•& Hygiène ©ftHe Vocal Qrgans •#• Sir pareil Itytackenaàe ARMY MEDICAL LIBRARY FOUNDED 1S36 WASHINGTON, P.C DUE TWO WEEKS FROM LAST DATE LMAR i. 5 195b U GPO 322808 >_->." ' THE HYGIENE THE VOCAL ORGANS. ê EXPLANATION OF THE FRONTISPIECE. View of the Air-passages in the act of Singing. The Position of the Uvula is that taken in the Delivery of the Higher Chest Notes. In Head Tones it is Drawn Still further Upwards. (Diagram modified from Bellamy's édition of Brauhe's Anatomical Plates^) a, frontal sinus ; b, sphenoidal sinus ; c, lower, middle, and upper nasal meatus ; d, opening of the Eustachian tube; /, uvula ; e, pharynx ; g, tongue ; h, epiglottis ; *', vocal oord ; j,f,f, windpipe ; k, Jung ; J, liver, with the eut edge of the diaphragm just above it, separating it from the base of k, the lung. The canal behind/,/,/,is the gullet, or food-passage, leading down to the stomach. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON PREVIOUS EDITIONS. "It is compiled by a scientific man of the first order, whose facts and déductions may be accepted without a moment's hésitation. Dr. Mackenzie, as is well known, is the guide, philosopher, and friend of almost the entire musical professicn. . . . Golden rules might be multiplied ad infinitum from Dr. Mackenzie's pages, but sufficient has been said to show that his work is as useful and readable as it is scientifically important."— Times. " Thought, learning, long expérience, quick and constant observation, and a play of mind which keeps it free from ail mère trammels of theory —such are the qualifications which the author of this little manual brought to the task of writing it."—St. famés''s Gazette. " The book may be recommended as a wholesome antidote to those new treatises which are now constantly appearing with respect to the training and care of the singing voice, and which, while loaded with much scientific jargon, are hopelessly bewildering to the real voice traîner. "—Saturday Review. "As a guide to health management, it is invariable for singers and speakers."—Church Times. "We can confidently recommend the book to ail singing students."— The Musical World. "A chapter headed ' Spécial Hygiène for Singers' contains valuable hints on tempérance, clothing, diet, exercise and many other matters absolutely necessary to be carefuUy studied by vocalists."—The Musical Times. " Valuable hints for training the voice are given."—Nature. " The book contains many practical hints, both for singers and speakers, and the whole work, as might be expected, shows évidence of large expérience and extensive reading."—British Médical fournal. " It combines in a happy manner ail the excellences of a thoroughly correct and scientific work, with the best style of popular writing and lucid exposition. No speaker or vocalist should neglect to add it to his or her book-shelf,"—Health. AUTHORIZED EDITION The Hygiène of the Vocal Organs A Practical Handbook for Singers and Speakers By SIR MORELL MACKENZIE, M. D. TOGETHKR WITH A LlST OF AMERICAN SINGERS AND SINGING-TEACHERS EDGAR S. WERNER New York J899 p WV3 M 157/, mi It- W I IH7S ', ' t&™ 3- " La voix est un son humain que rien d'inanimé ne saurait parfaitement contrefaire. Elle a une autorité et une propriété d'insinuation qui manquent à l'écriture. Ce n'est pas seulement de l'air, c'est de l'air modulé par nous, imprégné de notre chaleur, et comme enveloppé par la vapeur de notre atmosphère, dont quelque émanation l'accompagne et qui lui donne une certaine configuration et de certaines vertus propres à agir sur l'esprit."—Joubert. |" Praeterradit enim vox fauceis ssepe facitque Asperiora foras gradiens arteria clamor. Q.uippe per angustum turba majore coorta Ire foras ubi cceperunt primordia vocum. Scilicet expletis quoque janua raditur oris^ Rauca viis, et iter laedit quâ vox it in auras." Lucretius, lib. iv. 532-7. ■V0 ,<* 19, Harley Street, »* Caveudish Square, W 38-07 f £> PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. The last édition of this work, which was published in January, 1888, was exhausted in three months. The two previous éditions were, in fact, merely re- prints appearing within three months of each other at a time when my engagements prevented me from making any additions or altérations. My principal reason for regretting that the little work has remained so long out of print is, that I hâve been unable to re- ply to the criticisms of my distinguished friend Pro- fessor Garcia, which appeared in the year 1887 in a médical paper ' published in Berlin, but edited in Lon- don. Professor Garcia is a Spaniard by birth, who, although well acquainted with French and English, does not know German at ail. His MS., therefore, was translated by the Editor. This circumstance is a disadvantage to me in making a reply, as I cannot feel certain that the illustrious Professor's views hâve been always accurately represented. As the learned maestro was kind enough to say that " the advice which the author, in his capacity of physician to singers and 1 Centralblatt fur Laryngologie, Berlin, April, 1887. 10 PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. speakers, gives as regards précautions for preserving the strength and beauty of the voice, is beyond price, and deserves the thanks of ail those interested in the subject," I might hâve been satisfied to pass over his criticisms in silence, but I felt that any comments of so eminent an authority merited the highest considér- ation, and ought to be placed before my readers. I hâve, therefore, introduced the Professor's remarks in the chapter to which they appertain, and hâve ven- tured to add such explanatory statements as seem to be required. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. There are already so many books on the voice that some wonder may not unreasonably be felt that I should hâve seen fit to add to the number. By way of explanation I may be allowed to direct the reader's attention to the exact nature and scope of my little work. I hâve no pretension to speak with authority as a musician or even as a physiologist, and in the fol- lowing pages I do not profess either to teach singing or elocution, or to throw new light on the obscurer problems of voice-production. Matters belonging to either of thèse provinces are dealt with only in their relation to the well-being and functional efficiency of the vocal organs. That is a subject on which I may with less presumption claim a hearing. For a quarter of a century I hâve been engaged in ministering to diseased throats, and every singer or actor of note in this country, with hardly an exception, has at one time or other corne under myhands. I hâve thus had very unusual opportunities of studying the conditions which affect the voice for good or for evil, and my own observation has been assisted and supplemented by the 12 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. personal expérience of vocalists of world-wide celeb- rity. How I hâve used my advantages my readers must judge. I wish it, however, to be clearly under- stood that my point of view is throughout that of the practical physician. I hâve, therefore, avoided un- necessary technical détails, and striven to make the book a really useful guide to those who hâve to use the voice in the pulpit or in the rostrum, on the stage or in the political arena. CONTENTS. PART I. CHAPTER I. PAGE Introductory,................21 CHAPTER IL The Voice...................25 Physiology of the Vocal Organs, 25—The Laryngoscope, 28 —What it shows, 31—Photography of the Larynx, 37 —Vibration, 38—Sound, 39;—The Larynx as a Musical Instrument, 40—Reeds—their Nature and Varieties, 40 —Timbre, 42. CHAPTER III. The Singing Voice,..............45 Différence between Speech and Song, 46—Compass of the Voice, 48—" Breaking" of the Voice, 51—Registers of the Voice, 53—Mechanism of the Registers, 56—Ob- servations on Singers, 66. 14 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. PAGE Training of the Singing Voice,.........79 Sélection of a Teacher, 79—Qualities requisite in a Teacher, 81—Uselessness of Laryngoscope in Voice-training, 86 —Détermination of the Real Nature of the Voice, 92— Vocal Gymnastics, 94—Respiratory Exercises, 97 — Messa di Voce, 108—Portamento, m—Enunciation, 113 —Defects of Enunciation sometimes chargeable to Composers, 115 — Disregard of Composers for the Powers of the Human Voice, 116—Exceptions, 117— Co-ordination of Vocal Organs, 118—Management of the Air-blast, 119—Coup de glotte, 120—Secret of the old Italian Method, 123—Singers should be trained by Teachers of their own Sex, 128—Training of Children, 129—Disadvantages of Collective Training, 130—Age at which Training should begin, 130—Should it be continued during the Change ? 134. CHAPTER V. Care of the Formed Voice...........139 Necessity of Constant Practice, 139—Avoidance of Strain, 140—Evils of Staccato and Trémolo, 141—Voice should never be used when out of order, 141. CHAPTER VI. Spécial Hygiène for Singers,..........143 Influence of General Health on the Voice, 143—Alcohol, 143—Condiments, 144—Food, 145—Disadvantage of Vegetarianism, 146—Usefulness of Fish, 146—Tobacco, 147—Clothing, 147—Respirators, 148—"Masher"Col- lars, 149—Tight-lacing, 149—Irritating Vapors, 150— Exercise, 150—Importance of Rest when the Vocal Organs are out of order, 151—Remédies for the Voice, 152 — Lubricants, 155 — Stimulants, 156 — Ammonia- phone, 157. CONTENTS. 15 PART II. CHAPTER VIL PAGE The Speaking Voice,.............160 Classification of Voices, 160—Compass of the Speaking Voice, 162—Mechanism of Speech, 163—Vowels and Consonants, 164—Defects of Speech, 166—Stammering and Stuttering, 168—Difficulties with Particular Let- ters, 170—Deformities interfering with Speech, 172— Tied Tongue, 172—Cleft Palate, 172—Closure of the Back of the Nose, 172—Web between the Vocal Cords, 173—Diseases interfering with Voice and Speech, 173 —Paralysis of the Larynx, 172—Wasting of the Laryn- geal Muscles, 173—Growths in the Larynx, 173—En- larged Tonsils, 173—Paralysis of the Soft Palate, 173 —Congestion and Relaxation of the Throat, 173— "Clergyman's Sore Throat," 174—Post-nasal Growths, 174—Ulcération of the Tongue, 175—Loss of Teeth, 176. CHAPTER VIII. The Training of the Speaking Voice,......177 Necessity of Training, 177—Training of Ancient Orators, 177—Importance of Early Training, 178—Vocal Exer- cise in the Open Air, 182—Qualifications requisite in a Teacher of Elocution, 186—Singing as a help to speak- ing well, 188—Improvement of a Poor Voice by Culture, 190—Détails of Training, 192—Removal of Defects, 196 —Cure of Stammering, 198—"Fatigue of the Voice," 202—" Vocalist's Cramp," 202—Hygiène for Speakers, 205—Concluding Remarks, 209. APPENDIX I. Anatomy of the Vocal Organs..........212 The Lungs, 212—Respiration, 214—The Larynx, 217— Pharynx, 229—Mouth, 229—Soft Palate, 229—Uvula, 230—Fauces, 231—Tonsils, 232—Nasal Passages, 232— Tongue, 234. l6 CONTENTS. APPENDIX II. PAGE Critical Observations on the Various Théories as to the mechanism of the registers,.....236 Views of Lehfeldt, 239—Garcia, 237—Battaille, 243—Mandl, 244—Madame Seiler, 242—Behnke, 237—Illingworth, 246—Lunn, 246—Wesley Mills, 247—Martels, 249— Gouguenheim and Lermoyez, 251. APPENDIX III. Table showing the Action of the Vocal Cords in Singing..................255 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. View of the Air-passages in the act of Singing. Frontispiece. F!G. PAGE i. The Glottis in Delivery of a Low Note. (Seen from above.),...............32 2. The Glottis. (Seen from below.),.......34 3. The Vocal Reeds shown in a Transverse Verti- cal Section,..............4° 4. Diagram of the Glottis in Deep Inspiration,. . 66 5. Diagram of the Glottis in Phonation, . ... 67 6. Laryngoscopic View of the Male Glottis in the Delivery of a Low Note,.........67 7. Laryngoscopic View of the Male Glottis in the Delivery of a High Note..........68 8. Laryngoscopic View of the Female Glottis in the Production of a Low Note.......69 9. Laryngoscopic View of the Female Glottis in the Production of a High Note.......69 10. Laryngoscopic View of the Female Glottis in the Delivery of a Head Note........70 18 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG- PAGE n. Laryngoscopic View of the Male Glottis in Falsetto Singing,............70 12. Laryngoscopic View of the Female Glottis in the head register............72 13. Laryngoscopic View of the Male Glottis in the Falsetto Production,...........72 14. The Vocal Instrument,...........216 15. Latéral View of the Framework of the Larynx and Hyoid Bone.............218 16. Latéral View of the Framework of the Larynx from which the Epiglottis has been removed, 220 17. Transverse Vertical Section of the Larynx, . 221 18. The Glottis, partially dissected. (Seen from above.),............., ... 224 PART I. THE HYGIENE THE VOCAL ORGANS. i_______________________________________• CHAPTER I. f« INTRODUCTORY. The art of medicine émbraces the two great divis- ions of hygiène and thérapeutics, thé former of which deals with the prévention of disease, and the latter with its cure. It is remarkable that whilst in ail âges much attention has been given to the treatment of the many ills that flesh is heir to, so little thought-has been bestowed on how to ward them on". In spiteof innumerable wise saws to the effect that prévention is better than cure, hygiène has until comparatively ré- cent times occupied â merely secondary position. Even the Greeks of old, to whom the body was alrnost an object of worship, gave Hygieia a subordinate place in the hierarchy of Olympus. Nowadays -the suprême importance of hygiène is universally allowed, and the goddess of health-preservation bids fair to take precedence of her father, ^Esculapius the healer. In other words, the sanitary engineer is abroad, and 22 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. threatens to displace the doctor. Half a century ago Carlyle complained that the spirit of the time was mechanical: the présent âge is nothing if not hygienic. The problems of drainage and ventilation excite a livelier interest than those of " fate, foreknowledge, freedom absolute ; " the true evangel is looked for by many in a proper disposai of sewage ; the inventor of an improved trap is more venerated than the dis- coverer of a new planet. Questions relating to ladies' under-clothing are discussed from the standpoint of advanced physiology, and even the tyrant Fashion is defied by some fair sanitarians who hâve taken the " divided skirt " as their oriflamme. It is not only the health of the body as a whole that is cared for, but the well-being of each and every one of its component parts is zealously studied. Learned professors hâve not disdained to place the results of painstaking an- atomical researches at the service of shoemakers, whilst the skin, the hair, the eye, the teeth, hâve each been made the text for the conveyance of much good advice by philanthropie men of science. The voice has received its fair share of attention in this outburst of hygienic enthusiasm ; within the last few years doc- tors and singing-masters seeirr to hâve been smitten with an overmastering désire to impart their " own gained knowledge " on the subject to their less privi- leged fellow-men. The resuit of thèse well-meant en- deavors would be of greater practical value if there were a little more harmony among the teachers. As, however, each succeeding writer appears to make it a point q( honor to controvert the statements of his INTROD UCTOR Y. 23 predecessors, the efïect on the mind of the anxious student must be as bewildering as the tone in which the discussions are often carried on is distressing to a cultivated intelligence. Some of the publications al- luded to no doubt show considérable ability, and em- body the results of sound and honest work. Many, however, are neither scientific nor practical, whilst nearly ail are too technical to be profitable to the large majority of vocalists. My aim in this little treatise is to put before the reader, in the simplest way, common-sense rules for the culture and management of the voice, divested of ail technical matter beyond what is absolutely required for an intelligent appréhension of the principles on which the rules are founded. A few preliminary re- marks on hygiène will help to put the subject in a clearer light. Though the term is usually applied to the prévention of disease, it has in reality a wider meaning. Hygiène has a positive as well as a néga- tive side. The préservation of health means not only that actual mischief is avoided, but that the body is kept in the best working order. Thus the hygiène of sight, for instance, teaches not merely how injury to the eye or impairment of its power may be prevented, but also how the organ may be maintained in a state of functional perfection. Hygiène as applied to the vocal apparatus, therefore, must include a considéra- tion of the best methods of developing its powers to the highest pitch as well as protecting it from injury or decay. The right use of the voice is the chief factor in the maintenance of its quality. Many persons sup- 24 H YGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. pose that this " cornes by nature," as Dogberry thought of reading and writing, but so far from this being the case, it has by the bulk of mankind to be acquired by laborious effort with the help of skilful training. As the health of the voice dépends largely on its proper éducation, this must form the ground-work of every system of vocal hygiène. The subject, therefore, nat- urally divides itself into two parts: first, the training and formation of the voice ; secondly, the care of the voice when formed. In addition to this the relation of the vocal organs to the gênerai economy must be understood by ail who use the voice, and especially by those who undertake to train it. Singers and speak- ers are not only artists but also in a certain degree athlètes, their work consisting essentially in well- ordered muscular movements. A man may be trained for a foot-race or a boxing-match by methods which, while calculated to develop the spécial qualities re- quired for the performance of the feat, may be simply disastrous to the health of the body as a whole. In like manner an unintelligent teacher may seek to de- velop the voice at the expense of its owner's constitu- tion. For the avoidance of so dangerous an error— one, moreover, which inevitably defeats its own object —some knowledge of the elementary laws of health is an indispensable part in the equipment of the vocal instructor. It is needless to add that he should be acquainted with the hygienic code more especially applying to the organs which are the instruments of his art. 7 HE VOICE. 25 CHAPTER II. THE VOICE. Physiology of the Vocal Organs. It would savor of pedantry tp give a formai défi' nition of a thing so well known as the voice,1 but it may not be superfluous to explain the différence be- tween phonation and articulation. The former is the simple utterance of vocal sound, whilst in the latter the vibrating column of expired air is modified by be- ing broken up into jets or syllables of various kinds. Phonation is, of course, possible without articulation, 1 Voice in its broad meaning is sound produced in the larynx. It may be well to state that in the following pages I use the word voice solely as signifying sound produced by the vibration of the vocal reeds when struck from below by a current of air from the lungs. Various noises can no doubt be made by sucking air into the larynx more or less vio- lently from above, and possibly such unnatural phonation could be culti- vated to some extent and would no doubt be admired by many who would applaud the performance of a musician who should play the flûte with his nose, or of an artist who should paint with his feet. My définition of voice may seem to exclude ventriloquism. Whatever be the exact method of procédure in the détails of that art, it is certain that the sound is always produced in the larynx, though it is no doubt modified in various ways by abnormal action of the throat, diaphragm, &c. The chief secret of the ventriloquist, however, is the manner in which he suggests the whereabouts of his dramutis personœ, and thus makes the imagination of his hearers help in their own déception. Many of my readers will recollect how Théodore Hook made a large crowd believe not only that he saw the lion over the gateway of old Northum- berland House wag its tail, but that they also witnessed the phenomenon. 26 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. as in the cries of animais, the screams and cooings of babies, or the yell of the savage; and on the other hand there may be articulation apart from phonation, as in whispering. Some elementary notions of the structure of the parts concerned in thèse various acts are required for the compréhension of the mode in which the voice is produced, just as, in order to under- stand the working of a machine, it is necessary to hâve some acquaintance with the parts of which it is com- posée!. The organs of voice are threefold in function, and consist of (i) a motor, (2) a vibratory, and (3) a réso- nant élément. The first supplies the air-blast, or motive power, the second the tone, and the third the quality of the voice. To the first group belong the lungs and the windpipe, with the muscles which act upon them ; the second consists of the actual organ of voice, i.e., the glottis with its vibrating lips; whilst the third comprises several parts above the glottis (ventricles, false cords, epiglottis, pharynx, nose, mouth, bone- cavities of the face, &c), and one below it, viz., the thorax or chest. Thèse and their mode of action are briefly described in Appendix L, p. 212. The physiology of the vocal organs is a very diffi- cult subject in itself, and its obscurity has been deep- ened to almost Cimmerian darkness by the dust and smoke of angry controversy. The sober scientist has shown an unphilosophical proneness to rage and im- agine vain things; and questions as minute as the iota of theology hâve given rise to terrible heart-burnings among learned professors both of medicine and music THE VOICE. 27 —a scientific mixture which has the unpleasant prop- erty of becoming incandescent on the slightest provo- cation. I shall endeavor to walk over the smoulder- ing ashes of thèse disputes without stirring them up into flame, and shall, therefore, as far as possible, avoid questions of mère theory, and confine myself to matters of fact. It cannot be too clearly understood at the outset that the voice is generated solely in the larynx. It is necessary to insist on this elementary fact with some emphasis, as much confusion has been caused by fan- ciful expressions like " head-voice " and " chest-voice." Philosophers are never tired of warning us not to mis- take naines for things, but it is an error to which we are ail liable, and none more so than thèse estimable persons themselves. The présent is a typical example of the danger alluded to. The originators of the terms " head-voice," &c, no doubt applied them with subjective accuracy, i.c, the name expressed the fact as they conceived it. But just as " the evil that men do lives after them," mis- leading terminology continues to work havoc in the minds of learners long after its inçorrectness has been recognized by teachers, who, however, adhère to it from a mistaken notion of its practical usefulness. It is no exaggeration to say that most of the confusion in which the whole subject of voice-production is still involved is due to the use of terms either wrong in themselves or wrongly applied. The larynx is the organ of voice just as the eye is the organ of sight, or the ear of hearing. Every one would laugh at a man 28 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. who should prétend to smell with his lips or see with his fingers; yet such claims are not one whit more ab- surd than those of singers who profess to fetch their voice from the back of the head, the roof of the mouth, the bottom of the chest, or anywhere else that their misinterpreted sensations lead them io fancy. As a basso profondo is sometimes figuratively said to " sing out of his boots," we may perhaps be grateful that there is no voce di piede among the acknowledged registers. Before describing what takes place in the larynx whilst the voice is being produced, it will be well to give the reader some idea of how the knowledge which we hâve on the subject is obtained. Until a short time ago the notions of scientific men as to the work- ing of the organ of voice were derived either from ex- periments made on the human body after death, or on living animais, or from more or less probable con- jectures founded on the analogy of musical instru- ments of différent kinds. Now, however, the inside of the larynx can be seen whilst the parts are at work, and the various movements watched and studied at leisure. The apparatus by which we are enabled to do this is known as the laryngoscope.1 1 The laryngoscope seems a simple thing, but, like every other im- provement, it took a long time to discover, and, as need hardly be added, had to overcome much indifférence and scepticism before it was accepted. Then came the usual fierce jealousies as to priority, &c. Like most really valuable additions to médical science, the invention came from au outsider, and this no doubt at first hindered the récogni- tion of its importance. Attempts had been made to see the larynx by Bozzini of Frankfort in the early years of the présent century, and after him by Senn of Geneva (1827), Babington of London (1829), Bennati of THE VOICE. 2Ç> This little instrument consists essentially of a small mirror fixed at a somewhat obtuse angle to the end of a slender shank. It is introduced into the mouth, and placed in such a position that the deeper parts of the throat are reflected on its surface where the image can be seen by the observer. The light may fall on the mirror directly from the sun, but as the operator's head is apt to intercept the rays, it is useful to hâve a second larger mirror on which they may be caught and reflected into the patient's throat in the way fa- miliar enough to mischievous schoolboys. In our dis- mal climate, however, the sun can never be relied on as a source of illumination, and even under brighter skies it is often necessary to hâve an artificial substi- tute. Much ingenuity worthy of a better cause has been shown in devising elaborate and costly kinds of Paris (1832), Baumes of Lyons (1838), Liston of London (1840), War- den of Edinburgh (1844), and Avery of London (1844). A full account of the instruments devised by thèse various workers may be found in my little work on the Use of the Laryngoscope, 3rd édition, 1871 (Long- mans). In 1855 the problem was at last solved by Professor Manuel Garcia, the celebrated maestro, who succeeded in seeing his own larynx and watching its movements in respiration, in the formation of vowels, and in singing. Since his results were given to the scientific world, the laryngoscope has come into gênerai use in medicine for the diagnosis and treatment of disease, and the instrument has been per- fected in its détails. Spécial mention must be made of my respected teacher, the late Professor Czermak of Pesth, who, besides making im- provements of the greatest importance in the apparatus and method of procédure, visited the chief médical centres in Europe as a sort of scien- tific missionary, demonstrating everywhere the mode of use and practical value of the laryngoscope. But for this it is highly probable that the instrument would hâve been relegated to the same limbo of oblivion as its predecessors, whilst Garcia's observations would hâve remained buried in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. 30 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. apparatus to meet the want, but an ordinary lamp giving a fair light is quite sufificient for most purposes. This should be placed on one side of the person to be examined in such a way that the flame is on a level with his eye. The large mirror or " reflector " used by the operator should hâve a concave surface with a focal power of from twelve to fourteen inches, and it should be perforated in the middle. It should be fixed to the observer's head either by means of a strong spectacle frame or by an elastic band, and the aperture in the mirror should be placed opposite his right eye. The patient must then open his mouth wide, and the reflected light from the large or " frontal " mirror must be made to fall on the base of the uvula, i.e., its point of attachment to the soft-palate. The operator next draws forward the patient's tongue with his left hand, whilst with his right he introduces the small or " laryn- geal " mirror, which should be slightly warmed before- hand that it may not be dimmed by the moisture of the breath. It should be lightly held by the handle like a pen, and passed inwards, with the reflecting sur- face downwards, care being taken not to touch either the tongue or the roof of the mouth. When the mir- ror is seen to be in contact with the upper part of the uvula, it should be made to push the soft-palate very gently backwards and a little upwards, when the im- age of the larynx will appear on the surface. The tendency of beginners is to thrust the instrument against the back of the throat, a manœuvre which, even if it does not act as an immédiate emetic, is sure to bring the attempted examination to an abrupt con- THE VOICE. 31 clusion. The tongue also is apt to fare badly in the grasp of the " prentice hand," being either squeezed too tightly, or dragged too roughly out of the mouth, or pulled forcibly down so that its under surface is wounded by the lower teeth. The tip of the organ should be lightly held in a small cloth between the thumb and the forefinger, the latter supporting it be- low so as to protect it from the teeth. The object of pulling the tongue forward is twofold : first, to keep it steady and prevent its obstructing the view; and, secondly, to draw the epiglotlis slightly upwards and forwards so that the interior of the larynx can be more easily seen. For purely physiological purposes, how- ever, where it is important to see the parts as much as possible in a state of nature, it is better to make the examination. when practicable, without drawing out the tongue. This unluckily is feasible only in a com- paratively small proportion of cases. On looking into the throat with the laryngoscope the first thing that meets the eye is usually the epi- glottis, which difïers in size and shape in individuals just as much as the nose or any other feature. It is generally curved somewhat upwards and forwards, and thus présents its under surface to the observer. Passing backwards from either edge of the epiglottis are two thin red folds, composed of mucous mem- brane and a few muscular fibres; thèse help to form the upper rim of the larynx. Behind, they can be seen to join the arytenoid cartilages, the somewhat rounded outline of which, together with the little pea- like cartilages of Santorini and Wrisberg connected 32 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. with them, can be distinctly seen bulging out at the back. Within the circumference of the outlet, but at a lower level, two pale-red, smooth ledges are visible running from before backwards, and joining the lower part of the arytenoid cartilages. Thèse are the ven- tricular bands; each of them overhangs a cavity (ven- tricle of the larynx), of which it forms the upper bor- der. The mouth of the cavity cannot, however, be distinctly seen without slanting the mirror to one side. Deep in the interior of the larynx (i.e., in the centre of the image), when it is in a state of repose, the white Fie. î.— The Glottis. (Seen from above during the Emission of a Low Chest-Note.) glistening vocal cords can be seen running in the same direction as the ventricular bands, but nearer the mid- dle line. Sometimes they are not seen until the act of phonation is performed, when each seems to shoot out from under the corresponding ventricular band. The aperture between the vocal cords is wider behind than in front, and forms, as already said, a triangular space (see Fig. î), the apex of which is at the anterior part where the vocal cords join each other, whilst the base is behind, between the arytenoid cartilages. If the breath is drawn in, as in quiet inspiration, the cords are seen to move a little way apart from each other. THE VOICE. 33 and the base of the triangle widens out. If a deep breath is taken, the cords separate still more, whilst in forced or gasping inspiration they are drawn widely apart, so that a glimpse is obtained of the inside of the windpipe, which in certain cases can be distinctly seen down to the point where it divides into the tubes lead- ing to the lungs. If, now, the person examined sounds a high note, the hinder part of the glottic orifice, which lies between the inner surfaces of the two ary- tenoid cartilages and their anterior " spurs " or " vocal processes " (see Appendix I., p. 222)—in other words, the base of the triangle—is seen, as a rule, to close. The remaining portion of the vocal cords is put on the stretch, and the two corne together in'the middle so as to be in more or less complète apposition throughout their whole length. It must be understood, however, that even when they touch each other they are not pressed close together, except in the delivery of certain high notes. In a few rare cases, where the windpipe has been opened below the level of the larynx, it is possible to get a view of the under surface of the vocal cords. It will then be seen that they are not flat underneath, but bevelled, forming a somewhat conical mouthpiece, so to speak, to the trachea. The accompanying wood- cut (Fig. 2) will enable the reader better to realize the formation of the vocal lips. In studying the laryngoscopic image it must be borne in mind that it is vertical, the parts nearest the mirror appearing highest and those farthest away oc- cupying the lowest place. The epiglottis, therefore, 3 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. is seen at the top, and the hinder part of the larynx at the bottom, the vocal cords being visible between the two, and appearing to run upwards to their point of junction below the epiglottis. It must be remem- bered, too, that the image is reversed as regards the spectator ; that is to say, the part which seems most distant from him is in reality nearest, and vice versa, and the cord which corresponds with his right side is the left cord of the person observed, and so on. Thèse Fig. 2.—The Glottis. (Seen from below in an Exsected Larynx, the Vocal Cords being Fixed in the Position they Assume in the Emission of a Low Chest-Note in Life.) N. B.—The projection at the anterior (upper) part is the lower edge of the thyroid cartilage, whilst that at the back (lower) is the lower edge of the cricoid. complications make laryngoscopy a difricult art to those who hâve not a practical familiarity with the parts as they are in themselves; no amount of book lore and study of anatomical plates1 will enable a man to read the writing on the little mirror aright unless it has been supplemented and corrected by the careful examination of an exsected larynx. The différence between the two mental conditions may be compared 1 It is still more impossible to acquire more than a very hazy notion of the structure or appearance of the larynx from plates alone, in which it is impossible to represent the différence of levé/ of the various parts. THE VOICE. 35 to that between the knowledge of a district acquired from the study of a railway map and that gained by making an actual survey of the ground. Laryngoscopic examination is easier in some persons than in others, and the student should know something of the difficulties that may beset his path. Irritabil- ity of the throat is the most common obstacle, the con- tact of the mirror with the délicate lining membrane causing such distress that the opération cannot be borne. In other persons the tongue arches itself like the back of an angry cat and hides the mirror from view. In others again the epiglottis is folded over the larynx in such a way that only a small portion of the interior can be seen. Although the laryngoscope is invaluable in the récognition and treatment of diseases which before could only be guessed at and let alone, it is surprising how little it has up to the présent time added to our knowledge of the physiology of the larynx. Indeed, with the exception of certain points relating to the " falsetto " register, the laryngoscope can scarcely be said to hâve thrown any new light on the mechanism of the voice. This will no doubt be a " hard saying " to many vocalists who look upon the little mirror as a sort of magie glass in which the whble secret of Na- ture's workmanship is made visible to the eye. A very slight acquaintance with laryngoscopic literature, however, is sufricient to disabuse the mind of any such notion. In spéculative subjects one is prepared for any amount of disagreement, but in matters of physical observation a person of even the least sanguine temper 36 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. might look for a certain degree of uniformity in the results. Instead of this, however, we find B upon the direct évidence of his laryngoscope flatly contradicting the statements of A, an equally compétent observer, whilst C again differs from both. No such discrepancy is found in laryngoscopic studies of disease ; the différ- ences as regards the voice must, therefore, arise from some spécial cause. The fact is that much greater skill is required for the examination of the larynx in the act of singing than for ordinary médical purposes, for which in most cases a mère glimpse of the parts is ail that is required. Such lightning glances, however, are of little use in elucidating the mysteries of voice- production. For that purpose the whole of the larynx must lie open to the view; every nook and cranny of its interior must be explored; the most minute change in the relative position of its parts, the least quiver, so to speak, of its muscles must be noted, and ail this has to be done for a considérable period of time continuously. It is clear that not only must the observer hâve a degree of skill altogether beyond the average, but he must be provided with a fairly tolérant subject. His observations must, therefore, be confined to a comparatively small number of cases, a limitation which must to some extent detract from the value of his results. As a matter of fact hitherto nearly every worker in this field has made his own larynx the principal, if not the sole, object of his attention; the conclusions arrived at under such circumstances can be accepted as valid only for the particular case. The discrepancy between the results in différent individuals THE VOICE. 37 is perhaps to be explained on that ground. Moreover, the throat can seldom bear such prolonged examina- tion unless it has become hardened to it by repeated practice. For délicate surgical manipulations we find that in most cases a course of training is required be- fore they can be undergone. For inspection during singing an even greater degree of tolérance is required. The art of producing the voice with the mirror in the mouth has first to be acquired, and the inside of the larynx must be fully exposed during the whole pro- cédure. The parts must, therefore, be seen under more or less artificial conditions, which may lead the observer utterly astray as to the normal state of things. To avoid thèse sources of error, as far as possible in- vestigations should be made on an extensiv? scale and in a great variety of cases. It is only thus, as a récent writer ' says, that the " essential " in voice-production can be separated from the " incidental." The classifi- cation of Grûtzner,2 who divides the subject into three groups, viz., non-singers, natural singers, and trained singers, is unnecessarily exhaustive, for the study of the throat in non-singers can hardly be expected to throw much light on the subject. In order to get exact views of the larynx the art of photography has been called in to the aid of the lar- yngeal mirror. Czermak was the pioneer in this as in other developments of laryngoscopy, but his success ' Dr. W'esley Mills, "An Examination of Some Controverted Points of the Physiology of the Voice, Especially the Registers of the Singing Voice and the Falsetto."—fournal of Physiology, vol. iv., No. 2. 2 " Physiologie der Stimme und Sprache."—Hermann s Handbuch der Physiologie, Bd. i., Theil ii. Leipzig, 1879. 38 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. was so indiffèrent that he did not feel encouraged to persévère. In 1882 Dr. French and Mr. Brainard, of Brooklyn, U. S., exhibited to the American Laryngo- logical Association the results of some experiments in the same direction, and soon afterwards Messrs. Browne and Behnke of London published some photo- graphie views of the interior of the larynx during the production of certain notes. In August, 1884, Dr. French presented to the International Médical Con- gress at Copenhagen a séries of photographs of the larynx of a comparatively high degree of excellence, and the problem may now be considered solved. It is questionable, however, whether the practical out- come of such persevering efforts is at ail commensurate with the time and trouble which they must hâve cost. My own feeling in looking at thèse photographs is more one of admiration oî the ingenuity and resource displayed in overcoming a great difficulty, than of édification by the actual results. No obscure point in the mechanism of the voice has been elucidated by the caméra, whilst for purposes of instruction the views of the larynx obtained thereby are less valuable, because less clear, than ordinary drawings. In examining the larynx of a bass or baritone in the act of singing low notes (when the vibrations are comparatively slow), the vocal cords, and often the arytenoid cartilages can be seen to quiver, the appear- ance being primarily caused by the vibration of the substance of the cords, which is the essential factor of vocal sound. In high notes the vibration is too rapid to be visible, just as the wheels of a railway carriage THE VOICE. 39 rotate with such velocity that no movement is per- ceptible. As a clear conception of vibration is essen- tial for the understanding of the mechanism of the voice, I make no apology for adding a word or two of explanation about it. Vibration is the regular to-and- fro (or in this case, up-and-down) movement, of which there is a familiar exemplification in the pendulum of a clock, or in a tuning-fork when sounding its note. The vibrating body moves through the air for a certain distance, and then returns to its original position. This movement may of course be repeated any num- ber of times, and with greater or less rapidity, every swing this way or that way of the pendulum and every quiver of the tuning-fork being of the same length, and the moving body travelling through an equal distance in an equal space of time. If a body exécutes such a movement 80 times in a second, the rate of vibration is of course slower than if it were performed 800 times in the same period ; the greater or less rapidity of vibration constitutes the fundamental différence in pitch between one tone and another. Sound is produced by the vibrating body creating a movement in the surrounding atmosphère, just as a stone thrown into water makes ripples on its surface. The particles of the air propagate the impulse one to another, and the wave thus formed finally strikes on the ear, making an impression on the auditory nerve which is flashed inwards to the brain, where it is per- ceived as sound. It follows that there is no sound unless there be a hearer. The thunder rolls in silence, the avalanche falls noisekssly, unless reverberated in a 4ô HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. living ear which can translate the rushing of the dis- turbed atmospheric atoms into sound. The greater the number of vibrations in a given time, the higher is the tone. If the larynx is watched whilst différent notes are being produced, it will be noticed that, whilst the cords are more and more tightly stretched as the voice rises in pitch, they be- come gradually less and less tense as it descends. The larynx is a musical instrument, unique in con- Fig. 3.—The Vocal Reeds Shown in a Transverse Vertical Section. The triangular pièce near the middle repiesents the vocal cord proper (the dotted lines showing the course it takes in vibrating; ; the shaded part to the outer side is the thyro-arytenoid muscle. struction, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed with any other sound-producing apparatus. It bears a close resemblance, however, to the so-called reed instruments, though differing from them in several important points. Reeds are of différent kinds, but the essential feature in ail is that they break up a con- tinuous current of air into a séries of jets or puffs. Two chief varieties of reed are used in the construc- tion of musical instruments. One consists of a thin plate or " tongue " of métal or wood, one end of which THÉ VOICE. 41 is fixed, whilst the other extremity hangs free in the cavity of a tube, or partly covers an opening after the manner of a valve. The action of such a reed when the loose end or edge is set in motion may be compared to that of a pendulum oscillating about a fixed point. When a blast of air is driven along the pipe it strikes the reed, throwing it upwards a certain distance; the tongue then returns, by virtue of its elasticity, to its former position, when it is again pushed up, and so on ; in other words, the reed is thrown into vibration, and a sound is produced of a pitch corresponding to the length of the vibrating body. The longer the reed the deeper the note, and vice versa. Tongues of this kind may be either single, as in the clarionet, or double, as in the hautboy. Another class of reed consists of plates or disks, which fit into or cover an opening in a tube, without, however, being in actual contact with the edges of the aperture which they close. A familiar example of this arrange- ment is seen in the tongues of a concertina. The vocal reeds do not resemble either of the kinds just described. They are elastic membranes which must be stretched between their fixed points of attachment before they can be made to vibrate. This stretching is effected by the action of the various muscles acting on the cords ; and the degree of tension can be altered and the vibrating élément lengthened or shortened at will, so that one cord serves the purpose of many reeds of différent sizes, a triumph of economy of material com- bined with perfection of mechanism to which there is nothing comparable in any musical instrument " made 42 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. with hands." As there are two vocal cords, it is obvi- ous that the membranous reed in the human larynx is double; in the act of sounding the voice, however, when the cords corne together, it is practically a single membrane, with a narrow slit in the centre, stretched from before backwards over the top of the windpipe. An eminent man of science has said that the human eye is so defective as an optical instrument that he would return it to any artificer who sent him so poor a pièce of work. I am not aware, however, that this superior person has yet found much évidence of bung- ling in the larynx, though I hâve no doubt that, like Alfonso the Wise, if consulted he might hâve been able to suggest improvements. However that may be, we must be content with the instrument as it is, and even philosophers must allow that the tiny chink with movable edges can discourse most éloquent music, beyond the power of human inventors to rival. The timbre of the voice is that peculiarity of sound which enables a listener to identify a friend by his voice as readily as he recognizes his bodily présence with the eye. Timbre is in fact the physiognomy of the voice.1 Helmholtz has proposed the somewhat fanci- 1 Xearly every one must hâve known instances of persons being recog- nized by their voice when the lapse of years had entirely altered their appearance. When the possibility of prématuré interment was discussed in the French Chamber some years ago, the Cardinal Archbishopof Bor- deaux told a striking story of how he had himself escaped 1 eing buried during a cataleptic fit by being roused from his trance by hearing the voice of an early friend whoin he had not seen for many years. An extraordinary example of identification by mcans of the voice was given not long ago in the Boston Médical and Surgical foiirnal (October io, 1889). A vétéran of the Civil War, livin^ in Connecticut, rccognized THE VOICE. 43 fui term Klangfarbe (" tone-color ") to replace the word timbre, and Professor Tyndall has translated the word by " clang-tint." Surely there is no need to in- fringe on the Hibernian monopoly of " bulls " by such a mixture of ideas. To a plain mind the expression " quality of tone " seems to render the notion with perfect adequacy. The various musical instruments hâve each their own peculiar and characteristic quality of sound ; one violin may be discriminated from an- other by an experienced ear as readily as two différent voices. In the case of instruments the différence of tone is no doubt due to their shape and the material of which they are made, and in two of the same class, e.g., violins, it is probably dépendent on minute différ- ences of form, or on the grain, âge, or quality of the wood. In like manner the timbre of the voice dépends on structural différences in the vocal organs—size, density, elasticity, and relative situation being no doubt important factors. Every musical sound, as Helmholtz1 has shown, is " compounded of many simples;" that is to say, the fundamental tone is reinforced by a number of second- ary sounds, higher in pitch and fainter in intensity— " harmonies," as they are called by musicians—which accompany, and as it were écho it, the whole being blended into one sensation to the ear. Then, again, it is well known that every resonance-cavity has what by the voice alone a negro who was one of three escaping slaves stopped by him when on guard near Newbern, North Carolina, in 1861, tvventy- eight years before. 1 " Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage fiir die Théorie der Musik." Berlin, i S77. HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. may be called an " élective afifinity " for one particular note, to the vibrations of which it responds sympathet- ically, like a lover's heart answering that of his be- loved. As the crude tone issues from the larynx, the mouth, tongue, and soft palate moulding themselves by the most delicately adapted movements into every conceivable variety of shape, clothe the raw bones of sound with body and living richness of tone. Each of the various resonance-chambers re-echoes its corre- sponding tone, so that a single well-delivered note is in reality a full choir of harmonious sounds. It is obvious that whilst some of the notes may be in tune with the resonators, others may not; the former, therefore, will be echoed in the pharynx and strength- ened, whilst the latter will be more or less drowned. Hence the infinité diversity of voices, no two throats being exactly alike in ail their parts. Timbre being thus so largely dépendent on physical structure is no doubt often inherited, and to a certain extent may corne to be an ethnological feature. Thus the aborig- ines of New Zealand, in whom the hollow spaces in the bones of the skull, technically called "sinuses," are very ill developed, hâve voices remarkably déficient in résonance. The Italian ore rotundo utterance is almost a racial peculiarity; and, if one may say so without impertinence, the voice as well as the speech of our Transatlantic cousins bewrayeth them, just as, it may be presumed, our own vocal peculiarities strike their ears. THE SINGING VOICE. 45 CHAPTER III. THE SINGING VOICE. Section I. The Voice : its Origin, Development, and Decay. HAVING seen what the voice is, inquiring minds may wish to know how man came to be possessed of so useful an endowment. For those who believe that homo primas was suddenly called from the vasty deep of nothingness, and sprang into being, like Minerva, from the head of Jupiter, fully equipped for the battle of life, the answer is easy : they would say man brought his voice with him just as he brought language, moral sensé, and (if a Scotchman) a ready-made System of theology. To those, however, who hâve grasped the great fact of évolution, the question is not soluble in this high-handed manner. The vocal function is pri- marily a means of expression. I see no reason for dis- agreeing with Darwin, when he says that " the prime- val use and means of development of the voice " was as an instrument of sexual attraction. The progeni- tors of man, both male and female, are supposed to hâve made every effort to charm each other by vocal melody, or what they considered to be such, and by constant practice with that object the vocal organs became developed. Darwin seems inclined to believe 46 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. that, as women hâve sweeter voices than men, they were the first to acquire musical powers in order to attract the other sex, by which I suppose he means that the féminine voice owes its greater sweetness to more persevering culture for its original purpose. Other émotions, however, besides the master passion of love had to be expressed ; joy, anger, fear, and pain had ail to find utterance, and the nervous centres ex- cited by thèse various stimuli threw the whole muscu- lar System into violent contractions, which in the case of the muscles moving the chest and the vocal cords naturally produced sound—that is to say, voice. Thèse movements, at first accidentai and purposeless, in time became inseparably associated with the emotional state giving rise to them, so as to coincide with it, and thus serve as an index or expression thereof. From this to the voluntary émission of vocal sounds is an easy step, and it is probable enough that the character of those sounds was primarily due to the "imitation and modification of différent natural sounds, the voices of other animais and man's own instinctive cries." ' As every one knows, the voice can be used in two altogether différent ways—for purposes of communi- cation with one's fellow-men in speech ; for emotional expression or artistic effect in song. How do thèse two modes of using the voice differ from each other ? Hullah2 explains the relation of the singing to the speaking voice as consisting in this, that whilst the 1 Descent of Man, 2nd édition, 1882, p. 87. 2 The Cultivation of the Speaking Voice, 2nd édition, Oxford, 1874, p. 16. THE SINGING VOICE. 47 latter is heard during the passage from one sound to another, i.e., at intervais, the former is heard only in " sounds—the terms or boundaries of intervais." There is a smack of metaphysical subtlety about this distinc- tion which makes it somewhat difficult to grasp by the ordinary mind. I am almost disposed to doubt whether the différence between speech and song is anything more than that in the former the range is limited to a very few notes delivered without regard to musical time. Speech differs from song as walking does from dancing: speech may be called the prose, song the poetry of vocal sound. Mr. Herbert Spencer has de- fined song as " emotional speech," but this term might with greater justice be used to designate the hystero- epileptic oratory which under the influence of the "union of hearts " threatens to become acclimatized in this sober island, or even to the exchange of ameni- ties between two angry cabmen. It would be more accurate to call song " musical speech," using the word "musical" in its strict sensé as signifying sound with definite variations of tone and regularity of time. Eut, just as there may be " songs without words," so there may be speech without voice, as in whispering. Sound, as we hâve already seen, is produced m the larynx, but articulation, or the transformation of meaningless sound into speech, is performed in the mouth; in speaking, therefore, the two parts work together, the larynx sending out a stream of sound, and the mouth, by means of the tongue, cheeks, palate, teeth, and lips, breaking it up into variously formed jets or words. In 48 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. other words, the larynx supplies the raw material of sound which the mouth manufactures into speech.1 Time, which is an essential élément of song, is alto- gether disregarded in speech, whilst the intervais of tone are so irregular as to defy notation, and are filled up with a number of intermediate sounds instead of being sharply defined. The voice glides about at its own sweet will in speaking, obeying no rule whatever, whilst in song it springs or drops from one tone to the next over strictly measured gaps. In singing, short syllables are lengthened out and cease, in fact, to be short, and (except in certain kinds of dramatic singing and in recitative) the accent naturally falls on the vowels and not on the consonants. In speaking, only the lower third of the voice is employed as a rule, whilst in singing the greatest effect is generally pro- duced, except in the case of contraltos and basses, by the use of the upper and middle notes. In speech the range of tone, even in the most excitable persons, hardly ever exceeds half an octave ; in singing the average compass is from two to two and a half octaves. Singing tends to préserve purity of language, the rules which govern the utterance of every note also affect- ing the articulate élément combined with it, and keep- ing the words cast in fixed forms—a stéréotype of sound, if I may venture the metaphor. Speech, on the other hand, like handwriting, is always changing. As Max Mùller says: " A struggle for life is constantly 1 As an old Spanish writer, Juan de Zabaleta says (Obras, Madrid, 1728, p. 59), La voz es la materia de que formamos las palabras, (" The voice is the material out of which we shape words.") awo* THE SINGING VOICE. 49 going on amongst the words and grammatical forms in each language. The better, the shorter, the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand, and they owe their success to their own inhérent vir- tue." ' Thus speech not only tends to split language into dialects, but each dialect is being continually, though imperceptibly, modified, not only in construc- tion but in pronunciation. The pronunciation of an Englishman of Chaucer's day would be unintelligible to us, whilst that of one of Shakespeare's contem- poraries would be as strange to our ears as the accent of an Aberdeen fishwife is to the average Cockney. If the speaking voice has a distinctly sing-song char- acter—that is to say, if it proceeds by musical intervais —the resuit is as grotesque as if one were to talk in blank verse, or, as Sir Toby Belch says, " to go to church in a galliard and corne home in a coranto." On the other hand, the speaking voice becomes most sympathetic in its quality when it approaches the singing voice, the musical character, however, being concealed by the variety of its inflections. It is im- portant that in speaking, a musical note should never be recognized ; the effect is as unpleasant to our ears as an accidentai hexameter in a sentence of prose was to the ancients. Wide as the différence is between speech and song, the great gulf fixed between them is partly filled up by intermediate modes of using the voice which partake of the nature of both. Thus there is the measured utterance of déclamation, which may be so 1 iVature, January 6, 1870 4 50 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. rhythmical in time and varied in tone as to be almost song. On the other hand, the récitativo of the opéra approaches speech. Various intermediate forms be- tween speech and song may be heard in the ordinary speech of certain races, notably in Italians, Welshmen, and the inhabitants of certain parts of Scotland and England. The Puritans, as is well known, uttered their formai and affected diction in a peculiar nasal tone; and the term " cant," though properly belong- ing to their sing-song delivery, came to be applied to the sentiments expressed by it. Many of the ancient orators, to judge from the description left us by Cicero and Quintilian, would seem to hâve sung their speeches, the style of déclamation being, in fact, expressly termed cantus obscurior. As they generally spoke in the open air, and to vast audiences, this artificial mode of delivery may hâve been necessary in order to make the voice reach further than if they had spoken in a more natural way. C. Gracchus used to hâve a musi- cian behind him while he spoke, to give him the note from time to time with a musical instrument called a tonarion. The différence in most cases between singers and those who hâve " no voice " is really a defect of ear on the part of the latter, who are naturally unable to imitate sounds, that is, reproduce gradations of pitch, which, as a matter of fact, they either do not hear at ail, or only imperfectly. The average compass of the singing voice is from two to two and a half octaves; a range of three octaves is exceptional, whilst one of four is almost THE SINGING VOICE. ijt phénoménal. The artistic effect produced with this small stock of available notes is as wonderful in its way as the marvellous results that can be got out of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet. The limits of strength of the voice hâve not, so far as I know, been accurately determined ; it is obvious that they must dépend on circumstances of an almost infinitely vari- able nature. The singing voice may begin as early as the âge of three; many children can be taught to sing little airs when they are between three and four years old. From the âge of six till the period of puberty—four- teen to sixteen—the voice undergoes but little change except in the way of gaining power. A very marked altération, however, takes place at that time, and this change, though chiefly notice ble in the male sex, is also évident enough in girls. In the former, the voice, after passing through a longer or shorter period of transition, becomes fundamentally altered in character, growing deeper and fuller, and acquiring a " manly " tone. The anatomical features of the change may be summed up as follows:—Increase in size of the larynx in ail its dimensions; enlargement and consolidation of the cartilages (thyroid, cricoid, and arytenoid); the angle formed in front by the two wings of the thyroid becomes sharper and more marked, so that it is more prominent in the neck; lastly, the vocal cords become longer and thicker. In the female similar physical modifications also take place, though to a much less extent ; the voice gains a tone or two in compass, be- sides becoming stronger, sweeter, and richer. The 52 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. voice remains much the same throughout adult life, growing fuller, however, up to the âge of thirty or even thirty-five, but in men what may be called a second change often occurs between fifty and sixty, or even earlier; the lary'ngeal cartilages stiffen and turn in part or wholly into bone, whilst the soft tissues lose a portion of their elasticity. In most men after fifty, though sometimes the change is deferred for some years, the voice loses power and volume, and often also something in tone, till in extrême old âge it be- comes shrill and quavering. " His big manly voice Turning again towards childish treble, pipes And whistles in his sound." r In women there is also loss of résonance and flexi- bility in advanced âge, though the change is often scarcely noticeable in ordinary conversation. It must hâve been known empirically ever since singing was first cultivated as an art that there are certain points in the ascending scale which it is diffi- cult or impossible for the voice to get beyond without in some way changing the manner of production. The number of thèse "breaks," as well as the gamut-level ' Of course, there are exceptional organizations in which the voice re- tains its freshness and agility even in advanced âge. Rubini and La- blache were in " full song" at the âge of sixty-two, and Sims Reeves can still produce notes which many a singer in his prime would be glad to possess. Mr. Tom Holmes can yet claim the title of "Champion Ténor " at a period of life considerably beyond the Biblical limit. I may mention, as showing that the rétention of the vocal power dépends largely on the gênerai organization, that this gentleman won a cycle race, when he was seventy-six years old, against a most skilful per- former in the prime of life. THE SL\GL\G ïOICE. 53 at which they occur, varies in individual cases; in nearly ail, however, there is one fundamental division between the lower and upper parts of the voice. This is found in most voices at some point which varies in différent persons. In other words, at a variable point in the musical scale, there is, as it were, a gulf fixed; on one side of this (the lower) is a séries of notes which are produced in a way giving rise to certain sensations; on the other (the higher) is another séries. Section IL - The Registers. It is of the first importance in this somewhat intri- cate matter to define terms. This is the more neces- sary as the word " register " has been used in two différent sensés, one in which it signifies the pitch of a given note, whilst in the other a particular mode of production is meant. Previously to the year 1841 the term " register " was employed in the loosest manner, and teachers of singing are as much indebted to Pro- fessor Garcia for first giving a précise and definite meaning to this term as physicians and patients are for his invention of the laryngoscope. In his cele- brated work entitled Traite complet de rArt du Chant Garcia gave an excellent définition of a register (see footnote, p. 241). My own définition is shorter, and jet nevertheless perhaps more exact than that of Garcia's, on which it is founded. By a register I mean the séries of tones of like quality producible by 54 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. a particular adjustment of the vocal cords. Strictly speaking, there is a différent " register," i.e., a certain appropriate condition of the laryngeal orifice, for every note, but the actual mechanical principles involved are only two. In singing up the scale, the vocalist feels that at a certain point he has to alter his method of production in order to reach the higher notes. This point marks the break between the so-called " chest " and " head " registers, or what may be called the lower and upper stories of the voice. This division of the voice is fundamental, ail others being based either on convenience for teaching purposes, or on fantastic notions derived from subjective sensations or errone- ous laryngoscopic observations. The subject of the registers has been much debated by the learned, and still more perhaps by the un- learned; it is the " Eastern question " of vocal physi- ology- Quite a considérable literature has gathered round it ; philosophers hâve lost their tempers and musicians hâve shown a plentiful lack of harmony in discussing it. The inhérent difficulties of the subject hâve been increased by the fantastic terminology which has corne down to us from a pre-scientific âge, and by the erroneous observations of incompétent persons. I can touch only very lightly on the subject hère, but those who may wish for a full exposition will find it treated in détail in Appendix II. of this volume. The first step towards acquiring clear notions on the subject is to discard the terms " chest " and "head " voice, which are meaningless and often mis- leading. Whatever numbers of registers there may THE SINGING VOICE. 55 be, and however they may be produced, it is certain that the change of mechanism takes place only in the larynx, which I hâve already (p. 27) shown to be the essential organ of the voice. I hâve suggested that the terms " long-reed " and " short-reed " register should be used to designate the two fundamental divisions of the human voice.1 In the former, usually called "chest voice," the vocal cords vibrate in their whole length, and the sounds are reinforced largely by the cavity of the chest, the walls of which can be felt to vibrate strongly when this register is used. In the latter, " head " voice, or falsetto, only a part of the cord vibrâtes, and the sound is reinforced by the up- per resonators, mouth, bony cavities of the skull, &c. It is this which has given rise to the absurd statements of singers that they could feel their head notes coming fr.om the back of the nose, the forehead, &c. In the " long-reed " register the pitch is raised by the in- creasing tension and lengthening2 of the vibrating élément; in the "short-reed" register by graduai shortening of it. This is effected by a curious process which can be distinctly seen in the living throat with the laryngoscope. The two cords are forced against each other at their hinder part with such force as to stop each other's movement. While the notes of the chest register issue from the natural aperture of the larynx, the head notes come through an artificially 1 The division of "higher " and " lower " used by Mandl and by some of the présent teachers of singing in France is objectionable, as many notes can be sung equally well in both registers. 2 The actual elongation is very slight, not more than a line or so. 56 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. diminished orifice, the chink becoming gradually smaller till there is nothing left to vibrate, when the limit of the voice is reached. The two registers gen- erally overiap for a greater or less extent, a few notes about the middle of the voice being capable of being sung in either. Till a comparatively récent date the generally re- ceived explanation of the registers was that, while in the delivery of chest notes the whole substance of the vocal cord vibrated, in the " head " voice only its thin inner margin did so ; in both cases the entire length of the cord was supposed to vibrate. The shortening of the vibrating reed, however, by the mutual " stopping " process mentioned above, is not a theory, but a fact which can be seen. I am inclined to believe that under certain circumstances the two processes of shortening and marginal vibration may be combined. This may possibly be the true mechanism of the fal- setto voice, as to which there has been so much dis- pute. It is clear that the term has been used by différ- ent persons in différent sensés, and much of the con- fusion which exists on the subject is, in my opinion, due to this cause. By most of the old Italian writers, the term falsetto is used as synonymous with head voice; by others it is employed to dénote that kind of voice "whereby a man going beyond the upper limit of his natural voice counterfeits that of a woman" (Rousseau, Dictionnaire de Musique). A similar différ- ence of opinion exists as to the beauty of falsetto some speaking rapturously of its flute-like softness, others reviling it as " the most disagreeable of ail THE SINGING VOICE. 57 timbres of the human voice " (Rousseau, ibid.). I sub- mit that " falsetto " and " head " voice should not be used interchangeably. The " long-reed " and "short- reed " registers are used alike by the two sexes, the greater part of the male voice, however, belonging to the former, and the greater part of the female, as a rule, to the latter, but some of the great singers pro- duce their marvellous voices entirely with the " long- reed " or " chest " voice.1 It would be better that the term " falsetto " should be reserved for the artificial method of delivery, by which the limited " short-reed " register in men is forced upwards beyond its natural compass. Those who hâve been accustomed to ascend rivers in boats will appreciate an aquatic analogy of locks as ap- plied to the change of registers. At a certain level of the voice there is a sort of natural lock whereby the voice can be hoisted up. In this way the weirs or " breaks " are avoided, and the voice starts again on a new level. Thèse différent vocal reaches are technically known as " registers," a word which calls combative professors to battle like a trumpet. In a few persons, however, as has just been remarked, this double mechanism is not brought into opération, sound flowing on in one unbroken stream from the lowest note to the highest. Many singing masters, not content with the great 1 Mancini (Pensieri e riflessioni pratiche sopra il canto fgurato, Vienna, 1774, p. 43) says that in certain rare instances there is only one register—the " chest "—throughout the whole compass of the voice : —" Si da anche qualche raro esempio che qualcheduno riceve dalla natura il singolarissimo dono di poter eseguir tutto colla sola voce di petto." 58 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. natural divisions of the voice which hâve just been in- dicated, insist that there are five différent registers, each with a distinct mechanism of its own (see Appen- dix IL, p. 236 et seq.). I am not a maestro, and, there- fore, I am willing to admit that, artistically speaking, there ougJit to be five registers, or, in fact, any num- ber of them that may be thought désirable. But if that is a necessity of art, it is not a necessity of na- ture, which does ail that is required by the simple process which has been described. The différences of mechanism on which the singing masters profess to base their division are mostly of so subtle a nature as to be almost invisible to the eye, and sometimes even hardly appréciable by the ordinary intellect. I think, however, there is a way of reconciling their views with mine, d-iametrically opposed as they at first sight seem to be. As a physiologist, I speak solely of the tone of a note, that is to say, of its place in the musical scale, and I say, That note is delivered by the long- reed or short-reed adjustment, as the case may be ; as musjcians, on the other hand, the maestri, speaking of the quality as well as of the tone, say, That note ought to be delivered in such and such a way to make it artistically beautiful. In the one case the voice is con- sidered purely as it is produced in the larynx; in the other, as it is delivered by a well-trained singer man- aging his résonance apparatus to the best advantage. Now, for this resuit many things are needed besides the correct adjustment of the vocal cords. The sup- ply of breath must be regulated to a nicety, and the position of the tongue, soft palate, cheeks, and lips THE SINGING VOICE. 59 must be precisely that which is best for the utterance of each particular note. There are rules founded on expérience which govern ail thèse things; thèse rules are expressed in terms of subjective sensations, which are scientifically absurd, but, at the same time, may be practically useful, as indicating the feelings that should accompany the right performance of the ma- nœuvre required. It is on ail this complicated mech- anism that the five registers of the singing masters are based ; the more or less fanciful changes in'the larynx, to which they attribute the slight, but artistic- ally vital, différences in production which their trained ear enables them to appreciate, hâve in reality but little share in the resuit. The différence between ar- tistic and inartistic production of the voice dépends far more on the management of the resonators than on the adjustment of the vocal cords. Returning to the mechanism of the falsetto some further observations must be made. It is generally believed that in the falsetto the vocal cords are re- laxed, and that only their margins vibrate. It must be clearly understood that the relaxation is only compar- ative; the cords require to hâve a certain degree of tension to vibrate at ail, but it is proportionately less in the falsetto than in the chest register in order to compensate for the diminished strength of blast in the former. The sensé of relief which is experienced in passing from the long to the short reed is probably due to this cause and also in some measure to the in- crease in the size of the opening between the vocal cords, freer exit of air being thus permitted. As re- 60 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. gards the theory of marginal vibration, it may be re- marked that it owes its origin to a single experiment of Lehfeldt (see Appendix IL, p. 239) in which, while blowing air up the trachea, he produced in an exsected larynx a sound somewhat resembling that of the flageolet. On looking at the vocal cords with a mag- nifying glass, he thought that the margins and not the whole substance of the vocal cords vibrated. Ac- cepted by Miiller, this theory has come to be regarded as almost an ultimate fact in the physiology of voice- production. Ail, however, that is seen with the laryn- goscope is that in the head and falsetto registers there is an elliptical opening between the vocal cords near their anterior commissure. Although Lehfeldt could recognize the limitation of the vibrations in an exsected larynx entirely under his control only with the aid of a lens, many laryn- goscopists hâve gone so far as to say that they hâve been able to see thèse vibrations in the laryngeal mir- ror. It is difficult, however, to imagine that such limited movements could be visible to the naked eye at a distance of twelve inches (the nearest point at which it is possible to obtain a good view of the larynx) when it is remembered that the parts of which the vibrations are said to be seen do not exceed half an inch in length and a sixteenth of an inch in width. It is still more incredible that the keenest sight could perceive that one portion of so small and distant an object vibrâtes whilst another remains fixed ; yet we are asked to believe that it could be seen that "the fine edges of the vocal cords were alone vibrating!" THE SINGING VOICE. 6ï It should be borne in mind also that thèse viDrations may take place at a rate of nearly 1,000 per second, or, if we include both the to-and-fro movements of vibration, as is the custom in France, at the rate of nearly 2,000 per second ! Furthermore, as the vibra- tions are primarily up and down (not from side to side), the observer looks on the upper surface of the cords, and is, therefore, in a position in which the difrî- culty of noticing such movements is greatly intensified. I must confess that I hâve never myself been able to see such vibrations in high notes, whether chest or falsetto; I hâve only been able to see them in the lower notes, especially in baritone and bass singers, and in the production of the speaking voice. The mechanism by which the outer portion of the /ocal cords is prevented from vibrating is generally supposed to be the contraction of the latéral fibres of the thyro-arytenoid muscle (see Appendix L, p. 222), but according to Mandl a further vibration-checking apparatus is supplied in the falsetto by the ventricular bands, which are forcibly drawn down so as to press on the upper surface of the vocal cord, by that means leaving only a narrow free margin to be acted on by the àir-blast. However plausible this may be as a theory, it is, as Holmes points out, difficult if not im- possible to establish by direct observation, as the parts cannot be looked at obliquely enough to déter- mine whether there is actual contact of the ventric- ular bands with the cords. Though I hâve often tried to see the action, I hâve never succeeded. Neverthe- less it is right to state that MM. Gouguenheim and 62 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. Lermoyez say they hâve seen it in one case, a bass singer in the act of using the falsetto register.1 Ma- dame Seiler thinks that the anterior closure of the vo- cal cords is often facilitated by the présence of minute pièces of cartilage in the substance of the cord in this situation. She suggests that thèse may be more often présent in the female than in the male larynx, and as, from its larger size, the latter is generally made use of for dissection, they may hâve thus been overlooked by anatomists. Madame Seiler states that her obser- vations are supported by the description in Wilson's Anatomy, but, as far as I hâve been able to ascertain, the small cartilages referred to in that text-book are situated between the cartilages of Wrisberg and San- torini. Dr. Elsberg, however, appears to hâve met with cartilages corresponding to those described by Madame Seiler. I hâve seen with the laryngoscope four cases in which small white specks were présent in the anterior part of the vocal cords. They did not cause any projection, and may hâve been of cartilag- inous structure, but in every one of thèse instances the individual concerned sang out of tune. The sub- jects were ail women, and in none did any benefit arise from treatment. I hâve on several occasions examined dissected female larynxes with the express object of discovering the cartilages described by Madame Seiler, but I hâve not been so fortunate as to meet with them. As regards the action of the parts above the glottis, it is admitted by ail that in the lowest tones of the 1 Physiologie de la Voix et du Chant Paris, 1885, p. 142. THE SINGING VOICE. 63 voice the epiglottis falls back over the larynx so as to leave little more than the arytenoid cartilages visible. As the pitch rises so does the epiglottis, and when the upper falsetto or head register is reached the whole length of the cords becomes exposed to view. Garcia1 goes so far as to make a widely open condi- tion of the upper outlet of the larynx a distinguishing feature of falsetto production. Holmes, on the other hand, maintains that in the production of falsetto " !"he rim of the larynx instead of becoming dilated suffers a progressive and marked constriction until at last only the edges of the vocal bands can be seen through the narrow orifice that remains."2 My own investigations are entirely in accordance with thèse observations of Holmes's. In other words, the sound produced in the glottis is, as it were, squeezed through an inverted funnel as it passes upwards into the mouth. A somewhat similar action is believed by others to take place in the pharynx (see Appendix L, p. 229), the walls of which, as already said, are muscu- lar, and Mills attributes to this cause the sensé of fatigue in that région which is often experienced in the production of the head voice.3 MM. Gouguenheim and Lermoyez 4 attach much im- portance to the fact that in the falsetto register the soft palate is forcibly drawn back and upwards so as entirely to prevent the passage of air through the nose. Expérimental proof of this is, according to 1 Observations Physiologiques sur la Voix Humaine, 2nd éd., Paris, 1861. 2 Op. cit. p. 119. 3 Loc. cit. p. 153. 4 Op. cit. p. 157. 64 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. them, afforded by the fact that if the vowel e (pro- nounced like our English a as in fate) be uttered in a chest tone whilst the nostrils are compressed it has a distinctly nasal character, whereas if sounded in the head register, under the same conditions, the nasal twang is absent, whence it may be inferred that in the latter case the whole of the air-current passes through the mouth. To return to the subject of voice production, the long-reed and short-reed mechanisms are the natural features of the vocal territory, ail other subdivisions being, as it were, merely political. The problem may be stated thus: Given a single reed (for the two cords, as has been said, act as one reed), how to produce variety of pitch ? Three fac- tors must be taken into account in considering any vocal sound produced by the larynx: first, the degree of tension of the cords; secondly, the quantity of reed that is thrown into vibration (this may vary as re- gards (a) length, and (b) breadth) ; and, thirdly, strength of blast. Stretching will of itself raise the pitch, the strength, of blast remaining the same, and, conversely, increase of blowing-power alone will heighten pitch, the tension remaining the same. There are limits, of course, beyond which neither the tension nor the air- blast can be increased. The difficulty is met by shortening the cords, i.e., providing a shorter reed, whereby, ipso facto, pitch is raised, and can be height- ened still more with less expenditure of wind-power. In putting forward this view I make no claim to orig- inality. The reed theory of the voice has been almost THE SINGING VOICE. 65 universally accepted for many years. Since Magendie ' propounded it, Mùller's experiments hâve established its truth. The former physiologist even went so far as to say, that, in dogs at least, as the tones become higher in pitch the reed is gradually shortened.2 The only novelty which I hâve ventured to put forward is that the essential factor. in chest production is the long reed, whilst the essential factor in the head de- livery is the short reed. I do not wish this theory to be considered a master-key which will unlock every mysterious recess of the subject. I merely offer it as what may be called the solid residue after the various théories hâve been submitted to the flame of criticism and their gaseous éléments (which are largely in ex- cess) dissipated. On looking into the larynx during singing, the posi- tion of the vocal reed, i.e., the two vocal cords acting together, can be seen, and the form and size of the orifice through which air passes upwards can also be observed. The difficulties in the way of an adéquate examination are so great that to obtain a complète view of the whole process a very large number of singers must be examined. Thus in order to study the working of the vocal cords throughout the entire scale in fifty persons, I found it necessary to examine between three and four hundred singers. It has been judiciously observed that in order to study the action * Précis Elémentaire de Physiologie, 3rd édition, Paris, 1833, t. i., p. 292 et seq. 2 It is curious that in dogs the shortening of the reed takes place pro- gressively from the front backwards.—Magendie, op. cit., p. 302, 5 66 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. of the vocal cords in singing, a large number of prac- tised vocalists should be examined by an expert laryn- goscopist.1 Concurring in this view I hâve looked only at the throats of persons gifted with fine voices. My cases include a great many of the best singers of the day; of the fifty, forty-two were trained, whilst eight were natural singers: I hâve not included any " non-singers," for, as already said, I did not consider they would be of any use for the purpose in view. Before describing my own observations, I must re- Fig. 4.—Diagram showing the Glottis in Deep Inspiration.—og, og'', orifice of the glottis: the space in front of (above) the 1 cross lines is the ligamentous glottis ; that behind (below) them, or cg, is the cartilaginous glottis. mind the reader who is not familiar with anatomical détails, first, that the space between the vocal cords is called the glottis or glottic chink (see Figs. 4 and 5 og and og'); secondly, that vocal sounds are produced by the vibration of the free edges or lips of the glottis, i.e., of the reeds commonly called the "vocal cords; " thirdly, that the anterior three-quarters of thèse lips consist of ligamentous or elastic tissue, whilst the pos- terior fourth is formed of gristle, being in fact the base 1 Gordon Holmes : Vocal Physiology and Hygiène, 2nd édition, p, 118, footnote. THE SINGING VOICE. 67 of the arytenoid cartilage (see Figs. 4 and 5). Hence this opening is divided into the ligamentous glottis and the cartilaginous glottis, the vocal process or an- Fig. 5.—Diagram showing the Glottis in Phonation. The part bei.ow (behind) the Cross Line is the Cartilaginous Glottis.— e, epiglottis; og, og', orifice of the glottis ; cg, cartilaginous glottis ; vb, ventricular band ; vc, vocal cord ; c. W, cartilage of Wrisberg; c.S, capitulum Santorini. (For further explanations as to the relative positions of the ligamentous glottis and the cartilaginous glottis, see Fig. 4-) terior spurs of the arytenoid cartilage constituting the line of séparation. Only the anterior or ligamentous portion forms the true reed. Speaking generally, it may be said that the cartilaginous glottis is generally Fig. 6.-Laryngoscopic View of the Male Glottis in the Delivery of a Low Note. open in the lower, and gently closed in the upper notes of the chest, and that a segment of the ligamentous glottis is tightly closed in the head voice. 68 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. Entering into greater détail respecting my cases (see App. III., p. 257), the following observations were Fig. 7.—Laryngoscopic View of the Male Glottis in the Delivery of a High Note. made: First, that in ténor voices the whole glottis is open to times to : -----R sometimes to '^~ some- and not infrequently to FÊs;—dzz::B Beyond this note, closure of the carti- laginous portion of the glottis takes place. Some- times, on the other hand, the whole glottis is open throughout. Secondly, that in baritone voices the whole glottis is often open to bjfc---------J and oc casionally to p7i£ —-,— H Beyond this note the car- tilaginous portion of the glottis is closed, except in the rare cases in which the entire glottis remains THE SINGING VOICE. 69 open throughout. Thirdly, that in the bass voice the whole glottis is sometimes open to [^^^^Fl Beyond this point the cartilaginous glottis is gradu- ally closed, except in the few instances in which the whole glottis remains open. Fourthly, that in so- pranos and mezzo-sopranos the whole glottis is some- times open to '-—f----H often to -1- M beyond which the cartilaginous glottis is usually closed. The glottis is sometimes closed throughout the scale, and in one case it was open throughout. Fifthly, that in contralto voices the whole glottis is often open to Beyond this the cartilaginous portion is closed. Sixthly, that in the head voice of women and the falsetto of men, stop-closure (see page 70) al- Fig. 8.—Laryngoscopic View of the Female Glottis in the Produc- tion of a Low Note. Fig. 9.—Laryngoscopic View of the Female Glottis in the Produc- tion of a High Note (Long Reed). ways takes place in the posterior portion of the liga- mentous glottis and sometimes at the anterior part 70 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. also. In the former cases there is an elliptical open- ing extending to the anterior commissure of the vocal cords; in the latter the elliptical opening occupies the middle third of the ligamentous glottis. The closure of the posterior part of the glottis does not seem to be a very important matter, as it does not affect the vibratory élément, and it is highly prob- able that some air passes up through the hinder por- tion during singing even when apparent closure has Fig. io.—Laryngoscopic View of the Fig. ii.—Laryngoscopic View of the Female Glottis in the Deliveiy Male Glottis in Falsetto Sing- of a Head-note (Ordinary Appear- ing (Ordinary Appearance). ance). taken place. There is another kind of closure, how- ever, which is much more significant, and that is "stop-closure." By this term I understand a condi- tion of the glottis in which its membranous lips are not simply in contact, but pressed together so tightly for a greater or less portion of their length as to pre- vent each other from vibrating at that part. This is done either by the edge of one lip overlapping that of the other, or by both cords being forced against each other in such a way as to turn their edges upwards. This mechanism is brought into use whenever the head-notes are employed by women or the falsetto by THE SINGING VOICE. 71 men. In this condition the back part of the interval between the vocal cords themselves is not merely closed, but the two cords are tightly pressed against each other for a certain length; in the portion where they " jam " in this way ail vibration is stopped, and thus the long reed is converted into a short reed. Sometimes the vocal cords are also pressed together anteriorly. This latter condition has been looked upon by many observers as the usual one, but I hâve found simple posterior stop-closure the most common. Whether the stop action occurs only behind, or both behind and in front, the elliptical opening between the lips of the glottis invariably becomes progressively shorter (from behind forwards)1 as the Voice rises. In only two cases hâve I seen any exception, and in thèse the elliptical opening was formed at the back of the glottis just in front of the vocal process. This was noticed once in the larynx of a good singer, whose case is included in the table in Appendix III. In the other instance the centre of the elliptical opening cor- responded with the vocal process. The subject was a music-hall singer, who called his performance "de- scriptive." This case is not included in my table. After the stop action has occurred and sometimes be- fore, the posterior part of the glottis is covered by the close apposition of the arytenoid cartilages and capitula Santorini. Cases in which the covering process takes place before stop-closure hâve been excluded from my table (see Appendix TH.). The long reed (chest voice) is generally used by purejopranos. Figs. 8 and 9 1 See footnote 2, p. 65. 72 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. show the action of the vocal cords in the case of Ma- dame Nilsson, Madame Albani, and Madame Valleria. On the other hand, contralto singers sing their high notes almost invariably in the head register (or short reed): this mechanism of the high notes is shown in the case of Madame Patey and several other fine con- tralto singers in Fig. 10. Mezzo-sopranos also gener- ally make use of both the long and short rééd.. Most ténors use both reeds, five-sixths of the notes being sung with the long reed, the remainder with the short Fig. 12.—Laryngoscopic View of Fe- male Glottis in Head Register (Exceptional Type, though Gen- erally Described as the Commun One). Fig. jj.—Laryngoscopic View ofthe Male Glottis in the Falsetto Production (Except ional Type, though Generally Described as the Commun One). reed, but a few confine themselves entirely to the long reed. On the other hand, one of the most charming ballad singers of the day employs the short reed in the production of the upper three-fourths of his voice. Baritones whilst keeping within their proper compass use the long reed, and bass singers confine themselves entirely to this mechanism. The finest alto singers amongst men spring from bass or baritone singers who use the falsetto or short reed, but the exclusive use of the falsetto by thèse singers ultimately destroys the natural register or long reed. If both registers THE SINGING VOICE. 73 are constantly exercised no harm is done. Mr. Cor- ney Grain is able to sing two octaves with the long reed, and one higher one with the short reed, i.e., in falsetto, and it is difficult to tell which register is the finer. That the falsetto is really an artiflcial mode of voice- production is shown by the fact that young adults who are " natural singers " never use it.1 In fact, there is a strong impression in unsophisticated minds that the falsetto is a kind of " dodge," to which it is not fair to resort. This idea is probably founded on the fact that the untrained falsetto is usually so poor and disagree- able in quality. Before the development of the larynx at puberty the long reed is still relatively short, and from an ex- amination of a great number of cases, I am able to affirm that boys who sing alto always use the chest register. Although the peculiar timbre of the voice generally makes it évident which register is being em- ployed, this is not always the case. Thus Mr. Lely's voice has much of the character of the short reed, but the mechanism used is entirely that of the long reed. Again, many of the beautiful notes in Miss Florence St. John's voice hâve the head tone, but nevertheless the whole of the voice is produced with the chest reg- ister. There are other movements which take place in the 1 Signor Garcia (loc. cit.) thinks that children use the chest Voice " not because it is a natural voice, but because it expresses the natural energy of childhood." He considers that the falsetto is as much a natural voice as the chest voice, 74 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. head register, and which also occur, though to a much more limited extent, in the high notes of the chest voice. Thus, as the soft palate rises more and more, traction is necessarily made on its " pillars " (see Ap- pendix L, p. 229), which are attached to the sides of the throat near the back of the tongue. Now thèse ridges or pillars are in reality bundles of muscular fibres, one of which (the anterior) is attached to the tongue, whilst the other is directly connected with the upper carti- lage (thyroid) of the larynx. Elévation of the soft palate must, therefore, ipso facto tend to pull up the tongue and the larynx, an action which is assisted by the sympathetic contraction of the muscular pillars themselves. This is how it is that the larynx, as may be verified by any one for himself, rises in the throat as the voice goes higher, a change of position which some writers hâve regarded as an essential feature in the production of head tones. That it is not so is proved by the fact that falsetto notes can be sounded without any accompanying élévation of the larynx, provided that the tongue be fixed. The larynx cer- tainly moves a little downward towards the chest in the utterance of deep notes ; this, however, is a consé- quence rather than a cause of low pitch, as the singer instinctively relaxes ail the muscles supporting the organ so that the cords may be in the position of least tension. The lowering of the chin towards the breast- bone is part of the same natural adjustment. The reverse of this action is seen in ténors and sopranos when the head is thrown back in the delivery of high head notes. The whole distance which the larynx THE SINGING VOICE. 75 traverses from the deepest chest to the highest falsetto tone is so inconsiderable (not much more than half an inch) that the mère lengthening or shortening of the vocal tube within so limited a range can hardly hâve much effect on the pitch of the sound produced. The élévation of the larynx just spoken of must not be confounded with approximation of the cricoid and thyroid cartilages and conséquent oblitération of the interval between their borders in front (crico-thyroid space, see Fig. 15). This latter movement in no way affects the position of the larynx as a whole, but only the condition of the vocal cords in respect of antero- posterior tension. Approximation of the cartilages stretches, whilst séparation of them relaxes, the vocal cords. Accordingly we find that at the lowest part of the chest register the interval is at its widest, whereas in the upper the gap entirely disappears, as can easily be verified by the singer's own finger. It is probable that the two wings (see Appendix L, p. 218) of the thyroid are drawn apart to some extent in the lower notes and pressed together in the upper. A vertical notch extends some way down in front be- tween thèse wings, and this feature is much more pro- nounced in men than in women. It is obvious that this formation must make the two sides of the carti- lage more movable, i.e., that owing to its présence they can be pulled further apart. Teleologists would say that this fact shows the purpose of the notch, the male voice requiring a wider glottis for its deep full tones than the shriller female. With respect to the parts below the glottis, the y6 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL OR G ANS. trachea rises to a slight extent out of the chest as the voice goes upwards. This, however, has probably little or no effect either on the pitch or quality of the note, but is merely the mechanical resuit of increased breath-power, the larynx being in fact blown upwards by the air-current, and pulling the windpipe up with it. In the chest itself there is this notable différence in the two registers, that whereas in the lower the thoracic walls shake strongly, as can be felt on apply- ing the hand to the singer's chest (hence the term chest notes), the vibration becomes gradually fainter as the higher notes are reached, finally ceasing alto- gether in the falsetto. Reviewing the whole question, it cannot be denied that the subject is beset with difificultie-s. Four means of investigation hâve been employed in the acquisition of such knowledge as we possess about the production of the voice: (î) Subjective sensation; (2) analogy; (3) experiment ; (4) direct observation. Whilst some of thèse methods are simply fallacious, none of them is entirely satisfactory. It is reasoning from mère sensation that has given rise to the terms "head," " falsetto," &c, and, as already stated, opened the way to ail sorts of absurd notions as to the site aad manner of vocal production. Thus while one singer will maintain that he makes his falsetto notes at the back of his nose, another professes to fetch them from the top of his skull, and each adduces the évidence of his own consciousness as positively as Goldsmith did when he argued that he moved his upper jaw in eating. Sensation which is always an untrustworthy interpre- THE SINGING VOICE. 77 ter in ail that relates to the workings of our internai economy is particularly treacherous in regard to the throat. I hâve almost daily occasion to observe this in patients who localize with the nicest précision an uncomfortable feeling, the true cause of which is visi- bly somewhere else. It is often almost impossible to convince a person that a bone or other foreign sub- stance which may hâve stuck in his throat has been removed even when he is shown the corpus delicti. Sensation, however, is a useful witness in confirming the results arrived at in other ways, and it can always be relied on when it tells whether an action causes strain or not. The conclusions reached as to the voice by reasoning from analogy hâve already been inci- dentally touched on in speaking of the musical instru- ments to which it has been compared. Analogy serves very well for illustration, but is always an unsafe foun- dation on which to rest a theory. With the exception of the drum and the triangle, there is scarcely an in- strument which has not been found to présent a strik- ing resemblance to the human organ of voice. It has so far also escaped being compared to the bagpipe, but the ventricles offer too tempting a likeness to the " drone " for the similarity to remain long unperceived ! The beginning of wisdom in studying the voice is to clear the mind of ail pre-conceived ideas as to its re- semblance to this or that instrument, and study it by itself in the light of anatomical and physical science. It cannot be too strongly afnrmed that the human larynx is an instrument absolutely sui generis, There can be no doubt that the perverse ingenuity of analogi- yS HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. cal fancy in this matter has had a retarding influence on our knowledge of voice-production. Experiment is so difficult of application that its range of usefulness is necessarily limited. Mùller's results are open to the objection that the conditions of vocal utterance in the separated larynx are alto- gether différent from those in the living throat. His observations were made, so to speak, on the skeleton of the voice, but as far as they go they afford valuable help in disentangling the complex éléments of the vocal function. The experiments which hâve been made on the living larynx hâve almost ail been made on animais. It need hardly be pointed out that no conclusive évidence about the mode of production of the human voice can be drawn from that of brutes. Direct observation with the laryngoscope is of course the best method at our disposai, but that even its testimony is far from unexceptionable is obvious from the marvellous différences* as to matters of fact that exist amongst observers. It is hardly too much to say that no two of them quite agrée as to what is seen, and the feuds are as bitter as the famous one about the two sides of the shield. The observations which hâve been made hitherto hâve for the most part been confined to a few trained throats, and in many cases the examinations hâve been almost entirely auto- laryngoscopic. *#* The subject of the registers, and the various views on this difficult problem,have been further discussed in Appendix IL It is hoped that in the above Section the matter has been made sufficiently clear to the gên- erai reader and to the ordinary student of singing. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. CHAPTER IV TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. Section I. The Sélection of a Singing Mastcr. BEARING in mind the reproof addressed to the cob- bler-connoisseur of old, I will not in my remarks on the cultivation of the voice touch on the aesthetic side of the subject. I may, however, as a physician who has been constantly seeing the throats of singers of every rank in the musical hierarchy for nearly a quar- ter of a century, be allowed to express an opinion on the physical effects of voice-training. The object aimed at is twofold. First, the develop- ment of the powers of the vocal organs to the fullest extent, and, secondly, the éducation of the voice as an instrument of artistic expression. With the latter I hâve no direct concern, except in as far as inartistic delivery is also wrong physiologically. The rules of voice-production are not arbitrary canons invented of malice aforethought by musical teachers, and varying according to individual taste or whim. They are ra- tional laws founded on the observation of natural proc- esses, and drawn from the practice of the best singers, just as the rules of grammar are the generalized for- mulai of the purest speech, They are not by any means 80 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. intended to " correct " Nature or brirtg her ways into conformity with fantastic standards existing in the minds of crotchety maestri, and cherished by them as if they were the very " archetypal ideas " of the Divine Intelligence. With every allowance for the hyper- bolical forms in which the artistic tempérament finds its natural expression, the boast heard on the lips of some singing masters that they can create a voice is as absurd as it is arrogant.1 Does the trainer put fleet- ness into the legs of the racehorse, or give strength to the arm of the pugilist? The function of the teacher is important enough without any such ridiculous pre- tensions, for without him the natural endowment would fall short of its proper measure of achievement. Un- trained talent is like learning unquickened by wine, according to Falstaff, " a mère hoard of gold kept by a devil till sack sets it in act and use." Singers indeed there are who trust to natural faculty alone, and deem themselves above rules, as Frederick Barbarossa de- 1 Professor Garcia seems to think that I hâve been rather hard on the singing masters. He says :—" Dr. Mackenzie attacks the teacher who has the pretension to wish to create a voice. To be just he ought also to denounce those who try to change a contralto into a soprano, or a bari- tone into a ténor ; and, above ail, he ought to condemn those composers who write music which compels the poor singers to exert their voices to the utmost limit with the greatest effort. Thèse gentlemen are respon- sible for the ruin of more beautiful voices than hâve failed from âge or disease " (loc. cit.). I am not surprised that the professor, indefatigable as he is, should not hâve had the time to read my little book very care- fuUy. Had he done so, he would hâve seen that I hâve specially called attention to the necessity of ascertaining the true nature of a voice before commencing training (p. 80 et seq.), and that I hâve spoken very severely of the utter disregard of some composers for the powers of the human voice (see p. 115). TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 8l clared himself to be supra grammaticam. Many per- sons are apt to be misled into a thoughtless admiration of untutored geniuses by a préférence which they fancy themselves to hâve for " nature " as- compared with " art." But true art is in this case perfected nature, and the supposed antithesis is altogether imaginary. However richly gifted by nature a singer may be, he mu^t be taught how to put forth his powers to the best purpose, and how to husband them that they may not fall into prématuré decay. In fact, the better the voice the more need there is for its being trained to its full degree of excellence that its artistic destiny may be fulfilled and the world may not be made poorer by its untimely loss. It is most désirable that the voice should as far as possible be properly trained from the very first so that at any rate there may be nothing to unlearn. After- wards, when the real éducation commences, it is of the utmost importance to hâve a thoroughly good teacher. But how, it may be asked, in such a crowd of pretenders are compétent instructors to be distin guished from quacks ? I answer (not to speak it pro- fanely), " By their fruits ye shall know them." As a doctor is judged by the proportion of cures which he effects, and an advocate by the number of rogues he saves from hanging, the ability of a singing-master is measured by the excellence of his pupils. Do they sing well ? and do their voices last ? This practical test is the only sure criterion, and it is not an unfair one, if applied with proper discrimination. That is to say, the aggregate results ought to be taken into ac- 6 82 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. count, not merely stray cases hère and there of excep- tional merit or the reverse. It would be nothing to the purpose for an unsuccessful teacher to attribute his failure to want of aptitude on the part of his pupils, for it is just in poor organizations that a sound method of instruction achieves its greatest triumphs. Agriculture is nowhere seen in higher perfection than in Scotland, where the soil is naturally very barren. The idéal singing master, if we are to believe certain professors of the art, is a monster of ail-round perfec- tion, as impossible to find in rerum natura as Rasse- las's poet, or Macaulay's omniscient schoolboy. But as a matter of fact the endowments and acquirements needed are rare and manifold enough to make it need- less to exaggerate them. It is not every one who can sing, or who knows what good singing is, that is fit to teach the art. In addition to the qualifications which ail true instructors should possess—thorough knowl- edge of the subject, wide expérience, sound judgment, clearness of thought and expression, sympathetic in- sight, personal enthusiasm and the power of kindling it in others, combined with the patience of Job and the energy of Hercules, — the singing master must hâve, of course, the spécial qualities of his craft. The question is often debated whether the master should himself be a singer or not. Teachers naturally argue the question from the standpoint of their own personal gifts. At first sight one is disposed to say that a sing- ing master who cannot sing is like the dancing master spoken of by Swift, who had every good quality ex- cept that he was lame. This view, however, is really TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 83 a fallacy akin to " Who drives fat oxen must himself be fat." A singing master must at least be able to sing well enough to exemplify his own precepts, and show his pupils how to produce the voice and how not. He need not, however, be a brilliant performer; in- deed, I believe several of the most successful voice- trainers of the day hâve themselves little or none of the divine gift which they cultivate in others. The greatest practical adepts in any art are not by any means always the best teachers of it, not merely from lack of the necessary patience, but from want of the power of imparting knowledge. The hone, which, al- though it cannot eut, can sharpen the razor; the finger- post that shows the way which itself can never go, are emblems of the teacher.1 This may at first sight seem to be a very humble 1 Tosi (pp. cit. p. 8), with some bitterness, advises any one wishing to undertake the work of teaching to " read, mark, and inwardly digest " Virgil's well-known challenge-lines :— ' ' Sic vos non vobis veliera fertis oves ! Sic vos non vobis nidificatis aves ! Sic vos non vobis mellificatis apes ! Sic vos non vobis fertis aratra boves ! " which may be " freely Englished," or rather " adapted," as follows :— " Not for herself the cow doth store her milk, Not for itself the worm doth weave its silk ; Not for itself its pearl the oyster bears, Not for itself its coat the ermine wears ; Not for himself the jackal stalks the prey, Not for himself the poor ' ghost ' moulds the clay : The soldier fights—the captain gets the spoils, And for his pupil's famé the teacher toils." It cannot be pleasant, as Tosi says, " a chi ha sete diportar il vino agli altri e non poter bere. " 84 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. function, but it must be borne in mind that the instruc- tion of others is as much an art sui generis as that of singing itself, and it is only by a fortunate coincidence that the capacity for both may sometimes be found in the same individual.1 No doubt, however, for public singing the guidance of one who has himself gone suc- cessfully through the ordeal, has the priceless value which attaches to practical expérience. If a maestro may be allowed to hâve an indiffèrent voice, he must, on the other hand, possess an ear of the nicest précision. He should also hâve a refined catholicity of taste, fed on the choicest works of every school, a knowledge of the best that is played and sung in the world—to parody Matthew Arnold's défini- tion of culture,—and an acquaintance with his art not confined to his own particular branch, but extending over the whole domain of music and reaching to its deepest principles. He must hâve the infinité capacity for taking trouble, which has been said to be the back- bone of genius, and must spare no pains to acquire an exact knowledge of his pupil's powers, so that he may 1 I hope that I shall not be understood as arguing that the less vocal ability a man has the better is he fitted for teaching. In arts which are learnt only by imitation the instructor must of course be, to a great ex- tent, a model. But apart from the fact that geniuses in their own right are seldom safe exemplars for less gifted mortals, and that their very superiority would be likely to overwhelm and dishearten their disciples, there would often seem to be a real incompatibility between practical ex- cellence and theoretical knowledge, or the power of communicating. This arises from the radical différence between the synthetic or construc- tive and the analytic or critical type of mind. Thus learned grammari- ans are very often inélégant writers, and profound physiologists are not seldom indiffèrent doctors. Poets are by no means the best judges of verse, whilst the Pegasus of critics is too often of the Rosinante breed. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 85 develop the good points and eradicate the bad. Whilst keen in detecting defects and strict in correcting them, he must take care not to do so in a harsh or irritating manner. This word of caution is, I am sorry to say, not altogether superfiuous, for there are still teachers who, as Quintilian says, sic objurgant quasi oderitit.1 I hâve myself more than once had occasion to see the evil effects on sensitive natures of such rough school- ing. Patients hâve been brought to me who had lost ail control over the voice, not from any disease or or- ganic defect, but solely from nervous disturbance, caused by a blustering or unsympathetic master.2 It is as though one were violently to shake and pull about a watch whenever there is the least failure in the précision of its action. The nervous system, espe- cially in women, is infinitely more sensitive than the most délicate pièce of machinery, and rough handling simply defeats its own purpose. The true function of the educator is to foster budding talent, not to crush it. As if the catalogue of qualities and accomplish- ments just recited were not long enough, a new school has arisen of late years, which demands that an exact and profound acquaintance with the anatomy and physiology of the vocal organs gained by dissection of the dead, and laryngoscopic examination of the liv- 1 Inst. Orator., lib. ii. cap. ii. 2 Fuller's remarks concerning the flagellant pédagogues of his day seem especially appropriate hère. He says :—" Such an Orbilius mars more scholars than he makes. Their tyranny hath caused many tongues to stammer which spake plain by nature, and whose stuttering at first was nothing else but fears quavering on their speech at their master's présence." 86 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. ing body, familiarity with the mysteries of acoustics, pneumatics, and hydrostatics, together with some added tincture of metaphysical lore, shall form part of the equipment of the unhappy wight who wishes to take up the profession of a singing master. Such multiform érudition might reasonably enough be looked for in a candidate for Teufelsdrôckh's Pro- fessorship of Things in General, but it is more a hin- drance than a help to the teacher whose aim should be not to make his pupil an indiffèrent scientist but an artistic singer. Apollo Musagetes himself, encum- bered with such a load of irrelevant learning, would sink to the level of a third-rate pédant. The old Italian masters who knew little and cared less about the science, but were profoundly skilled in the art, of singing, trained their pupils' voices with a success cer- tainly not inferior to that of our modem professors armed with their laryngoscopes, spirometers, stetho- meters, and other vocicultural implements. I shall probably not be suspected of undervaluing the laryngo- scope. In the hands of the physician it has undoubt- edly been the means of saving thousands of lives, but in those of the singing master I fear it is too likely to lead to the ruin of not a few voices. The most ex- perienced teachers and professors of the art agrée in condemning the fréquent use of the laryngoscope in voice-training as not merely useless but pernicious. Signor Manuel Garcia, at once the most scientific and one of the most successful of maestri, has informed me that in his teaching he makes but little use of his own invention. This distinguished master, who naturally TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 87 has the tender and devoted feelings of maternity—a father's affection being scarcely strong enough to de- scribe his émotions—for his child, the laryngoscope, evidently thinks I hâve done scant justice to his most interesting and useful invention. He says {Ccntralbl. f. Laryngologic, May, 1886): "Dr. Mackenzie con- demns the use of the laryngoscope, the spirometer, the stethometer, and other vocicultural apparatus as worse than useless for purposes of instruction. With his permission, we will add his own ' pneumatic machine ' (p. 107, third édition) to this list. I may, however, be permitted to plead for the laryngoscope. If it is used under the pretence that it can show how one must sing while the throat is opened in phonation, it is clearly an instrument of torture, and deserves to be thrown away without hésitation. But the matter appears to me to be otherwise if it is claimed to hâve established a new era in our knowledge of the physiology of the voice. And I may hère say a few words as to the service which it has rendered. The laryngoscope has demonstrated de visu that the glottis is the only seat of voice production, and has entirely set aside the old hypothèses on this point. It proves the absolute dif- férence between the mechanism of the register and the timbre. It has confirmed the existence of three registers by showing, ist, that the glottis is progres- sively narrowed to the point at which the two vocal processes completely touch each other; 2nd, that this movement, when less energetically done, produces the falsetto; 3rd, the head notes are produced by the vi- bration of the ligamentous parts of the glottis. Would 88 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS Dr. Mackenzie hâve been able to give the accurate de- scription of the action of the glottis on p. 56 (third édition) et seq. of his book without the help of this little instrument? Could he hâve collected the numer- ous and interesting views which he places under the title of ' Critical Remarks on the différent Théories re- garding the Mechanism of the Register ' on page 75 et seq. [p. 236 of this édition] ? The laryngoscope has aided me in clearing up many difficulties and in strengthening my System of teaching. " It only remains for me to discuss one other point. Although I entirely agrée with Dr. Mackenzie's view that a pupil can become a clever singer without ever having seen his glottis, I still believe that some exact scientific notions on the formation and the action of the vocal organ would be more useful than hurtful to the rising singer. Dr. Mackenzie himself appears to hâve shared this idea. Otherwise, why should he hâve dedicated to singers and speakers such a carefuUy prepared anatomical and physiological work ?" I hâve given Signor Garcia's views at length, and out of respect for him I must allow myself to make a few remarks on them. That the singing master may learn much for himself in his studies as to the forma- tion of the voice is obvious, and that thèse studies may be of the greatest use in his teaching is also beyond contention. Ail I maintain is, that the laryngoscope ought not to be employed in the examination of pupils who are learning singing—at least, in so far as any benefit is to be expected for the pupils them- selves. On the contrary, I hâve pointed out in the TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 89 text how injurious training of this kind is likely to prove to the young vocalist. With regard to the pneumatic machine, which Professor Garcia thinks I ought to condemn if I disapprove of the use of the laryngoscope in voice-training, I would point out that I hâve merely suggested the use of this instrument as a means of strengthening the lungs and increasing the breathing power in the case of pupils whose System is unequal to much exertion. That accomplished teacher, Madame Seiler, also has never allowed her skill with the laryngoscope to en- croach on the true domain of voice-training. To my mind it is just as absurd to insist on a singer knowing the structure of his vocal organs as it would be to make painters learn the anatomy of the eye and study its internai condition with the ophthalmoscope. If it is pleaded that a knowledge of the situation and action of the muscles of the larynx is a help to the p'roper use of them, I can only say that in that case the singer cannot logically stop there in his wild career of ana- tomical study. The muscles act only in obédience to an impulse conveyed to them by the nerves from the brain. Each muscle has its own " spécial wire," as it were, along which the will fiashes its mandates. In order to sing on strictly scientific principles the candi- date should master the intricacies of the nerve-supply of the larynx, and the results of the latest mutilations of monkeys' brains in the search for a " centre " of voice. Inspired and directed by this knowledge, his voice might hâve charms to soothe the savage breasts of members of the Anatomical Society. To speak 9o HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. seriously, however, at best the laryngoscope can only serve to make the singer self-conscious, a fatal defect in the exécution of movements which to be perfect must be almost automatic. Moreover, such examina- tion of the throat when practised by beginners is sure to cause considérable local irritation and fatigue. Again, it is only to the experienced eye that the laryngeal mirror conveys accurate knowledge of the state of the parts. The unskilled observer is apt to mistake transient and accidentai appearances for signs of threatening or actual mischief; he becomes nervous, like a man who feels his own puise, imagines that he cannot sing and may really fail from no other cause than his self-created fear.1 The teaching of singing by anatomy is an absurdity worthy of Laputa. What would be thought of a dancing master who should begin his course with an elaborate exposition of the structure of the lower limbs ? What would be the fate of a pupil who had learned the art of self-defence from a professor who had perplexed him with the origins and insertions of the muscles of the arm instead of teaching him to hit straight from the shoulder ? One can imagine the painful disenchantment that would 1 As an instance of the kind of error into which the amateur is likely to fall I may mention that mère redness of the vocal cords is not at ail a sure indication of their being unfit for work. In some of the best sing- ers the vocal cords are never of what is called normal color, i.e., pearly white, but always more or less red. Again, in determining the func- tional fitness of the cords the manner in which they perform their move- ments has to be taken into account. As this dépends much more on the effîciency of the nervous apparatus than on local conditions, it would not be wise for the anatomico-physiologico-laryngoscopical vocalist to trust to his own observations. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 91 overtake the youth thus eruditely trained when he had to stand up to a bruiser of the old school whose knowl- edge of anatomy was limited to the whereabouts of the " bread-basket." Is swimming only to be acquired after a preliminary course of instruction in the laws of fluid pressure ? Is the pronunciation of a foreign tongue best learned by laborious analysis of the mode of formation of the various sounds ? Even in sculpture, where a knowledge of anatomy is generally considered essential, we hâve the example of the Greek artists to the contrary. The perfection of their statues has been the wonder of ail succeeding générations yet it is ail but certain that they knew no anatomy. The want of good teachers is closely connected with the inadequacy of modem training, for it is évident that a man who has not himself had the patience or the industry to master his art cannot be a satisfactory guide to others. Show and superficial brilliancy of exécution are aimed at rather than solidity and thor- oughness; more attention is paid to vocal tours de force than to artistic ornament. The firm basis of expérience has been abandoned for fantastic methods of teaching which are useless when they are not posi- tively harmful. I would earnestly advise ail those who profess to impart the divine art of song, like Prospero, to " drown their books," and study the pro- duction of the voice as an art, and not as a branch of Chinese metaphysics. . The first thing which the master must do is to take the measure of his pupil's ability ; as Montaigne (speak- ing of gênerai éducation) quaintly puts it : " Il est bon 92 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. qu'il le face trotter devant lui pour juger de son train." Before everything it is essential that the true quality of the voice should be once for ail determined. This is the keystone of the arch, and training founded on a mistaken view as to this simply vitiates the delivery throughout the whole compass. The resuit is neces- sarily failure, possibly even ruin of the voice, unless the error be discovered and rectified in time. The master cannot, therefore, be too careful in coming to a décision on this cardinal point. It is not always, however, an easy matter to recognize the "natural order " to which a given voice belongs, especially when the physiological development is not quite complète. The laryngoscope gives no help in the matter, for there are no certain signs by which a contralto can be distinguished from a soprano organ or a ténor from a bass. The educated ear is the only safe guide. Mis- takes are no doubt often made, even by experienced masters, but they are probably nearly always corrected before real mischief has been done. Mario, Sims Reeves, and Jean de Reszke were, I believe, trained as baritones for some time before the true character of their voices asserted itself. In the case of Faure the opposite mistake was made, and the lyric stage was nearly deprived of its finest baritone. It would be mère presumption in me to attempt to instruct singing masters on a matter which belongs of right to their province. Common-sense, however, tells us that the voice is best fitted for that which it can do most easily and most successfuUy. The range of notes on which it is at its best is the true index of the cate- TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 93 gory to which it belongs ; they correspond, as a rule, with the middle portion of its natural compass. Mère pitch is not a safe guide ; a baritone voice may cover the greater part of the ténor territory on the one hand, or of the bass on the other, but in either case, it will be distinguishable by comparative want of clear- ness and résonance in the notes which lie outside its own proper limits. The untrained singer is not to be trusted in regard to the nature of his voice, for the relative ease or difficulty with which he delivers certain tones may dépend on want of practice, or on bad habit. There is a saying that no man ever sees his own face in the glass; it is still more true that no one really hears his own voice. I do not mean to say that a singer should altogether disregard his sensations, and trust his voice to his teacher's discrétion as blindly as a member of the " devout female sex " yields her con- science to the keeping of her confessor. If the master persists in making the pupil sing in a way that is felt to be a severe strain ; if every lesson is followed by distressing fatigue of the laryngeal muscles, pain in the throat, weakncss or huskiness of the voice, then I say, whatever be the authority of your instructor, do not listen to him, but rather heed the warning that is given you by your overtaxed organs. The most skilful and experienced teacher may err, but Nature is never wrong, and lier laws hâve the sanction of an unfailing Nemesis. I speak earnestly on this matter, because certain singing masters are perhaps rather less troubled with doubts as to their own infallibility than ordinary mortals. A baritone can no more be devel- 94 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. oped into a ténor than a thrush can be transformed into a nightingale, and a " forcing " System of cultivation can do nothing but harm. There are maestri of no mean réputation who appear to take Procrustes as their model, and " crack " ail voices which do not come up to their idéal standard. Their defenders meet this charge by pointing to the magnificent voices that hâve been " created " by the same training. Are not thèse rather examples of the " survival of the fittest? " Ex- ceptionally powerful organizations are of course able to bear a discipline that would be fatal to weaker vessels. Section IL Vocal Gymnastics. Technical training must be directed to the develop- ment of the three main factors of voice, viz., the motive power, the vibrating élément, and the résonant ap- paratus. The right use of each of the parts concerned in production and the most advantageous management of them in combined action—the single and battalion drill of the vocal organs—must form the groundwork of the singing-master's instructions. The more ethe- real régions of artistic feeling and effect, as already said, lie altogether beyond my scope. The détails of vocal training I must leave to the singing masters; I can only touch on one or two points which lie more or less within my own province. In the first place, the vocal organs must be strength- ened and developed by exercise. The excellent maxim, TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 95 Memoria excolendo augetur, which we learned from the Latin grammar, is equally true of muscle, and a singer's thyro-arytasnoidei should be in as good condition as a pugilist's biceps. Such modes of life as are good for the gênerai health will also help to improve the voice by expanding the chest and keeping ail the organs at their maximum of effîciency. In order to " know the stops " of the vocal instrument, so as to be able to " command it to any utterance of harmony," training must be directed to each of the three factors of voice. The art of so governing the breath that not a particle of it shall escape without giving up its mechanical équivalent of sound must first of ail be acquired. The vocal cords must use the breath as Jacob did the angel with whom he wrestled; they must not suffer it to de- part till it has blessed them. The first thing the singer has to do is to learn to breathe ; he must fill his lungs without gasping, and empty them quickly or slowly, gently or with violence, according to his needs.1 Much has been written on this matter with which I need net perplex the reader. The problem is how the lungs can be replenished most advantageously for the pur- poses of the singer. The chest is expanded by pull- ing up the ribs, and by pushing down the diaphragm, ur muscular partition which séparâtes the chest from the abdomen. In violent inspiratory effort the collar- bone may be forcibly drawn up by the muscles attached 1 The perfection of the art of taking breath in singing is to do so in such a manner that the act is not noticed. A story is told of Lablache watching Rubini with the closest intentness for four minutes without being able to see him inspire. 96 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. to it, but this mechanism is seldom brought into play except in the dire struggle for breath when suffocation is impending. It is a curious fact that men breathe differently from women, the former using the abdom- inal method—that is, pushing down the diaphragm— and the latter doing most of the work with their upper ribs. One reason of this différence is that the fair sex insist on fixing their lower ribs, to which the diaphragm is attached, with stays, which make free movement of that muscle impossible. Doctors hâve fulminated against tight-lacing for the last three centuries,1 but to as little purpose as the Archbishop of Rheims thun- dered against the jackdaw. Now the slight pressure exercised by stays does not matter in the case of ladies who are not called upon to use their voices profession- ally, and who do not care to excel as amateurs. In the ordinary work of life stays do not cause any in- convenience, and it is only when they are absurdly tight that they do seriousharm to the internai organs. In the case of the artiste, however, it is quite other- wise; hère anything which in the smallest degree di- 1 Stays are generally said to hâve been introduced by Catherine de Medicis, who may be supposed to hâve had a natural genius for the inven- tion of instruments of torture. They were, however, in use long before her time. I hâve in my possession a drawing made for me in 1884 by Mr. Lewis Wingfield from a MS. in the British Muséum of the date 1043. It is fïgured by Strutt, who calls it " A Droll Devil." Mr. Wingfield more aptly terms it the " Fiend of Fashion." It represents a figure fan- tastically dressed in what, I suppose, was the height of fashion of the day. Its spécial interest in connection with the présent subject is that it wears a pair of stays, laced up in front, and of sufficient constrictive power to please a modem mondaine. Some further remarks on the use and abuse of stays will be found in my sketch in the Contemporary Re- view (August, 1889) already referred to. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 97 minishes the vital capacity seriously handicaps the singer. Fréquent short exercises in respiration should be carried out both in the erect and in the recumbent position. In standing, the body should be held up- right, the head kept erect, but not thrown back; the act should be performed naturally, without flurry or violence, and at regular intervais, care being taken that the collar-bone does not rise to any perceptible extent whilst the lungs are being expanded. Those who from weakness or slovenly carriage of the body habitually stoop or let their limbs hang with a too aesthetic limpness, will find it advantageous to com- mence their breathing exercises whilst lying on the back. Both inspiration and expiration should be prac- tised. In the former the objects aimed at are : first, to fill the chest-cavity adequately with a minimum of visible effort ; secondly, to take breath in singing or speaking without noticeable interruption of the phrase. In the latter, on the other hand, the lungs must be emptied thoroughly, but without straining, and the pupil must strive to gain such control over the process that he can, as it were, mould the issuing stream of air to any shape, and regulate its volume and force so that no part of it is allowed to escape uselessly. The breathing capacity must be increased by properly di- rected exercises. I strongly recommend ail those who wish to excel as singers to undergo a regular course of gymnastics if possible, in a gymnasium where suit- able apparatus exists. It must not be forgotten that exercise of the whole body brings tbe respiratory mus- 7 98 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. clés into play, and, if systematically pursued, greatly strengthens them. Most of the text-books on the training of the voice contain rules for réspiratory gymnastics, and an excellent séries of exercises is con- tained in Guttmann's Gymnastics of the Voice (Edgar S. Werner: New York). Walking, fencing, swimming, dumb-bell practice, are excellent means of improving the " wind " provided they are not pushed to the point of actual fatigue. It must be distinctly understood that thèse exercises are only recommended for preliminary training, or as likely to prove serviceable when no considérable vocal effort has to be made. The prima donna or great actor should take little or no exercise when serious strain is going to be thrown on the vocal organ, which often needs ail the nervous and muscular power that can be commanded. For persons whose System is unequal to much exertion, the want of exercise may be sup- plied to a certain extent, as far as the lungs are concerned, by the use of some kind of " pneumatic machine." A very good one has been made1 in ac- cordance with my instructions, which I recommend to every vocalist. By means of this apparatus a person can accurately estimate the amount of air which can be inspired and expired. The use of it is also valuable by way of drill, as one has necessarily to go through the process in a more formai and précise manner than 1 By Mayer and Meltzer, 71, Great Portland Street. An instrument of more limited usefulness, but still of decided value in many cases, has been devised by Signor N. Carozzi, whereby one can ascertain whether he breathes symmetrically, i.e., whether both lungs are expanded to trie same extent. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 99 in ordinary breafhing. By assiduous practice it is possible to increase the " vital capacity"1 in a very marked degree. Maclaren, so long the mentor of the athletic youth of Oxford, says that the effect of walk- ing exercise has often been shown in his own person by the gain of some inches of chest-girth in the course of a short pedestrian excursion. It can hardly be necessary to say that the breath must be taken noiselessly. Nothing can be more dis- tressing than the gasps which often break a flood of vocal melody like the creaking of the bellows of an organ. The air should be drawn in by the natural channel, which is the nose; the mouth being used only as a subsidiary passage, when absolutely necessary. Lamperti used to say that the vocalist should take his breath and retain it like the swimmer, and there is no doubt that those who excel in thèse arts adopt very similar methods as regards respiration. The old Italian masters taught that in inspiration the anterior abdominal wall should be slightly drawn in,8 and this method was practised for more than a hundred and fifty years. Signor Garcia, the lineal descendant3 of the old Italian school, says in his Sing- 1 The vital capacity is estimated by the greatest quantity of air which can be expelled from the lungs by a forcible expiration after the deepest possible inspiration. It is measured by an instrument called the spirom- eter, but there is so much knack in using it that very fallacious results are likely to be got from it by unscientific persons. 8 The most detailed account of the method employed by one of the best of the old Italian masters will be found in H. F. Mannstein's works. 3 M. Garcia's father was a Spaniard, his real name having been Man- uel Viconte Populo Rodriguez, but like many artists he changed it when HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. ing School, chapter iv., " On Respiration : " " In order to inspire freely, hold the head straight, the shoulders thrown back without stiffness, and the chest open. Raise the chest by a slow and regular movement, and drazv in the stomach." (The italics are not in the orig- inal.) But in 1855 Mandl1 opposed this mode of breathing on anatomical grounds, maintaining that the descent of the diaphragm is facilitated by allowing the abdominal wall to be flaccid, and to project forward in inspiration. Although, however, the abdominal mode of breath- ing may be the natural method of inspiration, there can, I think, be no doubt that in singing it is not the most effective. On this point, in conséquence of Mandl's teaching, the empirical traditions of singing masters were abandoned some years ago in favor of what was supposed to be the teaching of science, and now singers are often taught to breathe by pushing down the diaphragm and protruding the stomach. I am indebted to Mr. Mayo Collier, late Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology in the Royal Collège of Surgeons, and for many years one of the Demonstrators of Anatomy at the London Hospital he adopted the stage as a profession and took the name of Garcia. This gentleman was a native of Seville, but was taught as a chorister by an Italian maestro di capella. Seiïor Rodriguez had a great success :n Italy. where he was known as Lo Spagnoletto. His daughters, Madame Mali- bran and Madame Viardot became the most celebrated artistes of the day, whilst his son is the celebrated Manuel Garcia, who is so frequently referred to in this work. His grandson, Gustav Garcia, inherits the traditions of the school, and is a highly successful maestro. 1 Gazette Médicale, 1855. See also the same writer's Hygiène de la Voix parlée ou chantée, 2nd édition, Paris, 1879, p. 19. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. ioi Médical Collège, for the following report. It will be seen that he shows by mathematical, and, therefore, incontrovertible proof, that in singing the largest ex- pansion of the chest and the greatest amount of bellows power are obtained when the abdominal muscles are slightly drawn inwards, and that when on the other hand they are allowed to bulge outwards, there is a loss of wind power: " The diaphragm as its name implies is a partition (rHr/Kf/iayrj.a) separating the chest from the abdomen. The partition serves a double purpose in acting as a floor to the chest and a roof to the abdomen. Before inquiring into the part played by the diaphragm in respiration it would be as well to take note of its exact attachments, and see how much of it is muscle or tissue capable of contracting, and how much tendon or tissue not capable of contracting or stretching. The dia- phragm is attached at its circumference ail round to the margins and upper borders of the cartilages of the lower six ribs, in front to the lower end of the breast bone or sternum, and behind to the spine by two strong muscular bands named ' crura.' " It will thus be seen that the diaphragm is attached to the rim of the lower outlet of the chest cavity. " The diaphragm is peculiar in having in its centre a tendinous expansion in the form of a clover leaf, hence named the trefoil. The three segments of the leaf are not of equal size. One, the largest, is situated to the right, and rests upon the upper convex surface of the liver. The smallest is to the left, and rests upon the large end of the stomach. The third or cen- 102 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. tral portion which is intermediate in size between the other two, forms the vault to the pit of the stomach, and has resting upon it above the heart and its cover- ings. The central portion is for obvious reasons nearly quite fixed, being only capable of some downward movement at its posterior border when the crura con- tract. The muscular portion encircles the tendinous, the muscular fibres radiating ail round from the trefoil to the margin of the ribs. " It is important to note that the diaphragm as a whole is much arched, in fact may be said to be dome- shaped. " The shape is peculiar, in so far as the trefoil is fiât in the centre, and much curved behind, and at the sides joining the muscular portion. " The muscular portion follows the curve of, and is at the same time practically parallel with, the lower ribs. " In the descriptions given in the text-books of anatomy, the relative positions of the trefoil and mus- cle of the diaphragm to each other and to the lower ribs hâve not been made suffîciently clear. It is im- possible to understand the effect of a contraction of the diaphragm in altering the shape of the chest cav- ity, unless the vertical position of the posterior mus- cular fibres is recognized. " We are now in a position to learn the changes the diaphragm is capable of producing in the chest and abdomen. When a curved muscle contracts the ends are approximated and the capacity of the curve is lessened, consequently, when the diaphragm contracts TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 103 the edges of the trefoil are depressed, the lower ribs are raised (and consequently expanded), and the ab- dominal contents are depressed, and being compressed, bulge at the point of least résistance, namely, the front abdominal wall. By a contraction, then, of the dia- phragm the floor of the chest is depressed, and in- creased in width. The capacity of the abdomen is not diminished; its shape is simply altered from the increase of pressure according to a well recognized law that spheroids tend to become sphères as the pressure within increases. During ordinary quiet or normal respiration there is always some prominence of the front abdominal wall, associated with expansion and élévation of the lower ribs. " The term ordinary or normal respiration is used intentionally in contradistinction to the term extraor- . dinary respiration or respiration with effort. Now inspiration with effort may be associated or not with protrusion of the front abdominal wall. "Two forms of inspiration, then, are to be noted: inspiration with convex abdomen, and inspiration with flat or concave abdomen. Each form of inspiration is recommended by différent teachers and physicians, as the best and most appropriate for vocal purposes. The old Italian masters taught that whilst in ordinary inspiration the abdominal wall might be allowed to be relaxed or even bulge forwards, in singing the part should be drawn in. Mandl, however, asserted that the lungs can be more completely filled by allowing the abdominal wall to be flaccid and project forward in inspiration, and this view has since been taken up 104 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. by Oskar Guttmann in America and later on in Eng- land by Messrs. Browne and Behnke. On the other hand, Gottfried Weber, one of the most acute investi- gators who has studied the science of singing, says that undoubtedly the old Italian method is the best.1 We agrée with Gottfried Weber that the method of the old school is the best, and that by it more air can be taken in, more complète control maintained over the expiratory act, and waste more effîciently pre- vented. That Mandl was incorrect in his views as to the lungs being more completely filled when the an- terior abdominal walls protrude is easy of proof. In order to judge of the relative merits of the two forms of inspiration an examination of the state of parts in each form, must be noted. In inspiration with convex abdomen, or that form advocated by Mandl, the dia- phragm is lowered to its fullest, and the lower ribs are somewhat raised and expanded. Now the centre of the diaphragm is fixed and not capable of anything but the most limited movements. The muscular sides of the diaphragm being nearly vertical do not on con- traction move directly downwards, but downwards, inwards, and forwards, in the direction of the pit of the stomach, compressing the abdominal contents, and protruding the front abdominal wall. The chief char- acteristic in this form of inspiration is the descent of the diaphragm, elongation of the chest cavity from above downwards, and a protrusion or rounding of the front abdominal wall. In inspiration with concave abdomen, or that form advocated by the old school, 1 Cœcilia, 1835, vol. xvii., p. 260. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. I05 the vault of the diaphragm is raised and supported by the front abdominal walls, and maintained in posi- tion by the liver, spleen, and great end of stomach. By thèse means the margin of the trefoil is elevated and fixed, and the whole force of the contraction of the muscular portion of the diaphragm is expended in raising and expanding the lower ribs. The chief characteristics of this form of inspiration are the flat- tening of the abdomen, élévation of the middle and sides of the diaphragm, and the marked élévation and expansion of the lower ribs. Whereas in the form of inspiration advocated by Mandl and the new school, the diaphragm is lowered and the chest is increased in depth from above downwards, in the form of in- spiration recommended by the old teachers, exactly the reverse takes place, the depth of the chest from above down is diminished, but the area of the base is greatly increased. Now thèse facts, examined in the light of mathematics, will show that a very slight in- crease of diameter of base of chest cavity means a relatively enormous increase of chest volume, whilst on the other hand, a very extensive descent of the dia- phragm affords but a small increase of volume. " Taking the whole chest cavity as a cône (the space occupied by the heart and lungs may be ignored) of which the diaphragm will be the base, let h = height of the cône, r the radius of the base, and - the relation between the diameter of a circle and its circumference, then -- r2 represents the volume of a cône whatever 3 number of inches // and r may happen to represent. io6 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. " Now if h be increased by marked descent of the diaphragm h is always divided by three, so that in any case the increase of h will hâve to be very large to sensibly increase the volume of the cône when the area of the base - r2 is constant. " If r be increased (that is to say, if the diameter of the base of the cône be enlarged) ever so small an h extent r2 becomes a large factor of the total - x r2. From thèse facts we may draw the conclusion, namely, that given a cône, the most efficient way of increasing its volume is to increase its base, and that increase of height affects the volume of the cône to a relatively small extent. "Now in the form of inspiration advocated by the old Italian masters, increase of the base of the chest was accomplished by pushing up the diaphragm and expanding and raising the lower ribs. Expérience taught them that such was the case, but no explana- tion or reason was offered in support. Concave ab- dominal inspiration without the slightest doubt affords most chest volume. In this form also there is more con- trol over the expiratory act, for in the convex form there is no means of regulating the relaxation of the diaphragm, and so economizing the air in the lungs. To summarize: in ordinary or normal respiration, the diaphragm rhythmically contracts. In contracting the flaccid abdominal contents are compressed and bulge at the points of least résistance, namely in front. The lower ribs are to a limited extent raised and expanded. In normal inspiration both the length of the chest and TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 107 the surface of its floor are increased. Inspiration with effort may, however, take place in either of two ways : the floor may be increased and the height diminished, or conversely, the height may be much increased and the dimensions of the floor be but slightly altered. But if the superficial extent of the floor be increased even but slightly, it is followed by a marked increase in the capacity of the chest, whilst on the other hand, the greatest increase of the height has little effect in increasing the volume of the contents." To sum up: In breathing with flat or concave abdo- men, there is far more contr"ol over expiration than when the diaphragm is displaced ; the act can be regu- lated absolutely by the will to suit the requirements of the vocalist. Abdominal inspiration is apt, on the other hand, to be followed by jerky expiration, a defect which is fatal to artistic delivery and most fatiguing to the singer. It may be added that there are other facts pointing to the same conclusion. The most casual observer must hâve noticed that when a great muscular effort has to be made the abdominal walls are drawn in on inspiration. The diver who is going to plunge into the water, the warrior who is about to deliver a mighty blow, instinctively draw in and fix the abdominal walls. The Scriptural phrase of " girding up the loins " may be a figurative expression having référence to this instinctive procédure, or may be an allusion to the use of the sash or belt so commonly employed in the East. Thèse articles of dress of course intensify the flatten- 108 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. ing of the abdominal walls, and thus artificially assist in controlling the escape of breath. As the resuit of personal observation, I may remark that the old Italian style of breathing is employed by some of the finest male singers that I know, and ail thèse persons hâve a wonderful degree of control over the réspiratory function. The first point in the training of the larynx itself is to insure the production of pure tone by accurate adjustment of the vocal cords. Each note must be " held " without the slightest altération of pitch or in- tensity, that is to say, with perfect steadiness and even- ness. This may appear a simple enough thing, but like the goose-step of the recruit it is the foundation of vocal discipline. When perfection has been attained in this, the pupil's control of his voice must be still further increased by constant practice of what the Italians call the messa di voce, i.e., the holding of a note in a varying scale of intensity beginning from the softest piano and swelling out by degrees to the loudest fortissimo and then back again in the same way to pianissimo in one breath. This is perhaps the most essential feature of artistic voice-production, and the utmost importance was rightly attached to it by the famous old Italian teachers, who made their pupils constantly practise it, and considered the possession of the power as one of the surest marks of an accom- plished singer. If, as is commonly the case, the singer employs more than one register, the matter must be carefuUy studied, the spécial peculiarities of every voice being most diligently investigated. The proper TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 109 use of the registers is a point of the greatest impor- tance in teaching. Some ténors can attain a very high pitch with the long reed (chest register), and Tamber- lik, Duprez, Maas, and a few others hâve been able to hold the p^k—Ê----H whereas most ténors expérience great fatigue of the tensor muscles of the vocal cords if they sing very high notes in the chest register; indeed, the attempt often brings on serious congestion of the windpipe. On the other hand, by using the short reed (falsetto) such singers can produce charming tones without any injury to the délicate muscular apparatus of the larynx. Many sopranos can produce two oc- taves and two or three notes with the long reed, and do not find it necessary to shorten the vibrating élé- ment, but a large number of mezzo-sopranos can only reach their higher notes with the head register (short reed), and contraltos also usually employ this mech- anism. It is in the latter class of voice that, when the shortening of the vibrating substance of the cords begins to take place, tones of a peculiar quality are produced, to which the term "middle register" is sometimes applied. The Italian masters spared no pains to "unité the registers," dovetailing the one into the other and as it were planing the surface of sound till the voice was smooth and uniform throughout the entire compass, and no " break " or différence of timbre could be de- tected. In the proper management of the registers lies the whole secret of fine singing, and in nothing is HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. the skill of the master more clearly seen than in the success with which he imparts this accomplishment to his pupils. It is on this point, too, that vocal training most requires to be controlled by the physician, not of course that a médical man should présume to dic- tate to the singing master what should be done, but lie may certainly advise as to what should not be done. Ail I claim for science is a right of veto against methods which are physically hurtful. If in the attempt to develop the voice, a register, te., a particular mode of production, is forced beyond its natural limits in a given individual, the resuit is likely to be serious in- jury to the vocal organs, in precisely the same way as when the strength of any other part of the body is overstrained. It is in order to guard against evil of this kind that I hâve laid such stress on the necessity of dealing with every voice according to its idiosyn- crasy. If a teacher mistakes his own ideas as to the registers for ultimate facts of nature, and insists on making every larynx rigidly adapt itself to his a priori conceptions, he cannot fail to work much mischief. He may hâve some brilliant successes, but his record of failures will certainly be a heavy one. Now al- though the physician may be incompétent to décide how a given note is to be delivered, or a particular vocal effect produced, he alone can pronounce as to whether the vocai cords are, as a matter of fact, strained or otherwise damaged thereby. One can see with the laryngoscope the excessive congestion induced by car- rying a register beyond a certain point, and the almost instant return to the normal state which occurs when TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. \ 11 the register is changed. Compétent authorities affirm that the example of Duprez, the French singer so fa- mous for his high chest notes, had a pernicious effect on other ténors who attempted, invita Minervâ, to imitate him, and too often brought on their voices the fate of the frog which strove to swell itself to the size of the ox. Training should always begin on the middle notes, and until the messa di voce has been perfected on thèse no effort should be made to extend the com- pass. Most teachers train the voice upwards; from the common-sense point of view, one is disposed to say that it should be developed as fully as possible both upwards and downwards. The sort of deep growl which Garcia calls the Strohbass register (only to be heard in the Russian churches and in the Great Carnivora House in the Zoological Gardens) when first attempted causes violent fits of coughing, and in the end, as a rule, utterly destroys the voice.1 Together with the messa di voce the pupil should practise portamento, that is to say the carrying of the voice from one note to another instead of jumping the 1 Since the appearance of the first édition of this book, the interesting troupe of Russian singers has given the London public an opportunity of hearing the Strohbass register. A friendly critic in the Musical World has taken me to task for comparing the exceedingly low notes referred to with the deep tones heard in the Great Carnivora House. I beg to as- sure him that I intended no disrespect to the Slavonic vocalists by the comparison. There is a grand majesty in the roar of thèse powerful animais which is extremely impressive, and, to my ears at least, not un- musical. I must, however, adhère to my statement that the production of such tones is unnatural to the human voice and must, as a rule, end in destroying it. The Strohbass register is in short a tour de force, and this no doubt constitutes its çhief attraction to some listeners. HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. interval. Portamento is in fact the passage from one note to another in an uninterrupted glide through ail the intervening tones. As messa di voce forms the groundwork of artistic singing, so portamento is its chief ornament; it is, in fact, the physical basis of expression? Not until the rudiments of the art hâve been mas- tered by the pupil should mère ornament be studied in détail. Trills, appoggiaturas, cadenzas, and other embel- lishments are of course necessary; they clothe the dry bones of song with living flesh and add color to the bare form. Moreover, the practice of such feats of sleight-of-throat is the only way of bringing out the full power of the voice, and endowing it with ail the flexibility and brilliancy of which it is capable. From the hygienic point of view I hâve nothing to say about such matters, which belong wholly to the province of the singing master. The éducation of the resonators must not be ne- glected, as bad management of any one of the organs which fulfil this important function will mar the effect of the voice, however beautiful in itself. With respect to the epiglottis, there is little to be said, for the part which it plays in production is not well understood, and its movements, unless in very exceptional cases, are beyond the dominion of the will. The cavities of the pharynx and mouth modify the current of sound 1 Although portamento should be constantly practised in exercising the voice, in actual singing it should be sparingly used. If employed habit- ually and without discrimination, it gives rise to an alternate ebb and flow of sound which is wearisome, and after a time disagreeable. This defeçt is called in the professional slang of vocalists, "gçooping." TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. U3 passing through them. slightly in tone and very much in quality. The right use of thèse parts is, therefore, a point of fundamental importance in singing. As already said, each vowel-sound has a natural pitch of its own ; the bucco-pharyngeal cavity, on the other hand, is a resonator, the pitch of which varies accord- ing to the changes which take place in its shape and dimensions. There is, therefore, one position of the parts concerned (lips, mouth, tongue, palate, and phar- ynx) best fitted for the delivery of a given vowel, and although owing to the interférence of consonants it may not be practicable to adjust the resonator with idéal exactness in every case, the standard of purity should always be kept in view and conformed to as far as possible. By skilful management of the parts just mentioned not only may purity of tone and vol- ume of sound be gained, but the very quality or timbre of the voice may be to some extent modified and im- proved. This is sometimes exemplified in the case of singers whose voice in speaking is rough or disagree- able, but becomes mellow and powerful in its natural élément of song. Each vowel-sound must be assidu- ously practised before a glass, the space between the lips, and the shape of the mouth being particularly attended to. I do not enter into détails as to the mode of uttering the différent vowels; thèse must be left to qualified instructors. No pains should be spared by the pupil to perfect himself on this point, which lies at the root of artistic enunciation, a thing too much neglected by vocalists. Without it, song loses one of its greatest charms, and the voice of " articu- 8 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. lately-speaking man " becomes little more expressive than sounding brass or tinkling cymbal. To a person of taste, a simple ballad sung with feeling and clear- ness of utterance gives more delight than the finest music rendered by a voice that sounds the notes but murders or mutilâtes the words which they are meant to express. English singers are perhaps the greatest offenders in this way. It is not altogether their fault or that of their teachers; the prédominance of con- sonants and closed vowels in our language makes it ill adapted for singing. It may be hinted, however, that vocalists in gênerai are somewhat apt to look upon the words as of very secondary importance relatively to the music, and hence do not think a good pronuncia- tion worth taking any trouble to acquire. The child- ish absurdity of most operatic libretti may possibly hâve something to do with this; indeed it might seem to a philanthropie artist that the best thing to do with such drivel is to make it unintelligible. An exception must be made in favor of the writings of Wagner and Hueffer which are of genuine poetical character, but unfortunately thèse works are quite out of the common order. In the case of " music married to immortal verse " the highest vocal art cannot atone for defective utterance. People are sometimes inclined to wonder that poets can be indiffèrent to music, as many of the best of them notoriously hâve been ; Goethe in par- ticular, it is said, disliked hearing his own verses sung.1 1 He apparently could not even appreciate the beautiful setting which Schubert had given some of his own songs. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. \ \ 5 The reason may be that they look upon music almost in the light of an enemy, as by it their " thoughts that breathe and words that burn " are too often reduced to mère "sound and fury, signifying nothing." Defects in pronunciation, however, are very often more justly chargeable to the composer than to the singer, as, from ignorance of the laws as to the pitch of vowels, syllables are associated with notes on which they cannot be properly sounded. It has been proved that each vowel has its own spécial pitch, and hence it cannot be sounded in perfection on any other. The différent vowels, in fact, are produced by modifications in the length and shape of the cavity of the mouth, and the note of each one of them is that to which such a resonance-chamber naturally responds. It fol- lows from this that, in order to get the best effect from the vocal instrument, there should be the most perfect possible adaptation of the various vowels to the notes on which they are to be sung. Sounds like o and ou (00) are best rendered in the lower notes of the voice ; a and i (ee) in the upper. It is difficult, indeed almost impossible, to sing the latter vowels on deep notes. The singer, therefore, finding that he must sacrifice either the purity of the musical tone or the correct- ness of the vowel-sound, not unnaturally prefers to préserve the former. The only remedy for this diffi- culty is that music should be written with an adéquate knowledge of ail the phonetic peculiarities of the lan- guage in which it is meant to be sung. I may add also that composers might with advan- tage make themselves acquainted with the capabilities Il6 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. of the vocal organ, as they find it necessary to do in the case of other instruments. Too little allowance is sometimes made for the limitations of the human voice, and music is written which is, no doubt, of heavenly beauty but which only members of the angelic choir could sing without serious risk of injury. Of ail the eminent composers Handel and Rossini alone seem to hâve shown regard for the délicate organization of the human larynx. Thèse two men, standing far as the pôles asunder in everything else, agreed on this one point. Before composing an opéra, Rossini used to make a careful study of the vocal capacity of every member of the company which was to sing in it.1 Even Handel, however, does not seem to hâve understood that the living organ is not to be depended on at ail times and seasons like a mechanical apparatus. Mr. Haweis tells us that on one occasion Handel rushed into the house of one of his company, and shaking the music in the face of the trembling artist exclaimed, " You tog, don't I know better as yourself vat you can sing ? If you vill not sing ail de song vat I give you I vill not pay you ein stiver ! " Another time, when a prima donna was doubtful as to her capacity, the ex- cited composer seized her by the arm, " shook her like a rat," and threatened to throw her out of the win- dow.2 Beethoven3 in his choral works treats the hu- man voice exactly as if it were a machine capable of 1 Sarah Tytler, Musical Composers and their Works, London, 1883, p. 268. 1 Music and Morals, third édition, London, 1873, p. 171. 3 See N. D'Anvers, History of Art, London, 1874. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. \\y going on singing for an indefinite length of time with- out fatigue.1 Perfect control must be obtained over the tongue and the soft palate, and the uvula must be carefuUy 1 It is a mistake to suppose that Wagner's style, quâ style is more in- jurious to the voice than that of other masters. No doubt the leading parts in Wagner's opéras, from Ricnzi to Die Gôtterdàmmerung, are designed on a very large scale, and are therefore trying to the voice, but this is equally true of Meyerbeer's Prophète and Huguenots, of Verdi's Trovatore, and indeed of any other great opéra of modem times. To say that Wagner's method of treating the voice as part of the gênerai design, or that his demand for great declamatory emphasis, destroys the vocal organ, seems to me absolute nonsense. It is true, however, that Wagner understands certain voices better than others. Thus, whilst ail his soprano and ténor music is eminently vocal, his writing for the con- tralto and mezzo-soprano, on the other hand, sometimes exceeds the limits of possibility. Such a part as Ortrud in Lohengriti cannot be sung properly by any artist that I hâve ever heard or heard of. It is also a mistake to say that Wagner drowns the voices with the orchestra. This error has arisen from the fact that most conductors let the orchestra play much more loudly than the composer intended. Wagner's own intention is sufficiently shown by the structure of his théâtre at Bayreuth. This is essentially on the lines of the ancient théâtre, the seats rising tier upon tier as in the Koilon, and the orchestra being separated from the pit by a solid wall sunk scveral feet below the level of the first row of the spec- tators' seats. The brass portion of the orchestra, which is actually under the stage, produces an effect which if anything is too soft The disagreeable effecls occasionally heard in the concert-room are never produced in Wagner's own théâtre, whilst the voices rise above the orchestra, so that not only every note but every word is distinctly audible. The absurd complaints made against Wagner by some vocalists remind one of the story that Schnorr von Carolsfeld was killed by his perform- ance in Tristam und Isolde, the fact being that the poor man died from typhoid fever. As a proof that singing Wagner's music does not injure the voice, I may mention that Niemann who sang Tannhâuser in Paris in 1861, is still delighting the American public; Yogi has also been singing for many years, and his voice is as sweet as ever, whilst the vocal efforts of Frâulein Matten retain the full force and purity of her early performances. [This foot-note appeared in an early édition.] Il8 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. trained so that it may always be kept at a high level, and thus out of the way of the stream of sound flow- ing out from the larynx. In the high notes, and espe- cially in the falsetto tones, the proper position of the uvula is of the first importance (see Frontispiece), and so great an authority as Madame Lind-Goldschmidt considers that purity of tone dépends largely on ac- curate training of the uvula. This gifted lady, who united the highest executive powers with rare didactic skill in her art, when instructing a new pupil devoted much of her attention at first to the éducation of the uvula. In this there can be no doubt that she is right, for that little organ can not only by an inappropriate position spoil an otherwise fine voice, but by its valve- like action with respect to the nasal passage, it has a positive function of the highest importance. So-called " throaty " tones are often due to the back of the tongue being allowed to remain at too high a level in the mouth. This fault must be carefuUy avoided, and great pains must be taken that the cavity of the mouth be adjusted to the shape required for the différent notes (see p. 113) without distortion of the features. Spécial Systems of drill in thèse movements are en- joined by teachers, and provided they are intelligently applied, i.e., with variations in détail according to dif- férence of physical conformation or other individual peculiarities, it does not matter much which is adopted. When the individual parts hâve been brought thor- oughly under control, they must next be trained to act in concert. The régulation of the force of the blast which strikes against the vocal cords, the placing TRAININÇ OF THE SINGING VOLÇE. 119 of thèse in the most favorable position for the effect which it is desired to produce, and the direction of the vibrating column of air v. hich issues from the larynx are the three éléments of artistic production. Thèse movements must be thoroughly co-ordinated,1 that is to say made virtually one act, which the pupil must strive by constant practice to make as far as possible automatic. As regards the blast, the great object to be aimed at is that no air shall be wasted or expended unproduc- tively. Just the amount required for the particular effect in view must be used. Too strong a current tends to raise the pitch, a resuit which can only be prevented by extra tension of the- vocal cords, which 1 Physiologists apply the term co-ordination to the action of the control- ling principle in the brain whereby the différent parts of the body are made to work harmoniously together. The keeping of the two eyes parallel to each other, the act of walking, in which, whilst the two legs carry the body onwards, the muscles of the trunk keep it in equilibrium as it moves, and the eyes guide the steps, are familiar instances of co-ordinated action. In cases of disease or injury of the brain the governing power is often destr. yed or suspended, and disordered movements resuit. Thus a patient suffering from Locomotor Ataxy may be seen vainly struggling to place his feet where his eyes tell him they should be put. In St. Vitus's Dance the muscles generally, or those of one part of the body, lose the power of combining for a definite end, and go through violent but pur- poseless movements. The double vision, staggering gait and indistinct utterance of a drunken man exemplify the temporary loss of co-ordinating power. The curious feeling that sometimes comes over us of having been in preciselv the same circumstances at some former time has been supposed to be due to passing loss of co-ordination of the two halves of the brain, one hémisphère lagging behind the other for a moment, and repeating the state of consciousness, instead of helping to complète it. The " most admired disorder" that would be produced in a choir, if each performer were to sing and play in his own time and key, regardless of the rest, is an example of want of co-ordination that will be intelligible to every one. HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. of course entails unnecessary strain. The air, again, may be sent up with such velocity that some of it "leaks" through before the glottis has time to inter- cept it; ôr with such violence as to force the lips of the chink a little too far apart. In either case so much motive power is thrown away, and besides, the brilliancy and fulness of the tone are lost. The coupe de glotte, or exact correspondence between the arrivai of the air at the larynx and the adjustment of the cords to receive it is a point that cannot be too strongly insisted on. Neither books nor dissection can teach this ; the sole guide is the muscular sensé,1 aided and enlightened by a compétent instructor. Madame Seiler strongly condemns the System of training the voice at its maximum of intensity, the lungs being inflated to their utmost capacity, and the accumulated breath discharged at the glottis as from the mouth of a cannon. She on the contrary main- tains that by practice in singing at slight breath-pres- sure, or piano, and aiming at purity and sweetness, rather than mère loudness, of tone, more complète control of the organs is acquired, whilst much less risk of physical injury is incurred.2 At the same time in order to acquire the maximum power, physiology teaches us that the muscles must be regularly exer- cised for a short time at their full tension. Accord- ing to tradition this was the invariable method of the Italian -maestri, so that it would appear that science, 1 This is the feeling by which our consciousness is made aware of the movements and position of our limbs. It is différent from the sensé of touch, which résides in the skin. 2 The Voice in Singing, new édition, Philadelphia, 1881, p. 113 et seq. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 121 if not directly useful in teaching, has at least the merit of explaining what art had already discovered. The breathing should be so much under control, and so entirely transformed as it were into sound, that the flame of a candie at a distance of a few inches from the performer's mouth should not flicker as he sings. The power of so exactly regulating the émission of the breath is a good test of whether the voice is being properly used or not. It is a point very strongly in- sisted on by Garcia,1 if not originally propounded by him. The direction of the column of sound through the mouth is another matter needing attention. It must be projected against the roof of the cavity behind the upper front teeth, from which it rebounds sharply and cleanly to the outside. In saying this I do not mean to rival those maestri who gravely tell their pupils to squirt their voices as it were out of a syringe at the back of the head, the root of the nose, and even down- wards into the abdomen. Singers are conscious, how- ever, of being able to a certain extent to direct the air-column, and this faculty can be improved by prac- tice. When the art of breathing properly has been thoroughly acquired, it ought to become entirely au- tomatic. I hâve seen many amateurs who in their conscientious endeavors to attend to the precepts of their instructors as to the method of breathing, hâve entirely lost sight of the ultimate object of singing, 1 Traite complet de IArt du Chant, Paris, 1878, p. 13. The ideu *" much older than the date hère given, and may no doubt be found in ear- lier éditions. 122 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. and in place of the perfect expression of the émotions by vocal utterance, hâve shown either nervous hésita- tion or mechanical monotony. There must be as little action as possible of any muscles but such as directly assist the production of voice. The hideous muscular contortions of the face and neck, and the swelling of the veins in those parts sometimes seen in singing are the resuit of bad habit, or prove that the natural powers are being overstrained. Perfect art is shown in the ease and grâce and absence of unnecessary or irrelevant effort with which a thing is done. The unpractised billiard player holds his eue with a convulsive grip as though he were afraid of losing it, the unskil ul violinist scrapes the strings as if he were scrubbing them with a shoe-brush. A feeling of tightness in the throat in singing is an almost certain sign of inartistic production; it is especially felt when the voice is being used in a wrong register. The sensa- tion is probably due to excessive contraction or even slight cramp of the muscles which form the wall of the pharynx. This " tightening of the neck " may also exist as a vice of production throughout the entire compass of the voice. It spoils the beauty and fulness of the tone and even, to some extent, accuracy of pitch by altering the shape of the resonator. Constant prac- tice on the middle notes and in piano singing, swelling the voice out by degrees, and instantly stopping when the tightness begins to be felt, are the best ways of overcoming the defeçt. The perfection of art, on the other hand, lies in the production of the voice, not merely without any ap- TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 123 pearance, but without the slightest sensé, of effort. The infinitely complex muscular movements that go to the making up of tone must be guided by art, not by brute force; whether the laryngeal outlet be nar- rowed or widened, the voice should flow through it with the liquid smoothness of a stream of oil. The quality of good production, like that of mercy, is not strained; it should be so easy as to be almost uncon- scious, and should be accompanied by a feeling of looseness, not only in the throat, but throughout the whole vocal economy. This looseness is the subjec- tive index of right, as the tightness above alluded to is of wrong, production. It cannot be too strongly insisted on, not less from the hygienic than the aesthetic point of view, that training of the singing voice can hardly be too corn- prehensive or too persevering. The grand secret of the old Italian method which is so much spoken of seems to hâve been simply the happy combination of common sensé on the part of the master with inexhaustible pa- tience and docility on the part of the pupil. Voices were made then for use, not like Peter Pindar's razors merely " to sell." Caffarelli, as is well known, was kept by his master Porpora for six years ' to the practice of exercises which covered only one sheet of music paper. When at the end of that time the disciple meekly asked to be allowed to attempt an air, his 1 George Sand, in Consuelo (which, though a romance, is to a great ex- tent historical and founded on careful literary research), gives the period as eight years. She also remarks that the great singer was always known as Caffariello everywhere except in France. 124 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. master replied, "Figlio mio, tu sei il primo musico del mondo."I Rubini had to serve an apprenticeship of seven years before he was considered fit to sing in pub- lic. The great lack of good voices2 now generally com- plained of, is no doubt principally due to the feverish hurry and impatience of modem life which makes pupils and teachers alike more anxious for immédiate success, however ephemeral, than for lasting results. The same characteristic is seen in every branch of hu- man activity. Crude théories supported by a handful of imperfectly observed facts are offered as scientific discoveries; literature is, for most people, represented rather by the quickly scribbled and more quickly for- 1 There has been a good deal of futile controversy as to whether this anecdote is to be accepted in a natural or in a non-natural sensé, i.e., whether Porpora could actually hâve put the whole secret of his teach- ing into so small a space, or whether he intended thereby to rebuke the overweening conceit of his pupil. But surely ail that a singing master can teach is the mère technique of the art, and the greater part of this can be expressed by symbols which, taking up little room, can be made to mean a great deal when interpreted by a man of genius. 2 Perhaps, after ail, the supposed scarcity of good voices may be more apparent than real. It is possible that it is not only the pitch but the standard of vocal excellence that has risen. We know how the gênerai level of literary style has risen, and, in particular, how the art of me'odi- ous versification has been popularized, if I may use the expression, so that every cheap magazine, and even the poets' corner of provincial news- papers, contains copies of verses which would hâve earned considérable réputation for the authors a hundred and fifty years ago. Itis immensely more difficult now to make a name by writing. May not something of the same kind be the case as regards singing ? I fear we must not lay that flattering unction to our soûls. Great singers are rarer nowadays than in former times, because voice-training is almost a lost art. The remedy lies, as has been said, in a return to methods consecrated by glorious tradition, and fruitful of results which, as expérience has ab*n- dantly proved, cannot be attained by shorter or easier ways. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 125 gotten article in the daily paper than by works matured in accordance with the Horatian precept. In an âge in which shoddy-making and jerry-building lead to famé and fortune, when ingenious " professors " under- take to make the " tender juvenal " bearded like the pard in six weeks, when a memory like that of Hor- tensius can be acquired in a dozen lessons, it is no wonder that a few months' training is thought suffi* cient for the voice. There is an unfortunate tendency at the présent day to be satisfied with a very inadé- quate amount of training, and I cannot help thinking that this is partly due to an imperfect appréciation of its necessity. Years are ungrudgingly given to ac- quiring a mastery of the piano or violin, and it is rec- ognized that to excel with either of thèse instruments seven or eight hours of laborious practice every day are necessary. Yet many seem to fancy that the voice can be trained in a few months. How preposterous such a notion is must be évident to any one who takes the trouble to think about the matter. In the case of the violin or piano the instrument is perfect from the outset, and the student has only to learn to play it; the singer, on the other hand, has to develop—in some cases almost to create—his instrument, and then to master the technique of it. The human larynx is, as already said, a musical instrument of the most compli- cated kind, for its two reeds are susceptible of almost infinité modification in size, shape, and manner of vi- bration. A distinguished surgeon not long ago edified the public by a calculation of the number of muscular movements executed by a young lady while perform- 126 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. ing a simple pièce on the piano ; it would be hopelessly impossible to count the movements of the muscles which work the vocal cords. The insufficiently pro- longed training of singers too often, as we see, leads to doubtful success, and early break-down. The same causes led to precisely the same results even in the palmy days of Italian teaching. Does not Tosi speak with the gloomiest foreboding of the shipwreck that is sure to overtake the bark which with too presumptu- ous confidence braves the storm-tossed océan of an artistic career? Mancini also (1774) says that vocal art had then fallen very low, a circumstance which he attributed to singers "having forgotten the old Sys- tem and the sound practice of the ancient schools." Rossini, at the zénith of his famé, complained that there were so few good voices. I would propose as a motto for musical aspirants Goethe's words Ohne Hast aber ohne Rast. The longer their period of training, the longer and the more successful will be their career. On the other hand, nothing can be more certain than that the conséquence of want of sufficient préparation must he failure. But there is another cause of strain and injury to the voice which is peculiar to England,' and which is altogether of an artificial and external character. For this the singer is in no sensé responsible, but, on the other hand, has much reason to complain. I allude to the high concert pitch now generally used, especially 1 This accidentai and removable cause of injury appears to be in opér- ation also in America, as Madame Seiler many years ago insisted on the injury done to the voice by the abnormally high pitch. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 127 in this country, which throws an unnatural strain on even the finest voices. In the classical period of music, A (second space treble clef) represented from 415 to 429 vibrations; this pitch suited the human voice ad- mirably. The désire to get increasingly brilliant effects from the orchestra forced the pitch higher and higher, till so much confusion prevailed that, in 1859, a French Commission fixed the standard pitch at435 vibrations. This is called the normal diapason, and is now gener- ally used on the Continent, but England, with her customary insular independence, lias not conformed to the gênerai rule in this matter, and the pitch has in this country actually risen to 458 vibrations. This re- suit is largely due to the extraordinary impulse given to orchestral music by the genius of Costa, who, so long as he could get brilliant effects from his instru- ments, cared little for the conséquences which the rise of pitch entailed on the voice. But it will be said, Since it is ail a matter of convention, why cannot the pitch be lowered ? I believe the chief obstacle is the expense which this would involve through the necessity of altering instruments. It has been estimated that it would cost ,£80,000 to alter those of the military bands alone, and politicians probably think that thèse are hardly the times to ask for money for such an object. But worse even than the undue height of the pitch is the différence between this country and the rest of the civilized world which has just been referred to. Herr Joachim complains that he is obliged to begin screwing up his violin eight weeks before he comes to England, in order that the instrument may not be in- 128 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. jured by a sudden change. It is not so easy, however, for the singer to prépare his delicately strung instru- ment in the same way, and the resuit is necessarily great strain to the vocal cords and throat generally. For the great singers who may hâve to sing one night in Paris and the next in London, the strain must be especially irksome and injurious. The high pitch used in England leads to the production of very disagree- able shrieking; notes are delivered which are in no sensé artistically beautiful, and which only " split the ears of the groundlings." Nearly ail singers are in favor of lowering the pitch. The sole exceptions are, I believe, the contraltos, whom a high pitch does not affect so much as it does others. I know of one justly celebrated contralto who produces an extraordinary effect by her low E. If the pitch were altered this vocal feat would no longer be so wonderful, and it is natural, therefore, that this lady should wish the prés- ent state of things to continue. One or two points hâve still to be touched upon. Madame Seiler lays great stress on the importance of female voices being trained by women, and male by men. As the art is to so large an extent imitative, there may be some truth in this view. According to her, F. Wieck always instructed women with the help of trained female voices. The suggestion may seem pueiile to those who teach solely by the light of the la- ryngoscopic lamp, and who, like the fencing-master in the comedy, think more of the zvay in which a thing is done than of the resuit, but if the teacher uses his own voice as an example, it seems just as likely that a TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 129 woman trained entirely by a male teacher will sing like a man, i.e., with prédominance of the chest regis- ter, as that if taught writing by a man she will write like one. I hâve only to add that the ear should be not less carefuUy trained than the vocal organs. An old Scotch minister used to tell his flock that the conscience should be kept " as white as the breest o' a clean sark." The ear is the conscience of the voice, and its purity should be not less jealously guarded. Many singers of the finest vocal endowment fail from a de- feçt of ear; their condition is like that of a color-blind painter. Passing indisposition may sometimes vitiate the ear as well as the temper; the artist should on no account attempt to sing under such circumstances. Section III. Vocal Training of Children. Teaching to be really profitable, artistically speak- ing, must, as has been said, be individual, that is to say, it must be based on a careful study of the quali- ties of each particular voice. Training en masse is like the physicking which Mrs. Squeers was wont to administer so impartially to her unfortunate charges. Some of the voices are sure to be strained by having to sing beyond their compass, whilst the tendency (innate in crowds, especially in English crowds) which each person has to outdo his neighbor, leads them to scream and bawl in rivalry of each other. It becomes 9 130 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. a shouting contest, in which the battle is to the strong. This is the case even in cathedral choirs, where the attempt to train is seriously made, and where the teachers are at any rate musicians. Yet it is so much a matter of common observation that choristers seldom develop into really good singers, that the mère fact of having been trained in a choir is against a young artist. The first thought of experts is apt to be " Can any good come out of Nazareth ? " Of the many thousands now living who hâve been trained in cathedral choirs during the last forty or fifty years, the names of Sims Reeves, Edward Lloyd, and Joseph Maas1 are alone conspicuous in the musical firmament. They are in the strictest sensé brilliant exceptions which prove the dismal rule. If cathedral training is so barren of artistic singers, a fortiori still less resuit can be looked for from insti- tutions without the same advantages. The instruction in singing given at Board Schools and other scholastic institutions, whether the common notation or the Tonic Sol-Fa System is employed, though no doubt useful for teaching the éléments of music, is quite insuffîcient for vocal culture of a high order, as the teachers of the most part hâve no spécial knowledge or skill. There is much différence of opinion as to the âge at which systematic vocal training should commence. The weight of authority is in favor of deferring it till 1 This illustrious trio of ténors is now, alas! reduced to a duet, the youngest of them, poor Maas, the Marcellus of English song, having been eut off in the flower of his artistic life as the first édition of this book v. as passing through the press. TRAINING OF THE SINGING VOICE. 131 after puberty, especially in girls. Indeed many teach- ers refuse pupils before that period of life. The rea- sons given are that training at an earlier âge would be likely to damage the voice by straining it whilst still unformed, and the gênerai health by subjecting the System to fatigue beyond its powers. To place the question in a proper light, it is necessary to be clear as to what is meant by "training." To put a young child through the vocal athletics which the adult is rightly made to practise, would be as ridiculous as setting him to défend a wicket from the " Démon Bowler," or to row in the University Boat-race. But I can see no objection to his being subjected to a cer- tain amount of vocal discipline as early as the âge of five or six or even younger. Of course in this as in other matters the question quid valeant humeri quid ferre récusent must never be lost sight of. Only simple little airs of limited compass1 should be sung, and the co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles with the ear (which is the conscience of the voice) should be thor- oughly established. This can easily be done by in- variably correcting every note about which there may be any suspicion of falseness. There is a better chance also of getting rid of throaty or nasal production at the very outset than when thèse defects hâve become ingrained by long habit. Moreover any physical de- formity impairing the timbre of the voice can be 1 An excellent set of songs, especially adapted for children's voices, has been composed by Mrs. Compton (Lonisa Gray) and published by Messrs. Wood and Co. They are warranted to contain " no love and no high notes," and may, therefore, be trusted not to inflame either the infant's tender heart or its délicate larynx, 132 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. remedied much more easily in childhood than after- wards. Again the parts are more pliant and docile in early life than later on, and if it is thought necessary on that account to begin piano or violin playing in childhood, it cannot be wrong to teach the use of the muscles which play that difficult instrument, the hu- man larynx. The immense faculty of imitation pos- sessed by children should be taken advantage of in teaching them to sing as well as to speak. Professor Manuel Garcia1 observes: "Children should begin to sing their scales in the seven keys between the âges of seven and twelve, but such exercises require the greatest care." He agrées with me, that training chil- dren en masse is likely to prove very injurious, and that " vocal instruction should be given singly and accord- ing to the requirements ôf the individual." I am grati- fied to find that so sound and experienced a teacher as Madame Seiler2 agrées with me as to the impor- tance of taking advantage of the imitative faculty in children, and the same view has the strong support of Mr. Bach3 of Edinburgh, and Mr. Charles Lunn4 of Birmingham, both of whom are teachers of very large expérience. It may be added that some of the very best among living singers hâve been trained in quite early life. I need only mention the names of such " bright particular starsv as Alboni, Jenny Lind, Adelina Patti and Albani. The unique voice of Ma- 1 Loc. cit. 2 Op. cit. p. 75. 3 On Musical Education and Vv : the average female voice is about an octave above this. Exceptionally high-pitched male voices are every now and then met with which approximate almost to the female type, and lady controversialists may sometimes be heard in the streets whose depth (to say nothing of their breadtli) of utterance might be envied by a city toastmaster. The former anomaly is probably dé- pendent in most cases on an arrest of development; in other words, the change has either not taken place or has been imperfect. In a few such cases which I have had the opportunity of examining, the larynx seemed below the normal size in ail its dimensions, 1 Mr. F. Weber, the Résident Organist of the German Chapel Royal, St. James's Palace, who has recently written a very interesting article in Longmans Magazine (Feb. 1887) on Melody in Speech, says : "Sen- tences are spoken in a certain musical key, and are mostly begun on the fifth or dominant of the scale of the key-note, from which they descend in seconds or thirds or other intervais to the key-note, and, maybe, down to the dominant." 2 Op. cit. p. 25, footnote. THE SPEAKING VOICE. 163 presenting sometimes a striking contrast to the rest of the body, which was well grown and robust. This quasi-feminine tone of the male voice is sometimes as- sociated with an arrest of development in other organs which undergo a natural change at puberty, but it is often due to a merely local condition. The power and volume of the speaking, as of the singing, voice dépend on the force with which the lungs can deliver their expiratory blast, but much more on the size and shape of the resonance-chambers. Cœteris paribus, a man of massive frame and capacious chest should have a stronger voice than a man of light build. When a weak voice is associated with a powerful physique the fault is not in the lungs but in the resonance-cham- bers. In some cases also no doubt the management of the voice is defective. The speaking, like the singing, voice loses much of its strength and beauty in old âge. " Is not your voice broken ? your wind short ? " says the Chief Justice in reply to Falstaff's assertion of his youthfulness. Mr. Bright at the âge of fifty-five complained that his voice was not what it had been, and in nothing is Mr. Gladstone's old âge more marvellous than in the amount of vocal power which he still retains. The mechanism of speech is practically the same as that of song as far as the larynx is concerned, though of course the action of the vocal cords is of a less com- plex description. There are, however, in the speak- ing, as in the singing, voice, at least two registers, the "chest " and " falsetto " notes being distinguishable in voices of even the most limited compass. In the act 164 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. of speech there are four éléments: (1) the air-blast ; (2) the vibration of the vocal cords; (3) the résonance of the chest and the cavities above the larynx ; and (4) the articulation or modification of the sound, as emitted from the larynx, into various forms as parti- cles of intelligible speech. The last, which in singing is of the nature of an addition, is the essential and dis- tinctive feature of speech. The separate éléments of articulate sound are of a twofold kind : first, continu- ous, and secondly, interruptive. The former are the vowels, of which there are five fundamental varieties universally présent in human speech wherever uttered, and an indefinite number of modified forms, some of which are heard in one tongue and some in another. The interruptive éléments are the consonants, most of which, as the name imports, cannot be sounded apart from vowels; they are produced by momentary stoppage of the sound-current by means of the palate, the tongue, and the teeth. We may in fact make a fanciful picture of speech to our mind's eye by com- paring the stream of sound to a river flowing between banks, now near each other, now wide apart, broken up by rocks of various size and shape, trunks of trees, small islands, and whatever else breaks the smooth- ness of the current ; the unbroken stream of varying breath represents the vowels, the broken and twisted current the consonants. At the risk of reminding the reader of M. Jourdain's maître de philosophie, something must be said as to the formation of the individual let- ters, but this uninviting subject will be dealt with as briefly as may be consistent with clearness, THE SPEAKING VOICE. 165 The différent vowel-sounds may be said to be the resuit of the graduai elongation of the mouth-cavity combined with altérations in the shape and size of its external orifice produced by the varying action of the lips. The following is the order of the five vowels in relation to the length of tube required for their produc- tion, beginning with the shortest ; i (ee), e (pronounced like the French é), a (ah), o, u (00). It was proved ex- perimentally by Czermak * that in the utterance of thèse five vowel-sounds the nasal part of the air- passage is shut off from the mouth by the soft palate with the exception of the a (ah) sound, where the clo- sure is not complète. In delivering thèse vowels the mouth acts as a resonator, the inlet of which is at the back, and the outlet at the lips, both orifices being alike variable in length and in shape. On the proper pro- duction of the vowels dépends distinctness of articula- tion and the final, as it is the severest, test of a speak- er's training is the perfection of his rendering those five letters, a, e, i, 0, u. Consonants have been variously divided by gram- marians and physiologists according to the modifica- tion of the air-blast in delivering them, and again ac- cording to the supposed anatomical factor in their production. Thus we have the division into lip-letters or labials (b, p, f m, v), tooth-letters or dentals (d, t, l, ' Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akademie {matematisch-naturwissen- schaftliche Klasse), Band xxiv., p. 4, March, 1857. More recently, however, Piemazek says ( ÎVien. med. Blàtter, Nos. 23 & 24, 1878) that on rhinoscopic examination it can be seen that the vélum does not stick exactly against the pharynx ; there is a little interval which varies ac- cording to the sounds, being largest for a, and smallest for 0 and u. 166 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. n, r, s), and throat letters or gutturals (g, k, h,j), and the more scientific, but less practically convenient, classification into explosives, résonants, vibrants, and aspirâtes. Provincial and national varieties of accent probably dépend on slight physical différences in the mode of producing the various sounds, which again may be, in a certain measure, due to minute ethnological différ- ences in the conformation of the organs. Section IL Defects of Speech. The speaking voice varies much according to the state of the bodily health and of the mental émotions. Thus without any structural disease of the larynx it may be reduced almost to a whisper by the exhaus- tion of a wasting illness. Want of food has a marked effect on the volume of the voice, making it thin and hollow. Anger makes the tone harsh, whilst pity or love makes even an unmusical voice " soft and low." Excess of joy, sorrow, indignation or terror, may take away the power of speech—an effect expressed by Virgil in the well-known phrase, vox faucibus hœsit. This is no doubt due to a momentary paralysis of the cords from the shock to the nervous System, sometimes also to drying of the natural sécrétion of the mouth from a similar cause.1 To be able to imitate ail thèse ' The sudden arrest of the salivary sécrétion through fear is or used to be employed for the détection of criminals in India. The ordeal was the swallowing of a handful of dry rice, which the mens conscia recti made easy, but the sensé of guilt impossible. THE SPEAKING VOICE. 167 différent natural effects whilst retaining full control over the voice is the highest perfection of oratory or acting. Some account must now be given of various defects of speech, some of which arise from more or less ob- scure natural causes, whilst others are due to vicious habit, to carelessness or to affectation. The former category includes stammering and stuttering; whilst under the latter head I place such faults as lisping, speaking with a nasal or " throaty " twang, insufficient opening of the mouth, &c. Stammering and stutter- ing affect the voice at the very fountain head of its production, whilst the other defects arise from malfor- mation or bad management of the upper resonance- chamber. Again, whilst stuttering, stammering, and lisping are diseases or errors of speech, the others prin- cipally affect the quality of the voice, though they may also mar the distinctness of the utterance. A distinction must be made between stammering and stuttering, although they are often used even by scientific men as interchangeable terms, and indeed the différence is not very easy to define. One has only to glance at the varying and sometimes contra- dictory accounts given by writers on the voice and on elocution, whether from an artistic or a médical point of view, to become aware of the confusion in which the whole subject is involved. The inhérent difficulty of the question is due to the impossibility of observ- ing the mechanism of the defeçt by actual inspection; we are therefore thrown back on more or less plausi- ble theorizing. In the following brief account I will t68 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. try to confine myself to facts as far as that is possible in a matter in which nearly everything is doubtful. If we attentively observe several persons afrlicted with an impediment in their speech and compare them one with another as regards their manner of utterance, a radical différence can hardly fail to be noticed. Leaving minor points out of considération, it will be remarked that while one class of persons find their chief difficulty in uttering sounds of any kind, another cannot force their organs of articulation I to do their bidding. In the former case (stammering) it is clear that the larynx is at fault, whilst in the latter (stutter- ing) the seat of the trouble is the " unruly member " the tongue, or the lips. Stammering may be due to inability to control the action of the vocal cords sufficiently for phonation, or it may be the resuit of spasm of the diaphragm, which renders it impossible to send an air-blast up to the glottis. Stuttering, on the other hand, arises either from spasm of the tongue, i.e., strong contraction of the muscles which govern its movements leading to im- mobilization of the organ at the bottom of the mouth, or from imperfect control over the lips. The stam- merer's efforts to sound his voice are very painful to 1 Dr. Holger Mygind, of Copenhagen, in the excellent translation which he has made of this little book was puzzled as to how he should render the word " stuttering" there being no distinction in Danish be- tween "stammering" and "stuttering." He has accordingly invented the terms "stammering of phonation" and "stammering of articula- tion " as équivalents for our words, a nomenclature which appears to me even better than that used by us. THE SPEAKING VOICE. 169 witness, as he has the appearance of struggling for breath; the stutterer's contest with refractory let- ters and the " damnable itération " of self-repeating syllables too often excites laughter rather than sym- pathy. In very bad cases both forms of impediment may co-exist, the sufferer being rendered almost unfit for society. It has been calculated that the propor- tion of the linguâ capti to the rest of the population is as high as one in 3,000, the great majority being maies. In about 50 per cent, of a total of 200 cases Hunt1 was able to trace the defeçt to a definite cause, or rather to refer its onset to a particular period of time. In some cases the impediment seemed to be the resuit of an acute illness (whooping-cough, measles, &c); in others sudden shock to the System (fright, &c.) had been the starting-point.2 In a certain number the affection was distinctly of mimetic origin, that is to say, it had been produced by mimicry conscious or unconscious. In about 15 per cent, of the whole number hereditary influence was présent, and no doubt played an important part in engendering the defeçt. One remarkable point of différence between stammer- ers and stutterers is that whilst the former are, as will be readily understood, just as incapable of singing as ' A Treatise on Stammering and Stuttering, Lond. 1870, p. 341. 3 Orfila, the distinguished toxicologist and Dean of the Paris Faculty of Medicine, when a child was very severely punished by his father for .some trifling fault. He went to bed crying, and when he woke in the morning stammered " horribly," to use his own expression. Dr. Séguier cured him by making him sing in a church choir. After three months of this treatment he began to improve, and in eight months he was com- pletely cured. 17O HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. they are of speaking properly, the latter regain con- trol over their rebellious organs when they sing. Stuttering is made much worse by the consciousness of being observed, and, like chorea, it has the property of inducing similar attacks in persons subject to it, probably by nervous sympathy. Thus if a stutterer who may happen to be speaking fairly well should overhear a fellow-sufferer in the throes of a struggle with the common enemy, he too will in ail likelihood begin to stutter. Many stutterers who have no com- mand over their organs of articulation in ordinary conversation succeed perfectly well in formai speak- ing or déclamation when the voice has to be produced slowly and with some effort. It must not be forgot- ten that stuttering occurring in a person with no pre- vious impediment in his speech may be a symptom of disease of the brain. The effect of alcoholic intoxica- tion on the utterance need not be dwelt upon further than to point out that the tendency is to jumble sylla- bles and words together, and to slur ail the conso- nants the pronunciation of which requires any complex- ity of muscular action. Lisping need not detain us long: it is often a mère vicious habit or stupid affecta- tion, but in some cases where the tongue is too long for the mouth its tip is apt to get between the teeth, and thus convert what ought to be a sibilant into an aspirated dental letter (th into s). Some persons seem incapable of pronouncing r, the other liquid / being the sound most frequently substituted ; the use of w for r is, as a rule, nothing more than a trick of the languid dandyism of the " better vulgar," to use a THE SPEAKING VOICE. 171 happy phrase of Warburton*s, but occasionally it is due to weakness of the muscles which push the tongue forward, and the defeçt may be noticed in persons free from any trace of affectation. The Cockney difficulty with the aspirate is an error of breathing rather than of articulation; it is often associated with increased intensity of utterance, as when the speaker wishes to be emphatic. I have distinctly heard this " augmen- tative " h even from the mouths of Italian singers when a phrase had to be begun on a high note deliv- ered fortissimo. The process of équitable adjustment, whereby the Cockney, whilst dropping the h in the right place,1 conscientiously inserts it in the wrong, is an instance of the same spontaneous rhythm which makes the Scotchman not satisfied with making a long 0 short unless he restores the balance by lengthening a short o in the same phrase, or vice versa.2 Actual disease of speech (technically called "aphasia," a priv. and vriiu I speak), although most interesting from a scientific point of view, does not concern us hère, as the affection is not in the vocal organs but in the nervous centres which préside over them and over the faculty of language, as distinguished from articulation. 1 'Arry had his prototype in pronunciation as well as in name in the Arrius ridiculed by Catullus : " C^ommoda dicebat si quando commoda vellet Dicere, et /nnsidias Arrius insidias," &c. 2 e.g. Brode rod for broadfoad. 172 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. Section III. Deformities and Diseases of the Organs of Speech. The natural deformities which interfère with proper enunciation are, first, fixation of the tongue by a little fold of membrane binding its tip to the floor of the mouth ; secondly, fissure of the palate, the gap being of variable length and width; thirdly, closure of the posterior openings of the nasal passages by ade- noid végétations, membrane or bone; fourthly, partial closure of the glottis by a membranous web between the vocal cords. The first should always be looked for in new-born babes, when it is remediable by merely nicking the retaining band or " fraenum." We some- times, however, meet with adults whose articulation might be improved by a similar opération. A person with cleft palate is at once recognizable by an experi- enced ear, his speech having a strong nasal twang, besides a characteristic indistinctness and want of ring. Closure of the posterior nares is very rarely found as a congénital condition, but it is évident that it must act principally on the pronunciation of the so-called " nasal " consonants ; thus m would become b, and n d, in the way familiar to most of us as a conséquence of " cold in the head." A membranous web in the larynx would, it is évident, make phonation impossible. As regards diseases affecting the voice and speech their name is légion. In the larynx itself there may be paralysis on one side or both of the muscles which approximate, or of those which stretch the vocal cords ; THE SPEAKING VOICE. 173 this may arise either from division of the nerves sup- plying the muscles, just as télégraphie communication is interrupted if the wire be eut,1 or from pressure on the nerve, if sufficiently strong to destroy its conduct- ing power. On the other hand, the cords may be par- alyzed mechanically, i.e., their freedom of movement may be interfered with by swelling of the contiguous parts. Again, there may be actual degeneration of the laryngeal muscles themselves, as in wasting dis- eases. Warty growths on the vocal cords make the voice hoarse, and eventually reduce it to a whisper. Thickening of the vocal cords produces huskiness of voice. We have already seen that alcohol can bring about this state of things, but there are several other disorders, such as chronic inflammation, consumption, &c, which have a like effect. Phonation is to some extent possible even without vocal cords, and when both cords have been eut away or destroyed, vocal sounds can still sometimes be produced by the ap- proximation of the ventricular bands and the upper margins of the larynx (aryepiglottic folds). Enlargement of the tonsils gives the voice an un- pleasant throaty character, which is unmistakable after it has been once heard. The soft palate may be destroyed, or it may be unnaturally adhèrent to the back wall of the throat, or, lastly, it may be paralyzed * A well-known actress suffers from such a want of nervous supply to one of her vocal cords, the récurrent nerve having been severed in an opération for the removal of a small growth in her neck. The use of the voice is attended with greater fatigue than formerly, but her vocal power is still good, the sound cord doing part of the Other's work by crossing beyond the middle line to meet it. 174 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. (as after a severe attack of diphtheria). The effect on the voice dépends in each case on the capacity or in- capacity of the organ to close the upper part of the throat which leads to the nasal passages. When par- alyzed, its function as a valve is abolished, and it hangs as a mère foreign body in the middle of the throat, giving additional indistinctness to the utterance. . The slighter forms of disease (congestion, relaxation of the lining membrane, " clergyman's sore throat ") which merely impair the clearness of the voice or render it intolérant of the least exertion, are far more common; in fact, from the médical point of view, they make up the bulk of the vocalist's spécial troubles. Congestion expresses a state of things in which the blood-vessels of a part are distended to such an ex- tent as to induce local swelling and redness; the cir- culation at that spot, without having actually stopped, is. slower than it should be. In fact, congestion is the first step towards inflammation, and it is this which makes it, though not in itself of much importance, a condition to be got rid of as soon as possible, for it is like a smouldering fire, which a trifling breeze (e.g., cold or persistent irritation) may easily fan into a fierce conflagration. The nasal passages may be blocked up by bunches of small glandular growths, which hang from the vault of the pharynx like stalactites from the roof of a cave, and fill up the space between its pos- terior openings and the back of the throat, high up behind the soft palate. A peculiar want of résonance or " deadness " of tone is imparted to the voice by the présence of thèse soft masses. They are often asso- THE SPEAKING VOICE. 175 ciated with a certain degree of deafness, and the affec- tion seems almost peculiar to cold damp climates, be- ing particularly common in Denmark ' and on the shores of the Baltic. In this country, however, the disease is more frequently met with in proportion to the care and skill directed to the discovery of it. Other causes of obstruction of the nose or impairment of its function as a resonator are swelling of the highly vascular tissue which covers the spongy bones (see p. 233), accumulation of dry and hardened mucous sécré- tion and growths within the nasal passages. Of thèse the ordinary soft, jelly-like polypus is by far the most common, but in certain rare cases masses of stone-like structure and consistence are found. Deformity of the partition between the nostrils, resulting usually from direct violence, such as a blow or fail, may quite alter the character of the voice. The speech may be made " thick," or the power of articulation may be ail but destroyed by swelling or ulcération of the tongue. This is usually due to seri- ous, if not dangerous, disease, the effect on the voice being a comparatively trifling part of the mischief. I have, however, seen some cases in which the act of speaking was made very trying by an irritable condi- tion of the tongue, which made it impossible for the patient to pronounce certain letters, e.g., dentals, with- out pain. In such cases there is no actual disease, but the ailment is probably connected in some way with ' This disease was first recognized by Dr. Meyer, the distinguished physician of Copenhagen, and described by him in. 1868 {Hospitah Tidende). 176 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. disorder of the digestive canal. A very similar state of things may be induced by over-indulgence in tobacco, or by the continuai pricking of a broken tooth. Some of the glands under the tongue may be- come enlarged, or one of their ducts may be blocked up by a small pièce of solid matter; in either case, the movements of the organ are greatly interfered with, and distinctness of utterance is proportionately impaired. The tongue, however, although of primary importance for articulate utterance, is not absolutely essential to speech. Persons from whom the whole of the organ has been removed can yet speak intelligibly, though, of course, with the loss of the lingual conso- nants. Thus the supposed miraculous occurrences, o which there are several recorded in history, of persons having their tongues eut out by persecutors and yet preserving the faculty of speech, are paralleled in the expérience of many modem surgeons. Want of the teeth, especially in front, is a well- known cause of mumbling, the ipxoç àdôvrcw being an important élément in distinctness of enunciation, TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. \j7 CHAPTER VIII. THE TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. Section I. Necessity of Training. TRAINING of the speaking voice may almost be called one of the lost arts. One is filled with amaze- ment on reading of the elaborate and protracted cul- ture which was thought necessary in ancient times for any one who wished to succeed as an orator. Of course it must not be forgotten that the art of public speaking was then a thing of far greater importance than it is in thèse days of cheap newspapers and free libraries. Setting aside the purely intellectual disci- pline, the physical éducation was of so minutely care- ful a nature that one might suppose at first sight that the pupil was being prepared for the palaestra rather than the rostrum; indeed, no prizefighter in the good old days of the " ring " could have been more con- scientiously trained. Demosthenes improved his "wind" by reciting verses whilst running up hill; he declaimed on the sea-shore that he might become accustomed to the murmura magna of a turbulent as- sembly; he practised speaking with pebbles in his mouth with the view of making his utterance more 12 lyS HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. free and distinct.1 Cicero underwent great labor in preparing himself for public life; for several years he travelled about from place to place in order to have the advantage of the best teaching, indefatigably seeking to gain from each master whatever good was to be got from him. We can partly see the resuit of ail this labor in reading his orations when we reflect that the man who spoke thèse long harangues, with an emphasis and action of which we have but little notion nowadays, was of slight physique and délicate consti- tution. Quintilian's precepts range over the whole moral, intellectual, and physical nature of man, and the comprehensive course of éducation which he con- sidered necessary for a public speaker, apparently commenced almost in infancy. As regards the voice itself, this early discipline was probably altogether wholesome. If there is any doubt as to when it is best to begin the training of the singing voice, there can be none, I imagine, as to commencing the éduca- tion of the speaking voice. It can hardly be begun too soon; in this way faults of production and articu- lation can be prevented, or, as it were, strangled in the cradle, which in after-life can only be got rid of with infinité trouble and vexation of spirit. I do not, of course, mean that a baby should be taught to squall according to rulé, or that the prattle of children should be made a laborious task. But I wish to insist on the importance of surrounding the child, as soon as it be- 1 Plutarch says that Demosthenes was afflicted with an impediment in his speech, and that he adopted the plan above referred to in order to acquire more complète mastery over his vocal organs. TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 179 gins to lisp, with persons who speak well. " Ail lan- guages," as old Roger Ascham says, " both learned and mother tongues, are begotten and gotten solely by imitation. For as ye use to hear so ye learn to speak; if you hear no other ye speak not yourself; and whom ye only hear of them ye only learn." Quintilian says : " Before ail . . . let the nurses speak properly. The boy Avili hear them first, and will try to shape his words by imitating them." Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of surrounding a child even before it can speak with persons whose accent and utterance are pure and refined. The Greeks at their period of highest culture were keenly alive to the necessity of this, and would allow no ser- vants near their children but such as spoke correctly. In England, however, the early lispings of the future orator or preacher are too often left at the mercy of ignorant nurses We sometimes see people most par- ticular in their choice of a French or German govern- ess, and rejecting a better educated person who has had the misfortune to be born in Switzerland. Nay, the French teacher must be of pure Parisian growth (in spite of the fact that the best French is heard on the banks of the Loire), but it is seldom indeed that any such care is taken in the sélection of the English domestics among whom the child's early years are in great measure spent. This refers only to such matters as accent and grammatical forms of speech; it would of course be altogether Utopian to suggest that a compétent instructor might with advantage be en- gaged to guide the little prattlers in their early at- 180 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. tempts at voice-production. Some care might never- theless be taken to choose nurses with musical voices and a certain amount of refinement of utterance. The fact is, however, that, as already pointed out by Hul- lah ' some years ago the public mind requires to be educated on this matter before it can be got to recog- nize the necessity of any teaching at ail for the exercise of what is supposed to be a gift of nature. Speaking, even of that slipshod kind which is mostly used in ordinary conversation, is an art, and as such has to be learned, often with much labor. The complicated muscular actions, the nice nervous adjustments, the combination of thèse into one harmonious effort directed to a particular end, and, finally, the mastery of ail thèse movements till they can be produced au. tomatically without a direct and continuous exerci:< of will-power, form a complex process which takes years to learn, and which, by many, is even then very imperfectly acquired. Good speaking is a higher de- velopment of the art, which bears the same relation to speech as ordinarily heard that the horsemanship of an Archer or a Cannon bears to the performance of a costermonger's boy on the paternal donkey. A man who speaks well not only makes himself in- telligible to his hearers without difficulty to them, but with a minimum of effort on his own part. If the voice is properly used the throat hardly ever suffers, but wrong production is a fertile source of discomfort and even disease in that région. It should be clearly un- derstood that public speaking, in addition to its intel- 1 Op. cit. p. 5. TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 181 lectual aspects, is a physical performance which requires "wind" and "muscle" and the perfect man- agement of one's bodily resources, like any other athletic feat. To attempt to speak in public without previous training is like trying to climb the Matterhorn without préparation, and is just as certain to end in failure if not disaster. In the System of éducation carried out in antiquity the development of the voice held so large a place that the phonascus, or voice driller, was an indispen- sable accessory, not only of every school of oratory, but of many formed orators. Of the methods of the phonascus we know little, but we find hints in some of the classical writers that, like certain of his profes- sional brethren in more récent days, he was not disin- clined to magnify his office. Seneca, in one of his letters, warns his friend against living, vocally speak- ing, in subjection to his phonascus, and hints that he might as well keep another specialist to superintend his walking. I am persuaded that if there were a thoroughly qualified instructor in elocution (including in that term the whole art of voice-production apart from singing) in every school in the kingdom, our noble English tongue would lose its undeserved evil réputation for harshness of sound; much torture would be spared to the " gênerai ear," much weariness to our auditory nerves (unnaturally strained to catch the sensé drowned in a stream of half-articulate gabble) and much suffer- ing would be saved to throats ruthlessly stretched and cramped and " every way abused " in the tierce strug- 182 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. gle to deliver the message which the speaker has in him. It is no exaggeration to say that bad elocution is at the root of most of the throat-troubles which beset public speakers, and for that the want of proper training is almost entirely responsible. This is, in an especial degree, true of clergymen, to whom a right delivery is of more importance than to any other class of speakers. Using the voice as they do only at inter- vais, and then for a considérable time without pause, they are particularly liable to suffer from huskiness, difficulty of production and pain in speaking. A prop- er delivery would do much to avert this, and it would be well if a man's skill in the use of his voice were tested before his admission to orders. A few of the bishops, or, rather their chaplains, I believe, do make such an examination in the case of candidates for ordination, but it is conducted in a very perfunctory manner. The Bishop of Lichfield, Dr. Maclagan, attends to this matter, I am told, with more solicitude than his brother prelates, and the resuit is that his diocèse already shows a higher standard of elocution. In some of the theological collèges, more attention is beginning to be given to the laws of emphasis and clearness of utterance. A very important aid to the development of the voice in young children is exercise for several hours a day in the open air. The romping is more boister- ous than indoors, and the "young barbarians " have to shout and call to each other in a louder key—to the discomfort, no doubt, of neighbors affHcted with " nerves," but to the great advantage of their own TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 183 vocal organs. Rousseau ' maintains that peasant chil- dren not only have better voices than those of the well-to-do who live in towns, but that they articulate more clearly, owing to the necessity of making them- selves understood at greater distances. Rabelais, who, besides his other accomplishments, was one of the most learned physicians of his time, makes the young Gargantua practise shouting ëvery day as a healthy exercise. In the middle of a detailed descrip- tion of his swimming and climbing exercises and practice in the use of weapons of ail kinds, we are told that "pour s'exercer le thorax et les poulmons crioit comme tous les diables. Je l'ouy une fois appellant Eudémon depuis la porte Sainct Victor jusques à Montmartre. Stentor n'eut onques telle voix à la bataille de Troye." There is a hint for schoolmasters of the présent day. The "young barbarians " under their charge might by degrees be made to look on strength and beauty of voice, and skill in using it, as an athletic distinction ; this would at once ennoble the subject in their eyes, and make elocution a matter of keen compétition. " Throwing the voice " might be- come a recognized " event " in their sports, like throw- ing the cricket-bail, and Brown major of Harrow mighi vvin deathless famé by " beating the record " of Smith minor of Eton.2 The effect of living much out of doors is not con- 1 Emile, ou De IÉducation, livre i. 2 I read not long ago, in one of Mr. James Payn's delightful " chats" in the Illustrated News, of a doughty heroine somewhere in the North, who, in addition to other athletic feats, is said to have been able to throw her voice for the distance of a mile against the wind. 184 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. fined to children ; one may nearly always recognize a person who spends much of his time sub dio by the ringing tones of his voice. Miss Bradddn, the distin- guished novelist, once told me that she has often been struck by the fine voices heard among gamekeepers and huntsmen ; and many people must have admired the melodious far-reaching cry of the Newhaven fish- wives. I am inclined to attribute the vocal superiority of the Italians in some measure to this cause. Every one who has travelled in Italy must have noticed how often trades which in our climate have to be pursued indoors are there carried on in the open air. Tailors, shoemakers, tinsmiths, etc., work al fresco, making the streets ring the while with noisy, but not unmusical, chatter. The balmy atmosphère, as it were, coaxes the mouth to open wide, and the démonstrative nature of the people finds natural vent in loud and emphatic utterance. On the other hand, it is a common re- proach to Englishmen when they attempt the pro- nunciation of a foreign tongue that they will not or cannot open their mouths, but make a rumbling gur- gling sound in their throats which is presently hissed or spluttered out through the set teeth, as if the speaker were afraid to open his mouth too wide for fear any- thing should get into it. This may be a wise précau- tion in a climate like ours, and Milton apparently attributes our mumbling habit of speech to this cause when he says: "For we Englishmen being farre northerly doe not open our mouthes in the cold air, wide enough to grâce a southern tongue, but are ob- served by ail other nations to speak exceeding close TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 185 and inward ; so that to smatter Latin with an English mouth is as ill a hearing as law French." ' It has also been said to be due to our reserved and undemonstra- tive nature which leads us to avoid making ourselves conspicuous. Whether this be part of our national character we must see ourselves as others see us to détermine. At any rate, whatever be the amount of our retiring modesty that stays at home, our travelling countrymen do contrive (against their will, it may be presumed) to make themselves the observed of ail ob- servers wherever they go. And it may be asked, is the climate of Scotland more génial or the character of its people more effusive than ours ? Yet Scotchmen have the gift of articulate speech, and display consid- érable aptitude for acquiring the pronunciation of foreign languages, especially of those in which open vowels predominate. Whatever be the cause of our peculiar manner of speaking there can be no question as to the utter bad- ness of it. Nor is there any reason why this national reproach should continue. To any one who has been fortunate enough to hear the noble tones of some of our great orators, or the elocution of some (alas! too few) of our dramatic artists, the notion that English is an inharmonious tongue may well seem absurd. The music is there, but it needs an instrument to give it voice, and the instrument again must have a player! " There's the rub ! " It is not the vocal organs that are at fault in most cases, but the method of using them. This, as already said, must be taught, and to be help- Tract on Education, 1644. 186 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. fui the teaching must be of the right kind. This brings me to the qualifications requisite in the instructor who undertakes to train the speaking voice. Although to some extent thèse must coincide with the powers and attainments already (p. 83 et seq.) postulated in the sing- ing master, the professor of elocution must have cer- tain qualifications peculiar to himself. In the first place, it is much môre necessary in this case that the teacher should himself bè a good performer. Although a man may perhaps be able to teach singing without a voice, speaking can for the most part be taught only by example. Again physiological knowledge is of more incontestable advantage tb a teacher of elocution than to the maestro, for whilst the latter has' to do with parts either wholly or in great measure beyond the pupil's control, the former by knowing how the lips and the tongue should be used can not only show them acting properly but make the pupi! imitate the move- ments, with his eyesight as well as his muscular sensé to help him. No màn can really teach the art of utterance who is not familiar with the mechanism of articulation in ail its détails. Not only this, but he should know ail pos- sible defects of speech and their causes; provincial and ethnological peculiarities of accent and intonation and thè natural modes of expressing the émotions in their subtlest shades of degree and infinité variety of kind, whether by the play of the facial muscles, or by gesture or bodily attitude. In addition to this the elocution master should possess at least some amourA of that in- definable moral force known as " personal magnetism." TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 187 He should be able not only to instruct his pupils, but to command their respect and if possible rouse their enthusiasm, for, as Quintilian well says, "we more readily imitate those towards whom we are well dis- posed." ' He must not be so much wrapt up in his own art as not to distinguish physical incapacity from carelessness or want of will, and he should have suffi- cient knowledge to lead him to recognize or suspect disease or natural defeçt. I do not mean that he should be able to make a diagnosis, still less that he should attempt to treat such cases. Both thèse things belong strictly to the domain of the physician, and ail I am asking from my idéal phonascus is that he shall know where his art stops and médical advice must be sought. As wrong methods of teaching are not only useless but positively harmful, it is advisable to go at the out- set to the very best instructor that can be found, otherwise the pupil may have a stock of acquired faults in addition to his own natural defects to be eradicated. Timotheus, a famous music-master of old, used to charge double fées to those who had been under other teachers before coming to him, on the ground that in such cases the labor was so much heavier than when he had no already formed evil habits to contend with. But though good teaching is absolutely necessary, the best can do little without assiduous practice on the part of the pupil. This exercise must apply to ail 1 ' ' Vix autem dici potest quanto libentius imitemur eos quibus fave- mus."—Inst. ûrator., Lib. ii., cap. ii. 188 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. the various sounds of articulate speech, which must be practised separately, and in combination; to the time and manner of taking breath, and the mode of using it to the best effect; to the development of the strength and compass of the voice, and to the instinctive adap- tation of it in pitch and intensity to the acoustic pecu- liarities of whatever place one has to speak in. The registers of the speaking voice have to be " equalized " as in the singing voice, although of course not to the same degree of finish. Section II. Effects of Training. A speaker should have his voice under control just as much as a singer, so that he may raise or lower it at will with ease and accuracy, without shrieking at one end of the scale or growling at the other. I be- lieve that singing might with advantage be taught as an aid to elocution. The organs of the voice and those of hearing would thereby be drilled to work to- gether, and the speaking voice would gain in volume and flexibility. In making this suggestion I would not be understood as wishing to add to the afflictions of life by letting loose on society a host of tuneless minstrels. From my présent point of view I look upon singing merely as a vocal exercise, more difficult in itself, and calling the various parts of the apparatus of phonation into more vigorous play than speaking. The practice of the greater accomplishment can, I TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 189 think, hardly fail to be useful towards acquiring a mastery of the lesser, and a man who has been taught to sing is on that account more likely to speak well, " as those walk easiest who have learnt to dance." It does not follow from this that singers make the best speakers. George Sand has remarked that the singer can speak properly only in song, which is his true médium of expression. In speaking the singer is too conscious of his voice, too obviously intent on pro- ducing it according to the rules of art, to rouse the feelings, or sway the passions of his hearers, like a great orator. The singer is vox et prœterea nihil and is therefore bound to display his gift to the best ad- vantage; whereas to the orator the voice is no more than a vehicle, and only conveys the message he has to tell in the tones most likely to produce the effect intended. Thus a harsh voice may often be a more appropriate and effective organ of expression to an orator than the linked sweetness of a smoother utter- ance. As an example of this I may be allowed to refer to one of our cleverest melodramatic actors, whose or- dinary tones are so melodious that one might fancy bées had sweetened his lips with honey, as they are fabled to have done to Plato in his cradle. But when the sterner émotions have to be expressed, when the stage has to be drowned with tears, or the gênerai ear cleft with horrid speech, his accents sometimes leave the heart unstirred. At such moments ruggedness of speech and broken utterance, though inartistic and un- musical, are more expressive of human passion. There are, however, certain defects of utterance 190 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. which, though characteristic of violent émotion in some individuals, are so disagreeable in themselves that they should not be rendered too faithfully. Thus in many persons the voice becomes throaty in mo- ments of excitement, that is to say, instead of being clearly delivered it is, as it were, strangled by an invol- untary tightening of the internai parts of the throat. In persons of a perfervid temper, the tempest and whirlwind of passion are often accompanied by actual spasm of the throat, which literally chokes the voice. The speaker may sometimes be seen to clutch at his throat as if to pull -the passage open. The tendency to guttur-alizé passion is a great drawback, and mars the effect of the finest art. One of the most accom- plished of our actors, who in modem comedy is unsur- passed, has this defeçt to a certain extent in serious drama. Again a naturally poor voice may be man- aged with such consummate art that its very defects are unperceived, or in some cases become beauties to the ear of the fervent admirer. A conspicuous in- stance of this may be observed in the charming and accomplished lady, who is one of the chief ornaments of the English stage at the présent day. Her voice, which Quintilian would have called llfusca," is used with such admirable skill, and is so informed (to speak scholastically) by the quality of her richly endowed and sympathetic nature, that more purely musical accents sound flat and uninspiring after hers. Many voices otherwise of no extraordinary excellence of timbre be- come thrilling with pathetic beauty in moments of deep émotion, when the voice seems as it were to TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 191 quiver through a well of tears. On the other hand the want of this sympathetic ring in a voice naturally melodious and carefuUy trained has prevented a living actor from attaining the full success which his classic purity of enunciation, perfect elocution, intellectual culture, and refined method, would otherwise entitle him to. A cold voice, however noble, is like a beauti- ful face without expression. The worst of it is that the defeçt is one which neither study nor labor can remedy. Ail other shortcomings may be amended, and even those to whom nature has been most stepmotherly in respect of vocal endowment need not despair. De Quincey says somewhere, that a mean personal appear- ance is often an advantage to a man by the additional incentive which it gives him for striving after real dis- tinction. In the same way an aspirant to oratorical or dramatic honors may find a naturally poor voice a help rather than a drawback in the end. The greatest English actor of the présent day has shown how much may be done by persévérance to develop the powers of an organ naturally wanting in flexibility. By a labor improbus worthy of Demosthenes, his voice, which in ordinary conversation is weak and rather monotonous, has been so perfected that on the stage it is rich and sonorous and becomes harsh and strident or exquisitely tender at the will of the speaker. Only in moments of the most intense tragic passion is any inadequacy of the instrument perceptible, and even this is considered rather a beauty than a blemish by thorough-going admirers. 192 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. The advantage of training is also seen in the case of many of our pulpit orators. In Mr. Spurgeon's case the configuration of the front teeth and lips is unfavor- able to effective utterance, but the vocal instrument is so perfect and the artistic expression so faultless, that neither advancing years nor ill-health can destroy the sympathetic quality of his rich voice. The vocal powers of but few clergymen are equal to those of Mr. Spurgeon, the Bishop of Sydney (Dr. Barry) being perhaps his closest rival. Cardinal Manning and Mr. Haweis, though so différent in their styles, both show how much may be done by the intelligent culture of a naturally weak organ. The former preacher makes up by extrême clearness of articulation for the lack of power in his voice, whilst the latter accomplishes the desired end by the variation and contrast of his tones, a method which, on the other hand, is perhaps carried to some excess by Dr. Parker. The sudden transi- tions from a deep bass tone to notes of almost falsetto quality, which characterize the style of the City Tem- ple preacher, would have long since caused serious injury to the larynx had not the organ itself been very strong and capable of the greatest endurance. Section III. Détails of Training. The principles on which the éducation of the speak- ing voice must be conducted have already been sufri- ciently explained ; they may, however, be recapitulated in the following propositions: TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 193 1. Training must be begun almost as soon as the child can speak. 2. The voice must be strengthened by fréquent ex- ercise, not only indoors but in the open air. 3. Whatever be the natural endowments of an indi- vidual, proper teaching is necessary. 4. Singing is a help to good speaking, as the greater includes the less, and should therefore be learnt by every candidate for oratorical honors. As part of the gênerai vocal training which I think désirable, I should be disposed to urge that ail chil- dren and young people should learn to sing as far as their natural capacity will allow. Even those with little or no musical endowment will thus learn to use their voices better in speaking. Some détails of training must now be considered. In the first place it may be pointed out that whilst practice in singing is best conducted in mezza voce, in speaking exercise the voice should generally be used at its loudest. Articulation must be practised with .the most laborious Care and untiring patience, for a speaker who pronounces badly is like a writer igno- rant of grammar. First of ail the vowel-sounds must be thoroughly mastered so that they may be produced with perfect purity. " Take care of the vowels and the consonants will take care of themselves " is a maxim that is scarcely an exaggeration. They should be ut- tered frequently with varying degree of intensity, and in différent ways in rapid succession one after the other, or prolonging the sound as long as the breath holds out. Each vowel should also be pronounced in 13 194 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. combination with the various consonants. A very use- ful table of syllables and words for this kind of exer- cise is given by Hullah at the end of the little work to which I have more than once referred. It is a good plan to practise speaking as rapidly as may be consist- ent with perfect distinctness, and again in slowly measured tones. The student should practise con- scientiously and with full dévotion of his utmost fac- ulty to his task, never slurring it over in a mechanical or half-hearted way. When the " dry bones " of speech have been thoroughly mastered, passages should be read aloud or declaimed once or twice a day, if possi- ble always in the présence of a compétent critic who will stop the speaker flagrante delicto and make him see the error of his ways there and then. One élément of success is no doubt the art of com- pelling an audience to listen. As Montaigne, in his quaint old French, says : " La parole est moitié à celuy qui parle, moitié à celuy qui l'escoute ; celuy cy se doibt préparer à la recevoir, selon le bransle qu'elle prend: comme entre ceulx qui jouent à la paulme, celuy qui soubstient se desmarche et s'appreste, selon qu'il veoid remuer celuy qui luy jecte le coup et selon la forme du coup." Every speaker should know the exact limits of his own vocal powers, and he must be careful never to go beyond them, for the sake of his hearers no less than his own. He must learn to judge instinc- tively of distance, so as to throw his voice to the farthest part of his audience. A speaker, and, I may say, a singer also, should not hear his own voice too loudly. Artistes and orators are often very much TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 195 disappointed, and think their voice is not travelling well when they themselves do not hear it very dis- tinctly. The fact is that when the speaker does not hear his voice this proves that it reaches to a distant part of the room, and that there is very little rebound. Hère I may remark that we never hear our voices as other people hear them. Our own voices are con- veyed to the auditory nerve, not only through the out- side air, but more directly from the inside, through the Eustachian tube, as well as through the muscles and bones of the mouth and head; the singer not only hears his own voice from a différent quarter, as we may say, but he hears besides the contraction of his own muscles. The fact is well illustrated by the pho- nograph : a listener can recognize other people's voices, but if he speaks into the phonograph, and afterwards reproduces his own voice, it does not sound at ail like itself to him, because he does not hear it in the manner he is accustomed to, and because he hears it stripped of the various accompanying sounds which are usually associated with it to his ear. The acoustic peculiarities of the place in which he has to speak must, if possible, be carefuUy studied be- forehand by the orator. Public buildings, however, vary so greatly in their size and construction, that it is impossible to lay down any gênerai rules for the guidanoe of speakers in this matter. Each hall, church, court, and théâtre has its own acoustic char- acter, which can be learned only by expérience; the voice must be, as it were, tuned to it. It is well if this expérience can be gained by the orator before he 1QÔ HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS, faces his audience, but he must remember that trying his voice in an empty room is an altogether différent thing from actually using it in the same place packed with a solid mass of wheezing, coughing, and perspir- ing humanity. Section IV. Removal of Defects. Defects of utterance can be cured only if the cause is recognized. For stammering nothing can be done unless the sufferer can learn to use his breath properly. The instructor's efforts must be mainly directed to teaching his pupil to acquire some degree of control over his diaphragm and other réspiratory muscles, so that the air or motive power shall not be allowed to leak away before the vocal apparatus can be got ready for it. With persevering drill and ceaseless practice the two movements can be to a certain de- gree harmonized and co-ordinated, but it is to be feared the cure can seldom be complète, as an act which should be automatic is sure to be less perfectly done when it has to be performed with conscious effort. For stuttering it is questionable whether there is any radical or permanent remedy except in the slighter cases. Much improvement, however, can be effected by an experienced teacher who will take the trouble to trace his pupil's difficulty to its source. In cases where the larynx is at fault the breathing must be at- tended to, and when the tongue is the peccant part TRAINING OF THÉ SPEAKING VOICE. 197 the treatment must be directed to it. Various plans have at différent times been proposed, and each has of course been vaunted by its inventor as infallible, and of universal application. Expérience, however, has taught most of us that no remedy whatever is in- fallible, and it may be gathered from what has just been said that in the treatment of stuttering no single plan can be successful in ail cases. Want of space prevents my doing more than allude in a gênerai way to the différent methods that have been suggested. They group themselves into gymnastic and mechanical measures. The aim of the former is to make the pupil acquire a proper control over his organs of speech by means of regulated exercise of the breathing apparatus and of the tongue, whilst the latter seeks to help him by means of instruments which serve to hold up or keep down the tongue. Ail or most of thèse plans succeed fairly well for a time when the pupil is sustained by the encourage- ments of an enthusiastic master. It is too often the case, however, that when the cure is complète and the unfortunate sufferer is left to himself, disaster over- takes him, like the swimmer who has never learnt to buoy himself without corks. Nevertheless, I do not deny that great amélioration may be produced by ra- tional and persevering treatment directed to the men- tal as well as to the physical constitution of the pa- tient. I am inclined to consider a good deal of what is usually called " impediment " in speech to be due rather to weakness of volitional impulse than to any inhérent defeçt in the structure or working of the 198 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. organs. The will is there, but its behests are either imperfectly conveyed or blunderingly executed. In one of the worst cases of stuttering that I have met, the utterance was always improved by small doses of strychnia, whilst the sufferer was almost deprived of the power of speech by tobacco.1 I think it probable that the utterance would be improved if the voice were always used in a loud key; the greater effort required for its production tending to insure stronger and more harmonious action of the muscular apparatus. Stammerers and stutterers should carefuUy avoid each other's company, and children of markedly ner- vous tempérament should on no account be allowed to associate with persons who have any impediment or even singularity of speech. We read that the éloquent Basil acquired such an ascendency over the minds of his young hearers that they strove to copy his very appearance and manner of speaking. The same thing is said to have taken place at Oxford when Cardinal Newman occupied the pulpit of St. Mary's. Unconscious mimicry is natural to most children, and to many adults. Tricks of look and speech can be " caught," as every one knows. I know people so impressionable that one can tell by slight touches of brogue when they have been in Ireland or Scotland for a few weeks. Married couples often acquire a cer- tain likeness to each other in the expression of the countenance from living long together. In cases of nervous disease like chorea, and especially hysteria, 1 Strychnia is a powerful stimulant of the nervous System whilst to- bacco is a mild sédative. TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 199 imitation conscious or unconscious is often so power- ful a factor that no girl subject to such attacks should ever be allowed to remain in a boarding-school. Tak- ing this activity of the imitative faculty into considér- ation, it will be évident that nothing could be worse than to allow children to be much with stutterers or defective speakers of any kind. It does not lie within the scope of the présent trea- tise to describe the means of remedying the various diseases and deformities which have been briefly indi- cated as affecting the articulation'. Cleft palate can be cured in the young by a surgical opération, whilst in older subjects it may be palliated by wearing a plate (technically called an obturator) which fills up the gap. Enlarged tonsils,1 growths in the larynx or in the post- nasal space, polypi, or extrême thickening of the mu- cous membrane covering the spongy bones, should be removed ; déviation of the septum should be corrected ; glandular enlargements under the tongue must be treated secundum artem. A long uvula must be short- ened if it give rise to real inconvenience by trailing on the back of the tongue or hanging into the larynx, causing continuai irritation, coughing, and even sick- ness. There is much misconception not only in the public mind but in the médical profession itself as to surgical curtailment of this little appendage. Whilst 1 Ail sorts of mysterious sympathies have been supposed to exist be- tween thèse troublesome little glands and remote organs, so that the removal of them is often looked upon with much appréhension. The only effect which I have ever observed on the voice, as well as on the health generally, from this opération has been of a bénéficiai nature. 200 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. some look upon the opération as a panacea for every malady that can affect the throat, others regard it with equally fanatical dislike, as if the uvula were an organ of such importance that every atom of its structure must be considered sacred. The truth lies as usual between thèse two extrêmes, and whilst I am utterly opposed to cutting the uvula or any other part of the body "only for wantonness," I do not hesitate to remove a pièce of it when it is evidently a source of continuai discomfort. It will be noticed that I speak only of partial amputation; the whole of the uvula should never be removed. Such a mutilation has a distinctly injurious effect on the voice, as the closure of the posterior opening of the nose is rendered difficult and often imperfect. The want of teeth must be supplied by artificial ones, which should be thor- oughly well-fitted to the jaw. Many persons have an objection praiseworthy enough in itself to anything " false," but the necessity of repairing the ravages of time or disease in the case of teeth is entirely beyond ail considération of mère vanity. A man must have teeth if he wishes either to speak or to eat properly. I may be allowed to repeat, for the benefit of my read- ers, a word of caution to ail wearers of artificial teeth ; they should never fail to remove them before going to sleep. " Clergyman's sore throat " is a condition that is largely dépendent on a wrong mode of producing the voice; and overuse of it, particularly if intermit- tent, has the same effect. Clergymen are by no means the only sufferers; school-teachers, reading-compan- ions, hawkers, and others, are not less subject to the Training of the speaking voicé. 201 complaint. Hullah1 tries to prove from the rarity of the disease among actors that it is due rather to too little than to too much exercise of the vocal mechan- ism. But, in the first place, few actors can have to speak for so long as two hours in any one evening, whereas that is, I conceive, rather under, than over, the average time during which a clergyman has to use his voice almost continuously on Sundays. Then in the case of teachers, the drudgery of the work must be taken into account, the voice having to be used amidst various noises and depressing surroundings, often to dull and inattentive listeners. Speaking under such circumstances is an altogether différent thing from speaking on the stage where everything helps to stimulate and excite, where applause nerves to fresh effort and the very passion of acting, simulated though it be, produces for the time at least insensibility to fatigue. The différence is as great as that between. an overworked cab-hack and a ràcehorse. The treatment of " clergyman's sore throat " must be left in the hands of the physician, who, however, can accomplish little unless the sufferer desists from using his voice for some time. In most cases also the sufferer must afterwards go through a course of in- struction in the art of voice-production. The dryness of the throat which is often felt as a distressing symp- tom by such patients can be alleviated by keeping a glycérine or chlorate of potash 2 lozenge, or (in imita- 1 Op. cit. p. 21. 2 Wyeth's " compressed tablets " of chlorate of potash are especially convenient for this purpose, as they are so small that they can be held in the mouth whilst using the voice. HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. tion of a certain celebrated curate) an " acidulated drop " in the mouth. In addition to the emollient effect of the remedy, the mère présence of the foreign body promûtes the sécrétion of fluid from the mucous membrane. Another condition less familiarly known to the pub- lic and less chronic in character, but scarcely less dis- tressing, is what Mandll called fatigue de la voix. There is no particular disease in the vocal organs ex- cept perhaps a certain degree of congestion and relaxa- tion, but there is a sensé of weakness and inability to sound the voice which sometimes gives way altogether. When the speaker does succeed in producing it, it is unsteady and déficient in volume, and the effort is most fatiguing, not merely to the organs immediately concemed, but to the gênerai system. The mental distress is sometimes very great, the speaker being in an agony of terror lest his voice should fail him, a state of mind which must of course hasten the catas- trophe. A still more severe degree of this disorder is what may be called " vocalist's cramp," in which the muscles from overuse lose the power of contracting (like an india-rubber cord that has been overstretched), or can act only in an irregular and spasmodic way in- dependently of the will or even contrary to it. Anal- ogous conditions are often seen in other parts which have been overtaxéd, as for instance in the muscles of the hand in persons who write much (scrivener's palsy), or in the muscles of accommodation in the eye in those whose work obliges them to look intently at small 1 Hygiène de la Voix, parlée ou c 'antée, 2nd édition, Paris, 1879, p. 1. TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 203 objects, especially by artificial light. In cases of " fatigue of the voice," the chief remedy is absolute rest of the parts which have been over-used ; without this ail médication is useless. Proper treatment can, however, help greatly in expediting the cure and mak- ing it more complète and durable, but it would be use- less to refer to this subject further without entering into détails which would be out of place in a popular treatise. The patient can greatly aid the doctor by avoiding whatever is likely to delay the cure, such as prématuré or injudicious use of the voice, overwork of any kind whether of body or mind, and quack remédies which are either inert, or, worse still, productive of a passing benefit which is dearly bought by subséquent reaction. Among the principal hindrances to recovery I must place nervous impatience, anxiety, and fidgeti- ness, which the sufferer must struggle against with ail his might. With time and persévérance I am con- vinced that no case of this kind is incurable, and if sufferers can be brought really to believe this, such faith will of itself tend to move the mountain of their complaint. Amongst other aids which the patient can employ for himself I may mention friction and mechanical support to the larynx. A good way of applying the former is to sponge the parts round the " Adam's ap- ple " with tepid water, and afterwards with cold water mixed with a little vinegar or Eau de Cologne. This should be done for a few minutes, and the skin should then be thoroughly dried by rubbing it with a rough towel as hard as can be borne. Some slight manipula- 204 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. tions may also be practised, such as kneading the sides of the larynx lightly and pushing it up and down with the fingers. It must be understood that thèse manœu- vres should not be at ail violent but they should be strong enough to be felt in the deeper parts of the neck. The term " massage " has recently been applied to this method of stimulation, and instances have been recorded in which the singing voice was restored by this means. It must be clearly understood, however, that such an effect can only be produced when the loss of voice is functional, that is to say, when from exhaus- tion or nervous disability the machine does not work. Massage can only do harm when the voicelessness is caused by organic disease. The larynx may also be steadied when one has to speak, either with the fingers or with some sort of mechanical support, e.g., an elas- tic belt with two little pads to press gently but firmly on the sides of the organ. A band fitted with a small apparatus which sends a weak current of electricity constantly through the affected muscles may be worn round the neck with advantage. It is most impor- tant, however, that this should never be done except with the sanction of a compétent professional adviser, and care must be exercised in selecting a suitable ap- paratus, as too many things of the sort are mère use- less toys. It must be remembered also that even gen- uine instruments need a great deal of attention and some skill to keep them in working order. A course of waters at Aix-les-Bains is likely to be of great use in cases of chronic congestion and relaxation of the vocal organs, whilst the Mont Dore " cure " is TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 205 especially valuable as a protective against the ten- dency to winter catarrh, which is an unfailing charac- teristic of weak or overworked throats. Section V. Spécial Hygiène for Speakers. The nygienic rules which have already been laid down for singers apply with equal force to speakers. The sounder the condition of the body generally, the better will the voice be, especially for prolonged effort. Ail the things which have already been mentioned as likely to cause irritation to the délicate lining mem- brane of the throat must be avoided, and no trouble must be spared in acquiring the art of using the voice in the best way. That is indeed the very corner-stone of vocal hygiène, without which ail other things are practically useless. It is obvious that the least strain will be put upon the organs when the voice is confined to the middle of its compass, that is, when the tones are easiest and most natural to the speaker. The in- dividual's own sensations are, within certain limits, the safest guide as to this, but thèse are by no means in- fallible, and nowhere is the skill of a compétent teacher more clearly seen than in his power of helping his pupils to discover their natural tone of voice. In using the voice the speaker must be careful to put himself in the position most favorable for the free play of his vocal organs. An actor may be obliged by the dramatic fitness of things to speak in constrained attitudes just as he may have to disguise his voice, to stutter, or to lisp, but a preacher or orator has no ex- 206 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. cuse for using his voice otherwise than to the best ad- vantage. The body should be held erect, but not stiffly like a soldier standing at "attention," the head well up, the chest expanded, the neck not compressed by tight scarves or collars of the garotting type so much affected by the haute gomme of the hour. If a man has to read, the book or paper should be held be- fore him so as to be legible without bending the head till the chin almost touches the breast-bone, as is often the case. The voice must be, as it were, thrown at the most distant part of the audience, and the speech should be addressed mainly to those within compass of such range of vision as is possible without turning the body altogether to one side or the other. The orator should remember that Nature os homini sublime dédit, and he should look his audience in the face. He should not speak with his eyes cast down unless as a rhetorical artifice in the way familiar to the astute Ulysses, who as we are told put on an appearance of modesty and hésitation in beginning to speak, the more effectually to conciliate his hearers. And indeed there is no surer way of securing silence and attention at the onset than to commence in such a key that the audience must "stand fixt to hear," and it may be added that such initial modération will make the voice last longer. A man who has to speak for a con- sidérable time must husband his resources as runners do in the early part of a race. Brouc ' lays it down as a rule that the most absolute 1 Hygiène Philosophique des Artistes Dramatiques, Paris, 1836, p. 250. TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 207 silence must be observed during the whole day before using the voice in the evening. This " counsel of per- fection " is of course for actors, but if the rule is sound it must apply to speakers of ail kinds. I do not con- sider that such an ultra-Trappistical code is bénéficiai, even supposing that any one could be found to adhère scrupulously to it. That the voice should not be ex- erted as in prolonged déclamation or even much speak- ing in noisy streets, cabs, or trains, is what every one will agrée to, but absolute silence would, I think, be rather injurious than otherwise. I need not repeat hère what has already been said on the subject of médicinal aids to the voice. Every public speaker has his own spécifie, from the Spartan glass of water to possets and concoctions of greater or less complexity of composition and considérable al- coholic strength. As there is hardly anything which hygienists have not condemned as in some way per- nicious to health, even the glass of water has not es- caped anathema. Few lecturers, however, would, I imagine, care to face an audience unsupported by the sight at least of the familiar fluid. In this matter, as already said, every experienced person must be a law unto himself. But I am bound to say that I consider the example of a leading actress (whose retirement has robbed English dramatic art of one of its most fasci- nating exponents) is one not to be rashly followed by less gifted individuals. This lady is, or rather was, in the habit of drinking a glass of iced water immediately before going on the stage. To say nothing of the im- médiate shock to the nerves of the throat, the réaction 208 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. that must inevitably follow such an application would be likely in less exceptional organizations to induce a degree of congestion that would seriously interfère with clearness of delivery. It cannot be repeated too often or too earnestly that ail such violent measures (for such they are when applied to a part so delicately sensitive as the throat), even whilst appearing to give temporary relief are to be reprobated as entailing sub- séquent discomfort and possibly even disease. An- other powerful argument against such things is the danger that after some time the speaker may become unable to dispense with them. Sédatives may be necessary beforehand to subdue that excessive excitement which is common nough even in the most practised speakers, and which may reach such a degree as to make them incapable of do- ing full justice to themselves. I have already spoken of the bénéficiai effects in such cases of a tonic or sédative draught taken shortly before speaking; the great physiologist and surgeon, John Hunter, could never address even an audience of students without such a preparatory potion. Spécial care is necessasy after speaking not to expose the throat to cold air on leaving the théâtre or hall; the parts are then in a state of congestion from exercise which renders them very liable to become inflamed by a comparatively trifling cause. A good meal should follow any pro- longed vocal effort, but hot or pungent things, which as already said are always hurtful, must be particularly avoided under such circumstances for the reason just given, In fact ail the précautions which I have en- TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 209 joined in various parts of this work against atmos- pheric or other irritants (close rooms, tobacco smoke, &c), are doubly necessary when the throat is con- gested and fatigued after a great effort. Section VI. Concluding Remarks. In bringing this little work to a conclusion I must again draw the reader's attention to the fact that I have throughout been speaking purely as a physician. I have no désire or pretension to usurp the functions of the singing master or elocutionist, nor do I claim any power of " endowing with artistic merit " voices which nature has made harsh and disagreeable. My aim has been to furnish the vocalist and public speaker with a guide to the diseases of the voice, and the best means of avoiding them. I am aware that the rules which I have laid down cannot always strictly be fol- lowed in practice nor is it perhaps altogether désirable that they should. No one, except perhaps Dr. Rich- ardson, leads an ideally healthylife; even the mem- bers of the Sanitary and National Health Societies would I have no doubt be individually found wanting if weighed in the balance of a severe hygiène. Thack- eray observes that a doctor who has written a book on diet is almost always a bon vivant, and at médical sym- posia one is pretty sure to be edified by seeing author- ities on goût and obesity showing an utter disregard of their own austère precepts. But in addition to the " touch of nature " which makes the divorce between 14 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. principle and practice so familiar to weak humanity, a nobler feeling may sometimes be at the bottom of such revolts against hygienic dogma. It is a reaction, perhaps unconscious, against the wave of sanitarian fanaticism which is sweeping away one after the other nearly ail the pleasures and much of the beauty of our poor mortal life. It is beginning to be forgotten that health, best gift of fortune though it be, is not an end in itself, but a means to the accomplishment of what- ever useful or noble work we have to do in the world. Mère health wrould be too dearly bought by the sacri- fice of everything that makes life worth having. No man can be a hero who guides his footsteps solely by the light of a cautious hygiène; on the contrary he must often act in défiance of its dictâtes. But the most heroic bosom will find its generous throbbings dulled by improper nourishment^and sickness impairs the usefulness of the most energetic worker. Like the hero, the vocal artist must spend and be spent if he would achieve greatness. As Rousseau said of clois- tered virtue, a voice which can be kept in order only by strict observance of hygienic laws is hardly worth the trouble of preserving. The man who puts the question of his own physical well-being before everything else can never excel ex- cept as a valetudinarian. But whilst thus alluding to an élément of weakness in the modem gospel of health,1 I must not be understood as wishing to under- value its teaching. It is well for the most daring sailor * Summarized in Lord Beaconsfield's electioneering parody of the Preacher, Sanitas Sanitatum et omnia Sanitas. TRAINING OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 211 to know the rocks on which his ship may split and ail the manifold dangers of the sea, not that through fear of them he may spend his life in inglorious ease on shore, but that his very courage and skill may not lead him t© prématuré destruction. So it is with vocalists. Hygiène tells them what is likely to injure or ruin the voice ; it rests with each one to décide for himself what risks he shall run for the sake of art or famé or livelihood. I have attempted to set forth as lucidly as possible the gênerai principles of voice préservation and the most important points of practical détail; the individual application must be left to those whom it immediately concerns. Though it is only drawing- room ténors that may need ail the précautions of a hot-house hygiène, even the most richly endowed or- ganization cannot long defy natural laws with im- punity. 212 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. APPENDIX I. ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. THE mechanism of voice has already been described, but, for the sake of clearness, it may be well to recall the three essential éléments in its production: i, the air blast, or motive power; 2, the vibrating reed, or tone-producing apparatus; 3, the sounding-board, or reinforcing cavities. Thèse, to parody a well-worn physiological metaphor, are the three legs of the tripod of voice; defeçt in, or mismanagement of, any one of them is fatal to the musical efficiency of the vocal in- strument. Although a knowledge of anatomy will not make a bad singer a good one, a slight acquaintance with the structure of his instrument will help him to keep it in working order. The motive power or air-blast which sets the vocal cords in vibration is supplied by the lungs. Thèse are two sponge-like organs roughly conical in shape, the lower end or " base " being down- wards, whilst the upper, or "apex," rises slightly up into the neck behind the collar-bone. Together with the heart they fill the cavity of the chest. The struc- ture of the lung will be better apprehended on tracing the path taken by the inspired air downwards from the larynx.1 When it has passed below the level of the 1 The arrows in the Frontispiece indicate the direction taken by the expired air, whether in the act of breathing or in sounding the voice. ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. "Adam's apple " it enters the trachea or windpipe. This is a short tube running straight down from the larynx into the chest, at the upper part of which it divides into two smaller tubes (" bronchi "), which branch off from the main trunk at an obtuse angle (see Fig. 14, br), and run in a slanting direction down- wards and outwards, one to each lung. As they ap- proach those organs they begin to break up into still smaller tubes, and this subdivision goes on within the lung itself till the ultimate ramifications end in tiny pouches or "air-cells," which the unscientific reader may picture to his mind's eye as resembling soap-bub- bles of infinitésimal size. Each "bubble,"or cluster of "bubbles," communicates through a minute open- ing with the ultimate divisions of the bronchial tubes. The walls of thèse little cells are very thin and of highly elastic structure, and in the substance of each is a délicate network of very small blood-vessels, called " capillaries." It is hère that the vital part of the rés- piratory process, viz., the purification of the blood, takes place. This consists essentially in an exchange of gases between the blood and the air, wherein the former yields up some of the waste matters of the Sys- tem in the form of carbonic acid, receiving in return a fresh supply of oxygen. It is évident from this how important it is to have a sufficient supply of pure air, i.e., air which contains its due proportion of oxygen, to renovate the blood. A room in which a number of people are sitting soon becomes " close " if the Win- dows and doors are kept shut; this indicates that the oxygen in the air is exhausted, its place being taken 214 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. by carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs of the as- sembly, so that the purification of the blood must necessarily become more and more imperfect. This process of re-breathing air that has already been used, if long continued, leads to asphyxia and death, but short of this point it gives rise to much distress, and even disease. This cause, for instance, lies at the root of much so-called " delicacy," susceptibility to cold, languor, headache, and nervous dépression. It is not so much, however, the physiological as the mechanical part of breathing that I am immediately concerned with. Besides their principal function of purifying the blood, the lungs are the bellows of the vocal instrument. They propel a current of air up the windpipe to the narrow chink of the larynx, which throws the membranous edges or lips (" vocal cords ") of that organ into vibration, and thereby produces sound. Through this small chink the air escaping from the lungs is forced out gradually in a thin stream, which is compressed, so to speak, between the edges of the cords, that form the opening tecimically called the " glottis," through which it passes. The arrange- ment is typical of the economical workmanship of Nature. The widest possible entrance is prepared for the air which is taken into the lungs, as the freest ven- tilation of their whole mucous surface is necessary. When the air has been fully utilized for that purpose, it is, if need be, put to a new use on its way out for the production of voice, and in that case it is carefuUy husbanded and allowed to escape in severely regu- lated measure, every particle of it being made to ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 215 render its exact équivalent in force to work the vocal mill-wheel. The air taken into the lungs in inspiration distends the air-cells; it is driveh out again mainly by the contraction of the elastic walls of the little cells themselves. This is the essential feature of the expi- ratory act. Inspiration, on the other hand, is more complex, and may be performed in two or three différ- ent ways or by a combination of them. They ail have the common object of increasing the capacity of the chest so as to leave room for the expansion of the lungs as the air is drawn into them. What may be termed the natural method of breathing is performed principally by the agency of a large muscle known as the diaphragm (Frontispiece, /, and Fig. 14, d), which spreads across the cavity of the trunk, dividing it into an upper or thoracic, and a lower or abdominal, space. The former is known as the chest ; the latter (to ears polite) as the " stomach." The diaphragm, when in a state of repose, arches upwards, so as to make the floor of the chest a kind of dôme, on the convexity of which rest the bases of the lungs, whilst the under surface looks towards the abdomen. In contracting, the muscles descend towards the latter cavity so as to make the floor of the chest almost flat, thus leaving room for the increase in volume of the inflated lungs. In expiration the diaphragm simply returns to its former condition. This mode of breathing is known as " diaphragmatic." The action of the diaphragm is assisted by the élévation and partial expansion of the ribs (see Fig. 14), which, together with the breast-bone, make a cage-like framework for the chest. Each pair 2i6 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. of ribs is furnished with two sets of muscular fibres which act on them in contrary directions. Diaphrag- matic breathing, as has already been shown (p. 103 et seq.), may be carried out in two différent ways. Breathing carried on mainly by the ribs is called Fig. 14.—The Vocal Instrument. I, larynx ; t, trachea ; br, bronchi ; Ig, lung ; d, diaphragm. "costal" respiration, and it is sometimes largely prac- tised by women with the upper ribs alone owing to the partial fixation of the lower by tight stays. In very violent breathing the collar-bone (or " clavicle ") is for- cibly drawn up by the muscles of the neck so as to as- sist the action of those which act on the ribs. This method of inspiration is called " clavicular y Thèse ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 217 three modes of inspiration include ail the means at our disposai for taking breath, and it is important for ail who use the voice to understand them. Clavicular breathing is seldom employed except in certain dis- eased conditions and during very violent exertion.1 To obtain its full power the hands must firmly hold some fixed object in order that the collar-bone may (through the shoulder-blade) have a fulcrum. When costal or diaphragmatic breathing is spoken of, it must always be remembered that in the normal human body both methods are always used together, the one assist- ing and completing the other. The terms are in re- ality relative, and are, or should be, applied only as one or the other type prédominâtes in an individual at a given time. The larynx is sometimes absurdly called the " voice- box," as if it were one of those ingenious toys which grind out a thin strain of wiry melody on being wound up. If a comparison is necessary, I should prefer to liken it to a hollow wedge, of which the sharp end looks forwards. The larynx is, in fact, an expansion of the upper part of the trachea, on which it is placed like a funnel on the top of a tube. The large end, which is uppermost, is provided with a self- acting lid, whilst the lower is continuous with the windpipe, and through it with the lungs. Almost round at its lower end, the larynx is nearly triangular in shape at its upper opening, the apex of the triangle 1 The force with which the clavicle may be drawn up is shown by the fact related by Dr. Walshe {Dramatic Singing, London, 1881, p. 15, footnote), that Rubini actually broke his collar-bone in delivering a very high note. 2i8 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. being in front. The walls are formed mostly by pièces of cartilage of various size and shape held to- gether by muscles and other soft tissues, the whole being covered by a smooth, moist integument like the skin lining the mouth, and known as " mucous mem- brane." The lowest cartilage, i.e., the one immedi- Fig. 15.—Latéral View of the Framework of the Larynx and Hyoid Bone. (Seen from the outside.) e, epiglottis ; hb, hyoid bone ; tl, thyro-hyoid ligament ; te, thyroid cartilage ; ce, cri- coid cartilage ; dm, crico-thyroid muscle ; tr, trachea. ately above the windpipe, is called the " cricoid " (Fig. 15, ce), and is almost circular in outline. In shape it resembles a signet ring, the broad surface (represent- ing the seal) being at the back. It is usually large enough in circumference to admit a man's forefinger. Above the cricoid is the " thyroid " or buckler cartilage (Fig. 15, te) which forms the front and sides of the ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 219 larynx. It consists of two latéral parts or " wings " which are joined together in front at an acute angle, forming a prominence which is visible in the neck as the "Adam's apple." A notch varying in depth in différent individuals, but usually more marked in men than in women, séparâtes the wings at the upper part of their angle of union. The wings are widely apart behind, and the hinder edge of each is prolonged up- wards and downwards into little offsets, called re- spectively the upper and lower " horns." By the latter the thyroid is connected with the cricoid cartilage by means of a joint which permits a gliding movement of the one surface on the other. The " arytenoid " carti- lages (Fig. 16, ac) are two small pyramidal bodies placed one at each side on the top of the cricoid be- hind. The base of the pyramid rests on the cricoid (see Fig. 16), with which it articulâtes by a joint al- lowing free movement in various directions. The three corners of the base are directed inwards, out- wards, and forwards, the two latter projections being of especial importance. The anterior process or spur is connected with the hinder extremity of the vocal cord, and is hence called the " vocal process," whilst the outer angle forms the lever-arm, by the aid of which most of the muscular movements belonging to the larynx itself are performed. Attached to the sum- mit of the arytenoid cartilage is a little roundish pièce of gristle, called after its discoverer capitulum Santorini (Fig. 16, cS), and further outwards in the fold of mu- cous membrane leading to the epiglottis is another similar nodule called the " cartilage of Wrisberg " (Fig. HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. $,cW) in honor of the anatomist who first described it. Thèse little cartilaginous bodies serve to give strength to the membranous rim of the larynx, like the bits of whalebone and stout canvas which give stiffness to certain parts of a lady's dress. Lastly there is the "epiglottis " (Fig. 15, e, and Fig. 17, e; see also the various laryngoscopic drawings, pp. Fig. 16.—Latéral View of the Framework of the Larynx from which the Epiglottis has been removed. (Seen from the inside.) te, thyroid cartilage ; ac, arytenoid cartilage ; cS, capitulum Santorini; vc, vocal cord ; ce, cricoid cartilage ; tr, trachea. 66-72), which is something like a leaf in shape, and is situated between the root of the tongue and the open- ing of the larynx ; it forms a lid which is open so as to allow free passage to the air in breathing, but closes tightly down over the larynx in swallowing so that the food may pass backwards safely into the gul- let (Fig. 18, oe; note also the tube behind the wind- pipe in Frontispiece). The essential organ of voice is ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. contained within the cavity enclosed by the cartilages just described; it consists of two membranous lips usually called vocal cords (Fig. 17, rvc and Ivc, and Fig. 18, vc), which extend from the front to the back of the space. In front they are attached just behind Fig. 17.—Transverse Vertical Section of the Larynx. (From a Frozen Section made by Dr. Norris Wolfenden.) e, epiglottis ; hb, hyoid bone ; Ivb, left ventricular band ; rvb, right ventricular band ; m, section of several muscles lying close together ; v, ventricle er pouch of the larynx ; Ivc, left vocal cord ; rvc, right vocal cord ; te, thyroid cartilage ; ce, cri- coid cartilage ; tr, trachea. the Adam's apple, i.e., to the inner part of the angle formed by the junction of the two wings of the thyroid cartilage, and behind to the anterior spur or "vocal process" (see Fig. 18, vp) of the arytenoid cartilage; HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. the two cords are therefore close together in front and somewhat apart behind. Along the outer edge of each runs the thyro-arytenoid muscle (see Fig. 18), which is moreover firmly bound to the membrane by some of its own fibres. The space between the outer border of the muscle and the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage is padded with loose connective tissue (Fig. 18, et), so that the vocal "cord" is not a string, but the free edge of a projecting fold of mem- brane (see Fig. 17, rvc and Ivc). The upper part is broader than the rest, so that the inner edges project towards each other. They are made of fine elastic tissue mingled with a variable amount of fibrous ma- terial. Of course there are an infinité number of indi- vidual différences in the cords as regards length, thick- ness, elasticity, and other qualities just as there are in other parts of the body. The vocal cords with the arytenoid cartilages behind enclose a small space forming the opening of the air-passage and known as the " glottis " (Fig. 18), and the free edges of the vocal cords constitute the lips of the glottis; it is the vibra- tion of thèse lips which produces the voice. The length of each cord or vocal lip is a trifle more than half an inch in men, and rather less than half an inch in women; whilst the male glottis as a whole is very nearly an inch, and the female not quite three-fourths of an inch long. Immediately above the vocal cord on each side is a little pocket or " ventricle " (Fig. 17, v), which is very variable in size, being sometimes a mère slit, whilst in other cases it is large enough to ad- mit the point of the finger. The lower edge of this ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 223 opening is formed by the vocal cord itself, whilst the upper consists of a narrow fringe of membrane, for- merly known as the false cord, to which many years ago I gave the name of "ventricular band" (Fig. 17, rvb and Ivb; see also the laryngoscopic drawings, pp. 66- 72), now almost universally employed. The ventricu- lar band is nothing more than the lower edge of a membranous fold stretching from the side of the epi- glottis in front to the arytenoid cartilage behind and completing the side-wall of the upper portion of the larynx. Thèse parts form the framework of the organ; it only remains to describe the muscles which pull the cartilages and the cords towards or away from each other, and thus produce the wonderful variety of quality, tone, and intensity of voice with which every one is familiar even in the ordinary speech of his own limited circle of friends. The laryngeal muscles are small fleshy slips, attached at each end to différent parts of the framework which, by their contraction, i.e., shortening of their fibres, are drawn nearer to each other. Thus there is a muscle (" crico-thyroid ") (Fig. 15, ctm) at each side, which runs backwards and up- wards from the cricoid cartilage to the lower edge and adjoining horn of the thyroid cartilage.. Another muscle (" arytenoid ") passes at the back of the larynx from one arytenoid cartilage to the other. A third muscle (" posterior crico-arytenoid ") stretches from the back or signet of the cricoid cartilage to the outer spur of the arytenoid. Between the same point of the last-named body, and the upper part of the side of the cricoid passes a small muscle (" latéral crico-aryte- 224 HYGLENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. noid "). A fleshy bundle (" thyro-arytenoid ") (Fig. 18) passes from the back of the thyroid cartilage just be- low the attachment of the vocal cords horizontally backwards to the arytenoid cartilage. This impor- tant muscle lies immediately to the outer side of the membranous portion of the vocal cord, to which it gives bulk and solidity. Its fibres have a very com- plicated arrangement, some being attached to the ary- Fig. 18.—The Glottis, with its Surrounding Parts Dissected. (Seen from ABOVE.) te, thyroid cartilage ; vc, the vocal cords ; et, connective tissue between the cord and the wall of the larynx ; vp, vocal process or anterior spurof the arytenoid cartilage; ac, arytenoid cartilage ; œ, œsophagus ; hb, hyoid bone ; og, orifice of the glottis. The dark lines running parallel to the lip of the glottis (between vc and ci) repre- sent the fibres of the thyro-arytenoid muscle. tenoid cartilage, some to the fold between that point and the epiglottis, and some also, as has been recently shown,1 to the substance of the vocal lips themselves. The muscle is, in fact, attached to the vocal cord ail the way along, just as the muscles which move the mouth, nostrils, and eyes, are attached not only to the 1 ^hattock, fourn. Anal, and Phys., vol. xvi., p. 485; 1882. Mr. Shattock's dissections were undertaken at the suggestion of Professor Garcia. ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 225 points which it is their function to draw together but likewise to the skin of the face between those features, thus giving the countenance its mobility and almost infinité variety of expression. The last muscle requir- ing mention is the " depressor of the epiglottis " which is attached to the arytenoid cartilage, and to the cor- responding latéral margin of the epiglottis. The action of thèse various muscles is excessively complicated, and any one who should be able fully and exactly to describe it, would dispel the mystery which still surrounds the whole subject of voice-pro- duction. An elaborate analysis of the action of the laryngeal muscles may be found in various papers by my friend Dr. Jelenffy.1 Thèse dissertations are, how- ever, by no means easy reading to the expert, while the intricacy of their subject-matter, and the severely technical way in which it is dealt with make them caviare to the gênerai. I can only allude briefly in this place to a few points that appear incontestable. Thus, the vocal cords are stretched by the contraction of the crico-thyroids,2 relaxedby that of the thyro-arytenoids, 1 See Wiener med. Wochenschr., 1872, Nos. 3 and 4 ; Pfliiger's Archiv, Bd. vii., Hft. 1, 1873; Ibid., Bd. xxii., 1880. 2 A glance at Fig. 15, dm, will show that the muscle does not act directly on the vocal cord, but on the cartilages to which it is attached. It used to be believed that the effect was produced by pulling the thyroid cartilage down so as to increase the distance between it and the arytenoid cartilage behind, and thus stretch the vocal cord by moving one of its points of attachment further away from the other. It is now known that it is the cricoid cartilage which is pulled upwards at its front part. Owing to its circular shape this entails the lowering of the other portion of its circumference, which necessarily drags with it the arytenoid carti- lage and the posterior attachment of the vocal cord, which is thereby J5 226 H YGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. whilst they are approximated by the latéral, and sepa- ratedbythe posterior crico-arytenoids. When, how- ever, thèse latter muscles act in combination with the others, they also play the part of " tensors." Accord- ing to Jelenffy, the latéral crico-arytenoid muscles also assist in the tension of the vocal cords by fixing the arytenoid cartilage, which would otherwise be pulled forwards, thus relaxing the cords. By the arytenoid put on the stretch. This mode of action of the crico-thyroid muscle, though long ago propounded as a guess by a stray anatomist or two, has now been experimentally^r0w*/by Dr. F. IL Ilooper, of Boston, U. S. {Trans. Amer. Laryngol. Assoc. New Vork, 1883; p. 118 et seq.). He shows conclusively that two factors are concerned in the tension of the vocal cords; first, the crico-thyroid muscle in the way just described; secondly, the air blast itself, which, by its impact against the lips of the glottis, carries the whole larynx somewhat upwards. The cricoid carti- lage, however, moves relatively more than the thyroid, and consequently is brought up close to it in front, a movement which, as has already been seen, has the effect of stretching the vocal cord. Jelenffy, in a paper dealing solely with the crico-thyroid muscle (Pfliiger's Archiv, Bd. vii., Hft. 1, 1873), says that its action is three- fold—first, it carries the cricoid cartilage upwards towards the thyroid, as above stated ; secondly, as some of its fibres have a more or less hori- zontal direction from behind forwards, it draws the thyroid forwards, whilst at the same time pulling the cricoid backwards, thus aiding in the tension of the vocal cords; thirdly, by means of fibres inserted into the inner surface of the thyroid it draws the two wings of that cartilage closer together; and as the cartilage is fixed behind by muscular action, the angle is made to project further forwards, carrying with it the an- terior extremities of the vocal cords which are attached thereto, and in that way increasing their tension. In confirmation of thèse theoretical views, Jelenffy adduces the following expérimental facts : (1) If the cri- coid be pushed upwards with the fingers in singing, the pitch is thereby raised; (2) the pitch is also raised if the cricoid is pushed backwards, i.e., towards the spine; (3) the same thing happens if the two wings of the thyroid cartilage are pressed together from the outside. Jelenffy's views on this subject have been called in question by Michael (Berl. klin. Wochenschr., 1876, pp. 520 and 534). ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 227 muscle the cartilages of that name are drawn towards each other, so as to lessen or even close the chink ot the glottis at its posterior part. Lastly, the epiglottis is drawn by its depressor muscle over the upper open- ing of the larynx. There are other muscles which need not be more particularly described hère which draw the larynx as a whole up or down; the action of thèse, though important, is only auxiliary in voice- production. The air supplied by the lungs is moulded into sound by the innumerable nimble little fingers of the mus- cles which move the vocal cords. Thèse fingers (which prosaic anatomists call fibres), besides being almost countless in number, are arranged in so intricate a manner that every one who dissects them finds out something new, which, it is needless to say, is forth- with given to the world as an important discovery. It is probable that no amount of macerating or teazing out with pincers will ever bring us to " finality " in this matter; nor do I think it would profit us much as re- gards our knowledge of the physiology of the voice if the last tiny fibrilla of muscle were run to earth. The mind can form no clearer notions of the infinitely little than of the infinitely great, and the microscopic move- ments of thèse tiny strips of contractile tissue would be no more rcal to us than the figures which express the rapidity of light and the vast stretches of astronomical time and distance. Moreover, no two persons have their laryngeal muscles arranged in precisely the same man- ner—a circumstance which of itself goes a considéra- ble way towards explaining the almost infinité variety of 228 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. human voices. The wonderful diversity of expression in faces which structurally, as we may say, are almost identical is due to minute différences in the arrange- ment of the little muscles which move the skin. The same thing holds good of the larynx. In addition to this there are more appréciable différences, such as we see in the other parts of the body. The larynx itself is as various in size and shape as the nose; and this is still more the case with the other parts concerned in the production of the voice. We now come to the third élément in the vocal ap- paratus, viz., the parts which give résonance to the voice. The lungs supply the air blast or power, and thereby regulate the intensity of the sound ; the rate of vibration of the vocal lips governs the pitch, whilst the resonance-chambers give the voice its peculiar quality or timbre. Taking the resonance-chambers seriatim, there is first the cavity of the chest bound round, as already stated, by the ribs covered with thick folds of muscle, a layer of fat of variable thick- ness, and the skin as side-walls, and with the dia- phragm as floor (Fig. 15, d). The shape of the chest as a whole is conical, the lower part being the widest. In the cavity, besides the lungs and the lower part of the windpipe with its branches, is the heart, with large blood-vessels issuing from and emptying themselves into it. The heart lies between the lungs, and behind it the gullet, or food-tube, passes downwards to the stomach. If the hand is placed on the chest whilst a deep note is being sounded, its walls can be felt to vi- brate strongly. ANATOMY CF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 229 Immediately above the vocal cords is another reso- nance-chamber, known as the " supraglottic space of the larynx" (Fig. 17, above the level of rvc and Ivc). This is, in fact, the upper part of the funnel-shaped cavity already described, and is bounded by the mem- brane extending between the sides of the epiglottis and the peaks of the arytenoid cartilages, and the epiglottis itself. Thèse parts may come together, so as almost entirely to cover the glottis, or may remain wide apart. Altogether above the larynx is a space, known as the " pharynx," which extends to the base of the skull and opens into the mouth, and, higher up, communicates with the back of the nose by two pas- sages called the "posterior nares " (see Frontispiece). The walls of the pharynx being for the most part mus- cular are highly contractile ; the dimensions and shape of the cavity are, therefore, susceptible of very great modification in every individual. Then there is the mouth, which is separated from the nasal cham- bers by the hard palate, the latter thus forming at once the roof of the mouth and the floor of the nose. From the hinder part of the hard palate the soft palate, or " vélum," hangs down like a curtain over the root of the tongue. The soft palate has a small ap- pendage of variable length, projecting like a tongue from the middle of its lower edge ; this is the " uvula " (Frontispiece,/*), the bête noire of many vocalists, who look upon it as the root of ail evil as far as the throat is concerned. The soft palate and uvula are com- posed almost entireiy of muscular tissue covered on both surfaces by mucous membrane. Being muscular 230 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. the curtain lengthens or shortens as occasion may re- quire, and is sometimes retracted in the same way that the finger of a glove is accidentally drawn in when the glove is being taken off the hand. Although the uvula is not as a rule under the direct government of the will, it may by assiduous practice be made partially submissive thereto. When at rest the uvula hangs vertically down, and as the tongue bulges upwards at its posterior part a sort of valve is formed, which shuts off the cavity of the mouth from the pharynx. In respiration the natural course of the indrawn air is through the nose, down the pharynx, into the windpipe. In swallowing, however, the valve just referred to is opened by the séparation of the tongue from the soft palate, the latter being drawn up so as to touch the back wall of the pharynx, and eut off ail communication with the nose. This closure is rendered more complète by a slight projection of the pharyngeal wall in the middle line behind. To this the edge of the updrawn soft palate is applied, the back and sides of the space being at the same time pressed towards each other by the fibres of the supe- rior constrictor, a muscle which surrounds the upper part of the pharynx, and in contracting compresses the cavity as by the grasp of an encircling hand. Under thèse circumstances, it is obvious that the press- ure of a column of air from below, i.e., in the direc- tion of the laryngeal blast, serves only to tighten the naso-pharyngeal valve. Ail this machinery is govemed by the will, so that the passage from the mouth to the nose can be eut off entirely or in part. The action of ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 231 the soft palate, in singing and speaking, is therefore of the most complex nature; indeed, the movements of this little body are even yet not perfectly understood, in spite of its being under such constant observation. I have, however, tried to give an intelligible account of what may be called its fundamental action as a naso-pharyngeal valve, and of the less vital but still important part which it plays as an imperfect phar- yngo-buccal valve. It is necessary that this twofold function of the soft palate should be thoroughly un- derstood by the voice-trainer, as the muscles which move it can be educated just like those of any other part. The " fauces " are sharply defined folds which pro- ject on each side of the interior of the throat. They are in reality prolongations of the lower edge of the soft palate, where it unités with the inner wall of the mouth. There are two ridges on each side, an anterior and a posterior one, which diverge from each other in a downward direction, like the letter V reversed (A); between them on each side lies the tonsil. The folds just described are technically known as the "pillars" of the fauces, whilst the part of the mouth bounded on each side by the tonsils, being the narrowest point of the cavity, is called the "isthmus." Each " pillar " incloses a bundle of muscular fibres; the front one (called palato-glossus) being connected with the under part of the side of the tongue whilst the hinder one (palato-pharyngeus) runs much further down into the throat, and is attached in a rather complicated manner to the side cf the pharynx and upper part of the 232 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. larynx. It is obvious that, both thèse muscles acting as they do on the soft palate, the tongue and the larynx, must be most important factors in voice-pro- duction. The " tonsils " are small glands situated between the pillars of the fauces on each side. In the healthy state they are often so small as to be almost invisible, whilst, on the other hand, when enlarged by disease they may project so far across as to touch each other in the middle line. Their intimate structure need not be described. To the naked eye they appear roundish bodies, about the size of half a hazel-nut, with a sur- face dimpled by dépressions which are in reality the mouths of tiny channels leading from the interior of the gland and opening into the mouth. The use of the tonsils has never been discovered, nor, so far as I know, even guessed at by the scientific imagination, though various superstitions concerning them are deeply rooted in the popular mind. Not many years ago a man of " leading " if not of " light " in the médi- cal profession grounded a formidable indictment against the wisdom of the Creator, mainly on the ex- istence of such purposeless excrescences. The " nasal cavities " consist of two passages divided from each other by a vertical partition called the "septum." Each passage extends upwards almost as far as the base of the brain, from which indeed it is separated only by thin plates of bone, perforated with many holes like a sieve; through thèse apertures slen- der filaments (offsets of the first or olfactory nerve) pass, to terminate in the mucous membrane lining the ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 233 upper third of the nasal chambers. It is accordingly in this portion of the nose that the sensé of smell ré- sides, the lower two-thirds of the cavity forming a channel for the air. For the purpose of warming this air before it reaches the lungs, what may be called a system of hot-water pipes is provided. From the outer wall of each nostril project three small curved osseous plates known from their structure as the spongy bones (Frontispiece, c). On thèse bones a close network of vessels is so arranged that a considérable quantity of blood is contained in a comparatively limited space. The air in passing over this collection of hot fluid is warmed to a degree that may be estimated by com- paring the sensation which is caused at the back of the throat by a current of air drawn in directly through the mouth with that produced by air inspired through the nose. On either side of the nasal passage, and above it in front and behind are hollow spaces (" sinuses ") in the neighboring bones, ail directly or indirectly communicating with the nose (see Frontis- piece, a and b). The size of thèse cells varies much in différent individuals, but it is obvious that in every one they must have a very great influence on the rés- onance and quality of the voice. A glance at the woodcut (Frontispiece) will enable the reader easily to understand the main features of the description just given. The organs of voice having been described, those of speech must next be briefly referred to. Articulation is effected by the action of the palate, tongue, teeth, and lips, which, by the almost infinité variety of posi- 234 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. tion which they assume relatively to each other, modify and break up the current of sound as it issues through the mouth into syllables and words. The palate has already been treated of in sufficient détail from the anatomical point of view. The tongue is a mass of muscle, the fibres of which cross each other in an extremely intricate manner. Its root is attached to the hyoid bone (Fig. 15, Jib), which, as its name implies, resembles the Greek letter u, and is placed horizontally in the throat a little way above the larynx, with the convex border in front, and two long off- shoots ("greater cornua") pointing backwards. To the upper and lower edges of this little bone various muscles are attached, which pull it up or down, the larynx of course participating in each movement and rising or falling in the neck for an inch or two. The tongue is also attached by muscular fibres and con- nective tissue to the inner surface of the lower jaw in front and at the sides. The evil repute in which the tongue is held by moralists of the sterner sort is some- what supported by anatomical évidence, for it is in reality a double organ, a vertical partition dividing it longwise into two equal parts. The mobility of the tongue of course varies extremely in différent persons, and it may be cultivated to the extent of touching the tip of the nose, or, in other cases, of being passed back- wards and upwards behind the soft palate. The " teeth " are thirty-two in number, sixteen in each jaw, but it is rare in modem life to find a complète set after the âge of twenty-five or thirty. If too close together they give a peculiar indistinctness to the utterance, ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 235 but if entirely wanting in front the articulation of cer- tain letters becomes impossible. The lips need no description, but attention may be called to the fact that the substance of them is formed by muscular fibres arranged in circular bundles round the mouth; other fleshy slips connect the lips with the nose. the cheek, and the skin of the face. Ail thèse are liable to defects which may be corrected by appropriate training. HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. APPENDIX IL CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS THEORIES AS TO THE MECHANISM OF THE REGISTERS. THE old Italian masters, who lived in blissful igno- rance of the laryngoscope, recognized only two registers' of the human voice, the " chest " and the falsetto or " head," the two latter terms being exactly synony- mous.2 They of course spoke from what doctors call the purely clinical point of view, i.e., from the observa- tion of voices in actual use, without troubling them- selves much as to how the différence was brought about. Johannes Mùller, from the opposite stand- point of pure experiment on the larynx removed from the body, was also led to define two registers, the "chest" and "head." The immédiate effect of the invention of the laryn- goscope was to throw the whole subject into almost 1 So called from the " registers " or différent stops of the organ. 2 See Tosi {op. cit. p. 15), and Mancini (pp. cit. p. 43). Galliard, however, the English translator of Tosi, seems in a footnote to make a distinction between the " falsetto" and the " head " register. He says (in second édition, London, 1743, p. 22), " voce di petto is a full voice, which comes from the breast by strength, and is the most sonorous and expressive; di testa comes more from the throat than from the breast, and is capable of more volubility. Falsetto is a feigned voice, which is entirely formed in the throat, has more volubility than any, but of no sub- stance." There is no such differentiation of the falsetto from the head voice in Tosi's text. CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 237 hopeless confusion by the introduction of ail sorts of errors of observation, each claiming to be founded on ocular proof, and believed in with corresponding obstinacy. Garcia1 divided the voice into " chest," " falsetto," and "head," ail three being common to both sexes, but females having a greater range of " head," and men of " chest " notes. In each the chest and head registers were further subdivided into two parts, " upper " and " lower." Taking this view in connec- tion with Garcia's own définition of a " register " as a " séries of consécutive homogeneous sounds going from low to high, produced by the action of a certain mechanism," I formerly considered that he regarded the singing voice as produced by five distinct mechan- isms, but this he now contradicts (p. 240). Madame Seiler2 followed Garcia in his arrangement of the registers, though differing from him as to certain dé- tails. Mr. Emil Behnke,3 taking his classification from Madame Seiler and his nomenclature from Mr. Cur- wen,4 prefers to parcel out the voice into a thick (chest), a thin (falsetto), and a small (head) register, the thick and the thin being each again subdivided into upper and lower, as in the Garcia-Seiler scheme. Mr. Behnke has been able5 to indoctrinate with this 1 Observations physiologiques sur la Voix humaine, 1855, 2nd édition, Paris, 1861, p. 25 et seq. 2 The Voice in Singing ; Philadelphia, 1881, p. 53 et seq. (Mme. Seiler's views were first published in German in 1861.) 3 Mechanism of the Human Voice ; London, 1880, p. 71 et seq. 4 Teachers' Manual; London, 1875, p. 173. s Voice, Song, and Speech, 2nd édition ; London, 1884, p. 163 et seq. 238 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. view his collaborateur Mr. Lennox Browne, whose own formerly expressed opinions on the question, though somewhat hazy,1 showed a leaning towards the more simple division into two registers. Dr. YVesley Mills 2 inclines to Madame Seiler's arrangement of the regis- ters, but pleads for a terminology that shall involve no theory as to production, but merely indicate relative pitch, e.g., lower, middle, and upper. Mandl,3 who recognizes only two registers, had already employed this system of nomenclature, calling the "chest " and " head " divisions " lower " and " upper " respectively. Battaille,4 Koch,5 Vacher,6 Martels,7 together with Gouguenheim and Lermoyez,8 also adhère to the two- register system. Before proceeding to discuss the views of those writers in détail, it may be remarked that many sing- ing masters find a division into chest, middle or mixed, 1 Médical Hints on the Production and Management of the Singing Voice, 5th édition; London, 1877, p. 31 et seq. 2 An examination of some controverted points of the physiology of the voice, especially the registers of the singing voice and the falsetto. Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Mon- tréal, August, 1882. Although in the main agreeing with Garcia and Madame Seiler, Dr. Mills, in a private letter to me, dated April ioth, 1884, says : " I don't know that I care to be set down as a hard and fast advocate of any division of the registers now adopted." 3 Hygiène de la Voix parlée ou chantée, 2nd édition, Paris, 1879, p. 37 et seq. 4 Nouvelles Recherches sur la Phonation, Paris, 1861, p. 67 et seq. 5 De la Voix humaine, Luxembourg, 1874, p. 20. 6 De la Voix chez l'Homme, Paris, 1877, p. 29. 1 Physiologie de la Phonation. Revue bibl. univ. des Sciences Médi- cales, t. ii., Nos. 13 and 15, 1885. 8 Physiologie de la Voix et du Chant, Paris, 1885, p. 145 et seq. CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 239 and head or falsetto, the most convenient for practical purposes. This disagreement as to terms, however, is trifling compared to the diversity of opinion as to facts which we find amongst rival authorities on voice-production. Lehfeldt ' in the course of certain experiments on an exsected larynx, accidentally blew with less force than he intended, and thus produced some very high notes, the character of which reminded him of the sound of the flageolet. He jumped at once to the conclusion that he had discovered the secret of the falsetto voice, which he attributed to " want of force in the air-blast, which is too weak to throw the whole breadth of the cord into vibration." "I was," he continues, " led to this conclusion by the fact that whilst in the produc- tion of chest tones I could see the vibrations with a magnifying glass, I could not see them in the utter- ance of falsetto notes. Only the edges seemed to act."2 But what kept the substance of the cord from vibrating ? This puzzled our inquirer till he found that an old anatomist (Fabricius ab Aquapendente) had shown that certain fibres of the thyro-arytenoid muscle pass horizontally into the vocal cords, and Lehfeldt conjectured that by the contraction of thèse the vibra- tion of the outer edge of the cord might be checked. It is évident that this hypothesis of Lehfeldt's rested on a ver)- slender basis of observation, and it would probably have fallen into oblivion had it not been 1 Nonnulla de Vocis Formationc. Dissert. Inaug. Berolini, 1835, p. 58. * " Soli margines videbantur agere," op. cit. p. 58. 240 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. adopted by the great physiologist Mûller, whose bril- liant chapter on the voice has been the locus canonicus on which nearly ail succeeding writers have founded their doctrines. The name of Lehfeldt (although duly mentioned by Mùller) has been forgotten, and his view is almost invariably cited as that of Mùller. The theory itself is accepted as true by most investigators, chiefly on the mère authority of its reputed author. Garcia, from observation with the laryngoscope, asserts that in the lower part of the chest register the whole of the glottis is thrown into full loose vibrations, the vibrating edges including the anterior spur of the arytenoid cartilage, as well as the vocal band proper; as the pitch rises, however, the cartilages come into closer apposition, till the vibration is confined to the vocal cord. This séquence is repeated in the falsetto register but in the latter the parts are altogether less tense, the vibration is more at the end of the glottis and the upper orifice of the larynx is more open, so that the inside is better seen. Garcia conceived the fundamental différence between the chest and falsetto registers to lie in the (hypothetical) fact that in the former the arytenoid cartilages touch each other by the whole depth of the vocal process (anterior spur, see p. 219), whilst in the latter there is merely a con- tact of the edges. The résistance to the upward rush of the air would therefore be much greater in chest than in falsetto production. Garcia states that in the head voice the glottis becomes gradually shorter and narrower. It must be remembered that by his own avowal the disçoverer of the laryngoscope never CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 24] succeeded in seeing the anterior third of the glottis at ail.1 The eminent professor laments2 that I should have included him amongst those teachers of singing who believe in the existence of five registers. He says: " My position as a musician, of which I am proud, does not prevent me from holding somewhat more correct views on the register question than those which Dr. Mackenzie seems disposed to crédit me with." He then proceeds to give his définition of a register in the following terms; " Par le mot registre, nous entendons une série de sons consécutifs et homogènes, allant du grave à l'aigu, produits par le développement du même principe mécanique, et dont la nature diffère essentiellement d'une autre série de sons également consécutifs et homogènes, produits par une autre principe mécanique. Tous les sons appartenant au même registre sont, par conséquent, de la même nature, quelles que soient d'ailleurs les modifications de timbre, ou de force qu'on leur fasse subir." (Traite Complet de TArt du Chant, 1841.)3 Accepting this définition of a register, namely, that 1 Loc. cit. p. 20. 2 Centralbl. f. Laryngologie, April, 1887. 3 For the reason stated in the préface I have great difficulty in replying to the criticisms of my distinguished friend, Professor Garcia, and not even knowing whether his review for the Centralblatt was written in French or F.nglish, I have taken his définition of a register from one of his original French works. I have not been able to get the first édition, published in 1841, which he refers to, but as he makes no mention of having altered his définition of a register, it may be supposed that it was the same in the first édition as in the third, from which I have quoted. 16 242 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. the employment of a différent mechanical principle in the larynx constitutes a différent register, it will be seen on referring to Signor Garcia's celebrated paper in the proceedings of the Royal Society (Vol. VIL, 1855, pp. 399-410), that he says in a footnote: " Let us hère observe that three registers of the human voice are generally admitted—chest, falsetto, and head; " whilst in the text he states that " the chest register is divided into two parts corresponding to thèse two states of the glottis " (in which it is formed at first by the apophyses of the arytenoid cartilages and the vocal cords, and, in the second place, by the vocal cords alone); and that the falsetto (or " falsetto-head," as he calls it) " présents a complète similarity and in a still more striking manner." According to this de- scription, therefore, we have two sections of chest voice, each produced by a différent mechanical prin- ciple; two sections of falsetto voice based on a similar différence in their mode of production; and the head voice which is not subdivided. I was under the impression (see previous éditions of this work: sixth édition, p. 33, footnote 3), from a considération of thèse observations, that Signor Garcia regarded the human voice as being divided into five distinct registers, each fulfilling the conditions laid down in his définition as being produced by an essen- tially différent mechanical principle. Madame Seiler, who has always been one of Garcia's most distinguished interpreters, has actually made this division in her work {The Voice in Singing, pp. 65 et seq.), where she describes five distinct actions of the vocal organs pro- CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 243 ducing five essentially différent effects. It is true that both she and Signor Garcia call thèse subdivisions first and second séries of the chest and falsetto regis- ters respectively; but as both writers are careful to define the term " register " in almost similar words, it would appear to me that, in accordance with their définitions, thèse subdivisions ought logically to be considered as distinct registers. However, I gladly accept the maestro's explanation, and am very pleased to find that, though he has described the mechanical différences producing thèse subdivisions with great care, he does not consider them of sufficient impor- tance to constitute distinct registers, and I regret that I should, even for a moment, have included him amongst those who believe in five registers. I can only excuse myself on the plea that I have misunderstood Frofessor Garcia's views in the same way that Ma- dame Seiler appears to have done. Battaille,1 who although a singing master, had had a complète médical éducation, and had even been a professional teacher of anatomy, maintained that whereas in the production of chest notes the vocal ligaments vibrate in their entirety, and are extremely tense, especially in the antero-posterior direction, in the falsetto, on the other hand, the cords vibrate only at their free borders, and are altogether less tense. The différence between Battaille's view and that of Mùller consists in this, that the former divides the vocal ligament into three parts, viz., subglottic, inner free border, and ventricular. In the chest register 1 Op. cit. 244 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. the subglottic part vibrâtes with the rest, in the falsetto the other two alone come into play. Battaille gives an elaborate anatomical description of the subglottic part of the cord to which he attaches so much impor- tance, but he has failed to inform us how he was able to see below the cords at a time when according to his own account they are in close apposition. Mandl held that in the lower register the whole glottis is at first open and gradually closes posteriorly, leaving a fairly wide elliptical opening between the cords, whereas in the higher register the edges of the glottis come so close together that there is only a linear interval between them. Mandl does not seem to have noticed the elliptical shape of the glottis which is characteristic of the head notes. Madame Seiler's observations are little more than a répétition of Garcia's as far as the chest and falsetto registers are concerned, but she was able to make a more minute study of the head notes. She says that in producing them the vibrating élément is still further diminished owing to the posterior half of the vocal cords coming so tightly together as mutually to check each other's motion. Thus there remains an oval orifice corresponding to the front half of the glottis of which only the edges vibrate; this opening contracts and becomes more and more circular at every rise of tone.1 Vacher2 also made the différence of registers dépend mainly on a variation in the length of the vibrating élément. Thus whilst the chest notes are produced by vibration of the whole length of the cord, from the arytenoid to 1 Op. cit. p. 59. 2 Op. cit. CRITICAL OBSER VA TIONS. 245 its point of attachment to the thyroid cartilage, in the falsetto the cords come together in the greater part of their length but vibrate only in their anterior two thirds. The space between the inner surfaces of the arytenoid cartilages is according to him completely closed in both registers. Behnke's view is in its main features identical with that of Madame Seiler; he differs from her, however, in one or two détails, especially as regards the move- ments of the arytenoid cartilages. He demurs to the notion that thèse bodies which are merely pièces of gristle can vibrate, and he thinks that the différence between the chest and falsetto registers consists in a lessening of the tension of the vocal cords as the latter is exchanged for the former. As the pitch rises again, there is renewed tension, and then another factor comes in; viz., graduai shortening of the vocal chink owing to the cords being pressed firmly together at the " ends." x From the figure of the " upper thin " register which accompanies this description I gather that Mr. Behnke means that the anterior as well as the hinder ends of the cords are approximated so as to check each other, the vibrating glottis being re- duced to a small elliptical orifice, situated at about one quarter of the whole length of the cord from the front extremity. Jelenffy2 explains the différence between the chest voice and falsetto by the variation in the shape of the glottic orifice according as the thyro-arytenoideus 1 The Mechanism of the Voice, London, i§8o, p. 88. 2 Pfltiger's Archiv, Bd. xxii., 1880. 246 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. muscle (p. 224 et seq), isin a state of contraction or of relaxation. For this reason he calls this the " mus- culus vocalis," the vocal muscle/ar excellence. In the chest register the muscle is contracted, the two thus pressing the cords inwards so as to touch each other, leaving only a linear aperture, or rather fissure be- tween them; the air in the windpipe is thus subjected to considérable pressure, and rushes out forcibly when allowed to escape ; the sound is full and powerful. In falsetto, on the other hand, the vocal muscle is relaxed, the glottis is not completely closed, the air-column flows smoothly out without meeting with any résistance on the part of the vocal cords; the sound is corre- spondingly soft and thin. Dr. Illingworth has propounded a theory1 as to the production of falsetto tones which has at least the merit of novelty. In this gentleman's opinion it is the false vocal cords or ventricular bands (see p. 223) that are chiefly concerned in the process, which is described as a kind of laryngeal whistling, the glottis playing the part of the whistler's mouth and the ventricular bands that of his lips. In the chest register Dr. Illingworth compares the action of the vocal organs to that of blowing a trumpet, the cords representing the lips of the player whilst the upper part of the larynx with the pharynx and mouth form the tube of the instru- ment. Mr. Lunn2 considers that in "true production" the ventricular bands, or false vocal cords, by separating 1 The Mechanism of the Voice, Clayton le Moors, 1882. 2 Philosophy of Voice, 5th édition, 1886, p. 20. CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 247 only to a slight extent, exercise a restraining influence on the escape of vocalized air; whilst as regards the falsetto he has acceped? the views of Dr. Illingworth. Although it is highly probable that in the closure of the larynx which takes place in the act of swallowing, the ventricular bands are brought close together, I have never seen any such approximation, or, to use Mr. Lunn's words, slight séparation, during singing or in ordinary phonation. Indeed, I may add that in the few cases in which I have seen the ventricular bands become approximated, laryngeal sound has always immediately ceased. Dr. Wesley Mills's observations have a spécial im- portance on account of his position as a scientific phys- iologist and the careful way in which he conducted them. Adopting Grùtzner's classification of " trained singers," " natural singers," and " non-singers," Dr. Mills examined fifty persons, and gives the resuit as far as could be ascertained in every case. It must be observed, however, that in a very large proportion of thèse subjects the action of the vocal cords could not be seen throughout the entire scale. Again, though I have no doubt that there are excellent singers in Montréal, it is not one of the places in which cele- brated artists most do congregate. Indeed, amongst Dr. Mills's cases there were only ten trained singers, whilst there were twenty-one natural singers and nine- teen non-singers. The resuit of the investigation was, therefore, somewhat incomplète as regards the work- ing of the vocal reed in the singing voice. 1 Op. cit. 248 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. Of the fifty cases thirty-seven were maies and thir- teen females. The whole glottis was open in ail voices in the lowest tones of the chest register. This condi- tion persisted up to G, second line, treble clef, or there- abouts. Beyond this point the inter-cartilaginous part of the glottis closed, and the head-mechanism began, except in rare cases in which the chest adjustment was the only one used throughout the entire compass of the voice, owing either to natural endowment or a spécial method of teaching. It is to be regretted I think that Dr. Mills has not more clearly defined the précise sensé in which he uses the word " open " as applied to the glottis in singing, the term being liable to misconception, and to a person unacquainted with the subject even misleading. As already said the primary condition for the production of voice is approximation of the cords, and even in the deepest chest notes the aperture is so far closed that it is impossible to see below the glottis. We are, therefore, I présume, to understand the word " open " as équivalent to " not tightly closed," i.e., the cords are not actually touching, or at any rate are not in such close contact as to interfère with each other's mobility. In connection with the question of the apposition of the vocal cords at their anterior extremities, Dr. Mills observed this action in many cases among the men whom he examined during the production of high falsetto notes: of thirteen women only three could make genuine head notes, and in two of thèse Dr. Mills was able to see the glottis distinctly, and he describes it as " more or less closed " at the anterior CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 249 part, in fact offering just the same appearance as the male larynx in the high falsetto register. With regard to the theory that in falsetto only the thin edge vibrâtes, he pertinently asks, how much is implied in the term " edge " ? Dr. Mills found that in the falsetto range the inter-cartilaginous glottis was always com- pletely shut, and that the ligamentous glottis was also partly closed, the vocal cords being firmly pressed to- gether behind, but in a variable degree in différent persons. They were generally approximated in front as well : this was invariably the case in the highest notes of the registers. Dr. Mills also concluded that the force of the blast, and the manner of blowing, are essential éléments in falsetto production. He is strongly of opinion that the high falsetto of men and the head voice of women are as regards mode of production practically identical. Martels1 claims to have proved experimentally that in chest singing it is only the mucous covering of the vocal cords that vibrâtes, not the substance of the ligaments themselves. The mucous membrane in that situation is, according to him, very loosely adhèrent to the parts which it covers, and if sound is produced in an exsected larynx by blowing through the wind- pipe, the membrane can be distinctly seen to detach itself from the underlying cord, and to take up a posi- tion in the glottis, where it vibrâtes. If the part which is thus seen to vibrate be pricked with a needle, the muscular tissue is never reached. Martels argues that the thyro-arytenoid muscle (see p. 224) in contract- 1 Loc. cit. 250 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. ing bends the cords outwards a little, thus leaving an elliptical interval between their edges in the middle; the mucous membrane is thus loosened and set free to vibrate under the influence of the blast of air rushing through the glottis from below. The thyro-arytenoid in fact " prépares the way," but it is the crico-thyroid muscle (see p. 223) which actually produces song by giving the vocal membrane the length, breadth, and degree of tension required for each note. The différ- ence between the chest and falsetto registers, according to Martels, is that, whilst the former is produced by reeds, the latter are in xç.z\\X.y flûte sounds. In falsetto it is not the membrane but the air itself which is the sounding body. He agrées with most of the other observers to whom I have alluded in affirming that in falsetto production the posterior part of the glottic chink is closed, and he says that at the same time the upper vocal cords (ventricular bands, see p. 223) con- tract and approach towards the middle line. The air- current after passing through the lower orifice (true glottis) strikes against the bevelled edges of the upper (formed, as jùst said, by the approximated edges of the ventricular bands). The higher the tone the smaller is the glottic orifice, and the closer together are the ventricular bands. Martels concludes there- fore that the upper glottis, as he calls it, is the principal factor in falsetto, which in his view is synonymous with head production. According to this view a singer whose ventricular bands are destroyed or im- mobilized by disease must be incapable of producing head notes. CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 251 MM. Gouguenheim and Lermoyez ' sum up their view of the two différent modes of production in the following formula, which, however, they are careful to point out must not be taken as a full and exact state- ment of the case: Chest-voice = Larynx contracted+Pharynx relaxed. Head-voice = Larynx relaxed+Pharynx contracted. The main physiological features in head (falsetto) production, according to thèse writers, are first, re- laxation of the glottis; secondly, shortening of its vibrating part. The relaxation of the cords by itself would of course according to the laws of physics lower the pitch. This difficulty is accordingly met by short- ening the cords, which renders them capable of produc- ing tones of a high pitch with less tension than would be necessary in cords of greater length. MM. Gou- guenheim and Lermoyez lay much stress on the fact that there is a différence of timbre as well as of mère pitch between the two registers, and suggest that the peculiar quality of the falsetto, which is of a slender, flute-like character of sound with little reinforcement from harmonies, is due to: first, closure of the nasal passages by strong contraction of the soft palate; secondly, a spécial adjustment of the cavity of the mouth, the cheeks being more tense, and vibrating more freely than in the chest register. More recently M. Lermoyez in an independent work2 expresses an altogether différent opinion. He maintains that pitch 1 Op. cit. p. 149. 2 Étude Expérimentale sur la Phonation, Thèse de Paris, 1886, p. 199 et seq. 252 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. is altered solely by variation of tension in the vocal cords, and agrées with Martels in explaining the dif- férence between the chest and the head registers as owing to the fact that the whole cord vibrâtes in the former, and only the mucous membrane in the latter. Lermoyez now rejects the idea that the length of the reed has anything to do with the production of the différence. From this brief review of the various scientific ex- planations that have been offered as to the production of the registers of the human voice, it will be seen that, setting aside ail the confusion of terminology and in spite of ail the apparent discrepancies as to fact and the real divergences of opinion in the interprétation of them, there is much more agreement as to what is actually seen than at first sight seems to be the case. Leaving out of considération mère eccentricities like Dr. Illingworth's trumpet-and-whistle theory, or sub- tleties like Dr. Martels's notion of a vibrating fringe, we find a pretty gênerai consensus of testimony as to the essential phenomena, such as, first, the compara- tively greater antero-posterior tension of the vocal cords in the chest register ; secondly, the smallness of the glottic aperture in the head as contrasted with the chest register; thirdly, the smaller amount of sub- stance thrown into vibration by the air-current in head tones. Another matter as to which there is perfect unanimity is that the air-blast is much less strong in head than in chest production. Every singer knows by his own expérience that it is difficult to render a high chest note piano, and that the higher the pitch CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS. 253 the less easy it becomes. It is, on the other hand, almost impossible to sing a true falsetto note forte. The chief points as to which there is disagreement are, first, the mutual relations of the arytenoid carti- lages in the two registers ; secondly, the contact or séparation of the vocal cords at their anterior ends in head production; thirdly, the amount of vibrating substance in each respectively ; fourthly, the action, or rather the changes of relative position in the parts above the glottis, especially the ventricular bands. With regard to the first of thèse points every one ad- mits that the vocal processes of the arytenoid carti- lages come together at a certain part in the ascending scale in a large number of cases. Battaille, Vacher, Meyer, and MM. Gouguenheim and Lermoyez posi- tively affirm that oblitération of that space by mutual apposition of the cartilages is a sine quâ non in phona- tion of any kind. Mandl, on the other hand, as we have seen, described the whole glottis as being slightly open during the émission of the lowest notes in the chest register. According to him the vocal processes do not touch each other till some progress has been made upwards, when the glottis has the appearance of being divided into an anterior and a posterior part. Mandl says that the posterior chink closes whilst the anterior diminishes in size, an account which as far as it goes coincides with that given by ail other observers. Behnke remarks that according to his expérience in the " lower thick " (lower chest) register, " there is as a rule a small triangular space between them (the ary- tenoid cartilages) which gets gradually smaller as the 254 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. tones ascend until it is quite closed in the ' upper thick.' . . . Of this I can find no trace in the thin (falsetto) register." ' MM. Gouguenheim and Lermoyez ridicule Mandl's view that the cartilaginous glottis is open in the lower register, but both Wesley Mills and I (see Appendix III.) have found that this part of the glottis remains open until a certain point in the scale has been reached, and I have sometimes seen it open through the entire scale. Gouguenheim and Lermoyez are, however, so positive in affirming that without closure of that space no vocal sound is possible, that they say if their view on this point is false their whole teaching on the sub- ject of the voice falls to pièces of itself. Lermoyez, however, in his more récent separate work already referred to has somewhat modified his view on this point.2 1 Mechanism of the Human Voice, London, 1880, p. 87. 2 Etude Expérimentale sur la Phonation, Paris, 1886, p. 200. THE VOCAL CORDS IN SINGING. 255 APPENDIX III. THE POSITION OF THE VOCAL CORDS IN SINGING. It has been objected to observations made with the laryngoscope, especially when the tongue is held out, that the action of the vocal cords is not precisely the same as when the voice is produced under more nat- ural conditions, and Mr. Lunn1 even doubts whether the vocal sounds of one of the most indefatigable au- toscopic investigators possess any musical quality. The fact that the list given below contains observations made on the most celebrated professional and amateur singers of the day will show that a high standard of organ and a generally good mode of voice production have been taken. The following are the names of some of the vocal- ists, viz. : Mesdames Nilsson, Albani, Valleria, Patey, Misses Anna Williams, Griswold, Ozelio, Carlotta Elliot, Florence St. John, Brandram, Jessie Bond and Fanny Leslie, the late Mr. Maas, Signor Foli, Messrs. Robertson, Ernest Birch, Charles Wade, Hayden Coffin, Corney Grain, Deane Brand, Bernard Lane, Hollins, and George Power. The amateurs include many of the best known singers in London. The ob- servations made on many other well-known singers could not be made use of because it was not possible 1 Lunn, Artistic Voice in Speech and Song, p. 15. 256 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. to see the working of the vocal cords through the entire scale. I do not consider myself compétent to judge whether a given note possesses a high aesthetic quality, but in examining the celebrated singers who have kindly permitted me to study the action of their vocal cords, I have left it to them to détermine when the note was good. Hence in my séries of cases the objections urged by Mr. Lunn do not apply. The difficulties of making a laryngoscopic examination of the singing voice have already been pointed out (p. 35), but it may be added hère that sometimes the mechanism seems to vary in the same individual on différent occasions, and in a few persons the view is clear at one time and shut out at another. In order to be able to tabulate fifty cases, between three and four hundred throats had to be examined, as in a large number of instances the act of singing could not be watched throughout the entire process. The cases now published were originally consécutive, but a few on the original list have been removed in order that the observations on more celebrated singers might be substituted. The séries of cases, however, must not be considered in any way selected, except in as far as the subjects have been chosen on account of their fine voices. Before perusing the Tables, the reader is recom- mended to look once more at pp. 66-73. Table showing the shape of the glottis and the condition of the vocal cords during singing. In every case the compass has been tested with the piano, and the note at which certain described changes have been observed has been subjected to the same test. MALES. 1 No. Voice. Compass. State of Cartilaginous Glottis. State of Ligamentous Glottis. Remarks. Ténor. Trained. Open to closed above. Fj5v:=f== Graduai and com- plète closure. II. Ténor. Trained. Open to tsè closed above. Graduai and com- plète closure. No. Voice. Compass. State of Cartilaginous Glottis. III. Ténor. Trained. "* Open to E^w ^Z^~H -•—t-closed p(g^—\^—'-— stop-closed 1-/W-—-J—*~n bstz~Ézz H ZF to IV. Ténor. Trained. *J -9-Open up to J~ above that stop-closed. V. Ténor. Trained. -9- Always closed. State of Ligamentous Glottis. Remarks. Graduai closure ; at From elliptical open an- teriorly. distinctly falsetto in quality, and known to be so by singer. Graduai closure. cri No, VI. Voice. Compass. State of Cartilaginous Glottis. Ténor. Trained. Open to r.—*- closed above this. VIL Ténor. Trained. m Open to closed at lEZ:___j stop-closed atrç£z;_ State of Ligamentous Glottis. Remarks. Graduai, but com- plète closure. S 8 Isosceles triangle to : :±=: above this eliptical opening occupying entire ligamentous glottis. No. Voice. Compass. State of Cartilaginous Glottis. State of Ligamentous Glottis. Remarks. VIII. Ténor. Trained. 9=&fe Always closed, but stop- closed from to Graduai and com- plète closure. This singer has a greater compass than any whom I have ex- amined. S 2 g Si tu IX. X. XI. Ténor. Trained. Open to F^'---•<-----H closed above this. Ténor. Trained. Open to t(Sï closed above this. Ténor. Trained. -—#-ttr>l— Open to rKZP | closed above. Graduai complète closure. Graduai complète closure. Graduai, but com- plète closure. No. XII. XIII Voice. Baritone. Trained. Baritone. Natural. Compass. m li^il State of Cartilaginous Glottis. Closed throughout scale ; at above this " covered stop-closed ; Open to closed at *=t= stop-closed CSS- at State of Ligamentous Glottis. At closed anteriorly |th of an inch, leaving elliptical opening. Graduai closure ; elliptical opening at -É- m--1=— Remarks. î " Covered " means that the capitula Santorini and the arytenoid cartilages in their upper part completely cover the view of the back part of the glottis. 2 8 % fa No. XIV. XV. Voice. Baritone. Natural. Baritone. Trained. Compass. -m- -H- }=t- State of Cartilaginous Glottis. Closed to stop-closed in upper three notes. Open to psé___d. closed to LKS^Zlf : ïSzzt: stop-closed above this ; -f«— covered at :|= State of Ligamentous Glottis. Graduai closure ; closed anteriorly in upper three notes about kh of an inch. Closed anteriorly in the whole of the upper octave. Remarks. No évidence of falsetto quality in upper three notes. Does not consider that the upper part of the voice is fal- setto. S; tu No. Voice. Compass. State of Cartilaginous Glottis. State of Ligamentous Glottis. Remarks. XVI. Baritone. Trained. mwh Open to pg£ j H -9-closed to |P^;~ | H above this stop-closed. In upper five notes elliptical opening in front. No closure of vocal cords ante-riorly. XVII. Baritone. -r»- -9-Open to r s in Relation to Voice- Production, 27 Consonants and Vowels, Formation and Pronunciation of, 165, 166 Contralto Voice, 72 Co-ordination, Necessity of, 119 Cords, Action of the Vocal, 67-70; and Appendix III., 255 the False, 223 the Structure of the Vocal, 66 the Vocal, 214, 221-223 Under View of the Vocal, 34 Upper View of the Vocal, 32 Web between the Vocal, 172 Corsets, Injurious Effects of, 96, 149 Costal Respiration, 216 Coup de Glotte, 120 Cramp, Vocalist's, 202 Culture, Improvement of a Poor Voice by, 190 D. Dangers of Forcing the Voice, 110 Decay of the Singing Voice, 52 of the Speaking Voice, 163 Déclamation among the Ancients, 50 Defects, Art overcomes, 191 Art veils, 190 of Speech, 166 et seq. Récurrence of, 197 Removal of, 196 Définition of the Term " Register," 53 Deformities interfering with Speech, 172 Détails of Training of the Speaking Voice, 192 Development of the Voice, 45 Diaphragm, Action of the, in Singing, 99 in Respiration, 103 Anatomy of the, 101, 102 Breathing by the, 215, 216 Diet, Rules as to, 145 Différence between Speech and Song, 47 Différences, Individual and Sexual, of Voice, 51, 67 et seq. Difficulties of Laryngoscopy, 36 Diseases affecting Voice and Speech, 172 E. Ear, Necessity for Careful Training of the, 129, 131 Economy in Breathing, 119 Education of the Resonators, 112 Effort, Inspiration with, 107 Elementary Knowledge, Necessity for, 24, 212 Eléments in the Formation of the Voice, 26, 212 Elixirs, Vocal, 153 Elocution, Importance of Good, 181 Qualifications requisite in a Teacher of, 186 Emotion, Effects of, on the Voice, 166 England, High Concert Pitch in, 127 Englishmen, Mumbling Utterance of, 184 Enlarged Tonsils, 173, 199 Enunciation, 113 Defects of, sometimes chargeable to Composers, 115 Epiglottis, Action of the, 63 Description and Functions of, 220 Ethnological Varieties of the Voice, 44 Exercise in gênerai, 150 - Growing Organs require, 137 Experiments, Fallacies of, 78 Lehfeldt's, 60, 239 Expiration, Act of, 215 Expression the Greatest Charm, 189 F. Fallacies of Analogy, 77 of Experiment, 78 of Observations, 78 of Sensation, 76 Falsetto, Action of the Soft Palate In, 63 Théories of the, 59 Voice, 70 et seq. Fanaticism, .^anitarian, 210 Fashion, Follies of, 96, 149 " Fatigue of the Voice," 202 Aids to Curing, 203 Fauces, the, 231 Pillars of the, 231 Fibres of the Laryngeal Muscles, 227 Fish, a Valuable Form of Diet, 146 Flannel, as Clothing, 148 Food,145 Nature of, 143 Fundamental Divisions of the Voice, 54 G. Glotte, Coup de, 120 Glottis, the, 66, 223 the Cartilaginous, 67 the Ligamentous, 67 the Stop-Closure of the, 69 Greeks, their Oratory and Voice Training, 178 Growing Organs require Exercise, 137 Growths in the Larynx, 173 Post-nasal, 174 Gullet, the, 220, 228 H. Hard Palate, 229 Harmonies, 43 Health, Influence of General Health on the Voice, 141, 205 the Gospel of, 211 INDEX OF SUBfECTS. 279 High Concert Pitch in England, 127 Hoarseness, Bad Elocution a Cause of, 182 Holding the Breath, 107 How the Reed is shortened, 65 How Vibration is checked, 62 Huskiness, Causes of, 173 Hygieia Victrix, 21 Hygiène, Basis of Vocal, 24 Définition of, 23 General, 22 Négative Side of, 23 Positive Side of, 23 Spécial, for Speakers, 205 Spécial, of the Vocal Organs, 24, 143 Hyoid Bone, 234 I. Importance of Determining " Natural Order" of Voice, 92 of Early Training, 131 et seq., 178 of Good Elocution, 181 of Learning to Breathe, 95 Inàdequacy of Modem Training, 91 Inspiration, Act of, 99, 215 Muscles of, 215 with Effort, 107 Instruction, Necessity for, 80 Interprétation of Laryngoscopic Image, T . 33 Irritating Atmosphères, 150 Italians, Theory of Old Masters regarding Registers, 236 the Secret of the Old Masters' Method, 123 K. Klangfarbe, 43 Knowledge of the Exact Limits of Vocal Powers necessary, 194 L. Larvngeal Muscles, 223 Action of the, 225 Fibres of the, 227 Wasting of the, 173 Laryngoscope, the, 28 Garcia on the, 87 how not to use the, 31 how to use the, 30 Uselessness of the, in Voice-training, 89 Value of the, 35 what it shows, 31-33 Laryngoscopic Image, Interprétation of the, 33 Laryngoscopy, Difficulties of, 36 Elimination of Error regarding, 37 Larynx, absurdly called the " Voice-box," 217 Anatomy of the, 217 et seq. as a Musical Instrument, 40 Larynx,Cartilages of the, 218-220 Growths in the, 173 Movements of the Entire, 74 Muscles of the, 223 et seq. Paralysis of the, 172 Photography of the, 38 Physiology of the, 31 Variations of the, in Age and Sex, 51 Voice produced solely in the, 27 Lips, the, 235 Lisping, 170 Lczenges, Voice, 156, 201 Lubricants, 155 Lungs, their Réspiratory Functions, 214 their Structure, 212 M. Machine, the Pneumatic, 98 Maestri not always infallible, 93 Management of the Air-blast, 119, 121 of the Breath, 95, 99 Mathematical View of the Two Forms of Inspiration, 105 Mechanism of the Falsetto Voice, 70 of the Registers, 55 of Speech, 163 Médication, Irrational, 157 Rational, 156 Medicine, the Two Grand Divisions of, 21 Membrane, Mucous, 218 Messa. di Voce, 108 Mimicry, Unconscious, 198 Minerai Baths, 204 Mouth, the, 233 Movements of the Entire Larynx, 74 of the Trachea, 76 Muscles, Fibres of the Laryngeal, 227 Necessity of Regular Exercise of the, 120 of Inspiration, 215 of the Larynx, 223 the Action of the Laryngeal, 225 Wasting of the Laryngeal, 173 Muscular Sensé, 120 Action to be avoided in Singing, 123 Musical Reeds, 40 N. Nares, Posterior, 229 " Natural.Order," Pitch no Test of, 93 Nature of Food, 145 of Speech, 47 of Voice, Importance in Determining True, 92 of Vibration, 39 Necessity for Elementary Knowledge of Structures, 212 of Co-ordination, 119 of Instruction, 80 Normal Respiration, 103 Nose, Anatomy of, 232 Closure of the Back of the, 172 28o INDEX OF SUBfECTS. Nose, speaking through the, 174 Notes, Complex Nature of, 43 O. Observations by the Author on Singers, 65 et seq.; and Appendix III., 255 on Vari. us Théories relating to the Mechanism of the Registers, 236 et seq. Orators, Training of Ancient, 178 Organs, Co-ordination of the Vocal, 119 Means of Strengthening the Vocal, 203 P. Palate, Action of Soft, in Falsetto, 63 Cleft, 172 the Hard, 229 the Soft, 229 Paralysis of the Larynx, 172 of the Soft Palate, 173 Pharynx, Description of the, 22g Phonation, Définition of, 25 Photography of the Larynx, 38 Physiology of the Vocal Organs, 26 Pitch, Governed by Rate of Vibration, 39, 228 High Concert, in England, 127 no Test of " Natural Order," 93 of Vowels, 115 Rise of Concert, 126 Pneumatic Machine, 98 Poets sometimes indiffèrent to Music, 114 Portamento, ni Posterior Nares, 229 Post-nasal Growths, 175 Practice, Necessity of Constant, 139, 187 Preachers, Peculiarities of, 192 Primeval Development of the Voice, 45 Process, the Vocal, 221 Production of Voice, Various Views as to, 60 Pronunciation, Necessity of Clear, 113 Puberty, Change of Voice at, 51 in Boys does not necessitate Vocal Rest, 134 Q- Qualification Requisite in a Teacher of Elocution, 186 Requisite in a Teacher of Singing, 82 R. Recîtativo and Déclamation, 49 Reeds, Musical, their Nature and Vari- eties, 40 Variously used by Celebrated Singers, 72 Vocal, 41 Registers, 54 Conflicting Views on the, 253 Danger of Overstraining the, no, 122 Définition of the Term, 53 Importance of Right Use of the, 109 Mechanism of the, 55 Observations on Various Théories on the, 236 Strohbass, ni Théories on the, 240 et seq. Union of the, 109 Various Classifications of the, 58, 237 Relation of Song to Speech, 47 Relaxed and Congested Throat, 174 Remédies for the Voice, 153 et seq., 207 Résonance Chambers, 228 Anatomy of the, 229 Management of the, 112 Respiration, Action of Diaphragm in, 103 Cenvex and Concave Abdominal, 103 the Old Italian Method of, 99 Respirator, a Good, 148 Réspiratory Exercises, 97 Rest, Importance of, when Vocal Organs are out of Order, 141, 151 Right Use of Voice, Chief Factor in Maintenance of Quality, 23 S. Sanitarian Fanaticism, 210 Santorini, Cartilage of, 219 Sédatives and Tonics, 154, 208 Sensation, Fallacies of, 76 Singers, Author's Observations on, 65 et seq.; and Appendix III., 255 Folly of Tight-lacing for, 96 Singing an Aid to Good Speaking, 188 Qualifications Requisite in a Teacher of, 82 Singing Voice, Compass of the, 50 Decay of the, 52 Development of the, 51 Training of the, 79 Sinuses, the, 44, 233 Smoking, Injurious Effects of Excess in, 147 Soft Palate, Action of the, 230 Paralysis of the, 173 Twofold Function of the, 230 Song and Speech, Différence between, 47 Soprano Voice, 71 Sound, caused by Vibration, 39 Intensity of, regulated by Air-blast, 228 Musical, proved to be Compound, 43 Pitch of, dépends on Rate of Vibra- tion, 228 Speakers, Spécial Hygiène for, 205 Things to be avoided by, 208 Speaking Voice, Compass of the, 48, 162 Decay of the, 163 Détails of Training of the, 192 Importance of Early Training of the, 178 Right Use of the, 205 INDEX OF SUBfECTS. 281 Speech, Defects of, 166 et seq. Deformities interfering with, 172 et seq. Différence between Song and, 47 Mechanism of, 163 Mutability of, 48 Nature of, 47 Organs of, 233 Relation of Song to, 47 Removal of Defects, 196 et seq. Unconscious Mimicry in, 198 Staccato, Abuse of, 141 Stammering and Stuttering, 167 Causes of, 168 Varions Treatment and Cure of, 196 Stimulants, Vocal, 155 Strain, Importance of Avoidance of, 140 Structure of the Vocal Cords, 66 Structures, Necessity for Elementary Knowledge of, 212 T. Teachers, Catholicity and Culture of, 84 Defects in some, 85 Inadequacy of Training due to want of Good, 91 Poor Rewards of, 83 Pseudo science of some, 86 Qualities Requisite in, 24, 82, 186 Sélection of. 79, 186 Tests of, 81, 186 Teeth, Loss of, 176 Necessity of Good, 200 Use of, in Articulation, 234 Ténor Voice, 72 Tension, Avoidance of Unnecessary, 122 Terms, Confusion of, in connection with Voice Génération, 27 Theory of Voice Production, 64 Throat, Clergyman's Sore, 174, 201 Congestion and Relaxation of the, 174 " Hardenmg" the, 152 " Throatiness," 173 Thyroid Cartilage, 218 Tied Tongue. 172 Tight-lacing, Folly and Injurious Effects of, 96, 149 Timbre of the Voice, 43, 160 Possibility of Modifying the, 113 Tobacco, Injurious Effects of Excess in, •47 Tongue, 233 Speech, without a, 176 Ulcération of the, 175 Tonics and Sédatives, 154, 208 Tonsils, Description of the, 232 Enlarged, 173, 199 Trachea, 213 Movements of the, 76 Training, Age at which Vocal should commence, 130 Disadvantages of Collective, 129 Hygiène in Voice, 24 Importance of Early, 132 Inadequacy of Modem, 91 Training, necessity of Prolonged, 123 of the Ear, 129 of the Singing Voice, 79 et seq. of the Speaking Voice, 177, 193 should be carried on during "the Change," 134, 135, 138 Trémolo, Abuse of, 141 U. Ulcération of the Tongue a Cause of Defective Articulation, 175 Uselessness of Anatomy in Training, 91 of the Laryngoscope in Training, 89 Uvula, the, 117, 199, 229 the Action of the, in Falsetto, 63 V. Value of the Laryngoscope, 35 Vapours, Bad Effects of lrritating, 150 Vegetarianism, Disadvantage of, 146 Ventricles of the Larynx, 222 Ventricular Bands, 32, 223 Vibration, how it is checked, 62 Nature of, 39 of the Vocal Cords, 60 Vocal Cords, the, 214, 221 et seq. Action of the, 67 Position of the, in Singing, Appendix IIL, 25s Structure of the, 66 Under View of the, 34 Upper View of the, 32 Web between the, 172 Vocal Elixirs, 153 Vocal Organs, Anatomy of the, 212 et seq. Co-ordination of the, 119 Means of Strengthening the, 203 Physiology of the, 26 Vocal Process, 221 Vocal Reeds, 41 " Vocalist's Cramp," 202 Voice, Aids to Curing " Fatigue of the," 203 Breaking of the, 51 " Breaks " in the, 52 Care of the Formed, 139 Causes of Huskiness of the, 173 Classification of the, 160 Compass of the Singing, 50 Compass of the Speaking, 48, 162 Culture an Improvement to a Poor, 190 Danger of Forcing the, no Decay of the Speaking, 163 Diseases affecting Speech and, 172 et seq. Disregard of Composers for Powers of the Human, 116 Effects of Emotion on the, 166 " Fatigue of the," 202 Fundamental Divisions of the, 54 Generated solely in the Larynx, 27 Hearing One's Own, 194 282 INDEX OF Voice, husbanding of the, 142 Importance of Determining the True Quality of the, 92 Influence of Outdoor Life on the, 182 Mechanism of the Falsetto, 70 Never to be used when out of Order, M', 151 Remédies for the, 153 et seq., voj Right Use of the, Chief Factor in Maintenance of Quality, 23 Sexual and Individual Différences of the, 51, 67 et seq. Theory of Production of, 64 Timbre of the, 43, 160 Training of the Singing, 79 et seq. Training of the Speaking, 177, 193 "Voice-Box," a Ridiculous Term for "the Larynx, 217 SUBfECTS. Voice-Production, Absurd Notions as to, 7*. Various Views on, 60, 239 et seq. Volume, Aim of Présent, 209 of Voice, 162 Vowels and Consonants, Formation and Pronunciation of, 165 the Pitch of, 115 W. Web between the Vocal Cords, 172 Windpipe, 213 Movements of the, 76 Women should be Trained by Women, 128 Wrisberg, Cartilages of, 219 INDEX OF NAMES. A. Albani, Mme., 72, 132, 255 Alboni, Mme., 132 Alfonso the Wise, 42 Arnold, Mr. Matthew, 8.; Ascham, Roger, 179 Avery, Mr., 29 B. Babarossa, Frederick, 80 Babington, Dr., 28 Bach, Mr. Albert, 132 Bacon, Roger, 145, 158 Barry, Bishop, 192 Basil, 198 Battaille, M., 238, 243, 253 Baumes, M., 29 Beaconsfield, Lord, 210 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 116 Behnke, Herr Emil, 237, 245, 253 Bennati, 28, 38, 104 Birch, Mr. Ernest, 255 Bond, Miss Jessie, 255 Bozzini, Dr., 28 Braddon, Miss, 184 Brainerd, Mr., 38 Rrand, Mr. Deane, 255 Brandram, Miss, 255 Hrighc, Mr. John, 163 Brouc, M. M., 206 Browne, Mr. Lenuox, 38, 104, 238 C. Caffarelli, 123 Carlyle, Thomas, 22 Carolsfeld, Schnorr von, 117 Carozzi, Signor N., 98 Catalani, 133 Catullus, 171 Cicero, M. Tullius, 50, 154, 178 Coffin, Mr. Hayden, 255 Collier, Mr. Mayo, 100 Costa, Sir Michael, 127 Curwen, Mr. J., 237 Czermak, Professor J., 29, 37,165 D. Danton, 139 D'Anvers, N., 116 Darwin, C, 45 Demosthenes, 177, 178, 191 De Quincey, 191 Duprez, 109, ni E. Elliot, Miss Carlotta, 255 Elsberg, Dr., 62 F. Fabricius ab Aquapendente, 239 Faure, M., 92 Fisher, Dr. Henry, 149 Foli, Signor, 255 French, Dr., 38 Fuller, 85 G. Galliard, 236 Garcia, Signor Gustav, 100 Garcia, Professor M., 29, 53, 63, 73, 80, 86 et seq., 99, m, 121, 132, 136, 237, 240 et seq. Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W. E., 145, 163 Glenn, Miss Hope, 133 Goethe, Wolfgang von, 114, 126 Goldschmidt, Mme. Lind, 118, 132, 133 Goldsmith, Oliver, 76 Gouguenheim, M., 61,63,238, 251,253, 254 Gracchus, C, 50 Grain, Mr. Corney, 73, 255 Gray, Louisa, 131 Griswold, Miss, 255 284 INDEX OF NAMES. Çrutzner, Dr., 37, 247 Jdttmann, Oskar, 98,104, 137 H. Handel, G. F., 116 Haweis, Rev. R. H., 116, 192 Helmholtz, H., 42, 43 Hollins, Mr., 255 Holmes, Dr. Gordon, 63, 66 Holmes, Mr. Tom, 52 Hook, Théodore, 25 Hooper, Dr. F. H., 22<5 Hueffer, Dr., 114 Hullah, J., 46, 162, 180, 201 Hunt, Mr., 169 Hunter, John, 208 Martels, Dr., 238, 249, 250. 252 Matten, Frâulein, 117 Medicis, Catherine de, 96 Meyer, Dr., 175, 253 Meyerbeer, 117 Michael, 226 Mills, Dr. Wesley, 37, 63, 238, 247, 249, 254 Milton, John, 184 Moffat, Dr. Carter, 158, 159 Montaigne, 91, 194 Mùller, ]., 60, 65, 78, 236, 240, 243 Miiller, Max. 48 Mygind, Dr. Holger, 168 N. Newman, Cardinal, 198 Niemann, 117 Nilsson, Mme. Christine, 72, 133, 255 Illingworth, Dr., 246, 252 O. Orfila, 169 Qzelio, Miss, 255 Jelenffy, Dr., 225, 226, 243 Joachim, Herr, 127 Jourdain, Monsieur, 164 Koch, 238 P. Parker, Rev. Dr., 192 Patey, Mme., 72, 133, 253 Patti, Mme. Adelina, 132, 147 Payn, Mr. James, 183 Piemazek, 165 Plutarch, 178 Porpora, 123 Power, Mr. George, 25s Lablache, 52, 95,126,135 Lamperti, 99 Lane, Mr. Bernard, 255 Lehfeldt, C, 60, 239, 240 Lely, Mr., 73 Lermoyez, M., 62, 63, 238, 251, 253, 254 Leslie, Miss Fanny, 255 Lind, Mme. Jenny, 118, 132, 133 Liston, 29 Lloyd, Mr. Edward, 130 Lully, 158 Lunn, Mr. Charles, 132, 136, 246, 23 M. Maas, Mr., 109, 130, 255 Macaulay, Lord, 82 Maclagan, Bishop, 182 Maclaren, A., 99 Magendie, F., 65 Malibran, Mme., 100 Mancini, 57, 126, 236 Mandl, L., 55, 61, 103, 104, 105, 135, 202, 238, 244, 253, 254 Manning, Cardinal, 192 Mannstein, 99 Mario, Signor, 92, 147 Quincey, De, 191 Quintilian, M. Fabius, 50,85, 178,187,190 R. Rabelais, 183 Rasselas, 82 Reeves, Mr. Sims, 52, 92, 130 Reszke, M. Jean de, 92 Richardson, Dr., 20g Robertson, Mr., 255 Rossini, 116, 126 Rousseau, J. J., 56, 183, 210 Rubini, Signor, 52, 95, 124, 217 St. John, Miss Florence, 73, 255 Sand, George, 123, 189 Santorini, 31, 62, 219 Scott, Sir Walter, 154 Séguier, Dr., 169 Seiler, Mme., 62, 89, 120, 126, 128, 132, 237, 238, 242, 243, 244, 245 INDEX OF NAMES. Senn, 28 Shakespeare, William, 24, 49, 80, 163 Shattock, Mr., 224 Spencer, Mr. Herbert, 47 Spurgeon, Mr., 192 Swift, Dean, 82 Tamberlik, 109 Thackeray, W. M., 209 Thompson, Sir Henry, 146 Tosi, 83, 126, 236 Tyndall, Professor, 43 Tytler, Sarah, 116 Vacher, 238, 244, 253 Valleria, Mme., 72, 253 Verdi, 117 Viardot, Mme., 100 Virgil, 83, 166 Vogl, 117 W. Wade, Mr. Charles, 233 Wagner, Richard, 114, 117 Walshe, Dr., 217 Warburton, 171 Warden, 29 Weber, Gottfried, 104 Weber, Mr. F., 162 " Werner's Voice Magazine," Wieck, F., 128 Williams, Miss Anna, 253 Wilson, 62 Wingfield, Mr. Lewis, 96 Wolfenden, Dr. Norris, 221 Wrisberg, 31, 62, 219 Zabaleta, Juan de, 48 AMERICAN SINGERS AND SINGING-TEACHERS The persons named in the following pages the publisher believes are artistic singers and compétent singing-teachers, and worthy of confidence and recommendation. He therefore trusts that they will receive the patronage of those wishing artists or teachers. û '.V •*. ■/ Von Kl entier SCHOOL OF VOCAL MUSIC VIARD0T-GARC1A METHOD Sole Authorized Représentative in America TBACHBR OV Languages, Solfeggio and Diction 40 Stuyvesant St.—i oth St. and 2d Ave., New York 289 Mme. Lena Doria Devine Three years a pupil of Francesco Lamperti (with Certificate) VOCAL INSTRUCTION From Voice Placing to Finish STUDIO: 136 FIFTH AVENUE NEW YORK Oscar Saenger Vocal Instruction l^eacherof^________y MME. JOSEPHINE S. JACOBY. Contralto MRS. ELIZABETH D. LEONARD, Contralto MME. DE PASQUALI, Soprano MISS SARA ANDERSON, Soprano, and JOSEPH S. BAERNSTEIN E. LEON RAINS, Bassos And other prominent singers now before the public "^. STUDIO 51 East 64th Street, New York 290 Ilcmc. Cuisa Cappiani Vocal Instruction from beginning to the highest style of singing 123W.39tl)$t. tliw Pork /Iftiss Stella %. WLalbo Ueacber IDoice^CuIture anD Singing * Cappiani pupil wttb (Ierttficate StuMo 63 ififtb avenue IRew york 291 PERRY AVERILL BARITONE Opéra, Oratorio, Concert and Vocal Instruction : : : : 220 Central Park, South NEW YORK FANNIE HIRSCH Limited Number of Pupils Acceptée. 292 Dramatic Soprano Oratorio, Concerts and Music Festivals ADDRESS 21 East 89th St., New York. fll>a&ame Clara Brinkerboff Iprtma H>onna (Soprano) is to-day one of the most noted teachers in the world. Why? Because hers is the Porpora method, founded in science, reared by art, and reflects nature at its best. Her singing-voice, although not young, is resplendent with beauty. In 1858 it ceased to be for eight months, the vocal cords having been slightly strained by singing at a concert with a piano tuned above concert-pitch. After this long silence there was no automatic action for singing. By Dr. Voss's ad vice, Mme. Brinkerhoff studied Dr. Segond's science of tone-production, and be- came her own pupil. The voice came again at the call of science, beautiful as ever. Before 1858 her teachers were her father and mother, who taught her the Old Italian tonedelivery. She mastered the Eléments of Language, as later appeared in the Brinkerhoff Method. Among her other teachers were : Henry Derwort, German singing-master; Mr. Chadwick, English ballads; Mrs. E. Loder, Oratorio; Mr. George Loder, Classical Répertoire; Mme. Arnoult, French and Italian Opéra Repertory. Later on (1861) she studied with Panofka of Paris; and Giulio Alary, at that time in London; Lespinasse classed her for Grand Opéra, in Paris Conservatoire. Mme. Brinkerhoff's insight into vocal work is marvelous. Her cultivation comprises ail the best artist-endeavors in Oratorio and Opéra for the lnst fifty years, as well as ail grand orchestra and musical virtuosos. This rare expérience gives her a discriminating ear, and enables her to pronounce instant judgment on those desiring to be classed as to ability as well as to voice. Her opinion is a criterion and authority in the musical world. Brinfeerboff Stuoto, 47 WLeet 42nD St., 1Kew J^orfe. 293 COMPOSITIONS BY The Renowned Teacher of Singing QÛ™, /R»uno*(TeUt. O MERRY HOURS........................................Published by Ditson & Co. JOIN THE DANCE..............................Published by Wm. A. Pond & Co. LA BELLA FIORAJA (The Pretty Flower Girl), Published by Wm. A. Pond & Co. AVE MARIA.......................................Published by J. Schuberth & Co. SOLO UN BACIO (Only One Kiss),..............Published by J. Schuberth & Co. M Y NATIVE HOME...............................Published by J. Schuberth & Co. HARVBST STORM...........................................Published by F. Blum. LE ROSSIGNOL (The Nightingale); IL SOGNO (The Dream); GRAND MARC H, Instrumental; LA CLOCHETTE, Instrumental ; L'INCANTATRICE (The Enchantress); A FATHER'S TEARS ; O GONDOLA GENTIL (Glide on, Fair Barque); MID STARRY DEEPS OF SPLENDOR; YOU SAY l'M A FLOW'RET; ETELKA, Waltz Song; DORMI CARO (Sleep, My Angel); L'ECO (The Echo); THE SOLDIER'S BRIDE, Descriptive Song: L'ALERTE, Scène Militaire ; HE WILL RETURN (Il Reviendra); L'HIRONDELLE MES- SAGERE (The Messenger Bird); TRUE HEART OF MINE; MIGNONETTE ; THE BELLS OF LOVE; BELL AUGELLIN GENTIL (Sweet Little Nightin- gale), Sung by Marie Engle, Prima Donna of Grau's Opéra Co. Publisher, E. RAVIN D'ELPEUX 18 Irving Place NEW YORK Emma Mowson .....Œeacber of Sirtôtng ♦♦♦♦ *!STHLEuI!iY LAMPERTI ™DdHT ♦♦♦♦ 96 Fifth Ave., New York truesoais>8 ano tfriôags Elevator I5tb Street 294 Mesdemoiselles YE PSI fs| AUTHORS OF THE Phono-Rhythmic Method For French Pronunciation, Accent and Diction The Yersin Method is pub- lished byi Lippincott, and sold by ail .booksellers.".*.'. THE PARKER 12} West ^çth St., New York 295 Alice Breen Pupil of LABORDE Paris soripo /----------------- Recommended by Mme CALVÉ ADDRESS: STUDIO, 103 W. 58th ST. NEW YORK CITY lier Walter % Bausmanti Ccachcr cf Singing ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ . ♦ ♦ Conductor♦ ♦♦ STUDIOS: No. 26 East 23d Street (1;S?) 296 Studio 815 Carnegie Hall, New York The Collège of Music Newark, N. J. Louis Arthur Qussell Voice-Culture and Singing Pianoforte and Theory . . Condttctor Schobert Vocal Society and the Symphony Orchestra of Newark, N. J. Director the Collège of Music Music Hall, Newark Carnegie Hall, New York Lectures on Vocal Topics Illustrated Lectures on Husical .-IZsthetics Historical and Technical Subjects Author of The Embellishments of Music (Presser, Phila.) How to Read Modem Music (Schirmer, N. Y.) Problems in Time and Tune (Essex Co. Pub.Co.,Newark,N. J.) The Development of Pianoforte Touch (In Préparation; 297 Mme. Alice Killin=Keough Vocal Instruction STUDIO ç8 Flfth Avenue, Room il NBW YORK CITY The singing-voice developed and trained according to most progressive methods, based upon sound principles. Pupils advanced as rapidly as careful training and their diligence and ability will permit, and désirable opportunities for public appearance guaranteed. O 2 LU W5 Xfi ^ JE O M >fi A Q s S

and singing 121 West 42d Street, New York B00K5 ON THE VOICE " SCIENCE AND ART OF BREATHING," by MR. TUBBS " SEED THOUGHTS FOR SINGERS," Sent post-paid on receipt of price. In Press: " VOICE-CULTURE AND SINGING." Write or apply for Mr. Tubbs's circulars. 121 West 42nd Street, New York City. $1.25 1.00 303 Scbool of Bccompan^ing J36 Fifth Avenue New York HPHIS School, the first of its kind in this country, A has filled a long-felt want in musical circles, and its success has far surpassed the expédi- tions of its founder. Good accompanists are rare, while the demand for them greatly ex- ceeds the supply. THE ART OF ACCOMPANYINC IS THOROUGHLY TAUGHT IN A COURSE OF 20 LESSONS Soloists and Vocal Teachers are supplied with pro- fessional accompanists. Accompanists registered. For terms address MISS ISABEL McCALL Director Référence is made, by permission, to : Mme. LENA DORIA DEVINE, 136 Fifth Avenue MissNORA MAYNARD GREEN, 420 Fifth Ave Miss LILLIAN BLAUVELT Mr. THEODOR BJORKSTEN, Carnegie Hall Mr. OSCAR SAENGER, 51 East 64th Street 304 Victor Harris, Vocal Training and the Art of Singing Studio: THE ALPINE, 55 West 33d Street, New York. " Give me the making of a nation"s ballads and I care not who makes their laws " —Corvpcr. MME HENRIETTA BEEBE -^ Résident Studio: 226 West 44th Street. In addition to ....CORRECT VOCAL CULTURE.... spécial attention given to Coaching Students in Répertoire, Ancient and Modem Songs, Ballads, Choir Sing- ing, Concert and Oratorio. Permanent Address Care of CHICKERING & SONS, 130 Fifth Ave., New York City. 305 MRS. GERRIT SMITH . . . \ 63 EAST 52d STREET, . . . Soprano Oratorio Concert and Récitals .... ♦♦♦♦ NEW YORK Miss Nora Maynard Green VOCAL TEACHER Studio, 420 Fifth Ave., New York. ARTISTS for Opéra, Oratorio, Church, Concert, Musicales, Dinners, Teas or Entertainments of any kind May be Secured at Her Studio. Superior Sopranos, Contraltos and Ténors. Choice Répertoires including the latest French, Italian and English sélections. 306 FOR BY Cido Beautiful myra anaj|rti$tic 0RPublic P0LLARD flMCrlallIIIICIllS Preseotatioo. PANTOMIME OF **n Jésus, Couer w ffîP $oul. *> Sevenreen Poses Photograpned and Grouped in an original and artistic Design. Words and Music Given. Printed in colored ink on heavy enameled paper 17x25 inches, suitable for fram- ing. An ornament for any Home, Studio, Sunday School Room, Hall, etc. Price, 50 cts., sent carefuUy wrapped in a pasteboard tube A SPECIMEN ILLUSTRATION. tbnnyson's Lotos-Baters Fifteen illustrations of three young ladies; original cover and border designs and landscapes. Printed in three colors. PRICE, 50 CENTS. Either of the above sent postpaid on receipt of price. Edsrar S. Werner, Publisher, New York 307 ronu. The Renowned Reu) york Corpaaie-Bjorksten Vocal ZmW (After a Paintingby Francesco Paolo Finocchiaro ) MRS. RATCLIFFE CAPERTON Représentative and Assistant of LAMPERTI " Mrs. Ratc/iffe Caperton is my ONLY représentative and the best of Teachers." —G. B. Lamperti, Sedan Str. 20, Dresden. Address p^rSt Caperton 138 Fifth Avenue Ogontz 408 So. I8th Street New York City School Philadelphîa Mondays and Thursdays Wednesdays and Saturdays Tuesdays and Fridays ERNST GEORGE Bass-Baritone c0°pnecrFt (BASSO-CANTANTE) ORATORIO 586 Lexington Ave., New York Connected for 8 years with the leading operatic stages in Germany, and equipped with a îepertoire in the German, English, French and Italian langua^es. _________________________ DRAMATIC AND VOCAL INSTRUCTION [From DiC Sacngcrl)alk, officiai organ of the United German Singing Societies.] "This intellectual artist has schooled his organ so consummately that he is equally at h)me in cantilene and recitative épisodes, thereby proving his utility for opéra, both grand and 'comique,' as well as fer concert and oratorio. He is both versatile and conscientious." — Dr. August Reissmann. For Oratorios and Concerts address HENRY WOLFSOHN MUSICAL BUREAU i3i EAST 17TH STREET NEW YORK 309 GÉRARD- THIERS r^~y^ Voice-Production • •. and Song • • • STUDIOS : 649 Lexington Avenue NEW YORK Mme. Louise Gage Courtney TEACHER ^SINGING STUDIO 1211-1215 Carnegie Hall NEW YORK CHORUS-CLASS at Studio Tuesday Evenings at 8:15 Y. n. C. A, CHORUS at Danbury, Conn., on Wednesday Evenings CHORUS MIXED YOICES at Perth Amboy, N. J., on Friday Evenings ____Author of____ "HINTS ABOUT MY SINGING METHOD" 310 Mme. Florenza d'Arona The vocal instrument perfected tone by tone. Traditional Grand Opéra and Oratorio analytically interpreted and adapted. Famous Cadenzas. Only serious pupils accepted. 124 E. 44th St. NEW YORK 311 mmc Ogden Crâne VOCAL INSTRUCTOR Italian Method Spécial Attention Given to Tone-Production, also Opéra, Oratorio and Ballad Singing. Studio No. 3 EAST FOURTEENTH STREET NEW YORK CITY J. 0rmour m $£*■+ GalloWay^ ££ït • Basso festivals . . . Vocal Culture and the Art of Singing Pupils Prepared for Opéra, Concert or Church. Especial facilities for ob- taining positions for advanced pupils. Studio Address 31g tyeSt 57tll St^t Rooms 43 and 44 NEW YORK CITY 312 Sumner Salter Voice-Culture and Art of Singing ©ratorto Cantata anb Cburcb flIMtsic (Berman jfrencb anb îEngliôb Sonos Thorough Training for Church and Concert Ensemble Practice and Récitals in Church and Studio for the acquirement of confi- dence and ease before an audience..... Studio: 836 Carnegie Hall, NEW YORK CITY 313 George J. Mager Teacher of Voice-Production Coachinp; .... Ffofessional Accompanist ' Organist of the Central Presbyterian Church . . . . Conductor of the Handel Society .... STUDIO: 303 Carnegie Hall, New York Charles flTkeban, Il^SOPRANO SOLOIST, who has appeared before the Royal Family in London; H. R. H. the Duke of Sax^-Coburg and Gotha; H. R. H. the King of Portugal; H. R. H. Duke Gunther, of Schleswig- Holstein, and others of the nobility, will, while his voice is changing, give instruction on the piano to beginners. Studio: No. \3\ East 55th Street, New York. 314 CARL E. DUFFT ♦♦♦♦ Bcisso ♦♦♦♦ LTimited „ ADDRESS Number of Pupils Taken 113 W. 84th St., New York 315 THE WARREN SCHOOL OF ARTICULATION «ë__ EXPRESSION - RE ADING Principal : LILLIE EGINTON WARREN Author of "Defective Speech and Deafness" and " Speech Revealed in Facial Expressions" Defects of Speech in Children and Adults Cured. Children while under Instruction in Articulation Receive Careful Attention in their Regular School Studies. Instruction in Articulation to Children and Adults who have Arti- ficial Palates, or who have had Opérations upon the Palate or Nose. Adults who are Growing Deaf taught by a New Method to Read Speech in the Facial Expressions of persons about them. A ddress Miss Lillie Eginton Warren The Delaware, 243 West 21st Street, New York Specialist for : : : : Speech - Impediments ...PS. E. J. E. THORPE... Newton Centre (near Boston) Mass. MRS. THORPE is author of "Speech-Hesitation," a trtatise that ap- peared in Werner's Magazine, beginning January, 1899. She has had 30 years' expérience with ail sorts of Speech-Impediments, and by her success in treating them is justified in claiming to have made discoveries as to their Origin, Nature and Cure. Further information cheerfully furnished. 316 eo IRofler Organist and Musical Director of St. Paul's Chapel, Trinity Parish, New York City. Specialist for Teacher OF THE ART »£c?sd ICÛUIU OF SINGING: Prépares Pupils for Church, Oratorio, Concert ..... Professional Appointments must be made by HAIL, addressing him at 20 Vesey Street, N. Y. City. MR. KOFLER is the author of the Best Book upon Breathing and Tone-Production, namely, " The Art of Breathing as the Basis of Tone-Production/' of which lately the Fifth Revised Edition has been published. (This is not counting its first publication under the title of " The Old Italian School of Singing," in Werner's Magazine.) A German Translation by two singing-teachers in Berlin, Gtrmany,—Misses Clara Schlafïhorst and Hedwig Andtrsen,—has been published one y ear ago by the cele- brated firm of Breitkopf & Haertel, in Leipzig, Germany. This is a great honor conferred upon Mr. Korier's book, it being the first case of an American work upon this or kindred subjects havirgbeen translated and published in Germany. The German édition has been very favor- ably received by professional journals (médical and musical) of Berlin, Hamburg, and other cities. " Take Care of Your Voice," by LEO KOFLER, is the most useful Hygienic Treatise in existence. No voice-user should be without it. Price of "The Art of Breathing:," - $2.00 " "Take Care of Your Voice/' - .25 Published by EDGARLS. WERNER 317 The New york School of Expression PRINCIPALS GENEVIEVE STEBBINS F. TOWNSEND SOUTHWICK The Departments of Study Include Vocal and Physical Training, Oratory, Literature and Dra- matic Art, Pantomime,Artistic Reading and Recitation. Also iEsthetic, Hygienic and Méd- ical Gymnastics. Primary, Normal and Teachers' Courses, Four Diplomas This is the Only School of its kind in New York that combines a Thoroughly Practical Training for the Teacher with the Highest Artistic Finish for the Public Reader. The N. Y. Tribune says: "The indisputably highest exponent of this art is the N. Y. School of Expression." Tho Tparhprs' World savs- " Among educators its diploma ranks the highest of me leacners woria says>. any similar sch0ol " p h Thic- That the real value of an Artistic School is shown in the practical KememDer mis. success ot- ,ts pupils. Therefore, send for our Annual Bulletin, containing full information regarding ail Courses of Study, with Notes from Pupils and Records of their Public Work. It is Mailed Free on Application. NORMAN ASTLEY, Business Manager, Y. M. C. A. Building, 318 West 57th Street, New York. ANNA LANKOW.. VOCAL INSTRUCTION GARCIA-LANKOW METHOD ¥¥¥¥¥ Pupils before the public in Europe and America ♦♦♦♦ Author of " Kunst-Gesang-Schule " (German & English) ADDRESS: 825 PARK AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY 318 GRANT ODELL BARITONE : : : CONCERT, ORATORIO VOCAL INSTRUCTION ADDRESS 10 East i6th Street New York City ..WALTER ARNOLD HUDSON.. INSTRUCTOR IN Vocal Physiology and the Art of Singing . . VOiCCS developed and trained, from the rudiments of Tone-Production, to an Artistic Finish in Singing, on the principles of the Italian School. Pupils prepared for Church, Concert, Oratorio and Opéra. c.,a -i il»., . The proper development of the breathing- opevldliy . muscles and organs, and the correct control DiaObragltl (natural) BreatbÎMâ of the breath, the basis of the entire art of * ' ° v ' " Singing and Speaking. VouKl=Formatioii, tniinciation, etc. SCientifîC V0iCe=Craillil1g for Clergymen and Public Speakers. Studio Carnegie Hall, New York City 319 The. . . W.W.Thomas flusical feency . . . and • • . Choir Exchange New York Office: î Chicago Office: 301-2-3 Carnegie Hall îlj 614 Fine Arts Building Leading ArtiststorOratorio,Concert and Opéra Orchestras Bands and Instrumental Soloists Effie Stewart Edith J. Miller Dramatic Contralto Soprano Dr. Ion Jackson Julian Walker Ténor Basso Direction of W. W. THOMAS, Téléphone 959 38th st. 301-2-3 Carnegie Hall, New York R20 ; 899999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999