VOICE, SONG, AX I) SPEECH. Plate I] 
FRONTISPIECE 
ORIGINAL AND UNTOUCHED PORTRAIT 
ILLUSTRATING THE PROCESS OF 
PHOTOGRAPHY OP THE LARYNX 
(Copyright.) VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH: 
A 
PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS 
AND SPEAKERS; 
FROM THE COMBINED VIEW OF 
VOCAL SURGEON AND VOICE TRAINER. 
BY 
LENNOX BROWNE, F.R.C.S. Ed., 
SENIOR SURGEON TO THE CENTRAL THROAT AND EAR HOSPITAL, 
SURGEON AND AURAL SURGEON TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF MUSICIANS ; 
AUTHOR OF ‘ THE THROAT AND ITS DISEASES,’ ‘ MEDICAL HINTS ON THE 
SINGING VOICE,’ ETC. 
AND 
EMIL BEHNKE, 
LECTURER ON VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY AND TEACHER OF VOICE PRODUCTION ; 
AUTHOR OF ‘ THE MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN VOICE,’ ETC. 
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS BY WOOD-ENGRAVING. AfJD PHOTOGRAPHY. 
NEW YORK : 
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, 
27 & 29 WEST 23RD STREET. 
1884. 
[All rights reserved.] LONDON: 
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, Limited, 
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. contents. 
PAGE 
List of Illustrations xi 
Preface.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. xiii 
A Plea for Vocal Physiology .. .. .. .. .. i 
The Laws of Sound bearing upon the Voice .. .. 18—34 
Definition of musical sound—Vibrations can be seen and felt 
—Require a medium to be perceived as sound by the ear— 
Reflection of sound—Echoes, 20—Vibrations may be either 
simple or compound, 21—Simple or pendular vibrations— 
Compound vibrations—Simple tones—Compound tones—• 
Force or loudness, 22—Pitch, 23—Partial tones, 24—Quality 
of tone, 26—Stringed instruments, 29—-Flute or flue-pipes— 
Reed instruments—Stiff reeds—Flexible reeds, 30—Clarionet, 
31 Hautboy Bassoon Horn Trumpet The human 
voice Resonance Sympathetic resonance, 32 Tuning- 
forks. 
Speaking and Singing .. .. .. .. .. .. 35—37 
Distinguishing points between the speaking and the singing 
voice. 
The Anatomy and Physiology of the Vocal Organ .. 38—82 
The chest or thorax—The ribs—The midriff or diaphragm, 40 
—The muscles of the chest, 41—The lungs—The pleurae, 43 
—The windpipe or trachea, 44—The bronchial passages or 
bronchi—The mucous membrane, 45—Respiration, 45— 
Different methods of, 49—Its great importance in relation to 
voice, song, and speech, 50. 
The voice-box or larynx, 51—The framework, 53—The ring 
cartilage—The shield cartilage—The lid cartilage, 55—The 
pyramids, 57—The vocal ligaments, 58—The muscles of the 
larynx, 61—The glottis, 65—The vocal chink—Tabulation of 
muscles governing (1) the vocal chink, (2) the pitch of the 
voice, 68—The pocket ligaments, 69—The pockets of the 
larynx, 71—The cartilages of Santorini, 72—Folds of the 
larynx The vestibule of the larynx, 73—Closure of the 
larynx and closure of the glottis two different things, 75— 
The prop cartilages. CONTENTS. 
The resonator, 77—The pockets—The upper part of the throat, 
or pharynx, 78—The cavities of the nose, 79—The mouth— 
The hard palate, 80—The soft palate—The tonsils—The 
uvula, 81—Importance of soft palate in vocalisation, 82. 
PAGE 
Differences of the Larynx in Children, Women, and Men 
Growth from infancy to puberty—Varying dimensions in the 
sexes—Female larynx not simply reproduction of male. 
83—86 
Movements of the Larynx which can be seen or felt—in 
/aspiration, Aspiration, and in various vowel sounds. .. ... 86—87 
The Human Voice as a Musical Instrument ~ ~ 88—94 
The string theory—The flute-pipe theory—The reed theory 
—lnfluence of windpipe below, and of resonating portion 
above, on pitch of the voice, 91. 
Physical Causes of the Division of Voices 94—98 
Differences between soprano, contralto, tenor, and bass— 
Speculations on the subject. 
The Hygienic Aspect of the Vocal Apparatus .. .. 99—135 
Importance of knowledge of general laws of health to all 
voice-users—Division of subject. 
I. Hygienic aspect of management of the motor portion—Re- 
spiration, 102—Respiration chemically considered—Import- 
ance of fresh air in dwelling-houses and in buildings in 
which voice is publicly used, 104—Nose-breathing—Influence 
on voice, 105—Hygienic aspect of respirators, 106—Lungs 
must be filled primarily at the base, 107, then laterally—and 
never in health by upward elevation of collar-bone—Detri- 
mental influence on chest expansion from stays—Mr. Bernard 
Roth on the subject—Description of hygienic stays, 115 
Influence of stays on obesity, 118—Experiments with spiro- 
meter, 120—Other influences of costume, 122—Constricting 
collars, tight belts, and heavy clothing—lnfluence of posture, 
124—Beneficial effect of respiratory exercises on general 
health of persons with weak chests, 125—Influence of diges- 
tion on respiration—Table of vital statistics according to sex 
and height, 123. 
11. The hygienic aspect of the vibrating element—The larynx 
and the vocal ligaments, 126—Most troubles in larynx may 
be attributed to wrong respiration—Vocal ligaments but 
rarely affected organically except under specific diseases of 
general health—Directions for avoiding laryngeal fatigue, 127. CONTENTS. 
111. The hygienic aspect of management of the resonating 
portion of the voice, 129—Troubles in this region principally 
affected by disorders of secretion and digestion, but mainly 
attributable to faulty respiration—lmportance of physio- 
logical knowledge of formation of letters with regard to 
perfection in articulation, 129. 
PAGE 
Concluding remarks, 130—Fatigue in whatever division of 
vocal apparatus almost always to be attributed to defective 
breathing—Cases illustrative of benefit of lung gymnastics 
on the voice, 132. 
The Relations of the Throat and Ear in regard to Voice 135—139 
Physical causes from local disorder of direct relation between 
throat and ear which may disturb power of judging one’s 
own voice—lndirect relation due to failure of control over 
laryngeal muscles to govern pitch, 137—Or auditory nerve 
is at fault—Comparison with sight—Distinction between the 
musical and non-musical ear—How to train the musical 
ear, 138, 
Experiments before the Invention of the Laryngoscope 140—145 
Ferrein (1741), Kempelen (1791), Dutrochet (1806), Liskovius 
(1814), Savart (1825), Malgaigne (1831), Lehfeldt (1835), 
Magendie (1838), Joh. Mueller (1839)—Experiments on 
exsected larynges from the dead subject, 144—Are of value 
only if confirmed by investigation on the living. 
The Invention of the Laryngoscope .. .. .. 145—149 
Bozzini (1807), Senn (1827), Babington (1827), Beaum£s 
O838), Liston (1840), Avery (1840), Warden (1844), Manuel 
Garcia (1853), Merkel on Garcia, Czermak and Tiirck. 
The Laryngoscope and how to use it.. .. .. 149 155 
Description of mirrors—Illumination, 149—Directions, 151— 
Objections to its facility refuted, 152—The “ Laryngo-phan- 
tom,” 154—Auto-laryngoscopy—The process—A lamp for the 
purpose. 
The Teachings of the Laryngoscope .. .. .. .. 156 172 
Description of various portions seen in the mirror—The way 
in which the object is reversed, 158—not laterally but from 
before backwards—The laryngeal image in gentle breathing, 
160—in deep breathing, 160—and in tone production— 
Consideration of the movements of the vocal ligaments in 
tone production—The registers—Definition of a register, 163 CONTENTS. 
—Divisions into “lower thick,” 163—“upper thick,” 164 
—“lower thin,” 167—“upper thin,” 168—“small,” 169— 
Explanation of the causes for differences in laryngoscopic 
observations in the various registers, 170. 
PAGE 
Laryngeal Photographs and their Lessons .. .. 173 —l7B 
Differences between them and the customary engraved view 
—Causes thereof—Refutation of many objections and fallacies 
held by non-laryngoscopic observers, 173—Differences in 
appearance of glottic chink in “ thick ” register and “ fal- 
setto.” 
On Voice Cultivation .. .. 179—242 
1. Breathing.—Reconsideration of the best methods of filling 
the lungs, and the evil effects of wrong methods—Explanation 
of diagrams illustrative thereof, 183—Artificial hindrances to 
breathing, 184—Breathing exercises, x, 186—How to fill the 
lungs slowly, 2—How to hold the breath in the lungs, 3—• 
How to empty the lungs slowly, 4—To control both inspira- 
tion and expiration—Caution not to overfill the lungs by too 
deep or frequent inbreathing, 192—Also not to exhaust them 
before taking fresh breath, 193—Nostril-breathing habitually 
enjoined, 193—Mouth-breathing only occasionally necessary, 
194. 
2. Attack, 195—Definition—Exercises for firm and clear attack 
of tone, 196—Cautions against overcrowding of lungs, 197— 
Refutation of false theory of attack by “ Shock of Upper 
Glottis ”—Evidence that Dr, Wyllie’s support of this theory 
rests on garbled quotations, 199. 
3. Resonance, 201—Examples of power to reinforce feeble 
sounds by resonators.—Resonance of vocal tone modified 
in five different directions : 1. by the pockets in the larynx ; 
2. in the vestibule of the larnyx; 3, the upper throat 
(pharynx) ; 4. the mouth ; and 5. the nose—Opinions as to 
fixed or moveable position of the larnyx, 203—Consideration 
of the mouth as a resonant cavity, 204—Defective articulation 
the common fault of English singers and speakers, 205— 
Exercises for regulating free movements of its muscles, 206 
—Control of the tongue, 207—Objections to artificial aids to 
its depression, 208—Exercises for control of tongue, 209— 
Throaty tone—Device for cure of, 210—Movements of soft 
palate, 211—Nasal quality, 212—Exercises for control of 
soft palate and avoidance of nasal tone, 214—Vowel sounds, 
218—their relative pitch—Exercise on all vowels, not on one 
only, 220—Causes for varied “ reach ” of the voice—Directions 
so as to obtain it—Hints as to accurate articulation, 222. CONTENTS. 
PAGE 
Voice Cultivation ('continued.) 179—242 
Flexibility, 223—Definition and explanation of the term— 
Exercises for its attainment. 
The Registers, 225—Should be equalised, not differentiated— 
Illustration of the registers of various voices by comparison 
with stringed instruments—Differences of registers considered 
in detail—lmportance of understanding nature and causes 
of physical sensations experienced by singers in use of the 
various registers—Exercises for developing and strength- 
ening the registers, 234^—Dangers of forcing registers up— 
The mixed voice, definition and mode of production—Fal- 
setto, its varieties—All remarks on voice cultivation as appli- 
cable to speakers as to singers, 239. 
Position, 240—Examples of what it should not be, and what it 
should be. 
The Daily Life of the Voice-User 243—267 
Controlled by 1. Residence—2. Ablutions, 244 How to bathe— 
Turkish baths—Washing teeth—Cold water in the mouth 
versus gargling—3. Clothing, 248—Necessity for care of, 
to all professional voice-users—Hints as to—Description of 
sensible dress for ladies—4. Diet, 252—Explanation of 
various kinds of food and of its relation in quantity and quality 
to the amount of physical work of each individual—Time 
for meals when using the voice—Dietary aids to voice 
exercise—Suppers, 255—General dietary directions—The 
question of drinking—Tea, 258—reasons of its injurious 
effects on some voices—Coffee—Cocoa—Effervescing drinks 
—Alcohol, 26a—not to be taken before or during work, 
only at conclusion—5. Exercise, 261—Distaste of singers for 
—To be always moderate—6. Amusements, 262—What may 
be allowed, and which avoided-—Lastly: Habits, 263—• 
Smoking—Snuff-taking. 
The Ailments of the Voice-User 268—287 
Special colour given by vocation to all general disorders—Most 
ailments functional and due to disturbance of general health 
or fault of professional exercise—Catching cold, 271—Sore 
throat or relaxed throat, 272—Pharyngitis, or inflamed 
throat, 273—Clergyman's sore throat, 274—Useless advice of 
rest without treatment, 275—Elongated or relaxed uvula, 
275—Symptoms and treatment—Refutation of objections to 
snipping in appropriate cases—Enlargement of the tonsils, 278 
—lts injurious effects on the voice, articulation, and respira- 
tion, and on senses of hearing, smell, and taste—Operation, and CONTENTS. 
testimony in support of its advisability—Laryngeal troubles, 
281—Reasons for not considering them at length—Loss of 
•voice, 281—Symptoms and treatment—Cautions as to dan- 
gerous and patent remedies—Common head cold, 284— 
Nervousness, 285-—Concluding remarks, 286. 
PAGE 
On Defects of Speech: Stammering and Stuttering .. 288—303 
Present position of the subject in public estimation—Brief con- 
sideration of vowels and consonants—Oral teaching of deaf 
mutes result of more perfect knowledge of physiology of 
speech—Distinctions between stammering and stuttering, 
293—Fault of respiration the most frequent cause, 297—De- 
fective state of health of stutterers and stammerers—Treat- 
ment—Mechanical—Surgical, 299, and educational, 301— 
The last both mental and physical. 
Appendix I.—The Process of Photography of the Vocal 
Organs in the act of Singing .. 304—307 
Appendix ll.—Copy of Letter from Dr. Wyllie on 
Approximation of the Pocket Ligaments in Tone 
Production 307—308 XI 
LIST OF PLATES. 
*** All Illustrations of this work which have been borrowed or adapted 
from other authorities are duly acknowledged. Those not so named are 
either original, or, as the result of actual dissection and experience, have 
been modified to such an extent as to justify claim to originality. The 
laryngoscopic drawings have been made by Mr. Lennox Browne, and the 
other figures have been drawn under our joint direction by Mr. Sherwin, of 
4 Staple Inn Buildings, whose care and skill we are happy in having secured. 
We also gratefully recognise the painstaking intelligence with which Mr. 
Royle, of 2 Newman’s Row, Lincolns’ Inn, has engraved the woodcuts. 
Acknowledgment of obligation in the matter of the photographs is 
accorded in the appendix on Photography of the Larynx, page 304. 
PLATE PAGE 
I. Original and untouched Portrait illustrating the process of 
Photography of the Larynx. (Copyright) .. Frontispiece 
11. A Reed {from Tyndall).. .. .. .. .. 30 
111. Section of the Human Body .. ~ .. .. .. 39 
{Adapted from Kiiss and Czermak) 
IV. Framework of the Chest.. .. .. .. .. .. 40 
V. Chest and Lungs .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 42 
VI. The Lungs, &c. {adaptedfrom Niemeyer) .. .. .. 43 
VII. Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx .. .. .. 52 
VIII. Front View of the Voice-box or Larnyx .. .. .. 54 
IX. Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx, showing the interior 
of it, the right plate of the shield having been removed ~ 57 
X. Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx, showing the interior 
of the left half .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 60 
XL Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx, showing the external 
muscles .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. 62 
XII. A. Glottis in Repose .. .. .. .. .. 
B. Glottis in Deep Breathing .. .. .. .. [65 
C. Glottis in the Production of Tone ~ ~ .. I LIST OF FLA TES. 
PLATE PAGE 
XIII. View of a Section of the Voice-box or Larynx from above .. 66 
XIV. Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx, showing the left 
Pocket and Mucous Folds .. .. .. .. .. 69 
XV. View of the Voice-box or Larynx cut open from behind .. 72 
XVI. The Voice-box or Larynx seen from behind .. .. .. 73 
XVII. The Soft Palate 80 
XVIII. Natural Waist {adaptedfrom Flower) .. .. .. no 
XIX, Deformed Waist [adapted from Flower) .. .. ..in 
XX. Natural Position of Organs in Unconfined Chest [adapted 
from Roth) ., .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 
XXL Distorted Position of Organs in Body deformed by Stays 
[adaptedfrom Roth) .. .. .. .. .. .. 113 
XXII. Dr Tobold’s Laryngoscope .. .. .. .. .. 150 
XXIII. Dr. Foulis’s Auto-Laryngoscope .. .. .. .. 155 
XXIV. Laryngeal Image showing Reversion of the Reflected Image 158 
XXV. „ „ in Gentle Breathing.. .. .. .. 160 
XXVI, „ „ „ Deep Breathing .. .. .. .. 160 
XXVII. „ „ „ Tone Production .. .. .. .. 160 
XXVIII. ,, „ “ Lower Thick” Register .. .. .. 163 
XXIX. „ „ “ Upper Thick ” Register .. .. .. 164 
XXX. „ „ “ Lower Thin ” Register .. .. .. 167 
XXXI. „ „ “ Upper Thin ” Register (Female Larynx) 168 
XXXII. „ „ “ Small ” Register (Female Larynx) .. 169 
XXXIII. The Registers of the Human Voice .. .. .. .. 171 
XXXIV. Repetition of the Laryngeal Images in the Various Registers 178 
XXXV. Photographs of the Larynx in the Production of Different 
Mechanisms [Copyright) .. ., .. to face page 178 
{Illustrating the varying capacity of the chest 
according to the method in which the lungs are 
inflated .. .. .. .. .. .. 183 
XXXVIII. Section of the Voice-box or Larynx showing the shape of 
the Vocal Ligaments in the “Thick” Register [from 
Merkel).. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 200 
XXXIX. Section of the Voice-box or Larynx showing the shape of the 
Vocal Ligaments in the “Thin” Register [from Merkel) 200 
XL. Photographs of the Soft Palate in the production of Different 
Tones [Copyright) .. .. .. .. to face page 215 PREFACE. 
Each of the Authors of the following pages has already 
contributed something towards the store of literature on 
the Human Voice. These contributions have had a large 
circulation and have so far been successful, but they have 
been necessarily one-sided and therefore incomplete ; for 
while the surgeon was unable to touch on matters musical, 
the teacher found himself in a similar difficulty on many 
points of hygiene and health. 
The one, after many years of experience, came to the 
conclusion that wrong production of voice or abuse of its 
function was the chief cause of most of the cases of vocal 
failure, and even of throat disease, occurring to professional 
voice-users, which came under his notice. 
The other had become equally convinced that the 
scarcity of fine voices in singers as well as in speakers, 
generally acknowledged to exist, was due, less to dearth of 
material, than to faults in its cultivation and exercise. 
The want of a complete work from both these points of 
observation had been repeatedly urged upon us, and as we 
had for some years been in the habit of collaborating in 
the treatment of patients and pupils, and had found that 
our experience on all points of physiology and of hygiene, 
of precept and of practice, in so far as we could form an 
opinion, was in entire concord, we agreed to write con- 
jointly something which should, if possible, supply the PREFACE. 
want indicated, and, containing the combined experience 
of vocal surgeon and of voice trainer, become a complete 
manual for all voice-users. 
Probably it will not be difficult for readers to identify 
the separate authorship of certain chapters and passages, 
but the work is offered as essentially a joint one ; for there 
is not a chapter or illustration, and hardly a paragraph, but 
has been the subject of frequent mutual consideration and 
discussion. 
We trust that, as a result of this intimate collaboration, 
our aim has been attained ; and for the same reason,-we 
desire to acknowledge equal responsibility for any short- 
comings. 
/jtstA^tyiryyr 
36 Weymouth Street, 
Portland Place, W- € 
35 Talgarth Road, 
West Kensington, W. 
November, 1883. Hamlet. Will you play upon this pipe ? 
Guildenstern. My lord, I cannot. 
Hamlet. . . . Govern these ventages, . . . give it breath with 
your mouth, and it will discourse most eloquent music. Look you, these 
are the stops. 
Guildenstern. But these cannot I command to any utterance of har- 
mony : I have not the skill. 
Hamlet. . . . There is much music, excellent voice, in this little 
oigan ; yet cannot you make it speak. 
Shakespeare. VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
“If any one doubts the importance of an acquaintance with the principles 
of physiology as a means to complete living let him look around and see 
how many men and women he can find in middle or later life who are 
thoroughly well.”—Herbert Spencer. 
We have only to demand application of the above 
pertinent question of our great modern philosopher on the 
subject of general physiology to the more special one, the 
title of which heads this chapter, to explain why it seems 
strange to us that there is any necessity to plead for a 
knowledge of vocal physiology amongst singers and 
speakers. Such knowledge should be universally admitted 
as an indispensable branch of vocal culture. The result 
would be twofold: first, the full beauties of the vocal 
organ would be developed with intelligence and ease ; and 
secondly, fewer voices would be ruined in the training, or 
be prematurely worn out, since both teachers and pupils 
of singing and of elocution would know better the con- 
struction, capabilities, and delicacy of the instrument on 
which they wish to play. 
Some have ridiculed the idea that an acquaintance with 
this subject is of any more use to the vocalist than is the 
anatomy of the hand to the pianist. But the examples 2 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
are not analogous, inasmuch as the pianist obtains his 
instrument ready made for him, and if he wear it out or 
injure it he can purchase another, while the vocalist has 
to form his voice, and if he wrongly use it, it may be 
gone for ever. 
A pupil on going over an exercise or piece is told by 
the master, “ You are singing with nasal, or throaty, or 
muffled quality,” as the case may be ; “ let the tone be a pure 
vocal one.” The master imitates the fault with exagger- 
ation, then (presumably) patterns correctly; but although 
the pupil recognises the defect he is unable to remedy it, 
because singing cannot be learned exclusively by imitation, 
any more than painting by copying the works of masters, 
however great. The teacher’s injunctions serve but to be- 
wilder the anxious student, who would be only too thank- 
ful to produce pure and beautiful tone did he understand 
the process, and were the master possessed of sufficient 
practical knowledge of vocal physiology to rightly instruct 
him in control of the individual or various muscles whose 
imperfect action causes the defects in question. Analogies 
must not, then, be sought for between the practice of a 
living and of a mechanical art, which latter might be applic- 
able to certain rules for the education of a pianist and a 
violinist. The true analogy is to be found in the two arts 
of singing and painting, whereas the likenesses and differ- 
ences of practice with two instruments might be illustrated 
by the kindred mechanical graphic arts of engraving and 
lithography. We wish to urge that the singing pupil 
should not be asked to make a copy of any master, but to 
produce an original with all the differences and individuali- 
ties thereof. But what would be said of an art student 
who attempted a figure subject without knowledge of 
anatomy so as to understand the action of the various A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
3 
muscles ? Who dreams of painting costumed figures until 
he has mastered the mysteries of form in the nude and the 
consequent meaning of every fold of drapery ? Who, 
again, would sanction the painting of a landscape without 
previous knowledge of the laws of light and shade, of 
composition and, above all, of perspective ? And suppos- 
ing such were attempted, who would look at the resulting 
works .or give them a place on wall or in portfolio ? All 
teaching of laws of Art must be preliminary and not 
supplementary to practical teaching; for the knowledge of 
how nature works should be recognised as a foundation, not 
as a superstructure. Vocal instruction in the direction in- 
dicated before practice is attempted is therefore preferable, 
because it leads to prevention of faults of style, and indeed 
of diseased conditions which would otherwise, through 
ignorance, result. In other words, we urge that “ preven- 
tion is better than cure,” and we would add that when 
“ cure ” is effected a relapse will occur under return to 
predisposing and exciting causes. 
No serious reply is really required to those who object 
to scientific teaching on the ground that many of our 
greatest singers in the past knew nothing of these things. 
That may be ; but, in the first place, they would have been 
none the worse for such knowledge ; and in the second 
place, the same objection would apply to extension of 
scientific research and knowledge in all and every other 
direction. It is a question worthy of consideration whether 
failure or scarcity of good voices in the present may 
not be in a measure due to inability to transmit the gift 
simply because the greatest possessors in the recent past 
have been unable, or unwilling, to give the necessary 
time to teach by imitation, and have possibly also been 
ignorant of any other method of education. Here, 4 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
again, the analogy of painting and singing may be used 
in illustration of our argument. We do not advance 
that now and again a great genius in either art has not 
shone on the world who appeared to have been self- 
taught ; but treatises and rules must be made for the 
average capacity, not for the exceptional. It may be true 
that there is a present dearth of the finest voices, but it is 
undeniable that there is, in late years, a greater average 
excellence in the musical qualities and scientific attain- 
ments of singers, and also in the elocutionary qualifications 
of many members of parliament, clergymen, actors, and 
other public speakers. We deny, however, the assumption 
that many great artists are “ self-taught,” and Leslie, in his 
‘Handbook for Young Painters,’ combats this idea with 
great vigour, and by ample illustration proves its fallacy. 
All that he says could, by mere change of the word 
“ painting ” into “ singing,” apply to our contention. 
Constable also very pertinently remarks that “ a self-taught 
artist is one taught by a very ignorant person.” The fact 
is that a genius may be said to illustrate a gift by which 
the possessor absorbs almost, as it were, naturally, and 
imitates immediately, all the fundamental essential laws of 
his art, and he will even originate ideas—possibly without 
knowledge of the laws on which they are based, but always 
in conformity therewith. He will not have to work with 
less industry, but his industry will always be rightly 
directed ; and the degree of facility with which teaching 
is absorbed, digested, and assimilated, constitutes the 
difference between genius and talent, and also the different 
grades of talent. 
We cannot better enforce this portion of our argu- 
ment than with a quotation from a recent work by Leo 
Kofler entitled ‘ The Old Italian School of Singing ’ (E. S. A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
5 
Werner, Albany, N.Y.), a book full of valuable informa- 
tion, and one to be strongly recommended. He asks the 
question: “ How shall we account for the sentiments of a 
great musician and teacher like F. H. Truhn, of Berlin, 
who, in his pamphlet ‘About the Art of Singing,’ ex- 
presses himself in the following manner : 4 Mozart knew 
nothing of Chladni’s and Helmholtz’s researches; who, 
then, need to have studied physiological analysis of the 
vocal organs to become a singer or a teacher of singing?’ 
The great masters of the old Italian school were of the 
opposite opinion. The renowned Italian singer, composer, 
and musical writer, Giovanni A. Buontempi, who died 
before he could get a glimpse of the glorious era of the 
old Italian school, informs us in his ‘ History of Music,’ 
of which Dr. Burney gives a great many and long ab- 
stracts, that at his time the daily study of the physical 
laws that govern the singer’s tones was required of the 
pupils. The same is told by Arteaga of his times. J. F. 
Agricola, in his translation of Tosi’s important work, gives 
in the first chapter a description in detail of the larynx 
and its functions. Dr. Marx, in his noteworthy book, 
‘The Art of Singing,’ in section ii., treats upon vocal 
physiology with such a thorough knowledge that we 
wonder how it was possible to achieve such scientific 
results thirty years before Garcia first saw the vocal 
ligaments in operation in a living body. The study of 
vocal physiology is surely a very essential duty of the 
singing-teacher ; without it he cannot conscientiously be a 
vocal trainer. Would you trust a physician of whom you 
know that he has not acquired the necessary knowledge of 
the mysteries of the human body? Why, then, would 
you pin your faith upon a voice-trainer who makes a boast 
of his ignorance of the natural laws that govern the vocal 6 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
organs ? These organs are the most delicate, vital, and 
complicated parts of our body. Is it reasonable, then, to 
say that a man can train them without knowing their 
natural conditions ? No rational being can decline the 
advice given by Agricola in his previously mentioned 
translation of Tosi; ‘The knowledge of the vocal organs 
is always very useful to the singer, and especially to the 
teacher, and in many cases indispensable. For even when 
nature has adorned a singer with the best qualities, the 
knowledge of physiology is necessary to prevent all 
damages that might be done through ignorance. But 
when a teacher finds natural faults and defects in a voice, 
how can he successfully battle with them if he is un- 
acquainted with the seat of the evil?’ Dr. Haertinger 
remarks: ‘As in all other arts and sciences man can 
only reach the truth and perfection by walking in those 
paths along which he can follow the footprints of nature, 
so also in voice-training. If the student of the art of 
singing receives no insight into the mysterious workshop 
of his vocal organs, then he will not only make no advance 
in the cultivation of his voice, but, on the contrary, 
will positively distort it and lose all naturalness.’ This 
shows the fallacy of the popular belief, that if a man 
or a woman is only a great singer they must necessarily 
be the best teachers. If they have not studied the art 
of training voices, the first chapter of which must con- 
tain the science of the natural conditions of the vocal 
organs, they are unfit to train others, for the same 
reason that the best pianist—-just because he has learned 
to play the piano—cannot be considered to have thus 
fitted himself to become a manufacturer of pianos. 
For this he would have to undergo considerable extra 
training.” A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
7 
That all teachers, however empirical, realise in a certain 
degree that the vocal machinery is capable of being 
brought under control may be proved by the advice given 
on this subject in so-called treatises on the voice. It is 
amusingly varied and contradictory. 
Thus, singing pupils are told by different authorities: 
To breathe by the descent of the diaphragm; by drawing 
in the abdomen and raising the ribs; to swell out the sides 
while drawing in the abdomen as a support to the chest!— 
To control the expiration by means of the abdominal 
and the chest muscles; to control it by contraction of the 
ventricles of Morgagni.—To breathe through the nostrils; 
through the mouth; through both at the same time.—To 
keep the larynx fixed ; to hold it in a high position; to 
hold it in a low position ; to make it rise gradually; not 
to attempt to control it at all.—To hold the mouth, the 
neck, the palate, and the pharynx very stiff and tense; to 
hold all these parts quite loosely.—To tighten the under 
lip ; to depress the tongue; to practise the soft palate till 
it becomes as hard as a bone.—To sing with closed mouth 
before attacking the tone, and with a strong nasal quality 
m—m—maw, &c.; to say “pm” with closed mouth, 
letting the sound pass through the nostrils, resulting, we 
are assured, in a wonder-working stroke of the epiglottis. 
—To focus the sound ; to direct the voice towards the 
roof of the mouth; against the hard palate; against the 
upper front teeth ; into the head; to the bottom of the 
chest; to lean the tone against the eyes ! to sing all over 
the face I 
Well may the puzzled student ask which of all these 
recommendations are right and which are wrong! The 
teachers who give these quasi-physiological directions feel 
that the voices with which they have to deal are wrong in 8 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
some important respects and must be changed, and that 
mere imitation will not effect the change. They are, 
indeed, unconsciously groping for a knowledge of the 
mechanism of the vocal organ, which is as necessary for 
the proper development of a healthy voice as it is for 
the restoration of a lost or ruined one. But there 
need be no groping where science can light up the 
way. 
This is true of the speaking voice as well as of the voice 
in singing, the same mechanism being called into play in 
both cases. All public speakers, as well as singers, should 
receive scientific training in the mechanism and right 
employment of the organ of voice. It is precisely here, 
on the threshold of their art, that many elocutionists fail. 
They occupy themselves with articulation, pronunciation, 
intonation, modulation, emphasis, and gesture, and having 
but little, if any, physiological knowledge are therefore 
unable to form a true basis of voice-production. It is 
clear that a teacher of singing or of elocution who is 
thoroughly and practically acquainted with the anatomy 
and physiology of the parts over which he is to give his 
pupils control, and who can skilfully examine a pupil’s 
larynx, and direct its movements, is, other qualifications 
being equal, in a position to produce better results than 
one who is deficient in such skill. 
Unfortunately but little attention is paid to this funda- 
mental training ; and it is only when singers, and especially 
speakers, find their voice fail that they begin to think 
they have not used the organ aright, and seek for infor- 
mation which should have been theirs before the com- 
mencement of their public career, whether it be in the 
senate, the pulpit, the law-court, the concert-room, or 
the stage. A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
9 
It is true that no person ever attempts to use the 
singing voice in public without special training of some 
sort; yet there are still members of parliament, clergymen, 
and other public speakers, who commence and continue 
their important work without any previous vocal discipline. 
“ When a man is called upon to address a large assembly 
for the first time in his life, he is all at once made aware 
that the vocal production to which he is habituated fails 
him utterly. He makes a variety of impromptu experi- 
ments in pitch and intensity, some of them ludicrous, 
and all unsuccessful,; and having soared to heights un- 
sustainable by human throat and insupportable to human 
ear, he drops past that mean elevation at which alone 
he might have poised himself securely, and plunging 
‘deeper than ever plummet sounded,’ is lost in an in- 
comprehensible growl.” (‘ The Cultivation of the Speak- 
ing Voice,’ by John Hullah. London: Macmillan & 
Co., p. 23.) 
In this matter of vocal training we are in a retrogade 
condition ; for we find that the development of the voice 
was considered by the ancient Greeks a part of the proper 
education of every student, and essential to health. “ The 
discipline for the formation and improvement of the voice 
among the Athenians was so comprehensive that, as we are 
informed by Roman writers, not less than three different 
classes of teachers were employed for this purpose, viz., the 
vociferarii, phonasci, and vocales. The object of the first 
class seems to have been to strengthen the voice and to 
extend its compass ; the office of the second to improve 
its quality, so as to render it full, sonorous, and agreeable; 
while the efforts of the third, who, perhaps, were considered 
as the finishing masters, were directed to the proper 
intonation and inflection.” (‘ Philosophy of Voice and VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
Speech/ by James Hunt. London, 1858. Longman, 
Browne & Co., p. 350.) This training, in which all youths 
of respectability participated, was distinct from that of 
the rhetorician which followed the more scientific teaching 
just described. 
The advisability of imitating the Athenians by establish- 
ing classes for voice training on scientific principles is 
earnestly commended to those in authority in our uni- 
versities, and in our musical and theological colleges. A 
preacher is something more than a sermon-maker, he is a 
“ thought-creator ” and a “ thought-conveyer,” and it is 
his duty to convey his thoughts to his auditors in a 
suitable and impressive manner. But if his tone-produc- 
tion be faulty, rendering his voice unmusical and unsym- 
pathetic; if he put upon it an unnatural strain and use 
an unnecessary expenditure of force; or if his speech 
be weak and unintelligible, then his most beautiful 
thoughts and profoundest learning will be powerless 
to elevate and instruct his congregation. For himself, 
he will be fortunate if he escape some of the many 
throat troubles which are only peculiar to clergymen 
because they, of all voice-users of the higher grades, speak 
most frequently in an unnatural voice. 
No man who is conscious of the ability to speak 
effectively can undervalue the power of a pleasant voice; 
and no hearer of a melodious voice but will acknowledge 
its influence. We have, probably, all been charmed and 
our attention riveted by such a voice, even when the 
discourse was not above commonplace. The converse of 
this is, alas, more often met with. It is a fact that many 
of the greatest thinkers, scholars, and writers use in public 
speaking and reading a heavy, low monotone, or they rasp 
the ear with a high and strident pitch. Their “ thoughts A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
11 
that breathe and words that burn” fall lifeless and cold, 
nay, even weary, and repel their listeners, who experience a 
sense of relief when the inharmonious voice ceases ; the 
speaker also being thankful that his painful struggle to 
be heard is over. How much the influence of the un- 
fortunate possessor of such a voice is nullified! If a 
statesman, how small must be his success in directing the 
fortunes of a nation! If a clergyman, painfully will he 
feel that his earnest endeavours avail him nothing. If a 
barrister, he sees judge and juryman sleeping, and to the 
detriment of his client he may lose his carefully prepared 
case. Yet in almost every instance a voice which has no 
inherent beauty may, by correct training, become attractive 
and pleasant, and obtain clearness, smoothness, and com- 
manding resonance. 
The following quotation, taken from a lecture by Cull, 
on ‘ Reading Aloud,’ is much to the point: “By the term 
a highly cultivated voice I do not mean the application 
of those rules of reading which are taught by elocution 
masters, but a cultivation of the voice on sound acoustic 
and physiological principles, analogous to those which are 
so eminently successful in cultivating the voice of song. 
This is not mere theory. Voices have been cultivated on 
such principles with great success. Weak ones have been 
strengthened and improved in flexibility and tone; and 
even those supposed to be permanently silenced by long- 
continued clergyman’s sore throat have been restored to 
public usefulness.” (‘ King’s College Lectures on Elocu- 
tion,’ by Charles John Plumptre. London : Triibner & 
Co. Appendix 11., p. 448.) It is to be hoped that the 
time is not far distant when there will be at our uni- 
versities and training colleges a chair of vocal physiology. 
Wealthy and benevolent persons have here a noble object 12 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
for their liberality, presenting to them an opportunity of 
preventing for all time much suffering, both physical and 
mental; and of enabling numbers of devoted and talented 
men to continue to the end their valuable services in the 
cause of the commonwealth and of religion. By fur- 
nishing the means of instruction, and by making obliga- 
tory to each student a course of practical study on 
the formation, management, and preservation of the 
voice, clergyman’s sore throat and other cognate disorders 
which now seriously mar the prospects and hinder the 
usefulness of many public speakers will be much less 
frequent. 
Clergymen and other public speakers break down with 
injured or ruined voice and enfeebled health, more fre- 
quently through simple ignorance of the true method of 
voice-production than from all other causes combined. 
For, alas ! there is a sadder phase than that already 
sketched. The habitual faulty use of the respiratory and 
vocal muscles produces congestion of the vascular supply 
to the mucous membrane, disorder of the secreting fol- 
licles, irritation of the sensory nerves of the throat and un- 
certainty of action of the vocal muscles, each resulting in 
hoarseness, and deterioration of power both to produce 
and to control the desired tones; so that all functional 
exercise occasions fatigue and nervous depression, with the 
addition of injury to the general health. Chronic throat 
disorder is thus established, which, if neglected, is obstinate 
of cure. Singers who occupy a middle place in art, and 
more frequently the clergy, seem to be peculiarly liable to 
these maladies; and it is painful to see them thus broken 
down in health, sometimes to even a vital extent, as well 
as in voice for want of proper knowledge as to a right 
use of their vocal organs. It ought not to be. Clergy- A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
men should not be sent to their high calling unprepared 
for the physical part of their vocation, ignorant of the 
mechanism and management of the wonderful instrument 
upon which they play in speaking. 
It has been our great gratification to have restored to 
vigour by the use of scientific vocal gymnastics, sometimes 
even without any medical treatment, many voices which 
had utterly broken down under faulty production ; but if 
speakers and singers would start on their public career 
properly prepared for the physical part of their work, no 
voice restoration would be required. Knowing how to 
produce their voice they would avoid errors which destroy 
that most perfectly constructed and, under fair use, most 
lasting of all musical instruments. 
Stammering and stuttering, which afflict more persons 
than is perhaps imagined, would be much more frequently 
cured than it now is if a correct knowledge of the physi- 
ology of the vocal apparatus were possessed by those who 
undertake its treatment; but this point can only be alluded 
to here, and will be dealt with in detail in the special 
section treating on this question. 
Many intending students of singing who read this 
chapter will probably ask, “How is true vocal culture to 
be obtained, seeing that not only is a thorough knowledge 
of the art of music needed, but also an intimate acquaint- 
ance with vocal physiology ? ” Doctors, especially those 
who make affections of the throat a specialty, have the 
requisite knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the 
voice; but a doctor whose time is occupied in the cure of 
disease cannot give attention to the vocal culture of his 
patients. Neither has every doctor musical knowledge 
and taste. Doctors are all naturally on the outlook for 
symptoms of disease, and the specialist, no less than the VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
generalist, seeks for the original cause in the general 
constitutional fault; he goes even farther, and tries to put 
his finger on the exact local seat of trouble, and his 
remedial measures are not confined to the drug or the 
knife, but also include correction of both general and local 
trouble. Yet all this has nothing to do with scientific 
vocal culture, for which there is a wide field outside the 
province of the physician, although the work runs some- 
what on parallel lines. Teachers are needed who have 
gone through a regular course of physiological and 
anatomical training; who have learnt the way in which 
all the muscles of the vocal apparatus act, so that on 
hearing a faulty voice they may be able to say which 
muscle or set of muscles requires to be brought into play, 
or subdued in action, as the case may be. Nor must they 
be unpractical and satisfy themselves with merely theoris- 
ing on the subject. They must also, having discovered 
the fault, know how to correct it; for though the phy- 
sician has gone far to success when he has made a correct 
diagnosis of disease, he will not cure his patient unless 
he pursues a proper remedial treatment. Above all, and 
before all, the scientific teacher must be able to apply his 
anatomical knowledge To the development of the respira- 
tory organs to their full capacity. 
It is possible that few will have a sufficient liking for 
physiology to study this portion of the subject in the 
dissecting room as well as from books, and to verify in 
their own and other living persons’ throats the discoveries 
already made. Yet but little good will be effected without 
this practice, especially that of laryngoscopic investigation 
of the vocal organs in the performance of the various 
functional acts; for the dead and excised larynx cannot be 
made to act as a living one. A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
15 
An intelligent use of the laryngoscope and application 
of its teaching will give a greater facility in the art of voice- 
cultivation than has hitherto been enjoyed. Inexpert 
manipulators who are unable to use the laryngoscope 
properly, and therefore cannot produce a good tone while 
seeking to investigate with it, illogically come to the con- 
clusion that only forced and unnatural sounds can be 
made while using the laryngoscope, and that, in conse- 
quence, its teachings are unreliable. We know that a bad 
workman generally blames his tools instead of his own in- 
efficiency ; and here the fault lies solely with the operator. 
Doubtless there are difficulties to be overcome, but none 
that are insuperable, and in the proper place we shall give 
such detailed and plain directions as will greatly facilitate 
pursuance of this interesting study. Let not the earnest 
worker be discouraged by a fewr failures ; ultimate success 
is surely attainable, and the result will abundantly reward 
his patience and perseverance. 
It must, however, be understood that in thus advocating 
a scientific basis for the production, cultivation, and pre- 
servation of the voice we are not thinking of laryngoscopy 
alone. It is a mistake to speak of this as though it were the 
one and all of vocal physiology. It is, on the contrary, 
only a small part of it, and would avail the student but little 
were he not also fully acquainted with the vocal apparatus 
as a whole, which, as will be seen further on, comprises 
separate mechanisms for production, emission, and reson- 
ance, with many other minor factors to regulate the 
qualities of clearness and beauty of sound, and distinctness 
of utterance. The immediate origin of the voice is, it is 
true, in the vocal ligaments; but as the surgeon has, in 
the cure of all disease, whether of the throat or of any 
other part, to go far beyond the seat of local manifestation, VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
so the teacher and student of voice-production must not 
think of the voice simply as the result of the vibrations of 
the vocal ligaments. Such a narrow view of the subject 
would necessarily lead to error and failure, and men who 
are continually talking or writing about the action of the 
“vocal cords” or of the “ventricles of Morgagni,” or 
indeed of any other part of the mechanism, instead of 
viewing the instrument as a whole, do not deserve the 
name of scientists. The greatest attention to even the 
minutest details is certainly indispensable in this as in any 
other field of research; but details are important only in 
their respective places, and they should never be so 
magnified as to assume undue proportions, or to distort 
our view of the subject in its entirety. Though much of 
singing is due to automatic muscular action in the vocal 
organ, yet physiological instruction as to the best method 
of filling the lungs so as to set the cords in vibration, as 
to economy of expiration so as to produce efficient and 
even vocal tone, and the many facts to be hereafter de- 
tailed, bearing on the altogether voluntary control over 
the tongue, lips, and soft palate, are not only of essential 
service to the singer, but of great independent interest to 
all students of the art, and cannot fail to lead to a more 
intelligent exposition of their capabilities. 
This being agreed, we have to study the construction of 
all these parts in detail and as a whole, and to deduce from 
this study how to govern their movements. With the 
knowledge thus acquired, muscular efforts can be ex- 
plained, directed, or controlled; weakness can be changed 
into strength, and harshness into sweetness. It is, in short, 
the business of teachers .of singing and of elocution to 
commence where scientific investigators have left off; to 
acquaint themselves with the physiological and acoustic laws A PLEA FOR VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
17 
governing the voice; and then to turn these to practical 
account in drilling their pupils. Such at any rate is the 
task that we set ourselves to accomplish in the following 
pages, and, indeed, we propose to go somewhat further. 
There can be no doubt that, as a result of the non-scientific 
character of much of the instruction in the art of singing 
and speaking, very false and ignorant ideas exist amongst 
voice-users as to their mode of life, and as to the ailments 
which affect their sanitary well-being, both general and 
professional. We shall endeavour, without transgressing 
beyond the bounds of reason, to give such information 
on the more prominent points of hygiene and health 
which affect the voice-user in his daily career as will 
render his work more easy, and will lead to the detection 
and remedy of some of his health defects. There cannot 
be a doubt that want of such knowledge is at the root 
of many a vocal failure. We shall feel ourselves happy 
indeed if we can supply that want. VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
THE LAWS OF SOUND BEARING UPON THE 
VOICE. 
Musical Sound is the result of vibrations which occur 
at regular intervals, and with a sufficient rapidity of 
succession. We can see the vibrations by watching a 
sounding string. Or we can demonstrate them by draw- 
ing a sounding tuning-fork, with a style attached to one 
of the prongs, over a piece of smoked glass, when the 
style will not produce a straight but a wavy line, reveal- 
ing the to-and-fro motion of the prong. But the most 
striking manner in which sonorous vibrations can be 
rendered visible consists in Chladni’s interesting experi- 
ments, which show that when sand is scattered over a 
sounding plate of glass or of metal, fastened with a clamp 
in the centre, the sand is driven from the vibrating parts of 
the surfaces and collects along the lines remaining station- 
ary, which are called nodal lines. By drawing a bow over 
the edge of such plates, and by interrupting the vibrations 
at various points, by pressing a finger against them, sand- 
figures of extreme beauty may be produced. 
We can also feel sonorous vibrations by gently touching 
with the finger a suspended sounding bell. Hang up a 
little piece of cork in such a manner as to make it just 
touch the rim of the bell and it will be thrown into 
motion. In order to prove that sound is the result of 
vibrations touch the bell heavily enough to stop the 
vibrations, and you also stop the tone. Strike a tuning- THE LAWS OF SOUND BEATING UPON THE VOICE. 
19 
fork and touch one of its prongs with the tip of your 
tongue, the vibrations will cause a tickling sensation so 
strong as to send a shock through your whole body. Or 
again, if the vibrating tuning-fork be held so as to touch a 
lightly suspended button, the latter will be violently dashed 
aside. 
These vibrations do not give rise to the sensation 
sound, unless they throw our hearing apparatus into 
similar vibrations. There is consequently a medium 
required to communicate them to the ear. This medium 
is the air-ocean by which we are surrounded on all sides, 
and that it really is the sound-conveying medium may be 
inferred from the fact that without air we do not hear. 
Suspend a bell connected with clockwork under the 
receiver of an air-pump, exhaust the receiver as perfectly 
as possible, and then set the clockwork going. You 
will see the hammer striking the bell, but no sound will 
be heard. As you re-admit the air gently by degrees 
you hear the sound, very faintly at first, but louder and 
louder as the air surrounding the bell becomes more and 
more dense; the vibrations being transmitted by the air 
inside the receiver to the glass, and thence to the air 
outside. 
The vibrations of the sounding body are communicated 
to the air, not by propelling individual particles of it 
through space like a shot, but by setting up to-and-fro 
motions which knock, so to speak, one particle against 
its neighbour, after which it rebounds and finally returns 
to its original position; just as the excursions of a pen- 
dulum get smaller by degrees, until at last they cease 
entirely. The neighbouring particle imparts the motion to 
another one, and also returns to its original position, and 
so on. Alternate condensations and rarefactions of the air 20 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
are thus produced, travelling outwards from the sounding 
body, each condensation together with its succeeding 
rarefaction being termed a sound wave. Let it be under- 
stood that while these waves are travelling along, the 
particles of which they are formed merely execute a very 
limited movement to and fro. It must further be observed 
that the sound waves do not only travel in one direction, 
but in every direction all around. We have therefore to 
think of them as hollow spheres whose diameter increases 
in size as they proceed on their journey. 
We have thus seen how a vibratory motion is com- 
municated to the air and transmitted through it in the 
form of waves. These waves, striking the drumhead 6f 
the ear, cause it to vibrate ; the vibrations thus set up are 
transmitted by the auditory nerve to the brain where they 
are perceived as sound. 
Now as sound travels in waves like light, we should 
expect to see it reflected like light; and that such is 
really the case is proved by the echo. When the sound 
waves strike against a wall, a cliff, or any other opposing 
surface, they return to us provided the reflecting surface 
is at right angles to a line drawn from the point where 
we stand. If this is not the case the echo will be sent 
in another direction, and it may be heard by other per- 
sons, but not by him who produced the original sound. 
The reflecting surface must also be far enough away to 
allow the ear to distinguish the echo from the original 
sound, or the two will merge into each other. If two 
reflecting surfaces are inclined towards each other in such 
a way as to throw the reflection of the same sound to and 
fro, the echo is repeated—in some cases, over and over 
again, each time, of course, less loudly, until at last it dies 
away altogether. There are wonderful instances of this on THE LAWS OF SOUND BEATING UPON THE VOICE. 
21 
record, one of the most famous being the echo between 
the wings of a castle not far from Milan, which repeats 
the report of a pistol sixty times. 
An illustration of the reflection of sound by curved 
roofs or ceilings may be found in the whispering gallery of 
St. Paul’s, where the faintest sound is conveyed from one 
side of the dome to the other, but is not heard at any 
intermediate point. Inconvenient secrets have been thus 
revealed, an instance of which has been cited by Sir John 
Herschel. “In one of the cathedrals in Sicily the con- 
fessional was so placed that the whispers of the penitents 
were reflected by the curved roof, and brought to a focus 
at a distant part of the edifice. The focus was discovered 
by accident, and for some time the person who discovered 
it took pleasure in hearing, and in bringing his friends to 
hear, utterances intended for the priest alone. One day it 
is said his own wife occupied the penitential stool, and 
both he and his friends were thus made acquainted with 
secrets which were the reverse of amusing to one of the 
party.” (‘ On Sound,’ by Tyndall. London : Longmans 
& Co., 2nd ed., p. 16.) 
Vibrations may be either simple or compound. 
Simple vibrations follow the laws of a pendulum, and are, 
therefore, also called pendular vibrations. An instance of 
compound vibrations is furnished by a string, which swings 
not only up and down and from side to side, but also in 
segments. Every form of compound vibration may be 
analysed into, or may be said to be composed of, simple 
or pendular vibrations, but no explanation of this very 
complicated matter can be attempted here. 
Simple Tones, such as the highest notes of the piano- 
forte, or tuning-forks mounted on suitable resonance 
boxes, are the result of simple vibrations. 22 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
Compound Tones are the result of compound vibrations. 
The ear has the power of analysing a compound tone, and 
of dividing it into its component parts. This amounts to 
saying that when we hear a compound tone “ the ear 
experiences the same effect as if a certain series of simple 
tones having definite musical pitches and very different 
degrees of loudness were sounded together. Of course, no 
such tones are really sounded, but as the mental effect is 
the same as if they were, it becomes convenient to speak 
of compound musical tone as consisting of a series of simple 
partial tones, and to reason upon these partial tones as if 
they alone existed, instead of the compound tone itself.” 
(‘ Pronunciation for Singers,’ by Alexander J. Ellis. 
London: J. Curwen & Sons, p. 8.) 
The Force or Loudness of a tone depends upon the 
amplitude or largeness of the vibrations. This is easily 
proved. Draw a bow smartly over a string. You will see 
large vibrations and hear a loud tone, and in the same 
proportion as the vibrations grow smaller, the tone will 
become fainter, until at last both will die away. Loudness 
also depends upon the distance at which the tone is heard; 
the nearer the instrument producing the tone is to the 
ear the greater is its force. This is a matter of every-day 
experience, and needs no demonstration. 
And lastly, loudness depends upon the density of the air 
in which the tone is generated. We have already had a 
proof of this by observing that the sound of a bell under a 
receiver is fainter the more the receiver is exhausted, and 
that it becomes louder the more air is re-admitted. In a 
similar manner the loudness of a tone generated in the 
rarefied air of a high mountain is less than that of a 
tone generated under otherwise identical conditions in the 
denser air of a valley below. It must be observed that the THE LAWS OF SOUND BEARING UPON THE VOICE. 25 
loudness of a tone does not depend upon the density of 
the air in which it is heard, but upon that in which it is 
generated. Hence a cannon fired in the rarefied air of 
a high mountain will not be heard in the denser air of the 
valley; while the sound of the same cannon with the 
same charge when fired below will be distinctly heard 
above. 
The Pitch or height of a tone depends solely upon the 
rate of vibration ; the greater the number of vibrations in 
a given time the higher being the pitch. 
Fewer than sixteen vibrations per second are not 
perceived by the ear as a tone, but merely as a succession 
of separate shocks; and more than 38,000 vibrations per 
second altogether cease to produce a sensation of sound. 
The following table shows the vibrational number of a 
few extreme tones used in music:— 
Large organs CiV . i6| vibrations per second. 
Latest grand pianos AiV . 271 „ „ 
Ordinary modern pianos .... Cm . 33 „ „ 
Double bass. Em . 41? „ „ 
Pianos with usual compass . . . Alll , 3520 „ „ 
Pianos with exceptional compass . . CIV . 4224 „ „ 
Piccolo flute DIV . 4752 „ „ 
The lowest of these tones are too near the point at 
which the ear perceives sound only as a series of successive 
shocks; they are therefore musically imperfect, and can 
only be used in connection with their higher octaves. 
The highest tones of the above table on the other hand 
are shrill and unpleasant. The tones which can be 
used in music to best advantage have from 40 to 4000 
vibrations per second, and cover a compass of seven 
octaves. 
The lowest tone of a bass voice is probably FUI with 44 24 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
vibrations per second, and the highest limit on record is 
that of “ Bastardella,” who is said to have sung 811B11 with 
1980 vibrations per second. According to these figures 
the entire range of the human voice covers about five 
octaves and a half. 
Compound Tones, as we have seen before, consist of a 
number of partial tones. These the human ear is capable 
of distinguishing, and the faculty of thus analysing a tone 
may be greatly increased by properly directed practice. 
But Helmholtz has provided us with “resonators” 
enabling us to reinforce each of the partials separately 
and thereby to recognise each one of them without any 
difficulty. These resonators consist of hollow globes made 
of glass or of metal, with two openings at opposite points. 
One of these openings is large and has sharp edges, while 
the other one passes through a sort of nipple suitable 
for insertion in the ear. If we stop one ear and put the 
nipple of a resonator in the other, most of the tones 
produced about us will be made very dull; but if the 
proper tone of the resonator be sounded it will strike the 
ear most powerfully. A series of such resonators, tuned 
to different notes, will enable even musically untrained ears 
to distinguish faint partial tones, though accompanied by 
others which are very strong. 
Upon analysing a number of compound tones, we find 
the arrangement of the partials as follows : 
I. The prime tone by which the pitch of the compound 
is generally allowed to be determined. 
11. A partial an octave above the prime. 
111. A partial a fifth above No. 11., or a twelfth above 
the prime. 
IV. A partial a fourth above No. 111., or two octaves 
above the prime. THE LAWS OF SOUND BEARING UPON THE VOICE. 
25 
V. A partial a major third above No, IV., or two 
octaves and a major third above the prime. 
VI. A partial a minor third above No. V., or two 
octaves and a fifth above the prime. 
VII. A partial almost exactly a minor third above No. 
VI., or two octaves and a sub-minor seventh above the 
prime. 
VIII. A partial one tone above No. VII., or three 
octaves above the prime. 
The compound tone C would consequently be ex- 
pressed in musical notation thus : 
There are many more higher partials in some compound 
tones than the above eight. The low tones of a har- 
monium, for instance, have at least twice the number, and 
the tones of a good bass voice have at least twenty partials. 
But those mentioned above are the most important of the 
series. 
The partials occur in every compound tone in the same 
relative position. This does not mean that they are all 
present in every case ; it simply means that the order in 
which the series is established is unchangeable; thus a 
tone may contain only partials Nos. 1, 3, and 5, or Nos. 
1, 2, 4, and 8, all the others being absent; but no partial 
can, under any circumstances, crop up out of the regular 
order, say between Nos. 1 and 2, or between Nos. 2 and 3, 
and so forth. 
We have so far only touched upon two properties of 
* Slightly below the pitch here indicated. 26 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
tone, namely loudness and pitch. We are now in a 
position to discuss the third, which is quality. 
The Quality of a tone is “ that peculiarity which 
distinguishes the musical tone of a violin from that of a 
flute, or that of a clarionet, or that of the human voice, 
when all these instruments produce the same note at the 
same pitch.” (‘ The Sensations of Tone,’ by Helmholtz. 
Translated by Alexander J. Ellis. London: Longmans, 
Green & Co., p. 17.) The quality of tone is generally 
described as depending upon the form of the vibrations. 
“This assertion which physicists hitherto based simply 
upon the fact of their knowing that the quality of tone 
could not possibly depend on the periodic time of 
vibration, or on its amplitude, will be strictly examined 
hereafter. It will be shown to be so far correct, that every 
different quality of tone requires a different form of 
vibration; but on the other hand it will also appear that 
different forms of vibration may correspond to the same 
quality of tone.” (Helmholtz, op. cit., p. 32.) 
If we could detach the prime tones of compounds from 
their upper partials we should find them, loudness and 
pitch being alike, undistinguishable from each other, no 
matter by what instrument they were produced; and it is 
the co-existence with the prime tone of its upper partials, 
their relative position and their relative degree of loudness, 
which make the difference between the tones produced by 
various instruments. That such is really the case Helm- 
holtz has demonstrated by experiment in the following 
manner: he arranged a series of tuning-forks, corre- 
sponding to the partials of a compound tone as described 
before. He kept them in constant motion by electro- 
magnets, and a resonator was attached to every one of 
them which he could open and shut at pleasure by simply THE LAWS OF SOUND BEARING UPON THE VOICE. 
27 
touching the digitals of a little keyboard. He was thus 
in a position to reinforce any or all of the tones of the 
tuning-forks in various degrees of loudness; and he found 
that he could by these means imitate, not only the quality 
of most musical instruments, but also that of several vowel 
sounds. 
We therefore come to the conclusion that the quality of 
a tone depends— 
1. Upon the number of partials of which the tone 
consists. 
2. Upon their relative position. 
3. Upon their relative degree of loudness. 
This subject is further illustrated by the following rules : 
1. “ Simple Tones have a very soft, pleasant sound, free 
from all roughness, but wanting in power, and dull at low 
pitches.” 
2. “ Musical Tones, which are accompanied by a mode- 
rately loud series of the lower upper partial tones, up to 
about the sixth partial, are more harmonious and musical. 
Compared with simple tones they are rich and splendid, 
while they are at the same time perfectly sweet and soft 
if the higher upper partials are absent.” 
3. “If only the uneven partials are present, the quality 
of tone is hollow, and, when a large number of such upper 
partials are present, nasal. When the prime tone pre- 
dominates, the quality of the tone is rich or full; but 
when the prime tone is not sufficiently superior in strength 
to the upper partials, the quality of the tone is poor or 
empty? 
4. “ When partial tones higher than the sixth or 
seventh are very distinct, the quality of the tone is cut- 
ting and rough. The degree of harshness may be 
very different. When their force is inconsiderable the 28 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
higher upper partials do not essentially detract from the 
musical applicability of the compound tones; on the 
contrary, they are useful in giving character and expres- 
sion to the music.” (Helmholtz, op. cit., p. 172,.) 
Hitherto we have only spoken of what may be described 
as the inherent quality of tone. But in addition to this 
there are other peculiarities of which notice must be taken, 
namely, the various ways of beginning and of ending a tone, 
and those more or less noticeable accompanying noises from 
which no tone is absolutelv free. 
j 
Most people know that it makes a great difference to a 
tone whether it is attacked abruptly or gradually, with a 
thump or with a gentle touch. Striking the string of a 
piano with a felt hammer or with a stick does not produce 
the same tone. In a similar manner a tone is greatly 
affected by being allowed to die away gradually or by 
being stopped suddenly. Thus while the tone of a 
pianoforte string struck in the ordinary way is fuller 
and more lasting than that of a pizzicato tone on a 
violin, yet the latter is much more piercing and pene- 
trating. But the differences of attack and of release 
are in no case more characteristic than in the human 
voice, where they are noted in the form of different 
letters, as for instance the consonants B, D, G, P, T, 
and K. 
The accompanying noises, independently of what we 
have called the inherent quality, by which one tone may be 
distinguished from another, is illustrated in wind instru- 
ments by the hissing of the air striking against the sharp 
edge of the mouthpiece, and in string instruments by the 
scraping of the bow. Similar effects are produced in the 
human voice by pronouncing the letters F, V, S, Z, TH, 
R, and L. Even the vowels themselves are accompanied THE LAWS OF SOUND BEARING UPON THE VOICE. 
29 
by faint noises similar to those produced by whispering the 
same sounds. 
Stringed Instruments produce tone by the vibrations 
of the strings. The number of these vibrations within 
a given time depends (1) on the length, (2) on the tension, 
(3) on the thickness, and (4) on the density of the strings; 
that is to say, the shorter, the tighter, the finer, and the 
lighter the string, the more rapid will be the vibrations in 
a given time; in other words the higher will be the pitch 
of the tone produced. 
Flute or Flue Pipes produce tone by the vibrations 
of the elastic column of air in the tube caused by a stream 
of air being driven against the sharp edges of some 
opening. The number of these vibrations within a given 
time depends almost entirely upon the length of the 
column, and is but slightly modified by its diameter and 
by the nature of the mouthpiece. The shorter the column 
the greater the number of vibrations, and vice versa. If, 
therefore, we take two pipes, one half as long as the other, 
the short one will produce a tone an octave higher than 
the long one. We are all familiar with an illustration of 
this by the pipes of an organ; there is a separate pipe 
for every tone, and their length increases on a regular 
scale. 
Reed Instruments may have stiff or flexible reeds or 
tongues. 
Stiff Reeds are made of metal. They do not produce 
tone by any vibrations of their own, but by cutting the air 
which is driven past them into puffs. The pitch of these 
tones is regulated by the length and elasticity of the reeds. 
A different reed is therefore required for every new tone. 
Such reeds may be used free, as in the harmonium, concer- 
tina, accordion, &c., or they may be used in connection with 30 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
tubes, as in the organ. When this is the case the reed 
governs the vibrations of the column of air. If, therefore, 
the tone is to derive any advantage from the association of 
the reed with the tube, the length of the tube must be 
such that one of its partial tones corresponds with the 
vibrations of the reed. 
Flexible Reeds are generally made of wood and they 
are always associated with a tube of some kind. They 
produce tone by their own vibrations which, however, is 
overpowered and governed by the vibrations of the column 
of air. The pitch of these tones therefore depends chiefly 
upon the length of the tube, and is but little influenced by 
the length and elasticity of the reed. 
Professor Tyndall says; “ Perhaps the simplest illustra- 
lI.—A Reed. (From Tyndall.) 
tion of the action of a reed commanded by its aerial 
column is furnished by a common wheaten straw. At 
about an inch from a knot I bury my penknife in this 
straw, s r' (PI. II.), to a depth of about one-fourth of the 
straw’s diameter, and, turning the blade flat, pass it 
upwards towards the knot, thus raising a strip of the straw 
nearly an inch in length. This strip, rr\is to be our 
reed, and the straw itself is to be our pipe. It is now eight 
inches long. When blown into, it emits this decidedly 
musical sound. I now cut it so as to make its length six 
inches ; the pitch is higher ; with a length of four inches, 
the pitch is higher still. I make it two inches, the sound 
is now very shrill indeed. In all these experiments we 
had the same reed, which was compelled to accommodate THE LAWS OF SOUND BEARING UPON THE VOICE. 
31 
itself throughout to the requirements of the vibrating 
column of air.” (Op. cit., p. 194.) 
The Clarionet is an instrument of this kind in which 
the tone of the reed is overpowered and governed by 
the vibrations of the column of air ; .but the pitch in 
this instance also depends, to sorneVextent, upon the 
narrowing by the lips of the slit between the reed and 
its frame. C 
The Hautboy and the Bassoon are similar instru- 
■ 
ments, but they have double rceds. with a slit between 
them through which the air ;s folded. 
In the Horn and Trumpet -the lips of the performer 
supply the double reeds. The lips are but very slightly 
elastic, and therefore canq&f |p)ducc tone by their own 
independent vibrations; but t|sey are easily set in motion 
by the pressure of the column of air. In the 
older instruments of the tones are limited to the 
prime tone, with its upper partials, of the tube, 
and the particular tone to be produced depends upon the 
tension of the lips and upon the power of blast. Modern 
horns and trumpets, &c., are perfected by the addition of 
keys supplying the tones which were formerly wanting. 
The Human Voice is also generally described as a reed 
instrument, a statement which requires some qualification. 
We shall, however, be in a better position to enter into 
this question after the mechanism of the vocal apparatus 
has been explained, and we defer until then a discussion of 
the subject. 
Resonance is caused when a sounding body communi- 
cates its vibrations to another body; or when, in other 
words, the second body is thrown into co-vibrations with 
the first body. The following is an illustration with which 
most persons are familiar. Strike a tuning-fork and it will VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
32 
produce a tone, but a very faint tone only. Now put the 
vibrating tuning-fork with its handle upon a table. The 
vibrations of the fork will be communicated to the table, 
that is to say, the table will be thrown into co-vibrations 
with the tuning-fork, with the result of greatly increasing 
the sound. The sound of strings in the piano, harp, 
violin, &c., is reinforced in a similar manner, i.e. by direct 
communication of the vibrations of the strings to the 
sounding-board or to the body of the instrument. In 
these cases the loudness of the resulting sound is increased 
because a larger body of air is set vibrating. 
The vibrations of a sounding body may, however, also 
be communicated to another body without being in con- 
tact with it at all. This may be distinguished as sympa- 
thetic resonance. The following illustrations will make the 
matter clear. 
Roll up a sheet of paper so as to form a tube six inches 
long, and about one inch in diameter. Strike an ordinary 
C tuning-fork and hold it dose to one of the 
ends of the tube. The tone, which was at first scarcely 
audible, will now be heard all over the room. We can, 
to some extent, shorten or lengthen the tube, and yet get 
resonance, but we obtain the greatest amount of rein- 
forcement for the sound of our high C by a column of 
ail six inches long. 
If we convert the open pipe into a closed one by putting 
one end of the tube upon the table, and then hold the 
vibrating fork over the aperture, we find the resonance 
produced by it very insignificant. But if we substitute for 
the high C tuning-fork another one producing the C an 
octave lower we get again a very strong reson- THE LAWS OF SOUND BEARING UPON THE VOICE. 
33 
ance. We here find that with a closed pipe the best 
resonance is produced by a tone an octave lower than 
is necessary for getting the best resonance with an open 
pipe of the same length. This is equal to saying that by 
opening a closed pipe we raise its pitch by an octave. 
Another very simple and instructive experiment in the 
same direction is this: Take a tall bottle with a wide neck, 
such as is generally used for preserving fruit; strike a high 
C tuning-fork, and hold it over the empty bottle. There 
will be no reinforcement, and the vibrating fork will 
produce as little sound over the bottle as away from it. 
Now pour water into the bottle gently, and with as little 
noise as possible, thereby shortening the air-column inside, 
and you will find the sound of the tuning-fork intensified 
by degrees, until at last, continuing to pour in water, the 
tone will, at a certain point, burst forth quite loudly. It 
still more water is poured in, the tone will decrease again 
as gradually as it was at first intensified, until at last it 
dies away altogether. 
In a similar manner jars of different height may be 
operated upon with tuning-forks of different pitch. Or 
the experiment may be altered as follows: Strike a C 
tuning-fork, and hold it over an ordinary tumbler; then 
push a piece of cardboard over the glass, reducing its 
aperture. The result will be a gradual reinforcement of 
the tone of the tuning-fork, until at a certain point it is 
heard quite loudly. Push the cardboard beyond this point 
and the tone will become gradually fainter, until it quite 
dies away. 
All these trials show that there is, for every tone, an air 
column of a certain size which most powerfully reinforces 
that tone. 
There is yet another illustration of sympathetic resonance 34 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
which is very interesting. If the strings of two violins are 
tuned exactly alike, and a string of one is bowed, the 
corresponding string of the other violin will also begin to 
vibrate, though the two instruments are not in contact 
with each other. 
“ Tuning-forks are the most difficult to set in sympa- 
thetic vibration. To effect this they must be fastened on 
sounding boxes which have been exactly tuned to their 
tone. If we have two such forks of exactly the same 
pitch, and excite one by a violin bow, the other will begin 
to vibrate in sympathy, even if placed at the farther end of 
the room, and it will continue to sound when the first is 
damped. The astonishing nature of such a case of sympa- 
thetic vibration will appear if we merely compare the heavy 
and powerful mass of steel set in motion, with the light 
yielding mass of air,* which produces effect by such small 
motive power that it could not stir the lightest spring 
which was not in tune with the fork. With such forks, 
the time required to set them in full swing by sympathetic 
action is also of sensible duration, and the slightest dis- 
agreement in pitch is sufficient to produce a sensible 
diminution in the sympathetic effect. By sticking a piece 
of wax to one prong of the second fork, sufficient to make 
it vibrate once in a second less than the first—a difference 
of pitch scarcely sensible to the finest ear—the sympathetic 
vibration will be wholly destroyed.” (Helmholtz, op. cit., 
P- 63-) 
* Steel is, bulk for bulk, about 6000 times as heavy as air. SPEAKING AND SINGING. 
Voice is sound originated in the larynx, and may be 
produced by any animal possessing that organ. 
Speaking is voice modified in the cavity of the mouth. 
The medium of conveying his thoughts, it is the attribute 
of man alone, raising him above all animals. 
Singing is a higher development of the same power, 
being, in fact, sustained musical speaking. 
It is not possible to draw a clear line between singing 
and speaking, as both are actions of the same organs. 
There must be speech in song, or it would lose all the 
charm attached to the distinct rendering of the words. 
There must also be a certain amount of song in speech, or 
it would soon become unbearable by its dreariness and 
monotony. 
Nevertheless, singing and speaking differ from each 
other, and are in some respects even antagonistic. Mr. 
Ellis (op. cit., p. i) distinguishes the following points ; 
i. “ Singing and Speaking differ in Compass.—ln 
singing, a good and fine quality of tone is sought to be 
attained at pitches varying by at least a twelfth, and some- 
times two octaves or even more. In speaking, an audible 
quality of tone is desired, but one which is not strictly 
musical, at pitches generally within a fifth, and only 
occasionally extending to an octave.” 
2. “Singing is at Sustained, Speaking at Gliding 36 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
Pitch.-—In singing, a tone has to be sustained for a con- 
siderable time at an invariable pitch. In speaking, not 
only is the length of time for which any sound is sustained 
much less, sometimes necessarily very short indeed, but the 
pitch at which it is delivered is uncertain and variable, and 
constantly rising or falling, sometimes first rising and then 
falling, or first falling and then rising, for the same spoken 
sound.” 
3. c£ Singing requires a Clear, Speaking an Impeded 
Passage for the Breath.—ln singing, a good quality of 
musical tone can only be attained by peculiar adjustments 
of the cavities between the larynx and the lips, which 
generally imply that they are unchoked or unimpeded ; 
and by a peculiar arrangement of the larynx itself, which 
implies, on the contrary, that it is so choked and impeded 
that the wind has to force its way through it from the 
lungs. In speaking, the upper cavities have to be choked 
and impeded in many ways more or less injurious to 
musical qualities of tone, and sometimes entirely destruc- 
tive of any musical tone whatever, allowing mere noise to 
pass, or actually preventing any sound at all from passing. 
And the larynx has occasionally to be so open that no 
musical sound whatever can be produced, except by a 
further adjustment of the lips and tongue to produce 
whistling, an effect not admitted in speech.” 
4. “ Singing has to be Rapid and Slurred, where 
Speaking cannot be so.—In singing, the melody often 
requires the notes to be sung with great rapidity, and at 
other times to be slurred into each other. In any 
languages, as the English, where the vowels are separated 
by numerous consonants, this rapidity is impossible, and 
the slurring becomes equally impossible from the necessity 
of separating the musical by unmusical sounds.” SPEAKING AND SINGING. 
37 
The English language is generally supposed to offer 
greater difficulties to the singer than either Italian, Portu- 
guese, Spanish, French, or German. 
“ What a stumbling block English proves to foreigners 
was exemplified by Duprez, who, in the recitative in 
‘ William Tell,’ used to say ‘My country and my face ’ 
(faith).” (‘Dramatic Singing,’ by W, H, Walshe, M.D. 
London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., p. 77.) 
What beauties, on the other hand, it possesses with 
regard to speaking may be best seen from the following 
opinion of Jacob Grimm, the greatest philologist of 
modern times. “ The English language possesses a power 
which probably never stood at the command of any other 
nation. This singularly happy development and condition 
has been the result of an intimate union of two of the 
noblest languages, the Teutonic and the Romance; the 
former supplying the material ground-work, the latter the 
spiritual conceptions. In truth, the English language, 
which by no mere accident has produced and upborne the 
greatest and most predominant poet of modern times (I 
can, of course, only mean Shakespeare) may with all right 
be called a world language ; and, like the English people, 
appears destined hereafter to prevail with a sway more 
extensive than its present one, over all portions of the 
globe. For in wealth, good sense, and closeness of 
structure, no other of the languages at this day spoken 
deserves to be compared with it—not even our own 
German, which is torn even as we are torn, and must rid 
itself of its defects before it can enter into the lists as a 
competitor with English.” (James Hunt, op. cit., p. 226.) 38 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
VOCAL ORGAN. 
The Human Voice considered as a musical instrument 
consists of four parts:— 
i. The Chest or Thorax and the Lungs containing 
the air which is the motor element. 
2. The Windpipe or Trachea, in which the air is 
carried up and down. 
3. The Voice-box or Larynx, in which are situated 
the vocal ligaments forming the vibrating element. 
4. The Upper Part of the Throat or Pharynx, 
the Mouth and the Nasal Passages forming the 
resonator. 
The Chest or Thorax is an air-tight chamber formed 
by the spine at the back, by twelve ribs on either side, by 
the breast-bone or sternum and the collar-bones or clavicles■ 
in front, by the root of the neck above, and by the midriff 
or diaphragm below. Each higher rib being a little 
shorter than the one below, it follows that the shape of the 
chest as a whole must be conical. The chest is, in other 
words, considerably broader below than above. 
The Ribs are, with the exception of the two lowest on 
each side, which are called the floating ribs, attached 
behind to the spine, and in front to the breast-bone, just 
as a bucket handle is fastened to the bucket; and the ribs 
are capable of being raised or lowered just as the bucket 
handle may be moved up and down. In a state of rest, lll.—Section of the Human Body. {Adaptedfrom Xiiss and Czermak.) 
N, Nasal passages ; H, Hard palate ; S, Soft palate. 40 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
however, they take a position slanting forwards and 
downwards. 
The Midriff or Diaphragm {see PL III.) is a large 
powerful muscle which, as implied by the name, serves as 
a partition dividing the chest from the abdomen. In a 
state of rest the midriff has the shape of a basin put 
upside down, that is to say, it arches up into the chest. It 
has a number of fibres extending from the centre of the 
lower surface downwards and outwards to the ribs, and we 
must particularly notice two very strong bundles called 
the pillars of the midriff which go from the middle of the 
IV.—Framework of the Chest. 
diaphragm to the spine. When these fibres and pillars 
contract, the midriff is not only considerably flattened, 
thereby increasing the capacity of the chest at the expense 
of the abdomen, it is also pulled down in its entirety, so 
that its action somewhat resembles that of a piston in the 
cylinder of a pump. 
But more : its outer rim is attached to the lower ribs, THE CHEST. 
and as these are moveable the arched-up centre of the 
midriff cannot possibly be directed downwards without its 
circular edge being elevated, thereby forcing the ribs 
forward and outward. It is quite clear, therefore, that the 
chest is, by this action of the diaphragm, enlarged in three 
directions, namely, in height, in depth, and in width. 
When the muscular fibres which have just been de- 
scribed relax, the midriff arches up again as before, and it 
is assisted in this act by the return of the stomach and of 
the intestines to their original position. The result of this 
is, of course, the reduction of the chest to its original 
dimensions. 
The Muscles of the Chest.—Each pair of ribs is 
united by two sets of muscles, the outer intercostals and the 
inner intercostals. The outer intercostals by their con- 
traction raise the ribs, and they are assisted by various 
other muscles connecting the ribs with parts of the spine 
above them. If these muscles relax, the ribs will, by their 
own weight, resume their former position, and in this they 
are assisted by the contraction of the inner intercostals 
and of other muscles connecting the ribs with that bony 
ring between the spinal column and the lower extremities 
called the pelvis. By these agencies the dimensions of the 
cavity of the chest from back to front and from side to 
side are alternately increased and diminished. 
We must notice in addition a set of muscles uniting the 
ribs with the shoulders and the shoulder-blades, enabling 
us to raise and to lower the upper part of the chest and 
the collar-bones in conjunction with the shoulders. By 
the action of these the height of the cavity of the chest 
may also be alternately increased or diminished, though 
only to a very limited extent. 
The Lungs are contained in the chest, which they fit 42 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
exactly, and of which they occupy by far the largest part, 
leaving but a small portion for the heart and blood-vessels. 
They are two separate bodies united only by means of the 
branches of the windpipe called the bronchi. The lungs 
V.—Chest and Lungs, 
The curved line at the bottom of the drawing indicates the Midriff or Diaphragm. 
are coneshaped, the pointed part being above, and the 
broad part below. They consist of different divisions 
called lobes; these are made up of sub-divisions called 
lobules, and these again consist of little clusters of minute THE LUNGS. 
43 
air-cells resembling bunches of grapes. It has been 
calculated that there are no less than six hundred millions 
of these air-cells in the lungs of a full-grown man. 
Between these air-cells there are, circulating in all direc- 
tions, the capillary vessels receiving the blood from the 
heart. The right lung is larger than the left, and it has 
Vl.—The Lungs, etc. {Adaptedfrom Niemeyer.) 
V, Voice-box or larynx ; W, Windpipe or trachea; R, Right lung ; L, Left lung. 
In the section of the left lung are indicated the ramifications of the left bronchus. 
three lobes, the upper, the middle, and the lower; the left 
lung has but two lobes, the upper and the lower. 
The Pleurae.—Each lung is enclosed in a double bag 
called the pleura. Take a bladder, expel the air from it, 
and double it up by putting the fist into it. The fist 
represents the lung, and the doubled bladder a part of the 
pleura; both together will give a tolerably clear idea of the 
whole arrangement. The outer bag forms a lining to the 44 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
walls of the chest, and the inner one serves as a covering 
to the lung to which it closely adheres. The lobes of the 
lungs are separated from each other by infoldings of the 
inner bag. The interior surfaces of the two bags which 
are thus in close contact are very smooth, and they are kept 
moist with a lubricating fluid which enables them to move 
upon each other without friction. It is the main object of 
the pleurae to keep the lungs in position, and to facilitate 
the working of the chest and of the lungs in respiration. 
The Windpipe or Trachea {see PI. VI.) is the tube by 
means of which the air is carried into and out of the lungs. 
It descends from the upper part of the throat, and is kept 
open by from 18 to 20 rings formed of gristle or cartilage. 
The rings are open behind where the windpipe comes into 
contact with the gullet or czsophagus, and the ends of the 
rings are united by the same fibrous membrane which 
unites them in front and at the sides. The windpipe is 
capable of being slightly prolonged or shortened, and 
widened or narrowed, and its interior is covered with a 
mucous membrane. This tube may be readily felt and 
handled through the skin, and it will be understood from 
the above description why it is that, though firm and 
capable of resisting injury, it possesses at the same time 
sufficient elasticity to yield to moderate pressure and to 
movements from all directions. 
The Bronchial Passages or Bronchi (PI. VI.)—The 
windpipe having, in its downward course, entered the chest, 
it there divides into two branches, one for each lung; these 
are called the bronchi. Each bronchus enters the lung, 
and divides shortly afterwards into two lesser ones. These 
again divide and subdivide, spreading out, like the roots 
and fibres of a tree, until at last their ramifications end in 
the microscopic air-cells of the lungs. RESPIRA TION. 
45 
The Mucous Membrane with which the windpipe is 
lined extends upwards through the upper part of the throat 
into the nasal cavities, and downwards into the smallest 
bronchial tubes in the lungs. It is covered with a multi- 
tude of mucous glands, secreting that thin glairy fluid 
called mucus, which keeps the membrane in a moist state. 
It is soft, smooth, more or less red, and protected by 
a layer of minute cells. These, again, are studded with 
innumerable, extremely fine, hair-like projections called the 
cilia, all pointing in an outward direction, and continually 
swaying backwards and forwards, thus removing out of 
the air-passages any excess of mucus which would 
otherwise accumulate in them and obstruct them. 
Respiration.—The function of the lungs is respiration, 
which may be considered from a chemical and from a 
mechanical point of view. The venous blood is driven 
from the right lobe of the heart into the capillary vessels of 
the lungs, which are separated from the air-cells by a skin 
so exceedingly fine that it does not prevent the blood 
receiving from the air the oxygen which it wants in 
exchange for the carbonic acid which it wishes to get 
rid of. The result of this interchange is that the dark- 
blue venous blood is found, on leaving the capillaries, 
to have been changed into bright-red arterial blood. 
This then passes into the left lobe of the heart whence 
it is pumped up the main artery through the whole 
system. 
The object of respiration, therefore, chemically con- 
sidered, is to bring into the blood the oxygen, without 
which we could not live, and to carry away the carbonic 
acid which, if retained, would soon poison us. The im- 
portance of this cannot be overrated, for life or death 
depends upon it, and respiration from a mechanical point 46 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
of view, as in the production of the voice, is, comparatively 
speaking, but a small matter. 
In this section we have mainly to deal with breathing 
mechanically considered. This subject is best studied in 
a pair of calf’s lungs, which may easily be obtained 
in any butcher’s shop under the name of lights. The 
calf’s lungs are very similar to those of man, and a few 
experiments upon them will be found more instructive 
than any descriptions and explanations that could possibly 
be given. It is, of course, necessary to make these investi- 
gations immediately after the animal has been killed, and 
before the lungs have become cold. 
We see that the calf’s lungs are, as in those of human 
beings, two separate bodies, united only by means of the 
windpipe and its branches. We also notice how much 
broader they are below than above. This point ought to 
be carefully verified, for reasons which will appear later on. 
If we press upon the lungs we find that they are elastic 
and yielding to the touch; also that they emit a peculiar 
whizzing sound. Insert a tube into the windpipe, and 
blow into it, when the lungs will very considerably increase 
in size. Tie the windpipe up with a piece of string, and 
the lungs will remain in this inflated condition. Remove 
the string, and the air previously blown into the lungs 
will escape again, and they will dwindle down to their 
original size. Observe that only that air escapes which 
you blew into the lungs. There was air in them before 
you commenced your experiment, and this remains in 
them. You may squeeze some of it out by pressing upon 
the lungs, but even after doing that a large quantity of air 
will remain in them. 
These experiments upon the calf’s lungs give us some 
conception of the nature of respiration which is carried on RESPIRA TION. 
47 
in our own bodies under very similar circumstances. If 
we draw a breath we inflate our lungs as we inflated the 
calf’s lungs by blowing into them. By holding our breath 
we keep our lungs inflated as we kept the calf’s lungs 
inflated by tying up the windpipe, and by letting our 
breath go we allow our lungs to dwindle down as the calf’s 
lungs dwindled down when we removed the string with 
which we had tied up the windpipe. As after this a large 
quantity of air remains in the calf’s lungs, so it also does 
in our own ; and as even with a great deal of squeezing 
and of pressing we cannot remove all the air out of the 
calf’s lungs, so we are also unable, even by making the 
greatest effort, to eject all the air from our own lungs. 
The air which cannot be ejected from the lungs by any 
effort is called residual air. 
The additional amount remaining in the lungs after an 
ordinary expiration is called supplemental air. 
The air over and above this passing into and out of the 
lungs in quiet breathing is called tidal air. 
And finally the air which may be inhaled by the deepest 
possible inspiration is called complementary air. 
We may consequently look upon the lungs as divided 
into zones, and we shall find that— 
i. In the bottom zone the air is nearly stagnant, and 
never pure. 
2. In the middle zone it is fairly flowing, and less 
impure. 
3. In the top zone it is continually renewed, and nearly 
resembles the air we inhale. 
Respiration, as we have thus seen, consists of two acts, 
inspiration and expiration. Let us now consider how 
these two acts are accomplished. 
The lungs have not the power of inflating themselves; 48 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
they are quite passive. But the chest enlarges, and the 
lungs are obliged to do the same, because they are pressed 
by the air to the chest walls, and compelled to follow their 
every movement, just as a stone is held to a boy’s leather 
“ sucker.” In other words, when the chest enlarges, the 
air rushes into the lungs, thereby inflating them, in order 
to prevent the formation of a vacuum which would other- 
wise be created in the pleural cavity, that is to say, between 
the two bags in which, as we have seen before, the lung is 
enclosed, and one of which adheres to the lung and the 
other to the chest. This constitutes aspiration. 
This act of Aspiration is quickly followed by the 
expulsion of the air. The lungs are very elastic, and they 
have a constant tendency to return to their original form. 
As soon as the contraction of the inspiratory muscles 
ceases, this elasticity, which till then has been opposed, 
re-asserts itself, and the lungs contract. The diaphragm 
and the chest walls follow the lungs just as the latter 
adhered to the former in inspiration. In addition to 
this there is the natural impulse of the chest walls, of 
the midriff, and of the walls of the abdomen, &c., to 
return to their original position. The air is by these 
acts expelled, and this constitutes garpiration. 
While, then, in ordinary breathing Aspiration is the 
result of muscular contraction, and, therefore, active, 
fcrpiration is the result of the elasticity of the organs 
which had been opposed by Aspiration, and consequently 
passive. But as we have the power of forced Aspiration, 
so we have also the power of forced ; and if we 
make use of this power, ceases to be passive, and 
also becomes the result of muscular contraction. The 
muscles called into play in inspiration as well as in 
expiration have already been described on p. 41. RESPIRA TION. 
49 
We have seen that the chest may be enlarged in three 
different ways. 
i. By the descent of the midriff or diaphragm. In this 
method the abdomen is pushed out of the way and the 
chest walls are gradually dilated from below upwards, but 
the shoulders remain unmoved. This method of chest ex- 
pansion is known as midriff, diaphragmatic, or abdominal 
breathing. 
i. By sideways extension of the ribs. In this method 
also the shoulders remain unmoved. This constitutes rib 
breathing, or lateral or costal breathing. 
3. By raising the shoulders with the collar-bones, the 
shoulder-blades, and the upper part of the chest. This is 
collar-bone, clavicular, or scapular breathing. 
In taking a full, deep .inspiration, midriff and rib breath- 
ing take place almost together and assist each other—that 
is to say, the midriff contracts and flattens, and imme- 
diately afterwards the ribs extend sideways—with this 
difference, however, that in men the action of the midriff 
takes a larger share in the work than the ribs, while in 
women, on the contrary, the movement of the ribs is 
greater than that of the midriff. 
“ By way of illustrating this curious difference of breath- 
ing in men and women the following anecdote, which has 
the recommendation of being strictly true, may perhaps 
amuse the reader. Some time ago a troupe of ‘Female 
Minstrels,’ calling themselves, I believe, 4 The American 
Amazons,’ made a tour in this country. Their faces were 
blackened in the orthodox fashion, and they were in male 
attire, wearing tight-fitting garments of a peculiar kind. 
Two friends, both medical men, went to hear them (or 
perhaps to see them, I am not sure which), when Mr. A. 
remarked that two of the performers were men. Mr. B. VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
did not see it, even when the individuals were pointed out 
to him, and asked his friend for the reasons for his opinion. 
£ Why,’ said Mr. A., 41 see it by their abdominal breath- 
ing.’ And sure enough Mr. B. now saw it too, and there 
was no mistake about it; for in the two suspected indi- 
viduals the abdomen was evidently moving in respiration, 
while in all the others no movement was perceptible 
excepting that of their chests.” (‘ The Mechanism of the 
Human Voice,’ by Emil Behnke. London: J. Curwen & 
Sons, 3rd. ed., p. 16.) 
For further elucidation of this most important subject 
of respiration the reader is referred to the chapter bearing 
on its hygienic aspects, which commences at page 102, and 
also to the illustrations XXXVI A., 8., and C., and XXXVII 
A., 8., and C., printed at page 183, where this question is 
again considered in relation to its direct effect on voice 
cultivation. In the portion treating of the ailments of 
the voice-user, as well as in that on speech defects, it 
will be seen that the method of respiration has the most 
important bearing on the general as well as on the pro- 
fessional well-being of the class for whom we write. It 
is difficult, therefore, to exaggerate its importance on the 
whole teaching of this treatise. THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
The Voice-box or Larynx is the central organ of the 
vocal apparatus, and is situated on the top of the windpipe. 
Its front corner or angle (PI. VII., i) may be both seen 
and felt in the throat, and the general position of the 
voice-box is thereby at once indicated. 
This position is not by any means a fixed one, but the 
larynx may, on the contrary, easily be pushed on one side. 
It also moves upwards and downwards in the fulfilment of 
various functions which will be described in another chapter. 
The voice-box is, roughly speaking, a short tube, three 
cornered above and cylindrical below. It is, moreover, 
larger at the top than at the bottom, and may therefore be 
said to resemble a funnel, the upper part of which has been 
bent into a triangular shape. 
The larynx is composed of cartilages or pieces of gristle 
held together by various ligamentous bands, and moved by 
numerous muscles. The scientific names of these pieces 
of gristle are chiefly derived from Greek words signifying 
in some cases the different objects which the cartilages 
were supposed to resemble, and in others their position or 
purpose ; while again, certain cartilages and other parts of 
the larynx are sometimes named after the anatomists who 
first described them. All these designations are more or 
less arbitrary, and they are calculated to increase the 
difficulties of the student instead of helping to remove 
them. We have considered this matter the more carefully, 
as the present work is intended for readers some of whom 52 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
may not have had a scientific education, and we have 
accordingly decided upon the following plan of nomen- 
clature, which will appeal to all classes : 
i. We shall, as in the preceding pages, make use of 
English terms, conveying to the general reader some 
idea of the form or nature of the part to be described. 
VII.—Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx, 
1. Front corner or angle of the voice- 
box (Adam’s apple). 
2. Ring (cricoid) cartilage. 
3. 4. Upper border of the ring. 
5, 6. Lower border of the ring. 
7. Shield (thyroid) cartilage. 
8, 9. Upper horns (superior cornua) 
of the shield. 
10. Right lower horn (inferior cornu) of 
the shield. 
11. Point where the shield moves upon 
the ring. 
12. Ring-shield (crico-thyroid) aperture. 
13. Lid (epiglottis). 
14. Windpipe (trachea). 
• 2. These English names, when used for the first time, 
and in all diagrams, &c., will be followed by the scientific 
terms of which, in most cases, they are translations. 
3. We shall also add the names which Professor Ludwig 
has given to the cartilages in accordance with their functions. 
These designations will, we believe, greatly assist the reader THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
53 
in finally forming a clear conception of that marvellously 
beautiful little piece of mechanism now to be described. 
The Framework of the larynx consists of five carti- 
lages or pieces of gristle. 
1. The Ring (cricoid) cartilage, or Foundation cartilage. 
2. The Shield (thyroid) cartilage, or Tension cartilage. 
3. The Lid (epiglottis), or Cover cartilage. 
4 and 5. The Pyramids (arytenoid cartilages), or Position 
cartilages. 
The Ring (cricoid) cartilage (PI. VII., 2) is situated 
on the top of the windpipe, of which it forms the finishing 
part. It has the shape of a signet ring, being narrow in 
front and having behind a broad plate corresponding to 
the seal. The upper border (PI. VII., 3, 4) rises very 
considerably towards the back, where the ring is about 
four times as high as in front. The lower border (PI. VII., 
5, 6) runs about parallel with the rings of the windpipe, 
that is to say, its general direction is horizontal; but it is 
often united with the top ring of the windpipe by means 
of extensions of various sizes which give it a more or less 
irregular appearance. In Plate VII. the ring cartilage is 
partly hidden, but it will be shown again in another 
illustration, and we shall then see it in its entirety. The 
ring forms the basis of the larynx, because the whole of 
that structure is, as it were, built upon it. It is for this 
reason that it is also called the foundation cartilage. 
The Shield (thyroid) cartilage (PI. VII., 7) is so called 
because it serves as a shield or protection to the more 
delicate parts of the vocal apparatus which, as we shall 
find later on, are concealed by it. It consists of two 
symmetrical plates or “ wings,” united in front by means 
of a narrow centre-piece at a more or less acute angle, 
which forms the prominence referred to just now as that 54 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
corner of the triangular funnel (PI. VII., 1) which may be 
both seen and felt in the throat, and which is commonly 
called the “ Adam’s apple.” This name has been given to 
it because in the opinion of the superstitious anatomists of 
the dark ages the prominence was caused by the sticking 
in the throat of the apple from the forbidden tree which 
Adam had eaten. 
VIII.—Front View of the Voice-box or Larynx. 
I, 2. Upper horns of the shield. 
3, 4. Lower horns of the shield. 
5. Tongue (hyoid) bone. 
6, 7. Horns of the tongue bone. 
8, 9. Bands uniting the shield with 
the tongue bone. 
io, ii. Lid. 
12, 13. Plates of the shield. 
14. Ring. 
15. Elastic band uniting the shield with 
the ring. 
16. Windpipe. 
The plates or wings of the shield have each at the back 
two horns—the upper and the lower. With the upper 
horns (PI. VIII., 1, 2) the shield cartilage is attached by 
means of bands (PL VIII., 8, 9) to the corresponding- 
projections (PI. VIII., 6, 7) of the tongue bone (PI. VIII., 
5). With the lower horns (PI. VIII., 3, 4) it moves upon THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
55 
the ring cartilage as upon a pair of hinges. The preceding 
diagram (PL VII., n), although it shows only one of the 
lower horns, will make this clearer still. 
If the shield cartilage (PI. VII., 7) were gradually drawn 
downward and forward, the distance between the front of the 
shield (PI. VII., V and the highest part of the back of the 
ring (PI. VII., 4) would be increased, and the space which we 
now see between the shield and the ring (PI. VII., 12) would 
get smaller and smaller, until at last it quite disappeared. 
Authorities differ as to whether the shield moves upon 
the ring, or the ring upon the shield, and some even 
maintain that both are moved at the same time. But it is 
sufficient for our purpose to know that a movement as 
upon a hinge takes place whereby, as just explained, the 
distance between the front of the shield and the highest 
part at the back of the ring is increased. Supposing for 
the moment the ring cartilage to remain stationary, and 
the shield cartilage to be moved upon it downward and 
forward, the tension of the vocal ligaments, as will be seen 
presently, would chiefly depend upon the lever-like action 
of the shield, and this cartilage therefore receives the 
additional appellation of the tension cartilage. 
The Lid (epiglottis) or cover cartilage. Reference to 
the section of the human body (PI. 111., p. 39) will show that 
the food we take has to pass over the voice-box and then 
through the gullet (eesophagus) into the stomach. But 
the larynx is open at the top, so that a contrivance is 
required which will close it during the act of swallowing. 
This is done by the lid, an elastic cartilage which allows 
itself to be drawn over the voice-box, thereby protecting 
it against any intruding foreign substances. It is a thin, 
pliable, leaf-shaped cartilage (PI. VIII., 10), and is attached 
with its tapering basis (PI. VIII., 11) to the inner side of 56 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the shield just below the point where the two plates or 
wings are united. 
The epiglottis, therefore, must not be thought of as a 
flat lid such as that of a box, but as a soft substance 
closing the aperture of the larynx with its overlapping 
edges and its interior cushion-like projection. Owing to 
these peculiarities it is also spoken of as the cover cartilage, 
which is a very appropriate name for it. 
It sometimes happens, especially if we are laughing or 
talking while taking our meals, that the lid does not 
exactly close the aperture of the voice-box, thereby allow- 
ing a particle of food to enter it. When such a thing 
happens we say the food has “ gone the wrong way,” and 
there is then no peace until the intruder has been got rid 
of, generally by a violent fit of coughing. The result of a 
foreign body entering the larynx is sometimes a very 
serious matter, and there are cases on record where small 
objects as a coffee-bean or a cherry-stone lodged in the 
voice-box have rapidly caused death. 
The lid is, however, not the only means of protection 
which the larynx possesses; there are some parts im- 
mediately below it which can be pressed together, thereby 
helping to prevent anything from getting into the voice- 
box. Persons have been known even to have had no lid 
from birth, or to have lost it by disease, and yet they never 
experienced any difficulty in swallowing. But “ exceptions 
prove the rule,” and, in spite of a few cases of this descrip- 
tion, the fact remains that the lid is obviously the first 
and most natural protector of the voice-box. 
We have thus far become acquainted with three 
cartilages out of the five. Let us now remove one plate 
of the shield as though cutting it off with a knife (PI. IX.), 
in order that we may look inside and see the remaining THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
57 
two cartilages which have hitherto been hidden by it. 
These are : 
The Pyramids (arytenoid cartilages), or position carti- 
lages. When taken together they are supposed to resemble 
a <e pitcher,” though it requires a very fanciful imagination 
to recognise the form ; it is, at all events, in accordance 
IX. Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx showing the Interior of 
it, the Right Plate of the Shield being removed. 
I, 2. Pyramids (arytenoid cartilages). 
3. 3. Vocal processes of the pyramids. 
4. Muscular process of the right 
pyramid. 
5. Upper border of the ring. 
6. 3, 3. Vocal ligaments. 
7. Place of attachment fox- the shield. 
8. Left plate of the shield. 
9. Left upper horn of the shield. 
10. Ring. 
ii. Windpipe. 
with this real or imaginary shape that the Greek name 
arytenoid cartilages was bestowed upon them. They are 
really two triangular little bodies, each broad at the base 
and tapering up towards the top. They are consequently 
also called the pyramids. Of the five cartilages forming 
the framework of the larynx, the two pyramids un- 
doubtedly play the most important part, and it is unfortu- 58 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
nate, therefore, that it is almost impossible to give a clear 
idea of them without the aid of a working model such as 
we use in our lectures, by means of which their movements 
can be imitated. 
The shape of the pyramids is shown very plainly on our 
drawing (PL IX., i, 2). Their bases are three-cornered, 
and slightly hollowed out, so as to fit easily upon the upper 
rim of the ring. Each basis points one corner forwards 
(PL IX., 3, 3), and one sideways (PL IX., 4). Of the 
latter we can in our drawing, of course, only see the corner 
pointing to the right. The two corners pointing forwards 
are called the vocal processes, and those pointing outwards 
are called the muscular processes. 
The sides of the pyramids correspond with the outlines 
of their bases; each pyramid has, therefore, one surface at 
the back, a second at the inner, and a third at the outer 
side. The inner surfaces are, in fact, opposite to and 
parallel with each other. This is, however, only the case 
while the pyramids are in the position they occupy in 
diagram IX., and they are capable of executing a variety 
of movements with surprising freedom and rapidity. Their 
inner sides may be made to run parallel or to diverge. In 
addition to this they can be drawn away from each other, 
or towards each other, so that their summits may either be 
widely separated or brought close together. We shall see 
very shortly that the shape and the width of the chink 
of the glottis, and also to some extent the tension of 
the vocal ligaments, depend largely upon the position 
of the pyramids. No better name could therefore have 
been chosen for these little bodies than that of position 
cartilages. 
The Vocal Ligaments (PL IX., 3, 3-6) are two ledges 
of elastic tissue, covered with a very delicate membrane. THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
59 
Each of them is connected on one side along its whole 
length with the shield cartilage. The vocal ligaments are 
attached by their hinder ends to those little forward 
pointing projections of the pyramids which are called the 
vocal processes (PL IX., 3, 3), and by their front ends to 
the centre of the shield (PI. IX., 6), where the two plates 
meet under a more or less acute angle. 
The vocal ligaments are generally called the vocal cords, 
but this term is misleading, as it implies strings like those, 
for instance, of the violin, which are attached only at either 
end, and are free at every other point. This, as we have 
just seen, is not the case, the “ cords ” being free only along 
their inner edges. The left vocal ligament in our next 
drawing (PI. X., 1, 2, 3, 4) shows this very distinctly, and 
it forms, together with a muscle constituting a part of it, a 
triangular ledge attached with its broad basis to the shield 
cartilage. The name “ vocal bands,” which German 
physiologists have substituted for “ vocal cords,” does not 
mend the matter, as it is open to exactly the same objec- 
tions. The term “ vocal lips,” also used by some writers, 
conveys an equally wrong idea of these parts, and as there 
is no name directly descriptive of the thing to be designated 
we prefer the word “ ligament,” which has at least the 
negative advantage of not conjuring up a false image. 
We shall, consequently, in these pages always speak of the 
tone-producing element as the “ vocal ligaments.” 
The vocal ligaments having met are struck by the air 
blown against them from below, and being elastic they 
yield, allowing themselves to be forced upwards. A little 
air is thereby set free, and the pressure from below dimin- 
ished, in consequence of which the vocal ligaments resume 
their former position, and even move a little more down- 
wards. The renewed pressure of the air once more over- VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
comes the resistance of the vocal ligaments, which again 
recede as soon as another escape of air has taken 
place, and this process is repeated in rapid and regular 
succession. 
We have here two sets of vibrations—primary and 
secondary; the primary vibrations being those of the 
vocal ligaments, and the secondary vibrations being those 
X.—Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx showing the Interior of 
the Left Half. 
X, 2, 3, 4. Left vocal ligament and 
shield-pyramid muscle (thyro- 
arytenoideus). 
5. Left pyramid. 
6, 7. Ring. 
5, 7. Side ring-pyramid muscle (lateral 
crico-arytenoideus). 
of the column of air passing between the vocal ligaments. 
The result of these vibrations is vocal tone. The tone so 
produced does not, as will be more fully explained in 
another place, constitute the human voice in its entirety, 
but merely the original sound of it. All authorities are, 
however, now agreed that this original sound is the result 
of the vibrations of the vocal ligaments. 
Quotations in support of the above statement might be THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
61 
given to any extent, but the following one from Professor 
Marshall’s ‘ Outlines of Physiology,’ which is conclusive, 
may suffice ; “ Experiments on living animals show that 
the vocal ligaments are alone the essential organs for the 
production of voice, for so long as these remain untouched, 
although all the other parts in the interior of the larynx 
be destroyed, the animal is able to emit vocal sounds. 
The existence of an opening in the larynx of a living 
animal or of man, above the glottis,* in no way prevents 
the formation of vocal sound; such an opening, if 
situated in the trachea, causes total loss of voice, but by 
simply closing it vocal sounds can again be produced. 
Such openings in man are met with either as the re- 
sults of accidents, of suicidal attempts, or of operations 
performed on the larynx or trachea for the relief of 
disease.” 
The vocal ligaments in the adult male are, in a state of 
rest, about three-quarters of an inch long, and in the 
female about half an inch. They are, as pointed out 
before, attached in front to the shield (PL IX., 6) and 
behind to the pyramids (PI. IX., 3, 3). Let it now be 
borne in mind (1) that the pyramids in their turn are 
fastened to the upper border of the ring, and (2) that by 
drawing the shield downward and forward upon the ring, 
or by in any other way approximating these two cartilages 
in front (see p. 55), the distance between the upper 
border of the ring (PI. IX., 5) and the front of the shield 
(PI. IX., 6) is increased, and it will be easily seen that either 
of these movements must, of necessity, have the effect of 
stretching the vocal ligaments, thereby raising the pitch of 
the voice. 
The drawing of the shield downward and forward upon 
* Glottis means the vibrating element of the voice-box. 62 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the ring is brought about by a pair of muscles ascending 
on either side, in the shape of a fan, from the ring to the 
shield (PI. XL, i, 2, 3). These muscles are called the 
“ ring-shield muscles,” or crico-thyroidei. In opposition to 
them there is another pair inside the shield, running 
parallel with the vocal ligaments of which, indeed, they may 
be said to form the most important part (PL X., 1, 2, 3, 4). 
XI.—Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx showing one of the 
External Muscles. 
I, 2, 3. Ring-shield muscle (crico- 
thyroid eus). 
4. Right lower horn of the shield. 
5. Shield. 
6, 7. Upper horns of the shield. 
8. Lid. 
9. Windpipe, 
They are attached, like the vocal ligaments, in front to the 
shield cartilage, and behind to the pyramids, in conse- 
quence of which they are called the “ shield-pyramid 
muscles ”or thyro-arytenoidei. It is one of their functions 
to counteract the ring-shield muscles, and, having over- 
come their resistance, to pull the shield cartilage up again, THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
63 
thereby, of course, relaxing the vocal ligaments, and 
lowering the pitch of the voice. The ring-shield muscles, 
therefore (PL XL, 1, 2, 3), stretch the vocal ligaments, and 
the shield-pyramid muscles (PL X., 1, 2, 3, 4) relax them. 
But the relaxing of the vocal ligaments is not the only 
function of the shield-pyramid muscles. Their action is 
indeed so exceedingly complicated as to make a clear 
description of it almost impossible. There is, probably, 
comparatively speaking, no muscle in the human body 
with so many varied points of origin and insertion of its 
fibres ; these fibres going in all directions, and enabling 
the muscles to alter their tension, density, elasticity, and 
shape. It would be quite beyond the scope of this manual 
to enter into minute details of their structure, nor do we 
think we should make matters at all more comprehensible 
by following the example of some authors who divide these 
muscles in two bundles, and speak of them as the 
and the eternal shield-pyramid muscles. This distinction 
is anatomically difficult, and would in the end serve to 
puzzle and to confuse the reader instead of enlightening 
him. 
Most of the fibres run parallel with the vocal ligaments, 
taking the same somewhat curved line (PL X., 1,2, 3, 4) ; 
many run right up into the pocket ligaments, and the 
rest run in almost every other direction, the whole being 
so entangled as to make it a hopeless task to classify 
them. The action of the shield-pyramid muscles is 
fourfold : 
1. They relax the vocal ligaments. 
2. They twist the pyramids by pulling at the muscular 
processes, thereby approximating the vocal processes. 
3. They press towards the interior, thereby bringing 
larger portions of the vocal ligaments in contact with 64 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
each other, thus reducing the length of the vocal chink ; 
and, 
4. Their outer vertical fibres, by contracting, diminish 
the diameter of the inner portion of the shield-pyramid 
muscles and of the vocal ligaments, making them flatter 
and thinner. 
That the last described action is not, as might perhaps 
be imagined, merely a matter of speculation will be proved 
in another chapter, and it will then be seen that this action 
is of the greatest importance in connection with the forma- 
tion of one of the so-called registers of the voice. In the 
meantime it will be observed that while in some ways it is 
the function of the shield-pyramid muscles to lower the 
pitch of the voice, it is also their function under other 
conditions to raise the pitch. 
In accordance with the structure just explained the 
shield-pyramid muscles have, in these later days, been called 
the “ sphincter* muscle ” of the glottis. They have also 
been called the “ vocal muscles,” since they play so 
important a part in the formation of all vocal tone that a 
paralysis of them causes total loss of voice. 
These two pairs of muscles, then, namely the ring-shield 
muscles (PI. XL, 1, 2, 3) and the shield-pyramid muscles 
(PI. X., 1, 2, 3, 4), by stretching, slackening, and compress- 
ing the vocal ligaments, mainly govern the pitch of the 
tones produced by their vibrations. The ring-shield 
muscles receive some assistance in stretching the vocal 
ligaments from another quarter, of which we shall speak 
later on. ' 
We have now had a view of the vocal ligaments, and 
we have seen by what means their tension is altered. As, 
* Sphincter is an anatomical term applied to circular muscles which 
constrict or close certain natural orifices. THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
65 
however, in a state of repose the ligaments diverge behind, 
they must be brought parallel to each other before they 
are ready for the production of sound. In order to 
explain how this is done let us imagine that we have cut 
off that part of the pyramids which is standing out above 
the vocal ligaments (PL IX., p. 57), and let us now have a 
look at these parts from above. You see the ligaments 
(PL XII., A, 1, 2), a section of the pyramids (PL XII., A, 3, 
4), and uniting these an elastic band (PL XII., A, 5). These 
parts are commonly called the “ glottis,” and anatomists 
distinguish a ligamentous glottis formed by the vocal liga- 
XII.—A, Glottis in 
Repose. 
B, Glottis in deep 
Breathing. 
C, Glottis in the 
Production of Tone. 
1, 2. Vocal ligaments. 
3, 4. Section of the pyramids. 
5 Elastic band. 
6, 7. Muscular processes. 
S, 9. Vocal processes. 
ments, and a cartilaginous glottis formed by the pyramids. 
The term glottis really signifies the “ tongues ” or 
“ tonguelets ” (lingulcz laryngis) of the larynx, and as the 
pyramids do not, by any vibrations of their own, take a 
part in the production of tone, the appellation belongs, 
strictly speaking, to the vocal ligaments alone. Un- 
fortunately matters are still further complicated by the 
additional use of the name glottis for the chink between 
the ligaments, and this leads to unnecessary difficulties and 
incongruities. Medical men speak of “spasms of the 
glottis,” and singing masters of the “ shock of the glottis,” 66 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
which terms are quite meaningless when applied to a 
space. The chink just spoken of is also called in physio- 
logical works the “ aperture of the glottis ” or “ rima 
glottidis,” and there appears to be no reason why such an 
appellation should not be exclusively used for it, reserving 
the term glottis for the vocal ligaments. 
Here, as in all other cases, it is most desirable to have a 
clear definition of terms, and we shall therefore use the 
XIII.—View of a Section of the Voice-box or Larynx from above. 
i, 2. Muscular processes of the pyra- 
mid cartilages. 
3, 3. Ring cartilage. 
4,1 & 5,2. Back ring-pyramid mus- 
cles (Posterior crico-arytenoidei). 
6, 7. Vocal processes of the pyramid 
cartilages. 
6,11 & 7,12. Vocal ligaments. 
8. Pyramid muscle (arytenoideus trans- 
versus). 
9 & 10. Elsberg’s “ vocal nodules.” 
11 & 12. Sesamoid cartilages. 
13, 14. Shield cartilage. 
15 & 16. Side ring-pyramid muscles 
(lateral crico-arytenoidei). 
17 & 18. Shield-pyramid muscles (thyro- 
arytenoidei). 
19 & 20. Bands by means of which the 
pyramids are attached to the 
ring. 
word “ glottis ” only to designate the vibrating element 
of the larynx, while distinguishing the space enclosed by 
it as the “ chink of the glottis,” when referring to variations 
of its shape in production of tone, or the “vocal chink” 
when alluded to generally. 
On Plate XIII. are seen all parts in a state of rest. 
This illustration, which has given us more trouble to 
perfect than any other, should be very carefully studied 
by the reader, as it gives a very complete view of the THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
67 
dissected larynx seen from above, and if thoroughly com- 
prehended will greatly aid interpretation of the others. To 
the muscular processes of the pyramids (PI. XIII., i and 2) 
a pair of muscles is attached, the bases of which are fixed 
upon the back of the ring cartilage below (PI. XIII., 4 and 
5). The action of these “ back ring-pyramid muscles,” or 
posterior crico-arytenoidei (PI. XIII., 4, 1 and 5, 2), is to 
contract as soon as we take breath, thereby drawing 
together the pyramids behind and separating them in front, 
at the same time stretching the elastic band behind. By 
this movement the chink of the glottis is thrown wide 
open into the shape depicted on PI. XII. B. During 
expiration the back ring-pyramid muscles relax, the elastic 
band contracts, and the vocal chink resumes the shape as 
on PI. XII. A. These movements go on from the begin- 
ning of our lives to the end, whether we are asleep or 
awake, with more or less vigour, according as we take a 
slight or a deep inspiration. The back ring-pyramid 
muscles (PI. XIII., 4, 1 and 5, 2) have consequently the all- 
important function of keeping open the gate through 
which the air we breathe enters the lungs. They have, 
therefore, been poetically called the “guardians of the 
portal of life.” By their action of pulling the pyramids 
backwards, they also assist the ring-shield muscles (PI. XL, 
1, 2, 3) in stretching the vocal ligaments. 
In opposition to these “ opening muscles ” there is 
another pair rising from the side borders of the ring 
(PI. XIII. 3, 3), which are fastened to the front part of the 
muscular processes of the pyramids (PI. XIII., 1 and 2), 
serving to draw together the vocal processes (PI. XIII., 6 
and 7) to which the vocal ligaments are attached, and 
which are thereby brought parallel with each other. 
These “ side ring-pyramid muscles ” or lateral crico- 68 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
arytenoidei (PI. XIII., 15 and 16; see also PI. X., 5, 7, p. 
60) are assisted by a single muscle uniting the pyramids be- 
hind the elastic band which we have already noticed. This 
muscle we will call the “ pyramid muscle ” or arytenoideus 
(PI. XIII., 8). By the united action of the muscles which 
have just been described, and which may be termed the 
“ closing muscles,” the vocal chink is thrown in the shape 
shown on PI, XII. C., and the vocal ligaments are now in 
a proper position for the production of tone. 
Before proceeding farther it will be well if we once more 
glance at the muscles with which we have become ac- 
quainted, so that we may be quite sure about their 
functions. 
MUSCLES. 
I. GOVERNING THE SHAPE OF THE VOCAL CHINK. 
The back ring-pyramid 
muscles or posterior crico- 
arytenoidei. 
Opening the vocal chink 
The side ring-pyramid 
muscles or lateral crico-aryte- 
noidei, and the pyramid mus- 
cle or arytenoideus, assisted 
by the shield-pyramid mus- 
cles or thyro-arytenoidei. 
Closing the vocal chink, 
11. GOVERNING THE PITCH OF THE VOICE. 
The ring-shield muscles 
or crico-thyroidei, assisted by the 
back ring-pyramid muscles 
or posterior crico-arytenoidei. 
Stretching the vocal liga- 
ments. 
The shield-pyramid mus- 
cles or thyro-arytenoidei. 
Slackening or compress- 
ing the vocal ligaments. THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
69 
The Pocket Ligaments or false vocal cords are a pair 
of horizontal projections running above and parallel with 
the vocal ligaments. In order to get a clear conception of 
this as well as the remaining parts of the voice-box, some 
of which are very minute, it will be necessary to study 
XlV.—Side View of the Voice-box or Larynx showing the Left 
Pocket and Mucous Folds. 
1,2. Left vocal ligament. 
3. Elevation indicating the left buffer 
cartilage (cartilage of Santorini). 
4.5, 2,1, Entrance to the left pocket. 
4.5. Left pocket ligament. 
6. Elevation indicating the left carti- 
lage of Wrisberg with the prop 
cartilage (cuneiform cartilage) 
running down to 4. 
7. Mucous fold (ary-epiglottic) con- 
necting the pyramid cartilage with 
the lid. 
8. Pyramid muscle. 
them in detail. Let us therefore look at the annexed 
drawing, showing the interior of the left half of the larynx, 
which we now see, for the first time, covered with mucous 
membrane, that is to say, in its natural state. 
We recognise the vocal ligament (PI. XIV., i, 2), and 
we see its insertion in the shield cartilage (PI. XIV., 2), but VOICE, AO7VG, AND SPEECH. 
the pyramid for which we look on the left of the drawing, 
and to which, as we know, the other end of the vocal 
ligament is attached, is hidden from our view though we 
can just trace its curved outline slanting upward and back- 
ward (PL XIV., i, 3). 
Above the vocal ligament we see another horizontal pro- 
jection (PL XIV., 4, 5), which, like the vocal ligament, is 
attached in front (on the right of the drawing) to the 
shield cartilage, and behind (on the left of the drawing) to 
the pyramid. It must be observed, however, as a matter 
of some practical importance, that while the two points of 
insertion in front (PL XIV., 2 and 5) are vertically in a 
straight line, or, in other words, one exactly above the 
other, the two points of insertion behind (PL XIV., 1 and 
4) are not so placed, No. 4 being inserted more outwardly 
than No. 1. Let it be noticed also that the upper pro- 
jection (PL XIV., 4, 5) does not form a straight line, but a 
curve, resembling that of the lid of the open eye. This 
curved, horizontal projection, the position of which has 
thus been indicated, is the left pocket ligament. 
The Pockets of the Larynx or ventricles of Morgagni 
are two cavities, the functions of which are described by 
various writers in the most conflicting manner. The 
space between the vocal ligament and the pocket ligament 
(PL XIV., 1, 2, 4, 5) is the entrance to the left pocket, 
the pocket itself being behind. Professor Struthers, of 
Aberdeen University, compares this arrangement to a fire- 
place with the chimney behind. The fireplace enters the 
wall in a horizontal direction, and merges into the chimney, 
which runs behind it in a vertical direction. The opening 
1, 2, 4, 5, corresponds to the fireplace, and the pocket 
behind it to the chimney, with this difference, that the 
chimney is open at the top and passes out of the house, THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX. 
71 
while the pocket is closed at the top and remains in the 
larynx. The height of different pockets varies greatly ; as 
a rule it does not exceed two-fifths of an inch, so that their 
terminations do not reach the upper border of the shield 
cartilage. But there are instances in which the pockets 
are nearly three-quarters of an inch high; and where 
such is the case they, as a necessary consequence, reach 
beyond the shield. Sometimes they are so high as 
nearly to touch the root of the tongue, while in other 
cases they are quite shallow. Their outer walls are chiefly- 
formed of loose, fatty, cellular tissue, and they are almost 
entirely surrounded by a multitude of minute glands. 
The Cartilages of Santorini, so called after their 
discoverer, are two small pliable cartilages attached to the 
summits of the pyramids which they protect from the 
pressure of the lid striking against them in the act of 
swallowing. In accordance with this function they have 
been named the “ buffer cartilages.” (‘ The Throat and its 
Functions.’ Louis Elsberg, M.D., he. New York: 
G. P. Putnam h Sons, p. 31). In our drawing (PI. XIV., 
3) we see an elevation of the mucous membrane, indi- 
cating one of them on the top of the left pyramid. 
From the buffer cartilage (PI. XIV., 3), running up to 
the lid (PI. XIV., 7), there is a fold of mucous membrane 
[aryteno-epiglottic fold), and there is, of course, a corre- 
sponding fold in the right half of the larynx. These folds 
of mucous membrane are stiffened by two little strips of 
gristle called the cuneiform cartilages which consequently 
also go by the appropriate name of the “ prop cartilages ” 
(Elsberg, op. cit., p. 31). The enlarged upper terminations 
of the prop cartilages are called the “cartilages of Wris- 
berg.” The left one of these is shown in our drawing 
(PI. XIV., 6), and the prop itself may be traced through 72 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the mucous membrane running in a downward direction 
(PL XIV., 6, 4). 
We are now in a position to understand the next drawing 
(PL XV.), and to examine it in detail. It represents an 
entire larynx cut open from behind, and we have no diffi- 
culty in recognising the parts described above. If we 
XV.—View of the Voice-box or Larynx cut open from behind. 
i, 2. Ring cartilage. 
3, 4. Pyramid muscle. 
5 & 6. Vocal ligaments. 
5, 7, 6, 8. Entrances to the pockets. 
7 & 8. Pocket ligaments. 
9, 10. Cartilages of Santorini. 
11 & 12. Cartilages of Wrisberg. 
11, 13 & 12, 14. Ary-epiglottic folds. 
15. Lid. 
16. Windpipe. 
17. Cushion of the lid. 
x 8 & 19. Prop cartilages. 
could bend it so as to unite the two ends of the ring 
cartilage (PL XV., 1 and 2), and the two ends of the 
pyramid muscle (PL XV., 3 and 4), we should give the 
larynx its natural shape. The vocal ligaments (PL XV., 
5 and 6) and the pocket ligaments (PL XV., 7 and 8) 
would run in a forward direction, meeting in front, and THE VOICE-BOX OB LARYNX. 
73 
diverging a little behind, and above these there would be a 
kind of tube called the “ vestibule of the larynx.” 
The upper rim of the vestibule is formed by the two 
buffer cartilages (PL XVI., 12, and 9), by the two cartilages 
of Wrisberg (PI. XVI., 10 and 13), the two folds of mucous 
membrane running up to the lid (PI. XVI., 10, n, 13 and 
XVI.—The Voice-box or Larynx seen from behind, 
1, 2. Ring cartilage. 
3, 4. Pyramid muscle. 
5 & 6. Shield. 
7 & 8. Tongue bone. 
9 & 12. Cartilages of Santorini, 
10 & 13. Cartilages of Wrisberg. 
11, 15, 14. Lid. 
16. Windpipe. 
17. Cushion of the lid. 
18 & 19. Back ring-pyramid muscles. 
20, 21 & 22, 23. Constrictors of the 
vestibule. 
14), and by the top of the lid (PI. XVI., 15). The 
vestibule of the larynx extends downwards as far as the 
pocket ligaments, and we observe in its sides the prop 
cartilages (PI, XV., 18 and 19), which, as we have seen 
above, help to keep it open. We also notice, just above 
the point at which the pocket ligaments meet, an elevation 
(PI. XV., 17) which is called the “cushion” of the epiglottis. 74 
VOICE, AND SPEECH. 
Through the vestibule (PI. XVI., 12, 10, 11, 15, 14, 13, 
9) the air passes in respiration, and the sound in singing 
and speaking, and we have to look down this tube with the 
laryngoscope when we wish to study the conditions of the 
larynx in the act of producing tone. The food we take 
passes over this tube, and we know that its mouth is 
covered for this purpose by the lid. But we have also 
seen that the upper free part of the epiglottis (PI. XVI., 
15), which could alone cover it, is entirely wanting in some 
persons, and that they, nevertheless, do not experience any 
difficulty in swallowing. There must, therefore, be 
additional safeguards, and we discover, upon closer ex- 
amination, an arrangement which is as simple as it is 
effective, and which consists in the pressing together of 
the vocal ligaments and of the pocket ligaments. The 
closure of the pocket ligaments is effected by the vertical 
bundles of the outer portions of the shield-pyramid muscles, 
and by contraction of the “ constrictor ” of the vestibule 
(arytenoideus constrictor vestibuli laryngis) (PI. XVI., 20, 
21 and 22, 23), which passes up from the bases of the 
pyramids to the lid encircling the tapering points of the 
pyramids just below the buffers, and then stretching itself 
over the prop cartilages. 
Plate XVI. will explain this matter more clearly than 
any verbal description, and we have now learnt that the 
closure of the larynx is brought about by three factors, 
namely, the vocal ligaments, the pocket ligaments, and the 
lid. Although, therefore, the lid must ever be regarded as 
the chief means of closing the larynx, yet we can easily 
understand how, in its absence, the other parts just 
enumerated can supply its place, and effectually protect 
the voice-box from any intruding foreign substances. 
It will be useful to point out here that the closing of THE VO ICE-BOX OB LARYNX. 
75 
the larynx and the closing of the glottis are two very 
different things. The larynx is closed in swallowing, in 
vomiting, and by the effort of squeezing or pressing to- 
gether the throat, as when making violent efforts of 
straining or of lifting; but it is doubtful whether in 
any case the pocket ligaments can be sufficiently pressed 
together behind to make the closure really airtight, because 
their points of insertion are not, as we have before re- 
marked, in the middle line of the larynx, but a little to 
the right and left of it, and we shall see what elaborate means 
are necessary to bring them into entire contact in experi- 
ments upon dead larynges (see p. 143). But however 
this may be, it is quite certain that in the production of 
tone the pocket ligaments, while in a healthy state, never 
meet, and that the glottis alone is closed. This is a fact 
of which there cannot be the shadow of a doubt in the 
mind of the merest tyro with the laryngoscope. 
The pockets are the means of isolating the vocal liga- 
ments, thus affording them room to range themselves and 
to vibrate freely and without hindrance. They also allow 
the sound-waves to expand sideways; and lastly, they 
produce, with their many little glands, moisture for 
the lubrication of the vocal ligaments, without which 
moisture, according to the investigations of J. Muller, the 
production of tone cannot be carried on. (‘Ueber die 
Compensation der physischen Krafte am menschlichen 
Stimmorgan,’ p. 8. Berlin, 1839). 
The prop cartilages (PI. XV., 18 and 19) now require a 
little additional attention. They have, according to some 
writers, the shape of the letter L, and their little horizontal 
arms extend into the vocal ligaments, enabling them to 
remain partly closed and to let only a part of their length 
vibrate in the production of tone. The little horizontal 76 
VOICE, s<9jV£, SPEECH. 
arms of the prop cartilages are, in fact, by one of these 
authors considered to constitute the mechanism of the so- 
called “ head voice,” i.e. the highest register of the female 
voice. 
Madame Seiler says that they “ reach to the middle of 
the vocal ligaments by which they are enveloped.” 
(c Voice in Singing.’ Philadelphia ; J. B. Lippincott & Co., 
p. 189.) 
Dr. Witkowski (‘ The Mechanism of Voice, Speech, and 
Taste.’ Translated and edited by Lennox Browne. 
London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, p. 12) gives a descrip- 
tion of these cartilages which corresponds very closely with 
that of Madame Seiler. Speaking of some of the glands 
of the voice-box he says: “ They are arranged in the form 
of an L, whose vertical branch goes along the arytenoid 
cartilages, the horizontal branch following the direction 
of the vocal cords. There is often found situated in the 
midst of this group of glands the cuneiform cartilage of 
Wrisberg, sometimes reduced to a mere cartilaginous 
granule.” 
Dr. Elsberg (op. cit., p. 37) calls them the “posterior 
vocal nodules,” and describes them as “ elongated nodules ” 
in the hinder portion of the vocal ligaments, and says they 
are found “more often in the female than in the male sex” 
(PI. XIIL, 9 and 10, p. 66). 
A description of the larynx would not be complete with- 
out mentioning yet another pair of very minute cartilages 
called the “ anterior vocal nodules,” or sesamoidea ante- 
riores (PL XIIL, n and 12), although it is not clear what 
function they have beyond, perhaps, toughening the vocal 
ligaments at their points of attachment to the shield 
cartilage. THE RESONATOR OF THE VOCAL ORGAN. 
The Resonator consists of— 
i. The pockets; 
2. The pocket ligaments ; 
3. The vestibule ; 
4. The lid; 
5. The upper part of the throat, or pharynx ; 
6. The cavities of the nose ; and, 
7. The mouth. 
It has already been pointed out on p. 75 that the pockets 
allow the tone-waves to expand sideways. This must 
undoubtedly have some influence upon the quality of the 
tone, and the size of the pockets, which, as we have seen 
before, greatly varies in different persons, may therefore 
safely be assumed to be of some consequence in this 
direction. They are compared by some authors with the 
membranous bladders which protrude from the necks of 
certain frogs when croaking; or with the enormous 
pouches of the myceles, or howling monkeys of America, 
whose voices are louder than the roaring of lions. The 
pockets of the human larynx, in proportion to the neigh- 
bouring parts, are, however, so small that there is no 
justification for these fantastic comparisons, which are the 
more easily shown to be valueless when it is remembered 
that such animals as the tiger, or the ox, which are 
certainly not deficient in voice power, have no laryngeal 
pockets at all. 
Let us now suppose the tone to emerge from the 
pockets; in its upward course it next strikes against the 
edges of the pocket ligaments, and their thinness or 78 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
thickness, sharpness or roundness, cannot fail in some way 
to affect it. The tone next passes through the vestibule, 
which, as we know, is capable of being contracted or 
dilated, and it then comes into contact with the lid or 
epiglottis, which probably varies more in size, shape, and 
position in different persons than any other part of the 
vocal apparatus. In some it is scarcely three-quarters of 
an inch high, while in others it is of such a size as to 
project over the tongue, so that it may be seen as soon as 
the mouth is opened. It may be barely turned over a 
little at the top, or it may be rolled up like a piece of 
cinnamon bark. It may stand up nearly perpendicularly, 
leaving the larynx quite free, or it may slant backwards so 
as to hang over the voice-box. While, however, the shape, 
size, and position of the lid varies in different persons, its 
position is also continually varying in the same individuals. 
It is quite plain from the foregoing considerations that 
the lid is the means of more or less suddenly and abruptly 
turning the tone-waves and of directing them under one 
angle or another against the back of the throat whence 
they are reflected into the mouth. We are therefore 
justified in concluding that the lid has some considerable 
influence upon the quality of the voice. It may thus be 
the cause of certain characteristics which enable us to 
recognise the voice of a friend though we do not see him ; 
and it may also account for some similarities of voice 
which are found in many families, just as there are 
similarities of features. We put this forth, to a consider- 
able extent, as a matter of conjecture, which has neverthe- 
less sufficient foundation in fact to be interesting as a 
problem in the production of voice which may one day be 
satisfactorilv solved. 
The Upper Part of the Throat, otherwise called THE RES ON A TOR. 
79 
in medical works the pharynx, is a cavity, the largest 
part of which may be seen through the arch at the back 
of the open mouth. The gullet and the larynx open 
into it from below, and the mouth and the nostrils from 
above; it also communicates with the drums of the ears 
by means of two narrow channels called the “ Eustachian 
tubes.” 
The Cavities of the Nose have for their base the hard 
and soft palate (PI. 111., H and S, p. 39), and they are 
divided by a bony partition. Each cavity consists of three 
channels, of which we are here only concerned with two, as 
the third answers a purpose outside our present subject. 
These channels are very irregular in construction, and they 
are so contrived as to temperate the air we inhale so that it 
may not strike cold into the vocal apparatus. They are 
also, like the air-passages below, lined with a mucous 
membrane provided with those wonderful little hair-like 
projections called cilia, pointing in an outward direction 
and continually executing to-and-fro movements from 
back to front. This arrangement, combined with the 
glairy fluid secreted by the innumerable tiny glands of the 
mucous membrane, enables the nasal cavities to arrest all 
impurities of the air which would otherwise And their way 
into the larynx and the wind-pipe or even into the lungs. 
The cavities of the nose, therefore, temperate and purify 
the air we inhale, and they may be regarded as a natural 
“ respirator.” 
The Mouth or hiccal cavity is the space between the 
lips in front and the pharynx behind. We are all familiar 
with the shape of the lips, the tongue, and the teeth, and 
we are also acquainted with their movements and functions. 
The only part of the mouth, therefore, of which it is 
necessary here to give a description is the palate. This is VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
divided into two portions, namely, the hard palate in front, 
and the soft palate behind. 
The Hard Pvlate is the hard bony portion of the 
roof of the mouth, and is bounded in front and at the 
sides by the sockets of the teeth in the upper jaw, while 
behind it terminates in the soft palate. It is covered with 
mucous membrane, and having the shape of a dome, not 
XVII.—The Soft Palate. 
1. Soft Palate. 
2. Uvula. 
3 & 4. Anterior pillars of the fauces. 
5 & 6. Posterior pillars of the fauces. 
7 & 8. Tonsils. 
(The space between the pillars 3, 4 
and 5, 6, is called the “fauces.”) 
only forms the roof of the mouth, but also the floor of 
the nasal cavities. 
The Soft Palate (PL XVII., i) is the movable par- 
tition we see at the back of the mouth, and it is formed by 
a variety of muscles which are covered by a continuation 
of the mucous membrane which lines the hard palate. It 
has the shape of an arch with two curved muscular ridges 
on either side which are called the “ pillars of the fauces.” THE RESONATOR. 
81 
The anterior pillars (PI. XVII., 3 and 4) contain a pair 
of muscles (palato-glossi) which by their contraction 
straighten and tighten them, thereby bringing them 
closer together and narrowing the space between them 
called the “ isthmus of the fauces.” 
The posterior pillars (PI. XVII., 5 and 6) contain another 
pair of muscles (palato-pharyngei) which rise from the 
upper horns of the shield cartilage, and which, by their 
contraction, not only approximate the posterior pillars of 
the fauces, but also the plates of the shield, thereby 
narrowing the space between them. 
The Uvula (PI. XVII., 2) is the little grape-shaped 
pendant hanging down from the centre of the soft palate. 
It chiefly consists of a muscle (azygos-uvulae) which runs 
into the middle line of the soft palate, and which has the 
power of shortening, elevating, and retracting the uvula. 
The reader will get a clear idea of its action by carefully 
comparing the photographs facing' page 215, which show 
the uvula in different stages of contraction. 
In addition to the muscles described above we have 
still to notice the “ tensor ” and the “ elevator ” which, as 
indicated by their names, serve to tighten and to raise the 
soft palate. 
Having thus studied the various parts of which the soft 
palate is composed, we can readily understand that it is of a 
highly mobile nature. It is, in fact, a movable partition, 
by means of which either the mouth or the nasal cavities 
can be almost completely separated from the throat. In 
order fully to understand this the reader is recommended 
to look at the lines indicating the “ voice passage ” and the 
“air passage” on Plate 111., p. 39, If the nasal cavities are 
to be shut off from the throat the soft palate is raised and 
pressed against the back of the pharynx. The closure is 82 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
aided by a sort of cushion being formed upon the back of 
the uvula by the contraction of the muscle which elevates 
that body. If the mouth is to be shut off from the 
throat, the soft palate is lowered, and rests closely upon 
the back of the tongue. 
The soft palate plays a most important part in vocal- 
isation. In the formation of all pure vowel sounds it is 
raised' thereby more or less tightly closing the nasal 
cavities, and it has been found that the closure is modified 
for the different vowel sounds as follows: 
It is loosest for ah, tighter for ai, tighter again for oh, 
tighter still for 00, tightest of all for ee. 
This has been clearly shown by Czermak in the following 
manner. Lying down on his back, he had the nasal 
cavities filled with tepid water. He then uttered the 
various vowel sounds, and ascertained from the quantity of 
water required to force open the closure formed by the 
soft palate the degree of tightness for each vowel. He 
afterwards constructed a very ingenious apparatus, by means 
of which, in one of his lectures, he demonstrated this fact 
to his audience. 
The soft palate also gradually rises as we sing up the 
scale, and it occupies a different position for every different 
pitch; it stands, however, lower in “ falsetto ” than in the 
corresponding high “ chest ” tones. It must also be 
observed that the closure of the soft palate is never 
sufficiently tight entirely to prevent the setting up of 
co-vibrations in the nasal cavities with those passing from 
the pharynx into the mouth. DIFFERENCES OF THE LARYNX IN 
CHILDREN, WOMEN, AND MEN. 
The larynx of a newly-born baby is about a third the 
size of that of a woman, but it appears smaller because it 
is closer to the tongue-bone than at a later period, and its 
outer surface, consisting of the two plates of the shield 
cartilage, forms a very insignificant curve instead of that 
acute angle which we notice in the larynx of men. The 
voice-box grows very rapidly up to the third year, and less 
quickly up to the sixth, and from this time up to the 
fourteenth or fifteenth year there would seem to be no 
alteration in its proportions, and it is very much the same 
in boys as in girls. The voice remains all this time the 
same in pitch though it increases in compass, and its 
vibrational number does not exceed that of grown-up 
women. 
At the time of puberty, which generally takes place at 
the age of fourteen or fifteen, but sometimes a couple of 
years sooner or later, the larynx grows rapidly during a 
period of from six months to two or three years, until it 
attains its final size. In boys it alters in the proportions of 
from sto 10, and in girls from sto 7. The larynx is at 
this time more or less red, and the tissue loose; the vocal 
ligaments increase not only in length but also in thickness. 
In boys the shield cartilage loses the gentle curve, and 
forms the prominence which goes under the name of the 
“ Adam’s apple ; ” the larynx in its entirety increases more 84 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
in depth than in height, with the result of adding to the 
length of the vocal ligaments, thereby producing lower 
tones. In girls the larynx increases more in height than 
in depth and width, and the horizontal outline of the shield 
does not lose its evenness. The vocal ligaments remain 
shorter and thinner than in the male voice-box. At this 
time the voices are said to be breaking, and it will easily be 
understood from the above explanation why the child’s 
voice of the boy changes into the tenor or bass of the 
man, while the difference in girls is but slight and so 
gradual as frequently to be almost imperceptible. The 
uncertainty of the boy’s voice during the time of mutation 
is a curious phenomenon, and, assuming the growth of the 
larynx to take place in all its component parts at the same 
rate, not easily accounted for. The explanation is pro- 
bably that the cartilages grow faster than the muscles, and 
that the muscles consequently lose control over the 
cartilages until everything is finally and permanently re- 
adjusted.* 
We have thus seen that while before the period of 
puberty the voice-box is materially the same in both sexes, 
there are afterwards considerable differences noticeable, not 
only with regard to size, but also with regard to shape. 
Of this we can, to a large extent, satisfy ourselves by 
simply comparing the throat of a woman with that of a 
man, as the one is round and smooth, while the other 
shows a more or less marked protuberance. These dif- 
ferences may be more clearly observed in exsected larynges, 
i.e. in voice-boxes cut out of dead bodies; and we find:— 
* “ It is said that the celebrated Lablache found his voice changed into 
an excellent bass in a single night, after having, on the previous day, taxed 
his voice to the utmost at a festival of the church.” (James Hunt, op. 
cit., p. 111.) DIFFERENCES IN THE LARYNX. 
85 
i. That the female larynx is about one-third smaller 
than the male. 
1. That all its cartilages are thinner and more delicate. 
3. That the outer horizontal contour of the female 
shield cartilage is round and even, while that of the male 
forms an acute angle. 
4. That the part from the pocket ligaments upwards is 
comparatively lower in the female voice-box than in the 
male, and much less developed. 
5. That the upper horns of the female larynx are 
comparatively shorter than those of the male. 
6. That consequently the female larynx is much more 
closely attached to the tongue-bone than the male, which 
causes the position of the voice-box to be altogether 
higher in women than in men. 
The following average measurements, taken from 
Luschka’s great work on the larynx (‘ Der Kehlkopf des 
Menschen.’ Hubert v. Luschka, M.D., &c. Tubingen, 
1871. H. Laupp), and reduced from centimetres and 
millimetres to inches (Behnke, op. cit., p. 64), show at a 
glance the difference in the proportions of the male and of 
the female larynx : 
Male. Female. 
Height of voice-box in front with the lid 
raised ...... 
2f in- Ito in. 
(7 cent.) (4-8 cent.) 
Greatest width between the plates of the 
shield cartilage ..... 
if in. if in. 
(4 cent.) (3 • 5 cent.) 
Depth between the lower border of the shield 
cartilage and the opposite point of the 
ring cartilage ..... 
if in, 1 in. 
(3 cent.) (2-4 cent.) 
Length of the vocal chink . . . . 
& 
1 in. | in. 
(25 mm.) (15 mm.) 
If there were no difference between the male and female 
larynx except that of size, all their proportions would, of 86 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
course, be the same. But we see from the above table 
that this is not the case, and we now append the result. 
Differences between the proportions of male and female 
voice-boxes : 
In height . . . . T% of an inch. 
In width ...... f „ 
In depth ...... f „ 
In length of the vocal chink . f „ 
With age the cartilages of the male larynx ossify, while 
in women a kind of second mutation takes place, and in 
consequence of these changes the voice loses in power, 
beauty, and flexibility. But continual practice appears to 
counteract this process to a great extent; at all events, 
there are many exceptions to the rule, as most of our 
readers know from their own personal observation. 
MOVEMENTS OF THE LARYNX WHICH CAN 
BE SEEN OR FELT. 
The larynx of men in a state of rest occupies a position 
in the middle of the throat, while that of women stands, 
for reasons already explained in the last chapter, consider- 
ably higher. We have also seen, on a former occasion, 
that the voice-box is attached by ligaments to the tongue- 
bone, and that the tongue-bone is firmly connected with 
the root of the tongue. The consequence is that every 
movement of the tongue affects the position of the 
larynx. In addition to this there are the so-called ex- 
trinsic laryngeal muscles which may be briefly described 
as the “ elevators ” and the “ depressors,” and which have 
the power, as implied by their names, of raising or 
lowering the larynx. 
The larynx goes down in Aspiration, reaching a lower MOVEMENTS OF THE LARYNX. 
87 
point and falling more rapidly the deeper and the more 
vigorous the inflation. By opening the mouth more or 
less widely we cause the voice-box to execute correspond- 
ing downward movements. In singing, a gradual lowering 
of it is noticeable as we go down the scale. But the 
descent of the larynx is complete in the acts of sucking 
and of yawning, when it assumes so low a position in the 
throat that the whole of the windpipe and even a part of 
the ring cartilage disappears in the chest. 
The larynx goes up in orpiration, when the extent and 
speed of the movement obviously, to a great extent, 
depend upon the nature of the preceding inspiration. It 
is also clear that we must be raising the larynx by shutting 
the mouth, if by opening it we had previously lowered the 
voice-box. In singing up the scale the larynx gradually 
rises, though in changing the mode of tone production it 
stands lower for the first tones of the higher “ register ” 
than for the last tones of the corresponding lower register. 
It must be also borne in mind that it is quite possible, and 
under certain circumstances even necessary, to limit these 
movements to a considerable extent. The highest position 
is occupied by the larynx in the act of swallowing, when it 
rises so completely as to be no longer noticeable in the 
throat. 
Further, the larynx occupies different positions in the 
throat in whispering various vowel sounds. It stands 
lowest for oo and highest for ee, the succession being as 
follows: 00, oh, ah, ai, ee. 88 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
THE HUMAN VOICE AS A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT. 
“Physiologists,” says Dr. Witkowski (op. cit., p. i), “are 
quite at issue when they endeavour to determine what kind 
of instrument the vocal organ resembles ; indeed Galien 
compares it to a flute, Magendie to a hautboy, Despinez 
to a trombone* Diday to a hunting-horn, Savart to a 
bird-catcher’s call, Biot to an organ-pipe, Malgaigne to 
the little instrument used by the exhibitors of “ Punch,” 
and Ferrein to a spinet or harpsichord. The last named 
compared the lips of the glottis to the strings of a violin; 
hence was given the name vocal cords, which they have 
since retained. The current of air was the bow, the 
thyroid cartilages the points d'appui, the arytenoids the 
pegs, and, lastly, the muscles inserted in them the power 
which tensed or relaxed the cords.” 
Of the above theories there are three which seem par- 
ticularly plausible, and which we must therefore examine. 
i. The String Theory.—The vocal ligaments were 
compared 200 years ago by Ferrein to vibrating strings, 
and as the sounds of both are raised by tension there 
seem, at first sight, to be good grounds for this compari- 
son. We have since learnt, what Ferrein did not know, 
that the tone of the vocal ligaments may be raised, like 
that of strings, by shortening, which fact goes a long way 
towards confirming his theory. Nevertheless, the compari- 
son breaks down as soon as we examine it at all carefully, 
for it is found by experiments that the scale of changes 
produced by the tension of strings is totally different from 
that of the same process applied to the vocal ligaments. 
But apart from this it is manifestly impossible for strings as THE VOICE AS A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT. 
89 
short as the vocal ligaments to produce the resonant low tones 
of deep bass voices. The theory that the human voice is a 
stringed instrument must therefore be dismissed as untenable. 
2. The Flute-pipe Theory.—We have seen in the 
chapter on sound that the pitch of tones produced by 
flute-pipes is mainly governed by the length of the tube. 
Now the larynx, as a general rule, stands lower in the 
throat in the production of low tones than in the pro- 
duction of high tones, which, of course, means that the 
vocal tube is longer in the production of low tones and 
shorter in the production of high tones. There would, 
consequently, seem to be some justification in comparing 
the human voice to a flute-pipe. But when we consider 
that it requires an open tube of about six feet to produce 
the low G of any ordinary bass voice, we see at once that 
this comparison cannot for a moment be seriously main- 
tained, and it is therefore unnecessary to enter into details 
concerning the alterations of pitch, &c. 
3. The Reed Theory is the one most generally 
accepted by modern writers, and so far as the actual 
production of the original tones of the voice is concerned it 
is absolutely correct, because the vocal ligaments cut up 
the column of air passing between them into a quick and 
regular succession of puffs, just the same as reeds. If 
nothing else were required to prove the case the human 
voice would undoubtedly have to be considered a reed 
instrument. Let us therefore look into this matter care- 
fully. We have seen in the chapter on sound (p. 29) that 
there are two kinds of reeds, namely, stiff reeds and flexible 
reeds. Our attention can, of course, only be claimed by 
the latter. The pitch of their tones is, as we have learnt, 
almost entirely governed by the length of the tube to 
which they are attached. That is to say, the vibrations of 90 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the column of air in the tube overpower those of the reed 
and compel it to vibrate in sympathy with themselves. 
What this really means will be seen most clearly when it is 
remembered that in instruments like the clarionet and the 
oboe the same reed producing the same tone serves for the 
whole compass, and that the alterations in pitch are solely 
brought about by alterations in the length of the tube. 
Nor is this all. Not only are instruments such as the 
above mentioned capable of producing low tones of a very 
different pitch from those high tones corresponding, or 
nearly corresponding, to the proper tones of their tongues, 
but these high tones are not used in music at all, because 
they are shrill and unpleasant, and their pitch cannot be 
maintained with sufficient certainty. 
There is yet another kind of reed instrument which is 
formed by the human lips in brass instruments, and as 
these form membranous tongues it might be supposed that 
their action, in conjunction with the tube to which they are 
attached, corresponds most exactly to that of the vocal 
ligaments with the cavities above and below them. 
But the lips cannot produce tone by any vibrations of 
their own. “ Babies may be often heard to ‘ trill the lips,’ 
and German coachmen use a very audible lip-trill to stop 
their horses, but in each case the real tone is produced in 
the larynx, and the vibration of the lips only serves to 
interrupt it; these examples, however, allow us to judge of 
the rate of vibration natural to the lips.” (Helmholtz, op. 
cit., p. 147. Footnote by Alexander Ellis.) We also 
know that in horns and trumpets, &c. (without keys), the 
range is limited to the prime tone, with its harmonic upper 
partials, of the tube. “In the use of brass instruments 
the different form and tension of the lips of the player act 
only to determine which of the proper tones of the tube THE VOICE AS. A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT. 
shall speak ; the pitch of the individual tones is almost 
entirely independent of the tension of the lips.” (Helm- 
holtz, op. cit., p. 149.) 
We have thus fully reviewed the nature of reed instru- 
ments with flexible and with membranous tongues, and we 
must now compare their leading characteristics with those 
of the human voice. We see at once the vast difference 
between reeds and the vocal ligaments, inasmuch as the 
latter “ have the advantage over all artificially constructed 
tongues of allowing the width of their slit, their tension, 
and even their form to be altered at pleasure with extra- 
ordinary rapidity and certainty ” (Helmholtz, op. cit., 
p. 147), which is equally true of the vocal ligaments as 
compared with the human lips in playing upon brass 
instruments. 
With regard to the vocal tube we think the truth is 
this: the resonator of the human voice, commencing with 
the pockets of the larynx (or ventricles of Morgagni) and 
ending at the lips and the nostrils, “ admits of much 
variety of form, so that many more qualities of tone can 
be thus produced than on any instrument of artificial con- 
struction” (Helmholtz, op. cit., p. 147.) It has also 
some influence on the pitch. This is proved without the 
shadow of a doubt by the fact, first discovered by Bonders, 
and afterwards worked out more accurately by Helmholtz, 
Merkel, Koenig, and others, that the cavity of the mouth 
for different vowels is tuned to different pitches. We are 
not, as everybody knows by practical experience, hereby 
prevented from hearing the various vowels except on tones 
the partials of which are reinforced by different shapes of 
the cavity of the mouth ; but certain pitches are unques- 
tionably more favourable to some vowels than to others. 
Again, the soft palate contracts more and more, and the VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
92 
arch between the pillars of the fauces gets narrower and 
higher, as we sing up the scale, relaxing again visibly when 
we change, for instance, from “ chest ” to “ falsetto,” just as 
the larynx falls under the same circumstances after it has 
previously risen in the throat. The contraction of the 
pillars of the fauces cannot take place without drawing 
together the upper horns of the larynx, thereby narrowing 
the space between the wings of the shield cartilage ; and 
this movement has the effect of raising the pitch of the 
voice, as any one can prove to himself by imitating it with 
his fingers in the act of singing a tone. 
Finally, we must bear in mind that the windpipe has the 
power, to some extent, of varying its length and calibre, 
and of assuming different degrees of tension. “ The 
experiments of Savart have shown that a cavity which 
only responds to a shrill note when its walls are firm and 
dry, may be made to afford a great variety of lower tones 
when its walls are moistened and relaxed in various 
degrees. This observation may probably be applied also 
to the trachea.” (£ Principles of Human Physiology,’ by 
Dr. Carpenter. London: John Churchill, 7th ed., p. 791.) 
“Sir Charles Wheatstone more than forty years ago 
drew attention to this relation of the variation in tension 
of a tube to a free reed, and illustrated it by the instrument 
known as the Jew’s harp, in which the reed, being set in 
motion, produces one steady bass sound. The variation 
of sounds is produced wholly in proportion as the skill and 
will of the performer varies the cavity of the mouth so as 
to present a succession of volumes of air calculated to 
vibrate the different multiples of the primary bass sound. 
This influence of the tube is by experiment found to be 
the same whether the tube is placed after the reed, as in 
several wind instruments or before and after it, as in the THE VOICE AS A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT. 
93 
vocal organs.” (‘ Medical Hints on the Production and 
Management of the Singing Voice,’ by Lennox Browne, 
F.R.C.S. London : Chappell & Co., p. 27.) 
Under these circumstances we are justified in declining 
to believe that the alterations in the length, shape, and 
tension of the tubes above and below the vocal ligaments 
are entirely without influence upon the pitch of the voice; 
but we are obliged to admit that it plays only a secondary 
part in the matter. The question is admirably summed 
up by Helmholtz in the following words: “In the 
larynx the tension of the vocal chords, which here 
form the membranous tongues, is itself variable, and 
determines the pitch of the tone. The air chambers 
connected with the larynx are not adapted for materially 
altering the tone of the vocal chords. Their walls are so 
yielding that they cannot allow the formation of vibrations 
of the air within them sufficiently powerful to force the 
vocal chords to oscillate with a period which is different 
from that required by their own elasticity. The cavity of 
the mouth is also far too short, and generally too widely 
open, to serve as a resonance chamber which could have 
material influence on the pitch.” (Op, cit., p. 149.) 
It is evident from the foregoing considerations that the 
human voice, the original action of the vocal ligaments 
notwithstanding, is in its entirety no more a reed instru- 
ment than a flute, pipe, or a string instrument. 
There are authors who, having come to the same con- 
clusion, try to compromise matters by asserting that the 
human voice combines the properties of the above-named 
three classes of instruments; but the laws governing reeds, 
flute-pipes, and strings are so totally different as to make 
such a combination a physical impossibility. The fact is 
that the human voice is so immeasurably superior to any 94 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
instrument made by human hands that all attempts at de- 
fining its nature must necessarily fail. “ The vox Humana 
of the Divine Artificer is an incomparably more complex, 
as it is an incomparably more beautiful, instrument than 
any of its compeers. Fearfully and wonderfully is it 
made. Not only is its mechanism more intricate, not 
only are its constituent parts more numerous and delicate 
than those of any artificial organ, but the action of these 
is complicated by conditions from which every other 
instrument is free.” (‘ The Cultivation of the Speaking 
Voice,’ by John Hullah. London: Macmillan & Co,, 
P- 9-) 
PHYSICAL CAUSES OF THE DIVISION OF VOICES. 
We now come to the question how the various classes 
of voice—i.e. soprano, contralto, tenor, and bass—are to be 
accounted for by physical differences. Tone is produced 
by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments ; unquestionably, 
therefore, a voice must be high or low according to the 
number of vibrations the ligaments are capable of pro- 
ducing within a given time. This is in accordance with 
the laws of sound, and admits of no objection. When, 
however, we endeavour to ascertain upon what conditions 
this vibrational number depends, we are met by great 
difficulties, because the subject is still to a great extent 
shrouded in mystery. 
But as a logical consequence of the conclusion at which 
we arrived when discussing the question whether the 
human voice is a reed instrument or not, we are now 
driven to admit that the chief, though not the only, cause 
of the differences between the different classes of voices 
must be sought in the vocal ligaments. CA USES OF DIFFERENCES IN VOICES. 
95 
When we compare the vocal ligaments of a soprano 
with those of a bass we see so great a difference in the 
dimensions of the two pairs of ligaments, i.e. in their 
length, width, and thickness that no one would hesitate as 
to which of the two produced the high voice and which 
the low one. This difference of size is even more striking 
in exsected larynges than in living persons, because in the 
former we can carefully examine the vocal ligaments, not 
only from above, but also from below; and we cannot fail 
to be struck with the fact that the proportions of the male 
larynx as a body are much larger in every direction than 
those of the female. 
So far, then, the matter is clear enough, and goes a long 
way to confirm the principle of small vocal ligaments for 
high voices and of large vocal ligaments for low voices. 
But the difference between the vocal ligaments of soprano 
and contralto on the one hand, and between those of tenor 
and bass on the other, are not always equally marked. It 
is true that, as a rule, the vocal ligaments of soprano and 
tenor are shorter than those of contralto and bass ; but it is 
also true that sometimes the very opposite is the case. 
When the ligaments of contralto and bass are compara- 
tively short, they are thick in proportion ; their tension is 
also small because their thickness is due to the large bulk 
of the shield-pyramid muscles which are contained in 
them, and this enables them to yield less to the stretching- 
influence of the ring-shield muscles than would otherwise 
be the case. 
When the ligaments of soprano and tenor are compara- 
tively long, they are thin in proportion; their tension is 
also relatively great because their thinness is due to the 
small bulk of the shield-pyramid muscles, and this prevents 
them from resisting the stretching influence of the ring- 96 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
shield muscles, as much as would otherwise be the case. 
Under these circumstances the vocal ligaments occupy a 
very slanting position, which causes them to “ speak ” very 
readily, i.e. little power of blast is required to set them in 
vibration. Soprano and tenor voices with such a mechanism 
are of a light and flexible kind, and their higher registers 
are readily united with the lower ones. 
The above statements are confirmed by that great 
authority, Prof. Merkel, of Leipzig, who most minutely 
explains the subject in his latest work on the larynx. 
(‘ Der Kehlkopf,’ by Carl Ludwig Merkel, M.D. Leipzig : 
J. J. Weber.) There are, however, without any doubt, 
other factors besides those enumerated above, which are 
of consequence in determining the particular kind of voice 
to be produced by this or that vocal apparatus, as for 
instance the tube above the vocal ligaments, or the wind- 
pipe, or both. Thus we have seen that a pressing together 
of the upper portion of the shield cartilage has the effect of 
raising the pitch of the voice. It is, therefore, but reason- 
able to infer that larynges in which this part is naturally 
narrower than in others, will produce a higher voice. 
With regard to the trachea, Dr. Jagielski has suggested 
that, “ following a general law, the calibre and length of the 
windpipe is less in short people than in tall, and that, there- 
fore, persons with high voices are generally short in stature. 
Where the singer is tall, with tenor or soprano range, he 
believes that the windpipe branches off very high up, and 
so the tube is lessened in length, and that the wind-pipe 
and larynx are disproportionate to the stature, and vice 
versa where persons of short stature have low voices.” 
(Lennox Browne, op. cit., p. 29.) It is possible that the 
capacity of the chest, the structure of the whole body, or 
even, as imagined by some, the complexion, may have CA USES OF DIFFERENCES IN VOICES. 
97 
something to eta with the kind of voice a person possesses; 
but we have not as yet any knowledge with regard to such 
influences, and they consequently remain for the present a 
matter of speculation. 
To what an extent such speculation is carried by some 
writers may be seen from the following amusing paragraph 
in Musical Opinion, March ist, 1883: “The voice is 
more acute among the inferior than in the higher orders 
of animals, in the birds than in the mammalia, in the 
smaller species than in the larger. The ancient nations 
must have had higher voices, because the Adam’s apple, 
which is the more prominent the lower the voice, was 
regarded as a deformity. In proportion as races are 
developed the antero-posterior diameter of the larynx is 
increased. The Adam’s apple becomes more and more 
pronounced, and the voice tends constantly to become 
lower. The primitive peoples of Europe must have had 
nothing but tenor voices; their actual descendants are 
baritones; our posterity in the future, according to the 
doctor’s theory, will be all bassos. We are descending 
the scale of sounds. The races which are still in the rear 
of civilisation ought, therefore, at the present moment, 
says Dr. Delaunay, to have higher voices than the white 
races. This, he affirms, is the case with the negroes and 
the Mongolians. The height of the voice, he continues, 
is so clearly a characteristic of the stage of evolution, 
that as age advances, the limits of the human voice 
continue to remove from the acute to the grave, conse- 
quently one may be a tenor at sixteen, a baritone at 
twenty-five, and a bass at thirty-five years of age. 
“In general—it is always the doctor who speaks—sopranos 
and tenors are blonde, while the contraltos and basses are 
brown. Tenors are thin, basses are fat. The voice is 98 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
grave in men of seriousness and intelligence. It is fluty— 
we are still quoting Dr. Delaunay—among the frivolous 
and empty-headed. 
“ The voice is higher before eating than after. This is 
the reason why tenors and sopranos dine early. Stimulant 
foods and strong liquors, by provoking a certain congestion 
of the larynx, make the voice lower. Therefore tenors are 
sober and avoid alcoholic drinks ; on the other hand, the 
bassos can with impunity eat and drink what they like. 
“The action of singing, again, determines a congestion 
of the organs of phonation. A tenor who uses his voice 
too much loses his high notes, and becomes a baritone. 
All singers, whether male or female, can go higher in the 
morning than in the evening. The music of matins is 
higher than vespers. The voice is higher in the south 
than in the north. The majority of French tenors come 
from the departments which border on the Mediterranean 
or the Pyrenees. On the other hand, in the north we find 
the basses. At the Russian Church in Paris there are 
basses who can give the contre-ut-de poitrine. 
“ The voice is somewhat higher in summer than in 
winter. The pitch is affected by the variations of tem- 
perature, M. Delaunay might have added that it 
depends also on the variations of the barometer.” THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF THE VOCAL 
APPARATUS. 
To those who have studied carefully the foregoing 
chapters, and have rightly appreciated the importance of 
accurate knowledge of their vocal organ as a whole and in 
a state of health, little need be said to enforce attention to 
Nature’s simple laws for the general sanitary well-being of 
the singer and speaker; nor need much argument be 
employed to prove that only second in the importance of a 
sound body for a sound mind is the necessity for such a 
condition to possession of a pure voice. The reader may, 
however, be encouraged to learn at the commencement of 
our remarks, that in direct proportion as he takes care of 
his body will his vocal health and strength be maintained, 
and, on the other hand, that the better the voice the better 
usually is the general health, and the more robust the 
vocal organ ; for above everything does good tone pro- 
duction imply high oxygenation of the tissues; and a 
delicate condition of the throat is, if not invariably, most 
frequently the result of wrong use or abuse of its functions. 
Physical strength and digestion by no means universally 
interfere with the force of brain of the writer or composer, 
nor with the hand of the painter, and though naturally 
either pen or brush is wofully handicapped where the 
health of him who wields it is impaired, much good literary 
and artistic work—and even the very best—has been 
achieved by the feeble and delicate. For singing, however, 
the body is an essential part of the voice, it is the very VOICE, SONG, SPEECH. 
encasement of the instrument, and if at any time disordered 
in health, impairment of vocal function is a direct and 
immediate result. For in voice production alone can no 
correction of faults be made when the tone has once been 
uttered, and unlike the written phrase or painted work 
it must tell its own tale at the very moment it issues 
from its possessor. 
We trust to the reader’s good sense not to think any 
direction as to diet, exercise, or health unworthy of atten- 
tion because at first sight it may appear trivial. The 
successful singer’s life must be one long practice of self- 
denial. Articles of diet which, if not beneficial from a 
food point of view, may be harmless to the ordinary 
individual, will often prove detrimental to the due capacity 
of breathing power necessary for the vocalist, or they may 
from their piquancy act as direct irritants of the fauces and 
impair timbre and resonance, or as reflex irritants affect 
volition and certainty of utterance. Violent or even 
moderate athletic exercise must be avoided, or indulged in 
only with rigid precautions against a too sudden lowering 
of the increased body temperature. Indulgence in dancing 
and other innocent amusements, from the additional reason 
that they occasion exposure to inhalations of dust and too 
late hours, will often have to be abjured, or enjoyed only at 
the risk of impairment of the singer’s great possession. 
While it is an undoubted fact that many grand voices 
have been irretrievably ruined by neglect of this quality of 
self-abnegation, it is equally true that thousands find them- 
selves cheerfully abstaining from luxuries of the table and 
the so-called pleasures of their non-singing relatives and 
friends for the sake of retaining their one great and heaven- 
bestowed gift, and with the result of materially conserving 
their general health and vitality as well as their voice. VOCAL HYGIENE. 
For reasons already stated there is indeed nothing to be 
said as to the rule of life of a voice-user that would not be 
beneficial to the health of every individual, only while to 
the one attention to detail is essential for the performance 
of daily duty, to others it is, though always advisable, only 
absolutely necessary when warned by illness that a law of 
nature has been transgressed. 
Health management of the human voice must be viewed 
then from very many and various, but equally important, 
standpoints. In the first place it should be considered in 
relation to hygiene as affecting elements of its composition 
already considered when treating of its mechanism; and 
this will be the purpose of this chapter. It will comprise 
consideration of (i) the motor portion representing the 
lungs and their function of respiration; (2) the vibrat- 
ing portion representing the larynx and the share it 
takes in the production of various pure vocal tones by 
varied use of the registers; (3) the resonant cavity as 
comprised in the pharynx, fauces, cavity of the mouth, 
and nasal passages; and lastly, the articulating apparatus 
in which are included the tongue, palate, lips, teeth, &c. 
To render more complete the discussion of all points 
connected with these different portions of the vocal organ 
from initial force to articulate emission it will be further 
necessary to consider the influence of fashion, dress, diet, 
and many simple points of hygiene on the general health, 
matters which may be considered as part and parcel of the 
daily life of the voice-user, and in conclusion we will say 
something as to the commoner diseased conditions in so far 
as they may be recognised as a cause of vocal impairment, 
or as remediable by means within the reach of the non- 
medical reader. We do not desire for one moment to invite 
the reader to be constantly doctoring himself—in fact, 102 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
nothing could be more pernicious than such a practice, both 
to the vocal organ itself and to the mental happiness of its 
possessor. On the contrary, we hope to be able to prove 
that defects in voice-production from the medical point of 
view, no less than from the teacher’s, depend in by far the 
majority of instances, on general and not on local causes ; 
and if we can indicate these we shall confer great benefit 
on the class for whom we write, by inducing them to seek 
for a cause instead of treating symptoms by quack nostrums 
whose effects are almost always, when not negative, actually 
harmful. 
I.—THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF MANAGEMENT OF 
THE MOTOR PORTION—RESPIRATION. 
The question of breathing has been very fully considered 
in its physiological aspect, and very complete directions as 
to the best methods of exercising the act are contained in 
the chapter on practice ; but something may be said in 
viewing it from a medical aspect, as to the chemical act of 
respiration; that is, how does it affect the general vitality 
independently of its action on the vocal ligaments ? And 
then, how from the mechanical point of view does it affect 
the health or perfection of the vocal mechanism in part 
and as a whole ? 
Respiration chemically considered.—Dry air con- 
sists of four volumes of nitrogen, one volume of oxygen, 
a very little carbonic acid, and a mere trace of several 
other substances. 
Oxygen is by far the most active constituent of the air, 
and to the agency of it are owing the existence of animal 
life, the maintenance of combustion, &c. 
Nitrogen forms the bulk of the air. It possesses few THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
103 
chemical properties of consequence, but performs the 
important part of diluting the oxygen which, if inhaled 
alone, would act with too great intensity. 
The following graphic description of the process of 
breathing and of its effects upon the general economy, 
is condensed from Dr. Paul Niemeyer’s 4 Die Lunge,’ 
Leipzig. J. J. Weber, 1872:— 
“The Lungs (1) swallow the air; (2) digest it, and (3) 
throw it out again after it has become useless.” 
44 The Air we breathe out is (1) warmer than when 
inhaled; of this we have a proof in winter when our lungs 
seem positively to be steaming; (2) it carries water which 
we can condense on a cold pane of glass, and which in 
very cold weather freezes in our beards, on ladies’veils, &c.; 
(3) it is also otherwise chemically altered, as we perceive 
on entering a close room full of people, when we instinc- 
tively hurry to the nearest window and throw it open. We 
have an impression that the air in the room is very 
different from that we have just been inhaling out of 
doors; and that this is true would be proved if one of 
those present were to blow through a little glass tube into 
a bottle filled with lime-water, or if we left a wide-mouthed 
bottle of this fluid standing open in the room. The lime 
water would very soon become thereby clouded, the cause 
of which change is that the lime uniting with the car- 
bonic acid from the breath produces white carbonate 
of lime, or in plain English, chalk. A change of gases 
therefore takes place in the lungs, which is brought about 
in this way: the blood consumes the oxygen and throws 
out carbonic acid in return.” 
The result of this is that our dark-blue blood is 
changed into bright-red blood without which we cannot 
perform the simplest muscular act, such as lifting an arm VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
or moving a finger; and this is what is called the chemical 
aspect of breathing. 
Oxygen, as we thus see, is the oil in the lamp of life, and 
the necessity of always having fresh air is therefore self- 
evident. The question, then, of the purity of the air to be 
breathed is one of immeasurable importance, but one very 
generally neglected. The difference between the air of 
the practice-room of the singer in daylight and of the 
gas-heated and often dust-laden concert-room and theatre 
is undoubtedly the cause of many a failure and disappoint- 
ment of both vocalist and entrepreneur, who have, as the 
result of rehearsal, anticipated a success not always realised 
on the public platform. Supposing all that was necessary 
in breathing in air to the lungs was for the individual to 
take in a large amount at a time irrespective of con- 
siderations of temperature and dust, particles of organic 
and inorganic matter such as are always floating about in 
the atmosphere of cities and habitations, there would be 
no reason why he should not inhale with the open mouth; 
but since nature has provided, in the nostrils, an apparatus 
both for warming and filtering the air, it is important that 
this passage should be used, and that it should be quite 
open and unimpeded. Nasal breathing is also desirable 
because the muscles of the mouth and throat to be used 
in articulation, must not be fatigued by unnecessary and 
contrary actions. This point has been insisted on by both 
of us in previous works, and its importance has been 
recognised by many leading authorities. In point of fact, 
however, much misapprehension exists on the question. 
While we urge the importance of nose-breathing for full 
inflation, which is an act to be performed slowly, steadily, 
and gradually, we do not deny that for rapid half-breaths 
occasionally demanded by the singer or speaker, inspiration THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREA THING. 
by the mouth is not only justifiable but unavoidable. 
Habitual practice, however, in mouth-breathing can only 
lead to great discomfort, if not to actual and direct mischief 
of the throat, windpipe, and chest; and such is very probable 
to result in the foggy and cold-damp weather of spring, 
autumn, and winter, three parts of the year as experienced 
in this country. As Dr. Elsberg remarks (Op. cit., 
p. 17), “The natural mode of quiet breathing is through 
the nose; mouth-breathing is an acquirement. A new- 
born infant would choke to death if you closed its 
nose; it does not immediately know how to get air 
into the lungs through the mouth until after, by de- 
pressing the tongue, you have once made a passage 
for it.” Those who have had a cold in the head, which 
obstructs the nostrils, know the great temporary dis- 
comfort occasioned, and there is probably no affection 
more irksome and depressing than a constant closure of 
the nasal passages, as caused by polypus or any other 
obstruction. It may be added that even asthma and 
other serious chest diseases are induced from this cause, 
and that the purity and resonance of all vocal tone is 
diminished or destroyed in proportion to the amount 
of closure. In another place we answer the absurd 
objections of those who think that pursuance of the 
natural practice which we advocate leads to production 
of a disagreeable tone-quality which is called “ nasal.” 
As these pages pass through our hands for press we read, 
and here make note, of a very instructive case reported in 
the Lancet of April 21, 1883, by Mr. Walsham, in which 
the singing voice had been quite lost for some few years, as 
the result of the septum of the nose being strongly bent to 
the right side. After an operation for the cure of this 
defect “ the nasal intonation was lost, the patient is now VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
able to sing with pleasure and his friends consider he has a 
very good voice.” 
Mr. Curwen, in his admirable 4 Teachers’ Manual,’ has 
well said, “the singer’s purpose necessitates a larger use of 
breath than is needed for ordinary respiration,” as indeed 
it is for all muscular efforts requiring extra exertion, as 
those of lifting weights, running, &c., but it does not 
follow that the effort to increase the lung capacity for 
any of these actions is injurious; on the contrary it is 
beneficial, for the very act implies, unless the muscles be 
wrongly used or strained, and provided also that the 
inhaled air be pure, that the blood is so much the more 
purified, and consequently the general bodily strength is 
so much the more increased. Hence we see that from a 
health point of view, no less than from the singer’s, the 
lungs must be well inflated with air of good quality; 
and therefore not only should the room in which sing- 
ing is practised be well ventilated so that the air inspired be 
pure, but the more immediate surroundings, as the clothing 
of the singer, must be free, so as not to impede inspiration 
or impair regularity and economy of expiration. 
Very pertinent to this question is the hygienic aspect of 
respirators, which, though doubtless of service to some 
persons, particularly females, and in some circumstances, 
are by no means without practical drawbacks.’ In the 
first place they encourage mouth-breathing to the neglect 
of respiration through the nostrils. Secondly, from the 
excessive warmth of the inhaled air they may actually in- 
duce that very delicacy of the throat and lungs, and a 
greater liability to take cold on removal, which is the special 
intention of the respirator to avert. Thirdly, they cause 
a constant re-inhaling of the same air mixed with much 
foul matter, which becomes accumulated in the instru- THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
ment. Certainly if employed they should be of the 
cheapest kind, so that there will be less hesitation in their 
destruction when soiled. Better than a respirator is the 
veil invented by Mr. Lennox Browne, and sold by Messrs. 
Marshall & Snelgrove, which, having a special reduplica- 
tion of the gauze as it falls over both mouth, nostrils, and 
ears, fulfils the purpose desired with avoidance of most of 
the dangers just detailed. Of course these can only be 
worn by ladies. Our opinion is that respirators should not 
be necessary for men if they did not shave and learned 
to breathe through the proper passages. 
We have both for many years been enforcing the 
importance of filling the chest primarily at its base by 
descent of the midriff, circumferentially by rib expansion, 
and only to the very slightest degree and in very excep- 
tional circumstances by any elevation whatever of the collar- 
bone. It has been, therefore, a subject of great regret to 
us that quite recently, just as the importance of these rules 
was becoming recognised, certain teachers, some of very 
high attainments in other respects, have endeavoured, and 
really it would seem for the sake of saying something new, 
to prove otherwise. One writer, whose arguments are so 
well put as to read amazingly like sense to the uninitiated, 
endeavours to justify collar-bone breathing by reference 
to the act of inspiration as practised for a sudden and 
violent expiratory effort, as of blowing out a candle, 
forgetting that in singing the air should be expelled so 
gradually that the flame of a candle should not be moved, 
and in like manner that exaggerated in-breathing is 
equally undesirable. The fact may once more be briefly 
insisted on, that breathing by descent of the diaphragm 
means that method which is most natural in all positions 
of the body, even in that in which the lungs have the VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
smallest capacity, that is, when lying on the back. In 
this method of taking in the breath there is less resistance 
of the muscles which govern its exit, and when the 
diaphragm has descended, and the floating ribs have 
expanded, the upper ribs follow almost as a natural 
sequence of the same respiratory act. If the respiration 
be extended to elevation of the collar-bones and shoulder- 
blades, not only is there very little gain in lung volume, 
but there ensues very considerable muscular fatigue, 
because there is the superincumbent weight of the shoulder- 
blades and arms on the small upper ribs, and because the 
muscles attached in this region have other functions than 
that of breathing. It also causes congestion of the vessels 
of the neck and throat. In reaction from this straining, 
the muscles controlling the exit of the breath do not act 
with regularity or steadiness; and thus we see that this 
fault in breathing is at the root of gasping, jerking, and 
fatigue in inspiration, and of unevenness, trembling, and 
undue vibration in the production and emission of vocal 
tone. To correct these faults an effort is made by the 
muscles in the pharynx, which in turn leads to congestion 
and relaxation of that part. 
Some may enquire why the method of filling the lungs 
by elevating the collar-bones and shoulder-blades should 
be deprecated, if there is any power to fill them by exer- 
tion of the connecting muscles. We answer that this 
kind of inspiration is only employed by instinct of nature 
when, from disease, midriff or costal breathing is impeded, 
and that the fact of a patient breathing in this manner is 
noted by a physician as a grave symptom, because it 
indicates mischief of a vital nature in lungs, heart, or other 
important organs. 
Nothing is more detrimental to free expansion of the THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
109 
chest than corset-wearing of the form and material now 
manufactured, even if not tightly laced. All sensible 
people begin to admit this fact, which, as we shall relate 
presently, is susceptible of demonstration. But if the 
right method of breathing were by upward elevation, 
with the consequent safe submission to the slight inward 
movement which results from the simple drawing out 
or lengthening of the upper frame, confinement of the 
lower chest by stays would be innocuous. That corsets, 
as usually worn, are injurious may be seen by comparison 
of PI. XVIII., in which the ribs are delineated as in an 
unconfined or natural chest, and in PI. XIX., the outline 
of which is multiplied by the thousand in fashion plates, 
and again in Pis. XX. and XXL, in which the portion 
of the lungs and other important organs are contrasted as 
in the natural and in the constricted cavities. 
Mr. Bernard Roth, to whom we owe the idea of the two 
last figures, very well explains the injurious effects of the 
corset, and we cannot do better than quote him at length. 
(‘Dress; its Sanitary Aspect.’ Churchill, London, 1880, 
pp. 8 to 11.) “ The lower ribs which are least supported in 
front are precisely those which are influenced by anything 
tight about the waist; thus close-fitting, unyielding stays, 
as generally worn, gradually compress the yielding lower 
ribs more and more, till their anterior extremities, instead 
of being far apart, meet almost or quite in the middle line. 
(Compare PI. XVIII. with PI. XIX.) This deformity 
occurs so gradually during years of growth, that the wearer 
is generally quite unconscious of having disfigured herself, 
and I have never yet met with a lady who owned to having 
a tight pair of stays. ‘ I can put my whole hand inside,’ is 
the usual reply when I find fault with a patient. This is 
generally quite true ; for, by drawing in the abdominal VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
muscles which act upon the anterior extremities of the 
ribs, by raising the diaphragm, and by slightly inclining 
the body forwards the girth of the trunk can be still further 
diminished. The real test is to have the stays opened, and 
XVIII.—Framework of Chest.—Natural Waist. {Adaptedfrom 
Professor Flower's ‘ Fashion and Deformity.’) 
all other constricting bands loosened, and to request the 
patient to breathe deeply and slowly a few times, with the 
arms directed upwards if necessary, and then to ask her to 
fasten the outer dress alone while holding the body as erect 
as possible. It is generally impossible to bring the dress THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREA THING. 
111 
together after such an experiment, because the chest, 
having at last a chance of freedom, has expanded a little 
and refuses to be put back into its narrow prison. This 
pressing inward of the ribs, which become in time per- 
XIX.—Framework of Chest.—Deformed Waist. {Adapted from 
, Professor Flower s 1 Fashion and Deformity.’) 
manently deformed, causes necessarily a very great dimi- 
nution in the size of the chest and abdominal cavities. 
(Compare again Plates XVIII. and XIX., also XX. 
and XXI.) One very serious effect of this is that the 
bases, or lower parts of the lungs, do not perform VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
their functions properly, for there the chest walls can 
hardly move at all during respiration, in addition to 
their volume being much diminished ; the upper halves 
of the lungs have consequently to do more than their 
XX.—Natural Position of Organs in unconfined Chest, 
{Adaptedfrom Roth.) 
proper share of work.” A writer in Knowledge, October 
13, 1882, naively uses this fact as an argument in favour 
of the “ well-applied corset,” stating that it “ leaves the 
upper part of the chest perfectly free, and develops the THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
capacity of the lungs in that situation—the most important 
situation, by-the-bye, especially in the female sex. Tuber- 
cular consumption usually attacks the apices of the lungs, 
a part far removed from the pressure of a corset, however 
XXL—Distorted Position of Organs in Body Deformed by Stays. 
{Adaptedfrom Roth.) 
tight—in fact the tighter the corset in the lower part of 
the chest, the greater amount of work and expansion in 
the upper part, but this would not lead to consumption.” 
Such an argument will not bear a moment’s considera- VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
tion, since overuse of one portion of the lung and impeded 
action of the other must necessarily be followed by disease 
in both directions. Returning to Mr. Roth’s argument, 
that writer continues: “At the same time the respiratory 
action of the diaphragm is obstructed not only by the 
reduced extent of its attachment to the ribs, but also from 
the compression of the abdomen. This insufficiency of 
respiratory power and diminution in the size of the lungs 
can account for many a serious illness, the way for which 
was prepared by deficient oxygenation of the blood; 
besides, all the above-mentioned abdominal organs are 
displaced downwards, because there is no longer any room 
for them at the so-called 4 elegant ’ waist; the liver reaches 
down to the hips (pelvis), whereas in its natural position 
it should hardly project beyond the margins of the chest 
cavity. (Compare Pis, XX. and XXI.) This displace- 
ment of and pressure on these important organs offer 
a serious obstacle to the proper carrying out of their 
special functions, hence indigestion, congestion of the liver, 
and similar troubles. The deplorably large percentage of 
women who have some displacement or affection of the 
womb is due, no doubt, to this pernicious habit of tight- 
lacing, which is more general than may be supposed by 
any one who has not paid special attention to this subject. 
“The Lancet writes, on January 10, 1880:—cThe 
notion of “improving” nature by forcing the feet into 
tight boots, and the divers other devices with which fashion 
beguiles the love of personal embellishment are sufficiently 
monstrous, but the audacity of attempting to compress 
the trunk, which contains the central organs of life, for 
the sake of appearances, surpasses belief. . . . Perhaps 
the recent death from tight-lacing, in which the heart was 
found to be so impeded in its action as to render life THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREA THING. 
impracticable, may have some deterrent effect, but we 
doubt it. Fashion will prevail, and wasp-like waists will 
be cultivated in defiance of nature and art.’ 
“ In addition to the injurious effects already mentioned 
tight stays are a common cause of so-called ‘weak’ spine, 
due to weakness of the muscles of the back. It is well 
known in physiology that for a muscle to remain in a 
healthy condition it must be fulfilling the functions proper 
to it, namely, of being constantly alternately contracted 
and relaxed. When muscles are prevented from being 
thus exercised they invariably waste. Any one who has 
had either one of the long bones of the upper or lower 
extremities broken, or some local injury or disease which 
has necessitated complete fixation of the limb in splints 
for six weeks or longer, will remember how all the muscles 
of the quiescent limb wasted, and how it took some time 
to restore the previous muscular power. A tightly-laced 
pair of stays acts precisely as a splint to the trunk, and 
prevents or greatly impedes the action of the chief back 
muscles, which therefore become weakened. The unfortu- 
nate wearer feels her spine weaken, thinks she wants more 
support, so laces herself still tighter ; she no doubt does 
get some support in this way, but at what a terrible cost ? 
everything embraced by those tight stays is fearfully com- 
pressed ; and it has always been an anatomical enigma to 
me to conceive how the numerous organs, which I know 
to be there, can possibly exist in some ladies, whose bodies 
are not inaptly compared to those of wasps. 
“ I do not say that stays should necessarily be given up 
altogether, although many women would enjoy far better 
health if they were. Stays are, no doubt, of some use in 
supporting the bust of the adult woman ”—provided they 
have been educated to their use, but not by any means 116 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
necessarily if they have never been worn in childhood— 
“ but this can be easily effected without pressing upon the 
lower ribs, and without obstructing the respiratory move- 
ments. Rational stays should be made of some yielding 
material with narrow strips of elastic webbing let in from 
above down on the sides; and the fewer the pieces of 
whalebone, and the smaller they are, the better.” 
Ladies inclined to embonpoint who have always worn 
stays will find the material called “single coutil,” or sateen, 
a very suitable one from which to make hygienic corsets. 
The form should be that of a “ slip-bodice ” cut low, 
with or without the addition of broad straps or bands 
over the shoulders. This corset or bodice should fasten 
in front only with bucttons, or with the ordinary fastenings, 
but there should be no laces; it should come well down 
over the hips, about as low as ordinary stays. Strips of 
thin elastic webbing, two inches wide, should be inserted 
at each side under the arm. We particularly emphasize 
that the webbing should be thin. Some descriptions are 
so stout as to require considerable muscular effort to 
expand them, and would render the corset harmful to the 
wearer by impeding the circulation. One piece of whale- 
bone, or of the lightest-made flexible steel, should be placed 
on each side of the spinal ridge—that is, along the middle 
of the back—not over it, there being an interval of an 
inch and a half between the two pieces—while another 
similar piece on either side of the fastenings will be 
sufficient to keep the corset from creasing. But there 
should be no stiffening material inserted which would press 
against the curved part of the ribs, as that would, of course, 
interfere with their lateral expansion ; and any additional 
aid to the “ set ” of the garment can be efficiently gained 
by “ cordings ” On to the lower edge of the corset THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREA THING. 
should be sewed linen buttons, at equal distances, and 
corresponding button-holes be made in all under garments 
by which they may be suspended from the corset, that is 
from the hips, instead of being fastened above them by 
bands and strings around the waist. For children and 
well-formed girls and women “ coutil ” is too heavy a 
material, and a very light twill, as employed for summer 
stays, simply corded, may be substituted. For ladies of 
slender figure, corsets made of the shape known as “ riding 
stays,” but of the material and fashion we have detailed, 
will be found to answer every requisite. Thin whale- 
bone or equally thin steel can, if desired, be inserted in 
the front of the dress on each side of the fastening itself 
to keep it straight, but is not necessary as a means of 
“ support.” Should support be really needed for any spinal 
weakness or incipient deformity the pieces already de- 
scribed on each side of the spinal ridge—again not over it 
—will be found sufficient. Hygienic corsets, exactly of 
the kind we describe, can be obtained from Mr. Pratt 
(Surgical Mechanist, of Oxford Street), who has made 
some under our express supervision. The waist and chest 
measure should be taken while the lady or child to be 
fitted is standing with head, shoulder-blades, and heels 
all touching a wall; the body being held very erect, 
and the tips of the fingers of each hand placed as far on 
the back of the shoulders as possible. Every female 
should be able to fasten her under-bodices and dresses 
while standing erect against a wall. If once properly fitted, 
there is no rational excuse for tightening or for varying 
the calibre of a corset. 
If we can succeed in persuading mothers to adopt this 
sort of corset for their children, the gain in beauty of 
figure and graceful bearing will be immense. It is im- 118 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
possible for the stiffly-corseted girl to be other than 
inelegant and ungraceful in her movements. Her im- 
prisoned waist, with its flabby muscles, has no chance of 
performing beautiful undulatory movements. In the 
ball-room the ungraceful motions of our stiff-figured 
ladies are bad enough; there is no possibility for poetry 
of motion; but nowhere is this more ludicrously, and to 
the thoughtful, painfully manifest than in the tennis- 
court. Let any one watch the movements of ladies as 
compared with those of male players, and the absolute 
ugliness of the female figure with its stiff, unyielding, 
deformed, round waist will at once be seen. Ladies can 
only bend the body from the hip joint. All that wonder- 
fully contrived set of hinges, with their connected muscles, 
in the elastic column of the spine is unable to act from 
the shoulders downwards ; and their figures remind one of 
the old-fashioned, wooden Dutch doll. 
Another point in favour of the abandonment of tightly-fit- 
ting corsets, and one which may perhaps have influence with 
our lady readers, is the fact that their use tends to produce 
obesity. Our opinion on this point is confirmed by others. 
In a letter headed “ Stays and Fat,” which appeared in 
Knowledge for 6th April last, Mr. Mattieu Williams 
says, “ There is one horror which no lady can bear to 
contemplate, viz., fat. What is fat ? It is an accumu- 
lation of unburnt body-fuel. How can we get rid of it 
when accumulated in excess ? Simply by burning it away 
—this burning being done by means of the oxygen in- 
haled by the lungs. If, as Mr. Lennox Browne has shewn, 
a lady with normal lung capacity of 125 cubic inches, 
reduces this to 78 inches by means of her stays, and attains 
118 inches all at once on leaving them off, it is certain that 
her prospects of becoming fat and flabby, as she advances THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
119 
towards middle age, are greatly increased by tight-lacing 
and the consequent suppression of natural respiration.” 
Hygienic stays, such as we have described, allow of the 
“ proper respiratory movements of the lower part of the 
chest, and yet will not produce deformity, nor favour the 
abnormal accumulation of fat, although fitting the waist 
sufficiently well to please the dressmakers. Modern taste is 
unfortunately so vitiated that when a woman tries to avoid 
deforming her body, and possesses a natural waist, unless she 
is very thin, remarks are at once made about her clumsy 
figure, and these as frequently by men as by the deformed 
of her own sex. Indeed, this degraded taste for acquir- 
ing deformed waists would seem to have even infected men, 
if the expensive advertisements of men’s corsets to be seen 
in so many newspapers are profitable to the advertisers.” 
It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that the idea 
of “ support ” being necessary to the figure is absolutely 
unfounded. The all-wise Creator has given to the female 
as many muscles as to the male. No one dreams of 
suggesting that a man or a boy requires stays “to keep 
him up ” as the phrase goes ; why then should girls and 
women ? From actual knowledge we can testify that no 
girl who has worn corsets feels the need of a 
“ support.” On the point of warmth alone stays have 
an advantage; but it is of a very slight character, and one 
that can be easily, and even better, supplied by a less tight 
and rigid garment, which would also cover the upper por- 
tion of the chest and back. And here let us caution ladies 
against the erroneous notion that if only their chests are 
well protected from cold they will take no harm. Extra 
warmth is necessary at the back, over the situation of the 
chain of nerves known as the sympathetic, whose purpose it 
is to regulate the supply of blood to the various organs 120 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
of respiration and digestion, and to keep those organs in 
co-ordination. It is undoubtedly by draughts on the 
back of the body, whether the neck, chest, or loins, that 
colds, and inflammations due to colds, are most frequently 
taken. And that such is the case is shown by the fact 
that the sympathetic nerves which lie along the side of 
the spinal column are, when attacked by cold, impaired 
in their power of control over the circulation. 
By the spirometer it has been demonstrated as the result 
of experiments on thousands of individuals of the male 
sex in a state of health, and of various occupations, that 
the lungs are capable of containing a varying amount of 
air in proportion to the height of the subject, the ratio 
being a difference of about 10 cubic inches for every inch of 
height between 5 and 6 feet. Above that limit the additional 
capacity diminishes with increased stature. This measure- 
ment holds good in subjects between the ages of 13 and 
55, the vital capacity being at its maximum between the 
ages of 30 and 35 years, and is only further affected by the 
weight of the individual, and that not unless the corpulence 
be really excessive. A man in health, of the height of 5 
feet 7 to 5 feet 8 inches, should breathe an average of 250 
cubic inches of air. Such a man should weigh about 
156 pounds; but he may weigh 10 or 12 pounds more 
without affecting his breathing powers. This and other 
allowances may be made which would account for varia- 
tions to the extent of 16 per cent., or a diminution of 
about 38 to 40 cubic inches; below this standard the 
physician will suspect disease. As a matter of daily ex- 
perience, however, we find many who cannot breathe even 
this minimum health-volume, because they have not 
understood how to fill their lungs for any sustained 
muscular effort, such as voice-use implies and demands. THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
We also find that, by practice, the average mean vital 
volume can be very considerably increased, even to half 
as much again. Thus it can be demonstrated that 
breathing practice, in other words, education on a right 
method of the motor power of voice-users, is beneficial to 
the general health. 
Until quite recently no experiments have been made in 
any large numbers on females, and a deduction of 33 per 
cent, has been made for the “weaker sex.” We have for 
many years been in the habit of making an allowance of only 
25 per cent, for females; and more recent experience leads 
us to believe that even this difference is greater than would be 
justified by fact in normal subjects undeformed by fashion.# 
That the heavy clothing of ladies makes a great difference 
in their respiratory power may be proved by trying it first 
when the subject has on her shoulders the heavy velvet 
bugle-covered or seal-skin mantle, and then without it. 
There will always be a gain in the latter case of ten or 
fifteen inches ; but if the experiment be made, even 
where to the male eye the charge of tight lacing cannot be 
made, but when the corset is of unyielding material, there 
will be almost uniformly a difference of one-third, and an 
immediate regain of power almost to the full average 
standard when the corset is removed. This we have tried 
repeatedly, and we have each published a case in Know- 
ledge confirmatory of our opinion. In the one a young 
lady who, by her height, should, according to Hutchinson’s 
Tables (‘ Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,’ vol. xxix. 
London, 1846), breathe 145 cubic inches, was able with 
difficulty to exhale 100 ; but on removal of her stays 
at once and with ease blew 140 cubic inches into the 
* See Table kindly prepared specially for this work by Mr. Charles 
Roberts, F.R.C.S., on page 123. 122 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
spirometer. Another lady, less than five feet high, 
should have breathed about 120 cubic inches. Before the 
removal of her corsets she managed, after several violent 
efforts, to breathe 75 inches only, but afterwards, at the first 
attempt, she breathed 118 inches. She discontinued the use 
of these stays, and took to others without whalebone or steel, 
and continued to maintain this gain in her chest expansion. 
We now add two other cases illustrative of the fuller 
lung capacity in young ladies who do not wear corsets. 
The first lady should, by her height and age (26), have 
a mean breathing capacity of 148 cubic inches. Her 
actual breathing power is 156, or 8 cubic inches above her 
mean. She was forced, when a child, to wear closely 
fitting corsets, but discontinued them when about thirteen 
or fourteen years of age, and has never since resumed them. 
The second case is that of a child between twelve and 
thirteen, having a constitutional predisposition to consump- 
tion. Her parents, recognising the necessity for hygienic 
care, have scrupulously avoided any form of dress which 
would impede the full and healthy development of the 
vital organs. Her mean breathing power, if she were over 
fifteen years of age instead of being under thirteen, should 
be 118 cubic inches, but her actual lung capacity is even 
now 130, or 12 cubic inches above her mean. Humanly 
speaking, her parents have, by their care in rearing this 
delicate girl, preserved her from that dire scourge of two- 
thirds of our race—“ consumption.” 
Let any speaker or singer ask himself whether the 
acquisition of such an amount of breath power over that 
which he is now habitually able to control is not worth 
trying for. So surely as a locomotive will come to a 
standstill if there be not a sufficient supply of fuel to 
generate the motive power—“ steam,” so surely will a singer THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
123 
Table shewing the average Height, Weight, Breathing Capacity, 
Chest-girth, and Strength, of adult Males and Females in 
England.—Drawn up by Charles Roberts, Esq., F.R.C.S., 
From data collected by the Anthropometric Committee of the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science. 
Males. 
Females. 
Strength 
of arm as 
in draw- 
ing a 
bow.* 
Chest 
girth 
after ex- 
piration. f 
Weight, 
including 
clothes.J 
Breath- 
ing 
capa- 
city.$ 
Height 
with- 
out 
shoes. 
Breath- 
ing 
capa- 
city. $ 
Weight, 
including 
clothes.^ 
Chest 
girth 
below 
breasts. 
Strength 
of arm as 
in draw- 
ing a 
bow. 
lbs. 
inches. 
lbs. 
Cubic 
inches. 
inches. 
Cubic 
inches. 
lbs. 
inches. 
lbs. 
85 ' I 
• 38-9 
165-6 
290 
72 
238 
141 "I 
32-7 
51*1 
83*9 
38-4 
I63-3 
280 
71 
230 
!39*i 
32-2 
50-4 
82-7 
37'8 
161 -o 
270 
70 
221 
137-2 
31*7 
49*7 
81-5 
37‘3 
I58-7 
260 
69 
213 
135-2 
31-2 
49*o 
80*3 
36-7 
156-4 
250 
68 
204 
133*3 
3° *8 
48*3 
79*2 
36-2 
I54-I 
240 
67 
196 
i3i*3 
30*4 
47*6 
78-0 
35 ‘7 
I5I-8 
230 
66 
187 
129-4 
30-0 
46-8 
76-8 
35‘i 
I49'5 
220 
65 
179 
127-4 
29*5 
46*1 
75-6 
34*6 
147-2 
210 
64 
170 
125-4 
29*0 
45*4 
74*4 
34*o 
I44-9 
200 
63 
l62 
123-5 
28- 5 
44*7 
73*3 
33*5 
I42-6 
190 
62 
153 
121 -5 
28-1 
44*o 
7 2’ 1 
33*o 
140-3 
l8o 
61 
145 
119-6 
27-6 
43*3 
70-9 
32*4 
I38-0 
170 
60 
136 
117-6 
27-2 
42-6 
69-7 
3i*9 
135*7 
l6o 
59 
128 
115-6 
26 "6 
41-9 
68*5 
3i*3 
133*4 
150 
58 
119 
113-7 
26-1 
41'2 
* Taken by Herbert and Son’s spring balance arm-testing machine. 
-f- Military measurement. Tape round chest at nipples: arms hanging loosely by the side: let the 
patient count from one to ten and then read off the measurement. 
J The average weight of indoor clothes, including the shoes, is for the professional class 8 lbs. 
~ „ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ working „ 10 lbs. 
Average for men .. .. .. _ . • .. .. g lbs. 
The average weight of a woman’s dress has not been accurately ascertained, but it is among female 
shop assistants and school teachers about 7 lbs. We are very much in want of information as to the 
weight of ladies’ dresses. The average is probably nearly equal to that of the male working class. 
$ Breathing Capacity of Males.—Hutchinson’s table, published in 1846, gives a difference of only 
8 cubic inches for each inch of height. The above table gives a difference of 10 inches for each inch 
of height, and a relative increase of upwards of 20 cubic inches as compared with Hutchinson. These 
differences are very probably the result of the greater accuracy of the instruments now employed. 
Breathing Capacity of Females gives in this table an average decrease of power, as compared with 
males, of only 20 per cent., instead of 33 per cent, as estimated by Hutchinson. Thus, having made 
allowance for the relative increase granted by iis for men, a female at 66 inches, who would have breathed 
142 cubic inches according to the old table, is now found to have a vital capacity of 187 cubic inches. 124 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
or speaker ultimately break down in voice, and perhaps in 
health, if he be unable to command a sufficient supply of, 
and control over, his motor power—breath. 
There are many other questions connected with costume 
affecting the respiration; as, for instance, the wearing of 
constricting collars around the neck, a fault very fashion- 
able in the present day. There is no doubt also that the 
heavy and multiplied articles of clothing worn around the 
waist by females, tightly fitting abdominal belts and unduly 
braced suspenders in men, all act as weights impeding the 
power of chest expansion. 
Posture has a remarkable influence on the respiration. 
The spirometer shows the vital volume to be greatest in the 
erect, less in the sitting, and least in the recumbent 
positions. Since, however, many are required to use the 
voice in the sitting posture, as when accompanying them- 
selves at the piano, and that the prone or semi-prone 
position is also necessary on occasion in opera, we 
advise practice in all these attitudes. Exercise in the 
recumbent posture can with advantage be practised at 
early morning before rising from bed when the body is 
unencumbered with clothing, and again on rising, with 
arms bent at right angles to the body so as to fix the 
shoulder-blades well back. Practice in the sitting posture 
should be made with the arms brought back over the 
chair rail, which also ensures fixture of the collar-bones 
and shoulder-blades. 
In regard to posture, allusion may be made to the habit 
of short-sighted persons of stooping down to their music 
on a piano to read their part, instead of wearing glasses 
and holding their music well before them ; or, again, to 
the clergyman, who pursues a similar plan at the desk, or if 
he does hold his book up, presses it against the lower part of THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF BREATHING. 
125 
the chest to the very serious diminution of its expansive 
power, and a considerable addition to its resistance. 
It is not out of place here to mention that respiratory 
exercises, and subsequently lessons in reading, reciting, 
and singing are oftentimes of the greatest use in strength- 
ening a weak chest; and indeed, it is not too much to 
say, in arresting consumption. We have no doubt, from 
our experience of the improvement to be gained in respira- 
tory power by means of such exercises, as demonstrated 
with the spirometer, that it would be very desirable and 
often highly beneficial to pursue a regular course of lung 
gymnastics, modified according to each patient’s individual 
need, at various health resorts, such as Davos-am-Platz, 
&c. The subject is one which is receiving a consider- 
able share of attention in Germany, and but little at 
present in this country. It has been well said, and with- 
out exaggeration, that “the condition of the air which 
we breathe becomes only significant through the breathing 
gymnastics. We send the sick to healthy localities, but 
what use is it when the fresh air is not permitted to 
penetrate sufficiently in and through the lungs. Air alone 
does not expand the lungs, and the benefit derived from 
mechanical expansion may outweigh even the advantages 
of a healthy locality.” 
Thus even in our own country, by means of properly 
directed respiratory gymnastics in well-ventilated rooms, 
much may be done towards the cure of lung complaints, 
especially in the early stages ; and those in whom there is 
a consumptive or asthmatic diathesis would benefit greatly 
by such practice. Especially should the heads of families 
in whom such predisposition exists see that their children 
are trained from an early age to the use of these lung 
gymnastics. 126 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
Next in importance to the method of inflation and 
freedom from constriction of clothing comes the question 
of digestion as affecting free lung play. While on the one 
hand singing on an actually empty stomach will be im- 
perfect on account of enfeebled muscular action due to 
want of nutrition ; equally, on the other hand, the food 
must have been at least partially digested so that the 
stomach may not be distended by the food taken and the 
gases generated during the digestive process, but may have 
resumed its normal size. This subject will be treated 
more at length when we consider the rules for a voice- 
user’s daily living. 
lI.—THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF THE VIBRATING 
ELEMENT—THE LARYNX AND THE VOCAL 
LIGAMENTS. 
Having enforced at some length our belief that control 
of the motor element is at the foundation of all good voice 
production, we go further and say that, from the medical 
point of view, if respiration be properly practised and con- 
trolled, trouble in producing pure vocal tone in the voice- 
box, or, as it might well be called, the “ sound-box,” is very 
rare: in other words, and paraphrasing an old proverb, 
“Take care of the lungs and the voice will take care of 
itself.” Our experience, lasting for many years from the 
double point of view of doctor and teacher, and equally of 
patients and pupils, has led us to an independent but similar 
conclusion on this point, and of its correctness we are both 
most firmly convinced. Many defects complained of by 
patients or pupils are, by doctors and teachers unac- 
quainted with, or unpractised in the use of, the laryngo- THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF THE LARYNX. 
127 
scope, ascribed to trouble or disease in the larynx, which 
on inspection will be found perfectly healthy. The so-called 
straining of the vocal cords only exists in an ignorant 
imagination which fixes the seat of disease where the 
trouble is most frequently felt, and not at its source of 
origin. Of course there may be an inflammation or con- 
gestion of the vocal ligaments as of other parts, but it is 
astonishing in how large a majority of cases of loss of 
the speaking or singing voice the larynx escapes unless 
there be some serious constitutional mischief. 
Action of the vocal ligaments is at least semi-automatic, 
and provided only that the registers be not extended 
beyond their normal limits, or the act of singing be 
pursued under unfavourable circumstances, or for too 
lengthened a period, it is very difficult to injure them. 
We have seen hundreds of cases in which the vocal 
ligaments supposed to be at fault have been healthy and 
in which vocal defects have been cured solely by attention 
to breathing, to digestion, or to some portion of the 
mechanism above the voice-box, that is to say in the 
resonating cavities. 
Nervo-muscular affections giving rise to impaired mo- 
bility of the vocal ligaments are rare, and are generally due 
to constitutional or cerebral causes, or to pressure of some 
morbid growth, as an aneurism or other tumour on the 
motor nerve. As far, then, as we are here concerned with 
the vibrating element in its medical aspect, it is sufficient 
to give the reader the following directions if he desires to 
avoid laryngeal fatigue:— 
1. Never endeavour to produce a vocal tone without 
having plenty of breath, and that thoroughly under 
control. 
1. Hold the breath when Aspired and commence to 128 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
expire only on commencing to speak or sing, that is, at 
the moment it is required to set the ligaments in vibration. 
3- Do not think that loudness is essential to force or 
beauty; shouting is always injurious. The telling quality 
of laryngeal tone depends solely on the amplitude of the 
vibrations, and this is controlled solely and entirely by 
the will which directs the due proportion of air to set 
the vocal ligaments into more or less full vibration. 
For all purposes of practice it is especially advisable for 
the pupil to sing piano, which term does not imply 
diminished vigour, but simply reduced amplitude of the 
vibrations. 
4. Never use the voice when functional failure gives 
warning that the organ or the general health is disordered. 
5. Do not attempt to use the voice in unfavourable 
circumstances, as in the open air, especially if the weather 
be cold or raw, nor in a room impregnated with tobacco 
smoke, foul air, or dust. Above all do not use the voice, 
even for conversation, in trains or vehicles, or in any cir- 
cumstances of noise which will require undue functional 
exertion. In this connection it will be important to 
keep quiet and avoid chattering and laughing between 
songs or the acts of a drama or opera. 
6. Do not use the voice for too long a period at a 
time, but always cease before fatigue is experienced. 
Especially avoid encores of songs which have required 
much exertion or production of a telling high note in the 
final cadenza. It is but rarely that a song is sung as well 
on a re-demand as at first. 
7. After continued singing or speaking be careful to 
prevent exposure of the throat either externally or in- 
ternally to the impressions of cold air. The same remark 
applies as to the necessity of guarding against sudden HYGIENIC ASPECT OF THE RESONATOR. 
129 
changes from hot to cold air even when the voice has 
not been used. 
A few practical hints as to the symptoms and treatment 
of the milder forms of laryngeal disease will be found in 
the chapter “The Ailments of the Voice-User.” 
lII.—THE HYGIENIC ASPECT OF MANAGEMENT 
OF THE RESONATING PORTION OF THE VOICE. 
Questions of alterations of form as the result of con- 
stitutional disease, and disorders of secretion, oftentimes the 
result of indigestion, are here involved. These also will 
be elsewhere considered, and it is sufficient here to remark 
that in a vast number of instances of vocal impairment 
in which there is actual visible disease in this region, the 
first cause may often be found in defective respiration. 
In such a case an effort has been made in the pharynx or 
fauces to correct or strengthen a tone imperfectly formed 
in the vibrating portion due to an improperly impelled or 
insufficient volume of air. Mandl (‘ Hygiene de la Voix.’ 
Paris, 1876. p. 17) has drawn attention to the fact that 
“ during the effort which accompanies collar-bone re- 
spiration, it almost constantly occurs that the tongue is 
retracted, and as a result there is a diminution in the 
dimensions of the resonant cavities of the pharynx, the 
shape of which is now no longer capable of adapting itself 
to the exigencies of various tones on account of this forced 
position of the tongue. One can consequently and very 
readily understand the baneful influence which collar-bone 
breathing exercises on the timbre.” 
With regard to the hygienic management of the articu- 
lating cavity, it is essential that the pupil should thoroughly 
understand the various alterations of the shape of the lips VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
and position of the tongue in enunciation of the various 
consonants, and it is from ignorance of or inattention to 
this physiological information that many songs musically 
beautiful are unintelligible or disagreeable in their effect on 
the hearer. It stands to reason as a result of this statement 
that it is absurd for a master to endeavour to teach songs 
in a language not his own, or with the pronunciation of 
which he is not fully acquainted; and it may be added 
that it would be well for the same reason if singers 
would confine delivery of songs to the same limits, or 
at least master the pronunciation of a language which 
they oftentimes only learn as a parrot for the actual lesson 
of each individual composition. 
Before closing this chapter it may be worth while once 
more to insist that almost all faults of singing or speaking 
resolve themselves under one large heading of fatigue; and 
the cause of this fatigue, whether felt in chest, voice-box, 
or upper throat, is almost always to be found in irregular 
muscular action, causing undue struggle with the oppos- 
ing muscles. The particular muscles most frequently at 
fault are the respiratory ; and only by correct action of 
these muscles of respiration can fatigue of the voice be 
ensured against, or if experienced can it be remedied. 
It is astonishing how many and various are the defects 
which can be explained from this one standpoint. In the 
chest are induced shortness of inspiration, with labour, 
oppression, and hurry in expiration. These give rise 
to prickings, spasms, cramps, and even continuous 
muscular pains. The lungs imperfectly aerated are liable 
to congestions and over-distention, and the action of the 
heart is impaired, and even seriously disturbed. One very 
characteristic pain is a sensation of sinking in the neigh- 
bourhood of the diaphragm, or midriff, which might be HYGIENIC ASPECT OF THE RESONA TOR. 
131 
well described in the words of Shakespeare as “an under- 
going pain.” It is due entirely to fatigue and consequent 
collapse of this normally firm supporting medium between 
chest and abdomen. 
In the larynx, fatigue, due to the same cause, is felt as a 
contraction of the closing muscles, which leads to jerky and 
noisy breathing. Purity of vocal tone is painfully im- 
paired, and the voice becomes weak in intensity, unequal 
in power, veiled in quality, quavering and shaky in 
utterance. All the refinements of vocalization are also lost 
or rendered uncertain. The singer or speaker oftentimes, 
as before stated, endeavours to overcome these laryngeal 
defects by use of the muscles of the pharynx, and almost 
all troubles in this region, not only of sensation, but as 
actually seen to be morbid to the medical eye, may be 
accounted for on the basis of this argument. 
To the late Dr. Mandl, of Paris, we owe our thanks for 
having insisted on the importance of this very great 
hygienic question. His first articles in the Gazette 
Medicate, 1855, attracted much attention and opposition 
in both medical and musical journals. That they were 
required was proved by the fact that the following precept, 
to which we were the first to draw attention of English 
readers nearly ten years ago, as to breathing, was given in 
La Methode de Chant du Conservatoire de Musique; 
“ Qaiand on respire pour parler ou pour renouveler simple- 
ment I’air des poumons, le premier mouvement est celui 
de Inspiration, alors le ventre se gonfle et sa partie 
posterieure s’avance un peu. . . . Au contraire, dans 
Taction de respirer pour chanter, en aspirant il faut 
aplatir le ventre et le faire remonter avec promptitude en 
gonflant et avanqant la poitrine.” 
Mandl believed that to this faulty respiration was due 132 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the modern degeneration of singing voices, which “ were in 
themselves better, and were longer conserved in the old 
Italian school, directed by the Rubinis, Porporas, &c., 
than in our modern schools, which teach, or at least which 
permit, clavicular respiration.” It is now some years since 
we took up the subject in this country, and we are gratified 
to feel that the result has not been unfruitful. Much, 
however, remains to be done, for the question is by no 
means understood, even by many who most loudly ac- 
knowledge the justice of the charge, and profess to teach 
on the principles herein inculcated. We feel, therefore, 
that no apology is necessary for the very large amount of 
space we have given to these considerations, and the 
detail with which we have pointed out the principles 
of correct respiration, the faults arising from incorrect, 
and the exact manner in which proper breathing is to be 
pursued by the pupil and tested by the teacher. 
In illustration of the arguments in favour of scientific 
training, we append an account of a few of the numerous 
cases which have come under our attention recently. They 
demonstrate first, the injurious effects of wrong method, 
and secondly, the absolute importance of lessons in breath- 
ing and delivery for the complete re-establishment of vocal 
strength. 
Rev. H. G. had completely broken down in voice, 
and for three months was entirely unable to take part in 
the church service. After medical treatment beneficially 
directed to his physical symptoms, which were all attribut- 
able to wrong vocal method, he received a course of vocal 
training, including lung gymnastics. At the commence- 
ment of treatment his breathing capacity, which should 
have had a normal average of about 275 cubic inches, was 
under 200 ; at the end of one week’s breathing practice, HYGIENIC ASPECT OF THE RESONATOR. 
133 
it was 254; at the end of the second week, 272. He 
quite recovered his voice in twelve lessons, and, in the 
absence of his vicar, conducted the whole service without 
inconvenience. 
Rev. Canon G. broke down in voice, and was unable 
to take duty for six months. Sang with very “ woolly ” 
tone and without power. Breathing entirely clavicular in 
the production of short tones. The effect of his faulty 
method was such that it was necessary to excise his 
tonsils, and to reduce the length of his uvula; and further 
to destroy several enlarged and varicose veins at the back 
of his throat. As he exhibited a strong disposition to 
vocal relapses on each occasion of attempting church duty 
or preaching he was directed to take elocutionary lessons. 
The result of abdominal- breathing as applied to phonation 
was in this case little short of marvellous. At the end 
of three months’ training he writes: “To measure the value 
of your help I have only to remember that after being for 
eight months absolutely unable to use my voice, and this 
in spite of all that medical treatment could do, I have 
now, after so few lessons, just completed a fortnight’s duty 
in the choral services of the cathedral, and am actually 
the better in voice for the practice. It causes me neither 
strain nor fatigue now to take a service. You will see 
what this means for me, my duties being what they are.” 
Rev. H. H. suffered from spasm of the glottis to such 
an extent that speaking in ordinary voice was almost 
impossible to himself, while his efforts were painful both 
to hear and to see. Had been for years under treatment, 
and had by advice resided for five years in Spain, without 
beneficial result. On his return he consulted us. Medical 
attention, galvanism, and every form of nerve tonic having 
proved unavailing, he was earnestly urged to undergo a 134 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
course of lung gymnastics. After a very short course 
he writes : £; I am sure you will be pleased to hear that last 
Sunday evening I preached in Cathedral, in the 
nave, and was heard perfectly throughout the whole 
building, both in the choir and down to the end of the 
nave. People have remarked what a strong voice I have! 
With God’s blessing I owe this to your skill.” 
A. 8., Esq., M.P., suffered from impediment in speech 
and weak voice. Had been for years in the House of 
Commons and frequently spoken, but was unable to 
make himself heard sufficiently to obtain a report of his 
speeches. After two courses of instruction he is able to 
speak with fluency and ease, and is now well heard in the 
gallery, as proved by the frequent reports of his speeches 
in the papers. 
C. W. P., Esq., Mus. Bac., spoke in a child’s treble, 
and thought his voice had never broken. After twelve 
lessons has acquired a full sonorous man’s voice, which has 
since developed into a bass of excellent quality. 
Miss M. E. C. suffered from severe throat affection and 
loss of voice consequent upon over-straining and forcing 
of the registers with clavicular breathing. Received 
medical treatment and subsequently vocal gymnastics. 
Her mother writes: “In addition to the improvement in 
her voice I can perceive benefit to general health under 
the method of breathing which you suggested.” 
Miss D. M. was rapidly losing the upper and middle 
notes of her voice from faulty production. The quality 
of tone was very impure. After six months’ training 
her voice has become clear and bell-like, and the registers 
are perfectly blended. The compass has greatly increased, 
she being able to sing with ease F in alt. 
Mr. R. A., a precentor in a Scotch church, suffered so RELATION OF THROAT AND EAR. 
135 
severely with chest symptoms, the result of wrong delivery, 
that one doctor recommended him to relinquish singing 
altogether, another to go to the country to live, although 
no actual organic change in his lungs could be detected. 
He received some few lessons in the right method of 
respiration, and shortly after wrote : “ I have neither given 
up my Precentorship nor changed my residence, and I am 
at present enjoying excellent health. I attribute all that 
human means can claim to careful and proper breathing 
exercises. Your instructions were listened to by me with 
eager attention and practised most religiously.” 
THE RELATIONS OF THE THROAT AND EAR IN 
REGARD TO VOICE. 
This question is a somewhat complicated one. We have 
seen, in the section on the “ Resonator,” that the throat 
is directly connected with the ears by means of the 
Eustachian tubes. (PI. 111. E., p. 39). These tubes are, 
in a state of health, slightly open, and they are still more 
widely opened during each act of swallowing. By these 
means the air outside and inside the drumheads of the ear 
is kept in the same state of density, thus allowing the 
membranes to vibrate regularly and freely, a condition 
which is indispensable to good hearing. 
If, on the other hand, the Eustachian tubes are closed 
by a swelling of their mucous membrane caused by a 
cold in the head or by a sore throat, &c., then the hearing 
is impaired, and speakers and singers are particularly 
inconvenienced by not being able accurately to judge 
the sound of their own voices. Accumulations of wax in 
the external passages of the ear by exerting too great a 136 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
pressure on the drum cavity from without may have the 
same effect on the character of the voice and impairment 
of hearing, and in both conditions very annoying noises in 
the head may occasion a further complication. 
One striking case of this nature occurred to us in 
which a very well-known actor, formerly under our care, 
came later blaming us for not having recognised some 
serious diseased condition of his larynx, which he had 
been informed by another doctor was at the root of all his 
vocal disability. But he was not aware until his hearing 
was tested that the auditory function had simultaneously 
deteriorated. On syringing the ears very large plugs of 
impacted wax were removed from each passage, with the 
immediate result of complete and permanent vocal im- 
provement and restoration to the sufferer, not only of 
perfect hearing, but of a satisfactory sensation to himself of 
the sound of his own voice. 
When the defect is due to extension of disease of the 
mucous membrane in the throat or nasal passages, the 
trouble is often remedied by inflating the Eustachian 
tubes, an act easily accomplished by the simple expedient 
of shutting the mouth, closing the nostrils, and then 
forcing the air into the Eustachian tubes by blowing. 
When this experiment has not the desired effect, medical 
assistance should be procured at once, and the more ac- 
curate method of inflation with the Politzer air syringe will 
probably be effectual where mere inflation by blowing was 
of no avail; or it may even be necessary to pass a delicate 
hollow cannula or catheter into the nostrils directly to the 
orifice of this tube, and thus project air or medicated 
vapours, so as to overcome the obstruction and to reduce 
the thickening of the tissues causing it. It is on account 
of this connection of the throat and ear that scarlet fever, RELATION OF THROAT AND EAR. 
137 
which, as is well known, almost always attacks the throat, is 
followed by inflammation and discharges from the ear, and 
the continuance of some of the muscles of the palate into 
the walls of the orifice of the Eustachian tubes accounts 
for pain in the ears felt in many acute diseases of the 
throat—as quinsy—these pains being experienced more 
especially during the act of swallowing. 
So much for the direct relation between throat and ear. 
Now for the indirect relation : this implies that, voice and 
hearing being under immediate and absolute control of the 
brain, the voice should be capable of producing with 
unfailing accuracy any tone which the ear has mentally 
heard in advance, and the ear should be able to recognise 
with equal certainty any tone produced by the voice. 
A failure of this process is sometimes caused by want of 
control over the laryngeal muscles governing the pitch of 
the voice, and this is a source of great trouble to singers. 
They perfectly hear that they are out of tune, but they 
are, nevertheless, unable to put matters right. This is, 
however, comparatively speaking, a rare occurrence, due 
in most cases to relaxation or other indisposition, and 
will generally quickly pass away, and the same may be 
said when it is caused as a reflex of an impaired digestion. 
Where it is constitutional there is probably no cure for it, 
and certainly no one so afflicted could ever hope to have 
the slightest chance as a singer. 
Or the ear is at fault and fails to appreciate the tone of 
the voice. One person may be very short-sighted and yet 
have an exquisitely delicate eye for colour. Another’s 
vision may be as keen as possible, but he cannot distinguish 
black from red or blue from green, &c. The person in the 
latter case is said to be colour-blind. 
Things are very similar with regard to the ear. One 138 
VOICE, .S'OiVC, ND SPEECH. 
person’s hearing may be very dull, so far as discerning faint 
sounds or sounds at a distance is concerned, and yet he will 
have the power of recognising and of classifying sounds, so 
that he can correctly name any tone struck, behind his 
back, on the piano, or write down a tune played or sung 
to him. Such a person is said to have a musical ear. 
Another person will have the acutest hearing imaginable, 
and yet be unable to distinguish a high tone from a low 
one, or one tune from another. We know a clergyman 
who cannot tell “ God save the Queen” from “Yankee 
Doodle,” and who only becomes aware of the fact that 
the National Anthem is being played when he sees the 
people rising from their seats or uncovering their heads. 
Such a person is said to have no musical ear. Cases of 
this kind are not amenable to medical treatment except 
when the loss of the power to recognise different musical 
sounds is the result of disease. 
But the musical ear may be trained, and the results to 
be obtained in this manner are frequently most astonish- 
ing. It is quite a common experience that people who 
could not at first distinguish one tone from another 
eventually obtained that power in a very high degree, and 
distanced many others who originally appeared to be much 
more gifted. The points here to be attended to are as 
follows: 
i. Take the pupil in hand early in life. 
i. Do not attempt to cultivate a sense of absolute pitch. 
There are very few people naturally endowed with it, but 
to create such a power by training is perfectly hopeless. 
To cultivate a sense of relative pitch is comparatively 
easy. 
3. Do not rely upon tempered instruments for exercises 
and illustrations, but make pure intonation the basis of RELATION OF THROAT AND EAR. 
139 
all teaching. In other words, avoid the piano and the 
harmonium, and use a string instrument or the voice. 
4. Try to awaken in the pupil a perception of the 
characteristics by which every tone in key is distinguished 
from its neighbours. 
We should not endeavour to recognise a tone by the 
fact of its standing a semitone or a tone above or below its 
predecessor, but rather by the general impression it makes 
upon the mind. 
It must be admitted, finally, that although in many 
instances the ear can be trained to a wonderful extent, 
there are also cases in which little or no improvement is 
obtainable. Under such circumstances a speaker will 
always be more or less a failure, and a singer an 
impossibility. 140 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
EXPERIMENTS BEFORE THE INVENTION OF 
THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
We think it unprofitable to give an account of the 
more or less erroneous theories about the production of 
the human voice entertained by the ancients. Anatomy 
and physiology made considerable progress during the 
16th and 17th centuries, but it was not till four decades 
of the 18 th century had passed away that investigations 
were made with voice-boxes of animals and of men; and, 
although even these appear antiquated in the present state 
of our knowledge, yet they are still relied upon by some 
old-fashioned people who do not “ believe ” in the laryngo- 
scope. A short survey of these experiments may therefore 
be interesting, and they will be mentioned in the order in 
which they were published. 
Ferrein (1741) was the first who succeeded in producing 
tones upon an exsected voice-box—that of a dog. He 
blew into it after having approximated the vocal ligaments, 
when he says it appeared to become animated, and it 
produced tones which were pleasanter to him than the 
most charming concerts. We have already seen on 
page 88 the conclusions at which he arrived, and although 
they are now known to be incorrect in the most essential 
particular, they were generally accepted for a long time 
afterwards. 
Kempelen (1791) made considerable advance upon the 
above theory by maintaining that a greater tension of the PRE-LARYNGOSCOPIC EXPERIMENTS. 
141 
vocal ligaments went hand in hand with a diminution of 
the slit between them, and vice versa. 
Dutrochet (1806) compared the action of the vocal 
ligaments with that of the human lips in playing upon the 
horn. 
Liskovius (1814) objected to Ferrein’s string theory, 
but he arrived at the equally wrong conclusion that the 
human voice is the result of the air being forced through 
a slit formed by the vocal ligaments, and that the pitch of 
the voice depended upon the size of this slit. 
Savart (1825) strayed still farther from the truth by 
comparing the mechanism of the voice with a bird-catcher’s 
call. This theory, in which the pockets of the larynx 
(the ventricles of Morgagni) play an important part, would 
seem to be sufficiently disproved by the fact that many 
animals with very powerful voices are not endowed with 
laryngeal pockets at all. Nevertheless, this theory is, even 
at the present time, upheld by some authors although in a 
somewhat modified form. 
Malgaigne (1831) proved by experiment that the voice 
was produced by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments, 
and pointed out the great importance of the movements of 
the soft palate, though going too far by asserting that the 
formation of the “ falsetto ” depended upon this. 
Lehfeldt (1835) was the first to observe that the “chest 
voice ” is formed by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments 
through their entire thickness including the shield-pyramid 
muscles which constitute the bulk of them, and that in 
“falsetto” the vibrations are limited to the thin inner 
edges of the ligaments. 
Magendie (1838) made experiments upon living dogs 
whose vocal ligaments he laid bare. In this way he 
ascertained that the first and indispensable condition of tone 142 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
production is the approximation of the pyramids, and that 
there can be no tone while the glottis is open. He also saw 
the vibrations of the vocal ligaments in the production of 
tone, and asserted that the pitch was higher or lower 
according to the ligaments vibrating only partly or in their 
entirety. 
This brings us to the important investigations of Joh. 
Mueller (‘Ueber die Compensation der physischen Kraefte 
am menschlichen Stimmapparat.’ Berlin, 1839). Mueller 
made, like Ferrein, the fundamental mistake of supposing 
that the vocal ligaments were the sounding element, and 
that they were made to produce tone by the force of the 
expiratory air, just as the wind plays upon the strings of an 
,/Eoiian harp without producing any sound itself. His 
experiments are, moreover, now in a great measure super- 
seded by the observations with the laryngoscope. Never- 
theless, his researches are so exhaustive that they are still 
most valuable in considering questions of theory concern- 
ing the voice. 
Having prepared a detached larynx and connected it 
with a bellows, Mueller approximated the pyramids; after 
which, by blowing into the voice-box, he could produce 
tones somewhat resembling those of the human voice. 
This was the easier the closer the vocal ligaments were 
together, and a bubbling noise was the result if a space 
remained between the pyramids. It was further necessary 
to allow the air to pass over tepid water, as otherwise the 
ligaments soon became dry and were then incapable of 
producing any tone at all. 
The pitch of the tones depended upon the weights by 
means of which the shield cartilage was pulled forward 
and downward, thereby stretching the vocal ligaments ; 
although the laws here ascertained were not those relating THE HISTORY OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
to strings, which is not surprising considering that the 
vocal ligaments are made longer by being stretched, which 
is not the case with strings upon musical instruments. By 
pushing the shield cartilage backward and upward the 
vocal ligaments were relaxed, and produced the lowest 
tones of a bass voice. If the ligaments were allowed to 
vibrate through their whole dimensions it wa& possible by 
thus stretching and relaxing them to get a serviceable 
compass of about two octaves. It was possible to raise the 
pitch even beyond this limit, but the tones so produced 
were shrill and hissing. 
Mueller also ascertained that in order to vary the pitch 
by adding tubes to the larynx a much greater length was 
required than could be supplied by the corresponding- 
cavities of the human body, and he consequently came to 
the conclusion that the pitch of the voice in the living 
subject is independent of the length of the vocal passages. 
He also discovered, however, that pitch was raised very con- 
siderably by the introduction of a hollow plug into the 
pipe just below the vibrating element, and when this action 
is imitated by compressing the plates of the shield cartilage 
while singing it has the same effect upon the voice. 
Another factor greatly affecting the pitch was found to 
consist in the power of blast, and it was possible by this 
means to raise the pitch with the same amount of stretch- 
ing as much as a fifth. This shows that it is necessary to 
compensate the raising influence of an increased power of 
blast by a corresponding relaxation of the vocal ligaments, 
without which the tone cannot be maintained upon the 
same height. Of the difficulty thus created we have 
painful practical experience in the sharp singing of un- 
skilful performers when they produce fortissimo tones. 
We have just called attention to Lehfeldfs original 144 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
observations with regard to the mechanism of the “ chest 
voice ” and of “ falsetto.” These were confirmed by 
Mueller, who further showed that the dimensions of the 
space immediately below the vocal ligaments is of great 
consequence in this matter, and we have already described 
his experiments with a hollow plug, and how this action 
may be imitated in singing. A similar effect may be 
produced by contraction of the inner portion of the 
shield - pyramid muscles, which diminishes the space 
below the vocal ligaments. This is one of the factors in 
the production of the upper series of tones in “ chest 
voice.” 
It will now be necessary, in order to estimate the experi- 
ments upon exsected larynges at their proper value, to say 
a few words about the way of conducting them. The 
voice-box, with a piece of the windpipe attached to it, is 
put with the back part upon a little board, to which the 
ring cartilage is fastened with a piece of string. A needle 
is pushed through the bases of the pyramids and they are 
pulled together by applying to the points of the needle a 
thread in the form of an 8 ; or, dispensing with the needle, 
the pyramids are simply sewn together. After this they 
are, like the ring cartilage, fastened to the board just 
mentioned, thus making them a fixed point for the purpose 
of stretching the vocal ligaments, which are, of course, 
brought close together by the above-described process. 
Another thread is now inserted in the front edge of the 
shield cartilage, and passed over a pulley, after which the 
lar.ynx is ready for stretching the vocal ligaments to almost 
any extent by attaching weights to the thread. 
It is a point of the greatest practical importance to 
observe that by these means the pocket ligaments are not 
approximated, but that they remain widely separated. In THE HISTORY OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
145 
order to bring them together two needles are pushed 
through the shield cartilage into the pyramids in such a 
manner that they are contained within the free edges of 
the pocket ligaments. Only by separating the needles 
in front and by pressing them together behind and 
along the whole length of the pocket ligaments can 
these finally be made to come into contact with each 
other. 
It will thus be seen that it is necessary to take great 
liberties with the dead larynx in order to produce tone. 
But, what is worse, it is admittedly impossible to imitate 
the action of the shield pyramid or vocal muscles upon 
which, as we have learnt, the voice chiefly depends. 
Experiments of this kind can therefore not be received 
as evidence except in so far as they are corroborated by 
investigations upon living persons. 
THE INVENTION OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
The claimants for the honour of having invented this 
beautiful little instrument are many, as may be seen from 
the following brief historical account: 
Bozzini (Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 1807) invented an 
apparatus for illuminating the internal cavities of the 
human body, and among these the throat. This instru- 
ment, although clumsy and difficult of application, 
certainly embodied the principle of the laryngoscope. 
However, it never came into use, and was soon again 
forgotten. 
Senn (Geneva, 1827) had a mirror constructed with 
which he endeavoured to explore the larynx of a little girl. 
In this he failed, and although he suggested that a larger 146 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
mirror might be employed upon adults, yet he never made 
any further attempts to use it. 
Babington (1827) exhibited before the Hunterian 
Society, under the name of “ glottiscope,” a combination of 
two mirrors exactly upon the plan of our present “ laryn- 
goscope.” Here, then, we have undoubtedly the instrument, 
but, unfortunately for the claims made on behalf of Dr. 
Babington, he does not appear to have produced any 
results with it, and there are certainly no cases on record 
in which it has been of service. 
Beaumes (Lyons, 1838) used a mirror attached to a 
piece of whalebone. 
Liston (London, 1840) employed “such a glass as is 
used by dentists, on a long stalk, previously dipped in hot 
water,” and seems to have been the first who really saw 
anything with it. But even he merely looked upon it as an 
aid to diagnosis, and never dreamt of the enormous im- 
portance which the process was destined to acquire in the 
hands of a later observer. 
Avery (London, 1840) not only used a mirror attached 
to a stem, but also artificial light in the shape of a candle 
with a metal reflector attached to it. But he has left no 
description of his instrument on record, and it is clear that 
he had no more idea of its immense value than Liston. 
Warden (Edinburgh, 1844) used prisms of glass in a 
similar manner, and is reported to have caught sight of the 
glottis in two instances. The prisms, however, were too 
thick and occupied too much space to make really success- 
ful experiments possible. 
It will be seen from the above notes that the principle of 
laryngoscopy had been known to several men of science, 
yet the results obtained with the instruments formerly 
employed were almost nil, and it was reserved for Manuel GARCIA'S INVENTION OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
147 
Garcia, the famous professor of singing, to show the world 
the real value of the little laryngeal mirror; to make 
original additions to vocal physiology ; to settle, beyond 
the shadow of a doubt, the true theory of voice produc- 
tion ; to disprove many absurd notions still entertained 
upon this subject, and to revolutionise the whole treatment 
of diseases of the throat. 
Garcia brilliantly succeeded where all his predecessors 
had more or less failed, and he was certainly the first to 
conceive the idea of making observations upon his own 
larynx in the act of singing. These he carried out in the 
most marvellous manner, giving a detailed description of 
even the minutest movements of the vocal ligaments, 
which is still recognised as being substantially accurate, 
and which is the more wonderful as Garcia had practically 
to create the whole process of investigation for himself, 
and was neither an anatomist nor a physiologist. Garcia 
is, therefore, to all intents and purposes the real inventor 
of the laryngoscope, and he is now also universally 
recognised as such. 
Here is the description which he himself gives of his 
modus operandi:— 
“ The method which I have adopted is very simple. It 
consists in placing a little mirror, fixed on a long handle 
suitably bent, in the throat of the person experimented on 
against the soft palate and the uvula. The party ought to 
turn himself towards the sun, so that the luminous rays 
falling on the little mirror may be reflected on the larynx. 
If the observer experiment on himself he ought, by means 
of a second mirror, to receive the rays of the sun, and 
direct them on the mirror which is placed against the 
uvula.” (‘ Observations on the Human Voice,’ by Manuel 
Garcia, read before the Royal Society by Professor Sharpey VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
on May 24th, 1855, ee ‘Proceedings,’ vol. vii., 
No. 13, p. 399.) 
It is a remarkable circumstance that although Garcia’s 
statements were never actually disputed by any one, yet 
they were received coldly and with distrust. Of this 
discreditable feeling we see an instance in the following 
passage by no less a person than Professor Merkel, of 
Leipzig, which, in the present state of our knowledge, it 
is impossible to read without a smile:—“ I have not yet, 
it is true, been able to obtain Garcia’s original observa- 
tions, and do not know, therefore, how he proceeded in 
these alleged experiments, what he has seen and what he 
has not seen, but I have just grounds to doubt the reality 
of his observations until I am informed in what manner 
Garcia has prevented the mirror from becoming dimmed, 
and how he draws forward the lid which to a great extent 
hides the glottis from the eye even though it be by means 
of the mirror placed near the uvula, etc.” (‘Anthropo- 
phonik.’ Leipzig, 1857, P* 608.) 
It is to be feared that Garcia’s laryngoscope would 
eventually have been neglected as all its predecessors had 
been but for Tlirck and Czermak, two physicians in Vienna, 
who saw the practical importance of the process, and who 
introduced it to the medical profession in general. There 
is a squabble of priority between these two gentlemen into 
which we do not propose to enter; but it is certain that 
Czermak laboured enthusiastically in the new cause, and 
that, by his demonstrations and lectures in almost all 
the chief cities of Europe, he did more titan any other 
man to disarm prejudice, and to popularise the laryngo- 
scope among his professional brethren. On the other 
hand, Tiirck has left a clinical volume full of the most 
interesting cases and with superb illustrations, which it is HOW TO USE THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
149 
unlikely will ever be surpassed: it will always stand as 
the classic practical work, par excellence, of the specialty. 
Czermak has also improved upon Garcia’s process by 
substituting artificial light for that of the sun, thereby 
enabling investigators to carry on their work in any place 
and at any time. His services in connection with this 
matter are therefore very considerable, and by many he is 
even regarded as the true inventor of the laryngoscope, 
which distinction, however, clearly belongs to Garcia, and 
to no one else. 
THE LARYNGOSCOPE AND HOW TO USE IT. 
The laryngoscope in its simplest form is nothing but a 
little mirror about the size of a shilling, set in a metal 
frame, and fastened at an angle of 120° to a piece of wire 
from three to four inches long, which is put into a small 
handle of ebony or ivory not much thicker than a pencil. 
We have already seen how Garcia, with the aid of sun- 
light, worked with it upon others ; add to this that the 
little looking-glass, which is called the laryngeal mirror, 
must be warmed before beinp- introduced into the throat 
in order to prevent its becoming dimmed by the moisture 
of the breath, and the description is complete. 
In auto-laryngoscopy—that is to say, in the process of 
making laryngoscopic observations upon oneself—the 
observer sits with his back towards the sun, and with 
a hand looking-glass reflects the light falling upon the 
laryngeal mirror at the back of the throat. The laryngeal 
image will then be seen in the hand looking-glass by 
which the light is reflected. 
The light of the sun is, of course, vastly superior to 
even the most brilliant artificial light, but it is not so easily VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
managed, and, unfortunately, in this country it is not 
often available; therefore, for laryngoscopy to become of 
any practical importance it was necessary to improve upon 
Garcia’s simple method, and to contrive instruments 
enabling observers to work with ease in any place and at 
XXII.—Dr. Tobold’s Laryngoscope, 
The right hand of the observer is represented as introducing the mii Tor into 
the mouth for the purpose of examining the larynx. 
any time. For the practical purposes of observing other 
persons’ throats, as is done by the doctor, gas or oil lamps 
on the principle of the “ Queen’s reading lamp ” are equally 
serviceable. To those in constant practice the limelight is 
recommended as giving the best illumination—the electric 
light being not, as yet, available for this purpose. HOW TO USE THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
151 
A handy, inexpensive, and thoroughly useful apparatus 
(PL XXII.), designed by Dr. Tobold, of Berlin, which 
answers the double purpose of making observations upon 
others as well as upon oneself, is shown in the annexed 
cut, and may be had, complete in case, at a moderate cost, 
from Messrs. Krohne and Sesemann, Duke Street, Man- 
chester Square, who have, at our desire, provided a supply 
of them. 
The illustration, in a large measure, speaks for itself, 
but the following directions may be of service to the 
intending laryngoscopist. 
1. Direct the person whose throat is to be examined, 
and of whom for convenience’ sake we will here speak as 
the singer, to sit erect, with the knees together, and the 
head slightly thrown back. 
2. Arrange the lamp so that it is distant about nine 
inches to the right of his head and in a line with 
his ear. 
3. Sit opposite him and adjust the reflector, which is 
attached to the light-condenser by a metal arm, so that 
your right eye looks through the hole in the centre. 
4. Direct the singer to open the mouth widely. 
5. Throw the reflected light on to the back of his 
throat. 
6. Take the laryngeal mirror in the right hand, and 
slightly warm it over the lamp. The glass will be covered 
with a film of moisture, and the instant this has disappeared 
and the mirror becomes clear it is of the right temperature. 
Its warmth should, however, always be tested by placing 
the back of it against your hand or cheek. 
7. Hold the mirror like a pen in the right hand, and 
introduce it into the mouth of the singer with the reflect- 
ing surface directed downwards. 152 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
8. Be careful not to touch the tongue with the mirror 
in introducing it. 
9. Rest the back of the mirror against the uvula, so as 
to press it gently upwards and backwards, but do not force 
it against the back of the pharynx, or retching and 
gagging will be the result. 
10. Turn your hand slightly to the right, so as to keep 
it out of the line of view. 
11. Direct the singer to take a deep inspiration, and 
then to produce tone on the vowel a, as in the word sad. 
12. Let each examination be short; the mirror may 
then be introduced six or eight times without incon- 
venience, whereas if the mirror be too long retained spasms 
or nausea may be produced and put a stop to further 
examination. 
A view of the larynx should thus be obtained, and the 
vocal ligaments, easily recognisable by their pearly-white 
colour, should be plainly seen, and their movements 
observed. But if the operator does not, at first, see more 
than the back of the tongue or the upper rim of the lid, he 
must not hastily conclude that this is all that can be seen 
in the case before him. He should, on the contrary, 
repeat the experiment upon the same person day after day 
until at last he succeeds, for it must be borne in mind that 
the proportion of cases in which a fairly skilled laryngo- 
scopist is unable to get a satisfactory view of the interior 
of the larynx is very small indeed. 
It is generally supposed that it is necessary to cause the 
singer to put out his tongue, and then to hold it with a 
cloth in order to get a good laryngeal image; but this is a 
great mistake. The tongue and the larynx being inti- 
mately connected, any movement of the former cannot 
fail to affect the latter; if, therefore, the investigations with HOW TO USE THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
153 
the laryngoscope are to be of any value with regard to the 
hidden configurations of the voice-box in the production 
of tone, the formation of the “ registers,” &c., it is clear 
that no contortions of any sort must be indulged in. They 
might help to show the larynx in making some noise, but 
it would be pointed out, and with great force, that such 
revelations are of no use. The tongue must remain in its 
natural place, and if the singer has the power, which he 
ought to have, of keeping it flat, it will not interfere in the 
least with the proposed observations. This is shown very 
plainly in the photograph printed as the frontispiece of this 
book, with the mirror at the back of the throat, in which 
a complete image of the larynx in singing is reflected, while 
the tongue lies so flat as to be practically not visible. 
We have thus demonstrated the utter groundlessness 
of the objection urged in some quarters with so much 
persistency, that all observations with the laryngoscope are 
untrustworthy on account of the contortions they involve. 
In medical practice, it is true, patients are generally directed 
to put out the tongue and to hold the tip of it between 
the index finger and thumb. But patients are not always 
singers, and the object in their case is to observe disease, and 
not a physiological process. The practitioner consequently 
avails himself of every help to remove difficulties, though 
even in medical examinations it is now found that the pro- 
truding of the tongue is by no means indispensable, and 
that in some instances it even defeats its own object. 
Beginners in laryngoscopy will do well to practise upon 
a model of some sort and then upon themselves before 
asking another to submit to the operation. A great deal 
is said about the sensitiveness of person’s throats, and that 
they cannot endure the touch of the mirror; but we have 
no hesitation in asserting that inexperience and conse- VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
quent clumsiness on the part of the operator are the chief 
cause of failure, and that his difficulties will diminish in 
proportion as his dexterity increases. 
A Cc Laryngo-Phantom ” by Dr. Isenschmid, of Mu- 
nich, will greatly facilitate preliminary practice, and may 
also be had from Messrs. Krohne and Sesemann. It con- 
sists of an imitation of the throat, and “is intended to 
familiarise students with as many of the details con- 
nected with the use of the laryngoscope as it is possible 
to learn before the application of the instrument to the 
living subject.” A number of little paintings, represent- 
ing different laryngoscopic appearances, may be slipped 
into this phantom unknown to the student, who has to 
inspect them by the ordinary process. This phantom may 
be put in place of the singer, as represented on Plate 
XXII., and will be found to afford excellent practice. 
For auto-laryngoscopy—that is to say, making laryngo- 
scopic investigations upon oneself—the student takes the 
place of the phantom just indicated. He proceeds in every 
particular with himself as on p, 151 he was advised to 
proceed upon others. A little square mirror, supplied for 
this purpose with the laryngoscope, must be attached to 
the reflector, and in this square mirror the student will see 
a reproduction of the image in the laryngeal mirror in his 
own throat. This image may also be seen quite distinctly 
by another person taking the place of the observer, and 
looking through the space between the reflector and the 
square mirror. 
It will thus be noticed that the laryngoscope here 
recommended is a very complete little instrument, and 
may be used for three purposes, namely—1, for observa- 
tions upon a second person; 2, for observations upon 
oneself; and, 3, for demonstrating results to others. HOW TO USE THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
155 
Where the object is only self-observation and demon- 
stration another instrument may be used which was 
designed by the late Dr. Foulis, of Glasgow. It is 
simple, useful, and cheap ; but it is not, as already hinted, 
available for examining another person’s throat. It con- 
sists of a plain stand on which is placed a glass globe filled 
with water, the whole being surmounted by a small square 
mirror. The rays from a lamp or candle placed behind 
XXIII.—Dr. Foulis’s Auto-Laryngoscope. 
the globe are concentrated into the open mouth of the 
student, who sits in front of it, holding the laryngeal 
mirror at the back of his throat in the manner already 
described, and he himself seeing the resulting image in 
the larger mirror fixed to the globe. This apparatus, 
as shown in Plate XXIII., including a throat-mirror, 
and safely packed for transmission, may be had from 
Messrs. W. B. Hilliard and Sons of Glasgow, at an almost 
nominal price. 156 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
THE TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
The first thing we see after having introduced the mirror 
into the throat is the back of the tongue, which presents a 
more or less uneven appearance and is covered with gray, 
and sometimes elevated, spots. We then notice the lid 
or epiglottis which greatly varies in shape and position, and 
which is connected with the tongue by an elastic band 
forming a sort of bridge, on either side of which there is 
a little hollow. The lid in many instances hangs over the 
larynx, thus hiding a great part of it from view; in which 
case nothing more than, perhaps, the pyramids will be 
visible. 
The result is often the same although the lid is not 
pendant; in that case the position of the laryngeal mirror 
is at fault and must be altered until a perfect view is 
obtained. But even when the lid does overshadow the 
voice-box in a position of rest we soon find that it rises 
during respiration as also in phonation, particularly in 
singing the vowel a as in the word sad, which puts the 
whole of the vocal apparatus in the most favourable 
position for observation. In addition to this in auto- 
laryngoscopy we soon get a great deal of command over 
the lid and indeed over most parts of the voice-box, and 
the process of investigation becomes easier in every way. 
It may be added that soft, veiled tones afford the best 
opportunity for investigation, as with these the lid is 
almost perpendicular and the vestibule widely open; TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
157 
while in louder and more brilliant tone the lid falls and 
the vestibule is more constricted. 
When no longer hampered by arising from 
want of skill and experience we are in a position to extend 
our observations, and to notice the particulars. 
The colour of the upper surface of tjde lid is of a warm 
pinkish yellow, resembling that of surface of the 
eyelids, and upon it may frequently be observed a delicate 
network of fine red blood-vessels which ra’ some cases looks 
exceedingly pretty. The under surface of the lid is always 
of a deeper colour than the upper surface ; and the cushion 
(PL XV., p. 72), which shows itself iSf: the lower extremity, 
cj.-j <s^ 
is of a bright red. 
Immediately below the frcc'pagir of the lid there are the 
two folds of mucous connecting it with the 
pyramids, which we know XV.) under the name of the 
ary-epiglottic folds. They are thick when relaxed and thin 
when tense. In the hinder ends of these folds there are 
four little elevations, caused by the cartilages of Wrisberg 
and those of Santorini (the “ buffers ”) which are em- 
bedded here. Connecting the pyramids behind there is 
another fold of mucous membrane completing the upper 
rim of that tube described on p. 73 as the vestibule of the 
larynx. 
A little below this there are the pocket ligaments, 
formerly called false vocal cords, and nowadays, in medical 
phraseology, ventricular bands (PI. XV.). The colour of 
the ary-epiglottic folds, as well as of the pocket ligaments, 
is that of the mucous membrane lining the cheeks, while 
the portion covering the cartilages has a colour resembling 
that of the gums. 
Beneath the pocket ligaments there are the entrances to 
the pockets or ventricles of the larynx. At first sight 158 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
they show only as dark lines between the pocket ligaments 
and the vocal ligaments; but on turning the mirror so as 
to get a lateral view these spaces will be seen to be much 
larger than they appear when looking directly down the 
centre of the larynx. 
Below the entrances of the laryngeal pockets, and in fact 
forming the floor of them, we see the vocal ligaments, 
which glisten like mother-of-pearl, thus forming so strong 
a contrast with the more or less pinkish colour of all the 
surrounding parts as to make it impossible to mistake 
them. 
XXlV.—Laryngeal Mirror, showing the Reversion of the Reflected 
Image. 
When the vocal ligaments are separated in the act of 
breathing we can, with a strong, well-directed light, look 
below them, and see a portion of the ring cartilage and 
some rings of the windpipe. In a few rare and exception- 
ally favourable cases we can see right to the bottom of the 
windpipe, where we notice its division into the two branches 
entering the lungs. 
It must be borne in mind that the laryngeal image is a 
reflection in a mirror, and is, therefore, in some respects 
reversed. What this means will be best understood 
from Plate XXIV., showing the letter V, which corre- 
sponds with the glottis as it is placed in the body (see TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
159 
PI. XIII., p. 66), and the reflection of it in a mirror where 
it appears reversed. The thick stroke of the original 
letter is on the left of the observer, and so it is in the 
reflection; the thin stroke of the original letter is on 
the right of the observer, and so it is in the reflection. 
But apart from this the reflection is the exact opposite of 
the original. 
It is the same with the laryngeal image. The singer’s 
right vocal ligament, which, of course, is on the observer's 
left, is also on the left in the mirror, and the singer’s left 
vocal ligament, which is on the observer’s right, is also on 
the right in the mirror. It is plain that this equally 
applies to the pocket ligaments, to the ary-epiglottic folds, 
and to everything else which exists on both sides of the 
larynx. But with regard to front and back, the image in 
the mirror is reversed in exactly the same manner as the 
letter V in PI. XXIV. 
It is necessary to be perfectly clear on this point, in 
order to understand why the pointed part of the glottis 
on PI. XIII. is below, while, in the laryngeal pictures which 
follow, the same pointed part is above. This is a matter 
which, to our knowledge, has created great confusion in 
the minds of several readers of Mr. Behnke’s ‘ Mechanism 
of the Human Voice,’ and we are anxious, therefore, to 
avoid this difficulty in the present instance. 
The reader who has given us his attention so far is 
sufficiently familiar with details to conceive a true picture 
of the process of voice formation which we are now going 
to describe. 
Plate XXV. gives a laryngeal image with the glottis open 
in a state of rest. T represents the back part of the 
tongue; L the lid; W, W, the cartilages of Wrisberg; and 
S, S, the cartilages of Santorini. The lid somewhat covers VOICE, VOAV7, AND SPEECH. 
the larynx, so that we get but a partial view of the vocal 
ligaments, V, V, and between these we notice some rings 
of the windpipe. While the vocal ligaments are thus 
separated the air passes between them silently in respiration, 
and the chink of the glottis is the more enlarged the more 
deeply we breathe, or vice versa. 
Plate XXVI. shows the laryngeal image in a deep and 
vigorous inspiration. The glottis is here very widely 
XXV.—Gentle Breathing, 
XXVI.—Deep Breathing. 
XXVII.—Tone Production. 
Laryngeal Images, 
T. Tongue. 
V, V. Vocal ligaments. 
W, W. Cartilages of Wrisberg. 
L. Lid. 
P, P. Pocket ligaments. 
B. Bifurcation of the windpipe. 
C. Cushion of the lid. 
S, S. Cartilages of Santorini. 
opened, and we are enabled even to see the opening of 
the bronchial tubes B at the bottom of the windpipe. 
If we sing a tone, we see the pyramids, with the vocal 
ligaments attached to them, close with great rapidity, and 
the pocket ligaments also move towards the centre. But 
these, in a state of health, never meet in phonation, so that 
we always see the broad white vocal ligaments forming, 
as it were, the floor of the cavity revealed to us. The 
vocal ligaments are then thrown in vibrations by the air 
forced against them from below, as described on page 59. TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
The result is tone. As soon as we cease singing and take 
an inspiration, the pyramids, with the vocal ligaments, fly 
asunder again, and we see once more the triangular space 
between them, as before. From these movements we 
learn, as a first lesson, that the approximation of the 
vocal ligaments is an indispensable condition of tone 
production. 
But upon studying these movements carefully we further 
observe that the glottis may close under different con- 
ditions, each of which is followed by a different result. 
i. The vocal ligaments meet after the air has com- 
menced to pass between them ; this constitutes an aspirate, 
or in other words the sound of the letter h. The mechan- 
ism by which it is produced is called the “ glide of the 
glottis,” and a further attribute of it is this, that the vocal 
ligaments are often not held together sufficiently tightly, 
thus allowing more air to pass than is necessary for the 
process of phonation. The tone consequently not only 
lacks a prompt, decisive beginning, but it also suffers from 
an admixture of “wild” air which makes it breathy or 
“ woolly.” This kind of tone production is, unfortunately, 
very common. 
2. The vocal ligaments meet before the air has had time 
to reach them, the pyramids come into close contact with 
their inner surfaces and the vocal ligaments are held firmly 
together. The gate is securely shut, the air accumulates 
below, until the pressure becomes great enough to over- 
come the resistance above. Then the gate is forced open, 
and the action is accompanied by a distinct click. The 
mechanism by which this is accomplished is called the 
“ check of the glottis.” It is generally followed by a 
continued tight closure of the vocal ligaments, so that the 
air has, from the beginning to the end, an unnecessary 162 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
amount of opposition to overcome. This also interferes 
with the tone, and tends to make it hard and metallic. 
3. The vocal ligaments meet just at the very moment 
when the air strikes against them ; they are, moreover, not 
pressed together more tightly than is necessary. No 
preliminary escape takes place as in No. 1, and no obstacle 
has to be overcome as in No. 1; but the attack is clear 
and decisive, and the tone consequently gets a proper 
start. The mechanism by which this is done is the “ coup 
de glotte ”or “ shock of the glottis.” The closure of the 
vocal ligaments being maintained at the most suitable 
degree, the tone production is carried on, so far as the 
glottis is concerned, under the most favourable conditions, 
and the result is the best which can be obtained. 
There are four ways of ending a tone : 
1. The glottis opens suddenly, and before the expiratory 
effort quite ceases. In this case the tone is followed 
by a slight wind-rush, which is frequently distinctly 
audible. 
1. The larynx closes as in the act of pressing; this 
causes a snap which is the louder and the uglier the more 
abruptly it is made, and the popular description of it is 
that the tone has “ stuck in the throat.” 
3. The expiratory effort ceases while the vocal ligaments 
remain approximated. 
4. The expiratory effort ceases while the glottis opens 
exactly at the same moment. 
We will now study the movements of the larynx in the 
production of different pitches as revealed in the laryngo- 
scope, and this brings us to a consideration of the various 
“ registers.” We shall have to refer to this subject again 
in the chapter on teaching, and we here propose, therefore, 
to confine ourselves simply to a description of the physio- TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
163 
logical alterations involved in the matter, without entering 
into any arguments. 
We start with our definition, according to which 
“ a register consists of a series of tones which are pro- 
duced by the same mechanism ” (Behnke, op. cit., p. 86), and 
we will endeavour to show the variations which take place 
in the voice-box by passing in review the different classes of 
voice, commencing with the bass, and leaving off with the 
soprano. When a bass sings his lowest tones, very little is 
to be seen of the glottis except its back part, because the 
lid hangs over the larynx, and hides the front part of it 
XXVIII.—Laryngeal Image—Lower Thick Register. 
T, T. Tongue. 
P, P. Pocket ligaments. 
L. Lid, 
S, S. Cartilages of Santorini. 
V, V. Vocal ligaments. 
W, W. Cartilages of Wrisberg. 
from view. This difficulty may, to a large extent, be over- 
come by practice, which enables us to get control over the 
lid and to raise it. We have also had the opportunity of 
observing instances in which, even in the lowest tones, a 
large portion of the vocal ligaments was always visible, and 
we remember particularly the case of a gentleman in 
Scotland as the most favourable one which has ever come 
under our notice. Under such exceptional circumstances 
we see that in the lowest tones, commencing, we will say, 
, the hindermost points of the pyramids are 
closely approximated, and that there is a slit of an elliptical 
shape between the vocal ligaments. 
at 164 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
We have already more than once called attention to the 
fact that the pocket ligaments never meet in phonation, 
and they are here seen so widely apart that the vocal liga- 
ments appear as two very broad white strips which are 
agitated through their whole length, breadth, and thickness 
by full loose vibrations which in the production of these 
deep tones are sufficiently slow to be most clearly and 
distinctly visible. The elliptical shape of the vocal chink, 
in this state of complete relaxation of the vocal ligaments, 
is in exact accordance with the curve of the shield-pyramid 
muscle, as shown in PI. X., p. 60, After the singer has 
XXIX.—Laryngeal Image—Upper Thick Register. 
T, T. Tongue. 
P, P. Pocket ligaments. 
L. Lid, 
S, S. Cartilages of Santorini. 
V, V. Vocal ligaments. 
W, W. Cartilages of Wrisberg. 
gone a few tones up the scale, the vocal processes of the 
pyramids commence to be visible by pointing more and 
more inwards, until at last they meet. By this time the 
elliptical shape of the vocal chink has gradually disappeared 
and become linear, while between the pyramids there is a 
little triangular space, with its points towards the front, 
which gets smaller by degrees as the singer continues to go 
up the scale, until it quite disappears upon his reaching 
It is, however, worthy of notice that this 
triangular space, in many bass voices, closes very much 
earlier, and that in baritone and tenor voices it is 
frequently never visible at all. Meanwhile we observe that TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
165 
the lid rises with the pitch of the voice, so that we see more 
and more the higher the singer ascends the scale. It now 
becomes obvious that the vocal ligaments are being con- 
siderably stretched, a fact which is corroborated by the 
diminution and eventual total disappearance of the aperture 
between the ring and the shield (PI. VII., p. 52), which 
was widely open in the production of low tones. 
The bass having by this time reached the end of his 
compass, we proceed to study those of his tones which 
belong also to other voices; let us say in a tenor the 
in a contralto upwards 
range upwards from 
from 
and in a soprano upwards from 
9 
and we find that they are in all voices produced by precisely 
the same mechanism, namely, by vibrations of the vocal 
ligaments through their whole length, breadth, and thick- 
ness. The vibrations being much quicker than in the 
lowest tones of the bass voice it follows, of course, that 
they are not so full and loose; but they are nevertheless 
plainly discernible. We must also bear in mind that the 
vocal ligaments in the production of these tones, as we 
shall more fully discuss presently, are of great bulk and 
thickness. We will, therefore, adopting the terms of the 
late Mr. John Curwen, and leaving a further justification 
of our choice for a future occasion, speak of this series of 
tone as the “ thick register.” If then, for the present, we 
leave subdivisions out of consideration we find that all 
tones of the human voice tip to 
whether sung by a 
* Tenor music is now generally written in the treble clef an octave higher 
than really sung. We have, therefore, in order to prevent misunderstand- 
ings about the actual pitch of the tones here referred to, so far noted them 
all in the bass clef. 166 
voice, save, speech. 
bass, tenor, contralto, or soprano, are produced in the thick 
register 
As the various voices went up the scale we noticed that 
the vocal ligaments became more and more stretched. 
When we now watch the tenor, contralto, and soprano as 
they approach the 
, which we have just indicated 
as the average limit of the thick register, we perceive that 
the tension, not only of the vocal ligaments, but also of 
all surrounding parts, is getting very great, and if this 
mechanism is carried higher still the strain upon the vocal 
organ increases to such an extent that it looks as though 
it were going to burst, and its pinkish colour changes 
more and more into red. These appearances are not so 
marked in the soprano as in contralto and tenor ; the bass 
we leave out of the question, because its average limit is 
below the point just indicated. 
If tenor, contralto, and soprano wish to sing without 
straining beyond 
(remember that this tone for 
the tenor voice is generally written an octave higher), they 
have to change the mechanism, or in other words they 
must sing in a different register. 
When this occurs the following alterations take place: 
the lid is more raised than before, and we consequently 
get a complete view of the larynx, so much so that we 
even see the cushion of the lid described on p. 72, and the 
insertions of the vocal ligaments in the shield cartilage. 
The vestibule seems longer and narrower, and the ary- 
epiglottic folds (PI. XV., page 72) thinner; the pocket 
ligaments are closer together, and the entrances to the 
pockets less marked than before. The vocal ligaments seem TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
167 
quite still, and their tone-producing vibrations appear to be 
confined to the thin, inner edges. But more: the vocal 
ligaments, by the process explained on p. 64, are made 
much thinner than they were in the thick register. 
This is almost equal to the insertion of a new set of 
tonguelets, and fully accounts for the remarkable diminu- 
tion of volume which here takes place in all natural and 
uncultivated voices. The alteration in the bulk of the 
vocal ligaments can be demonstrated to the eye by illumi- 
nating the voice-box, not, as usual in laryngoscopy, by 
throwing the light into it from above, but by allowing a 
XXX.—Laryngeal Image—Lower Thin Register 
T, T. Tongue. 
P, P. Pocket ligaments. 
L. Lid. 
S, S. Cartilages of Santorini. 
V, V. Vocal ligaments. 
W, W. Cartilages of Wrisberg. 
strong light to shine through its lower part from the 
outside, and then making observations with the laryngeal 
mirror in the ordinary manner. This process is particu- 
larly successful in the case of very lean individuals, and it 
shows the vocal ligaments to be almost transparent, while 
in the thick register they are much more opaque. 
Mr. Curwen, therefore, in calling this the “thin register,” 
hit upon a singularly appropriate name, though at the 
time he decided upon it he had no idea of the new and 
great significance it has since acquired by the experiment 
just detailed. 
The foregoing change is accompanied by a great feeling 168 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
of relief, for the strain the voices experienced in carrying 
the thick register beyond its natural limit is removed, and 
they now sing with the greatest ease. The change is 
further indicated by a re-opening of the ring-shield aperture 
which had quite disappeared in the upper tones of the 
thick register. 
If the voices continue to sing in the thin register we 
observe that the slit between the vocal ligaments is linear, 
and that the pitch is evidently raised by the ligaments 
being stretched. This fact is corroborated by the state of 
the ring-shield aperture, which again commences to become 
smaller and smaller, until at last it once more quite 
XXXl.—Laryngeal Image.—Upper Thin Register. {Female Larynx.) 
disappears. In this manner the voice is carried to about 
, where a new change is found compulsory if 
straining and forcing is to be avoided, and we now see an 
elliptical slit between the vocal ligaments, as in the accom- 
panying diagram, which slit is gradually reduced in size as 
contralto and soprano sing up from to 
It is, however, worthy or notice that this mechanism may 
be resorted to almost from the beginning of the thin 
register, and that even tenors may use it, and do use it, in 
the production of the few tones just above the thick 
register, which form the highest part of their compass as 
applied to modern music. But tones so produced are TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 
169 
very poor and unsatisfactory, and they constitute what 
is commonly called “the falsetto voice,” of which more 
will be said in the chapter on teaching. 
We now come to a last change, which brings us to the 
highest part of the soprano voice commencing with 
, which Mr. Curwen has called the “ small 
register,” because the action of the vocal ligaments is 
confined to a small part of them, and this mechanism 
consists in the formation of an oval orifice in the front 
XXXII.—Laryngeal Image—Small Register. [Female Larynx.) 
part of the glottis which contracts the more the higher the 
voice ascends, the vocal ligaments being, in the hinder 
part, pressed together so tightly that scarcely any trace of 
a slit remains. No vibrations are here noticeable, while 
they are, on the contrary, so very marked in the anterior 
portion as sometimes to blur the outlines of the orifice to 
a considerable extent. 
The supposed mechanism of the small register has been 
explained on p. 76, but it must be confessed that the 
evidence in support of it is of the slenderest kind. Nor 
is this mechanism at all indispensable, and enough is 
now known of the power of the shield-pyramid muscles 
to contract in a great variety of ways to justify the 
conclusion that their action is quite sufficient in itself 
to cause the formation of the orifice described. We 
can, at any rate, vouch for the existence of it, as we 
have repeatedly, and independently of each other, had 170 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
opportunities of observing it in women as well as in 
boys. 
We have thus seen that there are, broadly speaking, 
three registers in the human voice, namely, the thick, the 
thin, and the small. We have also found certain indica- 
tions, more or less vague, of alterations in some degree 
accounting for subdivision, called the lower thick, the upper 
thick, the lower thin, and the tipper thin. These registers 
are plainly shown in Plate XXXIII., and so far as our 
present chapter is concerned there is no more to be said 
about them. 
We have also noticed the visible straining which takes 
place when an attempt is made to carry the thick register 
beyond its natural limit; and we must add that similar 
signs make their appearance, though not always so clearly 
marked, when any of the other registers are forced up too 
high. 
Lastly, we are anxious to account for the differences in 
the description, by various observers, of the laryngoscopic 
appearances in the process of voice production, and we 
cannot do this better than by making the subjoined extract 
from a most admirable treatise on the voice by Dr. 
Gruetzner, of Breslau. (‘ Physiology of Voice and Speech,’ 
by Dr. P. Gruetzner, in Dr. L. Hermann’s ‘ Handbook of 
Physiology.’ Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1879. Vol. L, 
Part 11., p. 11 a.) 
“About the manner in which these small laryngeal 
muscles take part in the production of high and low tones 
there are different, and to some extent contradictory, 
opinions. It is certain from all these statements, and from 
my own observations, that there are indeed individual 
differences which are the greater the more one has to deal 
either with trained singers or with non-singers, or with WOMEN AND CHILDREN. 
XXXIII.—The Registers of the Human Voice. 
MEN. 
From Behnke's ‘ Mechanism of the Human Voicei By permission of Messrs. 
J. Curwen &= Sons. 172 
VOICE, SCWG, SPEECH. 
4 nature-singers,’ and the more the voice-boxes under 
investigation originally differ in size and shape. 
“There are at our disposal the following entirely different 
means for changing the pitch of our voice : 
“ i. The altered longitudinal tension of the vocal liga- 
ments brought about by the different actions of the 
stretching muscles, and of their antagonists. 
44 a. The shortening of the vibrating portions of the 
vocal ligaments, produced by the pyramids coming more 
and more in contact with their inner surfaces, thereby 
reducing the parts of the vocal ligaments which are 
capable of vibrating, just as the violin player shortens 
the string by putting his finger nearer and nearer to 
the bridge. 
443. The alteration of the shape, particularly the sharpen- 
ing or blunting of the vibrating edges, brought about by 
the different actions of certain portions of the shield- 
pyramid muscles. 
44 4. The narrowing or broadening of the vibrating 
edges which frequently goes hand in hand with this. 
44 5. Lastly, the different pressitre of the air under which 
the chest muscles put it in the windpipe. 
“Now in accordance with the way in which a singer 
gives preference to one mechanism or another for altering 
the pitch of his voice, or in which he employs different 
mechanisms at the same time for this purpose, the image 
of the larynx will, of course, be different in the production 
of either high or low tones.” LARYNGEAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND THEIR 
LESSONS. 
We conclude this section by appending on page 178 
first on one side (PI. XXXIV.) the five engravings re- 
presenting the various registers of the human voice, 
and on the opposite page four photographs of Mr. 
Behnke’s larynx in the act of singing. These last differ 
from the laryngeal images which we are accustomed to 
see in books on vocal physiology, and indeed from our 
first three engraved figures of the registers, which were 
drawn before the photographs were taken, in that, on the 
one hand, they do not show the cushion of the lid which 
is generally depicted in engravings; and, further, that they 
give not only distinct indications of the cartilages of 
Santorini and of Wrisberg on the summit of the 
pyramids, but also a sharp outline of the bases of the 
pyramids. 
These apparently double outlines in the photographs 
for a long while greatly perplexed us, and we did not 
know what to make of them. We first conceived the 
idea that they were due to double reflection in the 
laryngeal mirror, one on the surface and the other on the 
silvered back; and to overcome this difficulty we had 
mirrors silvered on the surface; indeed one of the pictures 
in the group is taken with such a mirror. But the result 
was the same as before, and we now tried to account for it 
by a shifting of the laryngeal mirror, or as the result of 174 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the strong vibrations into which the parts were thrown, 
though in either case, if this had been so, the lid, the 
vocal ligaments, and other parts ought also to have been 
doubled. 
In fact, we tried in every conceivable way to account for 
what we considered a blemish, and it was only after much 
needless trouble and great mutual waste of time that the 
thought struck Mr. Lennox Browne to compare one of 
the photographs with Mr. Behnke’s own larynx as seen in 
the ordinary way, and he then discovered that the photo- 
graph (as we might have been sure at first) was right, and 
the conventional image wrong, because when the larynx 
is, as in most cases, looked into from in front, there must 
be double outlines, due to the perspective view of the 
interior surface of the pyramids. The extent of the 
portion which is visible will largely depend upon circum- 
stances. If we see the whole under surface of the lid— 
that is, of the front wall of the funnel of the voice-box 
—we shall obviously expect to see less of the opposite 
side, and vice versa. In our photographs the cushion 
of the lid and the front insertion of the vocal ligaments 
are not seen. Hence we get a full view in perspective of 
the back wall. 
Our whole experience is one more proof of the way in 
which the judgment is allowed to be warped and the 
vision to be distorted by things, however false, which 
happen to be customary or which have been accepted on 
the fiat of another, until at last even truth itself is dis- 
believed when it is accidentally revealed to us. 
Two of our photographs—namely, the frontispiece and 
the lower of the two “falsetto” images—are absolutely 
untouched, and we have not even interfered with some 
spots on the teeth and on the back of the throat caused LA R YNGEA L PHO TOGRA PHS. 
175 
by moisture. The other three images are not quite in 
their original state, because the glare of illumination in 
photography with the electric light interferes with clear 
definition of the contrast between the vocal ligaments and 
the pocket ligaments. The fact that the photographs are 
pictures of reflections in a glass mirror also accounts to 
some extent for this defect. 
Mr. Lennox Browne has done what little touching there 
was necessary from nature, Mr. Behnke singing the same 
tones he sang when the photos were taken, and we do not 
think, looking at the untouched photographs, that any 
one will consider our supplementary work to be worth 
mentioning further than as an answer to possible objections 
from such few as prefer to remain in error rather than to 
be convinced against their will. 
The images show plainly the lid, the pocket ligaments, 
the cartilages of Santorini and of Wrisberg, the bases or 
inferior borders of the pyramids, the hollows between the 
pyramids and the tongue-bone, and, in two instances, even 
the prominence of the tongue-bone itself. When it is 
now borne in mind that in the majority of cases the throat 
surgeon only gets a partial view of the voice-box, and that 
he has to move the laryngeal mirror to and fro in order to 
make a complete inspection, it will surely be granted that 
it would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain more 
perfect laryngeal photographs than those here appended; 
for in them are seen, in one picture, not only a complete 
image of the voice-box itself, but positively some parts 
outside of it. 
We have already, in another place, insisted on the 
completeness with which these photographs dispose of the 
objection, urged ad nauseam against all observations with 
the laryngoscope, that it is impossible to make them except 176 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
by holding the protruding tongue of the singer with a 
napkin, thereby pulling the laryngeal image out of shape 
and distorting the image. We admit that this objection, 
if true, would have weight, and we had quite recently 
under our joint observation a case in point:—A lady, a 
talented public singer, showed, with her tongue in its 
natural position, the upper thin and the small register so 
clearly that we asked her permission to publish them in 
this volume, and they are now depicted as Figs. XXXI. 
and XXXII., and repeated as D. and E. on p. 178. As 
soon, however, as we attempted to hold her tongue while 
making our investigations, we certainly saw the vocal 
ligaments and their surroundings, but every trace of the 
mechanism of the two registers just mentioned had totally 
disappeared. We repeat, then, that the objection, founded 
upon the supposition that no laryngeal observations can be 
made except when the singer’s protruding tongue is held 
with a napkin, is completely silenced by our photographs, 
which represent the tongue as lying in the floor of the 
mouth. 
Again, they show, what is known to all who are in the 
least familiar with the larynx, that there always exists a 
large space between the two pocket ligaments in the pro- 
duction of tone, and that the vocal ligaments alone meet. 
This appearance is the same from the beginning of the 
tone to the end, and clearly disproves the ignorant notion 
of a very limited but loud-crying faction, that the pocket 
ligaments, as well as the vocal ligaments, meet in phona- 
tion ; and also the assertion that the “ shock of the glottis ” 
is not what Garcia declares it to be, and as we have de- 
scribed it on p. 162; but that it is an actual explosion of 
the air compressed in the cavity between the pocket liga- 
ments and the vocal ligaments. The exposure of this LA R YNGEA L PHO POOR A PHS. 
177 
fallacy, then, is the second lesson taught by the photo- 
graphs. 
And, lastly, the photographs show the difference between 
the upper thick and the falsetto registers, and they abso- 
lutely confirm not only the delineations of our own 
engraved images, but also those given now exactly ten 
years ago by Professor Merkel, of Leipzig, in that latest 
book of his on the larynx which we have repeatedly 
referred to in these pages. 
Tenors will be specially interested in the mechanism of 
the “ falsetto.” The shape of the vocal chink clearly 
accounts for the waste of air and for the want of power 
by which this register is characterised, but we desire to 
repeat here that the “ falsetto ” and the “ lower thin ” 
are produced by different mechanisms—a fact which is 
of the greatest consequence in the actual process of voice 
training. 
It now only remains to meet one more objection of the 
enemies of the laryngoscope, viz. that a person may make 
all sorts of noises with the mirror at the back of his throat, 
but that it is impossible under such circumstances to pro- 
duce a pure vocal tone. To this we simply reply that 
Mr. Behnke has repeatedly of late demonstrated his larynx 
to musicians of eminence for the express purpose of settling 
this point, and it is the opinion of all who have been thus 
appealed to that no fault could possibly be found with the 
quality of his voice while under laryngoscopic observation. 
We wish to add that we have found people whose case 
was exactly the same from the very first, and that others 
acquire the same facility so soon as they become accustomed 
to the touch of the mirror. VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
A. Lower Thick. 
B. Upper Thick. 
C. Lower Thin. 
D. Upper Thin. 
E. Small. 
*** The first three (A., 8., and C.) were drawn before the laryngeal photographs 
were taken, and well represent the conventional laryngoscopic drawing. D. and E., 
on the other hand, illustrate the perspective view of the larynx, seen in the photo- 
graphs, and to be observed in all laryngeal images, as explained in the text, p. 173. 
LARYNGEAL IMAGES IN THE VARIOUS REGISTERS 
T, T. Tongue. 
P, P. Pocket ligaments. 
L. Lid. 
S, S. Cartilages of Santorini. 
Y, V. Vocal ligaments. 
W, W, Cartilages of Wrisberg. 
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE LARYNX. 
L. Lid or Epiglottis. 
T, T. Tongue. 
V, V. Vocal Ligaments. 
P, P. Pocket Ligaments. 
H, H. Hyoid Fossoe. 
C. C. Pyramid Cartilages. 
B, B. Interior border of the same 
seen in perspective. 
No. 11. shows the larynx and position of the vocal ligaments in singing the note 
in the upper chest or upper thick register. In No. I. the tone pro- 
duced was higher than in 11., and the vocal ligaments are consequently more 
closely approximated. The image is also lower in the mirror, and therefore more of 
the base of the tongue is seen. 
Nos. 111. and IV. illustrate the position of the vocal ligaments, and the appearance 
of the larynx in production of “ falsetto ”—the note sung being 
The reader will observe the great alteration in the shape of the glottic chink, and 
the generally loose condition of all the muscles. Fla tm XXXV. 
No. I. 
No. HI. 
No, 11. 
No: IV. 
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE LARYNX 
IN THE PRODUCTION OE DIFFERENT MECHANISMS. 
(Copyright,) 
[ To face page 178. ON VOICE CULTIVATION. 
The cultivation of the voice from a scientific point of view, 
with which alone we are here concerned, may be divided 
into five parts, viz., (i) Breathing, (2) Attack, (3) Reson- 
ance, (4) Flexibility, and (5) Registers. 
BREATHING. 
We know from the description of the mechanism of 
breathing on p. 49, that there are three ways of carrying 
on the process of respiration, namely, midriff breathing, rib 
breathing, and collar-bone breathing. These three ways 
are not indeed wholly independent of each other; they 
overlap, or partly extend into each other. Nevertheless 
they are sufficiently distinct, and it is a general and con- 
venient practice to give each a separate name according to 
the means by which it is chiefly called into existence. 
The combined forms of midriff and of rib breathing 
constitute the right way, and collar-bone breathing is 
totally wrong and vicious, and should not, in a state of 
health, be made use of under any circumstances. Let us, 
even at the risk of being accused of repetition, once more 
consider this matter in its bearing upon the production 
and cultivation of the voice. 
When enlarging our chests by the descent of the 
midriff and by sideways extension of the ribs, we inflate 
the lungs where they are largest, and where consequently 
we can get the largest amount of air into them. When VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
expanding our chests by raising the shoulders and collar- 
bones, &c., we inflate the lungs where they are smallest, 
and where, consequently, we get the smallest amount of air 
into them. It will be observed that we are here speaking 
of collar-bone breathing, not as an extension of the two 
other ways of breathing, but as a separate act; and there 
can be no question whatever that the result of it is much 
smaller than that obtained by the combined forms of 
midriff and of rib breathing. This may easily be demon- 
strated by means of the spirometer, an instrument which 
accurately tests the breathing power of man by indicating 
on a little dial the exact number of cubic inches of air 
blown into it; and experiments, repeated over and over 
again, have proved our case most clearly. Here, then, 
we have a fact which cannot be disputed away by any 
amount of argument, and which is quite sufficient in itself 
to turn the balance against collar-bone breathing. 
But so far as the voice is concerned, there is a still more 
powerful reason why midriff and rib breathing should 
always be made use of, and why collar-bone breathing 
should never be resorted to. 
The lungs, at their bases, are surrounded by soft and 
yielding parts. We can contract and relax the midriff to 
the greatest possible extent, and for any length of time ; 
that will never fatigue us because nature has not here 
placed any obstacle in our way. Only one exception 
occurs, that is the occasional interference caused by too 
full a meal. Most people know from experience that they 
cannot breathe so well after a good dinner as they could 
before; and most public singers and speakers are so well 
aware of this fact, that they allow a considerable interval 
to elapse between food and voice use, while others even 
prefer to postpone their meals until after they have BREA THING. 
181 
finished their work, when it is generally found that the 
proper use of their bellows has resulted in giving them 
a fine healthy appetite. They have certainly this ad- 
ditional reason for the course just indicated, that the 
process of digesting their food would even exercise direct 
interference with their voices; but that is a point with 
which we have not to deal in this chapter, and which will 
be discussed in its proper place. 
Again, we can expand and contract our lower ribs to the 
greatest possible extent, and for any length of time, without 
incurring any fatigue, because here also nature has not 
placed any obstacle in our way. We thus see that the 
process of inflating our lungs at their bases is so perfectly 
easy, as not to require the slightest effort, while at the 
same time it supplies us with an abundance of air. 
At the top of the lungs the very opposite is the case. 
The ribs are here not nearly so free as at the base, and 
they are much shorter. They are attached not only to 
the spine as are the lower ribs, but also to the breast-bone 
in front, and their cartilages or elastic portions are, equally 
with the ribs, much shorter. They are also greatly impeded 
in their movement by the shoulder-blades and collar-bones 
which carry the arms, and all this weight has to be lifted if 
inspiration be commenced in that region. 
In addition the chest walls are forced upwards towards 
the root of the neck, where are situated the food-passage, 
windpipe, and large arterial and venous vessels carrying 
blood to and from the brain. It is most important that 
these parts should be left free as they are placed by nature, 
but collar-bone breathing necessarily presses against them 
and leads to fulness and congestion. We thus see that to 
expand and contract all these hard and unyielding parts, 
involves an enormous amount of labour, which must 182 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
necessarily fatigue, and eventually, have an evil effect upon 
the voice, while at the same time the resulting amount of 
air inhaled by this mode of breathing is but very small. 
It will be remembered that we have so far spoken of 
collar-bone breathing only as a separate act, in which case 
the respiration is laboured, fatiguing, gaspy, and insufficient. 
But it can also be made use of as an extension of midriff 
and of rib breathing, when it becomes excessive and 
choking. It may be mentioned as an extreme instance, 
that “ Rubini broke his collar-bone in a violent but suc- 
cessful effort to deliver B flat in a recitative in Pacini’s 
‘ Talismano.’” (Walshe, op. cit., p. 15.) 
It is from the foregoing easy to understand that 
collar-bone breathing, whether as a separate act, or as 
an extension of midriff and of rib breathing, must lead 
to forcing and inequality of voice, and to congestion of the 
vessels and tissues of the throat; and we here repeat that, 
in other words, it is at the root of most of the troubles to 
which speakers and singers are exposed. As voices are 
ruined, and as disease is set up by false breathing, so also 
voices may be restored and disease may be cured by lung 
gymnastics on proper principles, and we have quoted else- 
where cases of this kind which have come under our care 
which are so many living proofs of our assertion. 
In order to explain this subject more clearly in this 
connection of voice cultivation, we refer the reader to 
the accompanying diagrams, which are intended to show 
the varying capacity of the chest according to the method 
in which the lungs are inflated. 
Plates XXXVI A. and XXXVII A, show the chest 
after full expiration; M, D, being the line represent- 
ing the midriff or diaphragm. 
Plates XXXVI B. and XXXVII B. show the figure in BREA THING. 
183 
XXXVI A. 
XXXVI B. 
XXXVI c. 
Male Body. 
XXXVII A. 
XXXVII B. 
XXXVII C. 
Female Body. 
A, A. After full expiration. 
B, B. Forced collar-bone breathing, 
C, C. Full abdominal breathing. 
M, D. Midriff or diaphragm. 
DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE VARYING CAPACITY OF THE 
CHEST ACCORDING TO THE METHOD IN WHICH THE LUNGS 
ARE INFLATED. 
(.Adapted from Lennox Browne's ‘ Medical Hints on the Singing Voice.') 184 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
collar-bone inspiration. The chest is bulged out and 
raised, the midriff remains as high as after expiration, 
and the abdomen is drawn in. These two diagrams 
illustrate false breathing. 
Plates XXXVI C. and XXXVII C. show the figure in 
full abdominal inspiration. The chest is pushed forward, 
but not raised; the midriff is pulled down and the ab- 
domen enlarged. The capacity of the chest is here clearly 
increased at the expense of the abdomen. These two 
diagrams illustrate correct breathing. 
The chief lesson which the above diagrams are intended 
to bring home to the reader is this: The criterion of 
correct inspiration is an increase of size of the abdomen 
and of the lower part of the chest. Whoever draws in the 
abdomen and raises the tipper part of the chest breathes 
wrongly. In making this statement we do not forget the 
difference between the breathing of men and that of 
women, to which we called attention on p. 49. The 
increase in size of the abdomen of a woman is certainly 
less than that of a man, but there is an increase never- 
theless, or rather there would be if the corset did not 
prevent it. 
This brings us to a consideration of artificial hindrances 
to proper breathing. We have said that the lungs at 
their bases are surrounded by soft and yielding parts 
which can be worked with the utmost ease, because nature 
has not placed any obstacle in their way; but unfortu- 
nately many people are continually doing this themselves. 
Men and boys often think that it is injurious to wear 
braces, and they consequently suspend their lower gar- 
ments by means of belts. But this is a great mistake; for 
everything interfering with the freedom of the waist is a 
serious hindrance to respiration and should be strictly BREA THING. 
185 
avoided. Properly constructed braces ought to be worn, 
while belts fastened to anything like the extent necessary 
for upholding garments must be pronounced utterly 
objectionable. 
The question of corsets has been sufficiently discussed in 
the chapter on Hygiene, and we need here do no more 
than remind ladies who imagine that they can improve 
their figures by imprisoning themselves in close-fitting 
corsets that such a practice exercises an injurious influence 
upon respiration varying in degree not only in accordance 
with the amount of constriction, but also with the degree 
of rigidity of construction. The spirometer, which is the 
most trustworthy and impartial referee it is possible to 
find, has already informed us that stays deprive ladies of 
nearly one-third of their breathing power; nor does this 
refer to exceptionally tightly-laced stays, but to such as 
are worn in the majority of cases. 
It may be further observed, however, that bands or strings 
are often as great a hindrance to proper breathing as stays, 
and that no experiment is of any value in which im- 
pediments of every kind are not absolutely removed. 
Our readers are asked to again refer to the diagrams, 
Pis. XVIII. and XIX., and also XX. and XXL, pp. 1 ro- 
ll 3, which illustrate, on comparison with the natural figure, 
the deformity in the chest walls, and the consequent dis- 
placement of the contained vital organs which the use of 
stays is capable of inducing. 
The air is the motive power upon which the voice 
depends; without air no tone can be produced. It is 
therefore of the utmost importance for singers and speakers 
to be trained to breathe properly. We must know how 
to inflate our lungs in order to fill them abundantly with- 
out overcrowding them, and without any efforts causing 186 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
fatigue and injuring the voice; and we must know how to 
regulate the exit of the air so that it may take place in a 
steady, even, and uninterrupted stream, enabling us even- 
tually to hold out a long tone, to sing a long passage, or 
to execute a fine “ messa di voce” i.e. the gradual swelling 
out and diminishing of a sustained tone. 
We may say in passing that we hold the very general 
practice of commencing the education of a vocalist by 
teaching him the messa di voce to be wrong. This orna- 
ment is far too difficult for a beginner, and the earliest 
moment for attempting it is when the student has fully 
mastered his respiration. 
The singer’s and speaker’s breathing corresponds to the 
violin player’s bowing and requires as much practising. 
We will now describe some exercises which will increase 
the student’s vital capacity and give him complete control 
over his breathing, and consequently over his voice. 
The first experiments with regard to this matter should 
be made lying flat on the back, because then the raising 
of the upper part of the chest and of the collar-bones is 
difficult; so that in this position nature is almost sure to 
have her own, that is the right, way. It will be safer still 
if we watch our breathing in bed, as we shall not then be 
hampered by corsets or tight-fitting clothes of any descrip- 
tion. If we now place the hands upon the abdomen we 
shall find it rising very considerably as we commence the 
process of inspiration. Continuing to inhale while we slip 
our hands a little higher up, the ribs will be noticed to 
move, thus expanding the lower part of the chest. The 
upper part of the chest is necessarily also enlarged (see 
p. 41), but the collar-bones are certainly not raised. 
In expiration the ribs recede and the abdomen sinks in, 
until inspiration recommences. This is the way in which BREA THING. 
187 
nature carries on the work of respiration, and we invite our 
readers to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with it. 
This will put them in a position to understand the 
following description of exercises intended to improve the 
power of breathing. 
Divest yourself of any article of clothing which at all 
interferes with the freedom of the waist. Lie down flat 
on your back. Place one hand lightly on the abdomen 
and the other upon the lower ribs. Inhale, through the 
nostrils, slowly, deeply, and evenly, without interruption 
or jerking. If this is done properly, the abdomen will 
gradually, and without any trembling movement, increase 
in size, the lower ribs will expand sideways, and the upper 
part of the chest will be pushed forward, while the collar- 
bones remain undisturbed. Now hold the breath, not by 
shutting the glottis, but by keeping the midriff down and 
the chest walls extended, and count four mentally, at the 
rate of sixty per minute. Then let the breath go suddenly. 
The result of this will be a flying up of the midriff, and a 
falling down of the ribs; in other words, there will be a 
collapse of the lower part of the body. This collapse may 
not at first be very distinct, as the extension has probably 
been insufficient; but both will become more and more 
perfect as the result of continued practice. 
Let it be clearly understood—the Aspiration is to be 
slow and deep, the sudden and complete. In 
Aspiration the abdomen and the lower part of the chest 
expand, and in they collapse. 
The time of holding the breath is not, at the outset, to 
exceed four seconds, and the student must never, on any 
account, fatigue himself with these exercises ; they may, 
however, be frequently repeated at intervals. It will be 
found by occasional trials upon the spirometer that the 188 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
breathing capacity increases with these exercises. The 
process of abdominal respiration becomes easy and no 
longer requires constant watchfulness, and the student will 
now be able to abandon the lying down position, and to 
continue his practice in sitting, and finally in standing and 
in walking, until the process becomes so perfectly natural 
to him that it would really require an effort to breathe by 
raising the upper part of the chest. 
The criterioti of correct inspiration is, as before stated, an 
increase of size of the abdomen and of the lower part of the 
chest. Whoever draws in the abdomen and raises the tipper 
part of the chest in the act of filling his lungs breathes 
wrongly. 
Meanwhile, in continuing the breathing exercises, the 
time of holding the breath may be increased at the rate of 
two seconds per week; so that the student who, during the 
first fortnight, limited himself to four seconds will, at the 
end of six weeks, hold his breath during twelve seconds. 
In some instances students have gone as far as twenty 
seconds ; but very earnestly must the reader be warned to 
be cautious, and not to go to extremes. Nothing will be 
gained, but infinite harm may be done by over-doing these 
lung gymnastics, and persons who are delicate in health 
should not undertake the exercises at all, except with the 
sanction of their medical adviser, who will limit the practice 
according to circumstances. Nevertheless, as stated else- 
where, singing on a right method of breathing will often 
really strengthen lungs formerly weak. 
It must also be borne in mind that unflinching regularity 
in this matter is of the greatest importance. Exercise in 
moderation, regularly and conscientiously repeated, will 
increase the breathing capacity, improve the voice, make 
speaking and singing easy, and will cure the tremolo. It BREA THING. 
189 
may change, and has changed, the falsetto of a grown man 
into a full sonorous man’s voice. It may restore, and has 
restored, a lost voice, as it also may cure, and often has 
cured, clergyman’s sore throat.* It will certainly turn a 
greater quantity of dark-blue blood into bright-red blood; 
the appetite will increase ; sounder sleep will be enjoyed, 
flesh will be gained, and the flabby, pallid skin will fill out 
and get a healthy, rosy colour. All this, and more, may 
be, and often has been, the result of lung gymnastics 
carried on in moderation and with perseverance. It is 
needless to add that a man will no more improve his 
breathing by fitful and exaggerated exercises than he could 
hope to become a proficient upon the violin by practising 
once or twice a month for six hours at a stretch. 
The second breathing exercise is the exact opposite 
of the first, and consists in taking a rapid aspiration 
and making the drpiration slow, even, uninterrupted, 
and without jerking or trembling. Musical readers 
will at once see the importance of this exercise for the 
* That there may be no mistake concerning this statement, it should be 
understood that the word “ cure ” is here used, not in the sense sometimes 
employed—namely, that symptoms of a diseased condition have been 
relieved—but to mean that instruction in right voice production ensures 
against relapse into the diseased state originally caused by wrong voice 
production. In justice to my co-author, I venture to quote from my paper 
delivered on two consecutive days to several hundred members of the 
British Medical Association, at Liverpool, last August, and since printed 
in the Association Journal ;“A permanent cure, or indeed any effectual 
relief, can only be brought about by hygienic and elocutionary treatment 
on scientific and physiological principles. During the past three years I 
have been much more successful than formerly in all such cases, because I 
have insisted on the absolute necessity of a course under my friend Mr. 
Behnke after the diseased condition was relieved, and I desire here to testify 
my gratitude to him for the greatly increased power to help speech 
sufferers that I have enjoyed since I have been able to avail myself of his 
collaboration.”—L. B. VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
purpose of singing sustained tones and florid passages; 
but it would be quite useless to attempt it before No. i 
has been sufficiently practised. 
A little consideration will show that it is wrong to try to 
control the exit of the breath, as some would have us do, 
by a contraction of the glottis, because the comparatively 
tiny muscles of the larynx are too weak to resist with 
impunity so tremendous a strain; while the large and 
powerful muscles of the chest are clearly made to regulate 
expiration as well as inspiration. It is absurd on the 
face of it to suppose that they are only intended for 
inflating the lungs, while the exit of the air is to be 
governed by another set of small muscles, situated at a 
great distance, and having their full share of work in 
the marvellous and ever-varied combinations which are 
necessary in the production and gradation of tone. 
In phonation the glottis is closed, and of course retards 
expiration in proportion to the tightness with which the 
pyramids and the vocal ligaments are held together. In 
this sense, therefore, the glottis assists in regulating the 
expiration, but this function is only secondary, and must 
not be relied upon for controlling the air. ATpiration 
exercises must consequently be practised in silence, i.e. 
with the glottis open, so that the breathing muscles may 
be exclusively called into play. 
This second exercise is much more difficult than the 
first, and requires the greatest watchfulness and attention to 
conduct it properly. But even with the greatest care the 
air is frequently found to escape much more quickly than 
the student imagines, and it is still more difficult to ensure 
steadiness of by merely relying upon one’s 
sensations. It is therefore advisable to use some kind of a 
tell-tale, such for instance as a light feather or a burning BREA THING. 
191 
candle. The flame is certainly the most sensitive indi- 
cator, and the student who has learnt to exhale through 
his gently opened lips close to a light without to any great 
extent blowing the flame to and fro may take it that he is 
on the high road to success. 
It is easy enough to perform this experiment with the 
first part of the out-going breath, but the difficulty com- 
mences as soon as the expiration ceases to be passive and 
begins to be active (see p. 48). No voice-user has therefore 
mastered this exercise who cannot, without causing the 
flame to flicker, expel from his lungs all the air previously 
inhaled. 
Let it be observed that the above exercise is quite 
distinct from the well-known practice of singing before a 
lighted candle, which is, comparatively speaking, an easy 
matter. 
The third and last breathing exercise consists in taking 
the Aspiration as in No. 1, and the as in No. 2. 
After the two preceding ones have been fully mastered 
this last is readily accomplished ; and the student who has 
persevered so far will now have overcome one of the 
greatest difficulties of speakers and singers, namely the 
proper management of the breath, an accomplishment 
which seems to become more and more rare in our go- 
ahead times of electricity, in which every one appears im- 
patient to attain the end without using the tardy means. 
It may be added that in lung gymnastics, as well as 
while using the voice, the process of breathing must be 
carried on in perfect silence. This applies more particu- 
larly to Aspiration, which is frequently accompanied by 
more or less noisec Not only is such accompaniment, 
certain dramatic exigencies apart, ugly in the extreme, but 
it also shows that the air-passage is obstructed instead of 192 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
being perfectly open, and such a way of inflating the 
lungs is therefore on all grounds strongly to be condemned. 
A great deal has now been said about these breathing 
exercises ; nevertheless, the description is far from com- 
plete, and, what is worse, may even lead to misunderstand- 
ings, the results of which will hereafter be laid to our 
charge. For writing, however lucid and careful, can 
never take the place of viva voce instruction ; and it must 
be distinctly understood that the explanations here given 
are not by any means intended to supersede the aid of a 
competent and painstaking teacher. 
Before taking leave of this part of the subject it is 
necessary to warn the reader against the mistake, which 
may be caused by a superficial perusal of these pages, that 
it is the chief aim of the above breathing exercises to 
enable the singer or speaker to cram as much air as 
possible into the lungs. It is true that some of the evils 
which are likely to arise from exaggerated breathing efforts 
have been pointed out; but it must be most emphatically 
repeated that it is quite possible to overcrowd the lungs 
with air. This is a matter of every-day occurrence, 
which is not, however, on that account any the less re- 
prehensible ; for, as already mentioned, it is sure to lead, 
sooner or later, to forcing and inequality of voice, and to 
congestion of the vessels and tissues of the throat and of 
the lungs. 
The above breathing exercises might be amplified in a 
variety of ways, but it is a question whether any service 
would be rendered to the reader by multiplying them. 
As they are here given they are simple and easily carried 
into practice. Students may therefore be induced to give 
them a trial, which will soon prove their great value ; 
whereas over-elaboration would probably rather serve to BREA THING. 
193 
bewilder and to discourage, thus defeating the purpose for 
which they are devised. 
We would take this opportunity of warning the reader 
against the objectionable practice of completely exhausting 
the supply of air just taken in before commencing another 
inspiration. In this respect speakers are much greater 
sinners than are singers, and we know of many who 
habitually try how long a passage they can get through in 
one breath. One clergyman of our acquaintance even 
makes it a boast that he is able to say the whole of the 
Lord’s Prayer with one inflation of the lungs. Inde- 
pendently of any question as to the irreverence of such a 
proceeding, we wish to urge most emphatically that all 
such attempts are radically wrong, and that immense mis- 
chief to vocal health is the result of persistence in them. 
The golden rule for all voice-users is, on the contrary, 
to breathe whenever it is possible conveniently to do so, 
whether a new supply of air is immediately required or not. 
Nothing so much enfeebles the voice and eventually 
leads to complete exhaustion as phonation with the fag 
end of the breath; while, on the other hand, the habit of 
keeping the lungs well stocked with air helps to make the 
voice strong and resonant, and enables speakers and singers 
to preserve freshness and vigour to the end of their task. 
The next question to consider is whether we are to 
breathe through the mouth or through the nostrils. 
Mouth-breathing is a pernicious and dangerous practice 
which frequently leads to diseases of the respiratory and 
of the vocal organs, and which ought to be discarded as 
much as possible. In singing as well as in speaking it is, 
unfortunately, sometimes unavoidable, but not by any 
means so often as is generally supposed. The fact may be 
new to many people that it is not necessary to shut the 194 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH 
mouth in order to inhale through the nostrils; nor even, 
as advised by some professors of elocution, to raise the 
tongue until it touches the roof of the mouth. The air 
has simply to be drawn through the nostrils. This causes 
the soft palate to fall, thereby uniting the nasal passages 
with the throat, which is all that is necessary, and the 
process is easily carried out in practice. 
Many teachers of singing, for the reason just explained, 
object to breathing through the nose while the mouth is 
open, because, they say, the soft palate has not time to 
recover itself and to resume the raised position necessary 
for the production of pure vocal tone. This objection is, 
to some extent, well founded, and we have expressly 
guarded against the assumption that a singer can always 
breathe through the nostrils. We distinctly say he can not. 
But the objectors to nose breathing clearly do not know 
that the soft palate of a singer or a speaker is just as capable 
of being trained as the fingers of an instrumentalist. An 
exercise for this purpose will be described in another 
section, and the student who takes the trouble to practise 
it regularly will obtain marvellous control over his soft 
palate. It will, certainly, in many instances enable him to 
inhale through his nostrils though he may not have time 
to shut his mouth, and without in the least interfering with 
the quality of his tone. 
In any case, by mouth-breathing, unavoidable as it may 
sometimes be, an irritation is continually set up ; and every 
possible opportunity of counteracting it by again breathing 
through the nostrils should be seized. In accordance with 
this consideration breathing exercises ought always to be 
carried on with closed lips, and it is very much to be 
regretted that, in some otherwise excellent singing manuals, 
the opposite practice is recommended. ATTACK. 
195 
ATTACK. 
Vocal tone is produced by the vibrations of the vocal 
ligaments; and we have seen on p. 160, on looking down 
a person’s throat, that the chink of the glottis is open in 
breathing, and that it is closed by the approximation 
of the pyramids and of the vocal ligaments as soon as 
phonation commences. This is the “ attack of tone.” 
We have also learnt, on pp. 161 and 162, that this attack 
may be accomplished in three different ways, each affect- 
ing the tone in a distinct manner, either for good or for 
evil. 
The movements of the pyramids, with the vocal liga- 
ments attached to them, upon which all this depends, are 
governed by two sets of muscles, the one set pulling the 
ligaments together, and the other pulling them apart. 
These are fully described on p. 67, under the name of 
the “ Closing muscles ” and the “ Opening muscles ; ” and 
the reader who has carefully given his attention so far will 
at once see the importance of devising a set of exercises 
which shall call these opening and closing muscles into 
play, thereby making them powerful, and bringing them 
under the control of the will. 
This is, fortunately, a very simple matter; for it is only 
necessary to sing a series of short tones, each tone to be 
followed by a short inspiration. It has been shown that 
every time a tone is struck, the vocal ligaments are made 
to approximate; by so doing, therefore, the closing 
muscles are exercised. Every time an inspiration is taken 
the vocal ligaments are separated; by so doing, therefore, 
the opening muscles are exercised. VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
It is clear from the above explanations, that by practis- 
ing in the manner just indicated, these muscles, which play 
so important in the production of the voice, will be 
exercised at least ten times as much as would be the case 
by singing sustained tones after the usual method of 
teaching. They are, in fact, trained just as by suitable 
gymnastics the muscles of the hands and fingers are 
trained for the purpose of performing upon the piano or 
the violin. 
Here is a description of the exercise : Find the pitch of 
your speaking voice, which we will say is F. Then sing 
the following:— 
00 00 oo 00 
oh oh oh oh 
ah ah ah ah 
ai ai ai ai 
ee ee ee ee 
Attack the tone firmly and clearly, avoiding alike the check 
of the glottis and the glide of the glottis. This is often a 
matter of great difficulty, requiring much patience and 
perseverance on the part of the teacher as well as on that 
of the student. The glide of the glottis is particularly 
hard to eradicate, and in many instances the case seems to 
be hopeless. Do not, however, despair, but try this: Pro- 
nounce vigorously the word “ Up.” Then whisper, but still 
very vigorously and distinctly, three times the vowel u, as 
you just had it in the word “ up.” Immediately afterwards 
sing “ Ah.” Thus— 
Up ! 
(spoken). 
U, u, u, 
(whispered). 
Ah ! 
(sung). 
Another point of importance in practising the exercise 
for strengthening the opening and the closing muscles is ATTACK. 
197 
the breathing after every tone ; and this must be done 
gently, and without effort, the only perception of it to 
the singer being a slight movement of the midriff. When 
the exercise can be sung in this manner on F, your 
supposed speaking tone, then go, semitone by semitone, 
up and down the scale, but strictly confining yourself to 
the easiest compass of your voice. 
There is a difficulty connected with this exercise which 
may lead to injurious consequences and against which 
the reader must be on his guard. By inhaling with each 
inspiration more air than is consumed in producing the 
corresponding tones, however slight the excess may be, the 
lungs will, after a little while, get too full of air, until 
finally a sensation of being choked is experienced. This is 
a danger which invariably arises before the student has 
learned so to balance his inspiration with the amount 
of air consumed in striking the tone as to make both 
absolutely equal. 
Great care must be taken to avoid it, for we have shown 
in former explanations the evil results arising from over- 
crowding the lungs with air. As soon as the student 
commences to feel the least sensation of fulness, he must 
sing a few tones without intermediate inspirations until he 
has sufficiently reduced his stock of air; or, better still, he 
must leave off singing and empty his lungs by a complete 
expiration, and then commence again with greater watch- 
fulness than before. 
It will thus be seen that the correct £t attack ” of a tone 
corresponds with those prompt and simultaneous actions of 
the breath and of the vocal ligaments described on p. 162 
as the “ shock of the glottis/’ This the late Orlando 
Steed very properly calls the “ central point ” of Garcia’s 
system of practice. (‘On Beauty of Touch and Tone’: 198 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
Proceedings of the Musical Association, 1879-80, 
P- 47-) 
But what shall we say when the same writer goes on to 
observe that “ what Garcia calls the ‘ shock of the glottis ’ 
is really a shock of the upper glottis (the pocket liga- 
ments) which he (Garcia) thought was never closed ” ? 
And again: “ Energetic vocalisation, while the ventri- 
cles (the pockets of the larynx) are not inflated, must 
therefore involve either the forcing of the vocal cords from 
their right position for singing towards that which they 
assume in a state of rest, thus producing a bad quality of 
tone, or an actual injury to the throat, through their being 
subjected to a greater amount of tension than they are 
intended to bear.” (Op. cit., p. 52.) 
This, of course, amounts to saying that the distinguished 
inventor of the laryngoscope has never in his life seen a 
tone properly struck in the larynx, and it may be added 
that all laryngoscopists, without a single exception, are 
exactly in the same position. They all agree in giving the 
same description of the process of striking a laryngeal 
tone; but if we are to believe Mr. Steed they are all wrong, 
and not one of them has ever correctly observed, or 
they were all observing the production of tones of “bad 
quality.” Thus not even Garcia himself, the trainer of 
some of the greatest singers of modern times, is capable 
of distinguishing a good tone from a bad one! 
It would not be worth while seriously to consider state- 
ments so obviously incorrect, were it not for the fact 
that people are actually trained to sing with this “ shock of 
the tipper glottis; ” that is to say, they are instructed to 
attack a tone by approximation of the pocket ligaments, by 
inflation of the pockets of the larynx and by a subsequent 
sudden escape of the imprisoned air, which, according to ATTACK. 
199 
our author, causes “an explosive noise similar to an 
unvoiced consonant.” 
We have described on p. 144 the extraordinary liberties 
which it is necessary to take with exsected larynges in 
order to cause the pocket ligaments to meet, and we have 
no hesitation in asserting that such an act can never, in a 
state of health, take place in phonation, whatever may be 
the case in pressing and swallowing, &c., when the con- 
strictors of the vestibule come into play. Even then 
there can be no inflation of the pockets of the voice-box, 
because the vocal ligaments are inserted in the pyramids 
much closer together than the pocket ligaments. The 
lower gate will, therefore, under any circumstances be 
shut earlier and much more firmly than the upper one, 
thereby effectually preventing an accumulation of air 
between the two. 
But the mere endeavour to bring about the result 
desired by his teacher causes the student to make wrong 
efforts, which must sooner or later have evil consequences. 
So far as singing on such a plan is concerned, it may be 
readily imagined that each tone is ushered in by a loud 
snapping noise which is exceedingly ugly and at times 
positively ludicrous. 
The above theory ot voice production is avowedly 
founded upon ‘Observations on the Physiology of the 
Larynx/ by Dr. John Wyllie, published in the Edin- 
burgh Medical Journal, September, 1866. have 
read this very interesting paper most carefully, and it is 
only fair to Dr. Wyllie to say that his experiments as to 
the approximation of the pocket ligaments and inflation of 
the pockets were made in relation to the valvular action of 
the larynx, by which complete closure of the air-passage 
occurs—(1) in the act of swallowing, and (2) in voluntary 200 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
effort as in holding a breath for certain muscular acts, or 
in involuntary effort, as before each act of coughing. 
XXXVIII. 
XXXIX. 
Section of the Voice-box or Larynx. {From Merkel.) 
I & 2. Vocal ligaments. 
3 & 4. Pocket ligaments. 
7 & 8. Shield cartilage. 
5 & 6. Pockets of the larynx (ventri- 
cles of Morp-aerh). 
XXX VIII. shows the shape of the vocal ligaments in the formation of the thick, and 
, shape of the vocal ligaments in the thin register. These sections, 
wile they clearly illustrate the possibility of the valvular action of the pocket 
ligaments, also show most plainly that there remains a large chink between them 
in the middle line, and that the vocal ligaments alone are closely approximated 
in the production of tone. 
Dr. Wylhe specially confines his remarks on this valvular 
action to these two conditions of deglutition and breath- 
holding, to the exclusion of consideration of that practical 
closure of the vocal ligaments which takes place during 
phonation. When he does consider this last question he 
in no instance alludes to closure of the pocket ligaments 
as essential to the production of tone, nor even as an 
accidental condition of it. There is consequently not a 
vestige of foundation for the theory advocated by Mr. 
Steed and others, and we hope we shall hear no more of 
the “ shock of the upper glottis.” 
We have quoted as the basis of our refutation the 
remarks of Mr. Steed, solely because he is the only one 
of the very few advocates of this fantastic doctrine whose 
writings are sufficiently intelligible to admit of criticism. RESONANCE. 
“The resonance of caves and of rocky enclosures is well 
known. Bunsen notices the thunder-like sound produced 
when one of the steam jets of Iceland breaks out near the 
mouth of a cavern. Most travellers in Switzerland have 
noticed the deafening sound produced by the fall of the 
Reuss at Devil’s Bridge. The noise of the fall is raised by 
resonance to the intensity of thunder. The sound heard 
when a hollow shell is placed close to the ear is a case of 
resonance. Children think they hear in it the sound of 
the sea. The noise is really due to the reinforcement 
of the feeble sounds with which even the stillest air is 
pervaded, and also in part to the noise produced by the 
pressure of the shell against the ear itself. By using tubes 
of different lengths the variation of the resonance with the 
length of the tube may be studied. The channel of the 
ear itself is also a resonant cavity. When a poker is held 
by two strings, and when the fingers of the hands holding 
the poker are thrust into the ears, on striking the poker 
against a piece of wood, a sound is heard as deep and 
sonorous as that of a cathedral bell.” (Tyndall, op. cit., 
p. 210.) 
The above-quoted instances show to what a marvellous 
extent sounds, though feeble in themselves, may be re- 
inforced by resonance. But experiments more clearly 
illustrating this matter have been described on pp. 32 and 
33, and the student is advised to make himself thoroughly 202 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
familiar with them as they are of the greatest consequence 
with regard to the present part of our subject. The 
experiment with a tuning-fork and an ordinary tumbler is 
perhaps the most instructive one, and the reader should 
certainly try it himself. 
The lesson it teaches is that the amount of reinforcement 
depends upon the shape of the resonator, which, in order 
to produce the best result, must be exactly tuned to the 
tone of the tuning-fork. Now in voice production the 
tuning-fork is represented by the vocal ligaments, and the 
resonator by the cavities above the glottis, viz. : (i) the 
pockets of the larynx, (a) the vestibule of the larynx, (3) the 
upper throat (pharynx), (4) the mouth, and (5) the nose. 
It will be seen, therefore, that the case of the voice is 
infinitely more complex than that of the tuning-fork 
experiment, because in the former the resonator consists of 
five cavities, and in the latter only of one. The means of 
altering the resonance cavities of the voice are also endless, 
while that of the glass is altered by the one simple device 
of partly covering its aperture with a piece of cardboard. 
But in tone production matters are made still more com- 
plicated, to a degree difficult to conceive, by the ever- 
varying pitch of the primary tones of the voice to which 
the resonance cavities have to be continually adjusted. 
Even this, however, is not all; for not only is the 
primary tone reinforced in the resonator, but the quality 
of the voice and the formation of the different vowels 
also depend upon it. It is thus clear that it is highly 
necessary to be fully acquainted with the nature of the 
resonator, and to acquire the greatest possible amount of 
control over its component parts. 
A full description of the pouches and of the vestibule 
of the larynx with the lid attached to it, has been given on RESONANCE. 
203 
pp. 70 & 73, and their appearance in the laryngeal mirror at 
p. 157; there is the less cause to refer to these parts 
again, as we have little, if any, direct control over them. 
The case is different with the throat, the mouth, and the 
7 C 
nose. The dimensions of the throat chiefly depehd upon 
the position of the larynx; for when the voice-box stands 
high the throat is short and narrow, and when it stands 
low the throat is long and wide. The former condition 
favours the formation of brilliant “ open ” tones, while the 
latter increases power and fulness, at /|ame time 
favouring the formation of “ closed ” 
qualities have their uses, and singers as speakers 
should be able to employ either of tlienl' at pleasure. 
With regard to the general position; qT the larynx the 
most contradictory opinions are by different 
teachers. Some say that it rigidly fixed 
quite low in the throat. This is idea; for it is 
impossible to hold the voice-box absolutely in the same 
position. But even continually to depress the larynx as 
far as possible is an unwise proceeding, involving an 
unnatural strain upon the vocal organ which must, in the 
long run, be injurious. Kofler, who is a competent judge, 
emphatically confirms our opinion in these words: “ I 
have had opportunities, during the past four years, of 
examining a number of tenors and basses who had been 
trained by teachers who force them to keep the larynx in 
a firm and closely-confined position. Without one ex- 
ception their tones sound unmusical, dry, and harsh, 
lacking all sympathy, no matter how good their natural 
voice might be.” (Op, cit., p. 23.) 
Other teachers maintain, on the contrary, that the larynx 
must have free play, and that its movements must not on 
any account be interfered with. The result is that the 204 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
voice-boxes of their pupils fly up and down like shuttle- 
cocks, which not only looks very ridiculous, but certainly 
impoverishes the tone, though it is not fraught with the 
injurious effects upon the voice, arising from the attempt 
to keep the larynx permanently fixed as low as possible. 
The proper thing is to avoid both extremes and to give 
the larynx just that amount of fixity which enables it to 
offer the necessary resistance to the pressure of the air from 
below, thus giving the muscles governing the pitch of the 
voice the best chance of acting with ease and certainty. 
The student will do well to test before a looking-glass 
the movements of the larynx described on p. 86 ; and to 
repeat them at various times until he obtains sufficient 
control over the elevators and depressors to raise and to 
lower the larynx independently of breathing, of opening 
and shutting the mouth, of swallowing, of yawning, and of 
phonation, &c. This is excellent practice, and will be of 
great service to him hereafter. 
The mouth is undoubtedly the most important cavity 
of our resonator, and the shape of it may be altered by the 
action of the lower jaw, the lips, the tongue, and the soft 
palate. 
We are not here concerned with the formation of 
the vowel sounds. “ A vowel is a modification, due to 
resonance in the cavities above the larynx, of an original 
quality of tone produced by the vibrations of the vocal 
cords in the larynx.” (Ellis, op. cit., p. 10.) But it 
must be borne in mind at the same time, that u vowels are 
quite a different affection of sound from both pitch and 
quality. Thus we say a man has a clear voice, a nasal 
voice, a thick voice, and yet his vowels are quite distinct 
from each other. Even a parrot, or Mr. Punch, in 
speaking, will produce as, and os, and es which are quite ASSONANCE. 
205 
different in their quality from human vowels, but which 
are nevertheless distinctly as, and os, and es” (From 
a paper on “Vowel Sounds,” by Professor Willis, in 
‘ Cambridge Philosophical Transactions.’) 
We have here merely to deal with the alterations of the 
size and shape of the resonator in so far as they influence 
the volume and quality of the voice in general, and with 
the means of bringing these alterations as much as possible 
under control. 
All the experiments and exercises which we are going 
to suggest are, like those concerning the movements of 
the larynx, to be made before a mirror; and for our 
present purpose the light should be allowed to fall into the 
student’s mouth in such a manner as to illuminate even 
the back of his throat while standing in a perfectly natural 
position and without in the least stretching the neck, 
bending the head, or indulging in any other contortions. 
A “ Queen’s ” reading lamp upon the piano, the light 
exactly on a level with the mouth, and a looking-glass 
attached to it, or the Tobold lamp, recommended for auto- 
laryngoscopy, will be found a very convenient arrange- 
ment. 
Such a contrivance will enable the student to watch even 
his slightest movements, and those of the jaw and of the 
lips being so very familiar to every one it would almost 
seem waste of time to say anything about them. We find, 
however, that such is not the case, because, strange as it 
may seem, the majority of English people, whether singers 
or speakers, will not open their mouths, which is, of course, 
the first and most obvious thing to do if they wish the 
sounds they produce to be heard by others. The result is 
that their voices are smothered, and it is incredible how 
incessantly they have to be corrected before any lasting 206 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
improvement takes place. In addition to this they 
articulate in a most negligent and careless manner, so that 
their utterance is anything but satisfactory, as teachers of 
singing and of elocution know by unpleasant experience. 
Mr. H. C. Deacon, in a scholarly article on 44 Singing ” 
in Grove’s 4 Dictionary of Music and Musicians ’ 
(Macmillan & Co.), expresses himself on this point as 
follows: 44 No nation in the civilised world speaks its 
language so abominably as the English. The Scotch, 
Irish, and Welsh, in the matter of articulation, speak much 
better than we do. Familiar conversation is carried on in 
inarticulate smudges of sound which are allowed to pass 
current for something, as worn-out shillings are accepted 
as representatives of twelve pence. Not only are we, as a 
rule, inarticulate, but our tone-production is wretched, and 
when English people begin to study singing they are 
astonished to find that they have never learned to speak. 
In singing there is scarcely a letter of our language that 
has not its special defect or defects amongst nearly all 
amateurs, and, sad to say, amongst some artists. An 
Italian has but to open his mouth, and if he have a voice 
its passage from the larynx to the outer air is prepared by 
his language. We, on the contrary, have to study hard 
before we can arrive at the Italian’s starting-point.” 
This judgment, severe though it be, was endorsed by 
Dr. W. H. Stone in the course of his recent lectures on 
44 Singing, Speaking, and Stammering,” at the Royal Insti- 
tution, and few persons competent to form an opinion 
upon the subject will be inclined to differ from it. 
But to return to our exercises. The student, standing 
before his mirror as directed, is invited to try the following : 
i. Open the mouth as widely as possible everyway; 
look at the tongue, the soft palate, and the back of the RESONANCE. 
207 
throat. Then shut the mouth again. Repeat this several 
times. 
2. Open the mouth widely enough to put two fingers 
between the teeth ; then smile so as to draw the corners of 
the mouth sideways until they are each bordered by a little 
perpendicular line. Now suddenly alter the shape of the 
mouth by protruding the lips as much as possible with 
only a small opening between them as in whistling ; the 
change must be quick and smart. Repeat this several 
times. If it makes you laugh so much the better, for 
that will put you in a good temper, which may be useful 
to you in going through a few apparently still more 
absurd exercises. 
3. Smile, with lips firmly closed, drawing the corners of 
the mouth as much sideways as possible; then smartly 
protrude the lips as in whistling but still firmly closed with 
no aperture whatever. Repeat this several times. 
The above three exercises are intended as gymnastics for 
different sets of muscles which in ordinary life are called 
into play only to a very limited extent, and they will be 
found useful in enabling the student, so far as lower jaw 
and lips are concerned, promptly to alter the shape of the 
mouth in accordance with the requirements of the produc- 
tion of good tone, and they are also a great help to clear 
and distinct articulation. These gymnastics are of little 
value unless they are performed regularly and vigorously. 
Practise them for a little while three or four times a day, 
but never fatigue yourself with them. 
Now we come to that big movable plug, the tongue, 
which is a most important factor in altering the shape of 
the cavity of the mouth. The tongue, we have it on the 
highest authority, is an “ unruly member.” It is often 
difficult to keep it under proper control, and we know 208 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
people who have no control over it under any circum- 
stances ; it is continually running away with them alto- 
gether. As in every-day life, so in singing, instead of 
peacefully assuming the position necessary for the produc- 
tion of the various vowels, the tongue rises in rebellion, 
it arches up, stiffens, and defies all attempts to keep it in 
order. In fact the more one endeavours to control it 
the more it resists and impedes the vocal passage. The 
stiffening of the root of the tongue, accompanied by a 
rigidity of the surrounding parts, becomes very great, and 
the tone is shut in, with the result of making it “ throaty.” 
This defect is frequently so obstinate and so difficult of 
cure that many teachers are driven, in despair, to recom- 
mend the use of mechanical means, such as holding the 
tongue down with a spatulum, or with the handle of a 
spoon, &c. We have known singers to be trained with a 
little silver instrument in their mouths which is fiat at the 
bottom and arched up at the top like the hard palate, and 
which has, of course, a large opening behind and another 
in front. This contrivance certainly prevents the singer 
from closing his mouth too much, and it also presses down 
the tongue. It is undoubtedly the most ingenious instru- 
ment of the kind with which we are acquainted, and 
far in advance of either spatulum or spoon-handle. 
But its use is nevertheless to be deprecated, because— 
i. It limits vocalisation to those vowels which can be 
produced with a flat-lying tongue. 
2. It rather increases than diminishes that baneful stiffen- 
ing of the root of the tongue which does so much mischief. 
3. It makes the singer rely upon artificial help instead 
of endeavouring to use his tongue rightly and naturally, 
and it thus really retards the cure of the evil which it seeks 
to remedy. RESONANCE. 
209 
The wisest plan to pursue is to let the tongue execute a 
series of gymnastics which will soon reduce it to obedience 
and bring it under control; the gain will be great and 
permanent. Stand before your looking-glass and make 
the following experiments : 
1. Open the mouth widely. Put out the tongue straight, 
and as far as possible. Draw it back smartly and try to 
let it lie flat and low, but touching the lower teeth all 
round. Repeat several times. In this as well as in the 
remaining tongue exercises, great care must be taken 
to keep the lips and the lower jaw perfectly still. 
2. Put the tip of the tongue against the lower front 
teeth, and then push it out as far as possible; this will, of 
course, completely roll it up. Then draw it back smartly 
as in exercise No. 1. Repeat several times. 
3. Keep the root of the tongue as flat as you can, raise 
the tip and push it perpendicularly and quite slowly 
towards the roof of the mouth. Then lower it again as 
gradually, until it has once more assumed its original 
position. Repeat several times. 
4. Raise the tip of the tongue as in exercise No. 3, 
and move it gradually from one side to the other so that 
the highest point of it describes a semi-circle. Repeat 
several times. 
Take care not to overdo these exercises or they will be 
very fatiguing, but practise them regularly every day until 
you have quite mastered the tongue. It is, in many 
instances, at first found almost impossible to carry out the 
movements just indicated, and the tongue will perform the 
most curious contortions. But we can assure the reader, 
from extended observations, that with perseverance the 
tongue has to give in at last, and the result is worth trying 
for with all diligence, because it will not only greatly assist 210 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
in the cure of throaty tone, but it will also be of the 
utmost value in helping the student to alter the size of the 
cavity of the mouth in endeavouring to adjust it to the 
varying pitch of the laryngeal tone, thus finding the best 
resonance for it. 
Another device in curing throaty tone consists in 
singing sustained tones to 00-oh-ah. The oo is our most 
“ forward ” vowel, then follows oh and then ah. If, there- 
fore, we sing 00, and then let it gradually dwindle into oh, 
without allowing it to slip back, we fix the oh in the same 
place in which we first had the 00. Now let us imper- 
ceptibly change the oh into ah, still taking care not to 
allow the latter vowel to slip back, and we shall fix the ah 
where we just had the oh ; that is to say, right in front of 
the mouth. This is a very useful exercise for the purpose 
of improving the quality of tone and of increasing the 
“reach ” of the voice. But it is insufficient where throati- 
ness arises from stiffening of the root of the tongue 
and the surrounding parts, and in such cases the 00-oh-ah 
exercises should be preceded by rapidly singing the syllable 
koo. 
The 00, as we have just seen, is our most forward vowel, 
and in pronouncing the k the tongue is brought into almost 
the identical position which is necessary for 00, though it 
comes firmly in contact with the soft palate. It requires 
some dexterity to see this, but if we manage the light well 
we eventually succeed, and we then perceive that the back 
of the tongue completely hides the arches of the soft 
palate and the uvula. In other words, in quickly and 
repeatedly uttering a syllable commencing with k, the 
tongue rapidly moves up and down, and the larynx being 
attached to the tongue-bone is compelled to execute 
similar movements—a fact which will be at once revealed RESONANCE. 
211 
by the mirror. By this exercise, therefore, we absolutely 
prevent any stiffening of the root of the tongue and of the 
neighbouring parts, and it will be found invaluable in 
getting rid of that particular kind of throatiness arising 
from the above cause. For reasons just enumerated it is 
easier, as well as more beneficial, to combine the k with oo 
than with any other vowel, and this is confirmed by 
making a few trials. A complete formula of the exercise 
would therefore be as follows:— 
Koo koo koo koo koo oo oh ah 
Sing this several times steadily and in strict time, breathing 
before oo and at the end of the exercise. Commence on 
your ordinary speaking tone, and then go higher and 
lower, semitone by semitone; but keep well within the 
easiest compass of your voice. 
We have so far dealt with the lips, the jaw, and the 
tongue as some of the means of altering the size and the 
shape of the cavity of the mouth. We must now, finally, 
notice the movements of the soft palate, the construction 
of which has been described on p. 80. We can raise or 
lower it to such an extent as completely to. shut off from 
the throat either the nose or the mouth. If we raise the 
soft palate, thereby shutting the nose off from the throat, 
then the tone passes through the mouth, and assuming 
that its exit takes place in a normal manner, it will be a 
pure vocal tone. If we lower the soft palate, thereby 
shutting the mouth off from the throat, then the tone 
passes through the nose, which gives it a nasal quality. 
This is denied by some authors, who teach that nasal 212 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
quality is caused, on the contrary, by the tone not being 
able to pass through the nose ; and it is amazing to see 
the voluminous arguments with which they endeavour to 
prove their case, since the matter can be settled by a very 
simple experiment. Take a little hand-mirror, hold it 
flat against your upper lip with the glass upwards, and 
sing a pure vocal tone; the glass will remain perfectly 
bright and undimmed. Now sing a nasal tone, and the 
glass will immediately be covered with moisture, which 
conclusively shows that the tone passed through the 
nostrils. That nasal tone implies passage of the tone 
through the nostrils, and is not due to obstruction of them 
may be proved in another way. Hold the mirror as 
described and pronounce the consonants b, c, d, f, &c., and 
the mirror will remain clear, but on pronouncing m or n, 
which are essentially and admittedly nasal consonants, the 
mirror is at once dimmed. 
But the tone could not pass through the nostrils if the 
soft palate were not lowered, which is proved by the 
fact that it is quite possible to shut the nostrils and yet to 
sing without any nasal twang whatever. This matter is 
farther illustrated by the two photographs of the mouth, 
facing p. 215, showing the position of the soft palate in 
the production of with a pure quality, and the 
position of the soft palate in the production of the same 
tone with a nasal quality. These photographs speak for 
themselves and do not require any further comment. 
Another proof of nasal quality being caused by the tone 
passing through the nose is found in the circumstance 
that persons partly or entirely without a soft palate can, 
under no circumstances, produce pure vocal tone, though 
with entire absence of the soft palate the nasal twang is RESONANCE. 
213 
less marked than with partial absence of it. This is 
accounted for by the fact that in the former case the 
mouth, the upper pharynx, and the nose are practically 
converted into one great cavity. 
The question may be asked how it is that by singing- 
through the nose with the lips closed the tone has no nasal 
quality. The reply is that such a way of producing tone 
is humming and not singing. It is quite possible, however, 
even to hum with a strong nasal twang, but an explanation 
of this matter is not called for in the present volume. 
Again, it may be objected that if the nasal passages are 
obstructed, as, for instance, by the swelling of the mucous 
membrane during a cold, the voice immediately partakes 
of a more or less nasal quality. This is perfectly true, but 
in that case the soft palate is sure also to be affected so as 
to be unable by proper contraction to prevent the tone 
from entering the nose. When such is the case, and the 
tone is afterwards arrested or impeded in its passage 
through the nose, then the tone will be even more nasal 
than it would have been otherwise; it is also, however, 
much less resonant. 
We repeat that there can be no nasal twang while the 
singer or speaker has the power sufficiently to raise the 
soft palate in order to prevent the tone from entering 
the nostrils. 
But there is another side to this question which often 
leads to misunderstandings. However tight the closure of 
the soft palate may be it is never sufficient to prevent the 
air in the nasal cavities being thrown into co-vibrations 
with that in the mouth. These co-vibrations are, in fact, 
necessary for a certain amount of the brilliancy of the 
voice, and if they are prevented by a stoppage of the 
posterior openings of the nasal passages, the voice will 214 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
sound dull and muffled. This, of course, is due to an 
absence of nasal resonance, and must on no account be 
described as nasal tzvang. It is, indeed, the very opposite 
of it. 
The action of the soft palate in two extreme cases has 
now been described, and the difference in the respective 
positions is so clearly defined that it is easily recognised. 
But the movements of the soft palate are, under other 
circumstances, far more complicated, because it not only 
occupies different positions for different pitches, but the 
closure assumes different degrees of tightness in the pro- 
duction of the different vowel sounds. 
The soft palate rises with the ascending scale, the arch 
between the pillars of the fauces becomes narrower and 
higher, and the uvula diminishes in size, until at last it not 
only quite vanishes but a dimple appears in place of it. 
This is illustrated by the photographs of the throat which 
show the soft palate in the production of three different 
The reader will now see the im- 
portance of exercising the soft palate, and we recommend 
for this purpose the following practice: 
tones 
Stand in front of your mirror as before, open the mouth 
widely, and see that the back of your throat is well 
illuminated. 
(i) Breathe through the mouth ; the soft palate will be 
moderately raised, with the uvula in its normal shape and 
position. In expiration through the mouth the uvula 
will be thrown a little forward. 
(2) Open the mouth again and inhale through the 
nostrils. This will cause the soft palate to fall, and the 
tongue to rise, which has the effect of shutting the mouth 
at the back just as you shut it in front by closing the lips. Plate XL. 
No. 11. 
No. 111, 
No. i. 
No. IV. 
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE SOFT PALATE 
IN THE PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS TONES. 
(Copyright.) 
To face page 215. RESONANCE. 
215 
DESCRIPTION OF PHOTOGRAPHS, ILLUSTRATING THE SOFT 
PALATE IN THE PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS TONES. 
1, 2. Anterior pillars of the fauces. 
3, 4. Posterior pillars of the fauces. 
5. Uvula. 
No. I. shows the soft palate in the production of the note F, as indicated in the 
picture. The reader’s attention is called to the arch of the palate, 3, 5, 4, and he is 
requested to contrast it with the much greater height of that in 
No. 11., representing the same throat during production of the note A. 
No. HI. illustrates another change, and still greater elevation of the arch when 
singing C. The uvula in this case is seen to have almost completely disappeared. 
As a further contrast, No. IV. represents the soft palate in production of the same C 
as in No HI., but with strong nasal quality. The whole palate and uvula are seen 
to have dropped on to the tongue : the space between the curtain of the palate and 
the back of the throat for the passage of the tone through the nostrils, is indicated by 
the very strong line of shadow which, as will be observed in the other pictures, had 
been gradually lessening in production of pure tone from the lower to the higher 
note. VOICE, SONG, ANN SPEECH. 
Exhale in the same way, and the mouth will remain shut 
at the back. Repeat several times. 
(3) Inhale through the nostrils, with the mouth wide 
open. Prevent the tongue from rising, keep it still and 
flat. You have learnt to control your tongue and will 
have no difficulty on that score. This will compel the 
soft palate to come down more smartly, which is just what 
is wanted. Now exhale through the mouth, when the soft 
palate will rise again. 
By thus Whaling through the nostrils with the mouth 
open, and the tongue still and flat, the soft palate is pulled 
vigorously down, and by whaling through the mouth the 
soft palate is raised again. If therefore these two actions 
are repeated for a little while, the soft palate is continually 
moved up and down, which must necessarily have the 
effect of strengthening the muscles of which it largely 
consists. 
This is a great gain from a mechanical point of view, 
because it will enable the soft palate to do its work much 
more satisfactorily than before, and prevent it from be- 
coming fatigued by long talking or singing. But it will 
also make its limp, flabby substance tense and hard, which 
is, it will readily be granted, of the highest importance 
from an acoustical point of view. The effect of the 
change upon the voice is very marked, and we strongly 
recommend the reader to conscientiously practise these 
soft palate gymnastics every day, for he is sure to reap the 
benefit of his perseverance. 
It is clear from the above that a perfectly healthy state 
of the soft palate is of the highest importance. If it is 
weighted with an elongated uvula or with enlarged tonsils 
it cannot act in a proper manner, and singers or speakers 
with such impedimenta are handicapped for vocal purposes. RESONANCE. 
217 
They might just as well try to run a race with heavy 
weights on their shoulders as to sing or to speak with such 
appendages to their soft palates. 
We now come to the vowel sounds. This is an ex- 
ceedingly complicated subject which, together with a 
scientific consideration of the consonants, has been most 
exhaustively treated by Mr. Alexander Ellis in his 
4 Pronunciation for Singers,’ to which we have already 
so frequently alluded. No man is better qualified for 
this task than Mr. Ellis, who has devoted half a life- 
time to the study of speech sounds, and whose capacity 
for patient and painstaking research is unbounded. It 
would therefore be presumption on our part to attempt 
to explain here in a cursory manner what he has done so 
thoroughly. 
We prefer to confine ourselves to a few points absolutely 
essential for our purpose, and we strongly advise the reader 
carefully to study Mr. Ellis’s book and, above all things, 
faithfully to carry out all the experiments which he suggests. 
We ourselves are deeply indebted to Mr. Ellis for much 
valuable information, and we feel sure that our readers will 
have the same experience. 
We know that, whatever vowel we may pronounce, the 
laryngeal tone is, pitch and loudness apart, exactly the 
same in all cases, and that it takes the form of one vowel 
or another solely according to the shape of the resonator, 
which may be described as a mould into which the tone is 
cast. This can easily be demonstrated by a simple and 
instructive experiment. Strike an ordinary C tuning-fork, 
put your mouth in position for the vowel 00, and hold the 
fork in front of your mouth. Although you utter no 
sound whatever, the tuning-fork will distinctly say 00. 
Now rapidly change the position of your mouth for ok 218 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
and then for ah, again in perfect silence, when the tuning- 
fork will distinctly say oh and ah. The ah, it is true, will 
not be sounded very loudly, because the cavity of the 
mouth necessary for the production of that vowel only 
reinforces some of the upper partials which, in the case of 
tuning-forks, are exceedingly faint. Even in the produc- 
tion of oo and of oh much better results may be obtained 
by substituting for the C tuning-fork other forks which 
give tones exactly corresponding with the pitch of the 
resonator ; but the experiment is sufficient to show the 
importance of properly shaping the mouth in uttering the 
various vowel sounds. For an illustration of this matter we 
refer the reader to the diagrams on p. 14 in Mr. Ellis’s book. 
This brings us to the fact, already hinted at in several 
places, that the various vowel sounds, if whispered, have 
each a definite pitch. If we put a tall jug under a tap, 
and let the water fall into it, we can tell by the sound 
when the jug is getting full. When the jug is empty it 
constitutes a long pipe, producing a low tone; as the 
water gradually fills the jug it shortens the pipe, and the 
tone is raised in proportion, until at last it becomes quite 
shrill. A similar alteration takes place in the resonator for 
the production of the various vowel sounds. Thus for 00 
the voice-box stands lowest, and it rises more and more for 
oh, ah, ai, and ee. 
The consequence is that when a tone is produced, not 
by singing, but by whispering—that is to say, merely 
causing the air in the resonator to vibrate—it will be found 
that the resonator is tuned lowest for 00 and highest for 
ee, the succession being, as before, 00, oh, ah, ai, and ee. 
The most curious part of this arrangement is that the 
pitch of the cavity for each vowel is exactly the same, 
whether in the case of a man, a woman, or a child, the RESONANCE. 
219 
only condition being that the vowel be exactly of the same 
quality in every instance. It is, no doubt, the difficulty, 
or we should perhaps say, the impossibility, of getting 
exactly the same quality which accounts for the fact that 
different observers, as, for instance, Bonders, Helmholtz, 
Koenig, and others, do not quite agree as to the pitches 
which they assign to the various whispered vowels. 
Now it is obvious, as we know from every-day ex- 
perience, that we are not, by these pitches of the resonating 
cavities, prevented from uttering the vowels upon every 
tone of our voices; but it is an undoubted fact that there 
are certain tones which are more favourable for the pro- 
duction of each vowel than others, and it may be laid 
down as a general rule that 00 and oh are most easily sung 
upon the lowest, and ai and ee upon the highest, part of 
our voices, while ah lends itself most readily to be used 
over the whole compass. 
There is consequently good reason why the ah should 
be selected by teachers of singing as the most favourable 
vowel for the cultivation of the voice. But considering 
that in singing words the vowels have to be rendered as 
they come, and to the best advantage, it is clearly a 
mistake to vocalise exclusively on ah, and the wise teacher 
will see that other vowels receive a proper share of atten- 
tion as well. We have known persons who could sing a 
fine ah, but whose oh and ai were wretched, to say nothing 
of 00 and ee. 
A truly laughable, though probably very exceptional, 
case of cultivating one vowel at the expense of all others 
occurred a few years ago in a large Scotch town, and may 
be related here for the benefit of the reader. The con- 
ductor of a choral society being impressed with the fact 
that 00 is the most “ forward ” vowel, and that much 220 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
depends upon bringing the voice well to the front of the 
mouth, conceived the idea of drilling his pupils for some 
considerable time exclusively on 00, with the result that at 
their next appearance in public, it was almost impossible 
for them to sing any other vowel. Some of our leading 
singers were engaged for the soli, and they found it 
difficult not to join in the merriment of the public, which 
was caused by the extraordinary pronunciation of the 
words of the choruses, choir and conductor being quite 
unconscious of anything singular taking place. The 
climax was reached when, in the Hallelujah Chorus, the 
choir sang vigorously Hoolooloojoo, Hoolooloojoo, and it 
may be imagined that the effect was intensely comical. . 
If we want to get the greatest amount of resonance for 
our vowels, we must modify them to suit the various 
pitches at which we have to sing them. Mr. Ellis has a 
number of admirable exercises upon this subject. Their 
practical results are roughly as follows; 
i. Oo as in pool is a favourable vowel for the lower part 
of the voice; the quality of tone deteriorates as we ascend 
the scale, and the oo must now be sung as in pull pro- 
longed, when the quality will at once improve materially. 
i. Oh as in those is not so favourable a vowel for singing 
as in on prolonged, which yields a good tone at nearly all 
pitches, but the best results are obtained from the oh as in 
door. 
3. Ah produces a good tone at nearly every point of 
the scale, although the quality of the vowel slightly alters. 
4. Ai as in pain has a harsh effect at all parts of the 
compass of the voice, and is greatly improved by singing it 
as in pen prolonged. 
5. Ee as in peep is a favourable vowel in the higher part 
of the voice, but singing down the scale it becomes more THE “REACH” OF THE VOICE. 
221 
and more clouded, until at last it assumes a character of 
gruffness. If, however, from the middle of our compass 
downwards we sing the ee as in pip prolonged, the quality 
of tone will be most materially improved. 
We have in the above hints only noticed the five elemen- 
tary vowels, and for any additional sounds, as well as for a 
complete explanation of the whole subject, we once more 
refer the reader to Mr. Ellis’s 4 Pronunciation for Singers,’ 
which, we repeat, cannot be recommended too highly. 
The 44 reach”or 44 tellingness” of a voice, as Dr. Walshe 
calls it, does not so much depend upon the power of blast 
as upon—■ 
i. The attack of the tone ; 
2. The absence of superfluous breath ; 
3. The forward production of the tone; and, 
4. Resonance. 
We have all heard and admired the ringing pianissimo 
tones of our great singers, which so completely fill even the 
largest buildings that they are not only distinctly heard, 
but almost felt, while the voice of a mere shouter, how- 
ever loudly he may sing, does not penetrate to any 
distance. A singer who can produce a fine piano tone will 
have no difficulty in increasing its power, but he who 
relies upon mere force will never be able to sing a true 
pianissimo. He may certainly sing less loudly, but he will 
also in the same proportion become more inaudible. 
The student is recommended to give his attention to the 
following points : 
a. Strike the tone firmly and clearly in accordance with 
the explanations in the section on 44 Attack.” 
b. Use no more breath than is actually necessary, or the 
tone will be diluted, as milk is diluted by the addition of 
water. 222 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
c. Let the tone come well forward in the mouth, and 
try to keep it there. If you have a feeling as though it 
went away from you, and you had to run after it to catch 
it, it will never be a “ telling ” tone. 
ct. Sing softly but vigorously, and above all things sing 
beatitifully; or in the words of Mr. Deacon, “Work 
for quality, and power will take care of itself.” (Op. cit., 
P- 5°4-) 
Dr. Stone says, in the syllabus of his Royal Institution 
lectures, “ the voice excels all instruments in the power of 
combining sounds with significant words.” With this we 
thoroughly agree ; but what if the “ significant words ” are 
pronounced in so slovenly a way as to be quite unin- 
telligible ? We all know that singers whose articulation is 
so clear that every word they utter is perfectly understood 
are scarce, while those who leave us in doubt as to whether 
they sing English, or Italian, or any other language are 
plentiful, and the number of those who mispronounce 
their words in a deplorable manner is legion. 
It might therefore be expected that we should, in this 
chapter, say something about articulation. We can, 
within the limits of this manual, only call attention to it in 
a general way; and the best advice we can offer to singers 
as well as to speakers, is that they should make a daily 
practice of reading aloud some of the tables on p. no of 
Mr. Ellis’s ‘ Pronunciation,’ and that they should also 
carefully work through those on pp. 128 to 143. The 
reader is led by easy stages from simple words, as eel, ill; 
eat, it; peat, pit, &c., to such as incomprehensibility and 
intercommunicability. It is needless to add that the 
tables are systematically arranged, and that nothing is 
omitted. FLEXIBILITY. 
The flexibility of the voice depends almost entirely upon 
the control we have over the muscles governing the 
pitch; that is to say, upon the readiness and exactness 
with which we are able to allow them to contract or to 
relax. 
Performers upon various instruments know that certain 
exercises are indispensable to brilliant execution, because 
they strengthen the muscles of the wrist and of the fingers, 
and make them obedient to the will. It has even been 
found that simple finger gymnastics, exercising separately 
different sets of muscles, and making them independent of 
each other, are of the greatest value, and save long hours 
of tedious and wearisome practising. In a similar manner 
we may spare ourselves much trouble, and gain our end 
most readily, by vocal gymnastics, calculated to bring into 
play the stretching and slackening muscles of the larynx. 
There is no difficulty about it. Sing F, the same tone on 
which we started when exercising the opening and the 
closing muscles, and after it G. The alteration of the 
pitch is brought about by a contraction of the stretching- 
muscles overcoming the resistance of the opposing slacken- 
ing muscles, thereby tensing the vocal ligaments. If you 
again sing F, the case is reversed, and the new alteration in 
pitch is brought about by a contraction of the slackening 
muscles overcoming the resistance of the opposing stretch- 
ing muscles, thereby relaxing the vocal ligaments. 224 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
oo oo 
oh oh 
ah ah 
ai ai 
ee ee 
The above is an example. Take care to render it perfectly. 
Sing every tone clearly and distinctly, but without jerking, 
at the same time uniting all the tones, but without 
drawling. The tones should be like a row of pearls upon 
a string, each one well defined and separate, yet all strung 
together, and forming an uninterrupted whole. Sing 
softly and with pure intonation. Hold the jaw, the lips, 
and the tongue absolutely still. Remember that the pitch 
is altered in the larynx and not in the mouth. Do not try 
how quickly you can sing, but rather how distinctly. Com- 
mence slowly and be in no hurry to increase the speed. 
Raise and lower the exercise semitone by semitone within the 
medium part of your voice. A variety of exercises founded 
upon the same principles may be introduced, and will 
serve to increase the flexibility of the voice in a short time. 
There is nothing new in this, and it may be thought 
superfluous to point out a physiological basis for vocal 
gymnastics so universally recommended as these. But 
personal experience has taught us that students of singing 
are very apt to look upon flexibility of the voice as a 
natural gift, and that they are, in many instances, reluctant 
to submit to a discipline which every instrumentalist 
undergoes without questioning and as a matter of course. 
It is true that some voices are naturally more flexible than 
others, but it is also true that all can acquire nimbleness 
and agility if they proceed in a systematic manner and 
with the necessary perseverance. THE REGISTERS. 
225 
There is, in fact, no department of vocal training in 
which results may be obtained with greater certainty, if 
students would only work; but this, unfortunately, many 
of them will not do, and the result is that even public 
performances are frequently disgraced by a clumsiness of 
execution which would make it impossible for an instru- 
mentalist to get a hearing, and which is tolerated in the 
case of singers only, because she or he has a fine voice. 
THE REGISTERS. 
We have defined a register as “a series of tones produced 
by the same mechanism.” The five registers of which the 
human voice, taken as a whole, consists are carefully 
described, and the means by which they are formed 
minutely explained on pp. 163 to 170. These registers, 
nevertheless, continue to be a stumbling-stone to many, 
and the fact of the existence in the throat of different 
actions for the production of different series of tones 
has led some teachers into the deplorable mistake of 
developing and exaggerating them, instead of, on the 
contrary, smoothing them over and equalising them. 
The result is, that we often hear singers who seem to 
have two or three different voices. They growl in the 
one, moan in the second, and shriek in the third; while 
it should have been their aim so to blend and to unite 
the registers as to make it difficult even for a practised 
ear to distinguish the one from the other. Such singing 
is outrageous, and we protest against the opinion, expressed 
in some quarters, that it is the natural outcome of the 
teachings of the laryngoscope. 
We will review the whole subject, putting it into a new 226 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
light, and hope to succeed in removing doubts and in 
destroying errors. 
Let us imagine we are listening to a bass, commencing 
\ 
with his lowest tones, and singing up t( . In so 
doing he is playing, we will say, upon the double bass. 
This is the “ lower thick register.” A tenor joining in 
as soon as the bass has gone high enough for him to 
do so, would produce his tones in exactly the same 
way—that is to say, he also would be playing upon a 
double bass. Both our singers now sing up the scale from 
, the bass to the end of his compass, and the 
In so doing, they have both changed 
tenor to 
instruments; they do not play these tones upon a double 
bass, but upon a violoncello. This is the “ upper thick 
register.” Many of the tones that have just been sung by a 
bass and by a tenor can also be produced by female voices, 
the compass of a contralto going down to, say 
Her lowest tones she sings, like the bass and the tenor, in 
the " lower thick ; ” that is to say, like the men, she plays 
upon the doiible bass; the only difference, so far, between 
her voice and that of the male singer’s being this, that the 
contralto continues a third higher in the “lower thick” 
than the bass and the tenor; or, referring to the instru- 
ments, the men exchange the double bass for the violon- 
cello at , and the woman makes the change 
at THE REGISTERS. 
227 
At this point a soprano joins in, and going from 
to 
she sings like bass, tenor, and con- 
tralto in the “ upper thick,” or, to keep up our com- 
parison, she plays upon the violoncello. Observe the 
important fact that the series of tones last mentioned, from 
to 
, is played by bass, tenor, contralto, 
and soprano upon the same instrument, the violoncello; 
that is to say, they all sing in the same register, the 
“ itpper thick? Here we must part company with our 
bass (who has probably not sung the last tone or two), 
while tenor, contralto, and soprano continue to sing up 
the scale, the tenor as high as he can, and contralto and 
soprano to 
In so doing they have all three 
exchanged the violoncello for the viola, or, in other words, 
they have been singing from 
to 
in the 
“ lower thin.” 
Contralto and soprano from this point continue by 
themselves, laying aside the viola, and playing upon the 
violin, singing, that is to say, in the “ upper thin.” The 
tenor, it is true, could perform in the same way, and so be 
still with them; even the bass might make use of the same 
means, and has to do so when taking the part of a male 
alto. But we will not needlessly complicate matters, and 
prefer to confine ourselves to the voices as generally 
employed in modern music. Let us, therefore, listen to 
contralto and soprano, as they play upon their violin up 
the scale tc . Here we must also take leave of 228 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
our contralto, and the soprano finishes alone ; but to do 
so she requires again other means, and as we have exhausted 
the family of stringed instruments, we have no choice, if 
we wish to carry our illustration to the end, but to give 
her a toy fiddle which, with lighter strings, might certainly, 
without injury, be screwed up to a much higher pitch than 
an ordinary violin. Upon this toy fiddle she plays up to 
or even to 
which constitutes the 
highest register of the human voice, namely, the “ small 
register.” 
It should be borne in mind that it is not for a moment 
intended to suggest by these comparisons that the human 
voice has any resemblance to string instruments—a matter 
which has already been fully discussed on p. 88. 
In order to correctly understand the above explanation 
of the registers, it is necessary to bear in mind that the 
tones spoken of are represented by notes expressive 
of their actual pitch, while tenor music is, in the treble clef, 
generally written an octave higher than it is sung. Thus 
the high F of the tenor, which we are accustomed to 
see on the fifth line, is here put in the first space, &c. 
The registers are found as here described in the vast 
majority of voices, though there are, of course, exceptions 
to the rule. But although most teachers have had more 
or less painful experience of the registers, there are some 
who either deny their existence altogether, or who admit 
only two, namely, “ Chest and Falsetto.” With these it is 
impossible to argue. “We can take a horse to the water, 
but we cannot make him drink,” and we can give a man 
the opportunity of listening to the registers in a voice, 
but we cannot make him hear them. There are also those THE REGISTERS. 
229 
who have committed themselves publicly to theories which 
do not agree with the facts now put before them. And, 
finally, there are those who are open to conviction if only 
the opportunity be offered to them to form a correct 
opinion. 
These we would advise to listen carefully and patiently 
to raw and untutored voices, because in such the registers 
will be noticeable in all their primitive distinctness and in all 
their glaring contrasts, while in cultivated voices the teacher, 
if he understands his business, has already strengthened 
some parts and softened down others, so that it is often 
difficult to detect the differences. It must also be borne 
in mind that the registers are not in all voices equally 
plain ; it is therefore necessary to listen to many before a 
satisfactory conclusion can be arrived at. We have, in the 
case of young contralto singers, often had the opportunity 
of hearing all the five registers in one voice, and we also 
have frequently succeeded in making them clear to sceptics. 
There is nothing like personal experience, and we counsel 
our readers to try for themselves. We are certain that 
those who have now studied the question theoretically, and 
who afterwards in a candid and unprejudiced frame of 
mind, put the matter to a test, will agree with us that there 
is overwhelming evidence in support of the statements put 
before them. 
The difference between some of the registers is very 
noticeable in tenors. There are few people, little though 
they may otherwise know about the human voice, who 
have never heard of a tenor’s “ Chest ” or “ Falsetto ” 
voice ; and teachers, while they know that he has another 
register besides, are also aware of the difficulty, in many 
instances, of uniting the two just mentioned. It is indeed 
a feat never attempted by some, who have an idea that the 230 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
“Lower Thin” (to be called “Falsetto” only when 
wrongly produced) is of no use whatever. They do not 
consider that it was in this “Lower Thin” they themselves 
could shout so lustily while they were children ; that it is 
now weak partly through disuse, and that it may be again 
cultivated to a wonderful degree of power. They are 
unaware also that the lowest tones of this “ Lower Thin ” 
supply the material for the “ voce mista ” or “ mixed 
voice,” and that by judiciously blending the “ Upper 
Thick,” the “ Mixed,” and the “ Lower Thin,” a voice may 
be formed, at once sweet and full of power, yet easily 
produced and lasting. 
They prefer, alas, to force the “ Upper Thick ” far above 
its natural limits, and the result is that their pupils can 
never produce a high tone except by a shout, and that but 
few voices for any length of time survive such barbarous 
treatment. 
“There seems reason to believe that in the attempt to 
acquire notes unnatural to the individual, the natural por- 
tion of the voice undergoes impairment in timbre, if not 
in power On plain physiological grounds all 
attempts at forcing up a voice (and from the dearth of 
tenors and the abundant supply of baritones, the practice 
is likely to become more and more common) must be 
injurious to the vocal organs. The effort, in truth, im- 
plies a forced change in the span of vocal cord habitually 
employed; a modification of natural muscular action; 
and a change in the amount of vocalising play, upward 
and downward, of the windpipe normal in the individual.” 
(Walshe, op. cit., p. 18.) 
In contraltos the break between two of their registers 
is as great and as difficult to deal with as in tenors, and it 
is a noteworthy and instructive fact that it occurs in both THE REGISTERS. 
voices between the same registers and at the same pitch ; 
that is to say, it is found in contraltos as well as in tenors 
between the “Upper Thick” and the “Lower Thin,” at or 
about 
(for tenors generally written an octave 
higher). This break is, in many contralto voices, so 
marked as to be noticeable even to those who know 
nothing about the subject, and it requires years of patient 
and persevering practice to bridge it over; in some cases 
this end is never attained at alh 
It will be readily understood that the difficulty of 
uniting increases in proportion as the “Upper Thick” is 
carried above its natural limit. We have repeatedly met 
with ill-trained contralto voices in which the “Lower 
Thin ” was omitted altogether, the “ Upper Thick ” being 
extended up to 
or 
where it was followed 
by the “Upper Thin.” These ladies really appeared to 
have two separate voices, the contrast between the registers 
being so great. It is almost superfluous to add that 
under such circumstances it is simply impossible to eradi- 
cate or even to conceal the break of the voice. 
A great deal has now been said about tenors and 
contraltos, and we have seen that they are, in some 
respects, exactly alike. It may, in fact, be asserted, that 
the chief difference between them consists in this: the 
tenor extends a few tones below the contralto, and the 
contralto extends a few tones above the tenor. The greater 
part of their compass they have in common, and so far as 
this is the case they produce their voices by exactly the 
same mechanism. The result is, as might be expected, 
that when they avoid the extremes of their compass, their 232 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
voices are very similar, and when the singers are not seen 
it is often impossible to say with any degree of certainty 
whether we are listening to a tenor or to a contralto. 
This is a matter of common experience, and we venture 
to say that there are few musicians who have never been in 
such a state of doubt themselves. The fact once admitted 
of course immediately disposes of the mistaken idea that 
female voices are but a reproduction, an octave higher, of 
the corresponding male voices, a fallacy which has, how- 
ever, by this time been pretty generally abandoned. 
In sopranos another and rather curious difficulty is 
connected with the question of the registers. They have 
in many cases never discovered their “ small ” register, and 
the consequence is that few of these can ever go above 
except by forcing their “Upper Thin.” which 
generally means shrieking, and which always, sooner or 
later, brings ruin to the voice. If, on the other hand, 
these same ladies are taught to use the top register with 
which Nature has provided them, they are astonished and 
delighted to find that they can almost at once sing much 
higher than before, and with such ease and grace as they 
had formerly thought quite impossible. 
Exercises given later on for the easy management of the 
registers will be found to answer this particular purpose 
completely. Before, however, they are applied to any 
special case the teacher must make sure that he is dealing 
with a voice which has the true soprano character, or the 
experiment will fail. 
In basses the registers give little or no trouble, as the 
difference between the “Lower Thick” and the “Upper 
Thick ” is easily smoothed over. The only danger is that THE REGISTERS. 
233 
the ‘‘Upper Thick” is sometimes quite ignored, from the 
supposition that in this class of voices there exists but 
one register. We have met with basses trained on this 
principle, and their voices were, as a natural consequence, 
of very limited compass, and their upper tones had a very 
rough and unmusical quality. Moreover, they all com- 
plained of a feeling of tightness in their throats often 
amounting to pain, which ceased as soon as they had 
learnt to sing with the proper mechanism. But basses 
must also cultivate the “ mixed voice ” for the production 
of their highest tones. 
The following rather amusing directions with regard to 
the registers are taken from Signor Randegger’s otherwise 
excellent ‘ Singing Primer.’ (Novello, Ewer and Co.) 
Lower Thick.—“ The column of tone must be ener- 
getically pressed towards the lowest part of the chest, the 
whole cavity of the chest acting as a ‘ sounding board ’ to 
the voice.” 
Upper Thick.—“ The column of tone must be directed 
downwards, so that it may ring between the lower part of 
the throat and the upper part of the chest.” 
Lower Thin.—“ Direct the sound quickly and lightly 
towards the front part of the mouth. Feel as if the voice 
came from the lower part of the throat.” 
Upper Thin.—“ The sound must be directed per- 
pendicularly towards the roof of the palate, exactly behind 
the upper set of teeth, so that the voice may ring in the 
upper part of the mouth and in front of the head.” 
Small.—“ The sound must be sent in an oblique direc- 
tion, so that it should ring in, and reverberate from, the 
highest part of the back of the head.” 
It is almost unnecessary to say that the tone cannot be 
directed in the fashion here suggested upon any given 234 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
point, like a jet of water out of a fire-engine; nevertheless 
the physical sensations in producing the various registers 
are correctly described by Signor Randegger, and it is of 
great practical importance for the student to be thoroughly 
familiar with them. We therefore strongly recommend 
teachers to call the attention of their pupils to this matter 
of reverberation whenever they rightly produce a tone in 
any desired register, as it will be a great assistance to 
them in finding the register again upon other occasions. 
In developing and strengthening the registers our first 
exercises are based upon the fact that some vowels are 
most easily produced upon the lowest tones of the voice, 
while others are most easily sung upon the highest tones, 
which matter has already been discussed in the chapter on 
“ Resonance.” It will, therefore, here suffice to repeat that 
the “ vowel scale,” going from low to high, is 00, oh, ah, ai, 
and ee, and that consequently the highest tones will be 
produced most readily when singing the vowels in the 
order just given. If any one doubts it let him reverse the 
order, and he will see how it increases the difficulty. 
Met. 120. 
oh, ah, ai, ee, ai, ah, oh. 
00, oh, ah, ai, ah, oh, 00. 
Sing this exercise pianissimo, strike each tone clearly 
and distinctly, and take a slight inspiration after every tone. 
Be careful to take a full inflation only at the beginning, 
and afterwards to inhale less air than has been consumed 
in each preceding tone, or you would after a while over- 
crowd the lungs and experience a sensation of being 
choked. This is a thing to be avoided in any case; but 
under present circumstances it should be remembered that THE REGISTERS. 
235 
the short inspirations are not taken for the purpose of 
re-filling the lungs, but simply to compel the opening and 
closing muscles to do their work. By so doing we give 
them much more exercise than by breathing only once at 
the beginning, and what is still more important with regard 
to our immediate object, we greatly facilitate the task of 
the vocal ligaments to arrange themselves in different ways 
according to the registers they are to produce. 
It is self-evident that the danger of carrying the 
mechanism of a register beyond its proper limit is greater 
if the vocal ligaments are kept together, as in legato 
singing, than it would be if they were made to separate, 
as they are thereby more readily enabled to re-arrange them- 
selves under different conditions. It will be seen, there- 
fore, that the slight inspirations after every tone are an 
essential part of the exercise, and must on no account be 
omitted. The exercise is to be taken at a convenient 
pitch, and then to be raised semitone by semitone in 
accordance with the requirements of individual voices. It 
may, after some time, be taken right through upon the 
vowel ah, and finally legato, gradually increasing the speed, 
to the Italian word scala, singing the syllable la to the last 
note. 
The change from one register to another should always 
be made a couple of tones below the extreme limit, so that 
there will be, at the juncture of every two registers, a few 
“ optional ” tones which it is possible to take with both 
mechanisms. The singer will be wise, however, to avail 
himself of the power of producing an optional tone with 
the mechanism of the lower register only on rare occasions. 
To force the register beyond its natural limit is, of course, 
infinitely worse, and should never be tolerated. The 
practice carries its own punishment, as it invariably ruins 236 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the voice, and tones so produced always betray the effort, 
frequently in a most painful degree, and are consequently 
never beautiful. 
“ Art goes after bread,” we know, and we also know that 
a high a in “ chest-voice ” goes down with the multitude, 
and makes up for many shortcomings. But the singer 
who thus panders to the taste of a musically uneducated 
crowd ceases to be, for the time, an artist, and lowers 
himself to the status of a mountebank who astonishes the 
public by lifting heavy weights, or by performing other 
acrobatic feats. 
It is evident that the last exercise given may be varied 
to any extent, so long as it is based upon the principle 
which has been explained. The beneficial results in the 
development of the voice will be speedily noticed, and 
then sustained tones may be sung through the whole 
compass after the orthodox fashion. 
This brings us to the consideration of the “ mixed 
voice,” which is essential in bridging over the break 
between the “ upper thick ” and the M lower thin ” of the 
tenor, and which is also frequently made use of by bari- 
tones and basses in the production of their highest tones. 
We have seen it stated in a book on singing, of which we 
do not remember the title, that the “ mixed voice ”is 
produced by the full loose vibrations of one of the vocal 
ligaments through its whole thickness, while in the other 
ligament the vibrations are confined to its fine inner edges. 
We might as well expect to see a horse galloping on 
one side and trotting on the other! The explanation is 
so amusing, that it might be supposed to have been 
intended as a joke. We believe, however, we are doing 
its author no injustice by asserting that he made the 
statement in perfect seriousness; in any case it must THE REGISTERS. 
237 
be uncompromisingly rejected as having no foundation 
whatever in fact. 
The “ voce misia ” is “ mixed ” in the sense that it 
combines the vibrating mechanism of the “lower thin” with 
the position of the larynx of the “ lower thick” ; that is to 
say, while the vibrations are confined to the thin inner 
edges of the vocal ligaments, the larynx itself takes a 
much lower position in the throat than for the “lower 
I 
thin,” and the result is a remarkable increase of volume 
without any corresponding additional effort in the pro- 
duction of tone. 
There are, apparently, many exceptions to this rule, and 
it must be understood that the ease of production which 
characterises the mixed voice is due, not so much to the 
lower position of the larynx in itself as to the contraction 
of the “ depressors,” by which the voice-box is pulled down 
towards the chest, and which has the effect of pressing 
together the plates of the shield cartilage below the vocal 
ligaments. 
The depressors of the larynx, in the performance of 
this function, are often so effectually opposed by the 
“ elevators ” that the position in the throat of the voice-box 
is but little altered. But the contraction of the depressors 
has nevertheless the effect of pressing together the lower 
parts of the plates of the shield cartilage, as may be seen by 
the formation of a hollow in front of the throat which 
extends from the voice-box downwards. 
According to some authorities the “ mixed voice ” is 
nothing but “ chest voice ” disguised. To this we cannot 
agree, for the distinguishing characteristic of the vocemista 
consists in the perfect ease with which it is produced when 
the singer has once hit upon the right mechanism. In the 
upper thick, on the other hand, the effort in producing 238 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the high tones of which we are now speaking would 
remain the same, no matter how and by what means they 
might be “ disguised.” 
It must be borne in mind, finally, that in many tenors 
the upper thick is naturally so light, and the lower thin so 
full, that there is, from the beginning, no perceptible 
break, so that there is no difficulty whatever perfectly to 
blend the two registers without fitting in the mixed voice 
between them. 
In short, voices differ as much as faces. Strongly as 
they resemble each other in general structure, there are 
no two exactly alike, and a teacher to be successful must 
carefully study the vocal organs of his pupils and treat 
each according to its own individuality. 
A word may here be added about that mysterious 
register the “ falsetto,” of which, so far as we are aware, 
no satisfactory definition has as yet been given anywhere. 
Most persons understand by it that series of tones in the 
tenor voice just above the upper thick register. But these 
tones may be sung in two ways. 
i. With the mechanism of the “upper thin” carried 
below its proper limit. The vocal chink has here an 
elliptical shape, the lid is completely raised, the larynx 
widely opened, and all parts are in a lax condition. In 
accordance with this there is a striking absence of tenseness 
in the soft palate, and the uvula is in nearly the same state 
as in quiet breathing. The tones so produced are feeble 
and unsatisfactory ; no crescendo of any consequence can be 
executed upon them, and no amount of cultivation will 
render them more powerful. 
2. With the mechanism of the “ lower thin.” The vocal 
chink is here linear; and although the voice-box is still 
more widely opened and therefore more easily inspected THE REGISTERS. 
239 
than in the thick, yet the whole is tense, and in accordance 
with this the soft palate is raised and the uvula quite 
obliterated. The tones so produced are naturally stronger 
than those spoken of above ; they may be swelled out to a 
considerable extent, they are capable of being made more 
powerful by practice, and they may, as has been pointed 
out before, be converted into the mixed voice. 
The “ upper thin ” carried below its proper place is there- 
fore an essentially false production, to which the term 
“ falsetto ” justly applies. But this is not the case with 
regard to the “ lower thin,” which is, on the contrary, 
perfectly legitimate. It is also clear from this explanation 
why it is undesirable, and from a physiological point of 
view even wrong, to apply the term “ falsetto ” to the 
medium register of the female voice. 
It may be pointed out in conclusion that we play upon 
the same instrument in speaking and in singing. Speakers 
must not, therefore, imagine that this chapter on voice 
cultivation does not concern them. They will find that 
their voices will derive immense benefit from some of the 
exercises described in this chapter, and they are strongly 
recommended to give them a trial. 
(Voice cultivation exercises, on the principles here ad- 
vocated, by Mr. Emil Behnke and Mr. Chas. W. Pearce, 
Mus. Bac., are now in course of preparation, and will be 
published very shortly by Messrs. Chappell & Co., of 
50, New Bond Street.) 240 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
POSITION. 
A chapter on “Voice Cultivation” would not be 
complete without a few remarks with regard to the 
position speakers as well as singers should assume, and 
this subject may perhaps be best understood if a descrip- 
tion is given of what it should not be. Of this we 
unfortunately find frequent illustration in the case of 
clergymen when holding the book out of which they are 
reading. 
It is a favourite device with many to allow the lower 
arms to rest upon the chest, and to put the hands open 
one upon the other to serve as a desk for the book, which 
is held slantingly, the lower edge resting against the chest 
to prevent it from slipping down. It is clear that by this 
attitude the reader seriously interferes with his breathing, 
because he throws an obstacle in the way of his lower 
ribs by compelling them to move the weight of his 
arms, hands, and book every time they expand in in- 
spiration. 
The next consequence is that he has to bend the neck 
and to hang the head in order to be able to see the 
contents of his book, and the evil results of this are 
threefold: 
i. It makes him stoop, thereby still further impeding 
his breathing; 
2. His chin presses upon the larynx and prevents it from 
having fair play; and, 
3. He throws his voice on the ground just in front of 
him, so that he is quite inaudible even at a very short 
distance. POSITION. 
241 
This is about the most unfavourable position which a 
speaker can possibly assume, and we should find it difficult 
to suggest anything by which it could be made worse. It 
is no wonder that a clergyman habitually assuming this 
attitude, in his struggles to make himself heard under 
such adverse, though self-imposed, conditions, is quickly 
tired out, and that he eventually suffers in health. 
Now let the reader try this: Stand straight, shoulders 
back, chest active, head up, spine curved inwards, but not 
too hollow. Raise the arms so that they do not touch 
the chest at all; grasp the book instead of letting it lie 
upon the hands, and hold it up high. Let the voice travel 
straight over it, directing it at the people right at the back 
of the church, at may be in the gallery. It will be well 
to practise a similar way of reading at home in the presence 
of a friend, capable of criticising, who should be situated 
at the far end of the room. We feel sure that both 
speaker and audience will be equally surprised and gratified 
at the result, and neither will wish for a return to the 
former method of deliverv. 
j 
It is, perhaps, even more astonishing that clergymen 
make the same mistake of stooping and of bending over 
their Bibles, prayer-books, and sermons when they have a 
desk or lectern to hold them. The remedy is, of course, 
the same as before, and there is no need to repeat the 
instructions. 
Singers are not often found to fall into similar errors 
because no teacher, however little qualified, would for a 
moment tolerate such a position as that described above. 
Singers, indeed, more frequently sin in the opposite direc- 
tion. In their anxiety to stand quite upright, they not 
only take the shoulders back, but they slightly raise them ; 
that is wrong, as may be seen from the section on breathing 242 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
(p. 181). Then, so far from bending the head, they are 
more likely to tilt it slightly backwards ; that also is wrong, 
because it tends to fix the larynx in too high a position. 
These mistakes are as much to be avoided as those 
described above, and the position we have recommended 
to clergymen, with such modifications as may be required 
by circumstances, will be found the most advantageous 
No pains should be spared until it has become second 
nature. THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
Enough has been said in the previous chapter to prove 
the necessity of perfect bodily health for the efficient and 
comfortable performance of the vocation of all voice-users, 
from the special aspect of the parts of the human frame 
more directly concerned in voice production, and therefore 
no preface is wanted for this portion of our subject further 
than to say, that above all other professions that of a 
singer or public speaker requires the observance of a 
strictly physiological life—that is to say, such a life as 
will most certainly ensure perfect exercise of every function 
of the body. 
A man’s life may be said to be controlled—i, by resi- 
dence ; 2, by ablutions; 3, by clothing; 4, by diet; 5, by 
exercise; 6, by amusements; and lastly, by individual 
habits. 
1. As to residence, it is all important that a singer 
should occupy a well-ventilated room and should not sleep 
and live in the same. If he do not occupy a house he 
must ensure that one room communicates with the other, 
so that, the windows of each being open, he may get a 
draught of fresh air each day right through both living 
and sleeping apartment. It will be preferable that he live 
on a hill with a south aspect, and in a house in which 
every regard is had to the state of the drains, for the 
throat of a voice-user is always more or less in a state of 
congestion, and therefore always more liable than that 244 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
of ordinary persons to receive the injurious impressions of 
any insanitary exhalations. For this same reason poisonous 
paints and wall papers should be avoided. 
Such advice as the foregoing may appear unnecessary to 
many, but it would not be given did we not daily see ill- 
effects produced by neglect of such obvious precautions in 
choice of a dwelling-place. Especially is this the case 
with singers going to a new city, and with curates in 
country villages. 
Naturally the climate will vary very considerably with 
the country in which a singer may be called to reside, but 
it should be his study to assimilate the temperature, &c., of 
his temporary or permanent residence to that of his home or 
that of the last country which he has inhabited. Thus he 
will often require fires and closed doors at seasons when the 
regular inhabitants may prefer open windows, and vice versa. 
In this matter of residence there are individualities 
which may require to be humoured. Some persons 
breathe better in a smoky city than in the country. Some 
that we have known always lose their voice at the seaside; 
some, subject to dry catarrhs, enjoy the soft air of a valley ; 
others, of relaxed habit, require the invigoration of moun- 
tains. To many who gain their livelihood by their voice, 
attention cannot be given to these peculiarities all the year 
round, but at least all may observe them when they take a 
holiday. 
i. Ablutions. It may be thought that details on this 
head might be omitted and the subject dismissed in the 
simple advice that absolute cleanliness and frequent 
ablution of the whole -body is good for all—singer and 
non-singer alike—but experience shows that many voice- 
users neglect bathing not from want of taste or respect for 
cleanliness, but because they are afraid of exciting a THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
245 
disposition to take cold. Thus one will say, “ I never dare 
take a cold bath, I should never get warm”; another, “ I 
dare not take a hot bath, for I should be sure to take cold 
upon it.” It is quite certain that the ordinary cold bath, 
so much boasted of by Englishmen, however agreeable 
and invigorating it may be to some, has little to recom- 
mend it on grounds of cleanliness. The following is the 
method we advise. In cold weather take a hot bath, rub 
the body freely with flesh-brush or glove and plenty of 
soap (a coal-tar preparation is the best for cleaning the 
pores and promoting action of the skin), then sponge 
or douche with cold water while standing in the hot, 
and dry the major portion of the body before taking the 
feet out of the warm water. If the bather is at all liable 
to take cold it will be well that he should lie between 
sheets for ten minutes before dressing until all fear of 
perspiration is passed over. This bath much resembles 
the Turkish bath in the following particulars, softening of 
the skin, cleansing of the skin, opening of the pores, 
closing them again by the cold douche and reaction of the 
skin afterwards before re-clothing. But it lacks one great 
quality of incalculable value to a singer, at least in this 
climate, that of the hot dry air inspired while in the 
callidarium, which is so useful in counteracting the effects 
of the ordinary cold damp air of an English winter, or it 
might be said of three-fourths of the year in a British 
climate, on the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. 
There are, however, many who say they cannot endure a 
Turkish bath; it is believed by us because they neglect 
the following precautions which are hereby enjoined on all 
Turkish bathers. 1. Never to bathe at a less interval than 
two hours after a meal. 1. To put a wet towel on the 
head on entering the bath so as to prevent heat-stroke, 246 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
a fruitful source of palpitations, faintings, &c. 3. To have 
the body slightly shampooed and to take a glass of water 
if perspiration is not active. 4. To always have the head 
as well as body washed. 5. Not to take a cold plunge 
or swimming-bath after, but to have a douche, at first warm 
and only gradually cold—a warm douche being at the 
same time or immediately after applied to the feet. 6. To 
take sufficient time to cool before dressing, and during the 
cooling process to keep the whole body and feet also 
covered with a wrap. 7. Not to take a bath oftener than 
twice a week in winter and once in summer. Those who 
in spite of attention to these details cannot take the 
Turkish bath, must be content with the warm bath already 
described. To both it will be agreeable and beneficial in 
summer to wash the body all over with soap and warm 
water each morning and then to take a cold sponge bath. 
Those whose circulation is slow to react should stand in a 
foot-pan containing hot water, on leaving the cold bath, 
and remain in it during the time they dry the body. It is 
a mistake to suppose that a cold bath is injurious when the 
body is heated, provided it be not taken too soon after a 
meal and that the precautions we have given to ensure 
thorough reaction of circulation be observed. 
It may not be out of place to advise all who indulge 
in sea or river bathing, which involves plunging or even 
ducking the head, to place a plug of cotton wool in their 
ears before entering the water. This simple precaution 
may prevent an annoying, and even dangerous, deafness. 
A word may also here be said as to the necessity 
for frequent cleansing of the teeth and washing of the 
mouth after food and just before use of the voice. Re- 
tention and after-putrefaction of small particles of food 
in the teeth is a common source of offensive breath, of THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
247 
excessive saliva, and of discomfort in practice of the voice. 
There is nothing better for hardening the mucous mem- 
brane of the gums and mouth than cold water with a 
small quantity of ordinary eau-de-cologne, which has also 
the merit of being very easily to hand. As elsewhere 
stated gargling, in the usual acceptance of the term, which 
implies irregular action of the muscles of the throat, is a 
useless, and sometimes a harmful process, but the holding 
of cold water in the mouth, the while throwing back the 
head, so as to thoroughly lave the whole cavity of the 
mouth and the back of the throat, is attended with con- 
siderable comfort and is useful in keeping the soft palate 
braced. The water should be held in the mouth until it 
becomes tepid, and then fresh should be taken, the process 
being continued for ten or fifteen minutes. Bathing the 
throat outside with cold water or cold salt and water may 
be indulged in, but is of no special benefit, as one might be 
inclined to think, from the frequency with which patients 
ask to be advised on that point. 
Our remarks would not be complete did we not give a 
word of warning against the too frequent continuous use 
of face and neck powders and washes by those who, 
requiring them for stage purposes, are apt to indulge in 
them at all times, in the belief that their appearance is 
thereby improved. While it may be unhesitatingly stated 
that the pleasure to the on-looker is diminished in pro- 
portion as efforts to beautify a complexion are obvious, 
it may also be accepted as a fact that the skin and the 
bodily health is injured in proportion to the extent of 
surface covered, and the impermeability of the material 
employed. For body use especially it will be well to have 
a flesh powder that, being soluble, is non-obstructive to 
transpiration by the skin. 248 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
3. The question of Clothing is one treated very irration- 
ally by singers, but one over which they have not always 
entire or even any satisfactory control. We commonly 
see persons enter our consulting-room, class-room, and the 
theatre, and remain with overcoat, heavy mantle and fur 
which had been donned as against the cold of external air 
on leaving their homes ; or, on the other hand, a singer will 
often enter a hot concert-room or the stage in low dress 
and omit to cover the shoulders in coming into the lowered 
temperature and draught of waiting-room or wings. Of 
course it often happens on the lyric stage that a singer 
is forced to wear either too little or too much clothing, in 
accordance with the costume appropriate to the character 
represented, but even this difficulty may be overcome by 
care on the part of the artist and attention to his direc- 
tions on the part of his “ dresser.” Oscar Guttman, in his 
‘ Gymnastics of the Voice’ (Leipzig and New York, 1882), 
goes so far as to say that actors who have worn heating 
wigs, &c., should not, on leaving the theatre, go out into 
the cold outer air merely with a hat on. 
Those who follow professions in which a particular 
dress is de rigueur, such as clergymen and soldiers, often 
suffer from being obliged to wear an undue or an in- 
sufficient amount of clothing; but here again much may 
be done in way of correction by attention to the amount 
and character of the underclothing worn. Two questions 
are amongst the commonest asked by the singer. 1. Should 
flannel be worn ? 2. Should the neck be covered ? As 
to the first we are of opinion that flannel or silk of 
varying thickness should be worn both over trunk and 
limbs by all English people, and all the year round, as the 
warmest garment in cold and the most absorbent of 
perspiration in hot weather. In addition an extra piece THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
249 
of flannel four or five inches in depth should be worn— 
across the loins only, by those inclined to be stout, by 
others, around the whole girth of the body, in the same 
region—by all who are subject to take cold, who are of a 
rheumatic disposition, or who are liable to liver disorder ; in 
other words by nine-tenths of residents of the British Isles. 
The effect of such a band is to keep circulation active 
to all the organs of secretion and excretion, and so to 
favour activity of digestion and assimilation. As to the 
second point, there is much diversity of opinion, and in 
our belief it is not of so much importance to keep a neck 
covered or uncovered—that is a question rather of usage 
from youth and individual experience—as it is that the 
neck of the voice-user should be unconstricted. No 
button should fasten above the level of the top of the 
sternum (breast-bone), so that all those parts left free from 
the bony cage of the thorax by nature should be actually 
unconfined. The fashionable collar of the male “ masher,” 
the dog-collar of the fast young lady, the clerical band 
of the ritualistic ecclesiastic, the tight, rigid stock of the 
soldier, are all equally unphysiological, and when carried 
to excess, as has been proved by Surgeon-Major Myers of 
the Coldstream Guards in the case of soldiers, even pro- 
ductive of aneurism, one of the gravest disorders arising 
from obstruction to free circulation at the root of the 
neck. Constriction of this region is a frequent cause of 
glandular swellings, enlarged tonsils, and congestions of 
the lining membranes of the throat. 
We have already spoken against the habitual use of respi- 
rators, but must repeat that it is necessary to protect not 
the mouth only, but nose and ears by loose cloud or veil 
against night air, dust, fog, and cold damp atmospheres. 
We have also alluded at length to the detriment occasioned 250 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
to free respiration and ample tone by the use of corsets, and 
the hanging of excess of clothing, in the case of females, 
from the waist. Regarding the question of change of dress 
to something more rational which is at present being freely 
agitated, there cannot be a doubt that though, like all re- 
forms, it is by some urged with extreme zeal, the result 
must in the end lead to very great improvements in the 
health and comfort, and, when we are used to it, even the 
artistic appearance of the more beauteous sex. The retort 
that reforms are also needed in male clothing is undoubtedly 
true. We trust, however, we shall not see any return to 
belts for supporting the nether garments, as has been 
advocated in more than one quarter, for if worn with 
anything like the necessary constricting power they must 
inevitably interfere with the breathing capacity, and may 
even result in grave surgical disorders. 
That there is abundant room for reform in woman’s 
dress is readily admitted by all who give the subject due 
consideration; but it is not easy to determine what 
direction the reform shall take. Theory and practice are 
often at variance, and, what appears to answer all 
requirements in print, is not unfrequently found to possess 
many inconveniences and objections in actual use. The 
utility of a reformed dress must stand the test of actual 
wear over long periods of time, and the dress must present 
the following features : An even distribution of warmth and 
weight over the body, lightness and absence of constriction 
or pressure on the one hand and of undue fulness on the 
other. In addition the dress must not depart too con- 
spicuously from the fashion of the period. 
The above desiderata are, we think, fully met by the 
costume to be described. It has had the test of five years’ 
constant wear, and those ladies who have adopted it are THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
251 
unanimous in their verdict as to its comfort and ease, 
several of them testifying to a great improvement in their 
general health. 
The dress consists (1) of a special woven and shaped 
combination reaching from neck to ankles and wrists. 
This is supplied in three materials, silk-gauze, merino, and 
lamb’s-wool; (2) stockings drawn on over the combina- 
tion. Garters are not usually required, as the stockings 
cling closely to the combination, but where any difficulty 
is experienced the stocking-suspender can be used. Next 
to the combination is worn (3) a pair of knickerbockers, 
which reach to just below the knee, carefully cut to the 
figure, with no superfluous fulness. This garment can be 
made of almost any material according to individual taste. 
The knickerbockers button at the sides, thus securing 
complete immunity from draughts and chills from changes 
of temperature; the entire weight should be buttoned to a 
bodice; (4) an ordinary petticoat bodice completes the 
underclothing. If corsets are required the hygienic stays, 
described on page 116, are recommended. 
The style of the outer garment is left to individual taste. 
One great advantage which this reformed under-dress 
undoubtedly possesses is that its adoption does not render 
the wearer odd or conspicuous in the slightest degree. 
With regard to its weight (which is as equally spread 
over the body as possible) it may be mentioned that an 
entire suit of under-clothing supplied to a lady weighed 
only 1 lbs. 8 ozs. It consisted of a special merino combi- 
nation, thick blue serge knickerbockers, double warp calico 
linings, calico bodice, and cashmere stockings. The lady 
is 5 ft. 4 in. in height, bust measurement 36 in. 
We are indebted for the detailed information concerning 
this comfortable and useful style of dress to Messrs. Ward 252 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
and Co., Ilkley, who were amongst the first to introduce 
hygienic costumes. 
4. The diet of a voice-user should be that most favour- 
able to nutrition, with the minimum of ingredients likely 
to produce fat, and also that which is likely to be most 
quickly and most perfectly assimilated. In giving, then, 
a rule of dietary life for our readers, we are simply pre- 
scribing a system most favourable for all. To put the 
matter in another light we may state that in our professional 
life we find a large proportion of patients of a gouty or 
rheumatic disposition, which to the non-medical reader 
may be explained as a tendency to arrest and perversion 
of all healthy secretions, with a ready liability to fermentive 
digestion and the generation of acidity; a dietary rule 
which excludes certain articles of food injurious to the 
rheumatic simply forbids what would, to say the least of 
it, be of no special nutritive benefit to any one. 
The first distinctive division of foods is that of solids and 
fluids, and the quantity of each kind taken by man should 
be in proportion to the composition of the human body, 
which contains twice as much fluid as solid matter. We 
have next to consider the purposes for which food is taken ; 
they are primarily to repair the daily waste occasioned by 
the act of existence, which implies performance of certain 
functions necessary to actual life, and, as has been explained 
in the remarks on respiration, is one of combustion; and 
next to enable proper performance of extraneous exercise 
of muscle and brain, so that the individual may enjoy life 
or may be in a condition of health to work for his living. 
Food of all kinds may be further sub-divided into two 
great varieties—the nitrogenous and the non-nitrogenous 
or carbonaceous. The proportion of these two elements 
varies with the food; meat and fat containing most THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
253 
nitrogen, the flesh-forming or muscle-forming principle; 
vegetables, sugar, and starches, the most carbon or heat- 
giving principles. Nevertheless, many vegetables and fruits, 
as white beans, lentils, apples, and green peas, contain an 
abundant proportion of nitrogen, and, as has been proved 
by the “vegetarians,” will supply all the necessary elements 
for life, to the exclusion of any necessity for eating meat. 
In no one substance are all elements of nutrition found so 
well combined and proportioned as in milk, the literally 
natural food of all mammalia. 
The necessity for nutriment varies according to the 
extent and character of work required from the body of 
the consumer. Persons in full health and with moderate 
calls on muscular activity require twice as much nitro- 
genous or muscular nutriment as is necessary for mere 
subsistence, and about two-thirds of what would be neces- 
sary for the day-labourer who lives by the sweat of his 
brow. The proportion of carbon or heat-giver to be 
taken will vary with season of year and climate. 
Considering how little exercise is taken by the singer, 
and how comparatively little is the muscular effort required 
for performance of his duties, there can be no doubt that 
meat should be eaten more sparingly than is the general 
custom, and this remark would apply to the majority of 
professional workers as distinguished from the actual 
labouring classes. As an ordinary rule we believe that it 
would be better that the largest meat meal should be 
eaten at the close of a day, except for a certain proportion 
of persons, such as those subject to asthma, who are obliged 
to allow seven or eight hours to elapse between a meat 
meal and the period for retirement at night, but such a 
plan is impossible for voice-users, and the dinner hour or 
time for the principal meal must be regulated by the time 254 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
at which the voice is to be professionally exercised. And 
this is a powerful cause of the vocalist’s digestive troubles— 
the unavoidable irregularity of meal-times. An interval 
of at least four hours for singers and of two hours for 
speakers between a full meal and use of the voice is in all 
cases advisable. An hour after a meal is the time at which 
the stomach is fullest, and consequently the lung capacity 
is smallest; it is also the time when the vessels of circu- 
lation are in most active work, and therefore when all 
the internal organs are most engorged. There is another 
great difficulty in regulating the dietary hours of a singer, 
namely, that the period of work, in operas and concerts 
especially, may extend over several hours, with intervals of 
rest between of very varying duration. After the first act 
of an opera or execution of the first song, the singer will, 
to a certain extent, have exhausted his energies, which 
will be still further enfeebled by the fatigue of waiting for 
his next call, and thus it is that many singers are said to 
fall off in vocal strength at the end of an evening’s work. 
In those cases where, on account of nervousness, the 
digestion is slow, and in which, as a consequence, a very 
long interval between eating and singing is necessarily 
prolonged, it may be very advisable to take a little beef- 
tea, or some of the many excellent meat extracts now so 
largely sold, about an hour before the first song, and in 
case of an interval occurring before the next, immediately 
after it. Still better is a raw egg, seasoned with a few grains 
of salt and a few drops of vinegar, swallowed whole about 
twenty minutes or even less before call on the voice is 
made. This is especially serviceable and agreeable when 
the throat becomes unduly dry from nervousness. We 
have said that very exceptionally a glass of champagne 
may be allowed before use of the voice in cases of ex- THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
255 
treme and uncontrollable nervousness; we would strongly 
urge that the instance in which such indulgence may be 
observed is indeed very rare, and were it not that we have 
known instances in which this slight and quickly diffusible 
stimulant had really been of service, we would not mention 
it except in the way of caution. Like all artificial stimula- 
tion it is a remedy certain to be followed by injurious 
reaction. Much better, as more sure, active, and perma- 
nent in its effects, and as attended by a minimum of after 
reaction, is the wine known by the name of its introducer, 
Mariani, of Paris, the active medical principle of which 
is the coca-leaf, a plant much valued in South America 
and other sub-tropical regions as capable of sustaining 
muscular strength, and ensuring against fatigue in long 
journeys through regions and under circumstances in 
which other food is difficult to be obtained. The repeated 
testimonies in favour of the effect of this wine on the vocal 
muscles and respiration of many patients and pupils, and 
of many very eminent singers and actors, as well as our 
joint personal experience, is undoubted and most strong. 
But caution must again be repeated as to the advisability 
of extreme moderation in its use and indulgence only to 
the extent of necessity and not of luxury. 
Supper is a meal much indulged in by the singer and 
actor, and is one for which there is much excuse, since 
proper use of the voice engenders hunger, but it may 
interfere with healthy and refreshing sleep, and must 
therefore be taken only by those whose digestive powers 
will allow of its observance. 
Without going into elaborate discussion of the varying 
qualities of digestibility and nutritious power of all articles of 
food, a few remarks as to what should be avoided and of what 
may be with advantage partaken will doubtless be acceptable. 256 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
In the first place, although fat and sugar are permissible, 
and even necessary, as articles of diet, both these ingre- 
dients in a state of change are liable to favour flatulent 
dyspepsia, acidity, and consequent impairment of respira- 
tion and vocalisation. Thus, while on the one hand, 
butter may be taken with bread, salad oil with fresh 
vegetables, or sugar in tea, on the other all pastry, suet 
puddings, melted-butter sauces, and excess of fat meat, and 
jam (not marmalade), malt liquor, and sparkling wines in 
which the fermentive process is not completed, should be 
excluded. In like manner the majority of root vegetables, 
especially those that contain sugar, are liable to promote 
flatulence; and since they most of them contain but little 
nutritious properties, are to be debarred. Under this head 
will come beetroot, turnips, parsnips, carrots, and radishes. 
Potatoes are not to be universally or altogether excluded, 
but their importance in the dietary scale is exaggerated, and 
by some they cannot be digested. Artichokes, although 
containing sugar, are more nutritious and less indigestible, 
probably because they contain less fibrous tissue than those 
root vegetables previously named. Salads and all green 
vegetables are as a rule most wholesome. We decline to 
give an opinion on cucumber, although we confess to a 
conviction that it is a vegetable often wrongfully accused of 
mischief to the digestion. 
Some dieticians consider all uncooked green vegetables 
injurious. This is not our experience. Tomatoes un- 
cooked are both nutritious and easy of digestion. Of 
meats to be avoided, the fat of pork and salted provisions 
may be named; and of fish, salmon and eels. The sun 
fruits in season and all succulent, juicy fruits are generally 
acceptable ; stone fruits, as plums and cherries, contain 
but little nourishment, and should be taken cooked. THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
257 
Nuts of all kinds are to be avoided. Of condiments, 
all hot peppers, hot pickles and curries are injurious, 
as leading to artificial stimulation of the blood-vessels 
and follicles of the mucous membrane of the throat, &c, 
with the effect of relaxation on reaction. It is on this 
account that we have so urgently and consistently advised 
against indulgence in the use of every kind of lozenge 
containing cayenne pepper, pyrethrum, &c. Nervousness 
interferes greatly with digestion, and many singers are 
unable, even several hours before the hour of their duty, 
to eat on that account. Great aid is often rendered in 
such cases by the taking of a pepsine pill, pepsine wine, or 
one of the known and approved maltine preparations, or 
which Malto-Yarbine is probably the best for the purpose 
of our readers. It is always well, however, to seek medical 
advice in such cases. 
The question of drinking involves three principles : 
1. Quantity; 2. Temperature; and 3. The nature of the 
beverage. First, as to quantity. Although, as previously 
stated, more fluid food is required than solid, it is never- 
theless true that the less fluid that is taken during a 
meal the quicker will be the digestion. Fluid between 
meals is seldom advisable and often harmful. For the 
same reasons as those just given regarding condiments, all 
fluids, as tea, coffee, and soup, which are usually drunk hot, 
should be taken at a tepid temperature by the singer. 
Cold drinks are locally beneficial to the throat. 
Regarding the nature of the drink which may be 
permitted it is an undoubted fact that singers complain 
that hot tea deprives them of voice. On the contrary 
we have known not a few instances in which actors and 
singers have partaken of small quantities of cold tea as 
an aid to their public vocal exercise, and we have hardly 258 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
ever known a case in which either coffee or cocoa had been 
stated to be injurious. The alkaloid—that is, the essential 
principle of all three beverages—is very similar—in fact 
practically the same. It is probable, therefore, that the 
deleterious effect of tea-drinking does not depend on the 
supposed properties of its alkaloid to cause palpitation of 
the heart, for coffee and cocoa would act in the same way, 
though possibly with less intensity. The cause of its dis- 
agreement must then be ascribed to three other factors : 
first, that much larger quantities of tea are usually drunk 
with a disproportionate amount of solid food than with 
coffee, which, except at a full meal, is taken en demi tasse, 
or than cocoa, which contains, in the form usually sold, so 
large an amount of solid material. It is thus probable that 
tea is more liable to cause flatulence, with such a consequent 
enlargement of the stomach, as to greatly interfere with the 
capacity for midriff breathing. Dr. Ringer’s remarks on 
this subject are so very pertinent that we quote them:— 
“ In flatulent dyspepsia few substances are more to be 
avoided than tea, for tea itself in this complaint is found to 
promote flatulence; and women, the chief sufferers from 
this disagreeable form of dyspepsia, are apt to drink large 
quantities of weak tea, and the excess of fluid keeps up the 
distension ” (‘A Handbook of Therapeutics,’ by 
Sidney Ringer, M.D. Seventh Ed., p. 551. London; 
Lewis.) 
The second cause of its harmful effects may be due to 
the large amount of hot fluid consumed at a draught; for, 
as has been just pointed out, the frequent taking of hot 
drinks is a fruitful cause of relaxation of the throat. Being- 
anxious to have independent confirmation of this view, we 
wrote to Dr. Albert Bernays, of St. Thomas’s Hospital, as 
the most eminent authority on all questions relating to the THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
259 
chemistry of food, and we are glad to be able to state 
that his reply was in complete agreement with us. He 
further suggested that as the tannin of the tea is extracted 
in proportion to the time it stands and cools, cold tea taken 
in small quantities might, since it would contain more 
tannin, act as an astringent as well as a stimulant. 
It is just, however, the large proportion of tannin con- 
tained in tea that makes the beverage less suited (when 
taken in quantities) to most digestions than coffee and 
cocoa ; for the tannin in the tea, of which there is about 26 
per cent., is apt to combine with the gelatine of the meat 
and to form a tannate of gelatine—in other words the basis 
of leather, and a highly indigestible compound. Coffee 
contains only 5 per cent, of tannin, and hence it has a less 
effect in that direction, while cocoa contains none at all. 
Our advice, therefore, is that with meals, tea, coffee, or 
cocoa may be drunk according to individual taste and 
digestion, but that, as a beverage or stimulant taken before 
singing, cocoa, small quantities of coffee at moderate 
temperature, or very small quantities of cold tea are pre- 
ferable ; but that hot tea indulged in immoderately is 
harmful to the digestion of all, and directly injurious 
to voice-users. Even in moderate quantities, however, 
tea cannot be borne by some people. 
Still another word as to effervescing drinks, which are 
very refreshing and agreeable to many. We are obliged to 
condemn all manufactured lemon and other ’ades, as also 
bottled preparations of lime-juice ; but fresh lemon-juice with 
soda-water is both wholesome and palatable. Aerated mineral 
waters from only the best makers should be taken, since, if 
a potash, soda, or lithia drink is required, it is as well to have 
a guarantee that the proper amount of active ingredient is 
contained, as also that the water is of pure quality. The VOICE, XaVG, SPEECH. 
recently introduced “ Salutaris” water, which is guaranteed 
to be absolutely pure distilled water aerated with carbon 
oxygen gas, has the double merit of purity and cheapness, 
and is an excellent water drink which can be obtained of all 
chemists in towns visited by the singer in which the water 
supply might not be all that was desirable. For home use, 
where the character of the drinking-water is known, a gaso- 
gene efficiently aerates, and any ingredient, as soda or lithia, 
can be added in proportion. Where the quality of the 
water is doubtful distilled water can be employed. Those 
whose digestions are weak, or who cannot take much solid 
food even several hours before singing, will find the milk 
preparations, Koumiss and Sparkling Bland, now sold by 
the Aylesbury Dairy Company, to be of high value. 
Then as to alcohol. It will be presumed from our 
previous remarks that we do not advise its general or 
habitual use, neither do we unreservedly forbid it. But it 
may be simply laid down as an axiom—indeed as a truism 
—that whereas there are an infinite number of diseases 
occasioned by alcohol, there are none due to its non- 
indulgence, and but few states of health or disease in 
which it is absolutely indispensable. Further, let it be 
remembered that the less alcohol is indulged in as an 
habitual drink the less will be required, and the more 
efficiently will it act, when administered by the physician as 
a remedy for any diseased condition. One more statement: 
alcohol seldom, if ever, improves powers of work; it often, 
and indeed always, impairs its value. If it give force, en 
revanche, it diminishes accuracy, and on reaction leads to 
enfeeblement. It has further been abundantly proved by 
human example, and by experiments on animals, that 
alcohol has no power to temper the effects of either heat 
or cold ; and the most healthy sailors in Arctic regions, the THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
261 
best soldiers in tropical climes, have been in each case 
abstainers. 
But having conceded so much it may be allowed that a 
moderate indulgence once a day in some light wine—for 
singers preferably claret, Burgundy, or a light Hungarian 
red wine as Carlowitz—at the end of the day s work is 
not only harmless, but is even, as a recuperative agent 
and as a waste preventer, serviceable, and no good pur- 
pose can be served by a rigid or bigoted ascetism on 
this question. Malt liquors are injurious because dif- 
ficult of digestion, except to those who are called upon 
for, or who indulge in, a great amount of physical 
labour and exercise. Ardent alcohol, whether as brandy, 
whisky, and gin, is bad for all persons, and we have no 
faith in the fashionable but dangerous prescription of 
many physicians, of brandy-and-water and whisky-and- 
water, in preference to wine as an aid to digestion. Hot 
spirits and water is the acme of alcoholic abomination. 
5. Exercise has been already considered in its special 
aspect of singing and speaking, and sufficient directions for 
its regulation and performance are given in another place. 
It is, however, quite another question as to how much and 
what kind of general bodily exercise is beneficial and 
desirable for the singer. Without doubt the majority of 
singers, especially females and foreigners, neglect general 
exercise, of which walking in the open air for an hour or 
two daily at a moderate pace is the most rational, easily 
attainable, and in all respects generally applicable. On the 
other hand, for fear of taking cold, vocalists hesitate to 
go out of doors unless the weather is what they consider 
absolutely perfect, and the consequence is that there is 
developed a general enfeeblement of the muscles of the 
body, with a slowness of circulation, engorgement of internal 262 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
organs exercising a directly injurious influence on the 
organ of voice, a tendency to corpulence, in itself a 
cause of diminished respiratory and vocal power, and an 
increased liability to take cold from abnormal coddling 
and seclusion within the house. 
This much having been admitted it remains to be said 
that whereas exercise of the singing voice could never 
injuriously affect the athlete, cricketer, runner, &c., in- 
dulgence to anything like excess or even to moderation 
on the part of a singer in athletic exercises may have a 
very direct deteriorating result on the voice: first, by 
undue training in diet, &c., necessary to athletic effective- 
ness ; secondly, by fatigue of the muscles of locomotion, 
which acts both in a direct and reflex manner on the 
special muscles of respiration and vocalisation. To put it 
plainly and shortly, no one could sing if “ out of breath ” 
with running, and what is true for a sudden spurt would 
be equally true if this extra effort of exercise were per- 
formed as a matter of daily habit. While, then, we enjoin, 
and most strongly urge, daily out-of-door walking or riding 
in moderation, we with equal earnestness would caution 
against anything like training or exercise to the extent 
of excellence or emulation in any muscular pursuit. 
6. What has been said with regard to exercise will 
with equal force apply to amusements. Bodily fatigue, 
shortened hours of rest, heated, ill-ventilated, or draughty 
atmospheres, as found in theatres, with the addition of dust 
of a more than usually irritating character, in the case of 
ball-rooms, are all likely to deteriorate from functional 
activity, ease, and purity of the singer or orator, and, hard 
as it may appear, must often be foregone by him who 
values eminence in his profession to an extent not neces- 
sary in the case of any other calling. THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
263 
Of sports, those in which continuous movement without 
the risk of arresting an over-heated body temperature by 
sudden cooling, are the most permissible. Swimming, 
skating, shooting, all to the extent of moderation, come 
under such a classification ; cricket, football, lawn tennis, 
and hunting have all of them a tendency to the danger 
indicated. We would give one word of caution regarding 
amusements of general application, but none the less 
necessary to our voice-using readers. It is that indulgence 
in amusements and sports of all kinds is carried, by 
Englishmen especially, to excess, so as to literally render 
pleasure toil. We have often enabled persons to enjoy the 
pleasures of sport and game to whom it had been for- 
bidden because deemed injurious to health, by the simple 
advice to practise moderation, as, for example, to shoot 
only till lunch time, to follow the hounds only in one run, 
and to play but one or two games of lawn tennis. The 
rationale of such advice is obvious. 
Lastly. There are certain habits indulged in by all 
which hardly come under any of the previous headings, 
but which are nevertheless of considerable importance in 
their bearing on the hygiene of the vocalist. The chief of 
these is that of smoking and the use of tobacco. We 
would preface our observations with repetition from our 
previous printed remarks often quoted by others. “It 
will be admitted that in no case can the health be positively 
improved by indulgence in the habit, although one hears 
much from ardent smokers of the soothing properties of 
tobacco. When it is considered, however, that Mario, 
who preserved his voice for a much longer period than 
most tenors, was hardly ever, except when actually singing, 
without a cigar in his mouth, it cannot be stated that 
smoking is necessarily injurious to the voice. But as rules 264 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
are made for average and not exceptional cases, we would 
not on such a precedent advise singers to take to tobacco 
with an expectation of thereby becoming a Mario, any 
more than we would counsel stout drinking as a certain 
method of producing a Malibran. Our advice generally 
is, that if smoking be accompanied by much expectoration 
it should be discontinued, as an over-stimulation of the 
salivary glands will lead to general dyspepsia and to local 
dryness. In all cases the singer must be guided by his 
own individual experience, and should practise great 
moderation in the habit; ” remembering that the effect of 
tobacco is two-fold, first, by the general effect of its active 
principle, nicotine, as a powerful depressant of the nervous 
centres, and, secondly, by its local effects on the mucous 
membrane, occasioning disorder of the secreting follicles, 
and of secretion. The use of cigarettes, often condemned 
as the worst form of smoking, is probably the least harm- 
ful if practised with proper precautions, which are very 
well defined in a recent letter to the Lancet (June 2, 1883) 
by Sir Henry Thompson here subjoined. 
“ Sir,—I think I might, if permitted, offer you a prac- 
tical hint of some value in connection with cigarette 
smoking, which I think is not altogether appreciated by 
the author of your notes on the subject. 
“ First, the cigarette, without a mouthpiece, is really 
never smoked more than half way through in the East, 
where cigarettes are very cheap. It is well understood 
there, as it is by all practised cigarette smokers, that every 
inhalation from a cigarette slightly deteriorates in quality 
from the first. A small deposit of the very offensive oil of 
tobacco is deposited in the finely cut leaf, which acts as a 
strainer, and intercepts the deposit as it passes. Very little THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
265 
of this arrives in the smoker’s mouth if he stops when half 
is consumed. I have seen many Oriental smokers who 
consume no more than a third. Turkish ladies, for ex- 
ample, as I have had personal opportunities of observing at 
Constantinople, will smoke fifty or upwards in a day, but, I 
need scarcely say, only in the manner I have described. 
“ Secondly, if a cigarette with a card mouthpiece is 
employed, the noxious matter may be intercepted by 
always introducing a light plug of cotton wool into the 
tube. If now the cigarette is nearly consumed, a con- 
siderable quantity of brown and very offensive matter will 
be found in the cotton wool, from the evil of which the 
smoker is thus preserved. 
“ Thirdly. Some years ago I designed a cigarette-holder 
or mouthpiece, which opened transversely in the middle, 
disclosing a small cavity, which is filled with cotton wool. 
It would surprise many people, perhaps, to find that the 
result of smoking six cigarettes only in this tube is that 
this plug is saturated with a brown fluid like treacle, of 
powerfully offensive odour, and disagreeable almost beyond 
belief. The wool then requires to be changed, and in this 
manner the evil of smoking is very greatly diminished. 
Several of these were constructed by a well-known tobac- 
conist close to your office in the Strand. 
“ Lastly. The maximum of pernicious influence which 
occurs through cigarette-smoking is attained by the practice 
of inhaling the smoke largely direct into the lungs, where 
it comes into immediate contact with the circulation, and 
the toxic effect is so strongly perceptible after three or 
four consecutive inhalations, and so felt by a sensitive 
person to the very tips of the fingers. I have no doubt 
that the effect would in most cases be notably recorded by 
the sphygmograph ” (an instrument for graphically re- 266 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
cording the waves of the pulse, and consequently the 
strength and rhythm of the heart’s action), “Such 
smoking is of course, or ought to be, exceptional. All 
the fragrance, with a little only of the toxic effect, is 
obtained by admission of the smoke into the mouth 
only, still more by passing it through the passages of 
the pharynx and nose ; but it is the pulmonary inhala- 
tion referred to, often associated with cigarette smoking, 
and rarely with the pipe, which constitutes the chief 
mischief of the cigarette. I may say, in passing, that 
that well-known Oriental method of smoking, practised 
by means of the narghileh, in which the smoke, although 
drawn through water, passes invariably through the lungs, 
explains the powerful effects which sometimes unpleasantly 
surprise novices in its use. 
“ Smoked, then, simply, and with cotton wool interposed, 
I do not hesitate to regard the cigarette as the least potent, 
and therefore the least injurious, form of tobacco smoking. 
Without this precaution it may be made, although not 
necessarily, the most ready means of conveying the 
active principle of tobacco, by means of smoke, into the 
system. 
“ I am, Sir, yours truly, 
“ H. Thompson.” 
Snuff-taking is a habit fast dying out, but any time 
liable to be revived; it is not only uncleanly, but it is 
unphysiological, and to be therefore condemned on two 
grounds: ist, the undue stimulation to the capillaries, 
and, andly, because the mechanical forcing of a powder 
through the nostrils, whose special purpose it is to filter 
the air from such particles, is senseless and consequently 
pernicious independently of the irritant and poisonous THE DAILY LIFE OF A VOICE-USER. 
267 
qualities of the ingredient. That there should be found 
individuals who not only indulge in this filthy habit, but 
who defend it by argument (?), is a fact more interesting as 
illustrating a psychological problem than worthy of refu- 
tation by words which would be wasted in the quarters 
where they would be appropriate. 268 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
THE AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
Consideration of this question must be prefaced by the 
remark that whereas there are but few alterations of health 
special to a voice-user, on the one hand a certain im- 
munity from some general diseases is experienced by the 
professional vocalist, while on the other, a certain colour— 
reflected as the direct effects of his professional vocation— 
is given to many maladies entirely general. 
Thus a singer or speaker who breathes through his 
nostrils with closed mouth, and who thoroughly inflates 
his chest, is less liable to certain lung diseases which attack 
those who sit stooping with contracted chest in the close 
atmosphere of an office or work-room, and the constant 
breathing of such an atmosphere may lead to an extinction 
of voice in a person who, living possibly under restric- 
tions as to conversation, does not use the vocal organ even 
to a normal extent. This loss of voice will depend on 
quite different causes, be of a different nature, and require 
an entirely different treatment from that which will assail a 
singer who is liable to loss of voice because of wrong 
use, over use, or a sensitiveness engendered by excessive 
training—in other words, from functional abuse. In the 
first case a weed or a common plant is killed by neglect 
and want of fresh air in an ill-ventilated and over- 
heated atmosphere ; in the second a plant is wrongly 
cultured or so over nurtured as to be unable to with- 
stand the influence of the ordinary external atmosphere. AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
269 
To take another example, a person of sedentary occupa- 
tion may suffer from indigestion because of want of 
exercise, an active man because of insufficient rest before 
moving ; a singer from nervous excitement incidental to 
his profession, or from both and either of the before- 
mentioned causes. Such an ailment will affect his work 
more directly and immediately than it would the office 
clerk, the agriculturist, or the journalist. So that in 
considering these points regard must be had both to 
cause and effect, and the medical practitioner occupying 
himself specially with diseases of the vocal organs will be 
frequently obliged to view general ailments and maladies 
when affecting the singer, from a special—though by no 
means necessarily from a local point—of view. 
In the chapter comprising directions as to the daily life of 
a voice-user attention has been given to those rules of living 
specially calculated to avert these general minor diseases, 
but it would be manifestly impossible to give consideration 
to them one and all in a treatise like the present unless we 
attempted a systematic work on domestic medicine, or a 
popular discussion of the whole range of throat diseases; 
and execution of either plan is very far from our purpose. 
Let the speaker or singer, however, divest from his mind 
the idea that derangement of his voice and disease of his 
vocal organ is due to special organic defect incidental to 
his calling, however special may be its result. The throat 
being actively engaged primarily in the performance from 
the first to the latest moment of life of two vital functions, 
those of respiration and of nutrition, and another hardly 
less vital, that of ordinary vocalisation in speech, has been 
so constructed by an all-wise nature that idiopathic or 
self-arising organic disease is rare. Where loss of voice 
occurs the vocal ligaments, which are the essential parts VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
270 
of the organ for production of vocal sound, are very 
seldom affected even in a common cold, and their intimate 
structure and continuity hardly ever impaired or destroyed 
except as the result of a specific disease, consumption, 
cancer, &c., and the cause of functional weakness or 
loss of voice will in the majority of cases be found to 
depend on disorders of digestion, fault of production, or 
imprudence in functional exercise, which have induced 
either a congestion of blood supply or an impairment of 
muscular power. 
Should this statement lead to the retort, that if true, we 
prove the laryngoscope to be of little value in the treatment 
of throat diseases, we would reply that imputation of 
special disease in the larynx is, for the most part, laid by 
those ignorant of laryngoscopic teachings, or by those 
who use it in a narrow spirit. We can conceive nothing 
more consoling to a singer suffering from loss of voice, 
than to be assured by one competent to explore the 
larynx, that his vocal organ is free from disease, and that 
by correction of some fault in his general health or his 
professional exercise his voice will be restored. It is only 
by such a competent examination that a safe and definite 
opinion can be given, and it may be added, that in those 
rare cases in which there is intrinsic disease of the larynx, 
it is generally hopeless to expect complete restoration 
of vocal purity. The practitioner is fortunate if he can, 
in such an occurrence, succeed in saving life, restoring 
general physical health, and a useful speaking voice for 
conversational intercourse. It is only by acknowledgment 
and recognition of the intimate and mutual relations of 
nutrition, digestion, circulation, and respiration, and of the 
external effects of temperature and clothing, that a broad 
view of throat ailments can be obtained, an accurate AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
271 
opinion given as to their cause, or a safe way be pointed 
for their cure. 
Let us now consider briefly some of the more common 
local ailments, which may for convenience be divided into 
those affecting alimentation, and those concerned with 
breathing and voice. The first has to do with the food 
passage—pharynx and gullet; the second, vocal and 
respiratory, with the nasal canals, the larynx and wind- 
pipe. To a certain extent there is a ground common to 
both these passages, namely, at the back of the throat— 
the fauces ; and yet for general purposes it may be firmly 
asserted that disease in this region almost always implies 
disorder of the digestive, rather than of the respiratory, or 
of the essentially vocal, apparatus. 
Prefatory to any more detailed analysis of throat 
ailments, a few words may be said on the meaning of what 
is generally assigned as first cause of all voice defects, 
namely, “ catching cold.” This term really implies not 
only a lowering of body temperature by cold draughts, 
but also very frequently the reaction from an unduly 
elevated body heat not necessarily due to lowered tempera- 
ture or undue moisture of inhaled air or body surroundings, 
but rather to a fever engendered by disturbances in some 
portion of the digestive apparatus. Many “colds” are 
taken after a surfeit or an indiscretion in diet; but doubt- 
less many of the attacks on singers are due to neglect of 
outdoor exercise, and the unwise habit of living in close, 
ill-ventilated rooms for fear of taking cold. As a con- 
sequence, the blood is deficient in oxygen, the muscles 
become flabby, all the tissues are unduly loaded with fat, 
and the individual resembles both in his habits and in his 
nutrition, the far-famed Strasburg goose, which furnishes 
the luxurious “pdtS de foie gras.” 272 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
The ordinary sore throat or relaxed throat hardly 
requires special description. It is felt by the sufferer as 
occasioning inconvenience rather than pain. There is 
experienced sometimes no more than a sensation of 
tickling at the back of the throat, a difficulty in articula- 
tion, or an impediment in swallowing, and then only to 
an extent of rendering performance of function irksome, 
or in other words, of making the sufferer “ conscious that 
he has a throat.” The term, nevertheless, embraces a 
very large field of throat disturbance, and may range in 
intensity from slight discomfort to serious and even vital 
mischief. It may be caused by changes of weather and 
temperature, imprudence in diet and disorder of digestion, 
the inhalation of noxious insanitary emanations, or ex- 
posure to contagion of various diseases, as measles, scarlet 
fever, small-pox, &c. Special characters may thus be 
given to a “ sore throat,” which will each in turn require 
separate treatment, but it may be safe to assume that in 
one and all there is a disorder of assimilation and of circu- 
lation ; so that a day or two’s fasting, or low diet with con- 
finement to the house, and without any medical treatment 
beyond the taking of a simple purge, will in the majority of 
cases effect a cure. Many such cases will be cured by a 
Turkish bath, which has doubtless an influence on the 
system, not only general and eliminative through trans- 
piration by the skin, but locally by the action of hot dry 
air on the mucous membrane, disordered through inhala- 
tion of cold damp atmospheres; for that is the kind of 
weather most productive of sore throats. The warm bath, 
elsewhere described (page 245), will in many instances 
have as good an effect on the general circulation as the 
Turkish bath, and is more easy of general adoption; 
locally, the wrapping of a piece of flannel or of a stocking AILMENTS OF THE VOICE- USER. 
273 
around the throat ah night will be sufficient; in cases 
rather more severe the patient may suck ice, or, better 
still, lave his throat internally with cold water, as described 
at page 247, for half an hour at a time, or take an appro- 
priate lozenge, such as the saline astringent made specially 
for us and sold by Roberts & Co. Or he may take the 
effervescing astringent of Cooper, or use an astringent 
gargle, though, as before said, the act of gargling is an 
inefficient remedy and not infrequently painful. If with 
these measures relief is not obtained, medical advice should 
be sought. When added to the condition described there 
is really pain, it will generally be found on examination 
of the throat, that in addition to the more or less increase 
of redness and laxity of the parts seen in ordinary sore 
throat, there is swelling of the uvula, pillars of the fauces 
or tonsils. Such a condition almost always implies the 
presence of a specific poison, generally the rheumatic. 
When there is exudation of membrane, it is an indication 
that the cause is insanitary, and though the presence of 
such a condition does not by any means imply certainty 
of a diphtheritic infection, it should, when detected, induce 
the patient to at once seek medical advice. 
This slight common sore throat may assume a graver 
type, and have all the characters of an inflammation, acute 
or chronic. The back of the throat behind the soft palate 
is then principally affected, and this disease is known as 
pharyngitis, i.e. inflammation of the pharynx. Although 
we speak of this as a separate affection, it is really very 
seldom that in either its acute or chronic form inflamma- 
tion is confined to the pharynx: on the other hand 
the fauces, tonsils, or uvula may be at fault without 
attacking the back of the throat. In its acute form 
it may be the result of a cold which has affected the 274 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
patient locally, but has also disturbed the digestion, &c. 
-In its chronic form the back of the throat is often seen 
to be granular, that is, with numerous red elevations and 
enlarged vessels. When still more advanced, the little 
glands in the mucous membrane, instead of being enlarged 
and granular, will be seen to have become atrophied, and 
the surface will be smooth and glazed. Accompanying 
these changes in the appearance of the glandules there will 
be experienced alterations in the character and quantity of 
the secretion, and the patient will complain of either too 
much mucus or of excessive dryness in the throat, each 
representing different stages of the same disorder. The 
disease is always associated with disorder of general health, 
which may be either cause or result. However looked at, 
there is no doubt that chronic granular inflammation of 
the pharynx (so-called clergyman’s sore throat) is the com- 
monest disorder of voice-users ; and in our experience it 
is always accompanied—we would even say caused—by 
faulty voice production in the larynx, i.e. by forcing the 
registers beyond their natural limits, which has led to 
consequent straining, forcing, and congestion in the upper 
or resonant portion. The symptoms are those of altered 
secretion just described, irritation, with prickings and 
functional fatigue; later we have impaired quality and 
actual loss of notes; if unchecked, there arrives a period of 
complete suppression of, at first, singing, and then even of 
the speaking voice, due either to want of control over the 
voluntary muscles of articulation or to loss of power in the 
automatic laryngeal muscles: sometimes to both causes 
combined. Treatment of this condition is of two kinds, 
each equally important—first, medical, subdivided into 
general and local; and secondly, educational. Internal 
medicines and appropriate diet are useless to cure without AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
275 
local measures for destruction of the granulations, which 
in turn are only half cured or subject to relapse, unless 
the fault of voice production is afterwards corrected. It 
is essentially an ailment in which self-measures or half- 
measures do harm, principally because they delay the cure, 
and delay in cure means always a progress of the malady. 
A very common advice given, even by doctors, to those 
suffering from “ loss of voice,” is “ rest of the organ with 
change of air.” Of course so long as the voice is not used 
the patient does not experience impediment to functional 
use ; and change of air with rest are always more agree- 
able remedies than direct treatment by pharmaceutical or 
surgical measures. Nevertheless, we have over and over 
again witnessed cases in which much money has been spent 
in seeking change of scene and air, and much time lost by 
delay in treatment, simply because the patient has preferred 
to take imperfect advice or to go his own way, rather than 
in the first instance to have been assured of the cause, and 
so have been placed on the proper road to recovery. 
As a result of more or less frequent and repeated attacks 
of relaxed throat, the soft palate may lose its power of 
contraction—its tonicity as doctors say—and this may 
lead to an elo7igated and relaxed uvula. This condition 
will have a very serious effect on the singer’s health; first, 
by direct irritation of his larynx, leading to troublesome 
cough or desire to get rid of the sensation of a foreign 
irritable body; secondly, to consequent fatigue of the 
vocal organ, leading to loss of high notes and inability to 
sustain prolonged functional effort; and, thirdly, to im- 
pairment of digestion caused by the constant desire to 
swallow, and the consequent stimulation to secretion of 
mucous and digestive fluids, which in time leads to a 
catarrh. This term “ catarrh ”is very generally, but quite 276 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
wrongly, limited to conditions caused by “cold.” Although, 
however, catching cold is perhaps the most frequent cause 
of catarrh, the term rightly means any alteration of the 
character of the secreting surface of any mucous mem- 
brane, and may in our present consideration imply either 
an excessive or diminished flow, or an entire arrest of the 
normal secretion of the membranes of the throat, fauces, 
nostrils, pharynx, and larynx, either together or separate, 
with an almost innumerable train of symptoms affecting 
the functions of vocalisation,- of hearing, and of digestion, 
as well as the general health of the sufferer. 
Lest we might be accused of exaggerating the evils of a 
relaxed uvula we append the graphic description of the 
late Dr. Mandl, to whose work we have so often elsewhere 
alluded. “In the chronic state the uvula remains elon- 
gated. This state, which is also known under the form of 
Tall of the uvula,’ is capable of exercising injurious effects 
on the voice. The timbre loses both in brilliancy and 
purity. The uvula, which hangs on the base of the 
tongue, provokes a tickling which is repeated every second 
and forces the sufferer to heave and cough. At other 
times the cough becomes convulsive and paroxysmal, and 
is accompanied by attacks of suffocation ; sometimes it 
occasions nausea, even to the length of vomiting—this 
occurring especially in the early morning and after a meal; 
even sleep is disturbed by nightmare. 
“ The irritation of the back of the tongue frequently 
extends to the larynx, the secretion of which becomes 
thereby augmented. There is then expectoration of little 
tenacious grey masses which by their presence on the vocal 
cords produce the symptom known under the name of 
‘ chat ’ (there is no good English synonym) in the 
voice.” (Op. cit. pp. 169, 170.) AILMENTS OF THE VOICE- USER. 
277 
For the cure of this condition it is necessary for both 
patient and doctor to recollect that a relaxed uvula, while 
influencing the genera] system, may likewise in turn be 
affected for better or worse by all causes which will affect 
the general health ; and that a cure is not to be expected 
by purely local or purely general treatment. It is advis- 
able, therefore, for the sufferer to examine his own way of 
living, and endeavour to discover what it is in his diet or 
his habits that appears to act as an exciting cause of this 
relaxation, and only to seek for relief by local measures 
after such an investigation and subsequent action. We 
nevertheless desire to speak with no uncertain voice as to 
the importance of reduction by surgical means in the 
length of a relaxed uvula so soon as it is recognised as a 
source of health impairment and impediment to produc- 
tion of pure and sustained vocal tones, for there cannot be 
a doubt in our minds that the success of such a measure 
is in direct proportion to the promptitude with which it 
is adopted after its necessity is recognised. If properly 
performed it can do no harm—its delay can lead to no 
end, but to confirm the symptoms and render them more 
obstinate of eradication. And let it be understood that 
“ snipping ” the uvula does not mean cutting away any 
muscular tissue or a part essential to any throat function, 
but simply the removal of an overgrowth or excrescence. 
As we have had occasion to say elsewhere in treatises 
more directly professional, it may be safely asserted that 
while there is no throat ailment, and indeed few other 
diseases of so benign a character as a relaxed uvula that 
give rise to so many distressing and even serious symptoms, 
there is probably no surgical operation so slight as the one 
indicated for its cure, that has so marked and direct a 
beneficent effect. It is unfortunate, as Mandl says, “ that 278 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
this operation should encounter very ill-founded opposition 
on the part of artists, since there can be no doubt of its 
happy effect on the voice due to removal of a permanent 
cause of irritation in those cases in which it is really in- 
dicated.” (Op. cit., p. 185.) 
Allied to the relaxed uvula, both in its injurious effects 
on the voice and on the constitution, and also unhappily, 
in opposition to radical cure, is the condition known as 
enlargement of the tonsils. Of the primary value or use 
of these glands there is considerable doubt, but it is certain 
that at a very early age, and in the great majority of 
instances, they exist only to become diseased, so much so 
that a very eminent physician has stated that were he to 
play the part of a Frankenstein and endeavour to create 
a man, he would omit the tonsils. It is generally asserted 
that presence of enlarged tonsils implies a scrofulous dis- 
position, but this is by no means universally true. In many 
instances there is no such delicacy, and their existence 
is quite as often an indication of a gouty or rheumatic 
constitutional state as of a strumous or scrofulous. 
The tonsils are liable to acute attacks of inflammation 
of varying severity, and leading sometimes to gatherings 
of purulent matter, constituting the condition known as 
quinsy. Such attacks may occur as a recandescence—a 
fresh lighting up—of chronic inflammation and enlargement, 
or to tonsils, not abnormal in size in the intervals of acute 
attacks. The symptoms are unmistakable and the distress 
is extreme. It is, of course, necessary to seek personal 
medical advice on occurrence of an attack; it may, how- 
ever, be stated that there is always an arrest of all normal 
secretions preceding an attack, and that a person subject 
to quinsy must be very careful to pay attention to the 
healthy action of bowels, kidneys, and skin by saline AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
279 
aperients, to observe an antacid diet, and to take regularly, 
frequent Turkish or other vapour or hot baths. In some 
cases the tonsils may be the subject of considerable disease 
of the follicles or crypts secreting the mucus, which will 
give rise to constant irritation, offensive breath, and dis- 
order of digestion, though not necessarily to either actual 
vocal functional disability or to acute relapses of inflamma- 
tion and enlargement. Cases doubtless arise in which the 
tonsils are to a certain extent enlarged, but yet give rise to 
no inconvenience; it is, however, hardly possible that the 
resonant portion of the vocal apparatus can be in perfect 
order when these glands are of at all abnormal dimensions. 
The most prominent ill-effects of diseased tonsils in 
the career of the voice-user are : 
1. On the voice, which becomes more or less husky, tone- 
less, and easily fatigued. Sometimes it is thick and gut- 
tural, and power of modulation is always rendered difficult. 
2. Articulation is always impaired, the sufferer speaking 
as with a full mouth, and having such a difficulty in the 
pronunciation of certain consonants, that this condition 
alone may often be found sufficient to account for stutter- 
ing or other speech defect. 
3. But, above all, respiration can never be carried on 
healthily, since whenever the tonsils are diseased all 
inspired air passes over an unhealthy surface. Where 
enlargement is considerable, the lungs are never fully 
aerated, the chest walls become narrowed, and the breast- 
bone prominent, the patient is torpid and lethargic, and 
is liable to attacks of pulmonary congestion. Further 
evidence of obstructed respiration through the nostrils is 
afforded by loud snoring, not only in sleep, but in a hardly 
less offensive form by audible open-mouth breathing when 
awake. In addition to the foregoing, the senses of VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
hearing, of smell, and of taste, are all more or less 
impaired; there is a frequent desire to clear the throat of 
the impediment, and there is a very considerable disorder 
of digestion and assimilation of food. This account, by 
no means overdrawn or extended, of the discomforts due 
to enlargement or disease of the tonsils, is given somewhat 
in detail solely that voice teachers and voice users may 
learn what a variety and number of functions may be 
impaired if the cause is not promptly attacked. Unfor- 
tunately there is a prejudice, very ill-founded and un- 
supported by any authority, against the radical cure by 
removal of enlarged tonsils by the guillotine, but, in fact, 
it is the least painful (it might be said that it is almost 
painless), quickest, safest, and in every respect the most 
effectual. There is no argument whatever of any scientific 
value to be advanced against the measure, and there is the 
very direct evidence in its favour of many of our great 
singers. Louisa Pyne, Patti, Lucca, and others have 
undergone the operation, not only without injury, but with 
actual benefits. Our observations are in entire concord 
with those of Mandl,“ that while all applications of caustic, 
so frequently employed, are harmful rather than service- 
able, excision of enlarged tonsils is the most sure means of 
cure, and is followed by no inconvenience to the voice, 
but is, on the contrary, always beneficial to it. One need 
not, therefore,, give heed to the opposition to this operation 
which comes from those whose competence to give an 
opinion on the question is, to say the least of it, very 
doubtful.” (Op. cit., p. 183.) 
In many cases it is not so much the size of the tonsil 
that is the cause of vocal defect as extension of its inflam- 
mation and thickening to neighbouring tissues, which 
causes faults in the muscular action of the pharynx, leading AILMENTS OF THE VOICE- USER. 
281 
to defects in brilliancy, timbre, &c., so that on all accounts 
the practitioner is justified in urging treatment and the 
sufferer encouraged to submit to it. 
In conclusion we would repeat an oft-quoted statement, 
made many years ago by Dr. Bennati, who was both a good 
physician and a fine vocalist, that removal of the tonsils 
is often followed by an actual gain in upward range of 
voice. This observation we have often verified as a 
result of operations not only on the tonsils but also on 
the uvula, and its truth has received many independent 
confirmations. 
We have thus alluded at sufficient length to some of 
the more prominent of the throat troubles visible to the 
eye of any person looking at the back of the mouth in an 
ordinary manner, and we have insisted that they are the 
result, not of constitutional disorders only, but frequently 
of faulty teaching or exercise. They are amongst the 
most easily removable of physical defects, but we desire to 
treat very briefly of actual laryngeal troubles in the singer, 
because in the first place they are rare, and in the second 
because no good service can be done by suggesting to 
the voice-user the possible existence of serious maladies 
which a laryngoscopic examination would at once dispel. 
In ordinary cases of loss of voice due to climate or other 
temperature causes, it is exceedingly rare that the vocal 
cords are seen to be inflamed. There is usually in such 
a case a dry catarrh of the parts below the larynx—that 
is, of the lining membrane of the wind-pipe and larger 
bronchial tubes—or of the parts above—that is, in fauces 
and pharynx. Even when the general mucous membrane 
of the larynx is congested or inflamed, the vocal ligaments 
escape and are seen in the mirror to be quite normal. 
This statement must be qualified only so far as to say that 282 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
the vocal ligaments in professional users of the voice are 
not infrequently somewhat congested at their posterior part 
quite irrespective of any disease, and simply as the result 
of continuous increased circulation to the part. When a 
singer is attacked with sudden suppression or loss of voice 
consciously felt as result of cold, with constitutional symp- 
toms indicating disturbance of temperature and secretion ; 
but unaccompanied by sensation of soreness or relaxation 
of the throat, and without symptoms of head cold, he will 
do well to take first an aperient and then a Turkish or 
vapour bath, so as to set forward the process of elimina- 
tion and bring about reaction of circulation. He should 
take simple food and remain in the house. In this last 
circumstance he may find benefit from steam inhalation, 
but this form of remedy, although commonly-employed and 
prescribed by high authorities, is not without danger if the 
patient is still exposing himself to the external atmosphere. 
It is, however, a most valuable measure when the patient is 
confined to the house, and the steam, either plain or 
medicated, may then be inhaled from one of the many 
apparatus sold, or the whole room may be impregnated with 
the warm and moist vapour from a bronchitis kettle. 
A much better form of inhalation in mild cases is that 
of the vapour of chloride of ammonium as generated in the 
apparatus known by the name of Burroughs or of Felton. 
This remedy, which is very serviceable in effecting resolu- 
tion of congestion and in giving relief to catarrh, does 
not make the membrane more, but rather less sensitive 
to the changes of open-air temperature. It is, in any 
case, a perfectly innocuous process, and may therefore be 
safely recommended. The vapour in either case may be 
made agreeably stimulating by addition of essential oils 
(of which that of the Pinus Sylvestris is perhaps the most AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
283 
generally useful), so prepared as to be held in suspension 
in the water. It is difficult to prescribe internal remedies 
adapted with safety to all purposes, but there can be no 
harm in the use of mild expectorants as squills and 
ipecacuanha in the form of mixtures, lozenges, or pills. It 
will be always as well that the singer should be assured by a 
medical examination with the laryngoscope that his larnyx 
is free from inflammation, so as to relieve his mind and 
the more certainly to direct his recovery; but there is no 
reason why any one subject to these slight attacks, as many 
are, of loss of voice, should not be properly instructed to 
treat themselves, for it is above all important that treat- 
ment should be adapted at the outset. 
It is often only the patient himself who, searching 
carefully into reasons, can discover what it is in his daily 
life or habits that brings about these attacks, and so learn 
how to avoid them. Hints have been given on this 
head in the chapter entitled “The Daily Life of the Voice- 
User.” 
We have seen some prescriptions of small doses of 
laudanum for the treatment of failures of voice, and we 
feel bound to say a word against their adoption unless in 
really exceptional circumstances; for though doubtless 
they give relief, they also generate a desire for a stimulant 
far more dangerous and insidious than alcohol; and the 
more so as we have known several cases in which singers 
have continued for many weeks or months the practice 
commenced under medical advice, of what is in point of 
fact opium eating, quite unconscious of the nature or 
danger thereof. 
We make no apology for not following the practice of 
many authors who have of late, in attempted popular 
treatises on the throat and voice, written of croup, diph- 284 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
theria, consumption in lungs and throat, cleft palate, hare- 
lip, &c.—subjects in our estimation on which it is not 
only unnecessary, but undesirable and harmful to dilate to 
the public. But there is one other class of ailments 
affecting the singer on which some few words may be 
acceptable—we refer to those affecting the nostrils. 
Of these the common head cold is both the most frequent 
and the most annoying. It almost beggars description, for 
no list of its symptoms could be given that would be 
considered complete by the sufferer, and we should be 
probably thought unsympathetic if we expressed our view 
that they are all rather annoying than serious; nor would 
such a statement be by any means true, for a neglected 
cold or a series of colds may lead to a condition giving 
rise to vocal defects among the most difficult of cure. 
Constant attacks of cold in the head, coryza as it is called, 
with its prominent symptoms of increased flow of nasal 
secretion, may lead to chronic catarrhal changes impairing 
greatly the resonant quality of the voice. If unchecked 
this catarrh may proceed to inspissation and retention of 
the secretion, giving rise to offensive breath, and to greatly 
disordered digestion and health ; or it may even go the 
length of superficial ulcerations of the coverings of the 
nostrils. Although, therefore, it is often the fashion to 
ridicule treatment of a cold in the head, it is very desirable 
that the singer and voice-user should not neglect first to 
check a head cold at the outset, and secondly to do all in 
his power to arrest the tendency. 
There is a prevalent idea that a common head cold is 
incurable; that is by no means true, but it is equally a 
fact that there is probably no remedy of universal applica- 
tion for the sudden arrest of colds. Careful attention to 
the various methods of elimination already dwelt on will AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
285 
diminish the tendency, but when an acute attack occurs 
individual experience can alone determine the appropriate 
remedy. One person will be cured by taking a Turkish 
bath, which acts on the skin, another by a small dose of 
opium or belladonna, a third by camphor, a fourth by 
inhalation through the nostrils of anti-catarrhal smelling- 
salts (a capital remedy when there is constant sneezing) ; 
some are cured by taking no fluids for as long as possible, 
a treatment introduced by Dr. C. J. B. Williams. 
A large proportion of persons unfortunately resist all 
attempts to arrest a head cold in the acute stage often 
because the treatment is not commenced sufficiently early. 
For the cure of a chronic cold and the eradication or 
diminution of the tendency to take cold, much may be 
done by hygienic measures, and by “cures” at Aix-les- 
Bains, Mont Dore, Cauterets, Salzungen in Thuringen, and 
other foreign mineral water establishments. 
It may generally be said that while dry air is desirable, 
dust is to be avoided. Also, without desiring to advocate 
pampering and coddling of a system subject to take cold 
easily, we earnestly advocate those liable thereto, especially 
if singers, to guard against the effects of night air, and 
changes of temperature incidental from exits from 
theatres, concert-rooms, and the like, by means of covering 
the mouth and nostrils, and by sufficient extra covering. 
A small amount of Vaseline, introduced into the nostrils 
by means of a camel’s hair brush, acts admirably as a pro- 
tective of a sensitive nasal mucous membrane against the 
injurious effects of irritating particles. 
One last ailment peculiar to a singer or speaker is that 
of nervousness, as exercising a most painful effect on his 
career, and on this head we have to repeat what we have 
said often times before, that its curability depends largely 286 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
on the qualifications of the sufferer for the task he is 
attempting. 
It is seldom that the competent artist is afflicted with 
nervousness which does not wear off as he warms to his 
work. On the other hand, the audacity of ignorance is 
generally dispelled on appearance before a public audience. 
We once knew of a sailor who had risen to the rank of 
admiral who was always sea-sick at commencement of a 
voyage. Similarly we have knowledge of a few rare cases 
of constitutional nervousness in really excellent artists. 
Such individuals are unfortunately handicapped, and have 
evidently mistaken their profession so far as its pursuance 
with comfort is concerned. If the encouragement of suc- 
cess fail, we may seek for an actual remedy, and we may 
find it necessary to allow a glass of Mariani wine to be 
taken just before singing. But this or any other kind of 
stimulant is permissible only under medical advice or 
quite exceptionally, since, as has been previously explained, 
all stimulants are apt to be followed by reactionary de- 
pression. Occasionally teacher and doctor must be pre- 
pared to advise abandonment of a profession for which the 
subject is from such a cause obviously unfitted. 
In concluding this chapter we venture to express a hope 
that our readers will not be disappointed because we have 
not given any very definite prescriptions for even the 
commoner of the voice-user’s ailments. It is with intention 
that we have abstained from so doing, and that we have 
rather endeavoured to direct attention to the disorders of 
general health or fault of functional exercise, which is 
probably at the root of most cases of vocal disability; and 
the moral of such advice should clearly be to discourage 
indulgence in patent and proprietary voice lozenges and 
other remedies which, when not harmful or negative in their AILMENTS OF THE VOICE-USER. 
287 
effects, are only serviceable to allay symptoms. With a 
view, however, of meeting the wants of our readers, we have 
given sanction to the advertisement of a few remedies of 
general use for most of the conditions indicated in the 
text. We particularly, however, repeat one caution, that 
such remedies are never to be employed as substitutes for 
medical advice, but only as aids to treatment after cause of 
ailment, has been discovered. 288 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
ON DEFECTS OF SPEECH, STAMMERING, AND 
STUTTERING. 
Any book which claimed to be a complete manual of the 
theory and practice of the human voice would be rightly 
judged to have very imperfectly fulfilled its functions were 
not some attention given to the subject that heads this 
chapter, and if on only those grounds we should feel it 
incumbent on ourselves to offer a few remarks. 
The question is one which has always received a con- 
siderable share of attention, unhappily not always of the 
most worthy kind, nor always dictated by the highest 
motives. The victims of defects of speech, especially those 
of stuttering and stammering, are almost always of a shy, 
reserved disposition, whose failing has but seldom received 
sympathy, and has more often been treated with absolute 
ridicule. As a consequence they have been an easy prey 
to the charlatan and to practitioners of specific secret 
methods, which, like many other secrets, have been found 
worthless when revealed. 
In these last few years this important social infirmity has 
been treated from a new standpoint, and much praise is 
due to Mr. Edgar S. Werner, of Albany, N.Y., who at 
the commencement of the year 1879 published his first 
number of The Voice, a monthly periodical, which, 
although intended to consider all “ the various phases of 
vocal sound,” was especially established as “ a tongue to 
the thousands who are immeasurably deprived of one DEFECTS OF SPEECH. 
289 
of the noblest faculties given to man.” The editor, him- 
self a stutterer in boyhood, began and, it may be added, 
has continued his work with enthusiasm. He has published 
translations in his journal of some important German 
treatises, notably of Klencke and of Gunther, and has 
collated quite a number of separate valuable articles. While 
all systems as far as known are given, secret methods are in 
this journal opposed, and courageous exposure has been 
made of all those who practise swindling arts. By a 
“ happy thought ” speech sufferers have been invited to 
describe their own cases and difficulties, and to give their 
own experiences. Though naturally these communica- 
tions from non-professional contributors have not been of 
by any means equal merit, and to the scientific pharisee 
might be thought unworthy of attention on account of 
defect in technical accuracy, the flood of light that has 
been let in on the question by means of this scheme 
cannot be exaggerated, and no words in praise of the 
undertaking can in our opinion be too flattering as ex- 
pressive of high approval and congratulation. 
That there is need of sound and accurate information as 
to the causes and means of cure of defects of utterance 
may be gathered from the fact that Hunt—one of the first 
writers of a scientific and systematic treatise on stammering 
—reckoned in 1856 that the proportion of cases of stam- 
mering and stuttering to the population of Great Britain 
was 3 per 1000. Zug, in the first number of The Voice, 
from statistics of the last official census in 1870 
that half per cent.—that is, 5 per 1000—of the population of 
the United States suffer from the severer forms of defective 
articulation. In other words, taking the population of the 
United States to be 40,000,000 there are 200,000 stutterers, 
a number almost three times as great as that of the blind, 290 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
deaf and dumb, and insane, which in that return numbered 
altogether but 73,957. 
We ourselves do not expect to add anything very new 
as to causation, far less to advocate any original and 
infallible method of cure, but from our two-fold aspect of 
doctor and trainer to review what has been done by others 
and to give our opinion as the result of experience on 
the correctness of the views of various so-called authorities, 
and as a consequence to indicate what is in our mind the 
right point of view as to cause, and that of direction in 
treatment. 
Acting on the same principle that has guided us through- 
out this manual, we think it useless to detail, simply for 
the sake of extending our pages, or as anecdotal curiosities, 
all the many ideas and methods which have from time to 
time been promulgated with regard to the subject of our 
present consideration. Indeed we expressly avoid doing so 
because such a plan only confuses the reader, and our aim 
is not to further confound a subject already full of mis- 
apprehension, but to clear it of all needless difficulties, and 
so render it more intelligible. 
It is hardly within our province to discuss elementary 
questions as to the character of speech, and of its division 
into vowels and consonants, and it is sufficient here to 
remind our readers that while the vowels are formed by 
sounds which, coming primarily from the larynx, are 
modified by variations in the size of the mouth cavity and 
of its opening, consonants depend on interruption of the 
currents of air in the mouth or passages above the larynx. 
They can, in fact, only be made effective by junction with 
a vowel. Thus kis k and a, ris a and r, bis b and e, 71 is 
e and 72, &c. Vowels have a varying musical pitch, but can 
be sounded mutely, that is, without an appreciable voice- DEFECTS OF SPEECH. 
291 
sound or in a whisper, in diminished but still in varying 
musical quality; while consonants are characterised by a 
considerable difference in the time that may be occupied 
in their prolongation of delivery ; thus some, b, p, and d, 
must be uttered quickly, and are called explosive; others, 
as m, n, /, and r, can be prolonged almost indefinitely. 
The former are mute, without vowel combination; the 
latter have a certain musical value in accordance with their 
inherent vowel quality. In the first case the vowel sound 
follows the consonant; in the second it precedes it. There 
are further divisions in the character of consonants accord- 
ing to the point of interruption, as labial, p, when the 
point is at the lips involving pressure; dental, t, produced 
by presence of the tip of the tongue against the teeth; and 
guttural as k, in which the back of the tongue is most 
actively employed. Still, again, some consonants derive 
their character from a variation in their resonance. 
Lastly, there are the aspirates, of which h is the principal, 
and they are produced by an out-breathing, formed in the 
larynx which allows some air to escape, prior to actual 
vocalisation. 
It has now been so satisfactorily demonstrated by various 
physiologists and philologists, Kemplen, Willis, Helmholtz, 
Ellis, Melville Bell, and others, that each letter and each 
combination of letters has a definite mode of origin and a 
definite mode of enunciation, that it has come to pass that 
persons born deaf, who have never heard, and never can 
hear sound, are capable of being taught the gift of speech, 
and of communicating their ideas in articulate, though 
naturally in unmodulated and monotonous, voice. This 
provided always—and it is very exceptionally otherwise— 
that the vocal organs are perfectly developed. More 
wonderful than this, the eye has been educated to take the VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
place of the ear, and the deaf person literally reads by 
visual observation the words as formed at the lips by 
the person with whom he interchanges conversation. 
This fact that speech can be correctly taught to those 
born without the special sense associated by nature with it, 
has been a great encouragement to the speech sufferer, and 
has led more than anything to correct training of the 
organ and of the nervous influences of its direction. It 
has also been very instrumental in drawing away attention 
from, and belief in, mechanical and empirical remedies. 
Lastly, it has been of great use in gaining consideration 
from a new point of view of the importance of correct 
articulation for the more perfect conveyance of all speech 
and song even to those not afflicted with deafness. 
The credit of this great discovery of making the dumb 
to speak, and the deaf to hear with the eye, must be given 
to Samuel Heinicke, of Germany, where this method of 
education has arrived at great perfection. This country is 
greatly indebted to Mr. Van Praagh, by whom the system 
was first introduced into England, and who was the first 
principal of the first school for the oral instruction of the 
deaf and dumb. 
There are very many defects of speech to which it is 
quite impossible to more than allude here, such as over- 
hurry in delivery to the destruction of sense, the clipping 
of words, the omission of vowels, and the habit of making 
all double vowels to sound as diphthongs. These and 
many others are matters of individual or provincial faults 
of education or pronunciation, or they may arise from 
habits of affectation; or, again, may be the result of mis- 
conception of the laws which convey sound. Each and all 
require separate instruction for their cure when detected 
by the accurate ear of the voice-trainer. It is not too STAMMERING AND STUTTERING. 
293 
much to say that there is never a pupil who comes to a 
master who has not one or other such fault. But too 
often unfortunately it is never eradicated, if, indeed, it is 
ever detected. 
There are many other defects of speech which are due 
to defective taste. The singer or speaker does not ap- 
preciate in his mind the special colour to be given to his 
voice, the difference between the delivery of a love passage 
or of an invective. Such faults may be explained by the 
physiologist as due to the want of a certain mental quality 
in the subject of observation, but are only to be cured by 
the trainer: where glaringly obvious and obstinate the 
pupil will require to be told plainly that however hard he 
may work at the mere mechanical portion of his art, he 
lacks a quality which it is as impossible for the singing or 
elocutionary professor to supply, as it would be to instil 
the gift of appreciation of the finer subtleties of colour 
and of light and shade to the art student not naturally 
endowed therewith. 
Let us now proceed to consideration of the two most 
serious of speech defects, stammering and stuttering. 
There is much confusion of ideas as to these terms. By 
many they are thought to be interchangeable and to mean 
one and the same thing. In, point of fact they define two 
separate and distinct impediments—shortly : 
Stammering 
<y 
Stuttering. 
may be said to imply fault 
of articulation of vocalised 
sound. 
Fault of co-ordination be- 
tween articulation and vocal- 
isation. 
Thus, a stammerer can vocalise a sound in his 
larynx, but is unable so to regulate his tongue, palate, 294 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
and lip-opening as to form that sound into a dis- 
tinct vowel, and the hearer cannot consequently dis- 
tinguish whether the vocal sound which is uttered, and 
may be indefinitely repeated, is meant for ah, ai, ee, oh, 
or 00. 
A stutterer, on the other hand, places his articulating 
organs in the right position for enunciation of some 
particular consonant, but is unable to combine with it the 
vocal sound giving it its vowel character, so that, as in 
the case of the consonant b for example, the hearer cannot 
distinguish whether the consonant which is articulated, and 
may be indefinitely repeated, is intended to commence a 
word as bah, bai, bee, boh, or boo. 
We cannot wholly agree with Klencke that “the causes 
of stuttering lie in the auxiliary organs of speech—in the 
organs of respiration—without the articulating organs 
being primarily affected,” and he only half saves his de- 
finition by that word “ primarily ” which we have italicised. 
Again, while we agree with him that the causes of stam- 
mering lie in the organs between the larynx and lips—in 
the articulating organs—we cannot think that any satis- 
factory distinction can be made on the basis of articulation 
alone, for that is faulty in both ; or taking the matter 
in another way, and in Klencke’s own wrords, we do not 
consider “ stuttering simply as a defect of vocalisation, 
and stammering a defect of articulation.” In another 
portion of his work, however, he correctly states the case 
when he says, “stuttering is a lack of harmony between 
vocalisation and articulation, a relative predominance 
of the latter over the former.” The consonant is in 
point of fact, as stated in our definition, continually 
repeated to impediment of vocalisation of its associated 
vowel. In opposition one might correctly say, “ stam- STAMMERING AND STUTTERING. 
295 
mering is a lack of harmony between vocalisation and 
articulation, a relative predominance of the former over 
the latter.” 
We do not wish it to be understood that because we 
insist on the importance of fault of articulation as the 
cause of stammering and stuttering that we therefore 
ignore existence of a number of other defects of speech in 
which there is no actual impediment to utterance, but 
which are equally due to imperfect or vicious articula- 
tion. The same remarks will obtain when we come to 
speak of faulty respiration in relation to stammering and 
stuttering. 
Resuming, and in continuance of our comparative dis- 
tinctions, it may be stated that— 
Stammering— 
Stuttering— 
1. Has relation to vowel 
sound or combination of 
vowel sounds. 
Is associated with the de- 
livery of consonants, espe- 
cially the explosive and 
sibilants. 
a. Involves defect in de- 
livery of individual letters, 
and the fault is detected on 
attempt to repeat the separ- 
ate letters of the alphabet. 
Is experienced in articula- 
tion of words or syllables, 
but each separate letter of 
the alphabet can be correctly 
enunciated. 
Is generally due rather to 
spasmodic muscular con- 
tractions, and seldom to 
objective defects of the 
organs of speech and articu- 
lation. 
3- Is more frequently due 
to defective physical forma- 
tion in the pharynx and 
fauces, palate, or tongue, or 
to enlarged tonsils, varying 
the shape of the articulating 
cavity. VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
Stammering. 
Stuttering. 
4. Is unassociated with 
other faulty muscular move- 
ments. 
Is frequently associated 
with irregular and spasmodic 
movements of other muscles 
of co-ordination of the face 
and limbs. 
5. Is much less frequently 
due to want of nerve con- 
trol, independently of voli- 
tion, as proved from the 
foregoing and by the ab- 
sence of engorgement of the 
vessels of the face and neck. 
Is accompanied by much 
engorgement of the face and 
neck, indicating a temporary 
paralysis of the nervous 
(vasomotor or sympathetic) 
control of the circulatory 
system, which is independent 
of volition. Columbat’s de- 
finition here well applies : 
“ dis-harmony between voli- 
tion and organic move- 
ment.” 
6. Is improved in the 
presence of a teacher, and by 
care and effort of will on 
the part of the subject. 
Is generally rendered much 
worse by observation, and by 
anything that makes the 
subject think of his defect; 
thus, hearing another person 
stutter will often at once 
induce an attack of stutter- 
ing in one who previously 
was speaking evenly. 
7. Is betrayed in singing, 
declamation, and measured 
talking \_{Klenc/ce), to this we 
are only half inclined to 
agree]. 
Is seldom betrayed, but, 
on the contrary, may be 
cured in rhythmical delivery, 
as in low, measured declam- 
ation and singing. 
8. Is equally noticed in 
Is absent in whispering STAMMERING AND STUTTERING. 
297 
Stammering. 
Stuttering. 
all variations of the vocal 
scale. 
low tones, monotones, and 
often in continuous reading, 
and becomes apparent only 
on use of loud voice, or in 
conversational speech. 
Some authors, notably Klencke, have endeavoured to 
make a distinction between stammering and stuttering in 
relation to respiration. 
We are of opinion that it is just here that the two are 
allied, and that in the majority of cases of both kinds a 
FAULT IN RESPIRATION IS AT THE ROOT OF ALL THE 
mischief. Let it be granted that the fault of co-ordina- 
tion in the stutterer is far more the result of a functional 
disorder of the brain than in the stammerer, or that the 
fault is of a different character ; it must be borne in mind 
by both preceptor and pupil that the fault is (except in 
rare cases of brain disease occurring in adult life) only 
functional, not organic, a grand distinction to the 
physician, a most encouraging one to the patient. We 
are not concerned now with questions of enlarged tonsils, 
elongated uvula, cleft palate, hare-lip, malposition of the 
teeth, &c., further than to advise that in every case of 
stammering or of stuttering the voice-trainer should have 
his pupil examined by a competent surgeon, to see that 
such removable defects to sound modification do not 
exist. 
In considering other causes of stammering and stutter- 
ing, attention must be given to the constitutional disposi- 
tion and health. Doubtless stammerers are more excitable 
and vivacious, stutterers more shy and reserved, than the 
average, but there can be no doubt that there is a very 298 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
similar constitutional weakness of a scrofulous or strumous 
character in each. 
A scrofulous constitution is one which tends to chronic 
thickening, with but slight inflammation of the oral and 
nasal breathing passages, and this leads to weak respiration, 
defective oxygenation, and many other effects of enfeebled 
circulation. Discharges of the ear, enlarged tonsils, &c., 
often first arise in children of such a tendency as sequels 
of severe illnesses, especially fevers. 
Stuttering not uncommonly takes its birth in such like 
manner. Fright, imitation, and other causes acting di- 
rectly on the nervous system, are among the frequently 
ascribed factors of stuttering, and quick response to such 
influences is in itself an evidence of constitutional delicacy. 
The highly sensitive and feeble nervous state of all stut- 
terers will be generally recognised ; there are some who 
stutter in thought as well as in expression, others who 
stammer in movement and action. 
We have recently heard it said by a very high authority, 
that the terms stammering and stuttering imply the same 
thing ; and the statement was illustrated by the simile of a 
horse, who may be said to stammer or to stutter when he 
stumbles. The idea of comparison of the faulty actions 
of motion of the horse with those of a human being with 
defective speech utterance, is not inapt; only we would 
insist that the same difference exists in both cases. When 
a quadruped stumbles, it stammers; when it jibs, it stutters. 
In the one it repeats unnecessarily or performs blunderingly 
a normal act; in the other there is an impediment to, 
or hesitation in performance of, the necessary and normal 
act. 
Prosser James has dilated {Lancet, Nov. 15, 1879) on 
“ a stammering of the vocal cords ” as “ a hitherto un- STAMMERING AND STUTTERING. 
299 
described laryngeal affection, in which syllablization is 
complete, phonation defective.” 
In point of fact, the condition has been long understood 
and very well described ; it depends simply on fault of 
respiration, the act having been performed incorrectly in 
relation to economy in expiration, by which either the 
breath has been wasted before singing, or vocalisation has 
been continued after the lung has been emptied of its com- 
plement of air. Kingsley alludes to it in his e Irrationale 
of Speech ’ as an advanced stage of ordinary stuttering. 
There is one point in relation to hesitation in utterance 
which must not be overlooked by the physician, and it is 
this. If it occurs in children, it is generally due to some 
cause which surgeon and teacher in combination or 
separately can cure ; but when it is noticed in an adult 
who has previously spoken fluently and clearly, there is 
reason for anxiety, for such a condition may be, and 
generally is, premonitory of brain disease. 
In indicating—for we can do no more—the line of 
treatment for the stammerer and stutterer, it may be 
said that remedial measures can be divided into three 
classes: 1. Mechanical. 1. Surgical. 3. Educational. 
Mechanical treatment, implying insertion of any foreign 
body whatever into the mouth, is only mentioned with the 
utmost brevity, that opportunity may be taken to condemn 
the practice in terms of the greatest possible severity. 
The only mechanical means which are justifiable in these 
cases are those to be employed by a dentist to correct 
imperfect narrowing of the jaw, by defective growth of the 
teeth, or, as is necessary in very rare cases, by insertion of 
a plate when there is a cleft or an unduly high and narrow 
arch of the palate. 
Surgical measures, which imply division with the knife VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
of muscles spasmodically contracted, or removal of pieces 
of the tongue abnormally enlarged during the act of speech, 
also by spasm of its muscular tissues and congestion of its 
blood supply, are likewise only mentioned to be condemned 
with uncompromising severity. It is indeed well nigh incon- 
ceivable that positively in the present century operations so 
barbarous, because founded on such ignorant hypothesis, 
could have been suggested, much more performed, by sur- 
geons who have achieved high distinction in other branches 
of their art. Remembering the fable of the dead lion, we for- 
bear, in honour to their memory, to even mention names. 
Where there is a cleft of the palate, a hare-lip, an 
enlarged tonsil, an overgrowth of tissue in the naso- 
pharyngeal passages, a polypus in the nostrils, a cyst 
under the tongue, in fact, any actual disease or deformity 
interfering with the normal calibre of the articulating 
cavities, it is of course, not only reasonable, but absolutely 
necessary, that surgical measures should be employed, 
with promptitude and thoroughness. It is a mistake to 
suppose that any such treatment can do harm. If delayed 
it may not be successful in entire removal of the trouble ; 
but this much may be said for certain, that want of 
success is not necessarily the fault of the operation, or a 
proof that it was wrong to have performed it. Where 
success does not follow surgical measure of the character 
above mentioned, rightly indicated and properly per- 
formed, it is not on account of, but in spite of, that 
operation. This question of operations on the throat has 
been already considered in the previous chapter. Consti- 
tutional treatment of any faulty health disposition, and 
proper hygiene as to bathing, clothing, exercise, diet, &c., 
will of course be the work of the medical adviser, and 
must by no means be overlooked. STAMMERING AND STUTTERING. 
Lastly, there is the educational remedy; this may 
be further subdivided into that of the teacher and that 
of the voice sufferer himself. With regard to education, 
very much can be done by both mental and physical 
training; the teacher can bring to bear the influence of 
his mind, and having knowledge of the cause of speech 
impediments, can explain them ; having sympathy, can 
encourage the desponding; having power, can control 
the weaker will; and having discrimination, can not only 
detect the cause, but can watch and direct the cure. 
A teacher to be successful must therefore not only be 
learned and experienced, he must be strong, patient, and 
persevering. These last qualities he must instil even to 
a larger measure into his pupil, for recognising all speech 
defects as faulty habits of mind and muscle, of education 
or imitation, at least equal effort must be made to eradi- 
cate this most painful and detrimental of vicious habits as 
would be employed for correction of any bad habit of 
action or manner reflecting more obviously, perhaps, but 
in point of fact not more practically, on the social status 
of the subject. The sufferer must never allow himself to 
forget his rules for cure ; he must, as taught by Hunt and 
stated by Kingsley, “ always speak consciotisly as others 
(not stammerers) speak unconsciously.” 
Beyond this mental education, come next gymnastic 
exercises—these are of several kinds: first and foremost, 
instruction in regular and efficient filling of the lungs 
through the natural breath passages—the nostrils—and 
then, above all, economy in the emptying thereof, or father, 
perhaps, to put it more plainly, control of emission of the 
breath from the lungs during speech in such a way as to 
ensure that none is expired before vocalisation. . 
Reducing it to a diagram by which the arrow represents 302 
VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
an out-breath, the vowel ah, for example, and all others 
in turn, should be sounded so as to commence with the 
expiration, thus: 
ah not at the end 
thus— 
•|i> ah. 
After this principle has been thoroughly inculcated and 
practised, not only for one vowel but for all, and also for 
combinations of vowels, the pupil may be instructed to rest 
on this vowel, and at a given sharp signal, as of a clap of 
the instructor’s hands, to join the consonant. In the case 
of stuttering he may be told to place his lips in position 
for the commencing consonant, and at the same signal to 
give it its proper vocal sound. 
Another useful aid to the cure of speech impediments 
may be found in the pupil reading or reciting to the 
accompaniment of his teacher who reads or recites the 
same words, and thereby gives him a “ lead ” over the vocal 
hedges and hurdles which obstruct his course. 
Combined with these, respiratory gymnastics, as more 
completely detailed elsewhere in this essay, and the vocal 
exercises here shortly indicated, general use of chest ex- 
panders, dumb-bells, &c., should be enforced and regulated 
in moderation and proportion to the age and strength of 
the subject. Finally, the pupil may be taught the value 
of employing rhythmical movements of hands or feet 
synchronously with those of the organs of breathing and 
speech, so as to regulate these last actions by co-ordination 
with the others. 
The foregoing are only hints of the line to be taken 
for rational treatment of stammering, and might be largely 
extended if we were writing a treatise on the subject, but 
not of much good purpose would that be, for there exist STAMMERING AND STUTTERING. 
303 
already a sufficiency of admirable works on the causes and 
treatment of these defects, embracing all that can be taught 
by book. Of these modern works those of the younger 
and elder Hunt and of Kingsley, published in this country; 
of Klencke, Gunther, and Chervin, translated and published 
in The Voice, are the most highly to be recommended. 
Much valuable information is also to be found in various 
treatises on elocution as to all defects of speech, and we 
have recently read an able synopsis of all that is known 
on the causation, pathology, and treatment of stammering, 
with much original matter, by Mr. C. C. Caleb, a medical 
student, in the junior medical periodical, The Student's 
Journal, vol. xi., Nos. 289, 290, and 291. 
One word in conclusion. It will be observed that we have 
advocated no system. Why ? Because there is none that is 
honestly applicable to all cases. The varieties and causes 
of defects of speech are so numerous that to pretend to 
apply one empirical remedy to all is as preposterous as are 
the claims of the many largely advertised quack nostrums; 
and their adoption in both cases does harm, not necessarily 
because of any inherent noxious principle, but because no 
attempt is made to discover the real cause of the malady 
which, uncured, is therefore allowed to proceed to more 
chronic aggravation. 
The safest, cheapest, quickest, and indeed only way for all 
these cases to be cured is that they should be treated on 
their individual differences by persons skilled to detect 
their nature and qualified to correct them. Those who 
cry loudest their own wares are not by any means to be the 
most depended upon, but unfortunately there always have 
been, and always will be, but too many dupes who will 
answer to their call. Hence our brief but earnest word of 
warning. APPENDIX I. 
ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS 
IN THE ACT OF SINGING. 
Laryngeal photography is by no means of recent date. 
As far back as iB6O attempts were made by Czermak, and 
his results laid before the Academy of Sciences in Vienna. 
A description of his apparatus in Dr. Stein’s book on 
“ Light” shows that he thoroughly understood the 
difficulties he had to encounter; and, considering that the 
advantage of gelatine plates did not exist at that time, it 
must be admitted that his results were very good indeed. 
Nevertheless his work bears evidence of material aid at the 
hands of the retoucheur. 
Since then many similar experiments have been made in 
different parts of the world, and Mr. Behnke succeeded 
twelve years ago in obtaining a photograph of his larynx 
with no better illumination than the limelight. Among 
the more recent attempts must be mentioned those of Dr. 
French, of Boston, whose success has been greater than 
that of any of his predecessors. Nevertheless all these 
earlier photographs of the larynx were capable of great 
improvement, while photography of the soft palate in the 
act of singing had never been thought of. 
Under these circumstances we determined to try whether 
we could not, at least partly, substitute photographs for 
the engravings with which we had at first intended to 
illustrate this book, and we set to work accordingly. Mr. PHO TO GRA PH V OF THE THROAT. 
305 
Bolas, the editor of the Photographic News, kindly gave 
us the benefit of his advice, and introduced us to three 
gentlemen it is impossible not here to mention, because 
without their generous help and their inexhaustible 
resources, we could never have overcome the difficulties 
which continued to present themselves, and we desire here 
publicly to acknowledge our deepest obligation to them all. 
Mr. H. T. Wood, the accomplished secretary of the 
Society of Arts, placed at our disposal the laboratory of 
the Society combining a photographic studio with dynamo- 
electric machinery, and personally assisted us in many 
ways. Mr. James Cadett, an inventor and amateur 
photographer of the highest scientific attainments, de- 
voted many days of his valuable time to our experi- 
ments, and he designed the apparatus with which we 
eventually succeeded. We are further indebted to Mr. 
J. J. Ackworth, also an amateur photographer, who vied 
with Mr. Cadett in bringing our undertaking to a 
successful issue. 
We first used two large round flasks filled with a solu- 
tion of alum to absorb the heat, which we employed 
as condensers for two powerful electric lights kindly lent 
and put up by Sir William Siemens. This method of 
direct illumination we had to abandon as clumsy and 
unmanageable, and we then used the apparatus of Mr. 
Cadett’s construction consisting of (1) an electric light of 
about 10,000 candle-power, (2) a water chamber through 
which a current of water was constantly flowing so as to 
absorb as much as possible of the heat rays, (3) a condenser 
consisting of two plano-convex lenses, and (4) a mirror 
with a plane surface to reflect the light. 
This apparatus underwent many slight modifications 
and alterations as the result of our joint experience and VOICE, SONG, AND SPEECH. 
suggestions at our various meetings, but the foregoing 
is a sufficiently complete account of our means of 
illumination. 
The actual process of obtaining a photograph is shown 
in our frontispiece. Mr. Behnke has in his right hand the 
laryngeal mirror, and he sees himself in a small looking- 
glass attached to the shutter of the camera, so that the 
image is in an exact line with the sensitive plate. This 
arrangement, so apparently obvious and trivial, constitutes 
a most important improvement in the method hitherto 
employed by others. The operator having focussed the 
view, jointly agreed by us to be a good one, the sitter is seen 
to have just given the signal, by dropping the upraised 
index finger of his left hand, for the shutter to be raised. 
The lenses used were of the rapid rectilinear kind, and our 
exposures averaged about quarter of a second. There is no 
doubt that our results would have been better had the ex- 
posures been much shorter; but with the plates at our dis- 
posal on those occasions, shorter exposures were impossible. 
The frontispiece is made from the original negative and 
is absolutely untouched. Not even some spots on the 
teeth and on the back of the throat caused by moisture 
have been interfered with. The two very bright marks on 
the spectacles are caused by the reflection of the light upon 
the edges of the very dark goggles Mr. Behnke, and 
indeed others of us also, had to wear to protect our eyes 
from the glare of the powerful illumination. All the photo- 
graphs of the larynx in the production of various tones 
which are inserted at page 178, and are there described, 
were taken the same size as the little picture in the frontis- 
piece. They were then considerably enlarged and marked 
with letters of reference ; after which they w'ere re-photo- 
graphed to the size of nature. PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE THROAT. 
307 
As to the portraits of the soft palate facing page 215, 
they were a comparatively easy matter, since they are 
photographs of the actual condition of things at the back 
of the throat, which any one could see in the circumstances 
indicated, instead of being, as is the case with the laryngeal 
pictures, the photographs of a reflection. 
The photographs of the soft palate were, like those of 
the larynx, enlarged, and lettered for reference, after which 
they were also reduced to the present natural size. 
All the enlargements, as well as the reproduction in 
collotype (the process employed for the illustrations of this 
volume), have been made under the immediate superin- 
tendence of Mr. Payne Jennings, who is admittedly facile 
princeps in this branch of photographic art. 
APPENDIX 11. 
Copy of Letter from Dr. Wyllie on Approximation 
of the Pocket Ligaments in Tone Production. 
1, Melville Street, Edinburgh, 
October 27, 1883. 
Dear Sir,— 
I am much obliged to you for your letter of the 
24th instant, directing my attention to a mistake that 
has been made in the interpretation by some writers of 
my views regarding the action of the ventricles of 
Morgagni, and the ventricular bands, or “ false cords.” APPENDIX 11. 
The account of these views that you give in the proof sent 
me of your work now in the press is perfectly accurate. 
In my ‘ Observations on the Physiology of the Larynx,’ 
I showed that the ventricles with their ligaments form an 
important valve, but I said nothing of their relations to 
voice, with which I believe they have little or no concern. 
I remain, dear Sir, 
Yours faithfully, 
To Lennox Browne, Esq. 
John Wyllie. INDEX. 
A. 
Ablutions, influence of, on daily life of voice-user, 244 
Aids to voice, by food or stimulant, 254 
„ „ cautions in use of, 283 
Air, chemical composition of, 102 
„ in lungs, complementary, 47 
~ „ residual, 47 
„ „ supplemental, 47 
„ „ tidal, 47 
„ motive power of voice, 102, 186 
Alcohol in relation to voice use, 260 
Amusements in relation to voice use, 263 
Articulation, importance of, 222 
Arytenoid cartilages, 57 
Attack, 195 
„ exercises for, 196 
Auto-laryngoscopy, 149, 154, 186 
Avery’s laryngoscope, 146 
B. 
Babington’s laryngoscope, 146 
Baritone voices, 97 
Bass „ 97, 226 
Bennati on removal of enlarged tonsils, 281 
Bernays, Dr. Albert, on tea drinking in relation to voice use, 258 
Beaumes’ laryngoscope, 146 
Biot on the voice, 88 
Bozzini’s laryngoscope, 145 
Breathing, abdominal, 49 
~ artificial hindrances to, 185 
„ clavicular, collar-bone, or scapular, 49, 180 310 
INDEX. 
Breathing, costal or lateral, 49 
„ criterion of correct, 184 
„ diaphragmatic, 49, 188 
„ difference of, between men and women, 49 
„ Dr. Paul Niemeyer on, 103 
~ injurious influence of wrong methods, 182 
„ in relation to voice cultivation, 179 
~ lessons for right performance of, 187 
„ midriff, 49 
~ mouth, 105 
„ nasal, 105 
Bronchial passages or bronchi, anatomy of, 44 
Bronchitis kettles, 282 
Buccal cavity or mouth, 79 
Buffer cartilages of larynx, 71 
c. 
Cartilages, arytenoid, position or pyramids, 57 
„ costal (Plate IV.), 40, 180 
~ cover, epiglottis or lid, 55 
„ cricoid or ring, 53 
„ cuneiform or “prop,” 71, 75 
„ „ „ Elsberg on, 76 
„ ~ ~ Madame Seiler on, 76 
„ „ ~ Witkowski on, 76 
„ of larynx, 53 
~ pyramid, or position, or arytenoid, 57 
„ ring or cricoid, 53 
„ of Santorini or “ buffer,” 71 
~ sesamoid, 76 
„ shield or thyroid, 53 
„ of Wrisberg, 71 
Cases illustrative of value of respiratory gymnastics, 132 
Catching cold, on, 271 
Chest or thorax, anatomy of, 38 
~ ~ muscles of, 41 
Clergyman’s sore throat, 274 
Clothing, influence of, on daily life of voice-user, 248 
Coca-wine as a vocal restorative, 255, 286 
Cocoa as a beverage for the voice-user, 258 
Coffee „ ~ ~ ~ ~239 
Cold water to throat, 247 INDEX. 
Columbat on stuttering, 296 
Common head cold, 284 
Contralto voices, 95, 226 
„ „ similarity of, to tenors, 95 
Corpulence of singers, reasons of, 271 
Coryza, 284 
Cosmetic powders, injurious influence on health, 247 
Curwen on breathing, 106 
„ his names for the registers, 165 
Czermak’s advocacy of the laryngoscope, 148 
„ experiments on closure of soft palate, 82 
Defects of speech, 288 
Delaunay on variety of voices, &c., 97 
Despinez on the voice, 88 
Diaphragm, anatomy of, 40 
Diet of the voice-user, 252 
Diday on the voice, 88 
Division of voices, physical causes of, 94 
Drinking in relation to voice use, 257 
Dutrochet’s experiments, 141 
D. 
E. 
Ear, musical; definition and training of, 137, 138 
„ relations of, with throat in voice production, 135 
Echoes, their philosophy, 20 
„ instances of, in various cathedrals, &c., 21 
~ Tyndall on, 21 
Educational treatment of speech defects, 301 
Effervescing drinks, their influence on the voice. 259 
Ellis on compound tones, 22 
~ distinctions between singing and speaking, 35 
„ pronounciation for singers, 217, 222 
„ quality of tone, 26 
~ vibrations of lips, 90 
„ vowel sounds, 217 
Elsberg on nose breathing, 105 
„ buffer and “ prop ” cartilages, 71 
„ vocal nodules, 76 
Epiglottis, 55, 156 312 
INDEX. 
Epiglottis, cushion of, 73 
„ in relation to resonance, 78 
~ uses of, 56 
Essential element of the voice is in vocal ligaments, 61 
Eustachian tubes (Plate III.), 39 
„ ~ closure of, in relation to voice, 135 
Exercise, general, in relation to voice use, 261 
Exercises for the lips and mouth, 206 
„ „ soft palate, 214 
„ „ tongue, 209 
„ for attack, 196 
„ ~ attaining “reach,” 221 
~ „ correct breathing, 187 
~ „ developing and strengthening the registers, 234 
„ „ flexibility, 223 
„ „ improving quality, 210 
„ „ the cure of stuttering, 301 
Experiments before the invention of the laryngoscope, 140 
~ on the dead larynx, how performed, 144, 199 
„ „ „ „ their value, 145 
Expiration, lessons in economy of, 190 
False theory of attack, 198 
Falsetto, 177, 238 
Ferrein on the voice, 88, 140 
Flexibility in relation to voice cultivation, 223 
„ exercise for attainment of, 224 
Framework of larynx, 53 
F. 
Galien on the voice, 88 
Garcia, his invention of the laryngoscope, 146 
„ on shock of the glottis, 198 
Gargles, insufficiency of, 247 
General exercise in relation to voice use, 261 
Glottic chink or space, 65 
Glottis, check of, 161 
~ chink of, 65 
„ glide of, 161 
„ its signification, 65 
„ shock of, 162, 198 
„ various modes of closing in tone production, 161 
G. INDEX. 
Grimm on power of English language, 37 
Gruetzner on registers of voice, 170 
Gunther on defects of speech, 289 
Gymnastics, vocal, as remedy for diseased conditions, 13, 125, 189 
H. 
Hard palate, the, 80 
Head colds, 284 
Heinicke on teaching of deaf mutes, 292 
Helmholtz, his resonators, 24 
„ on quality of tone, 26 
~ „ qualities of voice, 91 
~ „ secondary influences of pitch, 93 
~ „ tone of brass instruments, 90 
„ „ tuning-forks, 34 
„ „ varying quality of tone, 91 
Hot condiments, their influence on the voice, 257 
„ drinks, „ „ „ 257 
Hullah on human voice as a musical instrument, 94 
„ „ public speaking, 9 
Human voice as a musical instrument, 88 
~ ~ ~ leed ~ 3G $9 
„ „ complex in its nature, 93 
„ ~ flute theory of, 89 
~ ~ reed ~ 89 
„ „ string „ 88 
Hunt on stammering and defects of speech, 289 
Hutchinson’s table of vital capacity, 121 
Hygienic aspect of the motor portion, 102 
„ „ „ resonant portion, 129 
~ „ „ vibrating portion, 126 
~ „ „ vocal apparatus, 99 
„ clothing for females, 250 
„ stays, 116 
I. 
Inhalations of neutral ammonia recommended, 282 
„ ~ steam to be used cautiously, 282 
Inspiration, how accomplished, 47 
„ lessons in, 187 
Interval between eating and voice use, 253 
Isenschmid’s laryngo-phantom, 154 314 
INDEX. 
J. 
Jagielski on influence of height on voice, 96 
K. 
Kempelen’s experiments, 140 
Klencke on defects of speech, 294 
L. 
Laryngeal cartilages or framework, 53 
„ diseases, 281 
„ fatigue, causes of, 130 
„ ~ how to avoid, 127 
~ image, explanation of its reversion, 158 
„ „ various appearances of, 170 
„ photographs, 173 
~ „ the process of obtaining, 304 
Laryngo-phantom for teaching, 154 
Laryngoscope, description of, 147 
„ how to use it, 149 
~ invention of, 145 
„ teachings of, 156 
„ Foulis’s auto-, 155 
„ Tobold’s, 150 
Laryngoscopic observations need not imply laryngeal distortion, 152 
Laryngoscopy, auto-, 154 
„ beginners in, hints for, 149, 151 
Larynx, anatomy of, 51, et seq. 
„ cartilages of, 53 
„ description of, as seen with laryngoscope, 156 
„ differences of, in children, 83 
~ „ ~ men and women, 84 
„ „ „ Luschka on, 85 
~ framework of, 53 
„ hygienic aspect of, 126 
„ movements of, which can be seen or felt, 86 
„ muscles of, acting on vocal ligaments, 62 
~ position of, in voice production, 203 
„ vestibule of, 73 
Laws of sound bearing on the voice, 18 
Lehfeldt’s experiments, 141 INDEX. 
315 
Liskovius’s experiments, 141 
Liston’s laryngoscope, 146 
Loss of voice, 281 
„ „ treatment of, 282 
Ludwig’s names for the laryngeal cartilages, 52 
Lungs, anatomy of, 41 
„ physiology of, 46 
Magendie on the voice, 88, 141 
Malgaigne ~ „ 88, 141 
Mandl on collar bone respiration, 129 
~ fatigue on the voice, 131 
~ removal of enlarged tonsils, 280 
„ „ relaxed uvula, 277 
~ symptoms of „ „ 276 
Marshall, Professor, on physiology of voice, 61 
Mechanical depression of the tongue, 208 
„ treatment of speech defects, 299 
Merkel on causes for division of voices, 96 
„ the laryngoscope, 148 
„ the shape of glottic chink in tone production, 177 
Midriff, anatomy of, 40 
Mixed voice, or voce mista, 237 
Mouth or buccal cavity, 79 
Mucous membrane of vocal organ, 45 
Muller on physiology of pockets of larynx, 75 
„ the voice as a musical instrument, 142 
Muscles of the chest, 41 
„ „ larynx, 62 
„ of two kinds, 1, which govern shape of vocal chink, 68 
2, „ „ pitch of voice, 68 
Muscular processes, 58 
Musical ear, definition of, 137 
~ ~ can be trained, 138 
„ tone, how to end, 162 
Myers, Surgeon-Major, on constriction of the neck, 249 
M. 
N. 
Nasal cavity, how to close, from throat, 81 
Nasal resonance, 2x3 INDEX. 
Nasal tone or twang, 27, 211 
„ how to cure, 214 
Nervousness in singing, 285 
„ relation to stuttering, 298 
Niemeyer, Dr. Paul, on process of breathing, 103 
Nitrogen, its uses in respired air, 103 
Nodal lines, 18 
Nodules, vocal, 76 
Nose-breathing, its importance in regard to voice, 104, 194 
„ Elsberg on, 105 
„ Walsham on, 105 
Nose cavities in relation to resonance, 79 
O. 
Oxygen, its uses in respired air, 103, 104 
Palate, the hard, 80 
„ soft, 80 
„ „ pillars of, 81 
Patent voice remedies, caution against, 286 
Pharyngitis (inflamed sore throat), 273 
Pharynx or upper throat, anatomy of, 78 
„ granular inflammation of (clergyman’s sore throat), 274 
Photographs of larynx, 178 
„ soft palate, 215 
Photography of throat, the process, 304 
Physical causes of division of voices, 94 
Physiology, vocal, a plea for (see Vocal Physiology), 1-17 
Pitch of tone, 23 
~ human voice influenced by windpipe, 92 
„ „ „ Savart on, 92 
„ „ „ Wheatstone on, 92 
Pleurae, anatomy of, 43 
Pockets of larynx, or ventricles of Morgagni, 70, 157 
Pocket ligaments or false cords, 69, 157 
Position in public speaking and singing, 240 
Posterior vocal nodules, 76 
Posture in regard to respiration and voice, 124 
Pre-laryngoscopic experiments, 140 
P. INDEX. 
Pyramid cartilages, anatomy of, 57 
Pyramid muscle, action of, 68 
Q- 
Quality of voice, importance of, 221 
„ „ Deacon on, 222 
Quinsy (inflammation of tonsils), 278 
R. 
Randegger on physical sensations in various registers, 233 
Reach of the voice, 221 
Reading aloud, Cull on, j i 
Reed instruments, 30, 89 
Register, definition of, 163 
Registers of the voice, in relation to cultivation, 225 
„ ~ ~ “ lower thick,” 163 
~ „ „ “ upper thick,” 164 
„ ~ ~ “ lower thin,” 167 
„ „ ~ “upper thin,” 168 
„ „ „ “small,” 169 
„ „ ~ falsetto, 174 
„ „ „ Gruetzner on, 170 
„ „ „ union of, 225 
„ „ „ not to be extended, 235 
Relations of throat and ear in voice production, 135 
Relaxed throat, 272 
Residence, influence on daily life of voice-users, 243 
Resonance in relation to voice cultivation, 201 
~ of tone, its definition, 31 
~ ~ Tyndall on, 201 
„ sympathetic, 32 
~ „ Helmholtz on, 34 
Resonator of the vocal organ, 77 
„ „ „ its hygienic aspect, 127 
Resonators of Helmholtz, 24 
Respiration chemically considered, 102 
„ Curwen on, 106 
„ influence of digestion on, 180 
„ „ „ stays on, 185 
„ ~ „ „ Bernard Roth on, 109 
~ „ „ „ Knowledge on, 112 INDEX. 
Respiration, influence of stays on, Lancet on, 114 
„ „ ~ „ Mattieu Williams on, 118 
„ physiology of, 45, 106 
~ importance of right method of, 107 
„ lessons for correct, 187-194 
Respirator veil, 107 
Respirators, 106, 249 
Rest of the voice useless without treatment, 275 
Ribs, anatomy of, 38 
Ring cartilage, anatomy of, 53 
Ring-pyramid muscles (back), action of, 67 
„ „ (side) „ 68 
Ringer, Dr., on tea-drinking as cause of indigestion, 258 
Roberts’s, Mr. Charles, table of vital statistics, 123 
Roth, Mr. Bernard, on tight lacing, 109 
S. 
Santorini, cartilages of, 71 
Savart on the voice, 88, 92, 141 
Shield cartilage, anatomy of, 53 
„ „ movements of, on ring-, 55 
Shield-pyramid muscles, action of, 63 
Self-taught art always a fallacy, 4 
Senn’s laryngoscope, 145 
Singing, distinctions from speaking, 35 
~ quality of, 222 
Smoking in relation to voice use, 263 
Snuff-taking ~ ~ 266 
Soft palate, anatomy of, 80 
„ education of, 214 
~ its importance in vocalisation, 82 
„ its mobility, 81 
Soprano voices, 95, 227 
Sore throat, 272 
Sound caused by communication of vibrations in the air to the 
auditory nerve, 19 
„ laws of, bearing on the voice, 19 
„ can be reflected like light, 20 
~ requires a medium, 19 
Spencer on value of physiology, 1 
Speaking voice, definition of, 35 INDEX. 
319 
Speaking voice, difference from singing, 35 
Spirometer and its teachings, 120, 185 
Stammering and stuttering, 293 
„ statistics of, 289 
„ of vocal cords, 298 
Stays, injurious influence on respiration and voice, 109 
„ hygienic, 116 
Steam inhalations, cautions concerning, 282 
Steed on shock of “upper” glottis, 198 
Stone, Dr. W. H., on power of singing voice to combine with 
significant words, 206, 222 
Struthers, Professor, on the pockets of the larynx, 70 
Suppers, their influence on life of voice-user, 255 
T. 
Table of vital statistics, 123 
Tea-drinking, its influence on the voice, 257 
Teeth washing, &c., 246 
Tenor voices, 95, 226 
Tight lacing, 109, 185 
Thompson, Sir Henry, on cigarette smoking, 264 
Thorax or chest, anatomy of, 38 
„ „ muscles of, 41 
Throat, relation of, with ear in voice production, 135 
Throaty tone, 208 
„ „ how to cure, 2xo 
Tone, force of, 22 
„ how produced in bassoon, 31 
„ „ clarionet, 31 
}} „ flexible reeds, 30 
„ „ flute or flue-pipes, 29 
„ „ „ hautboy, 31 
„ „ » horn, 31 
„ „ ~ human voice, 31 
„ reed instruments, 29 
„ „ „ stiff reeds, 29 
~ stringed instruments, 29 
„ „ „ trumpet, 31 
~ how to end a musical, 162 
„ inherent quality of, 28 
„ loudness of, 22 
„ nasal, 27, 211 320 
INDEX. 
Tone, pitch of, 23 
„ quality of, 26 
„ „ ~ depends on many causes, 28 
„ „ „ may be cutting, 27 
» r> v full, 27 
„ „ „ „ harsh, 27 
~ „ „ „ hollow, 27 
„ „ „ „ musical, 27 
~ ~ ~ ~ nasal, 27 
» „ „ „ rich, 27 
» >, „ „ rough, 27 
„ sensations of, Helmholtz and Ellis on, 2 6 
Tones, compound, 22 
„ „ their analysis, 24 
„ prime and partial, 24 
„ simple, 21 
„ resonance of, 31 
Tongue, exercises for bringing under control, 209 
„ not necessary to protrude in laryngoscopy, 152 
„ not to be mechanically depressed, 208 
Tongue-bone, 54 
Tonsils, enlargement of, 278 
„ ~ „ symptoms of, 298 
„ „ „ treatment of, 280 
Trachea or windpipe, anatomy of, 44 
Tremolo, cure of, 188 
Tuning-forks, 34 
Tiirck and the laryngoscope, 148 
Turkish bathing, 245 
Tyndall on echoes, 21 
„ reeds, 30 
U. 
Uvula, anatomy of, 81 
~ elongation or relaxation of, 275 
„ ~ ~ ~ symptoms of, 276 
„ ~ „ ~ treatment of, 277 
V. 
Ventricles of Morgagni or pockets of larynx, 70, 77 
Ventricular bands or pocket ligaments, 69 
„ ~ never meet in tone production, 75 INDEX. 
321 
Vestibule of the larynx, 73 
„ ~ „ in relation to resonance, 78 
Vibrations can be felt, 18 
~ „ seen, 18 
„ Chladni’s experiments, 18 
„ compound, 21 
„ „ their analysis, 21 
„ may be simple or compound, 21 
„ must be communicated to the ear to produce sound, 19 
„ rate of, influences pitch, 23 
„ require a medium to produce sound, 19 
„ simple, 21 
Vocal ligaments, vocal bands, cords, or lips, anatomy of, 58 
„ ~ constitute essential element of voice, 61 
„ „ measurements of, 61 
„ „ variations of length, &c., in different voices, 95 
„ nodules, anterior and posterior vocal, 76 
„ organ, anatomy of, 38 
„ ~ resonator of, 77 
~ processes, 59 
~ tone, 60 
~ physiology, analogy with studies in art, 4 
„ „ „ „ medicine, 5 
„ „ a plea for, 1 
~ „ as considered by the Greeks, 9 
„ „ basis of all right voice production, 8 
„ „ Haertinger on, 6 
„ „ how to be learned, 13 
„ „ Hullah on, 9 
„ „ ignorance of, cause of failure, 12, 17 
„ „ in relation to laryngoscopy, 15 
„ „ Kofler on, 4 
„ „ Marx on, 5 
„ „ must be studied as a whole, and not in details, 16 
„ „ should be taught in universities, 11 
„ „ why required, 1 
Voice cultivation, 179 
„ definition of, 35 
„ human, as an instrument, 31, 38 
„ singing, definition of, 35 
„ speaking, „ ~35 
„ difference of singing and speaking, 35 322 
INDEX. 
Voice, different requirements of singing and speaking, 36 
„ its anatomy, 38 
„ mixed, 236 
„ production, relation of throat and ear in, 135 
£ Voice, The,’ edited by Werner, 288 
Voice-user, ailments of a, 268 
„ daily life of a, 243 
Voice-box—See Larynx, 51. 
Vowel sounds, 217 
„ „ Ellis on, 217 
„ „ how to obtain resonance of, 220 
„ „ varying pitch of, 218 
W. 
Walshe on Dramatic singing, 37, 182, 230 
Warden’s laryngoscope, 146 
Water, cold, to throat, 247 
Wax, impacted, in the ears a cause of voice trouble, 136 
Werner, Edgar, on defects of speech, 288 
Windpipe or trachea, anatomy of, 44 
Wyllie’s experiments on physiology of ventricles of Morgagni, 200 
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Wrisberg, cartilages of, 71 
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