of the palate bone, and from 
the soft palate,—into the uvula. Action, possibly to raise the uvula. Nerve, 
facial, through the Vidian and petrosal. This muscle is wrongly named, as 
it is double. 
Palato-glossus (anterior pillar of the fauces), from the anterior surface of 
the soft palate laterally,—into the side and dorsum of the tongue. Action, 
constrictor isthmi faucium. Nerves, palatine branches of Meckel’s ganglion. 
Palato-pharyngeus (posterior pillar of the fauces), from the soft palate,— 
into the side of the pharnyx and the posterior border of the thyroid cartilage, 
having joined the stylo-pharyngeus. Action, to close the posterior nares. 
Nerves, palatine branches from Meckel’s ganglion. 
Rectus capitus anti/cus major, from the anterior tubercles of the transverse 
processes of the 3rd 4th 5th and 6th cervical vertebrae, by four slips,—into the 
basilar process of the occipital bone. Action, to flex the head. Nerves, 
sub-occipital and deep branches of cervical plexus. This muscle is a con- 
tinuation of the scalenus anticus. 
Rectus capitis antrtcus minor, from the anterior surface of the lateral mass 
of the atlas, and the root of its transverse process,—into the basilar process 
of the occipital bone. Action, to flex the head. Arerves, sub-occipital and 
deep branches of the cervical plexus. 
Rectus lateralis, from the upper surface of the transverse process of the atlas, 
—into the jugular process of the occipital bone. Action, to draw the head 
laterally. Nerve, sub-occipital. 
Longus colli, 3 portions,—the superior oblique, from the anterior tubercles 
of the transverse processes of the 3rd 4th and 5th cervical vertebrae, into a 
tubercle on the anterior arch of the atlas:—inferior oblique, from the bodies 
of the first two or three dorsal vertebrae, into the transverse processes of the 
5th and 6th cervical :—vertical portion from the bodies of the lower three 
cervical and upper three dorsal vertebrae, to the bodies of the 2nd, 3rd and MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX AND EPIGLOTTIS. 
75 
4th cervical. Action, to flex the cervical vertebrae and slightly to rotate 
them. Nerves, branches from the lower cervical. 
Scalenus antFcus,20 from a tubercle on the upper surface of the first rib,— 
into the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae, from the 3d to the 6th 
inclusive. Action, to flex the neck laterally, or to raise the first rib. Nerves, 
branches from the lower cervical. (See Fig. 38.) 
Scalenus mediusfrom the upper surface of the first rib, behind the sub- 
clavian groove,—into the transverse processes of the lower six cervical ver- 
tebrae. Action, same as scalenus anticus. Nerves, branches from the lower 
cervical. 
Scalenus postFcus,21 from the outer surface of the second rib,—into the 
posterior tubercles on the transverse processes of the lower two or three 
cervical vertebrae. Action, to flex the neck laterally, or to elevate the 2nd 
rib. Nerves, branches from lower cervical. 
MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX AND EPIGLOTTIS. 
Crico-thyroid, from the front and side of the cricoid cartilage,—into the lower 
and inner borders of the thyroid cartilage. Action, to elongate and make 
tense the vocal chords. Nerve, superior laryngeal. 
Crico-arytenoideus posticus, from the cricoid cartilage posteriorly,—into 
the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. Action, to rotate the 
arytenoid cartilages outwards and open the glottis, while keeping the vocal 
chords tense. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Crico-atytenoideus lateralis, from the upper border of the cricoid cartilage 
laterally,—into the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. 
Action, to rotate the arytenoid cartilages inwards and close the glottis. 
Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Thyro-arytenoideus,y9w« the receding angle of the thyroid cartilage, and 
the crico-thyroid membrane,—into the base and anterior surface of the 
arytenoid cartilage. Action, to shorten and relax the vocal chords by ap- 
proximating the cartilages. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Arytenoideus,/h?/« the posterior surface and outer border of one arytenoid 
cartilage,—into the corresponding parts of the opposite cartilage, filling up 
the posterior concave surface of these cartilages. Action, by approximat- 
ing the arytenoids, to close the back part of the glottis. Nerves, superior 
and recurrent laryngeal. 
Thyro-epiglottideus,y>w/2 the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage,—into 
the margin of the epiglottis and the aryteno-epiglottidean fold. Action, a 
depressor of the epiglo'tis. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 76 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Aryteno-epiglottideus superior, from the apex of the arytenoid cartilage, 
—into the aryteno-epiglottidean folds. Action, to constrict the superior 
laryngeal aperture. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Aryteno-epiglottideus inferior, from the arytenoid cartilage anteriorly,— 
into the sacculus laryngis and the margin of the epiglottis. Action, to com- 
press the sacculus laryngis. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 
First layer (2)—Trapezius. Latissimus dorsi. 
Second layer (3)—Levator anguli scapulce. Rhomboideus major, and minor. 
Third layer (3)—Serratusposticus superior. Serratus posticus inferior. 
Fourth layer (11)—in four sets, viz.— 
Splenius capitis et colli. 
External (3). 
Sacro-lumbalis. 
Musculus accessorius 
ad sacro-lumbalem. 
Cervicalis ascendens. 
Lumbar (i)—Erector spina. 
Middle (3). 
Longissimus dorsi. 
Transversalis colli. 
Trachelo-mastoid. 
Internal (4). 
Spinalis dorsi. 
Spinalis colli. 
Biventer cervicis. 
Complexus. 
Fifth layer (12)—six having the word spinal in them, viz.— 
Sem i-spinalis dorsi. 
Semi-spinalis colli. 
Multifidus spince. 
Rotatores spince. 
Supra-spinales. 
Inter-spinales. 
Inter-transversales. 
Rectus capitis posticus major 
Rectus capitis posticus minor. 
Obliquus capitis superior. 
Obliquus capitis inferior. 
Extensor coccygis. 
Trapezius,1 from the inner third of the superior curved line of the occipital 
bone, the ligamentum nuchae,2 the spinous processes of the last cervical 
and all the dorsal vertebrae, and the supra-spinous ligament,—into the outer 
third of the posterior border of the clavicle, the superior margin of the 
acromion process, the whole length of the superior border of the spine of 
the scapula,3 and a tubercle at its inner extremity. Action, to draw the 
head backwards. Nerves, spinal accessory, cervical plexus. 
Ligamentum nuchje, from external occipital protuberance,—to the spines of 
the cervical vertebrae, from the 2d to the 7th inclusive. 
Latissimus dorsi,4 by an aponeurosis from the spines of the six lower dor- 
sal and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae, the supra-spinous ligament, the 
crest of the ilium, and the three or four lower ribs,;—into the bicipital 
groove of the humerus. Action, the cursor ani muscle, drawing the arm 
downwards and backwards; or raising the lower ribs and drawing the trunk 
forwards. Nerves, the subscapular. MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 
77 
Levator anguli scapulae,10 by 4 slips from the transverse processes of 3 or 
4 upper cervical vertebrae,—into the posterior border of the scapula. Action, 
as named. Nerves, branches from the 5th cervical and the cervical plexus. 
Fig. 39. 
Rhomboideus minor,11 from the ligamentum nuchae and spines of the 7th 
cervical and I st dorsal vertebrae,—into the smooth surface at the root of the 
spine of the scapula. Action, to draw the scapula backwards and upwards. 
Nerve, 5th cervical. 
Rhomboideus major,12 from, the spines of the 4 or 5 upper dorsal vertebrae 
and the supra-spinous ligament,—into the scapula at the root of its spine 
and inferior-angle, by a tendinous arch. Action, to draw the scapula up- 
wards and backwards. Nerve, 5th cervical. 78 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Serratus postFcus superior, from the ligamentum nuchae, and spines of the 
7th cervical and 2 or 3 upper dorsal vertebrae,—into the upper borders of 
the 2d 3d 4th and 5th ribs, by four digitations. Action, to raise ribs in in- 
spiration. Nerves, external posterior branches of the cervical nerves. 
Serratus posti/cus inferior,16 from the spines of the last 2 dorsal and first 
3 lumbar vertebrae,—into the lower borders of the 4 lower libs, by 4 digi- 
tations. Action, to depress these ribs in expiration. Nerves, external 
branches of the dorsal nerves. 
Splenius capitis13 et colli,14y9w» the lower half of the ligamentum nuchae, 
the last cervical and 6 upper dorsal spines, and the supra-spinous ligament, 
—the S. capitis into the mastoid process and a rough surface below the 
superior curved line of the occipital bone,—the S. colli into the transverse 
processes of the 3 or 4 upper cervical vertebrae. Action, to draw the head 
backwards and the neck erect. Nerves, external posterior branches of the 
cervical nerves. 
Erector spinafrom the sacro-iliac groove, and by the lumbo-sacral tendon 
from the sacral lumbar and 3 lower dorsal spines, the iliac crest, and the 
posterior eminences of the sacrum,—divides into the sacro-lumbalis2 and 
longissimus dorsi3 muscles. Action, to erect the spine and bend the trunk 
backwards. Nerves, external posterior branches of the lumbar nerves. 
Sacro-lumbalis, ‘l from the erector spinae,—into the angles of the 6 lower 
ribs. Action, as the erector spinge. Nerves, branches of the dorsal. 
Musculus accessorius ad sacro-lumbalem,2 from the angles of 6 lower 
ribs,—into the angles of 6 upper ribs. Action, as the erector spinae. Nerves, 
branches of the dorsal. 
Cervicalis ascendens,5 from the angles of 4 or 5 upper ribs,—into the 
transverse processes of the 4th 5th and 6th cervical vertebrae. Action, 
to keep the neck erect. Nerves, branches of the cervical. 
Longissimus dorsi,3 from the erector spinae,—into the transverse and 
articular processes of the lumbar vertebrae, into the tips of the transverse 
processes of all the dorsal vertebrae, and into from 7 to 11 ribs between 
their tubercles and angles. Action, as the erector spinae. Nerves, branches 
of the lumbar and dorsal nerves. 
Transversalis colli,6 from the transverse processes of the 3rd 4th 5th and 
6th dorsal vertebrae,—into the transverse processes of the 5 lower cervical.9 
Action, to keep the neck erect. Nerves, cervical branches. 
Trachelo-mastoid,7 from the transverse processes of the 3rd 4th 5th and 6th 
dorsal vertebrae, and the articular processes of the 3 or 4 lower cervical,— 
into the posterior margin of the mastoid process. Action, to steady the 
head. Nerves, branches of the cervical. MUSCLES OF THE BACK 
79 
Spinalis dorsi,from the last 2 dorsal and 
first 2 lumbar spines,—into all the remaining 
dorsal spines. Action, to erect the spinal 
column. Nerves, branches of the dorsal. 
Spinalis colli, from the 5th and 6th cervical 
spines, sometimes from the 1st and 2nd 
dorsal,—into the spine of the axis, or the 
3rd and 4th cervical spines. Action, to 
steady the neck. Nerves, branches of the 
cervical. [This muscle is frequently ab- 
sent.] 
Biventer cervicis, from the transverse pro- 
cesses of 2 to 4 upper dorsal vertebrae,;— 
into the superior curved line of the occipi- 
tal bone. [Is but a portion of the com- 
plexus muscle.] 
Complexus,8 by 7 tendons from the tips of 
the transverse processes of the 7th cervical 
and 3 upper dorsal vertebrae, and from the 
articular processes of the 4th 5th and 6th 
cervical,—into the inner depression between 
the curved lines of the occipital bone. Ac- 
tion, to retract and rotate the head. Nerves, 
suboccipital, great occipital, and branches 
of the cervical nerves. 
Semispinalis dorsi,xo from the transverse 
processes of the dorsal vertebrae, from 
about the 5th to the 1 ith,—into the last 2 
cervical and 4 upper dorsal spines. Action, to erect the spinal column. 
Nerves, branches of the dorsal nerves. 
Semispinalis colli,11 from the transverse processes of the 4 upper dorsal 
vertebrae, and the articular processes of the 4 lower cervical,—into the 2nd 
3rd 4th and 5th cervical spines. Action, to erect the spinal column. Nerves, 
branches of the cervical. 
Multifidus spinae,16y>w«the back of the sacrum, posterior superior spine of 
the ilium, posterior sacro-iliac ligaments, articular processes of lumbar and 
cervical vertebrae, and the transverse processes of the dorsal,—into the 
laminae and spines of the next 4 vertebrae above. Action, to erect and rotate 
the spinal column. Nerves, posterior spinal branches. 
Fig. 40. 80 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Rotatores spinae (n ),from the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae, 
from the 2d to the 12th inclusive,—each into the lamina of the next dorsal 
vertebra above. Action, to rotate the spinal column. Nerves, branches of 
the dorsal. 
Supra-spinales, lie on the spinous processes in the cervical region. Nerves, 
branches of the cervical. 
Inter-spinales, placed in pairs between the spines of contiguous vertebrae, 6 
pairs in the cervical region, 3 in the dorsal, 4 sometimes 6 in the lumbar. 
Nerves, posterior spinal branches. 
Inter-transversales,18 placed between the transverse processes of contigu- 
ous vertebrae, 7 in the cervical region, 12 in the dorsal, and 4 in the lumbar. 
Nerves, posterior spinal branches. 
Rectus capitis posti'cus major,1 3 from the spine of the axis,—into the 
inferior curved line of the occipital bone and the surface below. Action, 
to rotate the head. Nerves, sub- and great occipital. 
Rectus capitis postPcus minor,12 from the tubercle on the posterior arch 
of the atlas,—into a rough surface between the foramen magnum and the 
inferior curved line of the occipital bone. Action, to draw the head back- 
wards. Nerves, sub- and great occipital. 
Obliquus capitis inferior,15 from the spinous process of the axis,—almost 
horizontally to the transverse process of the atlas. Action, to rotate the 
atlas and cranium. Nerves, sub- and great occipital 
Obliquus capitis superior,14 from the transverse process of the atlas;— 
upwards and inwards into the occipital bone between the curved lines. 
Action, draws the head backwards. Nerves, sub- and great occipital. 
Extensor coccygis, from the last bone of the sacrum or first of the coccyx, 
—into the lower part of the coccyx, posteriorly. Action, as named. Nerves, 
posterior sacral branches. 
External oblique,12 from 8 lower ribs by 8 fleshy digitations,—into the an- 
terior half of the outer lip of the crest of the ilium, and by a broad aponeu- 
rosis,1* into the ensiform cartilage, linea alba, symphysis and spine of the 
pubes, and the pectineal line. Its aponeurosis is continuous with that of the 
pectoralis major above, and below it forms Poupart’s14 and Gimbernat’s 
ligaments, and by the separation of its fibres, the external abdominal ring.15 
Action, to compress the viscera, and flex the thorax on the pelvis and vice 
versa. ATerves, lower intercostal, ilio-hypogastric and ilio-inguinal. 
Internal oblique,18the lumbar fascia, the anterior two-thirds of the 
middle lip of the crest of the ilium, and the outer half of Poupart’s liga- 
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN. MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN. 
81 
ment,—into the cartilages of 4 lower ribs; by its aponeurosis into the linea 
alba; and leaving an arched border20 over the spermatic cord, by the con- 
joined tendon19 with the transversalis into the pubic crest and the pectineal 
line. Its aponeurosis splits at the rectus abdominis for its upper three-fourths 
one layer passing in front the other behind that muscle, to unite again at the 
linea alba; for its lower one-fourth it passes in front of the rectus. Action 
and Nerves, same as the external oblique. 
Fic;. 41, 
Transversalis, from the outer one-third of Poupart’s ligament, the anterior 
two-thirds of the inner lip of the crest of the ilium, the cartilages of 6 lower 
ribs, and an aponeurosis from the spines and transverse processes of the 
lumbar vertebrae,—by its aponeurosis into the linea alba, and by the con- 
joined tendon19 with the internal oblique, into the pubic crest and the 
pectineal line. Its aponeurosis passes behind the rectus abdominis for its 
upper three-fourths, in front of that muscle for its lower one-fourth. 82 
QUF.STIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Lumbar fascia, or vertebral aponeurosis of the transversalis, divides into 3 
leaflets, the anterior and middle being attached to the apices of the trans- 
verse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, the posterior leaflet to the apices of 
their spines. The anterior and middle leaflets enclose the quadratus lum- 
borum muscle, the middle and posterior enclose the erector spinae. 
Rectus abdominis,16 by 2 tendons from the pubic crest and the ligaments 
covering the symphysis,—into the cartilages of the 5th 6th and 7th ribs. It 
lies in a sheath formed by the aponeuroses of the internal oblique and trans- 
versalis muscles for its upper three-fourths, and is crossed by 2 to 5 tendi- 
nous lines, the linea transversce. At its outer border is a similar line placed 
vertically, the linea semilunaris, formed by the aponeurosis of the internal 
oblique at its point of division. Action, to flex the thorax on the pelvis and 
vice versa, also to compress the abdominal viscera. Nerves, same as the 
external oblique. 
Pyramidalis, 17 lies in front of the rectus but in the same sheath, arises from 
the front of the pubic bone and the anterior pubic ligament,—into the linea 
alba, half-way to the umbilicus. Action, a tensor of the linea alba. Nerves, 
same as the external oblique. 
Quadratus lumborum,19 Fi«-40 from the ilio-lumbar ligament, adjacent 2 
inches of the crest of the ilium, and transverse processes of the lower 3 lum- 
bar vertebrae,—into one-half of the lower border of the last rib, and the 
transverse processes of the last 3 lumbar vertebrae. Action, to flex the thorax 
laterally on the pelvis and vice versa. Nerves, anterior branches of the 
lumbar. 
MUSCLES OF THE THORAX 
External intercostals (11), each fro7n the outer lip of the groove in the in- 
ferior costal border,—into the upper border of the next rib below, directed 
obliquely downwards and forwards. Action, to raise and evert the ribs in 
inspiration. Nerves, intercostal. 
Internal intercostals (n), each from the inner lip of the groove in the 
inferior costal border,—into the upper border of the rib below, directed ob- 
liquely downwards and backwards. Action, at sides of thorax to depress 
the ribs in expiration; anteriorly they raise the costal cartilages. Nerves, 
intercostals. 
Infra-costales (10) obliquely from inner surface of one rib,—into the inner 
surface of the 1st 2d or 3d rib below. Action, muscles of inspiration. 
Nerves, intercostal. 
Triangularis sterni, from the inner surface of the ensiform cartilage, inner 
surfaces of costal cartilages of 3 or 4 lower true ribs, and lower sides of the MUSCLES OF THE PERINEUM. 
sternum,—into the lower border and inner surfaces of the 2d, 3d, 4th and 
5th costal cartilages. Action, to draw down the cartilages in expiration. 
Nerves, intercostal. 
Levatores costarum17 Fis-40 (12), each from the transverse process of a 
dorsal vertebra,—into the upper surface of the next rib below, near its angle. 
Action, to raise the ribs. Nerves, intercostal. 
Diaphragm, from the ensiform cartilage,4 inner surfaces of 6 or 7 lower ribs, 
ligamenta arcuata,5 and by its crura8 10 from the bodies of the lumbar ver- 
tebrae, from the 2d to 
the 4th on the right 
side, the 2d and 3d on 
the left,—into the cen- 
tral or cordiform ten- 
don.2 3 Action, the 
great muscle of respi- 
ration and expulsion. 
Nerve, the phrenic. 
Openings of the Dia- 
phragm. The A or tic,11 
in the middle line pos- 
teriorly, and behind 
the diaphragm; trans- 
mits the aorta, vena 
azygos major, and 
thoracic duct, occa- 
sionally the 16ft sym- 
pathetic nerve. The (Esophageal,12 in the muscular structure, transmits 
the oesophagus and the pneumogastric nerves. The opening for the vena 
cava13 is the highest, and has four tendinous margins. The right crus8 
transmits the sympathetic and greater and lesser splanchnic nerves of that 
side. The left crus,10 the greater and lesser splanchnic nerves of the left 
side and the vena azygos minor. 
Descent of the Diaphragm. Its central tendon does not descend during in- 
spiration, being connected by the fibrous pericardium with the deep, cervical 
fascia. 
Fig. 42. 
Sphincter ani,4 from the tip of the coccyx and superficial fascia,—into the 
tendinous centre of the perineum. Action, to close the anus. ATerve, 
hemorrhoidal branch of the pudic. 
MUSCLES OF THE PERINEUM. 84 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Internal sphincter, a muscular ring, half an inch broad, about an inch from 
the margin of the anus; is an aggregation of the involuntary circular fibres 
of the intestine. 
Fig. 43. 
Sphincter tertius of Hyrtl, from the sacrum, encircling the rectum about 4 
inches above the anal orifice. [Demonstrated by Hyrtl, Nelaton and Vel- 
peau, but denied by most anatomists.] 
Accelerator the central tendon of the perineum and the median 
raphe in front,—fibres spread over the bulb, corpus spongiosum, corpus 
cavernosum,17 and dorsal vessels. Action, to accelerate the flow of urine, 
and erect the penis. Nerve, perineal branch of pudic* 
Erector penis,2 from the inner surface of the tuberosity of the ischium, the 
crus penis, and pubic ramus,—into the crus penis laterally and inferiorly. 
Action, to maintain erection. Nerve, perineal. 
Transversus perinei,3/h?;« the ascending ramus of the ischium,—into the 
central tendon of the perineum. Action, to draw tense the central tendon. 
Nerve, perineal. 
Levator ani,5 from the body and ramus of the pubes posteriorly, pelvic 
fascia, and the spine of the ischium,—into the tendinous centre of the 
perineum, sides of the rectum (and vagina , apex of the coccyx, and a fibrous 
raphe extending from the coccyx to the anus. Action, to support the lower 
end of the rectum and vagina and the bladder, and assist in forming the floor 
of the pelvis. Nerves, inferior hemorrhoidal and 4th sacral. 
Compressor urethrae, from the upper part of the ramus of the pubes,—into 
its fellow of the opposite side after encircling the membranous portion of the 
urethra. Action, stop-cock muscle. Nerve, perineal. MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM. 
85 
Coccygeus,6 from the spine of the ischium and the lesser sacro-sciatic liga- 
ment, into the margin of the coccyx and the side of the last sacral segment. 
Action, to support the coccyx, and close the outlet of the pelvis posteriorly. 
Nerve, 5th sacral, anterior division. 
Sphincter vaginae (in the female), from the central tendon of the perineum, 
into the corpora cavernosa and body of the clitoris. Represents the accel- 
erator urinae of the male. 
Erector clitoridis (in the female), replaces the erector penis. 
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM. 
Pectoralis major, from the sternal one-half of the clavicle, by an aponeu- 
rosis from the front of the sternum as low as the 6th or 7th rib, the cartilages 
of all the true ribs, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique,—the fibres 
converge, cross and are inserted by a flat tendon into the external bicipital 
ridge of the humerus, having crossed the bicipital groove. Action, to draw 
the arm forwards and downwards; also to elevate the ribs in forced inspira- 
tion. Nerves, anterior thoracic. 
Pectoralis minor, from the 3rd 4th and 5th ribs, and the intercostal aponeu- 
rosis,—into the coracoid process of the scapula. Action, to depress the 
point of the shoulder, also to elevate the ribs in forced inspiration. Nerves, 
anterior thoracic. 
Subclavius, frotn the cartilage of the 1st rib,—into the under surface of the 
clavicle, in a groove about its middle third. Action, to draw the clavicle 
downwards. Nerve, a branch from the 5th and 6th cervical. 
Serratus magnus, by 9 digitations from the 8 upper ribs (the 2nd rib having 
two) and from the intercostal aponeurosis,—into the whole length of the 
inner margin of the posterior border of the scapula. Action, to elevate the 
ribs in inspiration, also to raise the point of the shoulder. In lower animals 
the great sling-muscle, slinging the body between the upper extremities. 
Nerve, posterior thoracic. 
Deltoid, from the outer one-third of the anterior and superior surfaces of the 
clavicle, the outer margin and upper surface of the acromion, and the whole 
lower border of the spine of the scapula,—into a prominence on the outer side 
of the shaft of the humerus, about its middle. Action, to raise the arm. 
Nerve., circumflex. 
Subscapularis, from the inner two-thirds of the subscapular fossa,—into the 
lesser tuberosity of the humerus. Action, to rotate the head of the humerus 
inwards. Nerves, subscapular. 
Supra-spinatus,y9w« the inner two-thirds of the supra-spinous fossa,—into 
the upper facet of the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Action, to sup- 
port the shoulder-joint, and to raise the arm. Nerve, supra-scapular. 86 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Infrarspinatus, from the inner two-thirds of the infra-spinous fossa,—into 
the middle facet on the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Action, to 
rotate the humerus outwards. Nerve, supra-scapular. 
Teres minor, from the upper two-thirds of the dorsal surface of the axillary 
border of the scapula,—into the lowest facet on the greater tuberosity of 
the humerus, and the bone below. Action, to rotate the humerus outwards. 
Nerve, circumflex. 
Teres major, from the dorsal aspect of the inferior angle of the scapula,— 
into the internal bicipital ridge of the humerus. Action, to assist the latis- 
simus dorsi. Nerve, subscapular. 
Coraco-brachialis,11 from the apex of the coracoid process2 of the scapula, 
—into a ridge on the inner side of the shaft of 
the humerus, about its middle. Action, elevates 
the humerus forwards and inwards. Nerve, mus- 
culo-cutaneous, which perforates this muscle. 
Biceps15 (Biceps flexor cubiti). Long 
head8 from the upper margin of the glenoid 
cavity, short head12 from the apex of the 
coracoid process,2 in common with the 
coraco-brachialis,—into the back of the tuber- 
osity of the radius, and the fascia of the fore- 
arm.20 Action, to flex and supinate the fore- 
arm, and to make tense its fascia. Nerz’e, the 
musculo-cutaneous. 
Brachialis anti'cus,17 from the lower half of 
the shaft of the humerus anteriorly and later- 
ally, embracing the insertion of the deltoid,9— 
into the base of the coronoid process of the 
ulna.19 Action, a flexor of the forearm. 
Nerves, musculo-cutaneous and musculo-spiral. 
Triceps16 (Triceps extensor cubiti), by 
three heads, the outer and inner from the pos- 
terior surface of the shaft of the humerus, the 
outer above, the inner below the musculo- 
spiral groove ; the middle or long head from a 
depression below the glenoid cavity of the 
scapula,—into the upper end of the olecranon 
process of the ulna. Action, to extend the 
forearm. Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
Fig. 44. MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM. 
87 
Subanconeus, from the humerus above the olecranon fossa,—into the 
posterior ligament of the elbow-joint. Action, probably a tensor of the 
ligament. Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM. 
Muscles of the forearm (20), arranged in groups of five and threes. (Pancoast.) 
Anteriorly, 5 flexors, 2 pronators, 1 tensor of palmar fascia:— 
Flexor carpi radiaiis. 
Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
Plexor longus pollicis. 
Pronator radii teres. 
Pronator quadratus. 
Palmaris longus. 
Flexor sublimis digitorum perforatus manis. 
Flexor profundus digitorum perfcrrans manis. 
Posteriorly (12), in 4 sets of threes:— 
Supinator longus. 
Extensor carpi radiaiis longior. 
Extensor carpi radiaiis brevior. 
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 
Extensorprimi internodii pollicis. 
Extensor secundi internodii pollicis. 
Extensor indicis. 
Extensor communis digitorum. 
Extensor minimi digiti. 
Extensor carpi ulnaris. 
Anconeus. 
Supinator brevis. 
Pronator radii teres,4 by two heads, one from above the internal condyle of 
the humerus, the common tendon, fascia and the intermuscular septum; the 
other from the inner side of the coronoid process of the ulna,— into a rough 
ridge on the outer side of the shaft of the radius, about its middle. Action, 
to pronate the hand. Nave, median, which passes between the two heads 
of the muscle. 
Flexor carpi radialis,5 from the internal condyle by the common tendon, the 
fascia, and intermuscular septa,—into the base of the metacarpal bone of 
the index finger. Action, to flex the wrist. Nerve, median. 
Palmaris longus,6 from the same origin as the flexor carpi radialis,—into 
the annular ligament and the palmar fascia.9 Action, to make the palmar 
fascia tense. Nerve, median. 
Flexor carpi ulnaris,8 by two heads, one from the internal condyle by the 
common tendon, the other from the inner margin of the olecranon, the 
upper two-thirds of the posterior border of the ulna, and the intermuscular 
septum,—into the pisiform bone, the annular ligament, and the base of the 
5th metacarpal bone. Action, to flex the wrist. Nerve, ulnar. 
Flexor sublimis digitorum (perforatus),7 by three heads, one from the inner 
condyle by the common tendon, the internal lateral ligament, and the inter- 
muscular septum; the 2nd from the inner side of the coronoid process; 
the 3rd from the oblique line of the radius,—into the lateral margins of the 88 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
second phalanges by 4 tendons which are split for 
the passage of the deep flexor tendons. Action, to 
flex the second phalanges. Nerve, median. 
Flexor profundus digitorum (perforans), from 
the upper two-thirds of the shaft of the ulna, a 
depression on the inner side of the coronoid 
process, and the interosseous membrane,—into the 
bases of the last phalanges, by 4 tendons which 
perforate the tendons of the superficial flexor. 
Action, to flex the phalanges. Nerves, ulnar, and 
anterior interosseous. 
Flexor longus pollicis, from the upper two-thirds 
of the shaft of the radius, and the interosseous 
membrane,—into the base of the last phalanx of 
the thumb, which it flexes. Nerve, anterior inter- 
osseous. 
Pronator quadratus, from the oblique line on the 
lower one-fourth of the ulna, and the internal body 
of the ulna,—into the lower one-fourth of the 
external border of the shaft of the radius. Action, 
to pronate the hand. Nerve, anterior interosseous. 
Supinator longus,13 from the upper two-thirds of 
the external condyloid ridge on the humerus, and 
the intermuscular septum,—into the base of the 
styloid process of the radius. Action, to supinate 
the hand. Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
Extensor carpi radialis longior/ from the lower one-third of the external 
condyloid ridge on the humerus, and the intermuscular septum,— into the 
base of the metacarpal bone of the index on its radial side. Action, 
to extend the wrist. Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
Extensor carpi radialis brevior,./ from the external condyle by the 
common tendon, the external lateral ligament, and the intermuscular 
septa,—into the radial side of the base of the 3rd metacarpal bone..r Ac- 
tion, to extend the wrist. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
Fig. 45. 
Extensor communis from the external condyle by the com- 
mon tendon, the deep fascia, and the intermuscular septa,—into the 2d 
and 3d phalanges of all the fingers, by 3 tendons, one of which divides 
into two. Action, to extend the fingers. Nerve, posterior interosseous. MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM. 
89 
Extensor minimi digitip from the common tendon 
and the intermuscular septa,—into the 2d and 3d 
phalanges of the little finger, with the tendon 
derived from the common extensor. Action, as 
named. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
Extensor carpi ulnaris,/ from the common tendon, 
the middle one-third of the posterior border of the 
ulna, and the fascia of the forearm,—into the base 
of the 5th metacarpal bone. Action, to extend 
the wrist. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
from the external condyle of the 
humerus, posteriorly,—into the side of the ole- 
cranon, and upper one-third of the posterior sur- 
face of the shaft of the ulna. Action, to extend 
the forearm. Nerve, the musculo-spiral. 
Supinator brevis, from the external condyle of the 
humerus, the external lateral and orbicular liga- 
ments, and an oblique line on the ulna,—into the 
inner surface of the neck of the radius, the outer 
edge of its bicipital tuberosity, and the oblique line. 
Action, to supinate the hand. Nerve, posterior 
interosseous, which pierces it. 
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis,14 from the 
posterior surfaces of the shafts of the radius and 
ulna, and the interosseous ligament,—into the base 
of the metacarpal bone of the thumb. Action, to 
extend the thumb. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
Extensor primi internodii pollicis,«from the posterior surface of the shaft 
of the radius and the interosseous membrane,—into the base of the 1st 
phalanx of the thumb. Action, to extend the thumb. Neime, posterior 
interosseous. 
Extensor secundi internodii pollicisp« from the shaft of the ulna poste- 
riorly and the interosseous membrane,—into the base of the last phalanx 
of the thumb. Action, to extend the thumb. Nerve, posterior inter- 
osseous. 
Extensor indicis, from the shaft of the ulna posteriorly and the interosseous 
membrane,—into the 2d and 3d phalanges of the index finger with the 
tendon of the common extensor. Action, to extend the index finger. Nerve, 
posterior interosseous. 
FIG. 46. 90 
QUESTIONS on human anatomy. 
FASCIAE OF THE HAND. 
Anterior annular ligament, from the pisiform and unciform bones,—to the 
tuberosity of the scaphoid and the ridge on the trapezium. It is pierced 
by the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis, and beneath it pass the tendons 
of the superficial and deep flexors and the flexor longus pollicis, also the 
median nerve. It is continuous with the palmar fascia and the fascia of the 
forearm. 
Posterior annular ligament,o from the ulna, cuneiform, and pisiform 
bones and the palmar fascia,—to the margin of the radius and the ridges 
on its posterior surface. It has 6 canals for the passage of the extensor 
tendons, each lined by a synovial membrane. It is continuous with the 
fascia of the forearm. 
Palmar fascia, ensheathes the muscles of the hand, and divides into slips 
for the four fingers, each slip dividing and forming tendinous arches for the 
passage of the flexor tendons. 
MUSCLES OF THE HAND. 
Abductor pollicis,from the ridge of the trapezium aud annular ligament, 
—into the radial side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the thumb. Action, 
to draw the thumb from the median line. Nerve, median. 
Opponens pollicis, from the palmar surface of the trapezium and annular 
ligament,—into.the radial side of the metacarpal bone of the thumb, for its 
whole length. Action, as a flexor ossis metacarpi pollicis. Nerve, median. 
Flexor brevis pollicis,12 from the trapezium, annular ligament, trapezoid, os 
magnum, base of the 3rd metacarpal, and the sheath of the tendon of the 
flexor carpi radialis,—into both sides of the base of the 1st phalanx of the 
thumb, by two tendons, each of which has a sesamoid bone in it. Action, to 
flex the thumb. Nerves, median and ulnar. 
Adductor pollicis, from the whole palmar surface of the 3rd metacarpal 
bone,—into the ulnar side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the thumb, and 
the internal sesamoid bone. Action, to draw the thumb towards the me- 
dian line. Nerve, ulnar. 
Thenar eminence, or ball of the thumb, is formed by the above-named 4 mus- 
cles. The following first 4 form the hypo-thenar eminence. 
Palmaris brevis,10 from the annular ligament and palmar fascia,—into the 
skin on the inner border of the palm of the hand. Action, to corrugate the 
skin of the hand. Nerve, ulnar. 
Abductor minimi digiti, front the pisiform bone and the tendon of the flexor 
carpi ulnaris,—into the ulnar side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the little 
finger. Action, as named. Nerve, ulnar. MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH. 
91 
Flexor brevis minimi digiti, from the tip of the unciform process and the 
annular ligament,—into the base of the 1st phalanx of the little finger, with 
the preceding muscle. Action, as named. Nerve, ulnar. 
Opponens minimi digiti, from the unciform process and annular ligament, 
—into the whole ulnar margin of the 5th metacarpal bone. Action, a flexor 
of the 5th metacarpal bone. Nerve, ulnir. 
Lumbricales (4),from the tendons of the deep flexor,—into the expanded 
tendons of the common extensor, on the dorsi of the phalanges. Action, 
probably to flex the 1st phalanges. Nerves, median and ulnar. 
Dorsal interossei (4), by two heads from the adjacent sides of the metacarpal 
bones,—into the bases of the 1st phalanges of the index, middle and ring 
fingers, the middle finger having two* Action, abductors of the fingers from 
the median line. Nerve, ulnar. 
Palmar interossei (3), from the palmar surfaces of the 2nd 4th and 5th 
metacarpal bones,—into the bases of the 1st phalanges of the same fingers. 
Action, adductors of the fingers. Nerve, ulnar. 
MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH. 
Psoas magnus,11 from the bodies, transverse processes, and intervertebral 
substances of the last dorsal and all the lumbar vertebrae,—into the lesser 
trochanter of the femur, by a common tendon with the iliacus. Action, to 
flex and rotate the femur outwards, also to flex the trunk and pelvis on the 
thigh. Nerves, anterior lumbar branches. 
Psoas parvus, from the bodies of the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebrae, 
and the intervertebral substance,—into the ilio-pectineal eminence, and the 
iliac fascia. Action, when present it is a tensor of the iliac fascia. Nerves, 
anterior lumbar branches. 
lliacus,10 from the iliac fossa, inner margin of the iliac crest, ilio-lumbar 
ligament, base of the sacrum, anterior spinous processes of the ilium and 
the notch between them, and from the capsule of the hip-joint,—into the 
outer side of the tendon of the psoas magnus. Action, the same as the 
psoas magnus. Nerve, anterior crural. 
Fascia lata, the deep fascia of the thigh, extends from Poupart’s ligament 
to the prominent points around the knee-joint, and from the margin of the 
sacrum and coccyx around the limb to the pubic arch and pectineal line. 
It sends two strong intermuscular septa down to the linea aspera, and con- 
tains the saphenous opening, which is formed by the reflected margins of 
its pubic and iliac portions. Poupart's ligament is made by the knife, and 
is only the line of junction between the aponeurosis of the external oblique 92 
muscle and the fascia lata; extending from the 
anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of 
the pubic bone. 
Tensor vaginae femoris,4 from the anterior part of 
the outer lip of the iliac crest, and the anterior 
superior spinous process,—into the fascia lata later- 
ally, for one-fourth down the thigh. Action, a 
tensor of the fascia lata. Nerve, superior gluteal. 
Sartorius,5 from the anterior superior spine of the 
ilium2 and half of the notch below it,—into the 
upper internal surface of the shaft of the tibia. 
Action, to flex and cross the legs. Nerve, anterior 
crural. 
Quadriceps extensor, includes the rectus, vastus 
interims and externus, and the crureus muscles. 
Its tendon contains the patella. 
Rectus femoris,6 by two tendons, the straight from 
the anterior inferior spine of the ilium, the reflected 
from a groove above the brim of the acetabulum, 
—into the tuberosity of the tibia by the tendon9 
common to this and the next three muscles. 
Action, to extend the leg. Nerve, anterior crural. 
Vastus externus,7 from the anterior border of the 
great trochanter and the whole length of the linea 
aspera,—into the tuberosity of the tibia, by the 
common tendon. 
Vastus internus8 and Crureus, are one muscle, arising from the inner lip 
of the linea aspera and nearly the whole of the shaft of the femur in front 
and laterally from the trochanters down to within the lower one-fourth of 
the bone,—into the tuberosity of the tibia by the common extensor tendon. 
Action, to extend the leg. Nerve, anterior crural. 
Subcrureus, from the lower part of the femur anteriorly,—into the synovial 
pouch behind the patella. Action, to draw up the synovial sac. Nerve, 
anterior crural. 
Gracilis,15 from the inner margin of the rami of the pubes and ischium,—into 
the inner surface of the shaft of the tibia below the tuberosity. Action, to flex 
and adduct the leg. Nerve, obturator. 
Pectineus,12/r0OT the ilio-pectineal line, and the bone in front thereof, also 
from an expansion of Gimbernat’s ligament,—into the rough line extending 
Fig. 47. 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH. 
93 
from the trochanter minor to the linea aspera. Action, to flex the thigh 
and rotate it outwards. Nerves, obturator, accessory obturator, and anterior 
crural. 
Adductor longus, 13 from the front of the pubes,—into the middle third of 
the linea aspera. Action, to adduct the thigh, and flex it. Nerve, obturator. 
Adductor brevis, from the descending ramus of the pubes,—into the upper 
part of the linea aspera. Action, to adduct and flex the thigh. Nerve, 
obturator. 
Adductor magnus, from the rami of the pubes and ischium, and the outer 
margin and under surface of the tuberosity of the ischium,—into the rough 
line leading from the great trochanter to the linea aspera, the whole length 
of the linea aspera, and by a tendon into the tubercle above the inner con- 
dyle of the femur. Action, to adduct the thigh 
and rotate it 'outwards. Nerves, obturator and 
great sciatic. This muscle is pierced by 4 aper- 
tures for the 3 superior perforating and the profunda 
arteries, and about the lower one-third of its 
insertion an angular interval is left therein, the 
lower opening of Hunter’s canal, for the passage 
of the femoral vessels into the popliteal space. 
Gluteus maximus/ from the superior curved line 
of the ilium, the crest behind it, the last piece of 
the sacrum, the side of the coccyx and the great 
and posterior sacro-sciatic ligaments,—into the 
fascia lata and the rough line leading from the 
great trochanter to the linea aspera. Action, to 
extend and abduct the thigh and rotate it out- 
wards, also to maintain the trunk erect. Names, 
inferior gluteal and a branch from the sacral 
plexus. 
Gluteus medius,« from the ilium between the su- 
perior and middle curved lines, the crest between 
them and the fascia of the part,—into the oblique 
line on the great trochanter. Action, its posterior 
fibres rotate the thigh outwards, its anterior fibres 
rotate it inwards. It also abducts the thigh and 
draws it forwards, and assists to maintain the trunk 
erect. Nerve, superior gluteal. 
Gluteus minimus,8 from the ilium between the middle and inferior curved 
lines, and the margin of the great sacro-sciatic notch,—into the anterior 
Fig. 48. QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
border of the great trochanter. Action, to rotate the thigh inwards, also 
to abduct and draw it forwards, and to maintain the trunk erect. Nerve, 
superior gluteal. 
Pyriformis,9 by 3 digitations from the front of the sacrum, from the margin 
of the great sacro-sciatic foramen and the great sacro-sciatic ligament,—into 
the upper border of the great trochanter,7 having passed through the great 
sacro-sciatic foramen. Action, an external rotator of the thigh. Nerves, 
branches from the sacral plexus. 
Obturator interims,11 from the posterior bony margin of the obturator 
foramen and the inner surface of the obturator membrane,—into the great tro 
chanter,7 passing through the lesser sacro-sciatic notch. Action, an external 
rotator of the thigh. Nerves, branches from the sacral plexus. 
Gemellus superior,10 from the outer surface of the spine of the ischium,— 
into the great trochanter, being blended with the tendon of the obturator 
internus. Action, an external rotator of the thigh. Nerves, branches from 
the sacral plexus. 
Gemellus inferior,12 from the tuberosity of the ischium,—into the tendon 
of the obturator internus and the great trochanter. Action, an external 
rotator of the thigh. Nerves, branches from the sacral plexus. 
Obturator externus, from the anterior 
inner bony margin of the obturator fora- 
men, and the inner two thirds of the 
anteiior surface of the obturator mem- 
brane,—into the digital fossa of the 
femur at the inner base of the great 
trochanter. Action, an external rotator 
of the thigh. ATerve, obturator. 
Quadratus femoris,1 * from the tuberosity 
of the ischium,—into the upper part of 
the linea quadrati on the trochanter 
major posteriorly. Action, an external 
rotator of the thigh. Nei-ves, branches 
from the sacral plexus. 
Biceps,16 by two heads, the long headd 
from the tuberosity of the ischium pos- 
teriorly, the short heade from the outer 
lip of the linea aspera, and the inter- 
muscular septum,—into the outer side 
of the head of the fibula; its tendon embracing the external lateral ligament 
of the knee-joint, and forming the outer hamstring, the tendons of the semi- 
Fig. 49. MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 
95 
tendinosus, semi-membranosus, gracilis and sartorius, forming the inner 
hamstring. Action, to flex the leg and rotate it outwards. ATerve, great 
sciatic. 
Semi-tendinosus^/from the tuberosity of the ischium by a tendon4 com- 
mon to it and the long head of the biceps, and from the adjacent aponeu- 
rosis,—into the shaft of the tibia at its upper and inner surface, its tendon 
curving around the inner tuberosity. Action, to flex the leg upon the thigh. 
Nerve, great sciatic. 
Semi-membranosuSrr from the tuberosity of the ischium above the origin 
of the above-named muscles,—into the inner tuberosity of the tibia; its 
tendon dividing into 3 parts, one over the popliteus muscle and another 
forming the posterior ligament of the knee-joint. Action, to flex the leg, 
and rotate it inwards. Nerve, great sciatic. 
External rotators of the hip-joint are 12^,—the 3 adductors, pyriformis, 2 
obturators, 2 gemelli, pectineus, psoas magnus, iliacus, sartorius, and poste- 
rior half of the gluteus medius. 
Internal rotators of the hip joint are 2.]j,—the tensor vaginae femoris, gluteus 
minimus, and the anterior half of the gluteus medius. 
MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 
Muscles of the leg arranged in’groups of threes. (Pancoast.) 
Tibialis anticus. 
Extensor proprius pollicis. 
Extensor longus digitorum. 
Gastro cnem ius. 
Soleus. 
Tibialis posticus. 
Plexor longus pollicis. 
Flexor longus digitorum. 
Peroneus longus. 
Peroneus brevis. 
Peroneus tertius. 
Tibialis antUcus3 (flexor tarsi tibialis), from the outer tuberosity and upper 
two-thirds of the shaft of the tibia externally, the interosseous membrane, 
deep fascia, and intermuscular septum,—through the inner canal in the 
anterior annular ligament into the inner and plantar surface of the internal 
cuneiform bone, and the base of the 1st metatarsal. Action, to flex the tarsus 
on the leg, and elevate the inner border of the foot. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Plantaris. 
Popliteus. 
Extensor proprius pollicis,5 from the middle two-fourths of the fibula 
anteriorly and the interosseous membrane,—through the 2d canal in the 
anterior annular ligament, into the base of the last phalanx of the great toe. 
Action, to extend that toe. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Extensor longus digitorum,4 from the outer tuberosity of the tibia, the 
upper three-fourths of the shaft of the fibula anteriorly, interosseous mem- 
brane, deep fascia, and intermuscular septa,—into the 2d and 3d phalanges 96 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY 
of the four lesser toes, by 4 tendons which pass 
over the dorsum of the foot, from the outer canal 
in the anterior annular ligament. Action, to ex- 
tend the lesser toes. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Peroneus tertius,6 (flexor tarsi fibularis),/>w« the 
outer lower one-fourth of the fibula, interosseous 
membrane and intermuscular septum,—into the 
base of the 5th metatarsal bone. This muscle is 
a part of the last-named, and passes through the 
same canal in the annular ligament. Action, to 
flex the tarsus. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Gastrocnemius, by two heads from the condyles of 
the femur, and the supra-condyloid ridges,—unites 
with the tendon of the soleus to form the tendo 
Achillis, into the posterior tuberosity of the os calcis. 
Action, to extend the foot. Nerve,internal popliteal. 
Soleus, from the head and upper one-half of the 
shaft of the fibula posteriorly, the oblique line of 
the tibia, and the tendinous arch,—unites with the 
tendon of the gastrocnemius as the tendo Achillis 
(see above). Action, to extend the foot. Nerve, 
internal popliteal. 
Plantaris, from the outer bifurcation of the linea 
aspera, and posterior ligament of the knee-joint, 
by a very long, delicate tendon,—into the posterior 
surface of the os calcis. Action, to extend the foot. 
Nerve, internal popliteal. 
Popliteus,6 from a depression on the external condyle of the femur, and the 
posterior ligament of the knee-joint,—into the inner two-thirds of the tri- 
angular surface on the shaft of the tibia posteriorly and above the oblique 
line. Action, to flex the leg. Nerve, internal popliteal. 
Flexor longus pollicis,9/iw« the lower two-thirds of the shaft of the fibula 
internally, the interosseous membrane, fascia, and intermuscular septum,— 
through grooves in the tibia, astragalus and os calcis into the base of the 
last phalanx of the great toe. Action, to flex the great toe. Nerve, pos- 
terior tibial. 
Flexor longus digitorum,7 from the shaft of the tibia posteriorly and 
below the oblique line, and the inter-muscular septum,—passes behind the 
inner malleolus in a groove13 with the tibialis posticus,—into the bases of 
Fig. 50. FASCIAE of the foot. 
97 
the last phalanges of the lesser toes by 4 tendons which 
perforate the tendons of the flexor brevis digitorum. 
Action, to flex the phalanges and extend the foot. Nerve, 
posterior tibial. 
Tibialis postFcus,8 by two processes between which pass the 
anterior tibial vessels, from the upper one-half of shaft of 
the tibia posteriorly, the upper two-thirds of the shaft of the 
fibula internally, the interosseous membrane, deep fascia, 
and intermuscular septa,—passes behind the inner malleolus 
in a groove13 with the long flexor, into the tuberosity of 
the scaphoid and internal cuneiform bones. Action, to 
extend the tarsus, and invert the foot. Nerve, posterior 
tibial. 
Peroneus longus,10 from the head of the fibula and the 
upper two-thirds of its shaft externally, the deep fascia, 
and intermuscular septa,—passes behind the outer malleo- 
lus in a groove with the peroneus brevis, through a groove 
in the cuboid bone, to the outer side of the base of the 
1st metatarsal bone. Action, to extend and evert the foot. 
Nerve, musculo-cutaneous. 
Peroneus brevis,11 from the middle one-third of the shaft 
of the fibula externally, and the intermuscular septa,— 
passes behind the external malleolus in a groove with 
the long peroneal, into the dorsum of the base of the 5th 
metatarsal bone. Action, to extend the foot. Nerve, 
musculo-cutaneous branch of external popliteal. 
Fig. si. 
FASCIA OF THE FOOT. 
Anterior annular ligament, consists of vertical and horizontal por- 
tions, is attached to the lower ends of the fibula and tibia, the os calcis and 
the plantar fascia. It contains 5 sheaths lined by synovial membranes for 
the tendons of the extensor muscles, that of the extensor proprius pollicis 
passing beneath it, as also the anterior tibial vessels and nerve. 
Internal annular ligament, from the inner malleolus to the os calcis, 
converting 3 bony grooves into canals lined by synovial membranes for the 
flexor tendons and the posterior tibial vessels and nerve. 
External annular ligament, from the outer malleolus to the os calcis, 
binding down the peronei tendons in one synovial sac. 
Plantar fascia, the densest in the body, divided into a central and two 
lateral portions, and attached to the inner tuberosity of the os calcis, divides 
into 5 processes, one for each toe, and several intermuscular septa. 98 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
MUSCLES OF THE FOOT. 
Extensor brevis digitorum, the only muscle on the dorsum of the foot, 
arises from the os calcis externally, the astragalo-calcanean and the anterior 
annular ligaments,—by 4 tendons, one into the 1st phalanx of the great toe, 
and the others into the outer sides of the long extensor tendons of the 2d, 
3d and 4th toes. Action, to extend the toes. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Muscles on the sole of the foot (19), by layers :— 
1st Layer. 
Flexor brevis digitorum. 
Abductor pollicis. 
Abductor minimi digiti. 
3rd Layer. 
Flexor brevis pollicis. 
Flexor brevis minimi digiti. 
A dductor pollicis. 
Transversus pedis. 
Pancoast’s Tri- 
angle, the low- 
est in the body. 
2nd Layer. 
Flexor accessorius. 
Ltanbricales (4). 
4th Layer. 
Interossei, 4 dorsal, j plantar. 
Abductor pollicis,« from the inner tuberosity of the os calcis, the internal 
annular ligament, plantar fascia, and intermuscular septum,—into the inner 
side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the great toe. Action, to abduct the 
great toe. Nerve, internal plantar. 
Flexor brevis digitorum,f from the inner tuberosity of the os calcis, the 
plantar fascia and intermuscular septa,—into the sides of the 2nd pha- 
langes of the lesser toes by 4 tendons which 
are perforated for the long flexor tendons. 
Action, to flex the lesser toes. Nerve, internal 
plantar. 
Abductor minimi from the outer tuber- 
osity and under surface of the os calcis, the 
plantar fascia and the intermuscular septum,— 
into the base of the 1st phalanx of the little toe 
with the tendon of its short flexor. Action, to 
abduct the little toe. Nerve, external plantar. 
Flexor accessorius, by two heads, from the os 
calcis and the calcaneo-scaphoid and long 
plantar ligaments,—into the tendon of the flexor 
longus digitorum. Action, accessory flexor of 
the toes. Nerve, external plantar. 
Lumbricales^- (4), from the long flexor tendons 
—into the inner side of the second phalanges 
of the lesser toes. Action, accessory flexors. 
Nerves, internal plantar to the two internal, 
external plantar to the others. 
Fig. 52. THE HEART. 
99 
Flexor brevis pollicis,c from the cuboid and external cuneiform bones, and 
the prolonged tendon of the tibialis posticus,—into both sides of the base 
of the ist phalanx of the great toe, by 2 portions, of which one blends with 
the abductor pollicis, the other with the adductor pollicis. Action, to flex 
the great, toe. Nem<e, internal plantar. 
Adductor pollicis, from the tarsal ends of the three middle metatarsal bones, 
and the sheath of the tendon of the peroneus longus,—into the base of the 
ist phalanx of the great toe, externally. Action, to adduct the great toe. 
Nerve, external plantar. 
Flexor brevis minimi digiti,* from the base of the 5th metacarpal bone 
and the sheath of the tendon of the peroneus longus,—into the base of the 
ist phalanx of the little toe externally. Action, to flex the little toe. Nerve, 
external plantar. . 
Transversus pedis, from the under surface of the head of the 5th metatarsal 
bone, and the transverse ligament of the metatarsus,—into the outer side of 
the ist phalanx of the great toe, blending with the tendon of the adductor 
pollicis. Action, to adduct the great toe. Nerve, external plantar. 
Dorsal interossei (4), each by two heads from the adjacent sides of two meta- 
tarsal bones,—into the base of the ist phalanx of the corresponding toe. 
Action, to abduct the toes. Nerve, external plantar. 
Plantar interossei/ (3), from the shafts of the 3d, 4th and 5th metatarsal 
bones,—into the bases of the ist phalanges of the same toes. Action, to 
adduct the toes towards the median line. Nerve, external plantar. 
What is the Pericardium ? It is a conical membranous closed sac, con- 
taining the heart and the roots of the great vessels. It lies behind the sternum 
and between the pleurae, its apex upwards, its base below and attached to the 
central tendon of the diaphragm. It is composed of an outer fibrous coat, 
and an inner serous one; the latter consisting of two portions, a parietal layer, 
lining the inner surface of the fibrous coat, and a visceral layer, which is re- 
flected over the heart and vessels. The serous portion secretes a thin fluid, 
about one drachm in quantity normally, for the lubrication of its surfaces. 
The fibrous coat is prolonged on the outer surfaces of the great vessels, except 
the inferior vena cava, and becomes continuous with the deep layer of the 
cervical fascia. 
Describe the Endocardium. It is a serous membrane which lines the 
inner surface of the heart, forming by its reduplications the cardiac, aortic and 
pulmonary valves, and continuous with the lining membrane of the great 
vessels. 
THE HEART. 100 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Describe the Heart. It is a hollow muscular organ, conoidal in shape, 
placed obliquely in the chest between the lungs, base upwards, apex towards 
the left and front corresponding to the interspace between the 5th and 6th 
costal cartilages, one inch inside of and two inches below the left nipple. In 
the adult its size is about 5 inches by by 2 and from 8 to 12 oz. in 
weight. 
What are the cavities of the Heart ? They are four in number, an 
auricle and a ventricle on each side of the heart, separated by a longitudinal 
muscular septum, and indicated on the external surface of the organ by 
grooves, named from their contiguous cavities, as the auriculo-ventricular 
groove. 
Describe the Right Auricle. It is larger than the left, can hold about 2 
fluid ounces, its walls being about one line in thickness. It receives the 
venous blood by the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus, 
and presents interiorly the following points for examination :— 
Appendix auricula, a conical pouch projecting from the auricle to the front 
and left, its margins being dentated. 
Openings of the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus, 
the latter having a valve in two segments. 
Foramina Thebesii, several minute orifices, the mouths of veins from the 
substance of the heart. 
Tubercle of Lower, a very small projection on the right wall, supposed to 
influence the direction of the blood-current. 
Eustachian valve, at the anterior margin of the inferior vena cava; large in 
the foetus, to direct the blood to the foramen ovale. 
Fossa ovalis, a depression on the inner wall, and the situation of the foramen 
ovale in the foetus. 
Annulus ovalis, the oval margin of the fossa ovalis. 
Musculipectinati, muscular columns on the inner surface of the appendix 
and the inner wall of the aurmle. 
Auriculo-ventricular opening, communicates with the right ventricle, is oval, 
about an inch broad, surrounded by a fibrous ring, and is guarded by the 
tricuspid valve. 
Describe the Right Ventricle. Its form is conical, its cavity containing 
about 2 fluid ounces, its apex above the apex of the heart, and it presents in- 
teriorly the following : viz.— 
Tricuspid valve, consists of 3 triangular segments connected by their bases 
with the auriculo-ventricular orifice, and by their sides with each other, 
the largest being on the left side. 
Chorda te7tdina, delicate tendinous cords which connect the margins and 
lower surfaces of the tricuspid valve with the columnse. THE HEART. 
101 
Columns carnece, muscular columns projecting from the surface of the ven- 
tricle, of which 3 or 4, called columnce papillares, give attachment to the 
chordae tendinae. 
Semilunar valves, are 3 in number, and guard the orifice of the pulmonary 
artery, each about the middle of its free margin has a fibro-cartilaginous 
nodule, the Corpus Arantii, which more perfectly closes the orifice. 
Opening of the pultnonary artery, at the superior and internal angle of the 
ventricle, the conus arteriosus. It is circular in form, surrounded by a 
fibrous ring, and is guarded by the semilunar valves. 
Sinuses of Valsalva, are 3 pouches, one behind each valve, between it and 
the commencement of the pulmonary artery. 
Describe the Left Auricle. Its walls are about one line and a half in 
thickness, its capacity rather less than 2 fluid ounces, has an appendix auriculm, 
and receives the arterialized blood from the lungs. It presents the following 
internally:— 
Openings of the pulmonary veins, are 4 in number, sometimes 3, as the two 
left veins frequently end in a common opening. 
Left auriculo ventricular opening, is smaller than the right one. 
Musculipectinati, on the inner surface of the appendix. 
Depression, corresponding to the fossa ovalis in the right auricle. 
Describe the Left Ventricle. 
It is longer, thicker, and more coni- 
cal than the right, projecting towards 
the posterior aspect. Its walls « are 
the thickest of those in the heart, 
being twice as thick as those of the 
right ventricle. Its interior presents 
the following :— 
Aortic opening, is small and cir- 
cular, placed in front and to 
the right of the auriculo-ven- 
tricular, a segment of the mitral 
valve being between them. It 
is surrounded by a fibrous ring, 
and guarded by semi-lunar 
valves. 
Mitral valve, c consists of two 
unequal-sized segments, and is 
attached to the fibrous ring which surrounds the auriculo ventricular 
opening. Its margins are connected with the ventricular walls by chorda 
tendinad and musculi papillares. 
Fig. 53. 102 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Semilunar valves, guard the aortic orifice, and are larger and stronger than 
those on the right side. 
Sinus aortici, or sinus of Valsalva, a pouch between each valve and the 
beginning of the aorta. 
Colui?ince carnece,e are smaller and more numerous than on the right side; 
the musculi papillares are but two in number. 
Describe the structure of the Heart ? The muscular fibres take origin 
from the four fibrous rings at the auriculo-ventricular and aortic openings. 
The fibres of the auricles are arranged in two layers, a superficial and a deep 
one, the latter having looped fibres and annular fibres. In the ventricles the 
fibres are superficial and deep, the latter being arranged circularly, the former 
spirally, coiling inwards at the apex of the heart into a whorl-lilce form, the 
vortex. 
THE ARTERIES. 
What are the Arteries ? Cylindrical vessels which carry arterial blood to 
the body from the heart. Those going to the lungs with the returning veins, 
form the lesser or pulmonic circulation. The aorta with its branches and the 
returning veins, constitute the greater or systemic circulation. The arteries 
anastomose or communicate freely with each other everywhere throughout 
the body, permitting the establishment of collateral circulations. 
Describe the structure of the Arteries. They are dense, very elastic, 
preserving their cylindrical form, and are composed of 3 coats, an internal or 
serous; a middle, which is of muscular and elastic tissue; and an external, 
of connective tissue. They are generally included in a fibro-areolar invest- 
ment, the sheath, which also encloses the accompanying veins. The larger 
arteries are nourished by the vasa vasorum, blood-vessels which ramify in the 
external and middle coats; and are supplied with nerves, the vaso-motor, 
derived from both the sympathetic and cerebro-spinal systems, and forming 
intricate plexuses on the larger trunks. 
What are the Capillaries ? Minute vessels forming a network through- 
out the tissues of the body between the terminating arteries and the commenc- 
ing veins. Their average diameter is about the of an inch, and their 
walls consist of a transparent homogeneous membrane continuous with the 
innermost layer of the arterial and venous walls. 
[In the following pages, main branches are in italics, sub-branches in Roman.] 
Describe the Aorta. It is the main trunk of the systemic arteries, com- 
mencing at the aortic opening of the left ventricle of the heart, arching back- 
wards over the roof of the left lung into the thorax, where it descends on the 
left of the spinal column, and after passing through the aortic opening in the 
diaphragm, it terminates in the right and left common iliac arteries opposite THE ARTERIES. 
103 
the 4th lumbar vertebra. It is divided into the arch, the thoracic aorta, and 
the abdominal aorta; and the arch issub-divided into the ascending,0 transverse,6 
and descending12 portions. The upper border of the arch is generally situated 
about an inch below the upper margin of the sternum. T. he branches of the 
aorta are,— 
From the Arch,—2 Coronary.4 
Innominate,7 
Left common carotid.10 
Left subclavian.11 
From the Thoracic,—Pericardiac. 
Bronchial. 
(Esophageal. 
Posterior mediastinal. 
20 Intercostals. 
From the Abdominal,—2 Phrenic. 
Gastric. 
Hepatic. 
Splenic. 
2 Spermatic. 
Inferior mesenteric. 
8 Lumbar. 
Sacra media. 
2 Common iliac. 
Cceliac axis. 
Superior mesenteric. 
2 Supra-renal. 
Describe the Coronary arteries. They are two in number, a right and a 
left,4 arise from the aorta behind the semilunar 
valves and run in the vertical grooves of the heart, 
the left artery in front, to supply the tissue of that 
organ. 
Describe the Innominate.7 It arises from the 
summit ofthearchof the aorta, is inch long, and 
divides behind the right sterno-clavicular joint into 
the right common carotid9 and right subclavian,8 
these arteries on the left side of the body arising 
directly from the arch of the aorta.10 11 It some- 
times sends off a middle thyroid (artery of 
Neibauhr) which may arise directly from the 
arch of the aorta. The innominate is sometimes 
absent, and not infrequently varies in length from 
an inch to two or more. 
Describe the Common Carotid. Arising differently (see above), the two 
carotids are similarly described, except that the left is longer and deeper than 
the right one. Their course is indicated by a line drawn from a point midway 
between the angle of the lower jaw and the mastoid process to the sterno- 
clavicular articulation. At the lower part of the neck they are separated only 
by the width of the trachea, and they are each contained in a sheath of the 
deep cervical fascia with the internal jugular vein externally and the pneumo- 
gastric nerve between the artery and vein. On the front of the sheath lies the 
descendens noni nerve (descending branch of the 9th or hypoglossal). The 
artery lies beneath the inner border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, and is 
crossed about its middle by the omo hyoid muscle and the middle thyroid vein. 
Fig. 54. 104 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
It is also crossed above by the facial, lingual, and superior thyroid veins, below 
by the anterior jugular vein, and on the left side often by the internal jugular 
vein. It bifurcates, at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, into 
the external and internal carotids, of which the internal is the most remote 
from the median line. 
Name the branches and sub-branches of the External Carotid 
artery.2 (Fig. 55.) It has 8 branches, as follows, viz.— 
Superior thyroid,4 arising below the greater cornu of the hyoid bone. 
Muscular. 
Glandular. 
Hyoid. 
Superficial descending. 
Superior laryngeal. 
Crico-thyroid. 
Lingual,5 under the hyo-glossus muscle to the tongue. 
Dorsalis linguae. 
Sublingual. 
Ranine. 
Hyoid. 
Fig. 56. 
THE RIGHT INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARTERY. 
Facial,6 crosses the lower jaw at the anterior angle of the masseter. 
Ascending palatine. 
Tonsillar. 
Submaxillary. 
Submental.7 
Muscular. 
Inferior labial. 
2 Coronary.8 9 
Lateralis nasi. 
Angular. THE ARTERIES. 
105 
Occipital,10 lies in the occipital groove of the temporal bone. 
Muscular. 
Auricular. 
Inferior meningeal. 
Arteria princeps cervicis.13 
Cranial branches, over 
the occiput. 
Posterior auricular,14 ascends under cover of the parotid gland. 
Stylo-mastoid. 
Auricular. 
Muscular. 
Glandular. 
Ascending pharyngeal, lies on the rectus capitis anticus major. 
External branches. 
Temporal,15 the smallest of the termini of the external carotid, begins in 
the parotid gland, crosses the zygomatic arch, and divides into anterior18 
and posterior temporal.16 
Pharyngeal and meningeal branches. 
Transverse facial.15 
Middle temporal.17 
Anterior auricular. 
Internal maxillary p the other terminal branch of the external carotid,1 
is divided into three portions, maxillary,4 pterygoid,5 and spheno- 
maxillary,6 which respectively give off the following branches : (Fig. 56,) 
Tympanic,7 entering 
the Glaserian fissure. 
Middle meningeal.8 
Small meningeal.9 
Inferior dental,10 divides 
into Incisor and Mental. 
Deep temporal, 
ant. and posterior. 
Pterygoid branches. 
Masseteric, 
Buccal, to the bucci- 
nator. 
Alveolar.11 
Infra-orbital.12 
Descending palatine.13 
Vidian.16 
Pterygo-palatine.15 
Spheno-palatine or nasal.14 
Describe the Internal Carotid. It ascends in front of the transverse 
processes of the three upper cervical vertebrae, and close to the tonsil, traverses 
the carotid canal in the temporal bone, and after piercing the dura mater by 
the anterior clinoid proeess, divides into its terminal branches. 
Tympanic, enters the tympanum from the carotid canal, and anastomoses 
on the membrana tympani with the tympanic branch of the internal max- 
illary and the stylo-mastoid. 
Arteria receptaculi, numerous small vessels going to the walls of the sinuses, 
the Casserian ganglion and the pituitary body; one of them, to the dura 
mater, is called the anterior meningeal. 
Ophthalmic, arises from the cavernous portion, enters the orbit through the 
optic foramen, terminating at the inner angle of the eye into the frontal 
and nasal branches. It gives off,— 
Lachrymal. 
Arteria centralis retinae. 
Muscular branches. 
Long ciliary. 
Short ciliary. 
Anterior ciliary. 
Supraorbital. 
Posterior ethmoidal. 
Anterior ethmoidal. 
Palpebral. 
Nasal. 
Frontal. 
Anterior cerebral, joined to its fellow by the anterior communicating branch, 
about two lines long. 106 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Middle cerebral, in the fissure of Sylvius; divides into three branches, an- 
terior, median, and posterior. 
Anterior choroid, to the choroid plexus, corpus fimbriatum, etc. 
Posterior communicating, anastomoses with the posterior cerebral, a branch 
of the basilar. 
What is the Circle of Willis ? An anastomosis at the base of the brain, 
between the branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, to equalize 
the cerebral circulation. The two vertebral arteries join to form the basilar, 
which ends in two posterior cerebral. These are connected with the internal 
carotid by the two posterior communicating. The circle is completed by the 
connection of the two anterior cerebral branches of the internal carotid through 
the short anterior communicating artery. 
Describe the Subclavian. It arises on the right side from the innominate, 
on the left side from the arch of the aorta, 
and is divided into three portions by the 
scalenus anticus, which crosses it just ex- 
ternal to the origin of the thyroid axis, 
viz.—the parts internal, behind, and ex- 
ternal to that muscle. At the outer border 
of the ist rib, the subclavian becomes the 
axillary artery. Its upper border is a little 
above the clavicle, and it is separated from 
the subclavian vein by the scalenus anticus 
at its origin from the 1st rib. Its branches 
are all given off from its first portion, ex- 
cept the superior intercostal, which on the 
right side arises from the second portion. 
Vertebral,6 passing up the neck, through 
the foramina in the transverse processes 
of six cervical vertebrae, and enters the skull by the foramen magnum, 
where it joins its fellow to form the basilar. 
Lateral spinal branches. 
Muscular branches. 
Posterior meningeal. 
Anterior spinal. 
Posterior spinal. 
Inferior cerebellar. 
The Basilar, formed by the junction of the vertebrals, gives off on each 
side a transverse, anterior and superior cerebellar, and ends in the two 
posterior cerebral (See Circle of Willis). 
Thyroid Axis,8 at once divides into the three following branches. THE ARTERIES. 
107 
Inferior thyroidf to the thyroid gland, giving off,— 
Laryngeal branch. 
Tracheal branches. 
CEsophageal branches. 
Ascending cervical.9 
Transversalis colli,11 divides beneath the margin of the trapezius into— 
Suprascapular,12 to the shoulder-joint and the dorsum of the scapula, anas- 
tomosing there with the posterior- and subscapular. 
Superficial cervical. 
Posterior scapular. 
Internal mammary,13 arises opposite the thyroid axis, descends upon the 
costal cartilages, and ends at the 6th interval, in the musculo-phrenic and 
superior epigastric, the latter anastomosing with the deep epigastric branch 
of the external iliac. 
Comes nervi phrenici, 
or superior phrenic. 
Mediastinal. 
Pericardiac. 
Sternal. 
Anterior intercostal. 
Perforating. 
Musculo- phrenic. 
Superior epigastric. 
Superior intercostal,14 gives off branches in the intercostal spaces to the 
posterior spinal muscles and to the spinal cord. 
Profunda cervicis,10 supplies the muscles of the back of the neck, 
and anastomoses with the arteria princeps cervicis of the occipital. 
Describe the Axillary.5 It is the continuation of the subclavian, extend- 
ing from the edge of the ist rib to the lower margin of the armpit muscles, 
where it becomes the brachial. It has 7 branches, viz.— 
Superior thoracic, to the pectoral muscles and walls of the thorax. 
Acromial thoracic, branches are thoracic, acromial, descending. 
Thoracica longa, to the muscles of the chest and mammary gland. 
Thoracica alaris, a small branch to the axillary glands. 
Subscapular, to the inferior dorsum of the scapula. Its branches anastomose 
with the supra- and posterior scapular. 
Subscapular. 
Dorsalis scapulae. 
Median branch. 
Posterior circumflex, to the deltoid muscle and the shoulder-joint. 
Anterior circumflex, to the joint and the head of the bone, anastomosing 
with the posterior circumflex and acromial thoracic. 
Describe the Brachial. It is the continuation of the axillary from the 
lower margin of the teres major tendon to its bifurcation into the radial and 
ulnar, which is usually about one-half inch below the bend of the elbow. 
The median nerve crosses it from the outside to the inside at its 
centre. 
Superior profunda, winds over the arm in the musculo-spiral groove, giving 
off the posterior articular to the elbow anastomosis. 108 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Nutrient branch, enters the nutrient canal. 
Inferior profunda, to the elbow-joint anastomosis. 
Anastomotic a magna, anastomoses with the posterior articular, inferior pro- 
funda, anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent. 
Muscular branches, to the muscles in the course of the artery. 
Describe the Radial. It extends from the bifurcation of the brachial to 
the deep palmar arch, and gives off the following branches respectively, in the 
forearm, the wrist, and the hand, viz.— 
Radial recurrent. 
Muscular. 
Superficialis volae. 
Anterior carpal. 
Posterior carpal. 
Metacarpal, 
Dorsales pollicis. 
Dorsalis indicis. 
Princeps pollicis. 
Radialis indicis. 
Perforantes. 
Interossese. 
Name the branches of the Ulnar. It extends from the division of the 
brachial to the superficial palmar arch. It has 8 branches, viz.— 
Anterior ulnar recurrent. 
Posterior ulnar recurrent. 
Muscular. 
Anterior carpal. 
Deep or communicating 
branch. 
Interosseous 
Anterior. 
Posterior. 
Describe the Palmar Arches. The superficial palmar arch is that part 
of the ulnar artery lying in the palm of the hand, and anastomosing with 
the superficialis volae from the radial, and a branch from the radialis indicis, at 
the root of the thumb. It gives off 4 branches, the digital, to the sides of the 
fingers, except the inside of the index finger, which is supplied by the radialis 
indicis. The deep palmar arch is formed by the palmar portion of the radial 
artery anastomosing with the deep or communicating branch of the ulna. It 
gives off the radialis indicis, palmar interosseas, perforating and recurrent 
branches. 
Posterior carpal. 
Digital. 
Describe the Thoracic Aorta. It begins on the left of the spine, at the 
lower border of the 3rd dorsal vertebra, and ends at the aortic opening in the 
diaphragm directly in front of the last dorsal vertebra. Its branches are as 
follows:— 
Pericardiac branches, irregular in number and origin. 
Bronchial, also vary in number and origin; generally one on the right side 
and two on the left. They nourish the lungs. 
(Esophageal, four or five, anastomose on the oesophagus with branches of the 
inferior thyroid, phrenic, and gastric. 
Posterior mediastinal, numerous small vessels. 
Intercostals, usually 10 on each side, each dividing into an anterior and a 
posterior branch. The anterior divides again into two along the adjacent 
borders of the ribs, supplying the intercostal muscles and anastomosing with THE ARTERIES. 
109 
branches of the internal mammary and axillary. The posterior divides 
into a spinal branch going to 
the vertebrae and the spinal 
cord, and a muscular to the 
muscles of the back. 
Describe the Abdominal 
Aorta. It begins where the 
thoracic ends, and terminates at 
the 4th lumbar vertebra in the 
common iliacs. Its branches are 
as follows:— 
Cceliac Axis,2 arises oppo- 
site the margin of the dia- 
phragm, runs forwards for 
half an inch and divides 
into the gastric, hepatic, and 
splenic arteries, occasion- 
ally giving off one of the 
phrenics. 
Gastric,3 supplies the stom- 
ach along its lesser curva- 
ture, anastomosing with the 
aortic, oesophageal, splenic 
and hepatic branches. 
Hepatic,4 divides in the trans- 
verse fissure of the liver into 
the right and left branches, 
to the lobes of that organ; 
Fig. 58. 
Pyloric. 
Cystic. 
Gastro-duodenalis 
Gastro-epiploica dextra. 
Pancreatico-duodenalis. 
Splenic,5 the largest branch of the coeliac axis, passes by a very tortuous 
course to the spleen, giving off the following:— 
Pancreaticge parvae. 
Pancreatica magna. 
Gastric (vasa brevia). 
Gastro-epiploica sinistra. 
Phrenic,1 one on each side, but usually only one arises from the aorta, the 
other springing from either the coeliac axis or the renal artery. They go 
to the under surface of the diaphragm. 
Superior mesenteric,9 supplies the small intestine, caecum, ascending and 110 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
transverse colon. Arising about one-fourth inch below the coeliac axis, 
it arches forwards, downwards and to the left, giving off— 
Inferior pancreatico-duodenal. 
Vasa intestini tenuis. 
Ileo-colic. 
Colica dextra and media. 
Inferior mesenteric,11 supplies the descending colon, sigmoid flexure, and 
most of the rectum, giving off the following branches:— 
Colica sinistra. 
Sigmoid. 
Supra-renalp arise one on each side, opposite the origin of the superior 
mesenteric, passing to the supra renal capsules. 
Superior hemorrhoidal. 
Renal,' one from each side, just below the preceding, pass to the kidney, at 
the hilum having the middle place between the ureter in front and the 
renal vein behind. U. A. V. (you ’ave ! ) 
Spermatic,10 one on each side, in the male through the inguinal canal to 
the testes; in the female to the ovaries, uterus, and the skin of the labia 
and groins. 
Lumbar,8 usually 4 on each side, analagous to the intercostals. They each 
divide into two branches, the— 
Middle sacral,12 arises just at the bifurcation of the aorta; it descends along 
the sacrum and coccyx, giving off numerous branches. 
Dorsal, giving off a spinal branch. 
Abdominal. 
Describe the Common Iliac ArterieS. They extend from the bifurcation 
of the aorta at the 4th vertebra to near the lumbo-sacral articulation, 
where they each divide into the external15 and internal iliac.14 They are 
about 2 inches in length, the right being a little longer than the left one, and 
each is crossed by the ureter, just before its bifurcation. 
Describe the Internal Iliac.14 It is about one and one-half inch long, 
and extends from the lumbo-sacral articulation to the great sacro-sciatic notch, 
where it divides into an anterior and a posterior trunk. From the anterior trunk 
are given off from above downwards, the—- 
Superior vesical, the remaining pervious part of the foetal hypogastric artery. 
It sends branches to the vas deferens and the ureter; and one, the middle 
vesical, to the base of the bladder. 
Obturator, through the canal in the obturator foramen to the thigh, where it 
divides into an internal and external branch. Within the pelvis it gives 
off an iliac, vesical, and a pubic branch. In one out of cases this 
artery arises from the epigastric. 
Inferior vesical, to the bladder, prostate gland, and vesiculse seminales. In 
the female this artery is called the vaginal. 
Middle hemorrhoidal, to the rectum. 
Uterine, in the female, anastomosing with the ovarian. THE ARTERIES. 
111 
Internalpudic, the smaller of the terminal branches of the anterior trunk, 
supplies the external generative organs. Its branches in the pelvis are 
numerous and small, in the perineum they are— 
Inferior hemorrhoidal. 
Superficial perineal. 
Transverse perineal. 
Artery of the bulb. 
Artery of the corpus cavernosum. 
Dorsal artery of the penis. 
Sciatic, the other terminal branch, supplies the muscles on the back of the 
pelvis. Its branches are as follows:— 
Muscular branches. 
Hemorrhoidal branches. 
Vesical branches. 
Coccygeal. 
Inferior gluteal. 
Comes nervi ischiadici. 
Muscular, external 
to the pelvis. 
Articular branches. 
The Posterior Trunk gives off the following :— 
Ilio-lumbar, dividing into lumbar and iliac branches. 
Lateral sacral, superior and inferior on each side. 
Gluteal, the continuation of the posterior trunk, divides into a superficial and 
a deep branch, to the glutei muscles, the skin over the sacrum, and the 
hip-joint. Before dividing it gives a nutrient branch to the ilium, and 
some muscular branches. 
Describe the External Iliac. It extends to beneath the centre of Poupart’s 
ligament, where it enters the thigh and becomes the femoral artery, lying be- 
tween the femoral vein on the inside and the anterior crural nerve on the out- 
side—V.A.N. Its branches are, small muscular and glandular, and— 
Epigastric, which usually arises a few lines above Pou part’s ligament, passes 
between the peritoneum and the transveisalis fascia, to the sheath of the 
rectus which it perforates, and ascends behind that muscle, to anastomose 
by numerous branches with the terminal branches of the internal mam- 
mary and inferior intercostal. It gives off— 
Cremasteric. 
Pubic. 
Muscular branches. 
Circumflex iliac, arises opposite to the epigastric, passes along the crest of 
the ilium to anastomose with tire ilio-lumbar, gluteal, lumbar and epigas- 
tric arteries. 
Describe the Femoral Artery. It extends from Pou part’s ligament to the 
opening in the adductor magnus, where it becomes the popliteal artery. Its course 
corresponds to a line drawn from a point midway between the anterior superior 
spine of the ilium and the symphysis pubis, to the inner side of the inner con- 
dyle of the femur. It lies in a strong fibrous sheath with the femoral vein, but 
divided from the latter by a fibrous partition. It bisects Scarpa’s triangle in 
the upper part of its course, where it is superficial, and rests on the inner mar- 
gin of the psoas, which separates it from the capsule of the hip joint. Its 
branches are as follows;— 112 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY 
Superficial epigastric,e to the superficial 
fascia of the abdomen. 
Superficial circumflex iliac,j to the skin 
over the iliac crest. 
Superficial extei-nal pudicfi to the integu- 
ment of the lower abdomen, penis and 
scrotum. 
Deep external pudicfi to the skin of the 
scrotum and perineum. 
Profunda femorisg arises posteriorly about 
one or two inches below Poupart’s liga- 
ment, and descends to the lower third of 
the back of the thigh, giving off the fol- 
lowing branches:— 
Ext. Int. circumflex./- 
3 Perforating/ 
APuscular branches,k to the sartorius and 
vastus internus. 
Anasiomotica magna, arises from the femo- 
ral in Hunter’s canal, and divides into a 
superficial and deep branch, the latter 
anastomosing around the knee-joint with 
the superior external and internal articu- 
lar arteries, and the recurrent tibial. 
Describe the Popliteal Artery. It extends from the opening in the ad- 
ductor magnus to the lower border of the popliteus muscle, where, having 
passed behind the knee-joint, it divides into the anterior and posterior tibial 
arteries. Its branches are as follows:— 
Fig. 59. 
Superior internal articular I 
Azygos articular. 
Inferior external articular. 
Inferior internal articular. 
Superior muscular branches. 
Inferior muscular, or Sural. 
Cutaneous branches. 
Superior external articular. 
These are distributed around the knee-joint in a free anastomosis. 
The azygos branch perforates the posterior ligament of the joint to reach the 
internal ligaments and the synovial membrane. 
Describe the Anterior Tibial Artery. It extends from the bifurcation 
of the popliteal to the front of the ankle-joint, where it becomes the dorsalis 
pedis. It passes between the two heads of the tibialis posticus, over the upper 
edge of the interosseous membrane and along its anterior surface, resting on THE ARTERIES. 
113 
the tibia for its lower one-third. It is accompanied by the anterior tibial nerve 
close to it externally, and is crossed below by the tendon of the extensor pro- 
prius pollicis. Its branches are— 
Describe the Dorsalis Pedis Artery. It is the continuation of the ante- 
rior tibial, extending from the front of the ankle-joint to the ist interosseous 
space, where it terminates in the dorsalis hallucis and the communicating. 
The anterior tibial nerve lies close to its outer side. Its branches are as 
follows :— 
Tarsea, passing outwards along the tarsus. 
Metatarsea, giving off 3 interossese, and they 7 digital. 
Dorsalis hallucis, to the great toe and the inner side of the second toe by 
its 3 digital branches. 
Communicating, which dips down into the sole of the foot in the ist inter- 
osseous space of the metatarsus, to inosculate with the external plantar; 
and gives off 2 digital branches to the plantar surface of the great and 
second toes. 
Recurrent tibial. 
Muscular. 
External and internal malleolar. 
Describe the Posterior Tibial Artery. It is a large vessel, extending 
from the bifurcation of the popliteal along the back of the tibia to the fossa 
below the inner malleolus, where it divides into the internal and external 
plantar. The posterior tibial nerve crosses it a short way below its origin and 
then lies close to its outer side for the rest of its course. Its branches are as 
follows:— 
Peroneal, along the fibular side, giving off the anterior peroneal, muscular 
branches, and the nutrient artery of the fibula. 
Nutrient of the tibia, the largest nutrient artery of bone. 
Muscular branches, to the posterior muscles of the leg. 
Communicating, a branch to the peroneal. 
Internal calcanean branches, to the heel and sole of the foot. 
Describe the Internal Plantar. This artery is the smallest of the ter- 
minating branches of the posterior tibial, and passes along the inner side of 
the foot and great toe. 
Describe the External Plantar Artery. It sweeps across the plantar 
aspect of the foot in a curve, the convexity of which is directed outwards and 
forwards; and at the interval between the bases of the ist and 2d metatarsal 
bones it inosculates with the communicating branch from the dorsalis pedis, 
forming the plantar arch, or the stirrup anastomosis. It gives off numerous 
muscular branches, and the— 
Posterior perforating, 3 small branches passing through the three outer in- 
terosseous spaces. 114 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Digital, 4 branches supplying the sides of the three outer toes and the outer 
side of the second toe; its inner side, together with the great toe, being 
supplied by the digital branches of the dorsalis pedis communicating. 
Describe the Pulmonary Artery. It alone of the arteries carries venous 
blood, which it conveys from the right side of the heart to the lungs. It is 
only about 2 inches long, and nearly all within the pericardium ; arising from 
the right ventricle in front of the ascending aorta, passing upwards and back- 
wards to the under surface of the arch of the aorta, where it bifurcates, and is 
connected to the aorta by a fibrous cord, the remains of the ductus arteriosus 
of the foetus. Its terminal branches are the— 
Right and left pulmonary arteries, the latter being the shorter of the two; 
pass horizontally outwards to the roots of their respective lungs, where each 
divides into two branches, which again and again subdivide to ramify through- 
out the lung tissue and end in the capillaries of those organs. 
ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSES. 
Describe the anastomosis around the Shoulder-joint. It is formed by 
the following 8 arteries, viz.— 
Posterior scapular, br. of transv. colli. 
Subscapular, br. of axillary. 
Dorsalis scapula, br. of subscapular. 
Infraspinous, br. of dorsalis scapulae. 
Suprascapular, br. of thyroid axis. 
Ant. circumflex, br. of axillary. 
Post, circumflex, br. of axillary. 
Acromial, br. of acromio thoracic. 
Superior profunda, br. of brachial. 
Inferior profunda, br. of brachial. 
Anastomotica magna, br. of brachial. 
Posterior articular, br. of superior 
profunda. 
What arteries anastomose around the Elbow-joint ? The— 
Radial recurrent, br. of radial. 
Recurrent interosseous, br. of posterior 
interosseous. 
Anterior ulnar recurrent, br. of ulnar. 
Posterior ulnar recurrent, br. of ulnar. 
What arteries anastomose around the Hip-joint ? They are the— 
Gluteal, ilio-lumbar, and circumflex iliac, with the external circumflex. 
Obturator and sciatic, with the internal circumflex. 
Comes nervi ischiadici, with the perforating branches of the profunda. 
Name the arteries anastomosing around the Knee-joint. The— 
Descending, br. of ext. circumflex. 
Anastomotica magna, br. of femoral. 
Inferior perforating, br. of profunda. 
Superior ext. articular, br of popliteal. 
Sup. int. articular, br. of popliteal. 
Inf. ext. articular, br. of popliteal. 
Inf. int. articular, br. of popliteal. 
Recurrent tibial, br. of anterior tibial. 
How is the collateral circulation established after ligature of the 
Carotid or Subclavian ?—By the following anastomoses, viz?— 
Superior thyroid, br. of external carotid, with the inferior thyroid, br. of 
the thyroid axis, from the subclavian. THE VEINS. 
115 
Arteria princeps cervicis, br. of occipital, from the external carotid, with 
the vertebral, br. of subclavian, and the profunda cervicis, br. of the supe- 
rior intercostal, from the subclavian. 
What is the longest anastomosis in the body ? That between the 
subclavian and the external iliac by the anastomosis of the superior epigastric, 
br. of the internal mammary, with the deep epigastric, br. of the external 
iliac. 
[The circle of Willis has been described on page 106; the palmar and plan- 
tar arches on pages 108 and 113 respectively; and the anastomosis on the 
membrana tympani on page 105.] 
THE VEINS. 
What are the Veins ? Vessels carrying blood towards the heart. Their 
walls are composed of 3 coats, an internal, serous ; a middle, muscular; and 
an external, fibrous. They all carry carbonized or venous blood, except 
the pulmonary veins, which bring oxygenated blood to the left side of 
the heart. The deep veins accompany the arteries, generally in the same 
sheath, and are given the same names. The secondary arteries, as the radial, 
ulnar, brachial, etc., have each two veins, called vence comites. The super- 
ficial veins are usually unaccompanied by arteries, and lie, as a rule, between 
the layers of the superficial fascia, terminating in the deep veins. Many veins 
are so irregular in their origin that they cannot be accurately described; they 
all anastomose with each other much more freely than do the arteries. 
What are Sinuses ? They are venous channels, differing from veins in 
structure but answering the same purpose. Those of the cranium are formed 
by the separation of the layers of the dura mater. 
How are the veins divided ? Into the pulmonary, systemic, and portal 
systems; the latter being an appendage of the systemic, its capillaries ramify- 
ing in the liver. 
What veins have no valves ? The venae cavse, hepatic, portal, renal, 
uterine, ovarian, cerebral, spinal, pulmonary, umbilical, and the very small 
veins. 
Name the principal veins of the head and neck. They are the— 
(1). Exterior veins. 
(2). Veins of the diploe and cranium. 
Facial. 
Temporal. 
Internal maxjillary. 
Temporo-maxillary. 
Posterior auricular. 
Occipital. 
Veins of the diploe. 
Cerebral and cerebellar. 
Superior longitudinal sinus. 
Inferior longitudinal sinus. 
Straight sinus. 
Circular sinus. 
Transverse sinus. 
Cavernous sinus 
Occipital sinus. 
Superior petrosal sinus. 
Inferior petrosal sinus. 
Lateral sinus. 116 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
(3). Veins of the neck draining the above-named. 
External jugular,6 terminating in the subclavian vein.4 
Posterior external jugular, opens into the external jugular. 
Anterior jugular,7 enters the subclavian vein near the external jugular. 
Lnternal jugular,5 formed by the junction of the two last-named sinuses at the 
jugular foramen, and uniting with the subclavian vein to form the innomi- 
nate, at the root of the neck. In its course it receives the facial, lingual, 
pharyngeal, superior and middle thyroid veins, and the occipital. 
Vertebral, descends the foramina in the transverse processes of the cervical 
vertebrae, and empties into the innominate vein. 
Name the veins of the upper extremity. They are in two sets, super- 
ficial and deep. The deep follow the arteries, generally as venae comites, be- 
ginning in the hand as digital, interosseous, and palmar veins, they unite in 
the deep radial and ulnar which unite to form the vena comites of the brachial 
artery at the bend of the elbow. The superficial veins lie in the superficial 
fascia ; they are as follows;— 
Radial. 
Median 
Anterior and Posterior ulnar. 
Median cephalic. 
Cephalic. 
Basilic. 
Median basilic. 
Axillary 
Vein. 
Name the principal veins of the thorax. They are as follows, viz.— 
Lnternal mammary. 
Lnferior thyroid. ■ 
Lntercostal. 
Bronchial’. 
Mediastinal. 
Pericardiac. 
Right azygos {major). 
Left lower azygos {minor). 
Left upper azygos {minimus). 
What are the Azygos veins ? They supply the place of the vense cavae 
in the region where these trunks are deficient being connected with the heart. 
The right azygos17 begins by a branch from the right lumbar veins usually, 
passes through the aortic opening in the diaphragm, and ends in the superior 
vena cava, having drained 9 or 10 right lower intercostals, the vena azygos 
minor, the right bronchial, oesophageal, mediastinal and vertebral veins. The 
left lower azygos18 begins by a branch from the left lumbar or renal, passes 
the left crus of the diaphragm, crosses the vertebral column and ends in the 
right azygos, having drained 4 or 5 lower intercostals. The left upper azygos 
drains 2 or 3 left intercostals and empties into either of the other two. It is 
often wanting, its place being filled by the left superior intercostal vein.21 
Name the Spinal Veins. They may be arranged into 4 sets, as follows, 
viz.— 
Medulli-spinal, the veins of the spinal cord, which lie in plexus form between 
the pia mater and arachnoid. They unite into 2 or 3 small trunks near 
the base of the skull, which terminate in the inferior cerebellar veins or 
in the petrosal sinuses. THE VEINS. 
117 
Vence basis vertebrarum, empty into the anterior longitudinal. 
Longitudinal, in two plexuses, anterior and posterior, running the whole 
length of the spinal canal. The posterior join the dorsi-spinal veins, the 
anterior empty into the vertebral, intercostal, lumbar and sacral veins in 
their various regions. 
Dorsi-spinal, form a plexus around the 
spines, processes and laminae of all the 
vertebrae. They empty into the vertebral, 
intercostal, lumbar, and sacral veins in 
their respective regions. 
Describe the Subclavian Vein. It is the 
continuation of the axillary, extending from 
the outer margin of the 1st rib to the sterno- 
clavicular articulation, where it unites with the 
internal jugular to form the innominate vein. 
At the angle of junction enters the thoracic 
duct on the left side of the body, and the right 
lymphatic duct on the right side. In its course 
it receives the external and anterior jugular 
veins and a branch from the cephalic. 
Describe the Venae Innominatae. The 
two innominate veins are each formed by the 
union of the subclavian and internal jugular, 
and unite below the 1st costal cartilage to 
form the superior vena cava. The right in- 
nominate3 is about i y2 inch long, and receives, 
besides its constituent branches, the right in- 
ternal mammary, right inferior thyroid, and 
right superior intercostal veins. The lef 
innominate2 is about 3 inches long, and in 
its course it receives the vertebral, inferioi 
thyroid, internal mammary and superior inter- 
costal veins of the left side. 
Describe the Superior Vena Cava.1 It is a short trunk about or 3 
inches in length, formed by the union of the vense innominatae, and receives all 
the blood from the upper half of the body, terminating in the right auricle of 
the heart. It is half covered by the pericardium, and receives the vena azygos 
major and small pericardiac and mediastinal veins. 
I Name the principal veins of the lower extremity. They are in two 
s, superficial and deep. The deep are the vence comites of the anterior and 
Fig. 60. 118 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
posterior tibial and peroneal arteries, which collect the blood from the deep 
parts of the foot and leg, and unite in the— 
Popliteal, which becomes the Femoral, and it the External iliac in the same 
manner as the respectively-named arteries. 
The superficial veins of the lower extremity are the— 
Internal or long saphenous, on the inside of the leg and thigh, enters the 
femoral at the saphenous opening i inch below Poupart’s ligament. In 
its course it receives the following :— 
Cutaneous branches. 
Superficial epigastric. 
Pudic. 
Superficial circumflex iliac. 
Communicating branches. 
External or short saphenous, formed by branches from the dorsum and 
outer side of the foot, it ascends behind the outer malleolus, up the 
middle of the back of the leg, and empties into the popliteal vein. 
Describe the Internal Iliac Vein.10 It is formed by the venae comites 
of the branches of the internal iliac artery, except the umbilical. It terminates 
with the external iliac, at the sacro iliac articulation, to form the common 
iliac vein. It receives the following veins :— 
Gluteal. 
Sciatic. 
Internal pudic. 
Obturator. 
Hemorrhoidal and Vesico- 
prostatic, in the male. 
Uterine and Vagi- 
inal plexuses in 
the female. 
Describe the Common Iliac Veins.11 They are each formed by the union 
of the two iliac veins as above described, and unite between the 4th and 5th 
lumbar vertebrae to form the inferior vena cava, the right common iliac being 
the shortest of the two. Each receives the ilio-lumbar, sometimes the lateral 
sacral, and the left one in addition the middle sacral vein, which sometimes 
ends in the vena cava. 
Describe the Inferior Vena Cava.8 It extends from the junction of the 
two common iliac veins, passing along the front of the spine, through the 
tendinous centre of the diaphragm, to its termination in the right auricle of the 
heart. It receives the following veins :— 
Lumbar.12 
Right spermatic.13 
Renal.15 
Supra-renal. 
Phrenic. 
Hepatic.16 
Describe the Portal System. The portal system is formed by the 
superior and inferior mesenteric, splenic and gastric veins, which collect the 
blood from the digestive viscera, and by their union behind the head of the 
pancreas form the portal vein, which enters the transverse fissure of the liver, 
where it divides into two branches, and these again subdivide, ramifying through- 
out that organ, therein receiving blood also from the branches of the hepatic 
artery. Its contents enter the inferior vena cava by the hepatic vein. The 
portal vein is about 4 inches long, receives the gastric and cystic veins, and is THE ABSORBENTS. 
119 
formed by the union of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins, the inferior 
mesenteric joining the splenic, which also receives one of the gastric, the other 
emptying into the portal. 
Name the Cardiac Veins. They return the blood from the tissue of the 
heart into the right auricle. They are the— 
Great cardiac vein. 
Posterior cardiac vein. 
Anterior cardiac veins. 
Vence Thebesii. 
Coronary sinus, is a dilatation of the great cardiac vein, receiving the pos- 
terior cardiac and an oblique vein from the left auricle. 
Describe the Pulmonary Veins. They alone of the veins carry arterial 
blood, beginning in the capillaries of the lungs, forming a single trunk for 
each lobule, which uniting into a single trunk for each lobe, form two main 
trunks from each lung which open separately into the left auricle. Sometimes 
the three lobe-trunks of the right lung remain separate to their termination in 
the auricle, and not unfrequently a common opening serves for the two left 
pulmonary veins. 
THE ABSORBENTS. 
What are the Lymphatics ? They are very delicate, transparent vessels, 
formed of three coats like arteries and veins, found in nearly every part of 
the body, except the brain, spinal cord, eyeball, cartilage, tendons, membranes 
of the ovum, placenta, umbilical cord, nails, cuticle, hair, and bone. They 
are nourished by nutrient vessels, and have valves, but no nerves, so far as 
known. They convey lymph to the blood. 
What are the Lacteals ? They are the lymphatics of the small intes- 
tine, conveying ihyle therefrom into the blood. 
What are the Lymphatic glands ? Small solid bodies placed in the 
course of the absorbent vessels, and found chiefly in the mesentery, along the 
great blood-vessels, in the mediastina, axilla, neck, front of the elbow, groin 
and popliteal space. The lymphatics and lacteals before entering these glands 
break up into smaller branches, the afferent vessels, which form a plexus in 
the gland, and pass out as efferent vessels to unite again in one trunk. They 
also contain spheroidal bodies about inch in diameter. These glands 
are named after the regions in which they are situated, as the axillary, inguinal, 
mesenteric, etc. 
Describe the Thoracic Duct. It is the main channel for the lymph and 
chyle from the whole body except the right arm and lung, right side of the 
head, heart, neck, and thorax, and the convex surface of the liver. It begins 
in the receptaculum chyli, in front of the 2d lumbar vertebra, passes through 
the aortic opening in the diaphragm, and at the upper border of the 7th cer- 120 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
vical vertebra it curves forwards, outwards and downwards, terminating in the 
left subclavian vein at its junction with the internal jugular. 
Describe the Right Lymphatic Duct. It is about an inch long, termin- 
ating in the right subclavian vein at its union with the internal jugular, and 
draining the lymphatics of those parts which are not connected with the 
thoracic duct. 
How is the nervous system divided ? Into the cerebro-spinal, or 
nervous system of animal life; and the sympathetic, or nervous system of 
organic life. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
What is the structure of the nervous tissue ? It is formed of two 
substances essentially different from each other, the white or fibrous, and the 
gray ox vesicular matter. Chemically these contain phosphorized fat, albumen, 
and water. A third form, the gelatinous, is yet a subject of disagreement 
among authorities. 
Describe the white nerve-matter. It is composed of a number of tubes, 
each consisting of a central axis-cylinder, surrounded by the white substance of 
Schwann, and this again enclosed in the tubular membrane, or nerve-sheath. 
The whole arrangement is precisely analogous to that of a submarine telegraphic 
cable. A bundle of such tubes is invested by a covering, the neurilemma, or 
perineurium, and is called a nerve, and is nourished by a minute capillary 
system of blood-vessels. 
How do nerves terminate ? Sensory nerves end peripherally as plexuses 
in their end-organs in the tissues. Motor nerves end peripherally in muscles 
as plexuses, or plates. Their central termination is not yet understood. 
Of what does the Cerebro-spinal system consist ? Of the brain, the 
spinal cord, the ganglia, and the cranial and spinal nerves. 
THE BRAIN. 
What are the Membranes of the Brain ? The dura mater, the arach- 
noid, and the pia mater. 
Describe the Dura Mater. It is a dense fibrous membrane lining the 
interior of the skull, and forming the internal periosteum of the cranial bones. 
It is continuous with the dura mater of the spinal cord, and is attached to 
many parts of the base of the skull. It presents the following for examina- 
tion :— 
Falx cerebri, an arched process sent into the longitudinal fissure of the brain, 
contains in its upper and lower margins the superior and inferior longi- 
tudinal sinuses. THE BRAIN. 
121 
Tentorium cerebetti, a lamina of dura mater supporting the posterior lobes of 
the brain, and covering the upper surface of the cerebellum. It incloses 
the lateral and superior petrosal sinuses. 
Falx cerebelli, projects between the lateral lobes of the cerebellum, from the 
tentorium to the foramen magnum. 
Pacchionian bodies, clusters of white granulations situated on the outer 
and inner surfaces of the . dura mater, in the superior longitudinal sinus, 
and on the pia mater, found only after the 7th year, and of unknown 
function. 
Describe the Arachnoid. It is the serous sac which forms the middle 
membrane, having a visceral and a parietal layer, the latter being reflected 
over the inferior surface of the dura mater. The anterior sub-arachnoid space 
is the interval between it and the pia mater of the brain at the base, where it 
is extended across between the two middle lobes. The posterior sub-arachnoid 
space is a similar interval between the hemispheres of the brain and the me- 
dulla oblongata. These spaces communicate together across the crura cere- 
bri ; and also with the general ventricular cavity, by an opening in the lower 
boundary of the 4th ventricle; and contain the cerebro-spinal fluid which forms 
a water-bed for the nervous centres. The sac of the arachnoid also contains a 
serous fluid in small quantity. 
What is the Pia Mater? It is the vascular membrane, being supplied by 
the branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries. It covers the sur- 
face of the brain, dipping down into all the sulci, and forms the velum inter- 
position and choroid plexus of the 4th ventricle; and contains lymphatics and 
nerves. 
How is the Brain divided ? Into the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, 
and medulla oblongata. Its average weight in the male adult is oz., in 
the female 44 oz., of which the cerebrum is about seven-eighths. The ex- 
treme weights in 278 male cases were 65 oz. and 34 oz.,—in 191 female cases, 
56 oz. and 31 oz. 
Describe the principal Lobes and Fissures of the Cerebrum. Each 
lateral half of the cerebrum, or hemisphere, has the following 5 lobes and 8 
fissures, besides many of less importance. 
Frontal lobe, bounded internally by the longitudinal fissure, below by the 
fissure of Sylvius, and posteriorly by the fissure of Rolando. 
Parietal lobe, extending down to the fissure of Sylvius, and antero poste- 
riorly from the fissure of Rolando to the parieto-occipital. 
Occipital lobe, behind the parieto-occipital fissure. 
Temporo-sphenodial lobe, lying in the middle fossa of the skull, and bounded 
in front by the fissure of Sylvius. 122 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Central lobe, or island of Reil, lies in the fissure of Sylvius, covered by the 
frontal and temporo-sphenoidal lobes. 
Longitudinalfissure, separating the two hemispheres. 
Fissure of Sylvius, at the base of the brain, extending outwards on each 
side, and dividing into two branches, an ascending and a horizontal one. 
It lodges the middle cerebral artery. 
Fissure of Rolando, on the superior surface, extending from the longitudi- 
nal fissure about its centre, downwards and forwards towards the fissure 
of Sylvius, separating the frontal and parietal lobes. 
Parieto-occipitalfissure, extends from the longitudinal fissure outwards for 
about an inch between the parietal and occipital lobes. It is better 
marked in a longitudinal section of the brain. 
Calloso-marginalfissure, above the gyrus fornicatus on the inner surface of 
the hemisphere. 
Transversefissure, between the middle lobe and the crus cerebri, at the base 
of the brain. It admits the pia mater to the lateral ventricle. 
Calcarine fissure, also seen cm the inner, surface, extending from the lower 
end of the parieto-occipital fissure outwards to the posterior border of the 
occipital lobe. 
First temporo-sphenoidal, below the fissure of Sylvius, on the lateral surface 
of the brain. 
Name the principal Convolutions of the Cerebrum. The superior 
and inner surfaces of each hemisphere are formed of convolutions (gyri) with 
intervening furrows [sulci) of various depths, both gyri and sulci being formed 
of gray matter thus arranged to enable it to present a great extent of surface. 
The convolutions are not uniform in all brains as to arrangement, nor are they 
symmetrical in the two hemispheres. The most constant are the following :— 
Gyrus fumicalus, the convolution over the corpus callosum, seen on the 
inner surface, arching from before backwards. 
Convolution of the longitudinalfissure, along the edge of that fissure on the 
superior surface, curving over the front and back of each hemisphere, to 
the base of the brain. 
Ascending frontal, lies in front of the fissure of Rolando. 
Ascending parietal, lies behind the fissure of Rolando. 
Angular gyrus, or Pli courbe, around the posterior end of the first temporo- 
sphenoidal fissure. 
Many other convolutions are named by writers on the localization of cere- 
bral functions, such as the temporo-sphenoidal, occipital, supra marginal con- 
volutions, etc. Their names will be found sufficiently explanatory of their 
several locations. The cuneus, precuneus, and paracentral lobule are names THE BRAIN. 
123 
given to the regions between the calcarine, parieto-occipital, and calloso-mar- 
ginal fissures, the last-named locality lying in front of the last-named fissure. 
Name the points in view on the inferior surface of the brain. From 
before backwards, excluding the cranial nerves, are the following:— 
Longitudinalfissure, its anterior portion. 
Corpus callosum, the great transverse commissure of the brain. 
Lamina cinerea, a thin, gray layer, beneath the optic tracts. 
Fissure of Sylvius, between the anterior and temporo-sphenoidal lobes. 
Anterior perforated space, for vessels to the corpora striata. 
Optic com?nissure, formed by the junction of the optic tracts. 
Tuber cinereum, a gray lamina behind the optic commissure, forming part 
of the floor of the 3rd ventricle. 
Lnfundibulum, a hollow process, connecting the pituitary cavity with the 
3rd ventricle in the foetus. 
Pituitary body, a vascular bi-lobed body, of glandular structure, projects from 
the infundibulum into the sella turcica of the sphenoid. 
Corpora albicantia, two round, white eminences, united together; they are 
the anterior crura of the fornix folded on themselves. 
Posterior perforated space (Pons Tarini), for vessels to the optic thalami. 
Crura cerebri, or cerebral peduncles, connect the cerebrum with the cere- 
bellum, spinal cord, and medulla oblongata ; containing the fibres passing 
to the basal ganglia. They, with the optic tracts, form the boundaries of 
the inter-peduncular space. 
Pons Varolii, to be described separately. [See page 126.] 
What Ganglia are comprised in the Brain ? Besides the gray matter of 
the cerebral hemispheres, of the cerebellum, and of the medulla oblongata, 
there are the following, at the base of the brain;— 
Olfactory bulbs. 
Corpora striata. 
Optic thalami. 
Tubercula quadrigemina. 
Tuber annulare. 
Describe the Basal Ganglia. They are as follows, viz.— 
Olfactory bulbs, are the ganglia of the sense of smell, lie one on each side 
of the median line, upon the cribriform plate of the ethmoid, and are 
connected with the hemispheres by the olfactory tracts. 
Corpora striata, the motor ganglia, are situated in the floor of the lateral 
ventricles, and therefore within the hemispheres. 
Optic thalami, the sensory ganglia, are in the floor of the lateral ventricles, 
behind the corpora striata. 
Corpora quadrigemina, or Optic lobes, 2 nates and 2 testes, lie beneath the 
posterior lobes, near the union of the cerebrum and cerebellum. They 
form two single ganglia for vision. [Described under Meso-cephalon.j 124 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Tuber annulare, a ganglion in the substance of the pons Varolii, the seat 
of indistinct sensation probably. 
Name the Commissures of the Brain. These connecting bands num- 
ber 19 in all, of which 10 are longitudinal, and 9 transverse in direction, viz.— 
Longitudinal commissures. 
Olfactory tracts. 
Taenia semicircularis. 
Crura cerebri. 
Processes e cerebello ad testes. 
Peduncles of the pineal gland. 
Fornix. 
Infundibulum. 
Lamina cinerea. 
Gyrus fornicatus. 
Fasciculus unciformis. 
Transverse commissures. 
Anterior commissure of 3d ventricle. 
Middle commissure of 3d ventricle. 
Posterior commissure of 3d ventricle. 
Corpus callosum. 
Optic commissure. 
Pons Varolii. 
Fornix, is a transverse commi sure as 
well as a longitudinal one. 
Posterior medullary velum. 
Valve of Vieussens. 
What are the Ventricles of the Brain? They are 5 cavities, each of 
which is situated as follows:— 
Two lateral ventricles, within the substance of the hemispheres. 
Third ventricle, between the optic thalami, on the base of the brain. 
Fourth ventricle, between the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. 
Fifth ventricle, between the two lateral, in the septum lucidum. 
Ventricle of the corpus callosum, so-called, is merely the space between the 
upper surface of that commissure and the margins of the hemispheres 
above (labia cerebri). 
The foramina of Monroe connect the two lateral ventricles with the third; 
the iter e tertio ad quartam ventriculum or aqueduct of Sylvius, connects the 
third with the fourth. 
Describe and bound the Lateral Ventricles. They each have 3 cornua, 
the anterior, middle and posterior, and are bounded as follows:— 
Roof,—the corpus callosum. 
Floor,—the corpus striatum, taenia semicircularis or horny band of Tarinus, 
optic thalamus, choroid plexus, corpus fimbriatum, and the fornix. 
Internally,—the septum lucidum. 
Externally, behind and in front,—the brain substance. 
What are the parts above-named ? Some, as the corpus striatum, optic 
thalamus, etc., have been described already, the others are— 
Corpus callosum, the great transverse commissure, arching backwards to be- 
come continuous with the fornix, reflected below, forming the peduncles at 
the entrance of the fissure of Sylvius; and marked above by a depression, 
the rapht, and longitudinal elevations, the strice longitudinales or nerves 
of Lancisi. THE BRAIN. 
125 
Tcenia semicircularis, consists of commissural fibres between the corpus 
striatum and the optic thalamus. 
Choroid plexus of veins, is the margin of a fold of pia mater which enters at 
the transverse fissure, passes up the descending cornu, passes through the 
foramen of Monroe and as the velum interpositum spreads out over the 
roof of the third ventricle. 
Corpus fimbriatum, or Tania hippocampi, is a white band, the edge of the 
posterior pillar of the fornix. 
Fornix, is a commissure situated beneath the corpus callosum but continuous 
with it posteriorly, the septum lucidum separating them in front. It is of 
triangular form with the apex in front. Its anterior crura curve down- 
wards to the base of the brain, are there reflected, forming the corpora 
albicantia, and end in the optic thalami. Its posterior crura pass down 
the descending horns of the lateral ventricles, as the hippocampi majores. 
The lyra is a series of markings on its under surface. 
Septum lucidum, consists of two layers of white and gray matter, lined by 
epithelium; is placed vertically between the lateral ventricles, from the 
raphe of the corpus callosum above to the fornix below. The cavity in 
its centre is the 5th ventricle. 
Describe the Cornua of the Lateral Ventricles. The. anterior cornu 
curves over the anterior end of the corpus striatum into the anterior lobe. 
The posterior cornu curves downwards and inwards in the occipital lobe, 
and contains a smooth eminence, the hippocampus minor. The middle 
cornu descends into the middle lobe to the transverse fissure at the base of the 
brain, curving backwards, outwards, downwards, forwards and inwards (B. O. 
D. F. I.). On its floor are the following:— 
Hippocampus major, the doubled-in surface of the gyrus fornicatus. 
Pes hippocampi, rounded eminences at the end of the hippocampus. 
Pes accessorius, or Eminentia collateralis, between the hippocampi, at the 
junction of the middle and posterior cornua. 
Corpus fimbriatum, a continuation of the posterior pillar of the fornix. 
Choroid plexus of veins, a process of pia mater, already described. 
Fascia dentata, the gray serrated edge of the middle lobe. 
Transverse fissure, at the extremity of the cornu, extending to the median 
line, between the hippocampus major and the optic thalamus. It opens 
at the base of the brain between the middle lobe and the crus cerebri, 
and admits the pia mater to the middle cornu. 
Describe and bound the Third Ventricle. It is a mere fissure, situated 
between the optic thalami in the median line. It communicates with the 
lateral ventricles above by the foramina of Monroe, and with the 4th ventricle QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
behind by the iter e tertio ad quartam ventriculum. It is crossed by three 
bands, the anterior, middle and posterior commissures, the middle one being 
of gray matter, the others of white. In the foetus its cavity communicates 
with the 5th ventricle, and through the infundibulum with the cavity of the 
pituitary body. It is bounded as follows:— 
Roof,—the velum interpositum, and above it the fornix. 
Floor,—the parts comprised in the interpeduncular space at the base of the 
brain, viz.—the lamina cinerea, tuber cinereum, infundibulum, corpora 
albicantia, and posterior perforated space. 
Anteriorly,—the anterior crura of the fornix, and the anterior commissure 
of the ventricle. 
Posteriorly,—the posterior commissure, and the iter e tertio, etc. 
Laterally,— the optic thalami and the peduncles of the pineal gland. 
Describe and bound the Fourth Ventricle. The fourth, or ventricle of 
the cerebellum, lies between the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum. It is 
considered by some to be a dilatation of the central canal of the spinal cord, 
and is enclosed posteriorly by the pia mater; an opening in which admits the 
entrance and exit of the subarachnoid fluid from the subarachnoidean space of 
the brain and spinal cord, and a fold of the pia mater called the choroid 
plexus. It also communicates with the 3d ventricle by the iter e tertio, etc. 
Its boundaries are as follows:— 
Roof.—the valve of Vieussens, and the cerebellum. 
Anteriorly,—the medulla oblongata, and the pons Varolii. 
Posteriorly,—the cerebellum. 
Laterally,—the processus e cerebello ad testes, the posterior pyramids and 
the restiform bodies of the medulla oblongata. 
Floor,—the posterior median fissure of the medulla, the orifice of the cen- 
tral canal of the cord, the locus ceruleus and taenia violacea (both of blue 
color), the fasculi teretes (2 spindle-shaped elevations) and eminences of 
origin of certain nerves. 
Describe the Fifth Ventricle. It is situated between the two layers of 
the septum lucidum, and therefore between the lateral ventricles. Its roof is 
formed by the corpus callosum, and in the foetus it communicates with the 3d 
ventricle by an opening between the pillars of the fornix. It usually con- 
tains fluid. 
What is the Meso-cephalon ? It comprises the parts which connect the 
cerebrum with the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata, and includes the 
following structures, viz :— 
Pons Varolii, a great transverse commissure seen at the base of the brain 
in front of the medulla. Its fibres connect the hemispheres of the cere- 
bellum with each other and the medulla. THE BRAIN. 
127 
Crura cerebri, or Peduncles of the cerebrum, extend from the pons to the 
corpora striata and optic thalami, and consist of the peduncular fibres 
which pass from the medulla to the ganglia named, and thence upwards 
to the gray matter of the hemispheres as the corona radiata. Each crus 
contains in its centre a mass of gray matter called the locus niger. 
Valve of Vieussens, is a thin lamina forming the roof of the iter e tertio ad 
quartam ventriculum, and stretched between the two processus e cere- 
bello ad testes. Its frenulum is a ridge descending on its upper part 
from the corpora quadrigemina. 
Corpora quadrigemina, or Optic lobes, are 4 spherical eminences placed to- 
gether above the valve of Vieussens, and behind the 3d ventricle beneath 
the posterior border of the corpus callosum. The anterior pair are called 
the nates, the posterior, the testes, and they are connected with the optic 
thalami and optic tracts by 4 bands, their brachia; and with the cere- 
bellum by a white cord on each side, the processus e cerebello ad testes. 
They form two ganglia for the centre of vision. 
Pineal gland, is a small conical reddish body situated between the nates, 
on which it rests. Its 4 peduncles connect it with the anterior crura of 
the fornix, and the optic thalami. It is very vascular, and has a small 
cavity (said to communicate with the 3d ventricle) which contains a 
viscid fluid, and some concretions formed of the phosphates of lime, 
magnesia, and ammonia, etc., called the acervulus cerebri. 
Describe the Medulla Oblongata. This ganglion is the upper enlarged 
part of the spinal cord, extending from the upper border of the atlas to the 
pons Varolii. Its posterior surface forms the floor of the 4th ventricle, its an- 
terior surface rests on the basilar groove of the occipital bone. It is divided 
into two lateral halves by the anterior and posterior median fissures, and con- 
tains gray matter scattered throughout it, from which the cranial nerves from 
the 5th to the 12th inclusive arise entirely or in part. In it are supposed to lie 
the centres for the vaso-motor and the cardiac nerves, also centres of respira- 
tion, phonation, deglutition, mastication, and expression. On each side it pre- 
sents the following,— 
Anterior pyramid, formed by the anterior and lateral columns of the spinal 
cord. 
Olivary body, behind the pyramid, from which it is separated by the groove 
of the hypoglossal nerve. It contains a capsule of gray matter in its 
centre, the corpus dentatum. 
Lateral tract, continuous with the lateral column of the spinal cord, lies 
behind the olivary body and in front of the restiform. 128 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
Restiform body, the posterior lateral portion of the medulla, also called the 
fasciculus cuneatus. 
Posterior pyramid, or Fasciculus gracilis, the most posterior portion, is 
formed by the posterior median column of the spinal cord. It diverges 
from its fellow at the apex of the 4th ventricle and forms the lateral 
boundary of the calamus scriptorius. 
What is the Cerebellum ? It is that portion of the brain situated in the 
inferior occipital fossae, beneath the posterior lobes of the cerebrum. It is an 
oblong flattened ganglion, divided into two lateral hemispheres, and a central 
portion, the vermiform process. 
Name the Fissures of the cerebellum. They are three in number,— 
two vertical and one horizontal, viz.— 
Incisura cerebelli anterior. 
Incisura cerebelli posterior. 
Great horizontal fissure, from which 
secondary fissures originate. 
Name the points on the surfaces of the cerebellum. They comprise 
15 lobes, 2 commissures, and 3 projections, as follows:— 
On the upper surface of each hemisphere,— 
Anterior or square lobe. 
Posterior or semilunar lobe. 
On the under surface of each hemisphere, from before backwards,— 
Flocculus, Sub-peduncular lobe, or Pneumogastric lobule. 
Amygdala lobe, or Tonsil, projects into the 4th ventricle. 
Digastric lobe. Slender lobe. Posterior inferior lobe. 
On the vermiform process are the— 
Lobulus centralis. 
Monticulus cerebelli. 
Commissura simplex. 
Pyramid. 
Uvula. 
Commissura brevis. 
superiorly. 
inferiorly. 
The Vallecula, or valley of the cerebellum, is the central depression on its 
under surface between the two lateral hemispheres. 
Name the Peduncles of the cerebellum. They are 3 in number on 
each side, and from below upwards are as follows: — 
Processus e cerebello ad medullam, to the medulla oblongata. 
Processus e cerebello ad pontem, connect the hemispheres. 
Processus e cerebello ad testes, to the cerebrum. 
Describe the Gray matter of the cerebellum. It occupies the surface 
of the mass in laminated shape, and is traversed by curved furrows, between 
the laminae. A vertical section gives an appearance called the arbor vita. 
Corpus dentatum, is a capsule of gray matter in the centre of the white 
and is open anteriorly. It is sometimes called the ganglion of the cere- 
bellum. THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
129 
THE SPINAL CORD. 
Describe the Spinal Cord. It is that part of the cerebro-spinal axis 
which is situated in the spinal canal. Its length is about 16 inches, termina- 
ting at the lower border of the ist lumbar vertebra in the cauda equina. It is 
cylindrical in general form, with two enlargements, one in the cervical region, 
the other in the lumbar. It is composed of gray and white matter, the gray 
being inside (instead of outside as in the cerebrum), and arranged so as to 
present a crescentic appearance in horizontal section, joined by a transverse 
commissure, and forming, by their extremities, the anterior and posterior horns, 
from which regions respectively the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal 
nerves have their apparent origin. 
Membranes of the cord are three, as in the brain,—dura mater, arachnoid, 
and pia mater. The dura mater is not adherent to the spinal column, 
but is connected thereto by fibrous tissue. The arachnoid is arranged as 
on the brain, its sub-arachnoid space being filled with its fluid, for the pro- 
tection of the cord. The pia mater has a fibrous band on each side, the 
ligamentum denticulatum, connecting it to the dura mater by some 20 
serrations. 
Fissures, number 8,—the anterior and posterior median, the anterior and 
posterior lateral on each side, and the two posterior intermediary in the 
cervical region. 
Columns, are 8 in number, four on each side of the cord,—an anterior, lateral, 
posterior, and posterior median. The anterior is continuous with the ante- 
rior pyramid of the medulla; the lateral, with the lateral column of the 
medulla ; the posterior, with the restiform body ; the posterior-media71, 
with the posterior pyramid. 
Central canal, or Ventricle of the cord, extends through its entire length in 
the foetus and in some adults, but is usually closed except for one-half 
inch below its orifice in the floor of the 4th ventricle. 
Describe each Cranial Nerve, stating its function, apparent and deep 
origin, foramen of exit, principal branches and distribution. There are 
12 pairs of cranial nerves (9 according to Willis), of which those from the 6th 
to the 12th inclusive have their deep origin wholly or in part from the floor of 
the 4th ventricle. They are the— 
1st, Olfactory, nerve of smell,—arises by 2 roots from the anterior cerebral 
lobe and 1 root from the middle lobe, deeply from the optic thalamus, 
island of Reil, corpus striatum, and anterior commissure; exit by 20 
branches through the cribriform plate, to the Schneiderian membrane. Its 
bulb is a lobe of the cerebrum. 
THE CRANIAL NERVES. QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY, 
2nd, Optic, nerve of sight,—arises 
from the optic commissure2 and 
tracts, deeply from the optic thal- 
amus, corpora geniculata, and cor- 
pora quadrigemina; exit through 
the optic foramen to the retina. 
3rd, Motoroculi,7 motor of the eye, 
—arises from the crus cerebri, 
deeply from the floor of the iter e 
tertio ad quartam ventriculum; 
exit through the sphenoidal fis- 
sure, to all the muscles of the 
orbit except the superior oblique 
and the external rectus, also to 
the iris. 
4th, Patheticus,8 motor of the eye, 
—arises from the outer side of the 
crus, deeply from the valve of 
Vieusssens; exit through the 
sphenoidal fissure, to the superior oblique muscle of the eye. 
5th, Trigeminus,9 nerve of sensa- 
tion, motion and taste,—arises by 
two roots,—from the side of the 
pons Varolii,5 deeply from the 
pyramidal body (motor root), 
lateral tract of the medulla, the 
pons, and cerebellum (sensory 
root). Exit of ophthalmic divi- 
sion by the sphenoidal fissure; 
of superior maxillary by the fora- 
men rotundum ; of inferior max- 
illary division and motor root, by 
the foramen ovale. The Casse- 
riatt ganglion,5 is situated on the 
sensory root at the origin of its 
three divisions. 
Ophthalmic division,6 goes to the 
forehead,eyelids,lachrymal gland, 
conjunctiva, iris, ciliary ganglion, 
and the nose. Its branches are— 
Fig. 61. 
Fig. 62. 
Lrontai,9 
Lachrymal.10 
Nasal.11 THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
Superior maxillary division,7 goes to the temple, cheek, lower eyelid, 
nose, lip, upper teeth, and to Meckel’s ganglion, thence to the palate. Its 
branches are the— 
Orbital.2 0 
Spheno-palatine. 
Posterior dental.16 
Anterior dental 8 
Infraorbital.15 
Palpebral. 
Nasal. 
Labial. 
Inferior maxillary division,® includes the motor branch, and is therefore 
a nerve of common sensation, motion, and special sense (taste). Its motor 
filaments go to the muscles of mastication; its sensory to the auditory meatus, 
to the otic and submaxillary ganglia, the anterior part of the tongue, the 
cheek, teeth, and the lingualis muscle (sensation). Its branches are the— 
Masseteric. 
Deep temporal (2) 
Buccal. 
Pterygoid. 
A uriculo-temporal.2 6 
Buccal. 
Gustatory.2 3 
Inferior dental2 * 
Mylohyoid28 
Incisor. 
Mental.25 
Dental. 
6th, Abducens,10 motor of the eye,—arises from the medulla oblongata, 
deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle ; exit by the sphenoidal fissure, to 
the external rectus muscle of the eye. 
7th, Facial, or Portio dura.11 motor of the face, ear, palate and tongue,— 
arises from the groove between the olivary and restiform bodies of the 
medulla, deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle. Exit by internal 
auditory meatus, through the aqueductus Fallopii, and stylo-mastoid fora- 
men, to the muscles of expression, the tongue, muscles of the ear and palate, 
etc. It communicates with the carotid and meningeal plexuses, the spheno- 
palatine (Meckel’s) and the otic ganglia, the auditory, great auricular, 
pneumogastric, glosso-pharyngeal and 5th nerves. Its branches are the— 
Great petrosal, to Meckel’s ganglion. 
Small petrosal, to the otic ganglion. 
External petrosal, to the meningeal plexus. 
Tympanic, to the muscles of the tympanum. 
Chorda tympani, to the tongue, etc. 
Posterior auricular. 
Digastric. 
Stylo-hyoid. 
Temporo-facial. 
Cervicofacial. 
8th, Auditory, or Portio mollis,11 nerve of hearing,—arises just external 
to the facial, deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle ; exit by the internal 
auditory meatus, to the internal ear. Its branches are the— 
gth, Glosso-pharyngeal,12 nerve of sensation and taste,—arises from the 
medulla oblongata behind the olivary body, deeply from the floor of the 4th 
ventricle; exit by the jugular foramen, to the back of the tongue (taste), 
the middle ear, the tonsils and pharynx. Branches are— 
Vestibular, to the vestibule. Cochlear, to the cochlea. 
Tympanic (Jacobson’s). 
Carotid. 
Pharyngeal. 
Muscular. 
Tonsillar. 
Lingual. 132 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
10th, Pneumogastric, or Par vagum,12 the auriculo-laryngo-pharyngo-. 
oesophago-tracheo-pulmono-cardio-gastro-hepatic nerve. A nerve of sensa- 
tion and motion, probably receiving its motor influence from its spinal 
accessory. It arises from the medulla behind the olivary body and below 
the 9th nerve, deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle; exit by the jugular 
foramen, to the parts indicated by the above euphonious appellation, sup- 
plying sensation to the external ear and larynx, motioti to the other parts. 
Its branches are the— 
Auricular (Arnold’s). 
Pharyngeal. 
Superior laryngeal. 
Recurrent laryngeal. 
Cervical and thoracic cardiac. 
Ant. and post, pulmonary. 
(Esophageal. 
Gastric. 
Hepatic. 
nth, Spinal accessory 12 to the pneumogastric,—motor nerve,—arises by a 
double origin (1) from the lateral tract of the medulla, deeply from near the 
floor of the 4th ventricle; (2) from the lateral tract of the cord by several 
filaments, as low as the 6th cervical nerve, deeply from the anterior gray 
horn of the cord. Exit by jugular foramen, its spinal portion having first 
entered by the foramen magnum, to the stemo-cleido-mastoid and trapezius 
muscles, communicating with the pharyngeal and laryngeal nerves by its 
accessory portion in the same sheath with the pneumogastric ; also with the 
2d, 3d, 4th and 5th cervical nerves by its spinal portion. Its branches are 
indicated by the above-described distribution. 
12th, Hypo-glossal,13 (Nonus or 9th of Willis), motor of the tongue,— 
arises by 10 to 15 filaments from the groove between the pyramidal and 
olivary bodies of the medulla oblongata, deeply from the floor of the 4th 
ventricle; exit by the anterior condyloid foramen, to the thyro-and genio- 
hyiod, the stylo-, hyo-, and genio-hyo-glossus muscles; and by the descendens 
noni branch to the sterno-hyoid, sterno-thyroid, and omo-hyoid muscles. 
It communicates with the pneumogastric, sympathetic, 1st and 2d cervical, 
and gustatory nerves. Its branches of distribution are the— 
Descendens noni. Muscular. Thyro-hyoid. 
What nerves enter the cranium before passing out of it ? The spinal 
portion of the spinal accessory, and the nasal branch of the ophthalmic. The 
first enters by the foramen magnum and then leaves by the jugular foramen. 
The second enters from the orbit by the anterior ethmoidal foramen, and 
leaves by the nasal slit at the side of the crista galli. 
THE SPINAL NERVES. 
Describe the Spinal nerves. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, of which 
the cervical number 8, the dorsal 12, the lumbar 5, the sacral 5, and the coc- 
cygeal 1. The first cervical escapes above the 1st vertebra, each of the others 
below the corresponding vertebra through the intervertebral foramina. Each THE SPINAL NERVES. 
nerve arises by two roots, an anterior motor root, and a posterior sensory one, 
the latter having a ganglion on it. These unite, and the nerve then divides into 
two branches, both having motor and sensory fibres. The posterior branches 
are small and generally unimportant; they supply the muscles and integument 
of the back. The anterior branches supply the neck, front and sides of the 
trunk, and the extremities, uniting in various regions to form plexuses from 
which important nerve-trunks originate. 
How is the Cervical Plexus formed and distributed ? It is formed 
by the anterior branches of the first 4 cervical nerves, and rests on the levator 
anguli scapulae and scalenus medius muscles. Its branches (10) comprise 4 
superficial to the integument of the head and neck, and the following deep 
branches, viz.— 
Describe the Phrenic nerve. It arises by 3 heads from the 3rd, 4th and 
5th cervical, descends across the front of the scalenus anticus, crossing the sub- 
clavian and internal mammary arteries, in the middle mediastinum, and is dis- 
tributed to the inferior surface of the diaphragm. It is often called the inter- 
nal respiratory nerve of Bell. It sends filaments to the pericardium and 
pleura, and communicates with the plexuses of the sympathetic in the abdo- 
men. 
Phrenic. Communicans 7ioni. 2 Muscular. 2 Com7/iunicating. 
Describe the formation and distribution of the Brachial plexus. It 
is formed by the union of the 4 lower cervical nerves and the ist dorsal. The 
5th 6th and 7th unite into one trunk externally to the scalenus medius, as also 
do the 8th cervical and ist dorsal behind the same muscle. Below the line of 
the clavicle both these trunks bifurcate; the two adjacent branches unite be- 
hind the axillary artery making the posterior cord, and the remaining two form 
the outer and inner cords, referred to the artery. Each of these cords bifur- 
cates, but the two adjacent branches of the outer and inner cords unite over 
the artery, to form the median nerve, leaving 4 other branches, the ulnar, mus- 
culo-cutaneous, 7?iusculo-spinal and circumflex nerves, the last two being de- 
rived from the posterior cord. 
The branches of the brachial plexus are as follows, viz.—■ 
Above the clavicle are given off 4, the— 
Communicating, completing the phrenic nerve. 
Muscular, to the longus colli, scaleni, rhomboidei, and subclavius muscles. 
Posterior, or Long thoracic, external respiratory nerve of Bell, to the serra- 
tus magnus, arising from the 5th and 6th cervical. 
Suprascapular, from the 1st trunk of the plexus, to the scapular muscles. 
Below the clavicle are 12, the— 
2 Anterior thoracic, from outer and inner cords to the pectoral muscles. QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
3 Subscapular, from the posterior cord, to the subscapularis, teres major, 
and latissimus dorsi muscles. 
Circumflex, from the posterior cord, to the muscles and integument of the 
shoulder, and the shoulder-joint. 
Musculo-cutaneous, from the outer cord, to the forearm externally, piercing 
the coraco-brachialis muscle. 
Internal cutaneous, from the inner cord, to the arm and forearm. 
Lesser internal cutaneous (nerve of Wrisberg), from the inner cord to the 
inner side of the arm. Is sometimes wanting, sometimes connected with 
the intercosto-humeral. 
Median, from outer and inner cords, passes between the two heads of the 
pronator radii teres, supplying the pronators, flexors, first 2 lumbricales, 
and the integument of the thumb, fingers, and the radial side of the 
palm. Its branches are all in the palm, the— 
Muscular. Anterior interosseous. Palmar cutaneous. 
Ulnar, from the inner cord, passes between the two heads of the flexor 
carpi ulnaris at the inner condyle of the humerus, supplying the elbow- 
and wrist-joints, several muscles, and the palmar and dorsal integument 
of the little finger and half of the ring finger. Branches— 
2 Articular. 
Muscular. 
Cutaneous. 
Dorsal. 
Superficial palmar. 
Deep palmar. 
Musculo-spiral, from the posterior cord, accompanies the superior profunda 
artery and vein in the spiral groove of the humerus, and at the external 
condyle it divides into the radial and posterior interosseous nerves. Its 
branches are— 
The radial supplies the outer side and ball of the thumb, and the dorsal 
integument of 2y2 fingers. 
Muscular. Cutaneous. Radial. Posterior interosseous. 
The posterior interosseous supplies all the muscles on the back of the 
forearm except three, and also sends a filament to the wrist-joint. 
What is the Intercosto-humeral nerve ? It is the lateral cutaneous 
branch of the 2d intercostal (anterior branch of the 2d dorsal); it pierces the 
external intercostal muscle and crosses the axilla, joining with a filament from 
the lesser internal cutaneous (nerve of Wrisberg), and supplying the skin of 
the upper half of the inside of the arm. 
Describe the Lumbar plexus. It is formed by communicating loops from 
the anterior branches of the first 4 lumbar nerves, in the following manner. 
From the First lumbar nerve are given off the— 
Ilio-hypogastric, to the abdominal and gluteal regions. 
Ilio-inguinal, to the inguinal region and the scrotum. 
Communicating loop, to the second lumbar nerve. THE SPINAL NERVES. 
135 
From the Second lumbar nerve are given off the— 
External cutaneous, to the integument of the outside of the thigh. 
Genito-crural, to the spermatic cord and front of the thigh. 
Communicating branch, to the third lumbar nerve. 
From the Third and Fourth lumbar nerves are given off the following by a 
branch of origin from each, viz.— 
Obturator, through the obturator foramen to the 
external obturator and adductor muscles and the 
hip- and knee-joints. 
Accessory obturator (often absent), to the pectineus 
and hip-joint. 
Communicating, from the 3d lumbar to the 4th. 
Communicating, from the 4th lumbar to the 5th. 
Anterior crural, which descends through the psoas 
muscle, and beneath Poupart’s ligament to the 
thigh, where it divides into an anterior and pos- 
terior division. Its branches are,— 
Fig. 63 
To the iliaeus muscle. 
To the femoral artery. 
Middle and internal cutaneous. 
Long saphenous. 
Muscular. 
Articular. 
Describe the Sacral It is formed by 
the union of the upper 4 sacral nerves c with the 5th 
lumbar and a loop from the 4th, the two latter forming 
the lumbosacral cord.a It lies upon the pyriformis 
muscle and gives off the following 5 branches, viz.— 
Superior glutealp from the lumbo-sacral cord, sup- 
plies the glutei and tensor vaginae femoris. 
Muscular branches, to the pyriformis, obturator in- 
temus, gemelli, and quadratus femoris muscles. 
Pudic,e escapes by the great sacro-sciatic foramen, 
crosses the ischiatic spine, and re-enters the pelvis 
by the lesser sacro-sciatic foramen, supplying the 
perineum, anus, and genitalia. 
Small sciaticyf to the gluteus maximus, and integu- 
ment of the perineum, scrotum, and back of the 
thigh and leg. 
Great sciatic,S the largest nerve of the body, and 
the direct continuation of the sacral plexus, escapes by the great sacro- 
sciatic foramen, sends an articular branch to the hip-joint, muscular 136 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
branches to the adductor magnus, semimembranosus, semitendinosus 
and biceps muscles, and terminates in the externalh and internal* 
popliteal nerves, generally about the lower one-third of the thigh. 
Describe the External Popliteal nerve. It passes from.the bifurcation 
of the great sciatic along the outer side of the popliteal space, gives off articu- 
lar and cutaneous branches, and about an inch below the head of the fibula 
it divides'into the— 
Anterior tibial,m supplying the extensors, and the integument of the 
adjacent sides of the great and 2d toes. 
Musculo-cutaneous,« to the peroneal muscles, and the dorsal integument of 
the inner 4toes. 
Describe the Internal Popliteal nerve. It is the largest of the two, 
and descends along the middle of the back of the leg, becoming the posterior 
tibialk at the lower border of the popliteus muscle, and dividing into the ex- 
ternal and internal plantar l below the inner malleolus. Its branches are as 
follows:— 
Articular, 3 in number, to the knee-joint. 
Muscular, to the gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris, and popliteus. 
External or short saphenous, i> formed by a filament from both popliteal 
nerves, supplies the integument of the little toe and outer side of the foot. 
Muscular, to the tibialis posticus, flexor longus pollicis, and flexor longus 
digitorum. 
Plantar cutaneous, to the skin of the heel and inner sole of the foot. 
Internal plantar, to the inner plantar muscles, sole of the foot, and the plantar 
integument of the inner 3yz toes. 
External plantar, to the external plantar muscles, and the plantar integu- 
ment of the outer 1 )/z toes. 
What is the Sympathetic Nerve ? It consists of a series of ganglia sit- 
uated on each side of the vertebral column, connected together and to the cere- 
bro-spinal system by intervening cords, beginning in the ganglion of Ribes on 
the anterior communicating artery, and ending in the ganglion ianpar, in front 
of the coccyx. 
THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 
Name the Ganglia of the Sympathetic in the Cranium and its vicinity. 
They are 9 in number, as follows :— 
Ganglion of Riles, on the anterior communicating artery. 
Ganglion of Laumonier, on the internal carotid artery. 
Ciliary, or Ophthalmic ganglion, in the orbital cavity. 
Spheno-palatine {Meckel's) ganglion, in the spheno-maxillary fossa. 
Otic {Arnold's') ganglion, under the foramen ovale. THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 
137 
Sub-maxillary ganglion, above the sub-maxillary gland. 
Ganglion of Cloquet, in the incisive fossa, on the naso-palatine nerve. 
Ganglion of Bidder, below the foramen spinosum, on the middle meningeal 
artery. 
Ganglion of Bochdalek, on a branch between the spheno-palatine ganglion 
and the inferior dental nerve. 
Describe the Ganglia connected with the 5th Cranial nerve. There 
are 4 such, each having a motor, a sensory, and a sympathetic root, viz.— 
Ciliary, or Ophthalmic ganglion, is situated in the orbit, between the optic 
nerve and the external rectus muscle. Its sensory root is derived from the 
nasal branch of the ophthalmic, its motor root from the 3rd nerve, its 
sympathetic root from the cavernous plexus. Its branches are the short 
ciliary nerves, and are distributed to the ciliary muscle and the iris. 
Spheno-palatine, or Sleckeis ganglion, is a large ganglion situated in the 
spheno-maxillary fossa. Its sensory root is derived from the superior 
maxillary, its motor root from the facial by the Vidian and large petrosal, 
its sympathetic root from the carotid plexus, by the carotid branch of the 
Vidian. Its branches are the— 
Anterior palatine. 
Posterior palatine. 
Middle palatine. 
Naso-palatine. 
Pteryg°-palatine. 
Superior nasal. 
Otic ganglion (Arnold's), is situated on the inferior maxillary nerve, imme- 
diately below the foramen ovale. Its sensory root is derived from the 
auriculo-temporal branch of the inferior maxillary ; its motor root from 
the internal pterygoid branch of the same, also from the facial and 
glosso-pharyngeal by the small petrosal; its sympathetic root from the 
middle meningeal plexus. Its branches are distributed to the tensor palati 
and tensor tympani muscles. 
Submaxillary ganglion, is situated above the submaxillary gland. Its 
sensory root is derived from the gustatory branch of the inferior maxillary, 
its motor root from the facial by the chorda tympani, its sympathetic root 
from the facial plexus. Its branches are distributed to the submaxillary 
gland, its duct, and the mucous membrane of the mouth. 
Describe the Cervical ganglia. They are 3 in number on each side, of 
which the superior is the largest, communicate with each other, and are as fol- 
lows, viz.— 
Superior cervical ganglion, lies behind the carotid sheath opposite the 2nd 
and 3rd cervical vertebrae. Its branches are distributed to the carotid, 
cavernous, and pharyngeal plexuses, and one of its internal branches 
is the superior cardiac nerve going to the cardiac plexus. 
Aliddle cervical ganglion, on the superior thyroid artery, opposite the 5th 138 
QUESTIONS ON HUMAN ANATOMY. 
cervical vertebra, and gives off the middle cardiac nerve to the cardiac 
plexus, also communicating branches. 
Inferior cervical ganglion, on the superior intercostal artery, between the 
neck of the 1st rib and the transverse process of the 7th cervical vertebra. 
It gives off several communicating branches and the inferior cardiac nerve 
to the cardiac plexus. 
What are the other ganglia of the sympathetic ? There are on each 
side of the vertebral column n or 12 dorsal ganglia, 4 or 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 
besides the single coccygeal ganglion impar in which terminates the double 
chain. Connected with the viscera are many ganglia, from which branches 
ramify around the arteries in plexuses named from their locations. 
Describe the Splanchnic nerves. They are 3 in number on each side, 
and are derived from branches of the six lower thoracic ganglia, as follows, 
viz.— 
Great splanchnic, from branches of the 6th to the 10th, connecting with the 
upper six, and passes through the posterior mediastinum, perforates the 
crus of the diaphragm, to the semilunar ganglion. 
Lesser splanchnic, from the 10th and nth, passes through the diaphragm 
with the great splanchnic, to the coeliac plexus. 
Smaller or Renal splanchnic, from the last thoracic ganglion, also perforates 
the diaphragm, and ends in the renal and coeliac plexuses. 
Describe the Solar plexus. This plexus, called also the “ abdominal 
brain,” is a network of nerves and ganglia, chiefly formed by the splanchnic 
nerves and the right pneumogastric. It lies behind the stomach, and in front 
of the aorta and the crura of the diaphragm, surrounding the coeliac axis and 
the root of the superior mesenteric artery. Its two largest ganglia are the 
semilunar ganglia situated in front of the crura of the diaphragm. From it 
are derived branches which form plexuses over most of the abdominal arteries, 
as follows:— 
Phrenic. 
Cceliac. 
Gastric. 
Hepatic. 
Splenic. 
Suprarenal. 
Renal. 
Spermatic. 
Superior mesenteric. 
Inferior mesenteric. 
Mention some other plexuses of the sympathetic system. They are 
very numerous; besides those already mentioned, the most important are the 
following 
Carotid and Cavernous plexuses, on the internal carotid artery. 
Meningeal plexus, on the middle meningeal artery. 
Facial plexus, surrounding the facial artery. 
Cardiac plexuses, the deep in front of the bifurcation of the trachea, the 
superficial in front of the right pulmonary artery; the first-named lies 
behind the arch of the aorta, the latter beneath it. THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 
139 
Coronary plexuses, anterior and posterior, accompanying respectively the left 
and right coronary arteries. 
Aortic plexus, on the sides and front of the aorta between the superior and 
inferior mesenteric arteries. 
Hypogastric plexus, on and between the common iliac arteries; supplying 
the viscera of the pelvic cavity. 
Inferior hypogastric or pelvic plexuses, two in number, one on each side of 
the rectum and bladder. Their branches are the— 
Inferior hemorrhoidal plexus. 
Vesical and Prostatic plexuses. 
Vaginal plexus. 
Small cavernous nerve. 
Large cavernous nerve. 
Uterine nerves. CATALOGUE No 2. 
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