e >T\ %: "if $* t^: h *ysJ^T' 9% # '^ d. ^ - ^ Xr'tJf £*lr I 4 00 pay:-- I8SI A TREATISE FOOD AND DIET: OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIETETICAL REGIMEN SUITED FOR DISORDERED STATES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS; Account ot tilt Wztavitn OP SOME OP THE PRINCIPAL METROPOLITAN AND OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS PAUPERS, LUNATICS, CRIMINALS, CHILDREN, THE SICK, &c BY JONATHAN PEREIRA, M.D., F.R.S,, & I.S. LICENTIATE OP THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS IN LONDON, ETC., ETC. EDITED BY CHARLES A. LEE, M.D. NEW YORK: FOWLERS AND WELLS, PUBLISHERS, CLINTON HALL, 129 AND 131 NASSAU STREET. 1851. \6S| Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, By J. & H. G. LANGLEY, n the'Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. Stereotyped by RICHARD C. VALENTINE, 45 Gold-street, New York. PREFACE. The idea of the present treatise occurred to the author during the preparation of an- other work, when he repeatedly experienced the want of a detailed and individual account of alimentary substances. His original intention was to have treated the subject in the same full and systematic manner that he has elsewhere done the articles of the Materia Medica ; and he had, in fact, begun to collect materials for a work on this plan. But he soon found that the sub- ject was too extensive to be treated in such a way; within, at least, reasonable limits. He wa;-, therefore, compelled to abandon, though with considerable reluctance, his original design, and to substitute for* it the present work, in which he has excluded all Natural Historical details; preferring this course to that of giving a mere sketch or epitome of the subject. The present treatise on Diet differs from its predecessors in several particulars, some of which it may not be useless to point out. In the first place, it contains a tolerably full account of the chemical elements of food,— a subject which has always appeared to the author of considerable importance, and to which the recent researches and conclusions of Boussingault, Liebig, and Dumas have given additional interest. It is one, however, which preceding dietetical writers have al- together passed over, or only incidentally alluded to; and in no work, with which he is acquainted, has it been systematically treated. Another peculiarity of the present work is the increased space devoted to the considera- tion of alimentary principles, the number of which the author, for reasons he has else- where assigned, has considered it proper to augment. The plan of separately considering Alimentary Principles and Compound Aliments, adopted from Tiedemann,* he considers to be greatly superior to the ordinary method of treating these subjects, and which consists in the arrangement of foods according to the proximate or immediate principle predominating in their composition. Such a classifica- tion is open to the glaring and obvious objection, that most of the foods in ordinary use consist of several alimentary principles. Thus, butchers1 meat consists of fibrine, albumen, gelatine, and fat; bread, of starch, gluten, gum, and sugar; milk, of caseine, butter, and sugar. Now, to arrange meat among fibrinous, bread among starchy, and milk among caseous, foods, is to overlook the other important constituents of these substances, and to give a very imperfect view of their alimentary properties. The author did not venture, without considerable hesitation and doubt as to its pro- priety, to deviate from Dr. Prout's beautifully simple and generally admitted classification of alimentary principle?, into the aqueous, the saccharine, the albuminous, and the oleagin- ous. After mature consideration, however, he satisfied himself of the impossibility of reducing all nutritive principles to these four heads. Common salt, for example, which a recent writerf justly observes, " can by no means be considered only as a luxury, but as * UrUersuchungcn iiber das Nahrungs-Bedurfniss den Nahrungs-Trieb und die Nahrungs-Mitlel des Mcnschen. Darmstadt, 1836. + On Gravel, Calculus, and Gout, by H. Bence Jones, M.A., p. 46. London, 1842. iv PREFACE. a substance as essential to life as nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous food and water," can be referred to no one of these four classes. Moreover, lemon juice, which constitutes one of our most valuable antiscorbutic foods, does not owe its efficiency to water, sugar, albumen, or oil. Furthermore, to call gum, starch, and acetic acid, sac- charine substances,—gelatine an albuminous one,—or alcohol an oleaginous one, is to assign new meanings to common and familiar terms. Gelatine and albumen are not mutually convertible into each other by any known chemical process, nor can oil be transformed into alcohol, or vice versa, alcohol into oil. For these reasons, therefore, the author has ventured to adopt a new and enlarged arrangement of alimentary prin- ciples, which he now submits to the notice of his professional brethren. Considerable pains have been taken in the preparation of Tables representing the pro- portion of some of the chemical elements, and of the alimentary principles contained in different foods ; and the author believes they will be found as complete and accurate as the present state of our knowledge admits. Another peculiar feature of this treatise is the chapter on Dietaries, which has been rendered necessary by the discussions which have«been going on, for many months past, in the public journals and elsewhere, respecting the amount of food proper to be supplied to paupers, prisoners, and others. The subject has in this way forced itself on the atten- tion of all grades of society; and professional men and others must have long felt the want of a work giving an account of the dietaries in use in various Public Establishments in this country, as well a? in the Navy and Army. The author greatly regrets that the necessarily limited extent of the present treatise has precluded him from entering into a variety of interesting details connected with this subject 47 Finsbury Square, London, ) June 13, 1843. ( 5 AMERICAN PREFACE. In complying with the request of the Author of the following work, to make such additions as would better adapt it to the wants of the American reader, it was far from my design or expectation to extend my remarks so far, or to comment on such a variety of topics. The subject of "food and diet" is, however, so extensive, embracing such a multitude of facts, and not a little of theory, as to embarrass by its very copiousness,—so that the chief difficulty of one who enters upon this boundless field, is, to know where to begin, and when to stop. My object has been, chiefly, to notice those topics upon which additional information would, perhaps, be considered desirable by the American reader; and, while I left the text entire, to offer such brief comments as some reading and reflec- tion would naturally suggest. This plan was also in accordance with the wishes of the publishers. Such notes, therefore, as have been added, will be found either at the bottom of the page, or in the Appendix. With respect to the merits of this treatise, it is scarcely necessary for me to speak. It fully meets a desideratum which modern discoveries, the improvements in practical and experimental physiology, and especially the late achievements in analytic chemistry, have created; and which, since the appearance of Liebig's remarkable works, every one must have felt could not long remain unsupplied. On perusal of these pages, the reader will doubtless agree with me in opinion, that the task could not have fallen into abler hands, as it certainly could not have been accomplished, in all respects, in a more satisfactory manner. The author, Mr. Pereira, is well known throughout Europe and America, as one of the most learned, scientific, and practical men of the age,—a physician of great experience and accurate observation,—a highly successful writer, unsurpassed in the judicious selection and arrangement of facts, and in the felicity of his illustrations and reasonings. To the medical profession especially, he is universally and most favorably known, as the author of the best work on the Materia Medica which has hitherto appeared in our language. With such rare qualifications, he could hardly fail in producing a most valuable treatise ; and, as such, we commend it to the favorable consideration of the public, as no less adapted to inform the physician and rcan of science, than to interest and instruct the general reader. C. A. L. CONTENTS. Page Preface ----------------------- iii—iv American Preface -------------------- v Contents -----............------ vii—xiv PART I.—OF FOODS. Distinction between the Chemical Elements of Food, Alimentary Principles, and Compound Aliments ------------------ 1 CHAP. I.—OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Number of Simple Bodies known—suspicions as to their real elementary character.— Chemical Elements of organized beings—cannot be formed in the living body—• Prout's idea that some of the so-called elements are formed by vital agents.— Chemical Ejements of the food of man ............2—3 1. Carbon—its forms—quantity in foods—daily consumption of—amount of oxygen required to burn the carbon—carbonic acid and heat produced in the process.— Consumption of food augmented by cold—error of Liebig in ascribing the glut- tony of certain nations to the coldness of climate exclusively—case of the Hot- tentots and the Bushmen—gluttony ascribed by the author in part to cerebral organization—case of the German?, Spaniard?, and French—deficiency of food attended with diminished evolution of heat.—Diseases of the liver in- duced by external heat—how—mode of artificially enlarging the liver of the g00ge__pdtes de foies gras—less food required in tropical climates and hot sea- sons—why.....................4 H 2. Hydrogen. Relative quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in alimentary princi- ple.__Hydrates of carbon—respiration of graminivorous animals.—Aliments with excess of hydrogen—oxydation of hydrogen during respiration—heat developed by the combustion of hydrogen.—Aliments with excess of oxy- gen.......................11—13 3. Oxygen. Constitutes three fourths of the terraqueous globe—animal life insep- arably connected with the influence of oxygen on the organism—vital air the cause of death.—Relative quantity of oxygen in aliments.—Consumption of oxygen in respiration modified by the nature of the food—changes effected by the system on the vegetable alkaline salts, and probable consequences - - 13—15 viii CONTENTS. Page 4. Nitrogen. Quantity of in foods.—Plastic elements of nutrition and elements of respiration—arguments in favor of nitrogenized foods alone being elements of nutrition—^conclusiveness of some of them—Dr. Prout's notion of the gen- eration of nitrogen in the system, and of the conversion of fat and sugar into nitrogenized compounds—proteine and its compounds—composition of the food consumed by, and of the excretions of, a horse during twenty-four hours- resume of the opinions of Liebig on foods—difficulties.—Uses of non-nitrogen- ized foods—alcohol an element of respiration—is a fuel—its action on the brain and liver—Temperance and Tee-total Societies—formation of fat by non- nitrogenized foods—Oriental mode of producing obesity—Hogarth's Beer Alley and Gin Lane.—Boussingault's scale of nutritive equivalents.—Nitrogen a con- stituent of all vegetable poisons, according to Liebig ------- 15 29 5. Phosphorus. A constituent of the body and of food—insanity and idiotcy ascribed to abnormal variations in its quantity—caecal phosphatic calculi of horses—quantity of phosphorus in foods ----------- 29—31 6. Sulphur. Its existence in the body—organic origin of native sulphur—evolu- tion of sulphur by organic substances—cause of the awful miasma of the Western Coast of Africa—effect of lead on the gums—quantity of sulphur in foods......„..............-- 31—33 7. Iron. A constituent of the blood—Liebig's hypothesis of its agency in respira- tion, and of the action of sulphureted hydrogen and prussic acid on the system —iron a constituent of foods --------------- 33—35 8. Chlorine. A constituent of the blood and of several secretions—Pepsin—Liebig's fermentation hypothesis of digestion—objections to it --------- 35 9. Sodium. A constituent of the animal body, of the secretions, and of the food - 36 10. Calcium. A constituent of animals and of their food.—Does the lime of the skeleton of the chick pre-exist in the egg, or is it generated ?—Gypsum eaten by the Chinese—morbid appetite for calcareous substances ---,-- 36—37 11. Magnesium. A constituent of the body and of the food......-.37 12. Potassium. Potash necessary for the secretion of milk—found in vegetables - 37 13. Fluorine. Found in the bones and teeth............38 CHAP. II.—OF ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Dr. Prout's classes of alimentary principles—reasons for admitting others ... 38 ■ 1. The Aqueous Alimentary Principle. Quantity of water contained in the animal body and in foods.—Is water a nutriment?—Uses of water in the sys- tem—its influence on the conversion of uric acid into urea—diluent diet—dry diet.......................38—42 CONTENTS. IX i. Common Water. Rain Water—its impurities—carbonate of ammonia a con- stituent of it.—Snow Water—Spring Water—River Water—analyses of Thames and Colne Waters—injurious effects of water contaminated with decomposing organic matters—illustrative cases—Metropolitan churchyards and the pumps—British army at Ciudad Rodrigo affected with dysentery.— Entophyta and Entozoa.—Well Water—Artesian Wells—effects of Hard Water—Water impregnated with lead—its effects—remedy.—Lake Water— Marsh Water.—Tests of the impurities in common water—purification of water—Professor Clark's patent—error of the patentee......42—51 ii. Sea Water. Solid constituents of—effects of..........51 iii. Mineral Waters. Classes of—their properties..........52 iv. Distilled Water. Employment of, as a preventive of constitutional dis- ease ......................52—53 2. The Mucilaginous Alimentary Principle. Quantity of gum in food—prox- imate and ultimate analyses of gum—effects and uses of gum.—Gum Water— Mucilage—Gum Lozenges—Gum Pastes, Pate de Jwjubes, and Pate de Gui- mauve.....................53—54 3. The Saccharine Alimentary Principle. Quantity of sugar in foods—table of saccharine matters—composition of sugars—dietetical effects and uses of sugar—fondness of children for it instinctive.—Viscous or mucilaginous fer- mentation—formation of lactic acid in the stomach.—Diabetes—oxalate of lime and phosphatic diatheses.—Refined Sugar—Brown Sugar—Sugar Candy— Sugar Water and Syrup—Boiled Sugars, Barley Sugar, Acidulated Drops, Hardbake and Toffee, Pulled Sugar or Penides—Molasses and Treacle—Burnt Sugar, Caramel, Browning—Hard Confectionery, Lozenges, &c.—Liquorice, Sugar—Preserves ------------------ 55—59 4. The Amylaceous Alimentary Principle. Quantity of starch in plants—shape of the grains (figures)—necessity of cooking—alimentary qualities—Sago— Tapioca and Cassava—Arrow-root—Tous les Mois—Potato Starch—Tahiti Arrow-root—East Indian Arrow-root—Portland Arrow-root—Rice Starch—Lich- enin or Feculoid—Salep ---------------- 59—66 5. The Ligneous Alimentary Principle. Quantity in plants—its composition— doubts as to its nutritive quality—wood-bread—bark-bread—indigestible parts of vegetables—Fungin ---------------- 66—68 6. The Pectinaceous Alimentary Principle. Vegetable Jelly—Pectine—Pectic Acid—composition—dietetical properties—Fruit Jellies — Jams— Carragee- nin...................-... 69—71 7. The Acidulous Alimentary Principle. Reasons for admitting it—Acetic Acid, Pyroligneous acid—Vinegar—usefulness—ill consequences.—Citric Acid —Artificial Lemon Juice—Lemon and Kali.—Tartaric Acid—Concrete Acid- ulated Alkali—Soda, Ginger-beer, and Seidlitz Powders—Imperial—Acidu- ulated Lozenges—Malic Acid—Oxalic Acid—Lactic Acid—Tannic Acid - 71—76 8. The Alcoholic Alimentary Principle. Quantity of alcohol in wines, spirits, malt liquors, &c.—Brandy—Rum—Gin—Whiskey—Arrack—Liqueurs and Compounds -------------------- 76—80 CONTENTS. Page. 9. The Oily Alimentary Principle. Fixed Oil—quantity in different foods— composition—digestibility—nutritive qualities.—Olive or Sweet Oil—Butler— i Marrow—Animal Fats—Essential or Volatile Oils -------- 80—^ \ i 10. The Proteinaceous Alimentary Principle. Proteine—composition—Animal Proteinaceous Principles, Fibrine—Albumen—Caseine—quantities of each in foods—Milk—Cheese.—Vegetable Proteinaceous Principles, Vegetable Fibrine, Albumen, Caseine, and Gluten..............89—99 11. The Gelatinous Alimentary Principle. Quantity in foods—Collin—Chon- drin—Gelatine from Elastic tissues—Gelatine altered by heat—composition— digestibility—nutritive qualities.—Isinglass—Cod Sounds—Dry and Hard Gel- atine, Grenetine—Hartshorn—Calves' feet, heads, &c.......- 99—107 12. The Saline Alimentary Principle. Common Salt—Earthy Phosphates— Potash Salts—Ferruginous Compounds ..........107__110 CHAP. III.—COMPOUND ALIMENTS. I. SOLID ALIMENTS, OR ALIMENTS PROPER. Man an omnivorous animal—denied by some.........HO__ni SECTION I. ANIMAL FOODS. Chemical and organic nature of animal foods—composition of animal flesh - - - HI Class I. Mammals. Bones, their composition—Bone Soup— Cartilages, Tendons Aponeuroses, and Ligaments—Cellular Tissue—Muscles or Flesh—Viscera brain, tongue, heart, thymus or sweetbread, liver, kidneys, alimentary canal,' (™T\~. ™rMlh coroP°sitio"> ^gar of milk—Cream, skimmed milk- Milk diet—Whey—Molkencuren or Cures de Petit Lait—Buttermilk—Devon- shire cream—different kinds of Milk...........m__J25 Class II. Birds. Flesh, its varieties— Viscera—brains, gizzard, intestine, liver— Fat-ESSs-..................\ 126-130 Class III. Reptiles. Turtle-Callapash and Callipee —Green Fat—Turtle P.....................130—131 CLASlfIVfi;h^HE^^IC>hy°Pha&i~W/l^-jB^' m0de 0f ™okinK-Integuments of fishes-Flesh, its composition, digestibility, varieties, effects, prepara- Uon-Viscera, fever, swimming bladder or sound, roe or ovary, iflfTtSL .....................131—138 Class V. Crustaceans. Lobster, Sea Crawfish, Crabs, Prawns; Shrimps - 138-139 CONTENTS. Page Class VI. Mollusks. Shell fish—bivalves and univalves—The Oyster—Mussel— Cockles—Scallops—Periwinkles—Limpets—Whelks—Snails - - - - 139—142 Diseased and Decayed Animal Substances.......----- 142—143 SECTION II. VEGETABLE FOODS. Mode of arrangement..................143—144 Class I. Aliments from Flowering Plants. Order I. Seeds. 1. Mealy or Farinaceous Seeds—their division ----......144 «• Cereal Grains or Corn—composition and digestibility ------- 144—145 i. Wheat—its composition.—Semolina—Soujee—Mannacroup—Macaroni—Ver- micelli—Cagiiari Paste—Hard's and Densham's Farinaceous Foods.—Fer- mented or leavened bread—compressed bread—gluten bread.—Unfermented or unleavened bread—biscuits—gingerbread—Dodson's patent bread.—Dis- eases of Wheat—Cakes, pastry, puddings, panado -.....145—154 ii. Oats. Groats.—Oatmeal.—Composition.—Oat-bread—Gruel—Porridge—Flum- mery or Sowans ---------........154—156 iii. Barley. Scotch and Pearl Barley.—Composition—Barley-bread—Barley Water, simple and compound.—Mall—Sweetwort ----.....156—157 iv. Rye. Composition.—Rye or black bread—Rye pottage.—Ergotism - 157—158 v. Rice. Composition.—Rice starch—Rice gluten—Mucilage of Rice—Rice milk, puddings, and cakes ------- --------- 158—160 vi. Maize or Indian Corn. Composition.—Polenta -------- 160—161 0- Leguminous Seeds—Peas, Beans, Lentils—their composition—alimentary qual- ities ..................- - - - 161—163 y. Seeds of Cupulifercc. Chestnuts ------ -------- 163 2. Oily Seeds. Walnuts—Hazel-nuts—Cashew-nuts—Pistachio-nuts—Stone Pine nuis—Cocoa-nuts—Almonds, composition of bitter and sweet ones—bitter al- monds—amygdaline—prussic acid—macaroons or ratifia cakes—volatile oil of almonds—its poisonous properties...........- 163—165 ui CONTENTS. Page Order n. Fleshy Fruits. 1. Drupaceous or Stone Fruits. The Peach—Nectarine—Apricot—Plum, Prune— Cherry— Olive—olives farcies l'huile, pickled olives, and olives a la picholine-Date...................165-167 2. Pomaceous Fruits or Apples. Apples—Pears—Quinces.....167—168 3. Baccate or Berried Fruits. Currants—Gooseberries—Cranberries—Elder- berries—Grapes, Raisins, Cure de Raisins....... - - 168—171 4. The Orange or Aurantiaceous Fruits. Oranges—Lemons—Citrons—Shad- docks .....................171—173 5. The Cucurbitaceous Fruits. Cucumbers—Melons—Water Melons—Vege- table Marrow—Pumpkin --------------- 173—175 6. The Leguminous Fruits. Tamarinds—French Beans—Scarlet Beans - 174—175 7. Syconus. Figs....................175 8. Sorosis. Mulberries—The Pine Apple........... 175—176 9. Etjerio. Strawberries—Raspberries—Blackberries --------- 176 Order III. Roots, Subterraneous Stems, and Tubers. Relative digestibility of the different kinds. The Turnip—Carrot—Parsnip—Jeru- salem Artichoke—Potato --------------- 177—182 Order IV. Buds and Young Shoots. Onions—Leeks—Garlic—Shallots—Asparagus ----------- 183 Order V. Leaves and Leaf Stalks. Chlorophylle—The Cabbage—Savoy—Greens—Cauliflower—Broccoli.—Sauerkraut. —Turnip tops—Spinage—Mustard and Cress—Lettuce—Endive—Rhubarb for tarts .....................183—185 Order VI. Receptacles and Bracts. The Garden Artichoke, (Cynara Scolymus)............. 185 Order VII. Stems. Cycadaceae and Palms..............._... 185 CONTENTS. xiii Page Class II. Aliments from Flowerless Plants. Order I. Ferns. Tuberous Rhizomes -.--...........----- 186 Order II. Lichens. Lichenin or Feculoid.—Tripe de Roche—Iceland Moss........186—187 Order III. Algae or Sea Weeds. Laver—Carrageen or Irish Moss—Ceylon or Jaffna Moss ------- 187—18S Order IV. Fungi or Mushrooms. Common or Field Mushroom—Common Morel—Common Truffle - - - - 188—189 II LIQUID ALIMENTS, OR DRINKS. Order I. Mucilaginous, Farinaceous, or Saccharine Drinks. Slops or Tisans. Toast Water, &c.........------- 189 Order II. Aromatic and Astringent Drinks. Tea, botany, composition, effects, and uses—Coffee, varieties, adulteration, compo- sition, effects and uses—Chicory or Succory—Chocolate—Cocoa - - - 189__195 Order III. Acidulous Drinks. Lemonade—Raspberry-vinegar Water—Imperial—Apple Tea—Soda Water—Ginger Beer.—Other effervescing aqueous drinks..........195__196 Order IV. Drinks containing Gelatine and Osmazome. Broths and Soups.—Composition of broth and boiled meat.—Beef Tea—Mutton Broth — Chicken Broth—Veal Broth..............196__197 Order V. Emulsive or Milky Drinks. Animal Milk—Almond Milk—Orgeat—Cocoa-nut Milk.......197__198 Order VI. Alcoholic and other Intoxicating Drinks. Malt Liquor or Beer—density, composition, effects.—Ale—Indian Pale Ale—Table Ale—Porter, adulterations.— Wine, varieties, constituents, effects, and uses— Sherry—Port Wine—Madeira—Champagne—German Wines—Claret Wines— Burgundy.—Other intoxicating drinks........... 198__209 I | xiv CONTENTS. Page HI. CONDLMEFTS, OR SEASONING AGENTS. Order 1.—Saline Condiments.—2. Acidulous Condiments.—3. Oily Condiments.— 4. Saccharine Condiments.—5. Aromatic and Pungent Condiments - - 209—210 PART II.—OF DIET. CHAP. I.—OF THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD. Primary and secondary assimilation—artificial digestion—pepsine or chymosine—fer- mentation hypothesis of digestion ----........211—212 1. Digestibility of foods affected by circumstances relating to the foods themselves—vege- table or animal food—cohesion—tenderness of fibre—incipient decomposition —age—minuteness of division by cooking and mastication—insalivation— cookery.....................212—213 2. Digestibility of foods affected by circumstances relating to the individual or organis7n— state of body or mind—idiosyncrasy—habits—intervals between meals—keen- ness of appetite—exercise—amount of food eaten—passions of the mind— morbid states of system.—Difference of opinion as to repose after meals— author's opinion.—Beaumont's table of the Digestibility of Foods - - - 213__217 CHAP. II—OF THE NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FOODS. Amount of water in foods—indigestible constituents—relative value of nutritious substances—non-nitrogenized and nitrogenized aliments.—Table showing the amount of dry matter, moisture, carbon, and nitrogen in foods__Conclusions of the Gelatine Commission --------- --.__! 217__220 CHAP. Ill—TIMES OF EATING. Time required for the digestion of the food—interval between the meals—experi- ments made at the Zoological Gardens on the carnivorous mammalia—fixed periods for eating—number of meals per day—Brealfast—Luncheon—Dinner — lea—Supper..................2^0__^2° CONTENTS. xv Page CHAP IV—DIETARIES. Importance of the subject—ill effects of prison dietaries—quantity of food required subject to variation—Captain Parry's opinion—fatigue, hard labor, and term of imprisonment, are modifying circumstances.—Mental influence in scurvy— —variety of food necessary—uses of nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized foods -....................222—226 1. Dietaries for Children. Children require food more frequently than adults— why—fondness for sugar—errors in the dieting of children—consequences on them of defective nutriment.—Dietaries of the Foundling Hospital, the Royal Military Asylum, the Naval Asylum, the Infant Orphan Asylum, Mr. Aubin's Establishment at Norwood, the Hospice des Enfans Trouves and Hospices des Incurables in Paris, and the Merchants'Seamen's Orphan Asylum - - - 226—232 2. Dietary for the Naval Service. Scale of Diet used in the Navy—error in the scale of equivalents adopted—Water used in the navy. Scale of Victualling of Troovs from England to India, and Dietary for Emigrants - - - - 232-—236 3. Army Rations --------------------- 236 4. Dietaries for Paupers. The six dietaries of the Poor Law Commissioners—com- parative view of them.—Soup, Gruel, and Suet Puddings, used in poor- houses.—Loss in cooking and serving meat.........236—242 5. Dietaries for Prisoners. Conclusions of the Inspectors of prisons—Dissent of Mr. Hill—Instructions issued by the Secretary of State—Dietaries ordered to be used in prisons in England and Wales—comparative view of them— objections raised to them—reply.............242—246 6. Dietaries for the Sick. General observations —natural instincts too often thwarted. 1. Full, Common, or Meat Diet. 2. Animal Diet—diabetes—effects of animal diet on it. 3. Vegetable Diet. 4. Spare or Abstemious Diet. 5. Fe- ver Diet. 6. Low Diet. 7. Milk Diet. 8. Dry Diet—Dietaries of the Metro- politan Hospitals.—London Hospital—St. Bartholomew's Hospital—Guy's Hos- pital—St. Thomas's Hospital—St. George's Hospital—Westminster Hospital- Middlesex Hosmlal—King's College Hospital—North London Hospital—Dread- nought Hospital Ship.—Dr. Carpenter's observations on the dietaries of English Hospitals__reply thereto.—Dietaries of the Royal Naval Hospitals, the Marine Infirmaries, and the Royal Ordnance Hospitals........246—255 7. Dietaries for the Insane. Dr. Conolly's observations thereon—cases of refusal of food.__Dietaries of the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, Bethlem Hospital, and Si. Luke's Hospital..................255—257 8. Dietaries for Puerperal Women. Dietaries of the City of London.—Lying-in HosyUal and General Lying-in Hospital, Westminster........257 xvi CONTENTS. Page CH4P. V—ON THE DIETETICAL REGIMEN SUITED FOR DISOR- DERED STATES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. General observations thereon. Division of the subject --------- 257 1. Cookery of Foods. Boiling, Roasting, Broiling, Baking, and Frying.—Relative influence of these processes on the digestibility of food ----- 258—259 2. Times of Eating. General precepts thereon......------ 259 3. Quantity of Food taken at one Meal. To be judged of by the feelings—satisfac- tion, not satiety, to be produced.............259—260 4. Conduct before, at, and after eating. Circumstances affecting digestion ... 260 5. Nature and Quality of the Food eaten. Relative value of animal and vegetable diet—bulk of food—solid and liquid food—acidity of stomach, what induced by—lactic acid—fatty acids—fatty fermentation.—Bread, biscuits, pastry, pud- dings, pancakes.—Butcher's meat.—Venison and rabbits.—Birds.—Fish.-—Shell- fish.—Potatoes, the cabbage tribe, peas, beans.—The oily seeds.—Fleshy fruits. —Drinks, aqueous, malt liquor, wine, weak spirit, tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa. —Condiments.—Conclusion..............260—263 i i Appendix ---- -------...--._.-... 265 I I ON FOOD AND DIET. PART L—OF FOODS. The substances employed by man as food consist of certain compound bodies termed Alimentary Principles, which, by their mixture or union, constitute our ordinary foods: these, for the sake of distinction, I shall denominate Compound Aliments. Thus meat (a compound aliment) consists principally of fibrine, albumen, gelatine, haematosin, fat, and water, (alimentary principles.) Wheat (a compound aliment) is composed of starch, gluten, sugar, and gum, (alimentary principles.) Alimentary principles are themselves compound substances. They consist of two, three, four, or more, simple or undecompounded bodies, usually denominated elements. These are the Chemical Elements, or Elementary Constituents of Foods. Thus fibrine (an alimentary principle) is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulphur, (chemical elements.) Gum (an alimentary principle) consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, (chemical elements.) I propose, therefore, to consider successively— 1. The Chemical Elements of Foods. 2. Alimentary Principles. 3. Compound Aliments. Chap. I.—Of the Chemical Elements of Foods. Those bodies from which chemists have hitherto failed to extract other substances of entirely different properties, are denominated Simple or Undecompounded Bodies, or Chemical Elements. At the present time, fifty-five* such bodies are known. Arranged alphabetically, they are as follows :— CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. Equivalent Equivalent Combining Pro- Combining Pro- portion. Hydrogeri=l) Symbol. (Hyc rogeifcil) Symbol. 1. Aluminum 10 Al 11. Cerium 46 Ce 2. Antimony (Stibium) 65 An or Sb 12. Chlorine 36 CI 3. Arsenicum 38 Ar or As 13. Chromium 28 Cr 4. Barium . 69 Ba 14. Cobalt 30 Co 5. Bismuth . l'i Bi 15. Columbium {Tantalum) . 185 Ta 6. Boron 10 Bo 16. Copper (Cuprum) . 32 Cu 7. Bromine . 78 Br 17. Fluorine 19 F 8. Cadmium 56 Cd 18. Glucinum 27 G 9. Calcicm 20 Ca 19. Gold (Aurum) 200 Au 0. Carbon . 6 C 20. Hydrogen . ... 1 H * A fifty-sixth element, called Didym, has been recently announced. It is a metal which is found along with Cerium and Lanthanium. (PoggendorfTs Annakn der Physik und Cliemie, vol. xlvi. No. 7, p. 503.) 1 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. chemical elements.—Continued. Equivalent or Combining Pro- vurtion. (Hydrogen=l) 10fi Symbol. Ir 98 28 Fe ? La 104 PI 8 Li 12 Ma 28 Mn 202 Hg 48 Mo 29 Ni 14 N 100 Os 8 O 54 Pd 16 P 99 PI 40 K 39. Rhodium 40. Selenium 41. Silicon 42. Silver (Argentum) 43. Sodium (Natrium) 44. Strontium 45. Sulphur 46. Tellurium 47. Thorium 48. Tin (Stannum) 49. Titanium 50. Tungsten (Wclfram) 51. Uranium 52. Vanadium 53. Yttrium 54. Zinc 55. Zirconium Equivalent or Combining Pro- portion. (Hydrogen=l) 52 Symbol R 40 Se 8 Si . 108 Ag 24 N 44 Sr 16 S 64 Te 60 Th 58 Sn 24 Ti m> 95 W 68 U 217 V 32 Y 32 Zu 33 Zr 21. Iodine 22. Iridium . 23. Iron (Ferrum) . 24. Lanthanium 25. Lead (Plumbum) 26. Lithium . 27. Magnesium 28. Manganese 29. Mercury (Hydrargyrum) 30. Molybdenum . 31. Nickel 32. Nitrogen 33 Osmium 34. Oxygen . ' . 35. Palladium 36. Phosphorus 37. Platinum 38. Potassium (Kalium) As far as we have at present ascertained, these are the substances which constitute the elements of all known bodies, (mineral and organized.) It has long been suspected that many of these supposed elementary bodies are them- selves compounded.* The suspicion has arisen from the analogies which exist between some of the undecompounded substances, (especially the metals;) as well as from the difficulty of accounting for the presence of several of the so-called elements found in or- ganized beings. But though it. may be well founded, yet chemists have agreed to call those substances simple or elementary which have hitherto resisted every attempt to resolve them into other and simpler parts; and, therefore, when the phrase element or simple body is used, we merely mean a substance which no one, as yet, has been able to de- compose. Of the fifty-five above mentioned elementary substances, there have been found in Or- ganized Bodies about nineteen only; these are arranged alphabetically in the following table :— CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZED OR LIVING BODIES. 1. Carbon 2. Hydrogen 3. Oxygen 4. Nitrogen 5. Phosphorus 6. Sulphur 7. Silicon 8. Chlorine 9. Iodine 10. Bromine 11. Fluorine 12. Potassium 13. Sodium 14. Calcium 15. Magnesium 16. Iron 17. Manganese 18. Aluminum 19. Copper'/ Though I have included Copper as an element of organized bodies, in consequence of its having been found in them by several chemists,f it is, probably, only an accidental * Some interesting observations on this suDject will be found in Sir H. Davy's Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p, 478, et seq. London, 1812.—See also Berzelius's Traile de Chimie, t. ii. p. 268. Paris, 1830. Very recently it has been asserted that carbon is convertible into silicon, (Dr. Sam. H. Brown, Trans- actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, for 1841;) but the assertion has not been corroborated by sub- sequent experiments. t Copper has been detected in plants by Bischoff, (Do Candolle, Physiolcgic Vegelale, t. i. p. 389.) Meissner, (Ann. de Chim. el de Phys. t. iv. p. 106,) and by Sarzeau, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xlix. p 334.) The last mentioned chemist also found it in the blood of animals. ELEMENTS OF THE FOOD OF MAN. 3 constituent. Gold,* and, more recently, Lead\ and Arsenicum,\ have been declared to be constituents of organized bodies ; but there is reason, I think, to suspect some error in the observations. A living body has no power of forming elements, or of converting one elementary sub- stance into another ;J and it therefore follows that the elements of which the body of an animal is composed must be the elements of its food. The essential constituents of the human body are thirteen ; and the same, therefore, must be the elements of our food.l] CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF THE FOOD OF MAN. 1. Carbon 2. Hydrogen 3. Oxygen 4. Nitrogen 5. Phosphorus 6. Sulphur 7. Iron 8. Chlorine 9. Sodium 10. Calcium 11. Potassium 12. Magnesium 13. Fluorine These substances I now proceed to notice individually. 1. Carbon.—In the pure and crystallized state, carbon constitutes the diamond, a sub- * Several distinguished chemists have asserted the existence of gold in vegetables, (Chaptal, Elements of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 442.) t According to Devergie, (Journal de Chimie Medicate, t. iv. 2de Serie, p. 591, 1838,) lead and copper are constituents of the bodies of man and other animals. \ Orfila (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. v. 2(,e Ser. p. 632, 1839) asserts, that arsenicum is a constituent of the bones of man and other animals. But Dr. G. O. Rees, (Guy's Hospital Reports, No. xii.,) Messrs. Dan- ger and Flandrin, and the Commissioners appointed by the French Academy of Sciences, (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxiv. p. 428, Juillet, 1841,) have repeated his experiments without detecting it. § Dr. Prout (Phil- Trans. 1822, p. 377) asserts, that the lime found in the skeleton of the chick when it quits the shell, did not pre-exist in the recent egg: so that the only possible sources whence it could be derived are the shell and transmutation from other substances supposed to be elementary. But as the membrane in contact with the shell is never vascular, and as both the albumen and yolk contain, at the end of incubation, a considerable quantity of earthy matter, which it is to be supposed would have been appropriated to the bone in preference to that derived from a remote source, Dr. Prout doubts wheCher the origin or source of the lime is referable to the shell. Indeed, it is tolerably clear, that he believes in the capability of the vital energies to effect the transmutation of some of the so-called ele- ments ; and in a more recent work, (On. the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. xxxvi. 3d edit. 1840,) he expresses himself more decidedly on this point. " Some imagine," he observes, " that the mineral incidental principles of organized beings are generated during the vital process; while others maintain that they are derived ab externo. My belief is, that, under certain extraordinary circumstances, the vital agents can form what we now consider as elements ; but that, in ordinary, sucli elements are chiefly derived ab cxicrno, in conjunction with the alimentary principles;" and in another part of the same work (p. xxix.) he speaks of the assimilating organs being able, under extraordinary circumstances, " to decompose principles which are still considered as elementary ; nay, to form azote or carbon." These opinions, however well founded, in no way affect the accuracy of the proposition which 1 have above laid down in the text; for Dr. Prout himself, in his Bridgewater Treatise (Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Fwiction of Digestion considered with reference to Natural Theology, p. 431, 1834) lays down a similar one. " No organic agent," he says, " has the power either of creating material elements, or of changing one such element into another." His opinions merely affect the question of the elementary nature of some of the substances which chemists have not hitherto been able to decompose. At p. 432 of the last quoted work, he observes, that" while it is thus denied that organized beings possess the power, either to create or to change, in the strict acceptance of these terms ; it has been admitted to be exceed- ingly probable, that the organic agent is, within certain limits, qualified to compose and decompose many substances which are now viewed as elements ; and that the organic agent does thus apparently form and transmute these imagined elements." || Traces of manganese have been detected in the blood; but I have not included this metal as an essential constituent of the human system. In some countries, silicious and aluminous substances are eaten, but they can scarcely be denominated aliments ; and I have not, therefore, inserted silicon and 4 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. stance which Sir D. Brewster * suspects to be of vegetable origin. In its more familiar but impure forms, carbon constitutes plumbago (graphite or black-lead) and charcoal, (ani- mal and vegetable.) The last mentioned substance is always contaminated with various earthy bodies derived from the organic matter from which the charcoal was made. Thus animal charcoal obtained from bones, and known as bone black, contains only ten per cent. of .carbon. COMPOSITION OF BONE BLACK. Carbon.......10-1 Carburet or Silicet of Iron ... 2-C Sulphuret of Calcium, or Iron . . traces Animal Charcoal or Bone Blackt . . 100-0 Vegetable Charcoal, obtained from wood, contains a much larger proportion of carbon. COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLE CHARCOAL. Carbon .... Volatile matter . Calcined ashes . Thorn. Poplar. Maple. Ash. Aspen. Spindle. 88-0 9-6 2-4 85-6 13-4 10 85-2 13-8 1-0 832 150 1-8 82-0 150 30 82-8 15-6 1-0 Vegetable Charcoal! . 100-0 100-0 1000 100-0 1000 100-0 1 Carbon is an essential constituent of every living or organized tissue, both vegetable and animal. It is, therefore, a necessary ingredient of food ; and nature has accordingly supplied it in the aliment which she has provided for all living beings in the early btage of their existence. Thus it is an element of the organic substances composing seeds, and from which the embryo plant derives its first nutriment. The yolk of eggs, (the food of the embryo chick,) and milk, on which young mammals subsist during the first period of their existence after birth, also contain it. The quantity of it which is contained in different foods is as follows :— fl. NoN-NlTROGENIZED: QUANTITY OF CARBON IN FOODS. 1.—Alimentary Principles. Per-centage, by weight, of Carbon. {Anhydrous Cane Sugar . . 47-05* Sugar Candy......' 421 Sugar of Milk.......40-0 Gijipe Sugar (from Honey) .... 36-36 Authority. § Pttligot. Prout & Liebig. Prout. aluminum among the elements of the food of man. "The negroes of Guinea, the Javanese, the New Caledonians, and many South American tribes, eat clay as a luxury," (Elliotson's Human Physiology p. 63, 1840.) The Otomacks, a savage race on the banks of the Orinoco, appease their hunger for two or three months, according to Humboldt, by distending their stomachs with clay. The fossil farina which, according to Stanislas Juljen, (Comptcs Rendus, 1841, 2 Semest. p. 358,) is used in China, in times' of great scarcity, as a food, contains 13-2 per cent, of organic matter, (Payen, Ibid. p. 480,) and may therefore, possess some slightly nutritive qualities. * Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. iii. p. 98; and Philosophical Magazine, vol. i. p. 147. 1827. t Dumas, Traite de Chimie applique aux Arts, t. i. p. 450. | Berthier, Traite des Essaispar la voie seche, t. i. p. 286. $ The analyses of Liebig, Scherer, Jones, Playfair, and Bceckmann, alluded to in this table are taken Amylaceous CARBON. Per-centage, by weight, of Carbon. "Wheat Starch.......37.5 Ditto, dried at 350° Fahr.....44.0 Arrow Root, .......36.4 p Ditto, highly dried at 212° Fahr. . . . 44.4 'Gum Arabic .......36.3 Mucilaginous ■( Ditto, dried at 212° Fahr......4i.4 Ditto, dried at 240° Fahr.......45.1 "Pectine (from Sweet Apples) .... 45.198 Vegetable Jelly ■{ Ditto (from Sour Apples) .... 45.853 Ditto (in Pectinate of Lead) .... 43.5 "Acetic Acid (anhydrous).....47.06 Citric Acid (hypothetical or dry) . . . 43.63 Ditto (commercial crystals) .... 34.29 Tartaric Acid (anhydrous) .... 36.36 "Alcohol.........52.18 fButter......... 65.6 J Mutton Fat........78.996 1 Hog's Lard........79.098 I Olive Oil ........77.75 Acidulous Alcoholic b. Nitrogenized: P nil cine Com- pounds. Gelatinous Animal Albumen (from Eggs) ------ Fibrine . ----— Caseine (from fresh Milk) \f : Albumen (from Wheat) ------- Fibrine . -------Caseine . I Gluten (from Wheat [Tendons of Calves' Feet < Isinglass ^Cartilages of Calves' ribs (chondrine) 2.—Compound Aliments. a. Vegetable : Wheat (dried in vacuo at 230° Fahr.) Oats (ditto) .... Rye (ditto) .... Potatoes..... Ditto (dried in vacuo at 233° Fahr.) Turnips..... Ditto (dried in vacuo at 230° Fahr.) Jerusalem Artichoke (ditto) Peas..... Ditto (dried in vacuo at 230° Fahr.) l^entils . . . . Beans . . . Fresh Bread .... Black Bread (dried at 210°) 6. Animal ; Ox Blood . .... Ditto (dried)...... Fresh Meat (devoid of fat) . Ditto (with l-7th fat and cellular tissue) Dry muscular Flesh (Beef) . Roasted Flesh (Roe Deer) . Ditto (Beef)...... Ditto (Veal)...... Soup of the House of Arrest at Giessen 55.000 55.002 54.825 55.01 54.617 51.133 55.22 50.960 50.557 50.895 46.1 50.7 46.2 12.2598 44.0 3.217 42.9 43.3 35.743 46.5 37.38 38.24 30.15 45.41 10.332) 51.96 i 13.6 21.75 51.S9 52.60 52.59 52.52 0^46313 Authority. Prout. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto Ditto. Mulder. Mulder. Fremy. Berard. Chevreul. Ditto. Calculated from Saussure. Scherer. Ditto. Ditto. Jones. Scherer. Ditto. Jones. Scherer. Ditto. Ditto Boussingavijt. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Playfair. Boussingault Playfair. Ditto. Liebig. Bceckmann. Playfair and Bceckmann Liebig. Ditto. Bceckmann. Ditto. Playfair. Ditto. Liebig. The quantity of carbon consumed, in the form of food, by different individuals and at different times, is subject to very considerable variation. Age, sex, peculiarities, (indi- from Liobig's Animal Chemistry, (London, 1842.) Those of Boussingault, are taken from his papers in the Anntt'es de Chimie et de Physique, (t. Ixiii., Ixvii., Ixix., and lxxi.)—The results of Mulder's analysis of pectine, I have taken from the Phnrmaceutisches Central-Blatt fir 1833, (p. 338:) those of Fremy's analy- sis of the same substance from the Journal de Pharmacie, (t. xxvi. p. 373.) Prout's experiments were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1S27. I have taken the results of Berard's and Chev- reul's analyses from L. Gmelin's Handbuch der theorelischen Chemie, (vol. ii. p. 439.) 6 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. vidual or national,) temperature and density of the air, occupation, (laborious or inac- tive,) and amount of clothing, are among the circumstances which produce these diversi- ties. "From the accurate determination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the sys- tem in the food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out of the body in the feces and urine, unburned—that is, in some form in which it is not combined with oxygen—it appears that an adult, taking moderate exercise, consumes 13-9 oz. [Iles- sian=15-3 oz. avoirdupois] of carbon daily.* Liebig's statement is based on observations made on the average daily consumption of food by from 27 to 30 soldiers, of the Body Guard of the Grand Duke of Hesse Darm- stadt in barracks, for a month, or by 855 men for one day. I have drawn up the follow- ing table from his statements, and converted the Hessian weights into avoirdupois weights. Kinds of Food. Avoirdupois weight of Food. Avoirdnpois weight of Carbon. Ordinary meat containing l-7th of fat and cellular tissue Fat or Lard Lentils Peas..... Beans .... Potatoes .... Bread .... lbs. oz. grs. 1 306 4 186 3 13 304-5 3 10 412 12 12 161 15 0 76 1093 2 357 1923 9 2145 lbs. oz. grs. 66 9 397-5 3 1 1561 [ 11 10 131-2 133 5 374-2 603 15 300-5 Total for 855 men for one day Average for one man for one day .... 3358 5 398-5 I 3 14 370-5 818 11 46 0 15 140 In addition to the above, the 855 men consumed, lb. oz. era- Of Green Vegetables (Cabbages, Greens, Turnips, &c.) 192 15 15 Of Sourkrout........110 2 325 Of Onions, Leeks, Celery, &c..... 26 11 2035 Total for 855 men for one day . 326 6 55 Average for one man for one day 0 6 635 n also appears, from an approximate report of the serjeant-major, that each soldier consumed daily, on an average, out of the barracks, the following quantities of other foods:— Sausages.....3 3-10 oz. ) Avoirdupois Butter .....3-4 oz. & 33 1-3 grs. $ weight. Beer......5-10 pint Brandy......1-10 pint So that we may fairly assume, that each of these soldiers consumed daily about one pound (avoirdupois) of carbon. Now if we suppose that while under experiment he neither gained nor lost in weight, what, it may be asked, became of the carbon thus taken in the form of food ? I shall assume, with Liebig, that tho carbon of the green vegetables, sourkrout, and onions, was equal to that of the feces and the urine, and shall exclude from our calcula- * Liebig, Animal Chemistry, or Organic Chemistry in its Applications to Physiology and Pathology, edited by Dr. W. Gregory, p. 14. Lond. 1842. CARBON. 7 tion the carbon of the small quantity of food (sausages, butter, beer, and brandy) taken in the alehouse. VvTe have, therefore, to account for the disposal of 15 ozs. 140 grs. avoirdupois (=6702$ grs. troy) of carbon; nearly the whole of which quantity must have been thrown out of the system by the lungs and the skin in the form of carbonic acid. Now, 6 grs. of carbon combine with 16 grs. of oxygen, and form 22 grs. of carbonic acid. Hence 6702$ grs. troy of carbon require 17.S40 grs. of oxygen gas to yield 24,542$ grs. of carbonic acid ; and this quantity of oxygen must, therefore, be derived from the air, either by the lungs or skin, or by both. But oxygen is also consumed in the system in the oxidation of hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus, and this quantity also must be derived from the same source (the atmosphere) and by the same means. The quantity of oxygen consumed, and of carbonic acid produced, in respiration, by an adult man, in twenty-four hours, has been variously estimated as follows:— Consumption of Oxygen and Production of Carbonic Acid in Respiration by an Adult Man in 24 hours. Oxygen consumed. Carbonic Acid produced. Carbon contained in tlie Carbonic Acid. Cubic In. Gr«. Lavoisier & Seguiu 46037 or 156G1 Menzies .... 51480 or 17625 Allen & Pepys . . 39600 or 13464 Coathupe . . • . ---- ---- Cubic In. Gsh. 14930 or 8534 31630 or 17811 39600 or 18612 17856 ---- Grs. 2820 (French) ---- (English) | 4853 (ditto) 5148 (ditto) 2616 (ditto) It is obvious that the highest of these estimates is below the quantity of oxygen re- quired to oxidate the carbon consumed by the Darmstadt soldiers. But in drawing any conclusions as to the absolute amount of oxygen consumed in respiration, we must not omit to consider the numerous circumstances which interfere with the results, and render it difficult, if not impossible, to obtain a correct estimate. The management of the ap- paratus, the nicety of the manipulation, the degree of muscular exertion employed, the quantity and quality of the food consumed by the individual experimented on, the state of the system, and various other circumstances, concur in affecting the results. Moreover, it is probable that the skin produces on the air changes analogous to those effected by the lungs : that is, it absorbs oxygen, and evolves carbonic acid. * Furthermore, if the amount of carbonaceous food be less than that supplied to the Darmstadt soldiers, it is obvious that less oxygen will be required to oxidize the carbon. Now, according to Liebig, "prisoners in the Bridewell at Marienschloss (a prison where labor is enforced) do not consume more than 10*5 oz. [Hessian= 11*588 avoirdupois] of carbon daily; those in the House of Arrest at Giessen, who are deprived of all exercise, consume only 9 oz.f [Hessian=9*9 avoirdupois;) and in a family well known to me, consisting of nine individuals, five adults, and four children of different ages, the aver- age daily consumption of carbon for each is not more than 95 oz. (Hessian =10*46 avoirdupois) of carbon. We may safely assume, as an approximation, that the quanti- ties of oxygen consumed in these different cases are in the ratio of these numbers." * See Bostock's Elementary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 237, ct seq. Lond. 1826. t At p. 36 of the English translation of Liebig's Animal Chemistry, it is stated that 8-5 oz. of carbon arc consumed : but at p. 293, the translator has given reasons for believing that the quantity should be 9oz. ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Ten ounces, avoirdupois or 4375 grs. troy of carbon combine with 11666*6 grs. troy of oxygen, and thereby form 16041*6 grs. of carbonic acid. ,: By the union of carbon with oxygen, in whatever part of the system this is effected, teat must be evolved. At least, in all other cases, the formation of carbonic acid is attended with the evolution of heat; and we have a right, therefore, to assume, that the •same takes place within the body. We are, in fact, acquainted with no conceivable reason why it should be otherwise. Now, according to Despretz,* one pound of pure charcoal evolves, by its combustion in oxygen gas, sufficient heat to raise the tempera- ture of 781l)s. of water from 32° Fahr. to 212° Fahr. ; and this must be about the amount evolved in thev ^cass of the Darmstadt soldiers, independently of the heat produced by the union of o:;y£en with hydrogen hereafter to be noticed. It appears to me that we have a sufficient explanation of animal temperature in the chemical changes just referred to. Indeed, it cannot be doubted that a large proportion, if not the whole, of the heat evolved by animals, is produced by chemical action. But it is scarcely to be expected that experiments can be so nicely and delicately performed as to demonstrate in a precise manner the truth of this chemical theory of animal heat: for while, on the one hand, considerable difficulty is experienced in determining the actu- al quantity of combustible matter oxidated in the system, it is almost impossible, on the other, to estimate, with absolute nicety, the amount of heat actually imparted by a living animal to surrounding bodies. The results of our experiments, therefore, can only fur- nish, at the most, approximations to the truth, f Liebig has endeavored to show, that by the conversion of starch or sugar into fat, oxygen is supplied to the system; and that by the union of this disengaged oxygen with carbon (from the bile, for example) heat is developed. Suppose 1 equivalent of carbonic acid, CO;, and 7 equivalents of oxygen, 07, to be abstracted from 1 equivalent of starch, C12 H10 01M we have, in the residue, the empirical formula for fat, Cu Hi0 O. RELATIVE COMPOSITION OF STARCH AND FAT. 1 eq. Starch . . Cm H10 Oj 1 eq. Fat.....Cu H10 O 1 eq. Carbonic Acid C Oa 7 eq. Oxygen ... 07 Cia Hio Oi The oxygen thus presumed to be separated from the starch, can only be disengaged in the form of either carbonic acid or water, or of both; therefore it must have combined with carbon or hydrogen, or both.t Now, Liebig has adduced several reasons for presum- ing that heat must attend the formation of carbonic acid under these circumstances. "Thus," says this distinguished chemist, "in the formation of fat, the vital force pos- sesses a means of counteracting a deficiency in the supply of oxygen, and consequently in that of the heat indispensable for the vital process. In the natural and healthy condition of the system, the food supplies the necessary carbon for the support of animal heat, but when food is withheld, the fat of the body is consumed; its carbon being converted into carbonic acid, its hydrogen into water. Ex- perience has satisfactorily shown that the heat of the blood in health is the same in all climates and in all conditions of atmospheric temperature. Now it follows that a larger * Graham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 250 t Despretz observes, that in none of his experiments did respiration produce less than 7-10ths, nor more than 9-10ths of the whole heat emitted by the animal, (Ann. de Chimie et Physiq. t. xxvi. p.' 361, 1824.) See also Dulong's paper in the Mem. de VAcad. Royale des Sciences, t. xviii. p. 327, 1842. % For some objections to these views of Liebig, see note on page 27.—L. CARBON. 9 quantity of combustible matter is required ia cold climates and cold weather, for keeping up this temperature, than in hot climates and warm weather; since a greater amount of heat must be given off to surrounding media in the former than in the latter. Hence the necessity for a more liberal supply of food in cold weather. " He who is well fed," ob- serves Sir John B,oss,* " resists cold better than the man who' is stinted, while the starvation from cold follows but too soon a starvation in food. This, doubtless, explains in a great measure the v resisting powers of the natives of these frozen climates; their consumption of food, it is familiar, being enormous, and often incredible."! Moreover, it is obvious that the foods which, theoretically, appear to be best suited for the inhabit- ants of these colder climates, are those which contain the largest amount of carbon and hydrogen, viz., the fats and oils, which contain from 66 to 80 per cent, of carbon. The celebrated traveller just quoted, further remarks, "that in every expedition or voyage to a polar region, at least if a winter residence is contemplated, the quantity of food should be increased, be that as inconvenient as it may. It would be very desirable indeed, if the men could acquire the taste for Greenland food, since "all experience has shown that the large use of oil and fat meats is the true secret of life in these frozen countries, and that the natives cannot subsist without it, becoming diseased, and dying, with a more meager diet." The effect of cold in augmenting, and of heat in diminishing the appetite for food, is well known. I will not, however, go the length of Liebig in asserting, that if we were to go naked, as the Indians, or if in hunting or fishing we were exposed to the same degree of cold as the Samoyedes, we should be able to consume the half of a calf, besides a dozen of candles-f For though it must be admitted that the inhabitant of a frozen * Narrative of a Second Voyage m Search of a Northwest Passage, page 200. London, 1835 t Most persons are familiar with the accounts which have been published respecting the gormandizing powers of the natives of the Arctic regions. Captain Sir W. E. Parry (Second Voyage for the Discovery of the Nor!Invest Passage, p. 413, London, 1824) states that, as a matter of curiosity, he one day tned how much food an Esquimaux lad, scarcely full grown, would consume, if freely supplied. "The under- mentioned articles were weighed before being given to him; he was twenty hours in getting through them, and certainly did not consider the quantity extraordinary." The fluids were in fair proportion, viz:— Sea-horse flesh, hard frozen ... 4 4 ditto boiled.....4 4 Bread and bread-dust . . . . 1 12 Rich gravy soup, . . 1£ pint. Raw spirits, .... 3 wine glasses. Strong grog, . . . .,1 tumbler. Water,......1 gallon 1 pint. Total......10 4 Sir John Ross (Narrative, p. 448, 1835) says, that an Esquimaux " perhaps eats twenty pounds of flesh and oil" daily. But the most marvellous account of gormandizing powers is that published by Captain Cochrane, (Narrative of a Pedestrian Journey through Russia and Siberian Tartary, vol. i. p. 255, 3d edit. 1825.) He says that, the Russian Admiral Saritcheff was told that one of the Yakuti consumed in twenty-four hours "the hind quarter of a large ox, twenty pounds of fat, and a proportionate quantity of melted butter for his drink." The Admiral, to test the truth of the statement, gave him "a thick porridge of rice boiled down with three pounds of butter, weighing together twenty-eight pounds, and although the glutton had already breakfasted, yet did he sit down to it with great eagerness, and consumed the whole without stir- ring from the spot; and, except that his stomach betrayed more than ordinary fulness, he showed no sign of inconvenience or injury !!" Captain Cochrane also states (p. 352) that a good calf, weighing about two hundred <,< >unds, "may serve four or five good Yakuti for a single meal." In another place (p. 255) the same traveller observes that he has repeatedly seen a Yakut or Tongouse devour forty pounds of meat a day; and, he adds, " I have seen three of these gluttons consume a rein-deer at one meal." t Annalcn der Chemie und Pharmacie, vol. xli. Liebig, or his translator, seems to have had some mi: < ivines about the "half of a calf," since, in the English translation, I find 10 pounds of flesh" substituted. 10 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. region requires more abundant food than he who lives in a temperate climate, yet it is an error to ascribe the voracity and gormandizing powers of some of the natives of the colder regions to the influence of cold only. Tne Hottentots and the Bushmen [Bosjes- mans]* of Southern Africa, indulge, as is well known, in beastly gluttony, yet this cannot be the effect of the temperature of their climate; while "the inhabitants of the Alpine regions of Southern Europe demand no such extravagance of food, nor are even the people of Lapland and the northern extremity of Norway conspicuous for such eating; as is not less true of the Icelanders."! Instead, therefore, of ascribing the gluttony of the inhabitants of frozen regions solely to the low temperature to which they are exposed, I consider it to be in part the result of an instinct or propensity exercised by some portion of the brain. Phrenologists place alimentiveness, or the organ of the propensity to eat and drink, " at the base of the middle lobe of the brain, adjoining and immediately below the situation occupied by the organ of destructiveness in carnivorous animals."! But while I entertain no doubt of the existence of such a propensity, I do not wish to offer any opinion as to the precise seat of it within the skull. To varying degrees in the power and activity of this propensity I ascribe the greater or less fondness for good living evinced by different individuals. It is well known that some persons are notorious, among their friends and acquaintances, for their gormandizing propensity, while others are commonly reputed as being little eaters. Similar differences are observed between different nations. "The great difference which exists between the French and Germans, in the organs of alimentiveness, accounts for the difference between the two nations in sobriety. After the Spaniards, no nation in Europe is more sober than the French; while the Germans are essentially great feeders. Among a pretty considerable number of German, Spanish, and French soldiers, who were in the same hospital at Caen, I have observed," says Dr. Vimont, " that a remarkable difference existed among them in regard to the faculty in question. A light soup, some fruit, or a little meat, were sufficient for the Spaniards ; the repast of the French consisted of three fourths of the portion; while the Germans swallowed the whole allowance, and continually complained that they did not receive enough of meat and potatoes. Every time I happened to pass the wards where the Ger- mans were placed, I was certain to be assailed by the words flesh, flesh, sir .'"§ || Much less heat is evolved when there is a deficiency of food. " During the whole of our march," observes Sir John Franklin,1T " we experienced, that no quantity of clothing * Barrow (Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, vol. i. p. 152. 1801) says that the Hottentots are " the greatest gluttons upon the face of the earth. Ten of our Hottentots," he adds, " ate a middling-sized ox, all but the two hind legs, in three days; but they had very little sleep during the time, and had fasted the two preceding days. With them the word is to eat or to sleep. When they cannot indulge in the gratification of the one, they generally find immediate relief in flying to the other." The same authority, when speaking of the Bosjesmans, (op at. p. 28'3,) says that they are equally filthy and gluttonous with the voracious vultures. " The three who accompanied us to our wagons had a sheep given to them about five in the evening, which was entirely consumed by them before the noon of the following day. They continued, however, to eat all night, without sleep and without intermission, till they had finished the whole animal. After this, their lank bellies were distended to such a degree that they looked less like human creatures than before." t Sir J. Ross, op. supra cit. p. 447. X A System of Phrenology, by George Combe, p. 230, 4th ed. Edinburgh, 1836. § Dr. Vimont, quoted by Mr. G. Combe, in his System of Phrenology, p. 765. II See Appendix, A. IT Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the years 1819 to 1822, p. 424. London 1823. ' HYDROGEN. 11 could keep us warm while we fasted, but on those occasions when we were enabled to go to bed with full stomachs, we passed the night in a warm and comfortable manner." In tropical climates, and even in cooler regions during the summer, a smaller quantity of food suffices to keep up the temperature of the body, and under the same circumstances substances containing a less proportion of carbon are better adapted for the preservation of health. The frequency of diseases of the liver, in hot seasons and tropical climates, is ascribed by Liebig to the accumulation of carbon in the system. " In our climate," he observes,* "hepatic diseases, or those arising from excess of carbon, prevail in summer; in winter, pulmonic diseases, or those arising from excess of oxygen, are more frequent."' When the external temperature is high, less carbon is requisite to support the natural heat of the body, and in consequence of the air being expanded, we inhale, at each inspiration, less oxygen by weight than in colder climates and seasons. If, therefore, we continue to consume large quantities of food, there will be an excess of carbonaceous matter in the system. The influence of external temperature, excess of food, and want of exercise, on the condition of the liver, is well shown in the goose. The celebrated pales de foics gras, prepared at Strasburg, are made of the livers of geese, artificially enlarged " by the cruel process of shutting the birds up in coops, within a room heated to a very high tempera- ture, and stuffing them constantly with food."f In tropical climates and in hot seasons the system requires a smaller quantity, and a less carbonaceous quality, of food than in colder countries and cold seasons; and the frequent occurrence of hepatic disease among Europeans, who reside in tropical countries, is probably in part owing to their continued employment of a dietetical system fitted for colder climates.^ 2. Hydrogen.—Hydrogen, like carbon, is an essential constituent of every organized tis- sue ; and is, in consequence, a necessary ingredient of the food of every living being, both vegetable and animal. The nutritive principles of seeds, the albumen and oil of eggs, and the sugar, the butter and caseine of milk, therefore, contain it. RELATIVE QUANTITY OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN IN ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Group 1.—Principles wins' oxygen and hydrogen are in the same ratio as in water. Group 2. — Principles con-taining an excess of hy-drogen. Group 3. — Principles con-taining an excess of oxy-gen. Acetic Acid Starch Sugar Gum Oil Alcohol Malic Acid Fibrine ) Animal Albumen > and Caseine ) Vegetable Gluten Gelatine Pectine Citric Acid Tartaric Acid 1 Considered with respect to the quantity of hydrogen which they contain, alimentary principles may be arranged in three groups: the first containing those substances whose oxygen and hydrogen are in the same relative proportion as in water; the second, in- * Animal Chemistry, p. 24. t 3Iurray"s Hand-Book for Travellers on the Continent; being a Guide through Holland, Belgium, Prussia, and Northern Germany, p. 448. London, 1836. X See Appendix, B. 12 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. eluding those whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a less proportion than in water, or which contain an excess of hydrogen ; and the third, comprehending those whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a. proportion greater than is necessary to form water, or which possess an excess of oxygen. Group 1.—Alimentary principles whose oxygen and hydrogen are in the same ratio as in water. The substances of this group may be regarded as hydrates of carbon, since they consist of carbon and water, (or its elements.) Their composition is as follows:— HYDRATES OF CARBON. Acetic Acid.....12 C -4- 9 Water Starch.......12 C 4- 10 Water Cane Sugar.....12 C 4- 10 Water -4- 1 Water Gum........12 C -f-10 Water 4- 1 W7ater Sugar of Milk.....12 C -f- 10 Water 4- 2 Water Grape Sugar.....12 C -j- 10 Water -j- 4 Water It is obvious that these foods can yield carbon only to be oxidated in the system, since the hydrogen is already in combination with oxygen. This, therefore, is a sufficient explanation of the fact mentioned by Liebig, that the graminivorous animals expire a volume of carbonic acid equal to that of the oxygen inspired ; in other words, there is no loss of oxygen, since one volume of carbonic acid gas contains a volume of oxygen. 2eq. 1 eq. leq. Oxygen Carbon __ Carbonic j Acid = 16 =6 = 22 In a state of nature, a large proportion of the food of these animals consists of prin- ciples (starch, sugar, and gum) whose hydrogen is saturated with oxygen. In no other way can we account for the fact just referred to; for, as Liebig correctly observes, " at the temperature of the body, the affinity of hydrogen for oxygen far surpasses that of carbon for the same element," and, therefore, the* return of an equal volume of carbonic acid by expiration is an evidence that there was a want of hydrogen for the oxygen to combine with. j Group 2. Alimentary principles, whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a less proportion than in water, or tvhich contain an excess of hydrogen.—This group includes both nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized food. If we suppose the oxygen of these principles to be combined with hydrogen in the ratio to form water, there will remain, for each, an excess of hydro- gen; the amount of which, however, varies in different substances. The following table, constructed on this view, shows the excess of hydrogen which each principle contains! the amount of carbon in each being calculated to be the same :— ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES CONTAINING AN EXCESS OF HYDROGEN. Malic Acid (anhydrous) Fat (Lard) . Alcohol Proteine Albumen Fibrine Caseine Gelatinous tissues, tendons Chondrine . =48 C+ 18 =43 C+ 4.5 =48 C4- 24 Water-4- =48 C =48 C =48 C =48 C4- =48 C =48 C- 14 14 14 14 18 20 -- 22 — 22 -- 23 — 20 6 H 38.5 H II H+6N H-f-6 N-4--S4-P* H+6 N+2 S+P H+6 N+S ' H—7.5 N H- -6N * The letters S and P are not intended to express the absolute number of equivalents of sulphur and phosphorus, but only the relative proportions of these two elements to each other. HYDROGEN. 13 The ultimate changes which these constituents of food undergo in the system, are the conversion of the carbon into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. " It signifies nothing," says Liebig, " what intermediate forms food may assume, what changes it may undergo in the body, the last change is uniformly the conversion of its carbon into carbonic acid, and of its hydrogen into water. The unassimilated hydrogen of the food, along with the unburned or unoxidized carbon, is expelled in the urine or in the solid excrements." By the union of hydrogen with oxygen, and the consequent formation of water., a con- siderable degree of heat is developed. According to Despretz,* one pound of hydrogen yields, by combustion with oxygen, sufficient heat to raise the temperature of 236*4 lbs. of water from 32° Fahr. to 212° Fahr.; weight for weight, therefore, hydrogen greatly ex- ceeds carbon in its calorific power. Part of the heat developed in carnivorous animals must arise from the oxidation of hy- drogen ; for, in the first place, hydrogen (as of the fat) disappears from the system, and there is no other mode by which it can have done so except by union with oxygen, and its consequent conversion into water.f In the second place, of the atmospheric oxygen taken into the lungs during inspiration, the whole is not found, in the inspired air, in union with carbon, nearly every experimenter having detected a loss.J Bostock§ calculates that 45,000 cubic inches of oxygen gas are consumed in respiration by a man, under ordinary circumstances, in twenty-four hours; but that of this quantity only about 40,000 cubic inches are found in the expired air in combination with carbon. The remaining 5000 cubic inches must, therefore, be employed in the oxidation of other combustible matters (principally hydrogen) in the system. Group 3. Alimentary principles, whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a proportion greater than is necessary to form ivaler.—None of the substances of this group, which includes pec- tine (vegetable jelly) and some vegetable acids, are nitrogenized. The following table represents the composition of these principles, on the supposition that the hydrogen is com- bined with oxygen, in the ratio to form water, the calculation being made for the same amount of carbon in each :— ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES CONTAINING AN EXCESS OF OXYGEN. Pectine .... = 12 C+8*5 Water+11 O Citric Acid (dry) . . =12C4-5 "4-60 Tartaric Acid (dry) . . = 12C-}-6 " -f- 9 O All the hydrogen and part of the carbon of these principles are, theiefore, in combination with oxygen. 3. Oxygen.—Of all undecompounded or elementary substances, none presents, to my mind, so much interest as oxygen—a principle which constitutes not less than three-fourths of the known terraqueous globe||—which is concerned in almost every change that occurs * Graham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 250. t Hydrogen gas is often secreted within the intestinal canal; sometimes, in cases of disease, in very large quantities.—L. t Messrs. Allen and Pepys (Phil. Trans. 1809, p. 404) ascribed the slight loss observed in their researches to some accidental circumstance, and inferred, therefore, that the oxygen which disappears is exactly re- placed by an equal volume of carbonic acid. $ Elementary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 110. London, 1826. II The following calculations support the above statement:—Oxygen is a constituent of the Atmosphere, of the Water, and of the Mineral Crust of the globe. It constitutes 23-100 by weight of the air, 8-9 of the aqueous vapor, and 16-22 of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. Water, which covers 3-4 of the globe, at an average depth of about three miles, contains 8-9 of its weight of oxygen. Silica, carbonate of lime, and, alumina, the three most abundant constituents of the strata of the earth, contain nearly half their weight of oxygen. Mr. De la Beche (Researches in Theoretical Geology, p. 8) calculates that silica alone constitutes 45 per rent, of the mineral crust of the globe, and of this, one-half is oxygen. 14 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. among natural bodies—and which is so mysteriously connected with life, that without its never-ceasing influence all vital phenomena would speedily cease ! As the continuance of the flame of a candle or lamp depends on the due supply of oxygen to the fat or the oil, and as in the voltaic apparatus, an electric current is excited by the oxidizement of a metal, so animal life seems to be inseparably connected with the influence of oxygen on the organism. Interrupt the influence of oxygen and the flame is extinguished, the electric current is stopped, and all vital phenomena cease. In all three processes, matter (oil, zinc, organic substances) is destroyed or consumed by the oxygen, or in other words, un- dergoes a change of form. So that though oxygen be essential to life—though it be vital air—yet its ultimate effect is destructive ; just as, in the lamp, it is the cause of the flame, but consumes the oil. " Man, and every other animal, are exposed at every period of their lives to the unceasing and destructive action of the atmosphere ; with every breath he expires a part of his body, every moment of his life he produces carbonic acid, the car- bon of which his food must replace." Oxygen is a necessary ingredient of our food. The relative proportions of oxygen and hydrogen in different foods have been already alluded to, (p. 12.) The following table, taken from Liebig, gives the relative proportions of carbon and oxygen in several alimen- tary principles :— RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF CARBON AND OXYGEN IN ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. In Fats (on an average) . . 120 equivalents of Carbon 10 equivalents of Oxygen In Fibrine, Albumen, and Caseine 120 ." 36 " In Starch.....120 " 100 " In Cane Sugar .... 120 " 110 " In Gum.....120 " 110 " In Sugar of Milk ... 120 " 120 In Grape Sugar .... 120 " 140 " As the carbon and hydrogen of the food are ultimately, for the most part, thrown ont of the system in combination with oxygen—that is, in the form of carbonic acid and. water— it follows that those foods which contain a small proportion of oxygen only must consume a greater amount of atmospheric oxygen than those which possess a larger quantity of this element. It cannot be doubted, therefore, that the quality of the food must afFect the activity of the function of respiration. This is quite in accordance with the results of ex- perience. Mr. Spalding,* a diver, found that he consumed more atmospheric oxygen in his diving-bell, when he had used a diet of animal food, or drank spirituous liquors; and experience, therefore, had taught him that vegetable food, and water for drink, wero best adapted for the performance of the duties of his business. Dr. Fyfef also found that the consumption of oxygen was greatly reduced by the employment of vegetable diet, though he differed from Mr. Spalding in his account of the effect of alcohol on the respiratory function. The influence exercised by matters taken into the stomach on the process of respiration, is well illustrated in the case of the vegetable salts of potash or soda. If the acetate, citrate, or tartrate of either of these alkalies be swallowed, the salt suffers partial decom- position in its passage through the system. Its base can be detected in the urine ; but its acid has disappeared, and is replaced by carbonic acid. To effect this change, a con- siderable quantity of oxygen must be consumed. In the case of acetate of potash, no less than eight equivalents of oxygen are required to convert the carbon of every atom of acetic acid into carboni--* acid. * See Dr. John Murray's System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, vol. i. 509, 5th ed. Edinb. 1828. t Quoted by Dr. Bostock, in his Elementary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 90. London 1826. NITROGEN. 15 CONVERSION OF ACETIC ACID INTO CARBONIC ACID AND WATER. 1 equivalent Acetic Acid C i O3 Hj 1 4 equivalents Carbonic Acid C4 Os 8 " Oxygen — Os — 3 Water — O3 H Total . . . C4 On H3 | Total . . C4 On H3 When we take an ordinary effervescing draught composed of tartaric acid and bicar- bonate of soda, there is developed, by their mutual reaction, tartrate of soda, which in its passage through the system, suffers decomposition. Its tartaric acid disappears, and is converted into carbonic acid and water by means of oxygen. CONVERSION OF TARTARIC ACID INTO CARBONIC ACID AND WATER. 1 equivalent Tartaric Acid C4 Oj H2 5 " Oxygen — O5 — 4 equivalents Carbonic Acid C4 Os — 2 " Water — 02 H2 Total C- O-o H2 Total . . . C4O10H2 Now the eight equivalents of oxygen in the first case, and the five equivalents in the latter instance, must be derived either from the organism or from the atmosphere. But, as Liebig justly observes, there is no evidence presented by the organism in itself that any of its constituents have yielded so large a quantity of oxygen; and we have a right, therefore, to infer that it must have been derived from the air; and that these salts, in their passage through the lungs, appropriate to themselves the necessary amount of oxy- gen. But do they appropriate that which, if they were not present, would be otherwise employed in the organism ? Or do they consume an extra quantity of oxygen ] We have no precise data on which we can satisfactorily answer this question. Liebig asserts that they must consume a part of the oxygen, which would otherwise unite with the con- stituents of the blood ; and "the immediate consequence," he observes, "of this must be the formation of arterial blood in less quantity; or, in other words, the process of respira- tion must be retarded." But it appears to me, that Liebig's conclusion is by no means a necessary one, and that on this, as on several other occasions, he has decided somewhat hastily, and written much too positively. I have already shown that the amount of oxy- gen, consumed by respiration, is modified by the quality of the food; and it is by no means improbable, therefore, that the passage of the above-mentioned salts through the lungs may occasion a temporary augmented consumption of oxygen ; but the evidence for or against this notion is yet to be adduced. 4. Nitrogen or Azote.—Nitrogen is distinguished from the three preceding substances, by the indifference which it manifests to enter into chemical combination with other bodies. It is an essential constituent of every animal tissue.* Fat and water are non- nitrogenized components of the animal body, but they are not organized or living sub- stances. It is obvious, therefore, that for the development, growth, nutrition, and renova- tion of living animal parts, nitrogen is essential; and accordingly we find, that nature has supplied it in the food which she has furnished for the nourishment of the young animal; it being a constituent of the albumen of the yolk of the egg, (the food of the embryo chick,) and of the caseine of the milk, (the aliment of the young mammal.) A large number of vegetable and animal substances used as food contains no nitrogen. The following table shows the per-centage quantity of this element in various foods:— * " The chief ingredients of the blood contain nearly 17 per cent, of nitrogen, and no part of an organ contains less than 17 per cent, of nitrogen."—Liemg. 16 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. QUANTITY OF NITROGEN IN CERTAIN FOODS. 1. In Alimentary Principles. Per centage of Nitrogen. Authority. f Animal Albumen (of eggs).........15920 Scherer. Vegetable Albumen (of wheat)........15*920 Jones. „ , . Animal fibrine......... . ... 15817 Scherer. Proteine I Vegetable fibrine...........15-809 Ditto. Compounds. ~\ An^ma, (;aseine.......... _ , ,15.724 DiU„. Vegetable caseine............15672 Ditto. Gluten.................1598 Jones. (. Tendons of calves' feet...........18-470 Scherer. Gelatinous. ] Isinglass................18*790 Ditto. (Cartilage of calves'ribs (chrondine).......14-908 Ditto. 2. Compound Aliments. Wheat (dried in vacuo at 230° Fahr.)............2-3 Boussingault Rye (ditto)...................1*7 Ditto. Oats (ditto).....................2-2 Ditto. Barley (dried at 212°)................ 2-02 Ditto. Rice (ditto).................... 1-39 Ditto. Indian Corn or Maize (ditto)...............20 Ditto. Peas (dried in vacuo at 230° Fahr.)............4-2 Ditto. Horse beans (dried at 212° Fahr.).............5-5 Ditto. White haricots (ditto)...........'..... 4*3 Ditto. Lentils (ditto)...........•......4-4 Ditto. Potatoes (fresh)...................0-37 Ditto. Ditto (dried at 212° Fahr.)...............1*80 Ditto. Ditto kept ten months.......... .....0-28 Ditto Ditto (dried at 212° Fahr.)...............1*18 Ditto. Jerusalem artichokes (dried in vacuo at 230° Fahr.).......1-6 Ditto. White garden cabbage.................0-28 Ditto. Ditto (dtied at 212° Fahr.)...............3-70 Ditto. Carrot (dried at 212° Fahr.) .............2*40 Ditto. Turnips......................017 Ditto. Ditto (dried at 212 Fahr.).......... .... 2-20 Ditto. Dried ox blood ............. . . . . 15-08 Bceckman. Dried muscular flesh (beef)..............15-05 Ditto. Roasted flesh (roe deer).................15*23 Ditto. Ditto (beef).................15-214 Playfair. Ditto (veal) .................1470 Ditto. Several circumstances have induced recent writers to conclude that nitrogenized foods are alone capable of conversion into blood, and of forming organized tissues; that, in fact, they only are the foods properly so called. Hence Liebig has denominated them the plastic elements of nutrition. The non-nitrogenized foods, it is said, are incapable of trans- formation into blood, and are, therefore, unfitted for forming organized or living tissues. They are, nevertheless, essential to health; and Liebig asserts that their function is to support the process of respiration, (by yielding carbon and hydrogen, the oxidation of which is attended with the development of heat,) and some of them, he states, contribute to the formation of fat. These non-nitrogenized foods he calls elements of respiration. ■ Nitrogenized Foods, or Plastic Elements of Nutrition. Vegetable Fibrine -------- Albumen --------Caseine Animal Flesh -------Blood Non-nitrogenized Foods, or Elements of Respiration. Fat Pectine Starch Bassorine Gum Wine Cane Sugar Beer Grape Sugar Spirits Sugar of Milk I propose now to state briefly those circumstances which have been adduced in favor of the opinion, that nitrogenized foods alone nourish the tissues; offering, as I proceed, short commentaries on them. 1. The first argument is, that as the animal tissues contain nitrogen as one of their essen- NITROGEN. 17 tial constituents, and as this element cannot be created in the system, it must be derived from either the food or the atmosphere; but as it is not absorbed from the atmosphere in the vital process, it must be obtained from the food. It appears to me, that if it can be demonstrated that " no nitrogen is absorbed from the atmosphere," the most important fact in favor of nitrogenized food is obtained. But has this been satisfactorily done 1 I think not. Numerous researches have been undertaken by different persons to determine this point, but the results have been most discordant. Some of the experimenters have declared that the nitrogen of the air is passive in respiration; some have asserted that nitrogen is generated in the lungs; some that it is absorbed ; others that it is both absorbed and exhaled—under certain circumstances ab- sorption being most active, under others exhalation. What conclusions, then, it may be asked, have cautious, unbiassed, and well-informed physiologists drawn from these discrepant assertions 1 Miiller, one of Liebig's countrymen, and the most distinguished physiologist of the age, observes that " The conclusion to be deduced from all these experiments seems to be, that during respiration nitrogen is both absorbed and exhaled by the blood."* Dr. Carpenterf concludes his account of the chemical phenomena of respiration with the following observation :—" Thus, there will be a continual exosmose of carbonic acid and nitrogen, and a continual endosmose of oxygen and nitrogen ; and the relative quantities of these gases exhaled and absorbed will be subject to continual va- riation from secondary causes." Lastly, Dr. Bostockf observes, that " It is probable that the blood, as it passes through the lungs, both absorbs and exhales nitrogen, the proportion which these operations bear to each other being very variable, and depending upon cer- tain states of the system, or upon the operation of external agents." Thus, then, it appears that some of the best systematic physiological writers admit the absorption of nitrogen ; and it is, therefore, somewhat remarkable that both Liebig and Dumas} should make such positive and unqualified denials of it, without adducing some new facts in proof of the accuracy of their own views. Their opinions must, I presume, be founded on the experiments of DulongH and Despretz.1T The first of these philosophers has given an account of seventeen experiments made on animals. In fourteen cases he found that nitrogen was exhaled, in one that it was absorbed, in one that it underwent no change, and in one the result is not stated. Dulong, however, seemed to think that fur- ther experiments were required to verify these results ; for he observes, that " the exhala- tion of nitrogen by the pulmonary surface was a phenomenon too remarkable to be passed over without an attempt being made to verify it in an indubitable manner; and I propose," he adds, " to make some special experiments for this purpose." With regard to Des- pretz's experiments, it is deserving of especial notice, that whenever his conclusions mili- tate against the opinions of Liebig and Dumas, they offer sundry objections to his experi- * Baly's Translation of Midler's Elements of Physiology, vol. i. p. 310. London, 1838. t Principles of Human Physiology, p. 438. London, 1842. X Elementary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 143. 1826. $ " Animals constantly exhale nitrogen," says M. Dumas, (Essai de Statique Chimique des Etres Organ- ises p. 36, 2rae. ed. 1842.) " I insist on this point," he adds, " in order to dispel one of those illusions, which, in my opinion, are among the most obnoxious to your studies. Some observers have admitted, in respira- tion, an absorption of nitrogen; but this is never observed except under circumstances which render it more than doubtful. The constant phenomenon is the exhalation of this gas, as Despretz has very cor- rectly stated." II Memoire sur hi Chateur Animate, read to the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1822, but published in the 18th vol. of the Mcmoires of the Academy in 1842. IT Annates de Chimie et de Physique, t. xxvi. p. 337. 1824. 2 18 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. conclusions; but where the results of his investigations coincide with their opinions, no objections are made to his experiments.* That animals frequently, if not generally, exhale nitrogen, can scarcely be denied ; but the question is, whether, when animals are supplied with food which contains a quantity of nitrogen insufficient for the wants of the system, nitrogen may not then be absorbed by the lungs 1 This question, it appears to me, remains yet to be solved ; and I am not, therefore, disposed to adopt Liebig's unqualified assertion that " no nitrogen is absorbed from the atmosphere ;" the more especially as it is in opposition to the experiments of Priestley, Davy, Cuvier, Pfaff, Henderson, Spallanzani, Edwards, and others, and to the generally received opinions of physiologists. It appears to me to be completely begging the question. The establishment or rejection of the theory of nitrogenized foods is most essentially affected by the present argument; for should it be shown that nitrogen is absorbed by the lungs, we have then another source for the nitrogen of the tissues; while, on the other hand, if nitrogen be not absorbed, the tissues can obtain this element from the food only.f } But there is another source of nitrogen which hastmot been hitherto noticed,—I mean the ammonia of the atmosphere. Liebig has demonstrated the existence of this substance in the air, and has assigned strong reasons for believing that plants derive the nitrogen of their nitrogenized principles from it. The ammonia of the inspired air may, therefore, be one of the sources from whence animals derive a part, small though it be, of the nitrogen of their system.} * Liebig, (Animal Chemistry, p.37,) and Dumas, (op. supra cit. p. 42,85, et seq.) The first of these chem- ists concludes his objections to Despretz's experiments in these words :—" We can hardly be at a loss what value we ought to attach to the conclusions drawn from such experiments as those above described, These experiments, and the conclusions deduced from them, in short, are incapable of furnishing the smallest support to the opinion," &c. &c. t Dr. Prout (On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Dkeases, p. xxvi., 3d ed. London, 1840) considers that both sugar and fat are convertible into nitrogenized animal substances. " That the oleaginous principle," he observes, " may be converted into most, if not all, the matters necessary for the existence of animal bodies, seems to be proved by the well-known fact, that the life of an animal may be prolonged by the appropriation of the oleaginous and other matters contained within its own body." In a foot note (p. xxvii.) he adds, " The azote may, in some instances, be derived from the air, or generated. But my belief is, that, under ordinary circumstances, the azote is principally funished by a highly azo- tized subtance (organized urea ?) secreted from the blood, either into the stomach or duodenum, or into both these localities; and that the portion of the blood thus deprived of its azote is separated from the general mass of blood by the liver, as one of the constituents of the bile, which secretion, as a whole, is remarkably deficient in azote." X Miiller remarks that " a small quantity of nitrogen is absorbed by the blood from the air respired, but it does not appear to perform any office in the system, since its proportion is the same in arterial and ven- ous blood." y It may not be amiss to allude, in this connection, to the experiments of M. Collard de Martigny, (Journ. de Physiol. 1830,) who found an increased proportion of nitrogen in air which had been respired, and also an exhalation of nitrogen by the skin. On the ground that nitrogen, like all other gases, is imbibed by moist animal membranes and by the skin, M. Collard assumes that the absorption and exhalation of nitrogen go on at the same time in the lungs, but that the exhalation is the most active. Berzelius, how- ever, regards the idea of a simultaneous exhalation and absorption of nitrogen as absurd. There can be no doubt, that during the respiration of man and the higher animals, nitrogen is, under some circumstances, absorbed, and under others, exhaled; and it is highly probable that this depends on the nature of the food! the want of nitrogen in it being supplied to the system through absorption and its superabundance re- moved by exhalation. The discrepancy in the results obtained by different experimenters can hardly be reconciled on any other hypothesis.—L. § Liebig has proved that 20,800 cubic feet of air, when saturated with aqueous vapor, contain one pound NITROGEN. 19 2. The second argument is, that non-nitrogenized foods alone are incapable of supporting animal life. It has been found, by experiments on animals, that gum, sugar, starch, or butter, cannot alone preserve the health and life of animals. Magendie* found that dogs fed exclusively on sugar and water died in from thirty-one to thirty-four days ; and similar results were obtained with butter and with gum. Tiedemann and Gmelinf have confirmed Magendie's statements. They found that geese fed on sugar and water, or gum and water, or starch and water, died in from sixteen to twenty-four days. Magendie also states, in confirmation of the above, that in 1793, five sailors on board the wreck of a vessel from Hamburgh, had subsisted for nine days on sugar and a small quantity of rum, and that they were found by a French vessel in a most debilitated state, (the youngest excepted.) The three oldest died shortly afterwards. He further adds, that an eccentric individual in Paris had subsisted for nearly a month on potatoes:}: and water. At the end of this time he was extremely feeble, and passed an extraordinary! quantity of urine ; but by the use of nitrogenized food he recovered in a few weeks. Sir Christopher Wren} also states, " tmit it was of late years found, that the blacks, who feed only on potatoes, were apt to die of the dropsy; and, therefore, the planters had found it necessary to allow them milk and bread, which prevented it." And he further observes, "that in Ireland, where the people feed much on potatoes, they help themselves, by drink- ing milk soured, to make the potatoes digest the better." This second argument has not, however, much weight; since it is well known that an exclusive diet of nitrogenized alimentary principles (gluten excepted) is also incapable of supporting animal life. Fibrine, albumen, or gelatine, taken separately, does not support life; even the artificial mixture of these principles is insufficient to preserve life—for dogs thus fed, ultimately die with all the signs of complete inanition. While, on the other hand, a diet of muscular flesh, or of raw bones, or of gluten exclusively, is capable of complete'and prolonged nutrition.|| II It has been said, however, that both gum and sugar are capable of maintaining human existence. The asserted power of gum to support life rests principally on a story, told by Hasselquist,** of a caravan of more than one thousand persons, travelling from Abyssinia to Cairo, and whose provision being exhausted, supported themselves for two months on the gum they were carrying as merchandise. But there are no details given to satisfy us of the accuracy of the conclusion which has been drawn from it. Altogether the case is of water, and if this quantity contains but one fourth of a grain of ammonia, then a field of 40,000 square feet would annually receive upwards of 80 lbs. of ammonia, or 65 lbs. of nitrogen ; for the annual fall of rain over such a surface, amounts on an average to 2,500,000 lbs. Now, this quantity of nitrogen is much more than is contained in the form of vegetable albumen and gluten in 2,650 lbs. of wood, 2,800 lbs. of hay, or 200 cwt. of beet-root, which are the yearly produce of such a field. As the average amount of air respired by an adult in twenty-four hours is about 1,540 cubic feet, or 57 hogsheads, the respiration of 20,800 cubic feet would require thirteen days and a half, and if all the nitrogen contained in it amounted to no more than that assumed by Liebig, it would require fifty-four days to obtain from this source a single grain of nitrogen. Whe.: we consider, therefore, the large quantity of urea in urine, and that nearly 45 per cent, of this is niirogen, the proportion obtained from inspired air would seem to be too small to be taken into account.—L. * Ann. de Chim. et de Physiipie, t. iii. p. 66. 1816. + Quoted by Miiller. X Ten thousand parts of potatoes contain, according to Boussingault, only thirty-seven parts of nitrogen. $ Birch's History of the Royal Society of London, vol. iv. p. 93. II See the Report of the Gelatine Committee, in tb» Comptes Rendus des Seances de VAcademie des Sciences, No. V. Aout, 1841. 1 Appendix, C. ** Voyages and Travils in the Levant, p. 293. London, 1766. 20 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. not one to be relied on. Of the use of gum by the Moors, Negroes, and Hottentots, we have but little detailed and satisfactory information. The evidence of the nutritive property of sugar will be hereafter stated; but I may here mention that it applies principally to the use of this substance in an impure state, in which it contains nitrogenous matter.* Moreover, it is probable that nitrogenized food is, in gen- eral, used in combination with sugar. 3. The third argument is, that the food of all animals, herbivorous and carnivorous, con- tains nitrogenized matters, identical in composition with the principal constituents of the blood and organized tissues of the animal body; and, therefore, the carbon of g am, sugar, and starch, and the carbon and hydrogen of the fats and oils, are not required for the production of blood. One of the most surprising facts for which we are indebted to the school of Giessen is, that vegetables contain organic principles identical in composition with animal fibrine, albumen, and caseine: " They are not merely similar," observes Liebig, " but absolutely identical, not only in having the same proportion of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro- gen, which tfte animal principles contain, but also in possessing the same relative amount of sulphur, phosphorus, and phosphate of lime." Fibrine, albumen, and caseine, both animal and vegetable, dissolve in a solution of caustic potash. If, to the resulting liquid, acetic acid be added, the same precipitate is obtained, whichever of the above three principles has been employed. The substance thus precipitated has been called, by its discoverer, Mulder, proteine (from Trourttm—/ hold the first place.) Its formula, according to Liebig, is C48 H36 Ns O^.f Fibrine, albumen, and caseine, are compounds of proteine and sulphur, and, in the case of the two first of these bodies, of phosphorus also. ANIMAL. VEGETABLE. Fibrine . —Proteine 4- S 4- Ph. I Fibrine . =Proteine 4- S -j- Ph. Albumen . =Proteine 4- S2 + Ph. Albumen . —Proteine -j- S2 -j- Ph. Caseine . —Proteine -\- S | Caseine . =Proteine -\- S " Vegetable fibrine and animal fibrine, vegetable albumen and animal albumen, hardly differ," says Liebig, " even in form; if these principles be wanting in the food, the nu- trition of the animal is arrested; and when they are present, the graminivorous animal obtains in its food the very same principles, on the presence of which the nutrition of the carnivora entirely depends." 4. The fourth argument is, that the quantity of nitrogenized food, which herbivorous ani- mals consume, is amply sufficient for the growth and development of their organs and for the supply of waste. We are indebted to BoussingaultJ for the demonstration of the truth of this statement, in the case of the cow and the horse. The following table is taken from his memoir : the numbers represent French grammes [1 gramme= 15*434 grs. troy.] * An amusing illustration of this has been furnished by Liebig with respect to the saccharine juice of maple trees, which he found to emit so much ammonia when mixed with lime, that suspicion was at first excited that some malicious wag had introduced urine into it, and, accordingly, the vessels, which hung upon the trees in order to collect the juice, were watched with great attention. t Dumas (Essai de Slalique Chimique des etres organises, p. 56, 2me ed. 1842,) gives the following as the formula for fibrine, albumen, and caseum: C48 H39 N« O15. This is equal to 48 eq. Carbon, 6 eq. Ammo- nium, and 15 eq. Water: he also states that the analyses made in Liebig's laboratory agree best with the following: C48 H36 N8 O15, which is equal to 48 eq. Carbon, 3 eq. Ammonium, 3 eq. Ammonia, and 15 eq. Water. X Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, t. Ixxi. FOOD CONSUMED BY, AND EXCRETIONS OF, A HORSE IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. FOOD CONSUMED BY A HORSE IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. EXCRETIONS OF A HORSE IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. ARTICLES OF FOOD. Weight in Fiesh State. Weight in Dry State. c o U s CD M-t c CD s c ce bo *>. X o Salts and Earthy Matters. EXCRETIONS. Weight in Fresh State. Weight in Dry State. a o .£ a U c CD ho o t--a K c CD $ c . H O Salts and Earthy Matters. Hay .... Oats .... Water. . . . 7500 •2270 10000 04(55 1927 •29610 977.0 323 2 123*3 970 424 25020 -07-2 581-8 771 13*3 Urine .... Excrements . . 1330 14250 302 3525 108*7 13642 11*5 179-8 37*8 77*6 34.1 1328*9 109*9 574*6 Total .... Deduct Excre- ) tions. . . ( 25770 15580 8392 3827 39380 14729 446-5 191*3 1394 115-4 3209*2 13630 672-2 6845 Total .... 15580 3827 1472*9 191*3 1151 13030 084*5 Excess of Food 10190 4505 21651 255-2 240 1840.2 Excels of Ex- ) cretions. . £ 12-3 * In Boussingault's table, the quantity of carbon contained in the excrements is stated to be 1364.4. This, however, is an error, (as may be seen by referring to p. 134 of the 71st vol. of the Annates de Chimie ct Physique.) 22 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Now it appears from this table, that after deducting the nitrogen of the urine and ex- crements from that contained in the food, the surplus quantity is 24 grammes, (370TVo8o grs. troy;) and if we assume that ordinary blood contains 80 per cent of water, and that the dry residue (20 per cent.) contains 15*07 per cent, of nitrogen, it follows that 370TVoo grs. troy of nitrogen are sufficient to form 2457t9tjVo4o grs* troy °f dried blood, or 12289TlV4o7o SIS-trov (equal to lib. 12 oz. 40 grs. avoirdupois) of ordinary blood: in other words, about If lb. avoirdupois of blood may be formed daily from the above quantity of food. Moreover 100 parts of dried blood contain 51*96 of carbon, and, therefore, 2457TYo0o4o grs. troy contain about 1277 grs. troy of carbon. If, therefore, we abstract the latter quan- tity from 38046T3o5o3o-4o grs. troy (=2465*1 grammes,) the residual carbon in Boussingault's table, we have 36369TV/-/o grs* tr°y (5lbs* 3 oz* 5<3i grs* avoirdupois) of carbon to be thrown out of the system by the lungs and skin in the form of carbonic acid. Now Bous- singault calculates that a horse expires daily 28078 grs. troy (about 4 lbs. avoirdupois) of carbon. I have thus endeavored to lay before my readers the opinions recently advanced with respect to the uses of nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized foods in the animal economy. These opinions may be thus briefly stated :— 1. Nitrogenized foods are alone capable of conversion into blood, and of forming organ- ized tissues. 2. Nitrogenized foods which contain proteine, as albumen, fibrine, caseine, and gluten, alone form the albuminous and fibrinous tissues. 3. Gelatine is incapable of conversion into blood ; but it may perhaps serve for the nu- trition of the gelatinous tissues, (cellular tissue, membrane, and cartilage.) 4. Non-nitrogenized foods support the process of respiration by yielding carbon, and, in some cases, hydrogen, to be burnt in the lungs, and thereby to keep up the animal tem- perature. 5. Some of the non-nitrogenized foods contribute to the formation of fat, the carbon and hydrogen of which are ultimately burnt in the lungs, and thereby develop heat. 6. With the exception of the substance of cellular tissue, of membranes, and of the brain and nerves, all the organic materials of which the animal body is composed are derived from vegetables, which alone possess the property of producing compounds of proteine. The evidence hitherto adduced in favor of these opinions, I have already briefly noticed and criticised. I propose now to state a few circumstances which appear to me to raise some difficulties or objections to tlie unqualified admission of the opinions above refer- red to. 1. When benzoic acid, a non-nitrogenous substance, is taken into the stomach, it ap- pears in the urine in the form of hippuric acid. For this fact we are indebted to Dr. Alexander Ure. This hippuric acid is probably formed by the elements of the benzoic acid, with the addition of those of lactate of urea. 1 eq. Urea . . . C-< N= H* O' 1 eq. Lactic Acid . C — H" O* 1 eq. Benzoic Acid . C28- H^O0 Total . . C-»N2 H18©1 It cannot, therefore, be doubted, " that a non-azotized substance, taken in the food, can take a share, by means of its elements, in the act of transformation of the animal tissues, and in the formation of a secretion." Consequently, the possibility of the conversion of 2 eq. crystallized > cw ^ Rja Hippuric Acid 5 NITROGEN. 23 non-nitrogenized foods into nitrogenized constituents of the animal body does not appear by any means improbable. 2. Liebig's explanation of the uses of nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized foods does not account for the fact stated by the Commissioners of the French Academy,* that while fibrine, albumen, and gelatine, taken together or separately, are incapable of supporting animal life, gluten from wheat or maize is alone sufficient to satisfy complete and pro- longed nutrition. As fibrine, albumen, and gluten, are said to be identical in composition, their nutritive powers ought to be equal.f 3. According to Liebig and Dumas, sugar is an element of respiration. Now as it can only reach the lungs by means of the blood, traces of it ought to be found in this fluid : yet it does not appear that sugar is a constituent of healthy blood. At least it has not hitherto been found in it, though to uo om Part of sugar added to blood can be readily de- tected.J This circumstance, therefore, seems rather to show that sugar undergoes some complete change in its nature previous to its passage into the blood. Several facts favor this opinion. In the first place,—of the foods (viz. yolk of eggs, and milk,) supplied by nature for the early stages of animal existence, sugar is found only in that food (milk) which undergoes digestion before its application to the purposes of the economy Sec- ondly, in diabetes, the digestive powers are greatly impaired, and saccharine assimilation is suspended. Sugar is then detected in the blood. Now it cannot be said that its pres- ence is owing to any defect in the respiratory process, since fatty matter appears to suffer the ordinary changes in the pulmonary organs. 4. According to Dr. Prout,$ the contents of the stomachs of animals fed on vegetable substances, even when fully digested, and about to pass the pylorus, exhibit no traces of an albuminous principle; while the ch,rmous mass of animals fed on animal food contains albumen. COMPOSITION OF THE CHYMOUS MASS FROM THE DUODENUM OF THE DOG. Vegetable Food. Animal Food. 86-5 80-0 60 15-8 — 1-3 1-6 1*7 50 _ 0-7 0*7 0-2 0-5 1000 1000 It would appear, therefore, that albumen is formed subsequently to the passage of the chyme into the duodenum. Now this is in complete contradiction to Liebig's statement, that albumen pre-exists in the vegetable food of the herbivora, and is not formed in the * Comptes Rendus, Aoiit, 1842. t Tiedemann and Gmelin found it impossible to sustain the life of geese by means of boiled white of egg. " This," says Liebig, (Animal Chemistry, p. 106,) " may be easily explained, when we reflect that a graminivorous animal, especially when deprived of free motion, cannot obtain, from the transformation or waste of the tissues alone, enough of carbon for the respiratory process. 21bs. [Hessian] of albumen contain only 34 oz. [Hessian] of carbon, of which, among the last products of transformation, a fourth part is given off in the form of uric acid. X Tromer, (Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1841, p. 764.) •j Annuls of Philosophy, vol. xiii. 1819. . Water Chyme, &c. Albuminous Matter . Biliary Principle Vegetable Gluten ? . Saline Matters . Insoluble Residuum . 24 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. animal economy.* Dr. Prout's statement harmonizes well with another fact, well known to physiologists, namely, the non-existence of fibrine in the contents of the duodenum, though, according to Liebig, this principle also pre-exists in the food of animals, and is not formed by them. It has even been said that the chyle contains no fibrine until after its passage through the mesenteric glands.f- 5. If the nitrogenized substances requisite for the nutrition of the animal body exist ready formed in plants, the necessity of more complex organs of digestion for the herbivora than for the carnivora is not very obvious. LiebigJ thinks that it " is rather owing to the i difficulty of rendering soluble and available for the vital processes certain non-azotized compounds (gum 1 amylaceous fibre 1) than to any thing in the change or transformation of vegetable fibrine, albumen, and caseine, into blood; since, for this latter purpose, the less complex digestive apparatus of the carnivora is amply sufficient." But this suggestion is not a very satisfactory one. Gummy and amylaceous substances are eaten, and, appa- rently, digested, by some animals which are essentially carnivorous in the structure of their alimentary crfnal. Moreover, as the leading distinction in the food of the herbivora and carnivora consists in the use, by the former, of substances containing vegetable fibrine, albumen, and caseine, while the latter employ animal fibrine, albumen,, and caseine,—it appears more natural to connect the peculiarity in the structure of the digestive organs with the nitrogenized, than with the non-nitrogenized food. 6. No plausible explanation has hitherto been offered, by Liebig, or others, of the neces- sity for the variation of diet, and for the use of succulent vegetables or fruits, which ex- perience has shown to be necessary for the preservation of human health and life. Liebig has shown that food must contain both a plastic element of nutrition and an element of respiration; but it is well known that a diet (as of salt meat and biscuit) which fulfils both of these conditions, is not always sufficient to preserve health and life. It cannot be a matter of doubt that non-nitrogenized substances are intended by nature to constitute part of the food of man and other animals, but especially of the herbivora, since we find them in the aliments supplied by nature for animals during the first period of their existence. Thus, in the yolk of egg (the food of the embryo chick) we find fixed oil,—and in milk we have sugar and butter, both non-nitrogenous principles. If to these proofs we further add the fondness of animals for nitrogenized substances, the craving, nay, almost insatiable desire, for them, manifested by individuals who are deprived of them, and the fact before mentioned, that nitrogenized food alone cannot support life, not a doubt can remain in our minds that these principles are essential to health and life. In commencing our inquiry, then, into the particular purpose they serve in the animal economy, I would observe, in the first place, that with the exception of fat, none of them are constituents of the animal system ; nor in a state of health are they found in the bloody or the excretions. It is obvious, therefore, that they must suffer some change or I transformation in the organism. Now they all consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. ! In starch, sugar, and gum, the hydrogen and oxygen are exactly in the ratio to form wa- * I have already (p. 18) noticed Dr. Prout's suggestion of the possible secretion of nitrogenized matter by the duodenum, for the purpose of converting non-nitrogenized foods into the nitrogenized constitu- ents of the body. t Gulliver (English Translation of Gerber's Anatomy, p. 94) says he has seen a distinct clot in the i chyle of the afferent lacteals. In this case, therefore, fibrin must have been present. X Animal Chemistry, p. 165. § " Hitherto grape sugar has not been detected in the blood, though -j--A-_ part of it, added to blood, can be readily detected," (Trommer, Pharmaceutisches Central-Elatt fur 1841, p. 764.) I NITROGEN. 25 ter. Do they, therefore, contribute carbon, and in some cases hydrogen also, to assist in the formation of blood] Liebig asserts they do not, for he observes that as the nitrogen- ized principles used as food contain exactly the " amount of carbon [and hydrogen] which is required for the production of fibrine and albumen," it follows that the carbon of gum, sugar, and starch, and the carbon and hydrogen of butter and other fats, cannot "be em- ployed in the production of blood." If the nitrogenized principles contained less carbon than albumen and fibrine, then starch, sugar, gum, and fat, might give up some carbon to compensate the difference. He, therefore, concludes, that these bodies yield their car- bon, and, when their hydrogen is in excess to their oxygen, part of their hydrogen also, to form, with atmospheric oxygen, carbonic acid and water, and, therefore, to develop heat. They serve to protect the organism from the action of the oxygen, which, in the absence of food, consumes the tissues. "If," says Liebig, "we observe a man or other animal in sickness, or at any time when the body is not supplied with nourishment to compensate for the continual loss, we find him to become lean ; the fat is the first to dis- appear, it vanishes through the skin and lungs in the form of carbonic acid and water, as none of it can be found in the faeces or urine: it resists the action of the atmosphere on the body, and is a protection to the organs. But the action of the atmosphere does not end with the loss of fat: every soluble substance of the body enters into combination with the oxygen of the air. The influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere is the cause of death in most chronic diseases; from want of carbon to resist its action, that of the nerves and brain is used. In a normal state of health and nutrition, the carbon of the carbonic acid must have another source." Thus, then, it would appear that nitrogenized aliments alone are assimilated: the non-nitrogenous ones are burnt in the lungs. But it may be asked, why, if both sugar and fat serve merely for combustion in the lungs, are both of these principles contained in the milk, since, theoretically, one of them would appear to be sufficient 1 Moreover, if sugar be burnt in the lungs, is it not re- markable that, as I have already stated, (p. 24,) it has not, in the healthy system, been detected while in its passage from the digestive organs to the lungs 7 Surely some traces of it ought to be recognizable in the blood. Hitherto, however, none have been found. Does not this fact seem to show that it undergoes some transmutation during digestion, differing from that which fatty substances suffer. The yolk of the egg serves directly for the nourishment of the embryo chick, but it contains one non-nitrogenized organic principle (oil) only. But milk, which also serves for animal food, contains two, (butter and sugar.) Now milk requires to be digested before it can be assimilated: whereas yolk of egg does not,—in fact, it serves for food before the digestive organs are devel- oped. This fact, therefore, favors the notion that sugar is in some way connected with the digestive process. Alcohol is classed among the elements of respiration; and it cannot be doubted that it undergoes some change in the animal economy. When taken into the stomach it is absorbed, and gets into the circulating mass. Now, how does it get out of the system 1 Certainly not by the bowels, urine, or skin. A portion of it escapes by the lungs, and is recognizable by its odor in the breath; but the quantity in this way thrown out of the system is comparatively small, and is certainly quite disproportionate to that often swal- lowed. Moreover, it is principally when the quantity taken is very large that it is most recognizable in the breath ;—when, in fact, the function of respiration is very imperfectly performed. What, then, becomes of it 1 By itself it cannot form tissues, since it is de- ficient in some of their essential ingredients, namely, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus ; and thera is no reason to suppose that it contributes, even in part, to the renovation of 26 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. tissues. Liebig's suggestion, that it is burnt in the lungs, and thereby converted into i carbonic acid and water, appears to me a very plausible one. Now, to convert it into these substances, it merely requires oxygen. CONVERSION OF ALCOHOL INTO CARBONIC ACID AND WATER. Alcohol......C H« 02 I Carbonic Acid . . . . C4 — O" Oxygen......----O13 Water.......— H8 O6 Total . . . . . C4H«0'* | Total......C1 H8 O" By its oxidation in the lungs it must evolve caloric, and thus, when used in modera- tion, it serves to support the temperature of the body. Alcohol, therefore, is a fuel in the animal economy, by the combustion of which caloric is evolved. Common experience favors this view. Coachmen and others take it in cold weather to keep them warm, and it is familiarly used to prevent what is commonly called " catching cold." In cases of extreme suffering and exhaustion from excessive exertion and privation of food, the cautious and moderate dietetical use of spirit has, on many occasions, proved invaluable. In Captain Bligh's account* of the sufferings of himself and companions, in consequence of the mutiny of the crew of the Bounty, he ob- serves, " The little rum we had was of great service : when our nights were particu- larly distressing, I generally served a tea-spoonful or two to each person: and it was joyful tidings when they heard of my intentions." It is said, that the inhabitants of colder climates take more spirit than others, and with less injury. Liebig accounts for this by saying that they inhale a more condensed air, that is, they take in more oxygen at every inspiration; combustion is more rapid in them, and thus the elements of the al- cohol are more speedily got rid of. f I trust that in offering these remarks on the effects of alcohol, I may not be misunder- stood. Though alcohol evolves heat in burning, it is an obnoxious fuel. Its volatility, and the facility with which it permeates membranes and tissues, enable it to be rapidly absorbed; and when it gets into the blood it exerts a most injurious operation, before it is burnt in the lungs, on the brain and the liver.}: Though by its combustion heat is evolved, yet, under ordinary circumstances, there are other better, safer, and less injuri- ous combustibles to be burned in the vital lamp.§ Some of these non-nitrogenized foods serve another purpose in the animal economy— they contribute to the formation offal. When the quantity of these foods taken into the stomach is great, that is, out of proportion to the quantity of oxygen absorbed by the lungs, fat is, under some circumstances, formed. Sugar, starch, and gum, become, by the loss of part of their oxygen, fat; for the relative proportion of their carbon and hy- drogen is almost identical with that of fat. * Voyage to the South Seas in 1787-9, p. 190. Lond. 1792. t The Highlanders, who it is well known are immoderate drinkers, pretend that spirit does not intoxi- cate in the Hills as it would do in the Low Country. (See Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland to his Friend in London, vol. ii. p. 161, 5th ed. Lond. 1818.) X Alcohol acts on the stomach before it is absorbed. Its operation on the brain and liver are probably referable to its topical action on these organs after it gets into the blood ; for it has been detected both in the brain and liver of those who have died under its influence. (See my Elements of Materia Medica vol. i. p. 359, 2d edit.) § Appendix, D. NITROGEN. 27 RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN IN SOME NON-NITROGENIZED PRINCIPLES. Starch contains . 79 Carbon to 10*99 Hydrogen Sugar Gum Mutton fat Human fat Hog's lard 79 — " 11*80 79 — » 11-80 79 - » 11*1 79 — " 11*4 79 — » 11*7 Some facts adduced by Liebig are almost conclusive that starch and sugar may become converted into fat in the animal economy. A lean goose weighing 41bs. gained, in thirty- six days/during which it was fed with 241bs. of maize, 51bs. in weight, and yielded 3-Jlbs. of fat. Now this fat could not have been contained in the food ready formed, because maize does not contain the thousandth part of its weight of fat, or of any substances resembling fat. A certain number of bees, the weight of which was exactly known, were fed with pure honey devoid of wax. They yielded one part of wax for every twenty parts of honey consumed, without any change being perceptible in their health or in their weight. I agree with Liebig, that with these facts before us, " it is impossible any longer to entertain doubt as to the formation of fat from sugar in the animal body.* f J Now, alcohol is an element of respiration. Does it form fat 1 I think not. In the first place, its carbon and hydrogen are not in the ratio of those of fat, for it contains 79 parts of carbon to 19*74 of hydrogen. Secondly, we do not find that spirit drinkers are fat; but, on the contrary, emaciated. Hogarth, in his Beer Alley and Gin Lane, has ludicrously though faithfully represented the differences in the appearance of beer topers and spirit tipplers. The first are plump, rubicund, and bloated ; the latter are pale, tot- tering, emaciated, and miserable. But, it may be asked, what is the use of fat in the animal economy 1 It is a reservoir of food. During long fasting and hybernation it is absorbed and consumed. It is the food apparently on which the animal, at these times, exists. Is it then capable of reno- vating the tissues ; and, if so, where does it derive the necessary quantity of nitrogen 1 Liebig asserts that it does not renovate. It merely yields, he says, carbon and hydrogen to be burnt in the lungs, by which the animal temperature is supported without the living organs being oxidized and destroyed. Dr. Prout, on the other hand, as I have already stated, (p. 18,) believes that fat may be converted into most, if not all, the matters neces- lary for the existence of animal bodies.$ Nutritive equivalents.—Several writers have endeavored to form a scale of nutritive equivalents, the value of which, if accurate, will be universally admitted. Boussingault has suggested one, founded on the quantity of nitrogen contained in foods. BOUSSINGAULT'S SCALE OF NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS. * Substances. Equivts. Wheat-flour .... 100 Wheat.....107 Barley-meal ... 119 Barley .... 130 Substances. Equivts. White haricots ... 56 Lentils.....57 White garden cabbage . . 810 Ditlo, dried at 212° ... 83 * The mode of promoting obesity, practised in certain parts of the world, lends support to the above statements. If " we can trust to the reports of physicians who have resided in the East," says Liebig, " the Turkish women, in their diet of rice, and in the frequent use of enemata of strong soup, have united the conditions necessary for the formation both of cellular tissue and fat." M. Caullet de Vau- moral, quoted by Mrs. Walker, (Female Beauty, p. 171. Lond. 1837,) states that in the Bey's seraglio at Tripoli, women are fattened against a certain day by means of repose and baths, assisted by a diet of Turkish flour, mixed with honey. Fifteen days, he says, were sufficient for the purpose. t See page t Appendix E. $ Appendix, F. 28 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Substances- Equivts. Oats ..... 117 Rye.....Ill Rice.....177 Buckwheat .... 108 Maize, or Indian corn . . 138 Horse-beans .... 44 Peas.....67 Substances. Equivts Potatoes .... 613 Ditto, kept 10 months 894 Ditto, dried at 212° 126 757 Ditto dried at 212° . 95 Jerusalem artichoke 539 . 1335 It will be observed, that in this table 44 parts of horse-beans, or 67 of peas, are repre- sented as being equal in nutritive power to 100 parts of wheat-flour. Surely, this cannot be correct? Liebig admits, that though lentils, beans, and peas, surpass all other vegeta- ble food in the quantity of nitrogen they contain, yet that they possess but small value as articles of nourishment, because they are deficient in the component parts of the bones, (subphosphate of lime and magnesia;) they satisfy the appetite without increasing the strength. If this explanation be correct, it suggests the use of bone-ashes with either horse-beans or peas, as constituting a most nutritive and economical food.* It may be objected that all nitrogenized vegetable principles are not nutritive, for the most powerful of the vegetable poisons, as the vegetable alkalies, are nitrogenized ;f and, therefore, the presence of such substances would lower the nutritive equivalent. More- over, rain-water contains ammonia, which being contained in the vegetable juices, would lead to an erroneous estimate of the nutritive value of many plants. Boussingault has met the first of these objections by observing, that these violent poisons are not found in appreciable quantity in alimentary plants; and, therefore, a vegetable substance which has been accepted as animal nourishment may be inferred to be devoid of any hurtful principle. But this assertion must be received with considerable limitation. The solanina of po- tatoes, the sulphosinapisin of white mustard, and the myronic acid of black mustard, are nitrogenized, though not nutritive, principles, which occur in substances used as food, and whose presence must erroneously lower the nutritive equivalent; that is, raise the estimated nutritive value of the substances in which they are respectively contained. And if we were to apply Boussingault's principle to animal substances, we should * The views of Dr. Prout do not seem to differ essentially from those of the Author in relation tf the use of fat in the animal economy. Dr. Prout remarks, " that the oleaginous principle may be con- verted into most, if not into all the matters'necessary for the existence of animal bodies, seems to be proved by the well-known fact that the life of an animal may be prolonged by the absorption of the oleaginous matter contained within its own body." Dr. Prout does not maintain that fat is capable of renovating the tissues, but only that it may serve to prolong animal life; an opinion entirely coincident with that of Liebig.—L. t Liebig asserts that all the [vegetable] poisons contain nitrogen. But anthiarin, the active principle of the Upas poison, is devoid of it. Moreover, elaterin is a non-nitrogenized principle. Furthermore, no ratio can be observed between the proportion of nitrogen and the physiological effect of the vegeta- ble nitrogenized substances. Thus, solanina contains 1*64, picrotoxine 1-3, morphia about 5, strychnia about 8, quina 864, and caffeine 28-78, per cent, of nitrogen ; yet solanina is a poison, caffeine not so. Lastly, the difference between the per centage composition of quina and strychnia is too slight to admit of safe conclusions being drawn as to the cause of the difference of the operation of those two bodies. 76-08 6-63 8-07 9-22 Carbon 74-08 Hydrogen 7*40 Nitrogen 8*64 Oxygen 9*88 100*00 100*00 PHOSPHORUS. 29 in the outset meet a difficulty, in the case of gelatine,* which contains a larger amount of nitrogen than either flesh or blood, but which, according to Liebig, is capable of nour- ishing the gelatinous tissues only. But, notwithstanding these and other drawbacks to its accuracy, this mode of forming a scale of nutritive equivalents is of great interest and value, on account of the extreme (lifficulty of arriving at correct results by practical methods. 5. Phosphorus.—This is a constituent of both animals and vegetables. It is an essen- tial ingredient of albumen and fibrine, and of all tissues composed of those principles. | Nervous matter also contains it. Its existence in the brain has been long known. In | 1834, Couerbef advanced an absurd notion, that the healthy or morbid conditions of the mental faculties were connected with variations in the amount of this substance in the cerebral matter. "In the brains of sane men," says he, "I have found from 2 to 2*5 per cent, of phosphorus; in those of idiots only 1 or 1*5; while in those of madmen there are from 3 to 4*5 per cent.!" It is scarcely necessary to say, that the accuracy of this assertion has been disproved; and LassaigneJ fixes the amount of phosphorus in the brains of madmen at from 1*93 to 1*97 per cent. The bones also contain phosphorus, which exists in them in combination with oxygen and lime principally, constituting a subphosphate of lime, (bone ash.) Phosphorus is also a constituent of the sexual apparatus. It is found in the spermatic fluid, and in the ovary. As it is thus a necessary ingredient of the animal body, it must, of course, be an ele- ment of the food of animals. Thus it is a constituent of the yolk of eggs, the food of the embryo chick. " One great use of tht yolk," says Dr. Prout,§ " evidently is to fur- nish the phosphorus, entering as phosphoric acid, into the skeleton of the animal." In milk (the aliment of young mammals) it is also a constant ingredient, existing as sub- phosphate of lime. It is a constituent of the blood, the flesh, and the bones of animals employed by man as food. In the bones it exists, as I have just stated, in the form of subphosphate of lime, which salt is also found in the blood and flesh. But fibrine and albumen, both of them constituents of blood and flesh, contain phosphorus. In what state, it may be asked, does it exist in these organic principles ? When separated by an alkali, (potash,) it is found as phosphorus or phosphoric acid. Now it has been supposed that the oxygen of I this acid was derived from the potash, the potassium of which combined with the sul- | phur found in both fibrine and albumen. But caseine yields equally sulphuret of potas- sium when treated with caustic potash, although it contains no phosphorus to abstract ' |the oxygen. Hence, then, it is not known precisely in what form phosphorus exists in fibrine and albumen. Fishes are especially rich in phosphoric matter; a fact which ex- * The reader is referred to the Comptes Rendus des Seances de VAcademic des Sciences, Aout, 1841, for the Report made by the Gelatine Committee. This report is the result of ten years' labor. The re- porter (M. Magendie) shows that though raw bones are capable of effecting the complete and prolonged nutrition of dogs, yet that there is no process known for extracting from bones an aliment which, either alone, or mixed with other substances, can be substituted for meat. He also infers that—as gelatine, ! albumen, or fibrine, separately or artificially combined, are incapable of permanently nourishing; while j flesh, which consists of gelatine, albumen, fibrine, fat, salts, &c. combined according to laws of organic i nature, suffices, even in small quantity, for complete and prolonged nutrition—it is the '• organic condi- I tion" which forms such an important element in this process. t Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, p. 190. 1834. X Journ. de Chim. Med. t. 1", lle Serie, p. 344. 1835. $ Phil. Trans, for 1822, p. 388-9. 30 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. plains the circumstance related by Dumas,* of the evolution of phosphuretted hydrogen in the purification of spirit which had been used for preserving fish. I have frequently recognised a powerful phosphoric odor in the breath of patients. I have noticed that it occurs after certain kinds of food, as lobster and crab. I have also met with it after the use of some Indian condiments. Phosphorus is a constituent of most vegetable substances, being found in-the ashes of plants, principally in the form of an earthy phosphate, (lime or magnesia.) " The soil in which plants grow furnishes them with phosphoric acid, and they in turn yield it to animals, to be used in the formation of their bones, and of those constituents of the brain which contain phosphorus. Much more phosphorus is thus afforded to the body than it requires, when flesh, bread, fruit, and husks of grain, are used for food, and this excess is eliminated in the urine and the solid excrements. We may form an idea of the quantity of phosphate of magnesia contained in grain, when we consider that the con- cretions in the caecum of horses consist of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, which must have been obtained from the hay and oats consumed as food."f The concretions (hippolithi) here referred to sometimes attain the size of a child's head. Several of this magnitude are contained in the Anatomical Museum of the London Hospital. I have one weighing between five and six pounds. Ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia " is an invariable constituent of the seeds of all the grasses. It is contained in the outer horny husk, and is introduced into bread |dong with the flour, and also into beer. The bran of flour contains the greatest quantity of it." " When ammonia is mixed with beer, the same salt separates as a white precipitate."} "The small quantity of phosphates which the seeds of the lentils, beans, and peas contain, must be the cause of their small value as articles of nourishment, since they surpass all other vegetable food in the quantity of nitrogen which enters into their com- position. But as the component parts of the bones (phosphate of lime and magnesia) are absent, they satisfy the appetite without increasing the strength."} Unrefined sugar contains an earthy phosphate; for the crust which is deposited in the boilers used in the preparation of raw sugar, contains, according to Avequin,|| no less than 92*43 per cent, of subphosphate of lime. " Phosphate of magnesia and am- monia forms the principal inorganic constituent of the potatoe."1T The following table shows the quantity of phosphorus contained in some alimentary substances:— QUANTITY OF PHOSPHORUS IN CERTAIN FOODS. 1000 Parts. PhosphoHB. Authority.** ' Fibrine (dried) . . . ) j «w .,« *r ,, Albumen of eggs (dried). . .\ 4'3 t0 3'2 Mulder.tf Albumen of serum of blood (dried) 3*3 Mulder. Vegetable fibrine . . . ) as animal fibrine > , . ,. ---------albumen . . .\ and albumen 5 Uebl£* * Trade de Chimie appliquee aux Arts, t. i. p. 266. t Liebig, Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, p 145. X Qp. supra cit. p. 92. $ Ibid. p. 147. II Journal de Pharmacve, t. xxvii. p. 15. f Liebig, op.t supra cit. p. 205. ** Several of the authorities quoted in this table merely state the quantity of phosphates present; 1 have, therefore, calculated the quantity of phosphorus present on the assumption that 100 parts of the earthy phosphates are equal to 22 parts of phosphorus. tt Pharmaceulisches Central Blatt fur 1838, p. 885. PHOSPHORUS. 31 1000 Ports. Phosphorus. Authority. Cerebric acid (in brain) . 9 Fremy.* Oleophosphoric acid (in brain 12 to 19 Ditto. Caseine . . 13-2 Berzelius.t Bone, Ilium of Ox . . 9*944 Thomson.} ----- Fibia of Sheep . 11*4334 Ditto. Milk . . 0*56 Berzelius. Blood (average) . 0143 Denis."5 Potatoes (dried) . 2-5 Einhoff.H Wheat ( from 0*792 "| \ to 1*93 Rye 1*32 to 9196 i Hermbstaedt.1I . 0*22 to 1*32 Oats . 0*352 to 1*32 J . 0*286 to 0*88 . 0*242 6. Sulphur.—Sulphur is a constituent of both animals and vegetables. Fibrine and albumen, and all tissues composed of these substances, contain it. A solution of flesh in liquor potassse contains sulphuret of potassium ; and if hydrochloric acid be added to it, sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved, and is detected by its staining paper moistened with a solution of sugar of lead. The discoloration which a silver spoon suffers by being used in eating eggs, depends on the formation of sulphuret of silver. It is probable, therefore, that the sulphur of both fibrine and albumen is uncombined with oxygen. If some white of egg, boiled hard, be decomposed by heat, it evolves hydrosulphuret of ammonia, which discolors paper moistened with sugar of lead. Caseine also contains sulphur, as do likewise hair and bones. The efficacy of a mixture of finely powdered litharge (oxide of lead) and lime (liair dye) in staining 'the hair, depends on the forma- tion of the black sulphuret of lead. The lime serves to form, in the first place, a sulphu- ret of calcium with the sulphur of the hair. The lead afterwards unites with the sulphur. Animal charcoal (bone-black) evolves sulphuretted hydrogen, when treated with hydro- chloric acid, showing that sulphur was a constituent of bones. The existence of sulphur in so many animal substances, serves to explain the evolu- tion of sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia, by putrifying animal substances; excrement, for example. Indeed, so much sulphur is obtained in this way, that some geologists have considered it to be a source of, at least part of, the native sul- phur of the mineral kingdom.** That sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved in privies is proved by its darkening the white paint, and by its blackening silver articles (watches, coin, spoons, &c.) which have accidentally fallen into the night soil. Game, when very high, will sometimes discolor the silver fork used in eating it. Sulphur is thrown out of the system in various excretions. Thus, the urine contains sulphates, in part formed by the action of the oxygen of the arterial blood on the sulphur * Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 453. 1841. t Traite de Chimie, t. vil. p. 606. X Chemistry of Animal Bodies, p. 241,242. 1843. § Essai sur V Application de la Chimie a V Etude physiologique du Sang de VHomme, p. 211—244. || Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies—Vegetables, p. 840. *T AnleUung zur chemischen Zergliederung der Vegetabilien vberhaupt und der Getreidearten insbesondere. Leipzig, 1831. The nature of the manure modifies the quantity of earthy phosphates found in corn. ** Brocchi, quoted by Leonhard itu his Handbuch der Oryktognosie, p. 599, Heidelberg, 1826. When the gate St. Antoine at Paris was pilled down in 1778, there were found in the ditches of that place, where many years (300?) previously excrement had been deposited, grains and crystals of sulphur depos- ited on lime. (Fougeroux de Bondarey, Mem. de I'Academie Royale des Sciences, Annee 1780, p. 105.) It is stated in the Athenceum, (Dec. 1, 1833, p. 860,) that Maravigno " disputes the assertions of Prof. Gemellaro, who pretends that sulphur owes its origin to the decomposition of mollusca." 32 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. of the metamorphosed tissues. In the saliva there is found an alkaline sulphocyanide ; and in consequence of the presence of this salt, the saliva possesses the property of red- dening the sesquisalts of iron. The sulphuretted hydrogen found in the alimen- tary canal is perhaps often produced by the action of decomposing organic matters on sulphates.* Metallic matter kept in the mouth becomes discolored by the action of sulphur on it. Thus the gold plates used to support artificial teeth, and the amalgam of silver, some- times employed to fill the hollows of decayed teeth, become incrusted with a film of metallic sulphuret. Moreover, the leaden blue line, which borders the edges of the gums attached to the necks of the teeth, in persons whose 'constitutions are under the influ- ence of lead,f is probably sulphuret of lead. The system derives its sulphur from ani- mal, vegetable, and mineral substances, used as food. Thus flesh, eggs, and milk, con- tain it. Vegetable fibrine, (as of corn,) vegetable albumen, (as of almonds, nuts, cauli- flowers, asparagus, and turnips,) and vegetable caseine, (as of peas and beans,) contain it. Lastly, sulphur, in the form of sulphate of lime, is a constituent of common and spring water. Celery, rice, hops, ginger, and many other vegetable substances, contain sulphur. Though most culinary vegetables contain sulphur, yet in the Crucifercc it is especially abundant. Asafcetida, which contains sulphur, is sometimes used as a condiment; and is considered by some oriental nations as "foodfor ihegods."\ An infusion of ichite mustard strikes a blood-red color with the persalts of iron, owing to the presence of sulphosinapisine. By this character white mustard is readily distin- guished from black mustard. Both kinds of mustard-flour charred in a tube evolve a sulphuretted vapor, which blackens paper moistened with a solution of acetate of lead. In the same way sulphur may be detected in cabbage, potatoes, and many other vegetable foods. If peas or almonds be boiled in a solution of caustic potash, and then hydrochloric acid be added, the evolved vapor blackens paper moistened with a solution of lead, thus showing that these seeds contained sulphur. The quantity of sulphur contained in various alimentary substances is as follows:—- * An eminent chemical philosopher tells me that he is always much troubled with the evolution of this gas after the use of sulphate of magnesia, (Epsom salts.) That organic matter, in a state of decom- position, possesses the power of decomposing sulphates, is now fully established. Many years since, my friend, Mr. Pepys, (Trans, of the Geological Society, vol. i. 399,) showed that by the mutual action of animal matter, and a solution of sulphate of iron, the latter is de-oxidated, sulphur, sulphuret of iron, and black oxide of iron, being formed. My friend, Professor Daniell, (Lond. Edinb. and Dub. Phil. Mag., July, 1841,) has also shown that alkaline sulphates are decomposed by decomposing organic matters! From his statements it appears that the waters upon the western coast of Africa, to an extent of 40 000 square miles, are impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, to an amount, in some places, exceeding that of some of the most celebrated sulphur springs in the world; and he suggests that the existence of this deleterious gas in the atmosphere, which must necessarily accompany its solution in the waters may be connected with the awful miasma which has hitherto proved fatal to the explorers and settlers of the deadly shores of Africa, as well as of other places. The origin of the sulphuretted hydrogen of sea and some other waters, has been ascribed by Dr. Marcet, (Phil. Trans. 1819, p. 195,) Mr. Malcolmson (Trans of the Geological Society, 2d Ser., vol. v., p. 564, Lond. 1840,) Dr. A. Fontan, (Ann.de Chim. et de Physique July, 1840,) and Professor Daniell, to the decomposition of sulphates contained in the water, by putrify- ing vegetable matter. t See Dr. Burton's paper on this subject, in the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, 2d Series vol v d 63. 1840. ' 'v' X See my Elements of Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 1456, et seq. 2d edit. Also Burnes's Travels vol i p. 143; and vol. ii. p. 243. SULPHUR—IRON. 33 TABLE OF THE QUANTITY OF SULPHUR IN SOME ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES.* 1000 Parts of Quantity of Sulphur. Authority. Fibrine- ........> - — - Mulder. Albumen of eggs (ovalbu'men) '. '.'.'.'. '.\ From 3*6 to 3*8 Albumen of blood (seralbumin)..... 6-8 Ditto. Caseine............. 36 Ditto. Vegetable fibrine..........) as animal fibrine, ) ---------albumen.........> albumen, and [ Liebig. --------- caseine.........) caseine. ) Volatile oil of black mustard...... 2048 Sulphosinapisine (in white mustard) . . . 96-57 Asafoetida . . . ,........ 20C Ure.t These are some only of the substances from which the sulphur of our system is de- rived. Others have been already referred to. 7. Iron.—Iron is a constituent of most, if not all, organized beings ; and is found in the ashes of both animals and vegetables. The quantity which they contain is, however, small, and has not been accurately ascertained. Moreover, we are unacquainted with the precise state in which it exists in 'iving beings. This metal is an essential constituent of the blood corpuscles, though, according to the recent researches of Scherer, it is neither essential to hasmatosin, nor necessary to the color of the blood. But the well-known beneficial influence of chalybeates in the disease called Aneemia, in which the blood is found to contain a smaller quantity of iron than in a state of health, favors the notion that the proper color of this fluid is in some way con- nected with the amount of iron contained in it; for one of the most characteristic symp- toms of this malady is an absence of the natural vermilion tint of the complexion. According to Denis,J 1000 parts of the blood corpuscles yield 2 pfarts of per- or ses- quioxide of iron. But as the relative proportions of serum and blood corpuscles are subject to considerable variation, it follows that the quantity of iron contained in a given weight of blood cannot be constant. Moreover, it is probable that the proportion of this metal in the blood corpuscles may not be uniform. The quantity of sesquioxide of iron obtained from 1000 parts of blood, varies, accord- ing to the authority^ just quoted, from 0128 to 0*346 parts. In pale, relaxed individuals, of a lymphatic temperament, in those who have been badly fed, or have been subjected to frequent bleedings, or who are laboring under anaemia, the blood yields the smaller proportion of sesquioxide above referred to. But the blood of strong and vigorous sub- jects, of persons of a sanguine temperament, and of those who are well fed, furnishes a much greater proportion of iron. Liebigll assumes the existence of a much larger quan- tity of sesquioxide of iron in the blood than is stated by Denis in the work already quoted.*!! * According to Mulder, (Pharmaccutisches Central-Blatt filr 1838, p. 885,) the formula for fibrine and ovalbumen is C8°° H620 N>°° 024° ps S« ; while that for seralbumen is C8°° H™ N""- 02« ps s4. But Liebig (Animal Chemistry, p. 124) justly observes, that "Every attempt to give the true absolute amount of the atoms in fibrine and albumen in a rational formula, in which the sulphur and phosphorous are taken, not in fractions, but in entire equivalents, must be fruitless, because we are absolutely unable to determine with perfect accuracy the exceedingly minute quantities of sulphur and phosphorus in such compounds; and because a variation in the sulphur or phosphorus, smaller in extent than the usual limits of errors of observation, will affect the number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, or oxygen, to the extent of 10 atoms or more." t Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 461. X Essai sur V Application de la Chimie a VElude Physiologique du Sang de VHomme, p. 205. Paris, 1838. § Op. supra cit. pp. 211—244. II Animal Chemistry, p. 273. f In a work published by Denis in 1830, and entitled Recherches Experimentales sur le Sang Humain, the mean quantity of iron in 1000 parts of blood is said to be 0*9, but in his more recent work, from which the statement in the text has been taken, he states (p. 193) he has substituted Lecanu's method of deter- mining the proportion of iron, as being infinitely more exact than his own. 3 34 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. " According to the researches of Denis, Richardson, ani' Nasse, (Handworterbuch der Physiologie, vol. i. p. 138,)" says Liebig, "10,000 parts of blood contain 8 parts of peroxide of iron." Now 8 parts of peroxide are equal to 5T6oths parts of the pure metal. Liebig regards the compound of iron in the blood as an oxidized one. In the arterial blood, it is saturated with oxygen, (hydrated sesquioxide;) but during its passage through the capillaries it loses part of its oxygen,* and becomes protoxide of iron, which combines with carbonic acid, one of the products of the oxidation of the metamorphosed tissues, and forms carbonate of the protoxide of iron, which exists in venous blood. This, in the lungs, absorbs the same amount of oxygen it had lost, and gives out its acquired carbonic acid. But the fact, that for every volume of oxygen absorbed by carbonate of the pro- toxide of iron no less than four volumes of carbonic acid are evolved, appears to me to present some difficulties to its admission. QUANTITY OF OXYGEN ABSORBED, AND CARBONIC ACID EVOLVED, BY CARBON- . ATE OF THE PROTOXIDE OF IRON. 4 eq. of Carbonate of Protoxide of Iron, . . . 232 1 vol. or 2 eq. of Oxygen absorbed .... 16 248 4 vols, or eq. Carbonic Acid evolved .... 88 4 eq. Sesquioxide of Iron formed.....160 248 Now it has already been stated (pp. 7 and 13) that in the process of respiration, the quantity, by volume, of carbonic acid expired, is not equal to that of the oxygen which has disappeared. If we assume that the venous blood contains protoxide of iron, a portion only of which is in combination with carbonic acid, this difficulty may be obviated. QUANTITY OF OXYGEN ABSORBED, AND CARBONIC ACID EVOLVED, BY PROTOX- IDE AND CARBONATE OF THE PROTOXIDE OF IRON. 1 equivalent Carbonate of Protoxide of Iron . 58 3 equivalents of Protoxide of Iron.....108 1 vol. or 2 equivalents of Oxygen absorbed . 16 182 1 equivalent or vol. of Carbonic Acid evolved 22 4 equivalents of Sesquioxide of Iron .... 160 182 " The frightful effects of sulphuretted hydrogen and of prussic acid, which, when in- spired, put a stop to all the phenomena of motion in a few seconds, are explained in a natural manner by the well-known action of these compounds on those of iron, when alkalies are present; and free alkali is never absent in the blood," (Liebig.)f Iron is a constituent of the hair. Black hair contains most of this metal; white hair the leastj Iron has been found by Braconnot in the gastric juice of dogs.J It has likewise been detected in the chyle.|| These facts, then, explain how this metal gets into the blood. * The facility with which, under certain circumstances, the sesquioxide of iron loses part of its oxygen, has been recently applied by Sir J. F. Herschel in the production of photographic pictures, termed Ferrotypes. • t The physiological effects of a want of the usual proportion of iron in the blood globules, yet remain to be investigated. If Liebig's hypothesis be correct, then such deficiency must cause the globules to lose their property of absorbing oxygen, and of afterwards giving up this oxygen and carrying off the resulting carbonic acid, which would doubtless lead to important changes in the temperature and other vital phenomena of the body. The vital motions would go on, but the change of matter would be ar- rested ; no lifeless compounds could consequently be separated, such as bile or urine, and the animal temperature would necessarily sink. The phenomena connec'ed with aggravated cases of ana-mia, in leuco-phlegmatic subjects, lend much plausibility to such a doctrine. See further remarks on this sub- ject, in Appendix, F.—L. X Vauquelin, Ann. de Chim. Iviii. p. 41. § Ann. de Chim. et de Physiq. lix. p. 249. II Denis, Recherches Experimentales, p. 323. 1830. CHLORINE. 35 Most articles of food contain iron. It is a constituent of the blood found in meat. Veal must contain less of it than beef, since calves are usually bled copiously previous to death, by which an anaemic state is induced. In the yellow fat of the yolk of egg this metal may be detected, (Liebig.) Milk likewise contains iron, according to Berzelius, in the state of phosphate. Traces of iron have been detected,in most vegetable foods. Mustard, cabbage, potatoes, peas, and cucumbers, may be mentioned as examples. 8. Chlorine.—This elementary substance is a constituent of the blood, the gastric juice, and several of the excretions, as the urine, saliva, tears, and fasces. In the blood and the excretions it exists in combination with sodium, while in the gastric juice it is found combined with hydrogen, and thereby constituting hydrochloric acid. As the chlorine of the blood is constantly being consumed in the formation of the gas- tric juice and secretions, it requires to be frequently renewed. Hence it is an indispensa- ble constituent of our food ; and is taken into the system in the form of chloride of sodium or common salt, which contains 60 per cent of chlorine. To the embryo chick nature has supplied it in both the white and the yolk of egg, while the young mammal finds it in its mother's milk. The appetite which all animals evince for common salt shows that it is an agent indispensable for their health. Its uses will be hereafter pointed'out* * One of the most important, uses of chloride of sodium (common salt) is the formation of hydrochloric acid, an essential ingredient of the gastric juice. By what particular agency, whether by electricity or affinity, this decomposition is effected, we are unable to determine precisely, but that the hydrochloric acid of this juice derives its chlorine from the chloride of sodium, can scarcely be doubted. Its hydrogen is probably derived from water, the oxygen of which at the same time unites with the sodium to form soda. The gastric juice consists essentially of vxAer, gastric mucus, and hydrochloric acid. As mucus is a fluid secretion of all the mucous membranes, while the mucus of the gastric membrane alone yields, with water and hydrochloric acid, a digestive liquor, it is probable that the mucus of the stomach con- tains some peculiar organic principle, not hitherto isolated, on which its peculiar properties depend. To this principle, the term pepsin (from irivro, I digest) has been applied. An artificial digestive liquor is readily prepared by macerating the lining membrane of the fourth stomach of the calf in water, to which a few drops of hydrochloric acid have been added. If small cubes of w-hite of egg, boiled hard, be macerated in this liquor, their more superficial parts become translucent, and their edges and angles rounded. Very gradually they are dissolved, presenting during the process the appearance of a cube of soap, dissolving in water, and having a gelatiniform character. The yolk of egg yields a turbid liquor, owing to the presence of fat globules. A piece of cooked beefsteak becomes pulpy at the surface, and gradually dissolves. These changes are produced neither by an infusion of the stomach, nor by diluted hydrochloric acid employed separately; but by the two conjointly they are readily effected. Now, Liebig asserts, " that the substance which is present in the gastric juice in a state of change is a product of the transformation of the stomach itself;" and he goes on to state, that "the fresh lining mem- brane of the stomach of a calf, digested with weak muriatic acid, gives to this fluid no power of dissolving boiled flosh or coagulated white of egg; but if previously allowed to dry, or if left for a time in water, it then yields to water, acidulated with muriatic acid, a substance in minute quantity, the decomposition of which is already commenced, and is completed in the solution." But several circumstances appear to me to be opposed to this view. The fact ascertained by Schwann, that the solvent principle of the digestive fluid can be precipitated from its neutral solution by acetate of lead, and be obtained again in an active state from the precipitate by means of sulphuretted hydro- gen, is apparently inconsistent, with Liebig's idea, that this principle is matter in a state of decomposition or transformation. Moreover, if the essential pav; of the gastric juice—that by which digestion is effected —be a mere transformation of the stomach, how is it that other parts of analogous structure and compo- sition do not suffer the same transformation? I have tried to obtain a digestive liquor from the second stomach of the calf, and from the bladder, but in vain. How is it that this fancied transformation goes on, during life, only when solicited to do so by the presence of aliment or by mechanical irritation ? Dr. Beaumont ascertained that pure gastric juice will keep for many months without becoming fetid: a fact 36 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Sodium.—Sodium is a constituent of the blood, the animal tissues, and the secretions. Owing to its presence, the ashes of animal substances (feathers, bristles, hairs, flesh, &c.) possess the property of communicating a yellow tinge to flame. This metal is taken into the system, principally in the form of chloride, which contains 40 per cent, of the metal. This salt is used at our table as a condiment, and is a constit- uent of most animal foods. Thus it is contained in both the white and the yolk of egg, in milk, and in flesh. It is not an ordinary constituent of plants, unless they grow in the neighborhood of the sea or other salt water. Minute quantities of it are found in most of our common waters. Sodium is expelled from the system both in the form of chloride and of oxysalt In the urine of flesh-eating animals it exists in the form of sulphate and phosphate of sod,a.* 11. Calcium.—This metal is a component part of all animals. In the higher classes it exists principally in the form of subphosphate of lime. Thus, the bones of the vertebrata contain this salt mixed with a small portion of carbonate of lime. But the shells and crusts of invertebrated animals, as lobsters oysters, &c, consist of carbonate principally, but mixed with a little subphosphate of lime. Muscles, nervous matter, the liver, the thyroid gland, and, indeed, all the animal solids, as well as the blood, contain calcium in the form of subphosphate of lime. Calcium is a constituent of the white, the yolk, and the shell of eggs ; and it is probable that the calcium found in the skeleton of the chick, when it quits the shell, was derived from one or more of these sources-! It is likewise a constituent of milk, and from this source the young mammal derives the requisite subphosphate of lime for deposition in his bones. We derive the calcium of our system from the animal, vegetable, and mineral sub- stances which we consume as food. Thus bones, flesh, viscera, blood, and milk of animals, yield us this metal. To these sources must be added eggs, as above mentioned. Most vegetables also contain it. Thus subphosphate of lime is found in cereal grains, onions, and garlic ; the oxalate exists in the stalks of garden rhubarb used for making tarts and puddings ; the tartrate is found in grapes; gum and unrefined sugar yield ashes contain- ing calcium. Another source of calcium is common water, (well and river water,) which usually contains both bicarbonate and sulphate of lime. scarcely explicable on the hypothesis that its activity depends on a principle in a state of decomposition. I find that while acidulated infusions of the second stomach of the calf, and of the bladder, soon become putrid and fetid, that of the fourth stomach remains remarkably free from unpleasant smell for several weeks. Lastly, I find, contrary to Liebig's statement, that a digestive liquor can be prepared from the fresh undried fourth stomach of a calf. I cannot agree with Liebig, that digestion is a process analogous to fermentation; that, in fact, it is nothing more than the transformation of food, effected by the contact of matter in a state of decomposition. If it were, a small quantity of gastric juice ought to be capable of effecting the digestion of an unlimited quantity of food. Now, the experiments of Dr. Beaumont on the natural gastric juice, and of Schwann on the artificial digestive liquor, prove that this is not the case. Both found that only a certain amount of food could be digested with a given quantity of gastric juice: and Dr. Beaumont observes, that " when the juice becomes saturated, it refuses to dissolve more ; and if an excess of food have been taken, the residue remains in the stomach, or passes into the bowels in a crude state." Now, this fact is quite in- consistent with the fermentation theory. * Appendix, G. t This, however, is denied by Dr. Prout, (Phil. Trans. 1822, p. 399.) " I think I can venture to assert," says he, " after the most patient and attentive investigation, that it [the lime of the skeleton of the chick] does not pre-exist in the recent egg; certainly not, at least in any known state. The only possible sources, therefore, whence it can be derived, are from the shell, or transmutation from other principles." I have before (p. 3) noticed Dr. Prout's opinions as to the origin of the lime of the chick when it leaves the shell. MAGNESIUM—POTASSIUM—FLUORINE. 37 " The Chinese," says Mr. Medhurst,* " use great quantities of gypsum, [sulphate of lime,] which they mix with pulse, in order to form a jelly, of which they are very fond." In some conditions of system a morbid appetite for calcareous substances exists. " Physicians," says Liebig, " are well acquainted with the fact, that children who are not well supplied with a sufficient quantity of lime in their food, eat that which they collect from the walls of houses, with the same appetite that they have for their meals." Such cases are, according to my experience, very rare ; and there is no evidence to prove Lie- big's assertion, that in these cases the food was deficient in its ordinary proportion of lime. i 12. Magnesium.—Small quantities of this metal are found in the blood, teeth, bones, nervous matter, thyroid gland, and other parts of the body. It exists in combination with oxygen and phosphoric acid, and often with ammonia also. (See Phosphorus.) It is a constituent of both vegetable and animal foods. Thus it is found in cereal grains, potatoes, flesh of animals, milk, eggs, &c. 13. PoTASsiUM.f Minute traces of potassium exist in blood, the solids, and several of the secretions of animals. Liebigt states, that " without an abundant supply of potash, the production of milk be- comes impossible ;" but I know not on what authority he makes this statement, for Schwartz,} found only seven parts of chloride of potassium (equivalent to 3*68 parts of potassium) in 10,000 parts of human milk—a quantity apparently too minute to be of much importance. Potassium is a constituent of both animal and vegetable food. Most plants which grow inland contain it; thus, it is found in grapes and potatoes. Its presence may be readily detected : burn a grape stalk in the candle—the minute ash obtained at the point of the burnt stalk will, if introduced into the outer or almost colorless cone of the flame, com- municate a violet tint; thus demonstrating the presence of potassium or potash. Nitrate of potash is sometimes used in the preparation of salted meats. This, therefore, is another source of potassium in the system. Moreover, common salt contains minute traces of this metal. 14. Fluorine.—Berzelius detected minute quantities of fluoride of calcium in the bones and teeth of animals; but, more recently, Dr. G. O. Rees failed to detect it. If fluorine be a normal constituent of the body, it is doubtless introduced into the system in the small portions of the bones of animals occasionally swallowed with their flesh, for it cannot be derived from plants, since it has never been detected in these bodies. It is remarkable, however, that fluoride of calcium is abundant in fossilized bones, and in the human bones, found at Pompeii and Herculaneum.|| * China, its Slate and Prospects, p. 33. London, 1838. t Potassium is the metallic basis of the alkali potash—first discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy.—L. X Animal Chemistry, p. 164. •J Gmelin, Handbuch der theoretischen Chemie, vol. ii. p. 1403. II Fluorine is the base of the acid contained in fluor spar: with hydrogen, it forms the hydrofluoric acid. Though the existence of this body is rendered very probable by analogical reasoning, and recent experi- ments have gone very far in establishing its distinctive characters, yet it cannot be prepared in an isolated form, or exhibited like the other simple bodies -. for such is the intensity and-variety of its affinities, that no sooner is it liberated from combination with one substance, than it enters into union with some other, attacking the materials of which the apparatus used may be constructed. It combines with sulphur, phosphorus, and hydrogen, but not with oxygen. (Kane's Chemistry, p. 320.)—L. 38 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Chap. II.—Of Alimentary Principles. Two or more of the undecompounded bodies, described in the last chapter, form, by their union with each other, certain compound substances, termed Alimentary Principles, or Simple Aliments; and, by the combination or mixture of the latter, our ordinary foods, called Compound Aliments, are formed. Some alimentary principles contain two elements only, as Water. Others contain three, as Sugar and Fat. Proteine is formed of four elements, while Fibrine and Albu- men contain six. Some alimentary principles, as Water and common Salt, are derived from the Mineral Kingdom : others are obtained from the Organized Kingdom. Dr. Prout* arranges alimentary principles in four great classes or groups, viz., the aque- ous, the saccharine, the oleaginous, and the albuminous. The types of these groups are found in milk, the only article of food actually furnished and intended by nature as food for animals. Thus this secretion contains water, sugar, butter, and caseum, (an albumi- nous substance.) This arrangement is a very excellent one; but several reasons induce me to adopt another. Milk holds in solution saline matter, which is also an essential article of food to the adult animal, and henee I shall admit another class under the name of the saline aliments. Moreover, both chemical and physiological considerations induce me to separate gela- tine from albuminous principles, and, therefore, it will be necessary to have a separate group for gelatinous principles. Furthermore, it appears to me to be desirable to have distinct classes for gum, sugar, starch, vegetable jelly, alcohol, and vegetable acids. Hence I admit the following classes of alimentary principles:— CLASSES OF ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 1. The Aqueous. 2. The Mucilaginous or Gummy. 3. The Saccharine. 4. The Amylaceous. 5. The Ligneous. 6. The Pectinaceous.t 7. The Acidulous. 8. The Alcoholic. 9. The Oily or Fatty. 10. The Proteinaceous.! 11. The Gelatinous. 12. The Saline. 1. THE AQUEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Water is essential to the performance of all vital processes in the higher classes of liv- ing beings; Mosses, and some of the infusorial animals, may, it is said, be deprived of moisture without having their vitality destroyed.^ But with these exceptions moisture seems essential to vital manifestations. This connection between vitality and moisture led the ancients to suppose that water was the parent of every thing possessed of life.|| * On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. vi. Lond. 1840. t Pectinaceous, from pectin, vegetable jelly. X Proteinaceous, from proteine, the organic constituent of fibrine, albumen, and caseine. tj. Needham, Baker, Spallanzani, and Fontana, quoted by Tiedemann in his Traite Complet de Physio- logw de VHomme, p. 116. II This notion is said to have been derived from a statement made by Moses, (Genesis, ch. i. ver. 2.) It is taught in the Koran, (Sale's Koran, vol. ii. p. 155,) and has been embraced by Milton, (Paradise Lost Book vii. line 234.) WATER 39 A very large proportion of the human body is aqueous. The blood contains about 80 per cent, the flesh about 74 per cent, of water. So that we may safely assume that the entire human machine contains nearly 75 percent or three fourths of its weight of water. But as by evaporation, as well as by the processes of secretion and exhalation, as also perhaps by decomposition, part of this fluid is wasted or consumed, the necessity of the use of water as a drink becomes obvious. In fact, it is more necessary to our existence than solid food ; and in this point of view it holds an intermediate rank between air and solid food, being less essential than the first, but more so than the last* The water contained in the system is derived from the aqueous drinks which we con- sume, as well as from the moisture contained in most of the solid substances employed as food. " Water," says Dr. Prout,f " enters into the composition of most organized bodies, in two separate forms ; that is, water may constitute an essential element of a sub- stance—as of sugar, starch, albumen, &c, in their driest states; in which case the water cannot be separated, without destroying the hydrated compound. Or water may consti- tute an accidental ingredient of a substance—as of sugar, starch, albumen, &c, in their moist states; in which case more or less of the water may frequently be removed without destroying the essential properties of the compound." The following table shows the quantity of accidental water, or that which can be re- moved by drying, without injury to the compound, in various articles of food:— QUANTITY OF WATER IN 100 PARTS OF THE FOLLOWING FOODS. Water. Authority. Gum Arabic ...*... 17*6 Guerin. Sugar Candy.......10*53 Peligot. Arrow-root (by drying at 212° Fahr.) . . 18*2 Prout. Wheat (by drying at 230° Fahr.) . . . 145 Boussingault. Rye (ditto)........166 Ditto. Oats (ditto).......20-8 Ditto. Barley (ditto at 212° Fahr.) .... 13*2 Ditto. Maize (ditto) . .....180 Ditto. Peas.........16 Playfair. Beans .......1411 Ditto. Lentils........15*9 Ditto. Potatoes(driedat230°Fahr.) .... 75-9 Boussingault. Turnips (ditto).......9*2*5 Ditto Carrots (ditto at 212° Fahr.) .... 87-6 Ditto. Beet-root (ditto at 230° Fahr.) .... 87-8 Ditto. Jerusalem Artichoke (ditto) .... 79*2 Ditto. Cabbage, White (ditto at 212° Fahr.) . . 92*3 Ditto. Black Bread.....31*4 to 33 Bceckmann. . Beef Tea........98*4375 Christison. Blood........80 Liebig. Fresh Meat.....74*8 to 75 Bceckmann. Muscle of Beef.......74 Brande. Ditto........77*5 Sehlossberger. Ditto of Veal.......75 Brande. Ditto......79*7 to 78-2 Sehlossberger. Ditto Mutton.......71 Brande. Ditto Pork.......76 Ditto. Ditto........78.3 Sehlossberger. Ditto Roe Deer......76-9 Ditto. Ditto Chicken.......73 Brande. Ditto . . .....77*3 Sehlossberger Ditto Pigeon* ....*.. 76 Ditto. Ditto Cod.......79 Brande Ditto Haddock.......82 Ditto. Muscle of Sole.......79 Brande. Ditto Carp.......80*1 Sehlossberger. Ditto Trout.......80*5 Ditto. * See Appendix, H. , t On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. xix. Lond. 1840 40 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Calf s Sweetbread (Thymus) Ox's Liver (Parenchyma of) Egg (white of) Ditto (yolk of) Milk, Cows' Asses' Human Goats' Ewes Authority. Morin. Braconnot. Gmelin. Prout. O. Henry and Chevallier. Water is probably the natural drink of all adults. It serves several important purpos- es in the animal economy: firstly, it repairs the loss of the aqueous part of the blood, caused by evaporation and the action of the secreting and exhaling organs; secondly, it is a solvent of various alimentary substances, and, therefore, assists the stomach in the act of digestion, though, if taken in very large quantities, it may have an opposite effect, by diluting the gastric juice; thirdly, it is probably a nutritive agent,—that is, it assists in the formation of the solid parts of the body. From the latter opinion, which I hold with Count Rumford,* many, however, will be disposed to dissent. It has not, indeed, been actually demonstrated that water is decomposed in the animal system, or, in other words, that it yields up 'As elements to assist in the formation of or- ganized tissues; yet such an occurrence is by no means improbable. It appears, from Liebig's observations,! that the hydrogen of vegetable tissues is derived from water; and it is not probable that the higher orders of the organized kingdom should be deficient in a power possessed by the lower orders. Dr. ProutJ appears to admit the existence of this power, but thinks that it is rarely exercised by animals. " There is reason to be- lieve," he says, " that the decomposition of water either takes place when in a state of combination with other principles, or during the act of its separation or combination with such principles; and that water, as water, is rarely decomposed by the animal economy." 'The water which constitutes an essential part of the blood and of the living tissues, assists in several ways in carrying on the vital processes. " In the blood," says Dr. Prout,§ " the solid organized particles are transported from one place to another; are arranged in the place desired; and are again finally removed and expelled from the body, chiefly by the agency of the water present." It is from water that the tissues de- rive their properties of extensibility and flexibility. Lastly, this fluid contributes to most of the transformations which occur within the body. As a solvent it serves not only to aid digestion, as already noticed, but also to effect other changes. Thus, it is probable that the conversion of uric acid into urea, by the action of oxygen, is effected by the agency of water, which holds the acid in solution; for in animals, which drink much water, no uric acid, but urea only, is found in the urine ;|| while in birds, which seldom drink, and in snakes, uric acid predominates. CONVERSION OF URIC ACID INTO UREA. 1 eq. Uric Acid C10 N4 H4 O6 4 eq. Water — — H4 O4 6 eq. Oxygen — — — Oe Total C10 N4 H8 O" 2 eq. Urea C4 N4 H8 O4 6 eq. Carbonic ) r,e ._,„ Acid \L ~ ~ °u Total N4 H8 O16 In some cases, water combines chemically with substances to which, therefore, it con- * Essays, vol. i. p. 194, 5th ed. 1800. t Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, p. 63, in 2d ed. 1842. X Op. supra cit. p. 8. § On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 7. II Liebig's Animal Chemf^ry, p. 139. WATER. 41 tributes both its elements. Thus the conversion of either cane sugar (C12 Aqua11) or starch (Cia Aqua™) into either sugar of milk (C111 AquaP) or diabetic sugar (grape sugar Cia Aqua1*) can be effected only by the addition of water. So also the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice and the soda of the blood and bile, a,re derived from common salt (chloride of sodium) by the aid of water. CONVERSION OF CHLORIDE OF SODIUM INTO HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND SODA. 1 eq. Chloride of )r, Wo 1 eq. Hydrochloric} r-i tj Sodium S JNa Acid \ ~ 1 eq. Water ——HO 1 eq. Soda — Na — O Total CI Na H O Total CI Na H O Water, considered as a dietetical remedy, may be regarded under a twofold point of view ;—first, with respect to its quantity; secondly, in reference to its quality. In some maladies, as fevers and acute inflammatory diseases, an almost unlimited use of aqueous fluids is admitted under the various names of slops, diluents, thin diet, fever diet, broth diet, &c. They quench thirst, lessen the stimulating quality and augment the fluidity of the blood, by increasing the proportion of its aqueous part, and promote the action of the secreting organs. Moreover, it is probable that they may promote, the con- version of uric acid into urea, as fchove referred to. Furthermore, they are sometimes useful by lessening the irritating contents of the alimentary canal. But in some maladies it is necessary to restrict the quantity of fluids taken; in other words, to employ what is called a dry diet. Thus, we employ this regimen when our object is to keep down the volume of the circulating fluid, (as in valvular diseases of the heart,) or to prevent thinness of the blood, (as in aneurism of any of the great ves- sels, when our only hope of cure depends on the coagulation and deposition of fibrine within the aneurismal sac,) or when we are desirous of repressing excessive secretion, (as of urine, in diabetes.) i Attention to the quality as well as to the quantity of the water employed, as a drink, is also important; not only for the palliation and cure of some maladies, but also as a pro- phylactic means. Now, considered with regard to quality, the waters furnished us by nature are conveniently divisible into three classes; viz. 1st, Common waters, or those employed as drinks, or for dressing food, or for other purposes of domestic economy. 2dly, Sea water, or the water of the ocean. 3dly, Mineral waters, or those waters which belong to neither of the preceding classes, and which possess some peculiar properties derived from the presence of one or more mineral substances. From any of these waters, though usually from those of the first class, we obtain dis- tilled water, which is sometimes used for dietetical and remedial purposes. These dif- ferent kinds of water require separate consideration. 1. Common Wateks.—Under this head are included the waters commonly known as rain, spring, river, well or pump, lake and marsh waters. a. Rain Water.—This is the purest of all natural waters. Its purity, however, is sub- ject to some variation. Thus, when collected in large towns or cities, it is less pure than when obtained in the country : moreover, it is usually loaded with impurities at the com- mencement of a shower, but after some hours of continuous rain it becomes nearly pure; for the first water which falls brings down the various foreign matters suspended in the atmosphere. Air is a constant constituent of rain water. Carbonate of ammonia is an- other ingredient It is derived from the putrefaction of nitrogenous substances. When several hundred pounds of rain water " were distilled in a copper still, and the first two or three pounds evaporated with the addition of a little muriatic acid, a very distinct 4 42 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. crystallization of sal-ammoniac was obtained : the crystals had always a brown or yel- low color."* " It is worthy of observation," says Liebig, " that the ammonia contained in rain and snow water possesses an offensive smell of perspiration and animal excre- ments,—a fact which leaves no doubt respecting its origin." It is owing to the presence of carbonate of ammonia that rain water owes its softer feel than pure distilled water. According to Liebig, it is the atmospheric ammonia which furnishes the nitrogen of plants. The traces of nitric acid which have been detected in the air are referable to the oxidation of the constituents of ammonia; and not to the direct union of the oxygen and free nitrogen of the atmosphere. A carbonaceous (sooty) substance, and traces of sul- phates, chlorides, and calcareous matter, are the usual impurities of the first rain water of a shower. Carbonate of lime, and, according to Bergmann, chloride of calcium, are constituents of rain water. Zimmermann found oxide of iron and chloride of potassium ; but Kastner could discover no trace of iron in it, though he found in dew, meteoric iron and nickel. Brandes detected various other inorganic substances, viz. chloride of sodium, (in greatest quantity,) chloride of magnesium, sulphate and carbonate of magnesia, and sulphate of lime. He likewise mentions oxide of manganese. The putrefaction to which rain water is subject, shows that some organic matter is present. The term pyrrhin (from "v^i-, red) has been applied by Zimmermann to an atmospheric organic substance' which reddens solutions of silver. Whenever rain water is collected near large towns, it should be boiled and strained before use. As it contains less saline impregnation than other kinds of natural waters, it is more apt to become contaminated with lead from roofs, gutters, cisterns, and water-pipes. Snow Water is destitute of air and other gaseous matters found in rain; and hence fish cannot live in it According to Liebig, in contains ammonia. It has long been a popular, but erroneous opinion, that it was injurious to the health, and had a tendency to produce bronchocele. But this malady " occurs at Sumatra, where ice and snow are never seen; while, on the contrary, the disease is quite unknown in Chili and Thibet al- though the rivers of these countries are chiefly supplied by the melting of the snow with which the mountains are covered."f Snow does not quench thirst; on the contrary, it augments it; and the natives of the Arctic regions " prefer enduring the utmost ex- tremity of this feeling, rather than attempt to remove it by eating of snow."J When melted, however, it proves as efficacious as other kinds of water. b. Spring Water.—This is rain water, which, having percolated through the earth, re- appears at the surface of some declivity. During its passage, it almost always takes up some soluble matters, which of course vary according to the nature of the soil. Its con- stituents are similar to those of well water, presently to be noticed. c. River Water.—This is a mixture of rain and spring water. When deprived of the matters which it frequently holds in suspension, its purity is usually considerable. The following are the solid constituents of the waters of the Thames and Colne, at different localities, according to the analyses of Mr. R. Phillips.^ * Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology ; edited by Lyon Playfair, Ph D., p. 75. Lond. 1842. t Paris, Pliarmacohgta, 6th ed. vol. i. p. 79. % Captain Ross's Narrative of a Second Voyage in Search of a Northwest Passage; and of a Resi- dence in the Arctic Regions during Die years 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, and 1833, p. 366. Lond. 1835. § Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords, appointed to inquire into the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, p. 91, 1840.—See also Dr. Bostock's analysis, in the Report of the Commissioners ap- pointed to inquire into the State of the Supply of Water in the Metropolis, 1823. WATER. 43 QUANTITY OF WATER. 1 Gallon =101bs. Avoirdup., at 62° F. or 70000 grs. Avoirdup. THAMES WATER. COLNE WATER. Brentford. Source of the Grand Junction Writer Works Company. Barnes. Source of the We«t Middlesex Water Works Company. Chelsea. Source of the Chelsea Water Works Company. Otterpool. Spring near Bushey. Main Spring in the valley that supplies the Colne. Colne Itself. Carbonate of Lime . . . Sulphate of Lime . . ) Chloride of Sodium . 5 Oxide of Iron ... "1 Carbonaceous matter . J Grs. 16000 3*400 Very minute portions. Grs. 16-900 1*700 V Ditto. Grs. 16-500 2-900 Ditto. Grs. 18*800 2*500 Ditto. Grs. 19*300 2*500 Ditto. Grs. 18*100 3*200 Ditto. Solid matter held in solution Mechanical Impurity . . . 19*400 0-368 18-600 0-368 19-400 0-238 21*300 0*185 21-800 0*262 21*300 0126 Total Solid matter . . . 19*768 18-968 19-638 21*485 22062 21*426 No notice is taken in these analyses of the gaseous constituents (air and carbonic acid) of river water* The carbonate of lime is held in solution by carbonic acid, forming bicarbonate of lime. By boiling, this acid is expelled, and the carbonate of lime is precipitated on the sides of the vessel, constituting the fur of the tea-kettle and the crust of boilers. Decomposing organic matter, in suspension or solution, is found in every river water in a greater or less proportion. Ordinarily the quantity is insufficient to act injuriously ; but it cannot be doubted that water, strongly contaminated with it must be deleterious. Where, however, the quantity present is insufficient to produce any immediately obvious effects, it is by no means easy to procure decisive evidence of its influence on the system. In those cases in which its operation has been unequivocally recognised, it has manifest- ed itself by the production of dysentery.! Its influence in a milder form is attended with * Compare with this the composition of the Croton Water, with plied. One Gallon of Croton Water contains, of Carbonate of Lime Sulphate of Lime .... Chloride of Calcium ) Chloride of Magnesium $ Carbonate of Magnesia . Vegetable matter and Iron, a trace Total Solid Matter . . . 4*16 grs. The Manhattan water in Chambers and Reed streets, contains 125 grs. of solid matter in each gallon; in Bleecker-street, 20 grs.; and in 13th-street, 14 grs. The city wells in the lower part of the city con- tain 58 grs. of solid matter to the gallon. Boston.—This city is supplied almost entirely from the wells, which in 1835 were 2,767 in number. " The water from 2,035 of these is drinkable, though brackish and hard, and 682 of them are bad and unfit for use." (Baldwin's Report.) Only seven of the city wells yield soft water, occasionally used for washing ; from 33 wells the water was obtained by deep boring, and only two of these furnish soft water. For further remarks on water, see Appendix J.—L. t At the Nottingham Assizes in July, 1836, it was proved at a trial (Jackson versus Hall) on which I was a witness, that dysentery, in an aggravated form, was caused in cattle by the use of water con- which the city of New-York is sup- 1*52 grs. ■44 •90 ■84 44 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. slight relaxation of bowels. " The beneficial effects derived from care as to the qualities of water," says Mr. Chadwick,* " is now proved in the navy, where fatal dysentery for- merly prevailed to an immense extent in consequence of the impure and putrid state of the supplies ; and care is now generally exercised on the subject by the medical officers of the army." The decomposing organic matter above referred to, consists principally of the exuviae of animal and vegetable substances.f The water of some of the wells of the metropolis are occasionally contaminated with the odor and flavor of gas-tar. I have myself found this to be the case in a well water obtained near the London Hospital. taminated with putrescent vegetable matter, produced by the refuse of a starch manufactory. The fish (perch, gudgeon, pike, roach, and dace) and frogs in the pond, through which the brook ran, were de- stroyed. All the animals (cows, calves, and horses) which drank of this water, became seriously ill, and in eight years the plaintiff lost 24 cows and 9 calves, all of a disease (dysentery) accompanied by nearly the same symptoms. It was also shown that the animals sometimes refused to drink the water; that the mortality was in proportion to the quantity of starch made at different times ; and that, subsequent- ly, when the putrescent matter was not allowed to pass into the brook, but was conveyed to a river at some distance, the fish and frogs began to return, and the mortality ceased among the cattle. The symp- toms of illness in the cows were as follows: the animals at first got thin, had a rough, staring coat, and gave less milk, (from two to three quarts less every day:) they then became purged, passed blood with the fseces, and at length died emaciated and exhausted. On a post-mortem examination, the intestinal canal, throughout its whole length, was found inflamed and ulcerated. The water, which I examined, was loaded with putrescent matter, and contained chloride of calcium, (derived from the chloride of lime employed in bleaching the starch.) Traces of free sulphuric acid were occasionally found by one wit- ness. " Dr. M. Barry affirms that the troops were frequently liable to dysentery, while they occupied the old barracks at Cork; but he has heard that it has been of rare occurrence in the new barracks. Seve- ral years ago, when the disease raged violently in the old barracks, (now the depot for convicts,) the care of the sick was, in the absence of the regimental surgeon, intrusted to the late Mr. Bell, surgeon, in Cork. At the period in question, the troops were supplied with water from the river Lee, which, in pass- ing through the city, is rendered unfit for drinking, by the influx of the contents of the sewers from the houses, and likewise is brackish from the tide, which ascends into their channels. Mr. Bell, suspecting that the water might have caused the dysentery, upon assuming the care of the sick, had a number of water-carts engaged to bring water for the troops, from a spring called the Lady's Well, at the same time that they were no longer permitted to drink the water from the river. From this simple but judicious arrangement, the dysentery very shortly disappeared among the troops." (Dr. Cheyne, On Dysentery in the Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii. p. 11.) * Report to her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department, from the Poor-Lce...........005 to 0-29 Braconnot. |eas •..........20 Einhof. Sweet Almonds..........60 Boullay. £gs............62*5 Bley. Green Gage (ripe)..........1161 Berard. Tamarinds...........12-5 Vauquelin. Pears (ripe and fresh).........6-45 Berard. Ditto (kept for some time)........11-52 Ditto. Gooseberries (ripe).........6-24 Ditto Cherries (ripe)..........1812 Ditto. Apricot (npe)..........H-61 Ditto. Peach (npe) ..........1648 Ditto. Melon............1-5 Payen. Expressed Carrot juice evaporated to dryness .... 93-71 Wackenroder. Beet-root..........5to9 Payen. Ditto...........5-8 to 10 Pelouze. Cow's Milk...........4-77"1 Ass's Milk...........6-08 \ n „ , Woman's Milk..........650 I O.Henry and Goat's Milk ........ . 5*28 | Chevalher Ewe's Milk......... . 5-ooj The substances to which I apply the term saccharine are not uniform in their proper- ties ; but differ more or less from each other in their susceptibility of undergoing the pro- cess of vinous fermentation, in their crystallizability, solubility, and composition. TABLE OF SACCHARINE MATTERS. Saccharine Matters susceptible of Vinous Fermentation, (Sugars properly so called.) Saccharine Matters unsusceptible of Vinous Fermenta-tion. 1. Crystallizable. This division includes three kinds of Sugar: a. Common Sugar, comprehending Cane, Maple, and Beet-root Sugar, whose formula is C1** Aqua11. b. Sugar of Milk or Lactine, composed of C1* Aqual *. c. Granular Sugar or Glucose, including the Su-gar of Fruits (as of Grapes,) and Diabetic Su-gar, whose formula is Cl* Aqua1*. 2. Uncrystallizable. This division compre-hends the liquid or mucous sugars, as Treacle. 1. Crystallizable. This division includes Man-nite (and Canellin ?) whose formula, according to Liebig, is C8 HT Os. 2. Uncrystallizable. This division compre-hends at least two kinds of sugar. a. Glycyrrhkin or Liquorice Sugar. b. Glycerine, Hydrated Oxide of Glycerule, or Sweet Principle of Oils, whose formula is C° HT 0& + Aqua. The following table shows the relative proportions of carbon and water (or its elements) conlained in several varieties of saccharine matters, according to Dr. Prout :*— COMPOSITION OF SACCHARINE SUBSTANCES. 100 Parts. Carbon. Water. Pure Sugar Candy.....42*85 57* 15 Impure ditto......41*5 to 42*5 585 to 57*5 East India ditto . . ... 41*9 58* 1 Englished refined . ... 41*5 to 42-5 58*5 to 57*5 * Phil. Trans, for 1827, p. 355. 56 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. --------£—-------------------------------------- 100 Parts. Carbon. Water. East India refined. . . 42-2 57-8 Maple........42-1 579 Beet-root.......42-1 57*9 East India moist......40*88 59-12 Diabetic.......36 to 40? 64 to 60? Of Narbonne Honey.....36*36 63*63 Of Starch.......36-2 638 Of Milk.......40*0 600 Those varieties which contain the smallest quantity of water, Dr. Prout terms strong or high; while such as contain the largest proportions, he denominates weak or low. Thus sugar-candy is a high or strong sugar —sugar of starch a weak or low one. Sugar is usually regarded as a nutritious substance, but Liebig declares that it is mere- ly an element of respiration, as I have already stated. (See pp. 16, 18 foot-note, 19, 20, 23, 25, and 26.) Many insects (especially the Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera) feed on sugar or saccharine liquids. During the sugar season of the West India Islands " every negro on the plantations, and every animal, even the dogs, grow fat."* The in- jurious effects which have been ascribed to sugar are more imaginary than real; for some individuals have consumed large quantities of it, for a long series of years, without suf- fering any ill consequences therefrom. We are told that Henry, Duke of Beaufort, who died about 1702, ate nearly a pound of sugar daily for 40 years. He died of fever in the 70th year of his age. He was never troubled with cough, his teeth were firm, and all his viscera were found, after death, quite sound.f The fondness of children for saccharine substances may be regarded as a natural in- stinct ; since nature, by placing it in milk, evidently intended it to form a part of their nourishment during the first period of their existence. Instead, therefore, of repressing this appetite for sugar, it ought rather to be gratified in moderation. The popular notion of its having a tendency to(injure the teeth is totally unfounded. " It has been alleged," says Dr. Wright, " that the eating of sugar spoils the color of, and corrupts, the teeth: this, however, proves to be a mistake, for no people on the earth have finer teeth than the negroes in Jamaica." It is probable, therefore, that this erroneous notion has been propagated by frugal housewives in order to deter children from indulging in an expen- sive luxury. Sugar is readily digested by the healthy stomach; though in some dyspeptic individuals, it is apt to give rise to flatulency and preternatural acidity of stomach. In these cases it probably yields lactic acid-f " In certain diseases," says Liebig,§ " there are produced * Dr. Wright, Medicinal Plants of Jamaica. t See Dr. Slare's Vindication of Sugar, p. 59. Lond. 1715. X Anhydrous lactic acid (in lactate of zinc) consists of C« H* O"-. Hence one equivalent of crystal- lized Cane Sugar (C12 H" O11) contains the elements of two equivalents of lactic acid 2 (C6 H* 0=) plus one equivalent of water. But when lactic acid is formed out of sugar, there are also produced mannite and mucilage, (hence the process is termed the viscous or mucilaginous fermentation,) while gas is evolved. Now, two equivalents of mannite 2 (C« H7 O") are equal to one equivalent of granular sugar (C^H" O14 minus two equivalents of oxygen. Consequently one equivalent of lactic acid (C3 H* O*-) and one equivalent of mannite (C« H7 0») are equal to one equivalent of sugar of milk minus one equivalent of oxygen. 1 eq. Lactic Acid . C H6 O5 1 eq. Mannite . . C6 H7 O" Total . C'SH^O" 1 eq. Sugar of Milk C12 H12 O12 Abstract . .-----Q Residue . CM Hi"" O" Liebig suggests that lactic acid and mannite may, therefore, be formed by the deoxidation of sugar,— part or cue oxygen of which is consumed in the oxidation of the elements of the nitrogenized sub- stances present in the fermenting liquids. $ Animal Chemistry, pp. 111-112. SUGAR. 57 from the starch, sugar, &e. of the food, lactic acid and mucilage. These are the very same products which are produced out of sugar by means of membrane in a state of decompo- sition out of the body; but in a normal state of health, no lactic acid is formed in the stomach." In diabetes, the power of assimilating saccharine matter is in a great measure, if not wholly, lost; and hence, therefore, the dietetical employment of sugar and sweet foods, in this malady, is highly improper. In the oxalate of lime diathesis, likewise, these foods are objectionable. " I hatfe seen repeated cases," says Dr. Prout, " in which the too free use, or rather abuse, of sugar, has given occasion to the oxalic acid form of dyspepsia ; and sooner or later, under favorable circumstances, to the formation of an oxalate of lime cal- culus." In the phosphatic diathesis, the copious use of unrefined sugar is objectionable, on account of the lime contained in it. The varieties and preparations of sugar used for dietetical purposes are very numerous. The following are^tll which it is necessary to notice :— 1. Purified or Refined Sugar.—This is met with in the shops either in conical loaves, (Loaf Sugar,) or truncated cones called lumps, (Lump Sugar,) of various sizes and degrees of purity. Small lumps are called Titlers. The finest refined sugar is perfectly white, and is termed double refined; the inferior kind has a slightly yellowish tint, and is called single refined. Both varieties are compact, porous, friable, and made up of small crystalline grains.* 2. Brown Sugar] occurs in commerce in the form of a coarse powder, composed of shining crystalline grains. It is more or less damp and sticky, and has a peculiar smell and a very sweet taste. Its color is brownish yellow, but varies considerably in intensity. Muscovado or raw sugar, sometimes termed Foot Sugar, has the deepest color, and is in- termixed with lumps. Bastard is a finer kind prepared from molasses, and the green syrups. Raw sugar contains several impurities from which it may be freed by the process of re- fining. Its color is owing to the presence of uncrystallizable sugar, (treacle.) In an aqueous solution of raw sugar lime is detected by oxalic acid. By keeping, it is well known that a strong raw sugar becomes weak, that is, soft, clammy, and gummy. This change Professor Daniellf ascribes to the action of the lime. Subphosphate of lime is another constituent of raw sugar.J Glutinous and gummy matters, and traces of tannic acid, are also present in raw sugar. The crystal sugar brought from Demerara (and St. Vincent's 1) is the finest and purest kind of the colored sugars which are imported. Its color is pale yellow, and its crystals are larger and more brilliant than the preceding varieties. It is used for sweetening coffee. On account of the before-mentioned impurities, unrefined sugar is an improper article of diet for those afflicted with calculous disorders. 3. Sugar Candy.—This is crystallized cane-sugar. It is prepared from concentrated syrup. The crystals deposit themselves, as the liquid cools, on the sides of the vessel and * Appendix, L. t Brown sugar is extensively adulterated with sugar prepared from potato starch, as well as with that made from sago flour. Potato sugar is manufactured at Stratford, in Essex. It is clammy, and wants that sparkling crystalline appearance possessed by West Indian sugar, is much less sweet than the lat- ter, and possesses a bitter somewhat unpleasant taste. Trommer (Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1841, p. 762 —4) and more recently Krantz (Annals of Chemistry, Nov. 11, 1842) have pointed out the means of de- tecting sugar of str.rch in cane sugar. t Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 38. X Avequin (Journal de Pharmacie, torn, xxvii. p. 15) states that the crust, which deposits in the boilers during the manufacture of raw sugar, contains, after it has been calcined to destroy the saccharine and other vegetable matters, in 100 parts, subphosphate of lime 92*43, lime, in part carbonated, 1*35, silica 4*7, and phosphate of copper 1*41. 58 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. on strings stretched across. The form of the crystals is an oblique rhombic prism. Three kinds of candy are sold—the white, the brown, and the pink. Powdered candy is used to sweeten coffee. 4. Aqueous Solutions of Sugar.—Sugar water is frequently used at the table on the continent. Syrup is prepared by dissolving two pounds and a half of sugar in a wine- pint of water, by the aid of a gentle heat. If necessary it may be clarified by white of egg. It is used for sweetening. 5. Boiled Sugars.—If a small quantity of water be added to sugar, the mixture heated till the sugar dissolves, and the solution boiled to drive off part of the water, the tendency of the sugar to crystallize is diminished, or, in some cases, totally destroyed. To promote this effect, confectioners sometimes add a small portion of cream of tartar to the solution while boiling. Sugar thus altered by heat, and sometimes variously flavored, constitutes several preparations sold by the confectioner. Barley Sugar and Acidulated Drops are prepared in this way from white sugar;—powdered tartaric acid being added to the sugar while soft, when the drops are prepared. Hardbake and Toffee are made by a similar pro- cess from brown sugar. Toffee differs from Hardbake in containing butter. The orna- mental sugar-pieces or caramel-tops with which pastry-cooks decorate their tarts, &c. are prepared in the same way. If the boiled and yet soft sugar be rapidly and repeatedly ex- tended, and pulled over a hook, it becomes opaque and white, and then constitutes Pulled Sugar or Penides. Pulled sugar, variously flavored and colored, is sold in several forms by the preparers of hard confectionery. 6. Molasses and Treacle.—The brown, saccharine, viscid fluid, which drains from raw sugar When placed in hogsheads, is called Molasses, and is used in the preparation of brown sugar. It is imported from the West Indies in casks. Closely allied to this is Treacle—a viscid, dark-brown, uncrystallizable syrup, which drains from the moulds in whioh refined sugar concretes. These liquids result from an alteration effected in crys- tallizable sugar, and do not exist in the sugar cane. Both of them contain free acid. 7. Burnt Sugar.—When sufficiently heated, sugar becomes brown, evolves a remark- able odor, loses its sweet taste, and acquires bitterness: in this state it is called Caramel or Burnt Sugar, and is sold, when dissolved in water, as a coloring matter, under the name of Essentia Bina or Browning. It is used to color soups and sauces. The high- colored brandies and dark brown sherries are said sometimes to owe part of their color to this liquor. The brewer, it is reported, occasionally makes use of it to color his beer. 8. Hard Confectionery.—.Sugar constitutes the base of an almost innumerable variety of hard confectionery, sold under the names of Lozenges, Brilliants, Pipe, Rock, Comfits, Nonpareils, &c. Besides sugar, these preparations contain some flavoring ingredient, often flour or gum, to give them cohesiveness, and frequently coloring matter.* Cara- way fruits, almonds, and pine seeds, constitute the nuclei of some of these preparations. 9. Liquorice Sugar.—An aqueous extract of the root of liquorice (Glycyrrhiza) is ex- tensively imported under the names of Liquorice Juice, or, according to the countries from whence it is brought, of Spanish or Italian Juice. Solazzi Juice is most esteemed. The Spanish extract is prepared in Catalonia, from the common liquorice plant, (Glycyr- rhiza glabra,) but the Italian extract, obtained in Calabria, is procured from G. echinata. Extract of liquorice is imported in cylindrical or flattened rolls, of five or six inches long, and about one inch in diameter, enveloped in bay-leaves. Its principal constituent is * Cochineal and indigo, employed to color respectively red and blue, are harmless. But, in order to meet the demands of their customers, confectioners are necessitated to use other coloring ingredients, of a less innocent nature, to give several admired tints (yellow and green) to their goods. STARCH. 59 Glycyrrhizin, or Liquorice Sugar, mixed with some foreign matters. If the foreign ex- tract be dissolved in water, and the solution filtered and evaporated, we obtain Refined Liquorice; but the Pipe Refined Liquorice of the shops is a very adulterated article. The Pontefract Lozenges are made of refined liquorice, and are much esteemed. The Liquo- rice Lozenges are officinal in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and are directed to be pre- pared of extract of liquorice, gum, and sugar. There is also another liquorice lozenge sold in the shops, under the name of Quintessence of Liquorice. Extract of liquorice is used as a flavoring ingredient Slowly dissolved in the mouth, it is taken to appease tickling cough, and to allay irritation of the fauces. 10. Preserves, <%c.—In addition to its dietetical and condimentary uses, sugar is exten- sively employed, in domestic economy, as an antiseptic; that is, to prevent the decompo- sition or putrefaction of organic substances. A variety of fruits, as well as some roots, stems, and even leaves, are in this way preserved, some in the moist state, (as Fruits in Syrup, and Preserved Ginger,) others in the dry state, (as Candied Angelica, Candied Cit- ron, Orange, and Lemon Peels, and Crystallized Fruits.) In these cases sugar acts by excluding air, or by absorbing moisture, or in both of these ways. In some instances, per- haps, its efficacy may be of another kind, as when it promotes the solidification of vege- table jelly. (See The Pectinaceous Alimentary Principle.) " Latterly," says Berzelius, (Traite de Chimie, t. v., p. 243,) "sugar has begun to be more generally employed than formerly for the preservation of meat, in consequence of a much smaller quantity of it being required for preventing putrefaction, than of salt, while it renders the meat neither less savory nor less nutritive. Fish, when gutted, may be equally well preserved by spreading powdered sugar inside them." 4. THE AMYLACEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. (Farinaceous or Starchy Substances.) This principle is peculiar to plants, from which it is obtained under the various names of Amylum,* Starch, Fecula, or Farinaceous Matter. It is very generally distributed in the vegetable kingdom, existing in both cryptogamic and flowering (endogenous and exoge- nous) plants, and being found in thallus, roots, stems, tubercles, fruits, and seeds. The following table gives an approximative idea of the quantity of starch contained in different parts of plants. QUANTITY OF STARCH IN 100 PARTS OF THE FOLLOWING VEGETABLE ORGANS. 1. Thallus 2. Roots. 3. Tubercles. Iceland Moss..... f Janipha Manihot or Tapioca plant (var. Ditto (var. green) Ipomeea Batatas . .Ditto (var. red) . [Potatoe (var.kidney) Ditto (var. red) . Ditto (var. Shaw) \ Ditto (var. Champion) 1 Ditto (var. Chair rouge) Ditto (var. L'Orpheline L Ditto (var. Captain Hart) red) Starch. 44*6t 13*5 11*5 7*5 13 3 9-It 15*0§ 18*811 15*9f 12-2** 24*4tt 15 Authority. Berzelius. De Candolle. Ditto. Ricord. O. Henry. Einhof. Ditto. Vauquelin. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Skrimshire. * The Greeks called it a/ivXov (from a negative, and /itiAoj a mill) because it was not prepared by grinding in a mill. (See Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xviii. cap. 17. ed. Valp.) t Besides 36*2 parts of amylaceous fibre. t hi addition to 8*8 parts of amylaceous fibre § Also 7*0 parts of amylaceous fibre. II In addition to 5*1 parts of amylaceous fibre IT Besides 49 parts of amylaceous fibre. ** And 10*2parts of amylaceous fibre. tt Also 6-2 parts of amylaceous fibre. 60 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 'Maranta arundinacea or Arrow-root plant 12*5 4. Rhizomes. 5. Pericarps, Ditto Canna coccinea -----indica Ginger .... Ditto..... Turmeric Dioscorea sativa, or the Yam Ditto . ... CArtocarpus incisa, or Breadfruit ■ integrifolia, or Jak-fruit Starch. Authority. 12-5 De Candolle. 26-0 Benzon. 12-5 De Candolle. 33 Ditto. 130 Ditto. 19-75 Bucholz. 260 De Candolle. 12*5 Ditto. 22*66 Siiersen. 3*2 De Candolle.* 6*2 Ditto. 6718 Einhof. 59*0 Vogel. 56*5 to 72 Vauquelin. 53-5 Vogel. 61*07 Einhof. 80*92 Bizio. 82*8 Braconnot 8507 Ditto. 32*45 Einhof. 34*17 Ditto. 35-94 Ditto. Barley-meal Oatmeal Wheat-flour Wheat-bread Rye-meal . 6. Seeds. ■{ Maizet Rice (Piedmont) Ditto (Carolina).....85-07 Peas . . . . Garden Bean (Vicia Faba) . „ Kidney Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) The amylaceous substances are organized. Examined by a microscope they are seen to consist of small grains, which are usually rounded, or elliptical, flask-shaped, or mullar-shaped, or polyhedral. The polyhedral form probably arises from the mutual compression of numerous grains in the same or neighboring cells. On some part of the surface of each grain is a circular spot, called the hilum: very rarely, two or even three of these spots are observed on the same grain. According to Raspail, the hilum is the spot where the starch-grain was adherent to the vegetable cell in which these grains are contained. The hilum usually cracks in a linear or stellate manner. Starch-grains have a laminated texture: that is, they consist of a series of concentric layers or membranes, the outermost of which is the thickest or firmest. To these layers is owing the appear- ance of concentric rings or rugee which starch-grains present on their surface, and which are most evident in grains of Tous les Mois and of Potato Starch. * Physiologve Vegetate, vol. i. See also some experiments on the quantity of starch in various plants by Dr. Clark, in the Medical Facts and Observations, vol. vii. 1797. t It will be seen from the above table that while kidney potatoes, from which starch is usually pre- pared, yield but 91 per cent, of starch, Maize, or Indian corn, yields 80-92. Advantage has lately been taken of this fact, in the establishment of manufactories, in this country, for the production of starch from this grain.—L. STARCH. 61 MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF STARCH GRAINS. (Drawn to one scale.) Grains of Potato Starch. Grains of Tons les Mois or Canna Starch, f; ^j^.1^16 (Fritzscbe)' c, d, Particles each having two hila. e,f, g, Particles broken by pressure and the internal matter remains solid (Payen). Grains of West-Indian Arrow-Root. Entire Grains of Tapioca. Grains of Tahiti Arrow-Root, or Otakeite Salep. Oc " w-Root. Grains of Wheat Starch. <£™J>^ a, A particle seen edgeways. „ 62 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. The organic principle of which starch-grams are composed is called amidon or amylon. This substance consists of carbon and water, (or its elements.) COMPOSITION OF STARCH. Fine Wheat Starch .... Ditto, dried at 212° .... Ditto, highly dried at 350° . Arrow-root...... Ditto, dried at 212° .... Ditto, highly dried at 212° . ... Carbon. Water. Authority. 37*5 42-8 44*0 36*4 42*8 44*4 625 57*2 560 63-6 57*2 55*6 * ■Prout. The formula which agrees with Prout's third analysis of Arrow-root is C1** -f- Aqua10. The starchy matter (called Lichenin or Feculoid) of Iceland Moss consists, according to Guerin-Varry, of C10 Hu O10. If the analysis be correct, this variety of starch contains excess of hydrogen. To render amylaceous matter digestible, it requires to be cooked in order to break or split the grains ;* for, of the different laminae of which each grain consists, the outer ones are the most cohesive, and present the greatest resistance to the digestive power of the stomach, while the internal ones are the least so. Hence farinaceous substances are boiled in milk or water,—or they are panified with gluten, by which the grains are com- pletely broken up—or they are made into puddings and tarts. When cooked, it is usually regarded as a mild, slightly nutritious, easily digestible arti- cle of food. Directly or indirectly, observes Dr. Prout, f " it forms a constituent of the food of most of the higher animals, as well as of man. It differs, therefore, from sugar, in being a necessary article of food, without which animals could not exist; while sugar is not. Hence a much larger quantity of amylaceous matter than of sugar can be taken ; and what is a still more decisive fact, the use of this larger quantity of amylaceous matter may be persisted in for an unlimited period, which, it appears, is not the case with a large portion of sugar." By digestion, starch becomes converted into gum and sugar ; the latter probably be- comes absorbed. This conversion is effected, according to Leuchs, by the action of the saliva.J * " Fecula," says Raspail, (Chim. Organique,) " is not actually nutritive to man until it has been boiled [or otherwise cooked]. The heat of the stomach is not sufficient to burst all the grains of the feculent mass which is subjected to the rapid action of this organ. The stomach of graminivorous animals and birds seems to possess, in this respect, a particular power; for they use feculent substances as food in a raw state. Nevertheless, recent experiments prove the advantage that results from boil- ing the potatoes and partially fermenting the farina which are given them for food. At all events, it is certain, that bruised grain is much more nutritive for them than that which is entire; for a large pro- portion of the latter passes through the intestines perfectly unaffected as when it was swallowed." Braconnot (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iii. 2° Ser. p. 428—430) found unbroken starch grains in the excrement of a slug - the temperature of this cold-blooded mollusk being insufficient to crack the grains. Unbroken grains, he states, are also found in the excrements of hot-blooded animals fed on raw potatoes. Hence, he adds, the potatoes employed for feeding cattle should be boiled; since, inde- pendently of the accidents which may arise from the use of them in the raw state, a considerable quantity of alimentary matter is lost by the employment of these tubercles in the unboiled state. t On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 10. Lond. 1&10. t Midler's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. &48. STARCH. 63 The exterior lamina? of the starch-grain are thicker, more cohesive, and less readily digested, than the inner ones. Leeuwenhoek* observed that the excrements of birds fed on the cereal grains contained a considerable quantity of these exterior laminoe, but with- out the interior matter ; and from this he inferred that the latter only was the nutritive portion of starch. According to Liebig, (see ante, p. 16,) starch being a non-nitrogenized food,f is an ele- ment of respiration, and is incapable of transformation into blood or organized tissues. He, therefore, regards it as an element of respiration, and as contributing to the formation of fat, (see ante, p. 26.) " Children fed upon arrow-root, salep, or indeed any kind of amylaceous food, which does not contain ingredients fitted for the formation of bones and muscles, become fat, and acquire much embonpoint; their limbs appear full, but they do not acquire strength, nor are their organs properly developed."! The times required for the digestion of some amylaceous matters, are, according to Dr. Beaumont,^ as follows :— DIGESTD3DLITY OF AMYLACEOUS MATTER. Time required for Stomachal Digestion. Sago boiled........1 hour. Tapioca boiled .......2 hours. It is doubtful whether tapioca is uniformly more difficult of digestion than sago. Farinaceous food is, perhaps, the least irritating of all kinds of aliments. It is, there- fore, well adapted for the use of persons affected with morbidly sensible conditions of the prima? via?. It will sometimes remain on the stomach when every other kind of nutri- ment is immediately rejected. Being totally devoid of all stimulating properties, it is a useful and valuable article of food in febrile and inflammatory diseases. The following are the varieties of amylaceous matter in common use for dietetical pur- poses :— 1. Sago.—This is obtained from the interior tissue (commonly termed medulla or pith) of the stems of various species of palms, especially those of the genera Sagus and Saguerus. It is manufactured in the Moluccas, and is imported into this country from Singapore. Three kinds of it are met with—namely, Sago-meal, Pearl Sago, and Common Sago. Sago- meal (called also Sago-flour or Sago-powder) is a whitish powder, which is now, or very recently was, extensively used in the manufacture of a saccharine substance, called Sago- sugar, (see p. 57.) Pearl-sago consists of small pinkish or yellowish grains, about the size of a pin's head. It is the kind in general use for domestic purposes. Common or Brown Sago occurs in grains varying in size from that of grains of pearl-barley to that of peas. Its color is brownish white ; each grain being whitish on one part of its surface, and brownish on another. Of these three varieties of sago, one only, namely, pearl- sago, swells up in cold water, and yields an infusion which becomes blue on the addition of iodine. This arises from its having been subjected to heat in the process of manufac- * Quoted by Guibourt, (Hist. Abr'eg. des Drogues simples, t. ii. p. 447. 3me ed.) t Jacquelain (Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, t. lxxiii. p. 167—207) states, that both starch and its granules contain from 0*24 to 0*31 per cent, of nitrogen. } Liebig, Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and$Physiology, p. 128-9, foot note, 2d ed. 1842. Very recently, Dumas (Annals of Chemistry, Nov. 11,1842) has denied that animals have the power of forming fat; and he asserts that the fat of animals is derived immediately from the fatty substances contained in the food on which the animals feed. § Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion. By W. Beau- mont, M.D. Reprinted from the Plattsburg edition, with notes by Dr. Combe. Edinb. 1838 64 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. turing it, whereby its grains have become ruptured. All the kinds of sago contain color- ing matter, which renders them inferior to those amylaceous substances (ex. West Indian arrow-root and tapioca) which are perfectly white. By bleaching, however, pearl-sago may be rendered perfectly white. Bleached Pearl-sago resembles an imitation sago manu- factured in France from potato-starch. The microscope readily distinguishes Potato-sago from the genuine sago. Sago is nutritive, and easy of digestion. It is an important article of food in some parts of the East. " The Malay sago-palm," says Dr. Roxburgh, " is the tree the pith of which is the staff of life to the inhabitants of the Moluccas." In England, Sago pud- dings (made like tapioca puddings) are occasionally brought to the table. But the prin- cipal use of sago is to yield a light, nutritious, easily digestible, and non-irritating article of food for the invalid, in febrile and inflammatory cases. Sago milk is prepared by soaking an ounce of sago in a pint of cold water for an hour, pouring off this water, and adding a pint and a half of good milk, and boiling slowly until the sago is well incorpo- rated with the milk, (Dr. A. T. Thomson.)* Sugar, an aromatic, (as nutmeg,) and a little white wine, are occasionally added for flavoring, when their use is not contraindicated. In cases where milk is apt to disagree with the patient, Sago gruel (Sago mucilage) may be substituted for sago milk. It is prepared by macerating an ounce (or a table-spoonful) of sago in a pint of water, on the hob or hot-plate, for two hours, then boiling for fifteen minutes, assiduously stirring during the boiling, (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Sugar, lemon juice, an aromatic, (as nutmeg or ginger,) and white wine, are occasionally permitted for flavoring. Sago gruel containing all these ingredients is called, by Dr.*"A. T. Thomson, Sago posset. Dr. Christison states that sago has come into use, in England, for feeding domestic animals, and especially the horse. 2. Tapioca.—The tuberous root of the poisonous plant Janipha Manihot yields a large quantity of amylaceous matter, which is imported into England from the Brazils. When it comes over in the form of a white powder it is called Brazilian Arrow-root, Tapioca-meal, Mandiocca, Moussaehe or Cipipa. But it is usually met with in the shops in the form of irregular small lumps, and in this state is called Tapioca. It has acquired this form in consequence of having been dried on hot plates. The heat used in its prep- aration breaks the starch globules, and renders them partially soluble in cold water. Hence an infusion of tapioca in cold water yields, after filtration, a blue color with iodine. In boiling water, tapioca becomes tremulous, gelatiniform, transparent, and viscous. In its nutritious qualities tapioca agrees with sago, than which it is much purer, being free from coloring matter. It also yields a more consistent jelly than some other kinds of starch. It is principally employed as an agreeable light nourishment for invalids, as well as for children. " No amylaceous substance," says Dr. Christison, " is so much relished by infants about the time of weaning ; and in them it is less apt to become sour during digestion, than any other farinaceous food, even arrow-root not excepted." Tapioca gruel (Tapioca mucilage) and Tapioca milk are made in the same way as sago gruel and sago milk ; but tapioca, being more soluble than sago, requires only half the time for its mace- ration and boiling, (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Tapioca pudding for invalids is prepared by beating the yolks of two eggs, and half an ounce of sugar, together, and stirring the mix- ture into a pint of tapioca milk. Cassava-bread or Cassada-bread is made thus : the roots of the Janipha Manihot are washed and scraped clean ; then grated into a tub or trough, and afterwards subjected to * The Domestic Management of the Sick Room. Lond. 1841. i ■*■ STARCH. 65 pressure in a hair bag. It is then dried, and constitutes Cassava powder, or Ferine de , Manioc. When made into cakes and dried or baked, it forms Cassava bread, used as a wholesome bread in Brazil, Guiana, Jamaica, &c. 3. Arrow-root; West Indian Arrow-root. This is a very pure white amylaceous pow- der, obtained from the roots (tubers) of the Marania arundinacea. It is brought from most of the West India Islands, but that from Bermuda (Bermuda Arrow-root) is most esteemed. It makes a tolerably strong jelly,—stronger than that from wheat-starch,— and is free from coloring matter, and also from any unpleasant flavor and odor. On these accounts it is greatly in request. Dr. Prout regards it as a low variety of starch, analogous to the low sugar of honey; while wheat-starch he considers to be the most perfect form of starch, analogous to sugar candy. It is employed as a nutritious, easily digested, agreeable, non-irritating diet for invalids and infants. Arrow-root pudding is prepared like tapioca pirdding, (see p. 64) Arrow-root gruel and Arrow-root milk are made like the corresponding preparations of sago. Arrow-root Blanc-mange (Arrow-root jelly) contains three times as much arrow-root as the arrow-root gruel. A moderate quantity of milk being added, the whole is boiled down to a proper consistence, poured into a shape to cool and set; and afterwards turned out, (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) 4. Tous-les-Mois ; Canna Starch.—Within the last few years considerable quantities of an amylaceous matter have been imported from St. Kitt's, under the name of Tcv.s-les- ^mois, or Starch of the Canna coccinea. It is said to be prepared by a tedious and trouble- cf.......4-8 Braconnot. Barley . . . ... 18-75 (husk) Einhof. Oats...... 34 (bran) Vogel. * Dr. Royle (Illustrations of the Botany, tfC, of the Himalayan Mountains, p. 359) says that an ex cellent starch, called Tikhur, is made at Patna and Boglipore from the tubers of Batatas edulis. t Salep is in small, oval, irregular masses, hard, horny, semi-transparent, of a yellowish color a fee- ble odor, and a mild mucilaginous taste. In composition and relation to water, it is closely allied to tragacanth gum, consisting of a substance insoluble, but swelling up in cold water, (bassorin,) of another in much smaller proportion, soluble in cola water, and of minute quantities of saline matter.—L. X Appendix, M. LIGNINE. 67 Lignine. Authority. Rye...... Einhof. 1*86 Berard. Green Gages (ripe) 111 Ditto. Peaches (ripe) .... 1*21 Ditto. Gooseberries (ripe) 801 Ditto. 112 Ditto. 219 Ditto. Boullay. fibre) Einhof. Garden Bean (Vicia Faba) . 25*94 (ditto & membrane) Ditto. Kidney Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) . 18*57 (ditto) Ditto. 4-3 to 10-5 (amylaceous fibre) Vauquelin Cocoa-nut kernel . 14-95 Bizio. The substance called by Einhof amylaceous fibre is probably woody fibre, with some intermixed amylaceous matter.. According to Dr. Prout's experiments, the composition of lignine is probably similar in all plants.* COMPOSITION OF LIGNINE. Carbon. Water. Lignine from Box......42*7 57*3 Ditto ditto, dried......500 50*0 Ditto from Willow......42-6 57-4 Ditto ditto, dried......49*8 50*2 The formula for lignine which agrees with these analyses is C12 + Aqua3 or C12 H8 O8. According to Payen,f the substance called lignine consists of two organic principles. One of these is the true or primitive tissue of the wood, or, in other words, the mem- brane or fibre of which the vegetable tissues are built up; this he calls cellulose. It is isomeric with starch, and, therefore, consists of C12 H10 O10. The other, called pure lig- nine, is a secretion, and fills the cells. Its composition is C35 H24 O20. Though I have placed ligneous matter among the alimentary principles, yet I confess I am by no means satisfied that it is capable of yielding nutriment to man. Dr. Prout,| whose example I have followed in calling it an alimentary principle, observes that it forms the appropriate food of numerous insects and of some of the lower animals, but of few of the higher classes of animals. The reason of this is probably to be sought for in their not being furnished with organs proper for comminuting and reducing it; for when lignine is comminuted and reduced by artificial processes, it is said to form a substance analogous to the amylaceous principle, and to be highly nutritious. This statement of the nutritious property of lignine when minutely pulverized, is made on the authority of Professor Autenrieth,§ of Tubingen, who states, that when wood is deprived of every thing soluble, reduced to powder, repeatedly subjected to the heat of an oven, and then ground in the manner of corn, it yields, boiled with water, a flour, which forms a jelly, like that of wheat-starch, and, when fermented with leaven, makes a perfectly uniform and spongy bread ; and Linna?us|| states that the Laplanders * According to the Rev. J. B. Reade, (Lond. and Edin.Phil. Mag. vol. xi. p. 421,) a very remarkable difference exists between the chemical composition of cellular membrane and of spiral vessels in the same plant. But his " results are in many respects so remarkably at variance with all that we aro as yet acquainted with respecting similar subjects, that we must at the outset doubt their correctness." (Meyen's Report on the Progress of Vegetable Physiology during the year 1837. Translated by William Francis. Lond. 1839. t Ann. des Scien. Nat. 2nde Ser. Botanique. 1838. X On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. xi. 1840. $ Phil. Trans. 1827, p. 355.—Also, The Scots Mag. vol. Ixxx. p. 313. || Flora Lapponica 68 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. eat bark-bread (barkbrdd,) prepared from the bark of Pinus sylveslris,* during a great part of the winter, and sometimes even during the whole year. But admitting the accuracy of these facts, it by no means follows that lignine is nutri- tive ; because in the autumn, after the formation of wood has ceased, starch is formed, and is diffused through every part of the plant by the autumnal sap.f " According to the observations of M. Heyer, the starch thus deposited in the body of the tree can be recognised in its known form by the aid of a good microscope. The barks of several aspens" and pine-trees contain so much of this substance, that it can be extracted from them as from potatoes by trituration with water."J So that starch may, in reality, be the nutritive principle of the wood-br§ad and bark-bread above referred to.§ The ligneous matter of our ordinary vegetable foods is indigestible, and is evacuated with the fasces, of which it makes a part. The skin of potatoes, the husk of the grape, the peel and core of apples and pears, the skin and stones of drupes, (as plums, peaches, &c.,) the skin or seed-coats of the kernels of nuts, the membrane covering beans and peas, the husk of gooseberries, the peel of cucumbers, melons, &c, the husk or bran of corn, &c, are all indigestible, and incapable of being assimilated. But though insoluble and unassimilable, ligneous matter is not quite, useless. It serves as a mechanical stimu- lus to the bowels, the action of which it promotes. " Of the numerous shapes assumed by lignine," says Dr. Prout,|| " the best adapted for excremental purposes is undoubtedly the external covering of the seeds of the cerealia, and particularly of wheat. Bread, therefore, made with undressed flour, or even with an extra quantity of bran, is the best form in which farinaceous and excremental matters can be usually taken; not only in diabetes, but in most of the other varieties of dyspepsia accompanied by obstinate consti- pation. This is a remedy the efficacy of which has been long known and admitted ; yet, strange to say, the generality of mankind choose to consult their taste rather than their reason; and by officiously separating what nature has beneficently combined, entail upon' themselves much discomfort and misery. In stating above, that most individuals subject to constipation obtain relief by the use of brown bread, I wished to imply that there are some exceptions; and that not only among the various forms of dyspepsia, but even in dia- betes. In such instances, the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines is often so irritable, that the mechanical excitement produced by furfuraceous matters cannot be borne ; and in a few of such instances, (not in all,) the second great class of excremental matters, those, namely, consisting of the green matter of the leaves of plants, is, in general, little acted on by the stomachs of the higher animals; and hence may, in most cases, safely form a portion of the food of diabetic individuals." Fungin, or the fleshy part of mushrooms, is closely allied to lignine, of which, perhaps, it is only a variety. It is the substance which remains after mushrooms have been de- prived of every thing soluble in water,-alcohol, and a weak alkaline solution. From Bra- connot'sIF experiments it would appear to be highly nitrogenous, but those of Vauquelin,** who probably obtained fungin in a purer form and freer from foreign nitrogenous sub- stances, do not confirm Braconnot's statement, but seem to show that fungin contains but little nitrogen. Mullerff considers fungin to be one of the simple nutritive substances.}! * See Von Buch, in The Scots Magazine, vol. lxxx. p. 315. Edinb. 1817. t Hartig, in Erdmann und Schweigger-Seidel's Journal. 1835. X Liebig, Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, p. 119, 2d ed. 1842. $ Appendix, N. „ 0p, mpra ^ p m IT Ann. Chim. lxxix. y ** j-jjjj lxxxv tt Elements of Physiology, Baly's Translation, p. 478. -(4 Appendix N. PECTINE AND PECTIC ACID. 6. THE PECTINACEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. (Vegetable Jelly.) Jelly is of two kinds—animal and vegetable. The first has for its base animal gelatine, and will be described hereafter, (see The Gelatinous Alimentary Principle.) The second has for its base starch, pectine, or pectic acid. Starch has been already noticed, (see The Amylaceous Alimentary Principle;) and I now proceed to examine the dietetical properties of pectine and pectic acid, both of which substances I include under the denomination of the Pectinaceous Alimentary Principle. Pectine (so called from wcrt;, coagulum) and Pectic acid are both vegeto-gelatinous matters. One or both of them are most extensively distributed in the vegetable kingdom. Most pulpy fruits contain vegetable jelly; as Currants, (red, white, and black,) Apples, (both sweet and sour,) Pears, Quinces, Plums, Apricots, the Cucurbitaceous fruits, (as Melon,) Gooseberries, Blackberries, Raspberries, Strawberries, Bilberries, Mulberries, Cherries, Love-apples, Oranges, Lemons, Guava, and Tamarinds. The Jerusalem Arti- choke and the Onion also yield it. It is likewise obtained from the Carrot, Turnip, Celery, Beet, and many other roots. Hitherto the quantity procurable from different plants has not been ascertained. In the dried state, pectine and pectic acid closely resemble each other; but the former is distinguished from the latter by several characters. Pectine dissolves in cold water, yielding a thick solution which does not redden litmus* paper; whereas peotic acid reddens litmu;-, and is scarcely soluble in water. Dissolved in solution of ammonia, pectine yields no precipitate on the addition of an acid ; whereas pectic acid, treated in the same way, yieldo a gelatinous precipitate. Very small quantities of the fixed alkalies or alkaline earths convert pectine into pectic acid. Pect.ne has been analyzed by Mulder* and Fremy.f COMPOSITION OF PECTINE. 100 Parts. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Authority. Pectine from sweet apples.......45198 5*352 49 45 ") Ditto from sour apples .......45 853 5-479 48668}Mulder. Ditto in pectinate of lead......45608 5370 49022) Ditto in ditto...........43*5 5-2 514 Fremy. Fremy gives as the formula for pectine CM H" O23. Both Fremy and Mulder agree that pectine and pectic acid are identical in composition : the latter chemist gives Ca H8 O10 as the formula for pectic acid; while RegnaultJ gives C11 H7 O10. According to Fremy the saturating power of pectic acid is double that of pectine : pectic acid combining with two atoms, pectine with one atom of a base. By boiling with an acid solution (as of malic acid) both pectine and pectic acid are converted into metapectic acid, which is very soluble in water. According to Fremy, unripe fruits contain a very small portion only of pectine; but when the fruit becomes ripe, pectine is formed by the action of the vegetable acids of the fruit on a pulpy matter. These acids are contained in cells, from which they do not escape until the period of ripening, when the cells are transparent, distended, and per- meable. By subjecting fruit to heat the cells burst and allow the acid to escape, and in this way the formation of pectine is promoted. The same chemist has also shown that under the influence of vegetable albumen con- tained in fruits, pectine is convertible into pectic acid. This fact explains why an impure aqueous solution of pectine gelatinizes by keeping : the pectine is changed by vegetable albumen into pectic acid. It explains also why the juice of a fruit by prolonged ebullition * Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1S3S, p. 337. t Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvi. p. 368. 1840. X Ibid, t. xxiv. p. 201. 1838. 70 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. often loses its power of gelatinizing ; since the matter destined to form the jelly has been coagulated or destroyed. Moreover, under the influence of heat, the malic or other vege- table acid of the juice may convert the pectine or pectic acid into metapectic acid, which is very soluble in water, and does not possess the property of gelatinizing. Sugar promotes the solidification of both pectine and pectic acid. If sugar be dis- solved in a solution of pectine, an imperfect jelly is formed, which finally may be drawn out in threads. It also promotes the gelatinization of pectic acid, a property which the ' confectioner takes advantage of, in the preparation of the jellies of currants, apples, cher- ries, gooseberries, &c. The dietetical properties of vegetable jelly have been but imperfectly examined. We believe it to be slightly nutritive, and readily digestible. Analogy leads us to suppose that its alimentary properties are similar to those of gum ; from which, however, it dif- fers somewhat in composition:—gum being composed of carbon and water, (or its ele- ments,) while both pectine and pectic acid consist of carbon and water, (or its elements,) plus oxygen, (see p. 13.) ' Both of these vegeto-gelatinous principles being deficient in nitrogen, are considered by Liebig (see ante, p. 16) to be mere elements of respiration. But on account of (the exaess (in relation to the hydrogen) of oxygen which they contain, it is possible that their1' copious use would diminish the activity of the function of respi- ration, (see ante, p. M.) Most fruits have more or less tendency to promote alvine evacu- ations : whether or not this is ascribable to the vegeto-gelatinous principles which they contain, or to some other constituent, has not been ascertained. Braconnot* has sug- gested the preparation of jellies with pectic acid, to which various flavoring ingredients may be added. " I dissolved," says he, " in warm water, one part of pectate of potash prepared from turnips, and then added sugar to the solution. On the addition of an infinitely small quantity of acid, the whole became, in a few minutes, a mass of trembling jelly, weighing 300 parts." Such a jelly, however, must contain so small a quantity of solid matter, that, instead of nourishing, its great value would be in deceiving morbid appetites. 1. Fruit Jellies.—A variety of vegetable jellies are prepared by the confectioner. Those | in greatest request are Currant, (red and black,) Apple, Strawberry, and Raspberry Jellies. ( To some jellies the term Marmalade is applied. Thus Quince Marmalade, (formerly con- tained in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,) prepared with strained quince-juice and sugar, is in fact a jelly. Fruit jellies owe part of whatever nutritive properties they possess, to sugar, and fre- quently to animal gelatine. The sugar used in their preparation promotes the solidifi- cation of, and likewise preserves, the vegetable jelly, which, though apt to become mouldy, does not become sour. Ising-glass is frequently added to communicate firmness or stiff- ness. Fruit jellies form very agreeable cooling articles of food in febrile and inflam- matory complaints. They are frequently used by invalids to moisten the mouth and fauces, and to allay thirst. They are esteemed antiscorbutic. When dissolved in water they form an agreeable drink. An extemporaneous Rasp- berry Vinegar is made by dissolving half a pint of raspberry jelly in a pint of vinegar. This, when diluted with water, (forming Raspberry-Vinegar Water,) affords a pleasant cooling beverage for allaying thirst \n fevers, colds, and inflammatory maladies. 2. Jams, On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. ix. 3d ed. 1840. II Dr. Budd, Lectures on the Disorders resulting from Defective Nutriment, in The London Medical Gazette, July 22,1842, p. 633. V Dr. Budd, loccit. p. 716. 72 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. cious ; for experience has proved that this is not the case. Thus, though we admit that lemon-juice is a valuable anti-scorbutic, we cannot make the same statement of vinegar; the united observations of Drs. Lind, Gilbert Blane, and Trotter, having shown that the liberal use of vinegar by sailors did not prevent the appearance, nor check the progress of scurvy. Water sharpened with the vegetable acids oftentimes proves a most refreshing bever- age, allaying thirst, and moderating excessive heat. When taken in the free state these acids suffer no appreciable chemical change in the system, except that of combining with abase; for Drs. Wohler and Stehberger* detected oxalic, tartaric, and gallic acids, in combination with bases, in the urine of persons to whom these acids had been adminis- tered in the free state. Now, inasmuch as the chyle and blood are always alkaline, it follows that these acids must have entered into combination with bases before they en- tered the circulation. It is probable, therefore, that the bile furnishes the basic matter for neutralizing the acids previous to their absorption. It is remarkable, however, that the tartrates, citrates, malates, and acetates of potash and soda, taken into the stomach, suf- fer decomposition in the system, and are converted into carbonates of their respective bases. This fati-gfct-|gticed. by Sir Gilbert Blane, but confirmed by Drs. Wohler and Stehberger, hasfl Kweady adverted to, and the changes which the vegetable acids suffer, explaine JH^L ante, pp. 14 and 15.)f I now proceed f^Mke a few remarks on those organic acids which are most frequently used for dietetical purposes. 1. Acetic Acid or The Acid of Vinegar—To this substance Pyroligneous Acid, Vinegar, Sour Beer, and Sour Wine, owe entirely or principally their acid properties. Anhydrous or real acetic acid, as it exists in some acetates, has the following composition, C4 H3 O3. Glacial or Crystallizable Acetic Acid, the strongest procurable, contains one equivalent of water. Its formula is C4 H3 O3. + Aqua. Pyroligneous Acid, called also Wood Vinegar, or White Vinegar, is obtained by the dis- tillation of wood. When pure it consists of acetic acid and water pnly. The Common Vinegar of the shops is procured by subjecting an infusion of malt, or of a mixture of malt and raw barley, to the acetous fermentation.f Hence it is com- monly termed Malt Vinegar. It has a yellowish red color and an agreeable acid taste, which it owes principally to acetic acid, but in part also to sulphuric acid, and a peculiar refreshing, pleasant odor, which it derives from acetic acid and acetic ether. The makers-of it sell four vinegars, of different degrees of strength, which they distinguish as Nos. 18, 20, 22, and 24. The vinegar distinguished as No. 24, or Proof Vinegar is the strongest that is made. It is almost too strong for ordinary use at the table, but is employed for pickling and preserving meat, fish, and game; whence it has received its name of Strongest Pickling Vinegar. The vinegar known as No. 22 is adapted for the table, and for pickling most vegetables, whence it is frequently called Best Pickling Vinegar. Malt vinegar has the following composition :— COMPOSITION OF MALT VINEGAR. t^Sn FAf Alcoho1 18 92$ 18*94 18*94 18-49 A. 20-35 18-25 A. 20-51 18-11 A. 18-65 19-25 17-26 17-26 17-43 1813 15-10 17-05 16-40 15-52 15*52 15-28 14*22 A A Others. 15*90 P. 18*40 P. 20-64 P. 21*20 P. 23 80 P. 14*50 P. 18 01 F. 30*00 P. | 51. i 52. 53. 54, 55. 56, 57, 58, Burgundy .... A. Hock .....A. Nice ..... Barsac..... Tent...... Champagne ... A. Red Hermitage . . Vin de Grave . . Frontignac (Rivesalte) Cote Rotie . . . Gooseberry ... A. Orange..... Tokay ..... Elder..... Cider, highest average Ditto, lowest ditto . Perry, average of four samples .... Mead..... Ale (Burton) . . . London (Edinburgh) Ditto (Dorchester)" . Average Brown Stout . . . London Porter (ave- rage) ..... Ditto Small Beer . Brandy ..... Rum...... Gin...... Scotch Whiskey Irish ditto .... Brande. 14*57 12-08 14-63 13*86 13-30 12-61 12-32 13-94 12*79 12-32 11-84 11-26 9-88 8-79 9-87 5*21 7*26 7*32 8-88 6*20 5*56 6*87 6*80 4*20 1*28 53-39 53-68 57-60 54-32 53-90 Others. 12*16 P. 12*20 F. * Appendix, Q. t A. means average, F. Julia-Fontenelle, P. Prout. ALCOHOL. 77 According to the more recent experiments of Dr. Christison, the quantity of alcohol ir, wines has been somewhat overrated. The following are his results :— Alcohol (0*7939) Proof Spirit per cent, by per cent, by weight. volume. 14-97 30*56 16-20 33-91 17-10 37*27 14-97 31*31 13-93 30-84 15-37 33-59 16-17 3512 14*72 32*30 16*90 37-06 16-90 36-81 1409 30-86 13-84 30-21 15-45 33-65 1614 34-71 12-95 28-30 12-63 27-60 7-72 16-95 7-78 17-06 7-61 16-74 8*99 18*96 9*31 22-35 12-86 28-37 8*40 18-44 6-90 15-19 7*35 1615 7-35 16-15 5-70 12*60 5-36 11*91 Dr. Christison states that by keeping wines, as Sherry and Madeira, in casks, for a mod- erate term of years, the quantity of alcohol increases; but after a certain time it decreases ; and it is probable that at the period when wines begin to lose alcohol they cease to im- prove in flavor. The value of ardent, spirits is, of course, proportionate to the quantity of alcohol con- tained therein ; and, therefore, a ready mode of estimating this is most desirable, The alcoholometrical method usually adopted consists in determining the sp. gr. of the liquid by an instrument called the hydrometer, (from Uwp, water; nerPiu>, I measure.) That employ- ed in this country, in the collection of the duties on spirits, is called Sikes's hydrometer. Spirit having the sp. gr. 0*920, at 60° F., is called proof spirit; that which is heavier is said to be under proof, while that which is lighter is called over proof* The origin of these terms is as follows :—Formerly a very rude mode of ascertaining the strength of spirits was practised, called the proof: the spirit was poured upon gunpowder, in a dish, and inflamed. If at the end of the combustion the gunpowder took fire, the spirit was said * Spirit, which is of the strength of 43 per cent, over proof at the least, is recognised by the legislature (6 Geo. 4. cap. 80, Sects. 101 and 114) as spirits of wine. All spirit under this strength is known in trade^ as plain spirit. Distillers are not permitted (Ibid. Sect. 81) to send out spirits at any other strengths than 25 or 11 per cent, above, or 10 per cent, below proof. Raw corn spirit, therefore, is sold at 25 or 11 per cent, above proof. . Compounded spirits (as Gin) are not allowed (Ibid. Sect. 124) to be kept or sent out stronger than 17 per cent, under proof; but Gin, as sold by the rectifier, is usually 22 per cent, under proof. Foreign or Colonial spirits (not being compounded colonial spirits) must not be kept or sent out of less strength than 17 per cent, underproof, (Ibid. Sect. 130.) Rum and Brandy, as commonly sold, are 10 per cent, under proof. f Weakest Port I ^ean °f " wines | Strongest L White .... I Weakest..... Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very long kept in cask . Strongest..... Mean of 9 wines very long kept in cask in the East Indies Madre da Xeres Madeira, all long in cask in ( Strongest East Indies . . (Weakest Teneritfe, long in cask at Calcutta Cercial .... . . Dry Lisbon....... Shiraz ....... Amontillado...... Claret, a first growth of 1811 Chateau-Latour, first growth 1825 ' Rosan, second growth 1825 Ordinary Claret, a superior "vin ordinaire" Rivesaltes ..... Malmsey....... Riidesheimer, superior quality Ditto inferior quality Hambacher, superior quality Edinburgh Ale, unbottled . . Same Ale, 2 years bottled London Porter, 4 months in bottles 78 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. to be above or over proof; but if the spirit contained much water, the powder was ren- dered so moist that it did not take fire : in this case the spirit was declared to be below or under proof. As spirit of different strengths will or will not inflame gunpowder, according to the quantity of spirit employed, it became necessary to fix the legal value of proof spirits : this has been done, and proof spirit (Spirilus tenuior) is defined, by act of par- liament, to be such, that at the temperature of 51° F., thirteen volumes of it weigh exactly as much as twelve volumes of water. According to this definition the sp. gr. at 60° F. is 0*920, and spirit of this strength consists of By Weight. Sp. Gr. Alcohol .... 49 ... 0*791 Water .... 51 ... . 1000 Proof spirit ... 100 ... 0*920 Spirit is employed by the cook and confectioner, as a preservative agent. Thus Brandy is used to preserve several kinds of fruit* Its efficacy is imperfectly understood. It acts, in part at least, by excluding air (oxygen) and water, the two powerful promoters of fermentation and putrefaction. 1. Brandy; Eau-de-vie.—This is an ardent spirit obtained by the distillation of wine. Its constituents are alcohol, water, volatile oil, a minute portion of acetic acid, cenanthic ether, coloring matter, and tannin. The latter is said to be derived from the cask in which the spirit has been preserved. The most celebrated of the French Brandies are those of Cognac and Armagnac. Pale brandy has a very slight brownish yellow tint, derived from the cask. The high colored brandy usually found in the shops of this country is artificially colored. When fresh imported the alcoholic strength of brandy is usually above proof; but by keeping it diminishes. A sample of pale brandy, in bond, supplied me by Mr. Gassiot, of Mark Lane, I found to be 1*5 over proof, and a colored brandy 22 over proof. But I am informed that 10 per cent, under proof is the strength of brandy as usually sold. British brandy is extensively manufactured and sold as foreign brandy.f From other ardent spirits in ordinary use, brandy is distinguished by its cordial and stomachic properties. It is, therefore, often resorted to as a domestic remedv to relieve spasmodic pains and flatulency, to check vomiting, especially sea-sickness, and to give temporary relief in some cases of indigestion, attended with pain after taking food. A little warm brandy and water with nutmeg is often a very efficacious remedy for slight cases of diarrhoea unaccompanied with inflammatory symptoms. Burnt brandy is a popular remedy for diarrhoea. In the London Pharmacopoeia there is, under the name of Brandy Mixture, (Mistura Spiritus Vini Gallici,) an imitation of Egg-Flip, and as it is a valuable stimulant and restorative it deserves a place here. It consists of brandy, cinnamon water, of each four fluid ounces, [a gill,] the yolks of two eggs, white sugar half an ounce, and oil of cinna- mon two drops. From one to three table-spoonfuls are given as a dose, in extreme ex- haustion from flooding or other hemorrhages, and in the latter stages of low fevers. * Cherries and plums shrivel when preserved in syrup, but remain plump in brandy: in the first case, exosmosis preponderates, because the syrup is denser than the juice of the fruit; in the second, endos- fhosis, because the juice is denser than the brandy: the separating membrane is the skin or epicarp of the fruit. t British brandy is made by mixing 80 gallons of rectified spirits with 7 gallons of vinegar, 12 ounces of orris root, 15 lbs. of raisins, and 2 lbs. of sulphuric acid. Cognac brandy is often adulterated with Spanish or Bordeaux brandy, old neutral-flavored rum, rectified spirits, British brandy, cherry-laurel-water, extract of almond cake, extract of capsicum, grains of Paradise, and coloring sugar.—L. ALCOHOL. 79 2. Rum.—This is ardent spirit, obtained both in the West and East Indies, by distilla- tion from the fermented skimmings of the sugar boiler, molasses, the washings of the boilers, and the lees or spent wash of former distillations, called dunder. It is imported into this country in puncheons. In some parts of the West India Islands it is customary to put slices of pine-apples in the puncheons of rum ; hence the. designation of pine-apple i rum. Jamaica rum is more highly esteemed than the Leeward Islands rum. The pecu- liar flavor of rum depends on volatile oil. The general effects and uses of rum are similar to those of brandy. But rum is con- sidered more heating, and more disposed to cause sweating, than the other kinds of ardent spirit, to which it has been popularly thought preferable in slight colds, long-standing coughs, and rheumatism.* Of its great value in cases of extreme suffering and exhaus- tion, from excessive fatigue and privation of food, I have already furnished evidence, (see p. 26.) 3. Gin.—Gin is an ardent spirit prepared from corn spirit, and flavored with Juniper, Sweet Flag, &c. It is not allowed to be sent out stronger than 17 per cent, under proof, but is usually sold to the trade at 22 per cent, under proof. The retail dealer always further reduces its strength, and flavors it with sugar. On account of the oil of juniper which it holds in solution, gin is more powerfully diu- retic than either brandy or rum ; and hence it is a more popular diuretic in dropsical and other affections where an augmentation of the renal secretion is considered desirable. Moreover, it is frequently used, in preference to other ardent spirits, to promote men- struation. At the London Hospital, it is frequently administered medicinally, as a substi- tute for brandy, to patients who have been accustomed to it, and whose maladies require the use of some alcoholic stimulant.f 4. Whiskey.—This is a corn spirit, and agrees in most of its properties with gin ; from which it differs in its peculiar smoky flavor and odor: these it acquires from the malt, which is dried by turf fires. But the smell of burned turf, called peat-reek in Scotland, •' which was originally prized as a criterion of whiskey made from pure malt, moderately fermented and distilled with peculiar care, has of late years lost its value, since the artifice of impregnating bad raw grain whiskey with peat-smoke has been extensively practised," (Ure.)4. The peculiar flavor of whiskey is owing " to a volatile oil which exists in the barley from which the spirits have been made," (Thomson.)^ Highland whiskey is some- times sold 11 per cent over proof. The greater reputation of the Highland over Lowland whiskey has been ascribed to the use of porter-yeast by the Lowland distillers, which is said to deteriorate the flavor. 5. Arrack or Rack.—This is a spirit obtained from different sources in various parts of the East. In Batavia it is procured by distillation from fermented infusions of rice, whence it has been termed Rice Spirit. In Ceylon, it is obtained by distillation from fermented * They talk of a common experiment here, [Jamaica,] that any animal's liver put into E.um grows soft, and not so in Brandy, whence they argue this last less wholesome than that; but their Experiment, if true, proves no such thing. I think it may be said to have all the good and bad qualities of Brandy, or any fermented or vinous spirit," (Sir Hans Sloane's Jamaica, vol. i. p. xxx. Lond. 1707.) t The gin which is in general use in this country is an adulterated article, having, for the most part, the cheapest kind of whiskey, with oil of juniper and oil of vitriol added to it. In addition to these, oil of cassia, oil of turpentine, oil of caraways, oil of almonds, sulphuric ether, extract of capsicum, extract grains of Paradise, orris root, angelica root, water, sugar, &c., are used for the same purpose.—L. $ Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, p. 399. Lond. 1839. § Chemistry of Organic Bodies—Vegetables, p. 481. 80 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. cocoa-nut toddy, (by some called Palm Wine.) Pine-apples, steeped in it impart a most exquisite flavor to the spirit; and, by age, it becomes a delicious liqueur, which is unri- valled in the world for making nectarial punch. Arrack is said to be distinguished from the other ardent spirits by its stimulating and narcotic properties. It is Sometimes used in this country to impart an agreeable flavor to punch. A mock arrack is made by dis- solving twenty grains of benzoic acid in two pints of rum. 6. Liqueurs and Compounds.—By spirit dealers, British compounded spirits are denom- inated Compounds, while Foreign compounded spirits are called Liqueurs. Both classes of liquors consist of spirits sweetened and otherwise flavored. A great variety of Liqueurs is imported. In France they are called Ratafias,* and some of them also Crimes. Kirschenwasser or Kirschwasser (literally Cherry-water) is obtained by distillation from the fermented juice of a black cherry (Cerasus avium macrocarpa, De Cand.) cultivated in Switzerland and in some parts of France, (in the Vosges and the Foret-Noire.) Maraschino di Zara is procured in Dalmatia from a peculiar variety of cherry, called Marasquin (Cerasus Caproniana var. « Montmorencyana, De Cand.*!) Curacoa is prepared by digesting bitter orange-peel (or orange berries,) cloves, and cin- namon, in old brandy, to which sugar dissolved in water is subsequently added.f The following list of Compounds or British Liqueurs usually kept at the gin-shops of this metropolis has been furnished me by the proprietor of one of these establishments:— COMPOUNDS, OR BRITISH LIQUEURS. Under Proof. Gin............17 Gin............22 Mint (Peppermint).......64 Cloves..........." Bitters..........." Raspberry.......... " Noyeau .... ......" Cinnamon.........." Under Proof. . 64 Tent......... Aniseed..........." Caraway.........." Lovage ...... •'.... " Usquebaugh (seldom asked for) . . . " Orange Cordial (ditto)....." Citron Cordial (ditto)....." Rum Shrub........." Those marked at 64 under proof, though usually permitted to the retailers at that strength, are usually much nearer 80 under proof. J 9. THE OILY ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. (Oleaginous Aliments.) The substances usually denominated oils are of two kinds, fixed and volatile. The first cannot be distilled with water, and when dropped on paper communicate to it a perma- nently greasy stain. The second are volatile, and communicate to paper a stain, which can be removed by moderate warmth. 1. Of the Fixed Oils.—Under this head are included all fatty substances employed as •food, whether obtained from animals or vegetables. To this, therefore, belong the sub- stances popularly known as Fat, Suet, Tallow, Lard or Axunge, Marroxo, Grease, Butter, Blubber, and Fixed Oil. The vegetable fixed oils reside principally in the seed; either in the embryo itself, as in Almonds, Rape-seed, Mustard-seed, Filberts, Walnuts, Earth-nuts, and Linseed ;—or * Ratafia, like the verb ratify, is derived from the Latin words ratum and fio, to make firm, or to con- firm. By Ratafia, therefore, was originally meant a liquid drank at the ratification, confirmation, or set- tlement of an agreement or bargain. The practice of drinking on these occasions is by no means of modern origin. f Formulae for the preparation of the above and other Liqueurs (Ratafias) are given in MM. Henry and Guibourt's Pharmacopee Raisonnee. % Appendix, S. FIXED OILS OR FATS. 81 in the perisperm or albumen which surrounds the embryo, as in the Cocoa-nut, Poppy- seed, and Nutmeg. The pericarp or fruit-coats rarely contain fixed oil. Olives, however, constitute a remarkable exception to this statement. In animals, fat is lodged in the cells of what is called adipose tissue—a structure analo- gous to, if, indeed, it be not identical with, common cellular membrane. A stratum of this tissue, of variable thickness, lies beneath the skin.' A considerable accumulation of it, containing a very firm kind of fat exists in the neighborhood of the kidneys. In the omentum, (popularly called the caul,) the orbits, and various other parts of the animal body, depositions of fat take place. The quantity of oil or fat procurable from different vegetable and animal substances is as follows:— QUANTITY OF OIL OR FAT YIELDED BY 100 PARTS BY WEIGHT OF THE FOLLOW- ING ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES. Oil or Fat. Authority. a. Vegetables. Filberts........ .60 Schiibler. Olives (including pericarp, stone, and seed,) . . .32 Sieuve. Olive-seeds.........54 Ditto. Walnuts...... ... 50 Schiibler. Earth-nut (Arachis hypogaa)......47 Payen and Henry fils. Cocoa nut (nucleus or fleshy part).....47 Buchner. Almonds.......' . . .46 Schiibler. White Mustard........36 Ditto. Plums..........33 Ditto. Linseed..........22 Ditto. Black Mustard.........18 Ditto. Grape-stones (seeds).......11*4 to 18*5 Julia-Fontenelle. Maize..........9 Dumas and Payen. Dates (fleshy part of the fruit)......0*2 Reinsch. 6. Animal. Yolk of Eggs . , . .....28*75 Prout. Ordinary Meat (including cellular tissue) . . .14*3 Liebig. Caviare (fresh unpressed)......4*3 John. Liver of the Ox (parenchyma of).....3*89 Braconnot. Milk, Cows*.........313 "I " Women's........3*55 | " Asses'.........0-11 )■ O. Henry and Chevallier. " Goats'.........3*32 " Ewes'.........4-20 J Bones of Sheeps'feet . .....5-55 * French Gelatine Commission. " Ox-head . .....1154 ) The elementary constituents of the fatty substances are Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, to which, in some instances, Saussure adds Nitrogen. ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF SOME FIXED OILS OR FATS. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Authority. Almond Oil ... 77*403 11*481 10*828 0*288 Saussure. Olive Oil (liquid vert or oleine) . . 76036 11545 12068 0*353 Ditto. Ditto (solid mrt or margarine) . . 82*170 11*232 6-302 0*2% Ditto. Walnut Oil ....... 79*774 10-570 9122 0*543 Ditto. Train Oil .......761 12-4 11-5 0 Berard. Rutter .....65*6 17*6 16-8 0 Ditto. Hoe's Lard' ' .... 79*098 11*146 9-756 0 Chevreul. Mutton Suet !.......78*996 11*700 9*304 0 Ditto. The fixed oils or fats employed as aliments are mixtures or compounds of two, three, or more neutral, fatty, saponifiable principles, viz., Stearine, Margarine, Oleine, Butyrine, Caprine, Caproine, Hircine, and Phocenine. Each of these fatty principles is convertible, by a caustic alkali, «nto a fatty acid, a saccharine substance called glycerine, or the oxide of glycerule, (see p. 55,) and water. They are probably, therefore, hydrated salts of gly- cerine. 82 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 1. Stearine (Stearate of Glycerine) yields Stearic acid - 2. Margarine (Margarate of Glycerine) " Margaric acid ■ 3. Oleine (Oleate of Glycerine) " Oleic acid 4. Butyrine (Butyrate of Glycerine) " Butyric acid ■ 5. Caprine (Caprate of'Glycerine) " Capric acid 6. Caproine (Caproate of Glycerine) " Caproic acid ■ 7. Hircine (Hircate of Glycerine) " Hirsic acid 8. Phocenine (Phocenate of Glycerine) " Phocenic acid Glycerine. Glycerine. Glycerine. Glycerine. Glycerine. Glycerine. Glycerine. Glycerine. Stearic, margaric, and oleic acids, are without smell, and as they cannot be distilled with water, are called fixed acids. The other acids are odorous, volatile, and acrid. The peculiar smell, which most fats have, is due to one or more of these volatile oily acids. The fixed oils and fats are difficult and slow of digestion; more so than any other ali- mentary principles. This fact has long been familiar to dyspeptics; but it has of late years been confirmed in a very satisfactory manner, by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont,* made on a Canadian who had a permanent artificial opening in the stomach, produced by a gun-shot wound at about two inches below the left nipple. By means of this aper- ture, Dr. Beaumont was enabled to introduce into the stomach various articles of diet and from time to time to withdraw them, in order to examine the changes they underwent. He was also able to extract the gastric juice, and to perform various experiments on its digestive powers. He found that this secretion had a very slow and feeble action on fatty matters, whether contained in the stomach or otherwise. The mean time required for the chymification of fatty substances is, according to Dr* Beaumont's experiments, as follows:— ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF THE CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Butter...... Mutton Suet . . . Beef Suet (fresh). . Olive Oil .... Melted Boiled Boiled 3 30 4 30 5 30 Divided Entire piece Raw 10 0 12 0 60 0 The first change which the animal fat suffers when swallowed, consists in its conver- sion into liquid oil by the warmth of the stomach. Very gradually this oil is converted into a creamy-looking chyme, containing myriads of oily globules, visible to the eye when aided by a microscope; so that the oil is, in fact not in solution, but, like the butter in milk, or the oil in an emulsion, is held in suspension merely. Hence oils or fats, if swal- lowed in the form of an emulsion or milk, are more readily digested than if taken in the raw or undivided state. I have repeatedly subjected fatty substances to the action of an artificial digestive liquor,f which readily dissolved coagulated white of egg or beefsteak. In no case, how- ever, have I been able to get the fat or oil in solution. When yolk of egg boiled hard was submitted to its influence, the albuminous matter was readily dissolved, but not so the yellow fat of the yolk, which was merely diffused through the liquor, rendering it creamy or yellowish white, and opaque. * Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Jutce, and the Physiology of Digestion, by Wm. Beau- mont, M.D. Reprinted from the Plattsburg edition by Andrew Combe, M.D. Edinb. 1838. t See p. 35, foot-note, for the mode of preparing this liquor. FIXED OILS OR FATS. 83 j Thus minutely divided, and perhaps otherwise somewhat changed, fat or fixed oil becomes absorbed by the chyliferous vessels; for it is well known that the opacity of the chyle depends entirely or principally on the presence of myriads of minute oily globules, which readily dissolve in ether. The chymification of fatty substances is assisted by the presence of bile in the stomach. "Bile," says Dr. Beaumont "is seldom found in the stomach, except under peculiar cir- cumstances. I have observed," he adds, " that when the use of fat or oily food has been persevered in for some time, there is generally the presence of bile in the gastric fluids " The popular notion that oily or fatty foods " cause bile" in the stomach, is not, therefore, so groundless as medical men have generally supposed. From Dr. Beaumont's observa- tions and experiments, it appears that oil is slowly, and with great difficulty, acted on by the gastric juice; but that the admixture of bile greatly accelerates chymification. Per- haps the alkaline property of the bile partly contributes to this effect In many dyspeptic individuals fat does not become properly chymified. It floats on the contents of the stomach in the form of an oily pellicle, becoming odorous, and some- times highly rancid, and, in this state, excites heartburn, most disagreeable nausea, and eructations, or at times actual vomiting. It appears to me that the greater tendency which some oily substances have than others to disturb the stomach, depends on the greater facility with which they evolve volatile fatty acids, which are for the most part exceedingly acrid and irritating. The unpleasant and distressing feelings excited in many dyspeptics by the ingestion of mutton fat, butter, and fish-oils, are in this way readily accounted for; since all these substances contain each one or more volatile acids to which they respectively owe their odor. Thus mutton fat contains hircic acid; butter no less than three volatile fatty acids, viz. butyric, capric, aad caproic acids; while train oil con- tains phocenic acid. Fats, by exposure to the air, become rancid, and in this state are exceedingly obnoxious to the digestive organs. Their injurious qualities depend in part on the presence of vola- tile acids, and in part also on other volatile but non-acid substances. The following table shows the differences in composition between fresh and rancid lard: COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND RANCID LARD. Fresh Lard. Rancid Lard. Stearine. Stearine [Margarine ■?] and Oleine. Margarine. Volatile non-acid matter, having a rancid odor. Oleine. Caproic (1) acid. Another volatile acid. Oleic, margaric, and perhaps stearic acids. Yellow coloring matter. Non-acid non-volatile matter, soluble in water. The influence of heat on fatty substances effects various chemical changes in them, whereby they are rendered more difficult of digestion, and more obnoxious to the stomach. Hence those culinary operations in which fat or oil is subjected to high temperatures, are objectionable for the preparation of foods for persons with weak stomachs. On this account, dyspeptics should be prohibited from employing foods prepared by frying; as in j this operation the heat is usually applied by the intermedium of boiling oil or fat. Fixed oils give off, while boiling, carbonic acid, a little inflammable vapor, and an acrid volatile oL called Acroleine or Acroleon,* while the fatty acids of the oils are, in part, set free. It * Acroleine is probably generated by the decomposition of the glycerine. Its vapor most powerfully and painfully affects the eyes. I have known a whole class of medical students obliged to leave the lecture-room to avoid the irritating effects of acroleine vapor developed during the distillation of a couple of ounces of olive oil. 84 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. has always appeared to me that cooked butter proves more obnoxious to the stomach than cooked olive oil. This I ascribe to the facility with which, under the influence of heat the acrid volatile acids of butter are set free. The fat of salt-pork and of bacon is less injurious to soi^ie dyspeptics than fresh animal fats. A somewhat similar observation has been made by others. " There is one form of impaired digestion," says Dr. Combe,* " in which the fat of bacon is digested with perfect ease, where many other apparently more appropriate articles of food oppress the stomach for hours." This must depend on some change effected in the fat by the process of curing it, for, in the cases which have fallen under my observation, the fat of salt-pork or of bacon was the only kind of fat which did not disturb the digestive organs. Dr. Combe, however, suggests that it may depend on the presence of bile 'in the stomach. But on this expla- nation, however, other fats should be equally digestible, which, according to my experi- ments, they are notf Fixed oil or fat is more difficult of digestion, and more obnoxious to the stomach, than any other alimentary principle. Indeed, in some more or less obvious or concealed form, I believe it will be found the offending ingredient in nine-tenths of the dishes which disturb weak stomachs. Many dyspeptics who have most religiously avoided the use of oil or fat in its obvious or ordinary state, (as fat meat, marrow, butter, and oil,) unwittingly employ it in some more concealed form, and, as I have frequently witnessed, have suffered therefrom. Such individuals should eschew the yolk of eggs, livers (of quadrupeds, poultry, and fish,) and brains, all of which abound in oily matter. Milk, and especially cream, disagree with many persons, or, as they term it, "lie heavy at the stomach," in conse- quence of the butter they contain. Rich cheese likewise contains butter, and on that account is apt to disturb the stomach. Fried dishes of all kinds are abominations to the dyspeptic, on account of the oil or fat used in their preparation. Melted butter, buttered toast, butler-cakes, pastry, marrow-puddings, and suet-puddings, are, for the like reason, obnoxious to the stomach. Several kinds of fish, as salmon, herrings, sprats, and eels, abound in oil, and on this account form objectionable foods for the dyspeptic. Moreover, the mode of cooking (frying) some fishes, and the condiment (melted butter) used with them, often render this kind of animal food injurious. The oily seeds, as nuts, toalnuts, and cocoa-nuts, are very indigestible. Chocolate prepared from the oily seeds of the Theo- broma Cacao is, therefore, not a fit article of food for a delicate stomach. Hashes, stews, and broths, frequently prove injurious, from the oil or fat contained in them. In preparing broths for such persons, therefore, the fat should be carefully removed by skimming. Oleaginous aliments have been until very recently regarded as highly nutritious; though alone, it is well known, they are incapable of supporting life. But Liebeg asserts that, like other non-nitrogenized foods, they are incapable of transformation into food, and are, therefore, unfitted for forming organized or living tissues, and that they merely serve for supporting the process of respiration. I have, however, already fully discussed Liebig's opinions on this subject in a former part of this work, (see pp. 16—27,) to which, there- fore, I must refer the reader for further information. I have likewise noticed the impor- tance of the fatty foods in enabling the inhabitants of frozen regions to resist the effects of extreme cold, (see pp. 8—11.) In the Report made to the French Academy of Sciences, in the name of the Gelatine * See the foot-note at p. 87 of his edition of Dr. Beaumont's Experiments. t We have treated many cases of cholera infantum, where every thing would be rejected from the stomach, except salt-pork, or fat bacon, rare-broiled and given in small quantities at a time. Many cases have recovered under such a diet, where vegetable farinaceous food could not be retained, or»if retained, passed through the alimentary canal undigested.—L. FIXED OILS OR FATS. 85 Commission,* it is stated that animals fed on fatty substances (fresh butter, lard, and the fat which surrounds the bullock's heart) refuse, after some time, to take this food, and ultimately die of inanition.f During life, they exhaled a strong fatty odor, and though dying of inanition, were in a remarkable state of embonpoint. On a post-mortem exam- j ination, all the tissues and organs were found infiltrated with fat and the liver was in the | state called by anatomists fatty. |: In the preceding part (p. 27) of this work I have mentioned the facts adduced by Liebig, |' to prove that fat may be formed in the animal body from starch and sugar. Very recently, jj however, MM. Dumas and Payenf have denied the correctness of Liebig's conclusion ; 11 and have related some experiments which have led them to infer that animals derive j their fat from plants. Maize, they state, contains 9 per cent, of a yellow oil; so that the goose referred to by Liebig (see ante, p. 27,) in eating 24 lbs. of maize received 2*16 lbs. of fatty matter. " It is not astonishing, therefore, that the animal should yield 3-J lbs., when we reckon that which it contained originally." j Hitherto I have not alluded to the ulterior changes which the fixed oils or fats suffer in the animal economy. On this point, physiology is very barren in facts. I have already stated (see p. 82) that the chyle contains, floating in it, globules of oil visible by the aid of a microscope. In the blood, however, the oil or fat} does not exist in a free state, but is intimately combined with some of the other constituents of the serum; while its pro- perties are different from those of the chyle-oil. It has, therefore, undergone some im- portant modificatidns. | From the blood, the adipose and nervous tissues must derive their oily or fatty consti- j tuents. The peculiar fatty matters of the brain pre-exist in the blood. I Obesity and leanness depend, the one on excessive, the other on deficient, quantity of oleaginous matters in the system. Dr. Prout also very properly refers gall-stones, which I consist of a fatty matter. called cholesterine, to the mal-assimilation of the oleaginous j: principle. ij Oleaginous foods often agree so remarkably well with diabetic patients, "that some I have gone so far as to propose them as remedies. When freely taken, they usually cause a flow of saliva, and thus diminish the urgent thirst. When they agree, also, they give a sensation of satisfaction and support to the stomach, which other alimentary substances do not. Perhaps butter is the most agreeable form in which they can be taken, and this, under proper circumstances, may be taken freely. When oleaginous matters disagree, as is sometimes the case, they should be carefully shunned."|| j 1. Olive Oil; Sweet Oil.—This is obtained by expression from olives. In France, the finest | oil is procured by bruising them in the mill immediately after they are gathered, and sub- mitting the paste to pressure. The first product, termed Virgin Oil, (Huile Vierge,) is greenish, and is much sought after by connoisseurs, for its superior flavor. Provence Oil, * Comptes Rendus, Aaut, 1841. t To the general statement in the text two exceptions were reported by the Commissioners. One dog ate daily 125 grammes [1929i troy grs.] of the fat which surrounds the bullock's heart, and at the end of a twelvemonth was in perfect health. Another dog took 190 grammes [29321 troy grs.] daily, | and was in perfect health at the end of six months' trial. But as this kind of fat contains cellular tissue and fragments of muscular fibre, both nitrogenous substances, these results do not invalidate the general | statement made in the text, and which is founded on the results obtained by feeding animals on ! pure fat. I t Comptes Rendus, Oct. 24,1S42. Also, Annals of Chymistry, Nov. 11,1842 ! § Chemists have detected in the blood the following fatty substances:—Cholesterine, Oleic and Mar- ij tfaric Acids, Serolin, and Cerebrole, (Cerebric Acid.) jj || Dr. Prout, op. supra cit. p.43, foot-note. 86 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. the produce of Aix, (Huile d'Aix en Provence,) is one of the most esteemed kinds. Florence Oil is a fine kind of olive oil imported from Leghorn in flasks surrounded by a kind of network, formed by the leaves of a monocotyledonous plant. These are the kinds of olive oil in most frequent use at the table for salads, (hence they are called Salad Oils.) Lucca Oil is imported in jars holding nineteen gallons each. Genoa Oil is a fine kind. Gallipoli Oil is imported in casks: it constitutes the largest portion of the olive oil brought to England. Sicily Oil is of inferior quality. Spanish Oil is the worst. The foot deposited by olive oil is used for oiling machinery, under the name of Droppings of Sweet Oil. Olive Oil consists of Oleine and Margarine. In cold weather, the latter constituent congeals in the form of white or yellowish globules. The following table shows the rela- tive proportion of oleine and margarine in olive and almond oils:— Olive Oil Almond Oil Oleine. Margarine. 72 28 76 24 As olive oil contains somewhat more margarine than almond oil does, it is more apt to congeal in cold weather. In England, the dietetical uses of olive oil are comparatively limited; being principally confined to its mixture with salads. It is also employed in frying fish. In Spain, and some other countries, it is frequently employed as a substitute for butter. Taken in large quantities, it acts as a mild laxative. The difficult digestibility of oil has been already adverted to, (see p. 82.) Some writers on dietetics are of opinion that, taken as a condiment, with salad, it promotes the digestibility of the latter. But I do not coincide with them. The statement is, & priori, improbable, while the facts adduced in support of it are insufficient to prove it. Raw oil, as taken with salad, is less likely to disturb the stomach than the same or other oily or fatty substances when cooked; for while, on the one hand, the freshest and sweetest oil is generally selected for employment at the table in the raw state, so on the other, oil which has been subjected to heat, as in various culinary operations, is rendered more difficult of digestion, (see p. 83.) Fresh olive oil I believe to be less obnoxious to the stomach than some other oily or fatty substances, and which I ascribe to its not contain- ing any free volatile acid, (see p. 83.)* 2. Butler.—As usually met with, this substance contains about one-sixth of its weight of butter-milk.f Cow's butter, according to Bromeis,| has the following composition :— COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. Margarate of glycerine [Margarine]..... go Butyroleate of glycerine [Oleine] . . . . * " ' 30 _______Butyrate [Butyrine,] caproate [Caproine,] and capi-ate of glycerine [Caprine] '. % Butter ..............100 The same authority gives the following as the formula; for the fatty acids of but- ter:— Ohve oil is employed extensively in the manufacture of soaps, unguents, and plasters • also for lubri- eating machinery, as well as for culinary purposes. In 1832, 5,000 tuns of olive oil were imoorted into Great Britain ; and in 1830, 8,524 tuns-the tun being 4 hogsheads, or 252 wine gallons. The importation into the United States, in 1840, was estimated at $96,000.—L. t Thomson's Chemistry of Animal Bodies, p. 430. 1843. X Journal de Pharmacie, 3**>e Ser. t. ii. Aoiit, 1842. FIXED OILS OR FATS. 87 COMPOSITION OF THE FATTY ACIDS OF BUTTER. Margaric Acid......C3* H33 O3 Butyroleic Acid......C3*» H3^ O* Butyric Acid.......' C' H« O3 Caprbic Acid.......C'» H9 O3 CapricAcid . . . . • . . . C'8 H14 O3 The acid called by Bromeis butyroleic acid was obtained from the oil (oleine of Chevreul) which he had extracted from butter by pressure. Butter is employed rather as a condiment than as a direct alimentary matter. Its dietetical properties I have already noticed, (pp. 83 and 84.) Its odor depends on the volatile fatty acids: to the facility with which these are set free, I have before ascribed its greater tendency to disorder the stomach than some other fats. When rendered rancid by keeping, or empyreumatic by heal, it is exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic, (pp. 83-84.) In the Report of the Gelatine Commission of the French Academy of Sciences, it is stated that a dog, fed on fresh butter only, continued to eat it irregularly for 68 days. " He died subsequently of inanition, although in a remarkable state of embonpoint. Dur- ing the whole of the experiment he exhaled a strong odor of butyric acid, his hair felt greasy, and his skin was unctuous and covered with a fatty layer. At the autopsy all the tissues and organs were found infiltrated with fat The liver was in the state called, in pathological anatomy, fatty. By analysis, a very large quantity of stearine [margarine 1] but little or no oleine, was found in it Into this organ, therefore, there had been a kind of infiltration of fat"* 3. Marrow.—This is the fatty matter contained in the interior of the cylindrical bones. Berzelius analyzed beef marrow, and found its constituents to be as follows :— COMPOSITION OF BEEF MARROW. Medullary fat.........96 Skins and blood-vessels ....... 1 Watery liquids contained in these bodies ... 3 Beef marrow.........100 " The constituent parts of these liquids do not differ from the matters which cold water extracts from beef." Marrow is deprived of the skins, vessels, &c, by melting it and straining through a linen cloth. " The marrow of large bones," says Berzelius, " is absolutely of the same nature as the other fat of the same animal. The difference of flavor which exists between the marrow of boiled bones and ordinary melted fat depends on foreign matters derived from the liquids which circulate in the cellular tissue by which the fat is surrounded, and espe- cially by an extract! form substance which is insoluble in alcohol." The proportions of solid and liquid fats contained in marrow are, according to Bra- connot as follows :— Solid Fat. Liquid Fat (Stearine.) (Oleine.) Beef marrow........1& |* Mutton marrow.......**> '* In its dietetical properties, marrow agrees with other oily or fatty substances. Beef marrow is the only variety used at the table. It is never eaten raw. It is frequently employed as a substitute for suet in the making of puddings. 4. Animal Fats.—Under this head are included the oils or fats contained in the adipose * Appendix, T. ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. tissue of animals : when separated from vessels and skins by melting and straining, they are said to be rendered down. By subjecting animal fats to pressure, Braconnot procured the following proportions of stearine and oleine from them:— Solid Fat. Liquid Fat. 100 Parts. (Stearine, &c.) (Oleine.) Hogs lard.......38 62 Goose fat .... . . 32 58 Duck fat .......28 72 Turkey fat.......26 74 Hog's lard contains, besides Stearine and Oleine, some Margarine, (see p. 83, where also is stated the composition of rancid lard.) Mutton Suet consists of Stearine, Margarine, Oleine, Hircine, and Hircic Acid, (see p. 83.) Whale oil, obtained, by boil- ing, from the blubber of whales, consists principally of Oleine with some Phocenine, and usually a little Phocenic acid, to which it owes its odor. It also contains a solid crystallizable fat. The digestibility of animal fats has already been adverted to, (see p. 82,) as well as the injurious influence of heat on them, (see p. 83.) I have likewise noticed the fact that some kinds of cured fats (as salt-pork and bacon) are less indigestible, by some stomachs, than other forms of fat, (see p. 84,.) The incapability of pure animal fats to effect prolonged nutrition has likewise been stated, (see pp. 19 and 84.) Magendie* reportsthat many animals which at first ate lard with pleasure, subsequently refused to touch it. After a shorter or longer use of it they all died. The autopsy of one of these animals showed, as in the case of the animal who died when kept exclusively on a diet of butter, " a general atrophy of the organs, but a great abundance of fat particularly under the skin, where it formed a layer of more than one centimetre [0*39371 of an English inch] in thickness." "We tried," continues Magendie, "whether, by mixing a certain portion of bread with the lard, we could ameliorate its effects. We made a paste composed of Lard........120 Grammes. ■ White bread .......250 Ditto. But the animal who was submitted to this nourishment refused it after a few days' use of it." • Six dogs were fed exclusively on the fat which surrounds the heart of the ox. This fat contained some nitrogenous matter in the form of cellular tissue, and some small parcels of muscular fibres. Four of the animals refused to eat of it after using it for seven days, and died in from 19 to 35 days. The two other animals continued to take it, and were nourished by it, as I have already stated, (see p. 85 foot-note.) The animal fats are sometimes used by the cook, as preservative agents for various foods. Thus plums and damsons, when boiled, are covered with suet in order to pre- serve them; potted meats with butter; &c. The antiseptic virtue depends, in these cases, on the exclusion of atmospheric air; the oxygen of which is a powerful accelera- tor of fermentation and putrefaction. 2. Of the Volatile or Essential Oils.—As volatile oil is a constituent of several substances employed at the table, either as aliments or condiments, I have thought it ad- visable to notice it here ;—the more especially as Dr. Prout includes it among oleaginous aliments. The labiate plants used in cookery, under the name of sweet or savory herbs, such as Mint Marjoram, Savory, Sage, and Thyme, owe their peculiar odor and flavor to volatile * Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. VOLATILE OILS—PROTIENE. 89 oil lodged in small receptacles contained in the leaves. The fruits and leaves of several umbilleferous plants employed for flavoring, as Caraway, Anise, Fennel, and Parsley, like- wise contain volatile oil, to which they owe their agreeable flavor. In the case of the umbelliferous fruits, the oil is contained in tubes or vessels, called vittaz, situated in the pericarpial coat of the fruit. The cruciferous or siliquose condiments, such as Mustard, Horse-radish, and Water Cresses, yield an acrid volatile oil, to which they owe their pun- gency, The alliaceous condiments, such as- Garlic, Onions, Eschalots, and Leeks, like- wise owe their peculiar flavor to volatile oil. The spices, as Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Mace, Cloves, Allspice, Pepper, and Ginger, owe their strong but grateful odor and taste to vola- tile oil. Lastly, the bitter-almond flavor, obtained, not only from Bitter-Almonds, but also from the leaves of the Peach and the Cherry-Laurel, resides in a volatile oil. The volatile oils of many of the preceding substances are prepared and sold. But in flavor and odor they are generally inferior to the substances from which they are obtain- ed ; as the act of distillation, by which they are procured, usually diminishes more or less their agreeable qualities. Dissolved in rectified spirit of wine, in the proportion of one part of oil to eight parts of spirit, they form the liquids commonly sold as Essences for flavoring, &c. The relish for flavoring or seasoning ingredients, manifested, in a greater or less de- gree, by almost every person, would lead us to suppose that these substances serve some useful purpose in the animal er-onomy, boyend that of merely gratifying the palate. At present, however, we have no evidence to prove that they do. They stimulate, but do not seem to nourish. The volatile oil which they contain is absorbed, but is subsequently thrown out of the system, still possessing its characteristic odor. A portion of it may, perhaps, under some circumstances, be bu.*nt in the lungs, and in this way produce heat.* 10. THE PROTEINACEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. (Albuminous Subst*vnc-esO Several organic principles, both animal and vegetable, which are employed as aliments, contain as their basis, or at least yield, the substance called by Mulder Proteine, and which I have before noticed, (see p. 20.) They may, therefore, be regarded as modifies. tions of one another, or of proteine, and I have accordingly incladad them in one group under the name of the proteinaceous alimentary principle. This group corresponds very nearly with that called by Dr. Prout the Albumv.wu. Alimentary Principle. It differs, however, in not comprehending gelatinous substances, which, for reasons hereafter to be stated, I have thought it advisable to form into a dis- tinct group. Proteine has been analyzed by its discoverer, Mulder, and also by Scherer. ANALYSES OF PROTEINE. MULDER. From Fibrine. From Ovalbumen. From Vegetable Albumeu. Carbon . . 5544 55*30 54-99 Hydrogen . . 6*95 6*94 6*87 NUrogfn . - 1605 1602 15*66 . 21*56 21*74 22*48 Oxygen Proteine . 10000 10000 10000 * Appendix, U. 90 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. SCHERER. From Fibrine. From Albumen. From Crystalline Len*. Carbon . . 54*848 55*160 55*300 Hydrogen . . 6*959 7055 6-940 Nitrogen . . 15-847 15-966 16-216 Oxygen . . 22-346 21-819 21-544 Proteine . . 100000 100000 100*000 Mulder and Liebig have deduced the following formulae for the representation of the composition of proteine: MULDER. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon . 40 240 54*93 Hydrogen .... 31 31 709 Nitrogen ... 5 70 1602 Oxygen ... 12 96 2196 Proteine .... 1 437 10000 LIEBIG. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent Carbon .... 48 288 55*38 Hydrogen .... 36 36 6*92 Nitrogen .... 6 84 1616 Oxygen .... 14 112 21*54 Proteine .... 1 520 10000 These formulae differ considerably from each other, yet agree very closely with the ex- perimental results. They are good illustrations of the difficulty of determining the atomic constitution of complicated organic substances. Proteine does not exist as such, in organized beings. Combined with small quantities of mineral or organized substances, (sulphur, phosphorus, potash, soda, common salt, and phosphate of lime,) it constitutes fibrine, albumen, and caseine, both animal and vege- table. The composition of Fibrine, Albumen, and Caseine, is, according to Mulder,* as fol- lows :— COMPOSITION OF PROTEINACEOUS COMPOUNDS. Fibrine. Ovalbumen. Seralbumen. Caseine. Proteine . . . 99*31 99*19 98*99 99*64 Sulphur . . . 0*33 0.43 0.33 0*36 Phosphorus . . 0*36 0*38 0-68 000 100-00 10000 100-00 100-00 [Salts] [Salts] [Salts] [Salts] Fibrine, albumen, and caseine, contain, besides Proteine, Sulphur, and Phosphorus, a quantity of saline matter, (not included in the above analyses,) and hence, when burned, they leave ashes, (composed principally of phosphate of lime and alkaline salts.) The following are the proportions of ashes obtained by Scherer and Jones :— QUANTITY OF ASHES YIELDED BY FIBRINE, ALBUMEN, AND CASEINE 100 Parts. Ashes. Authority. fibrine . .....1*3 to 2*3 Scherer. Seralbumen......1-265 to 21 Ditto. Ovalbumen (white of egg) ... 20 Ditto. Albumen of the yolk of egg ... 4-8 Jones. Albumen of Calf s brain .... 2*8 Ditto. Caseinet.......1-5 to 100 Scherer. Zieger....... 20 Ditto. The dietetical properties of pure proteine have not yet been ascertained. The pro- teinaceous compounds constitute the plastic elements of nutrition, (see p. 16.) Accord- * Mulder's formulas for fibrine and albumen I have before stated, (p. 33, foot-note.) t The ashes of caseine consist chiefly of phosphate of lime and potash, (Liebig.) FIBRINE. 91 ing to Liebig, they are produced by vegetables only, and cannot be formed by animals, " although the animal organism possesses the power of converting one modification of proteine into another, fibrine into albumen, or vice versa, or both into caseine, &c. In this point of view, the vegetable forms of proteine, vegetable albumen, fibrine, and caseine, become signally important as the only sources of proteine for animal life, and consequent- ly of nutrition, strictly so called—that is, the growth in mass of the animal body."* The brain and nervous matter (which is quite similar to brain) are distinct from all other animal tissues, and, according to Liebig, are formed, in the animal body exclusively, " from compounds of proteine, either by the loss of some azotized compounds, or by the addition of highly carbonized products, such as fat."+ Proteinaceous aliments are obtained from both animals and vegetables, and it will, there- fore, be convenient to consider them under two distinct sub-groups; notwithstanding that Liebig states, as I have before observed, (see p. 20,) that animal and vegetable fibrine, animal and vegetable albumen, and animal and vegetable caseine, are respectively identi- cal in every particular. 1. Animal Proteinaceous Principles.—This suh-group comprehends Fibrine, Albu- men, and Caseine, (see p. 20.) a. Fibrine; Animal Fibrine.—The fibrine is contained in solution in the circulating blood, but coagulates when this fluid is drawn from the body, forming, with the coloring particles, the clot or crassamentum. In the solid state it constitutes the basis of muscular fibre. It forms, therefore, the principal constituent of the fleshy or lean parts of animals. It is also found in some other animal tissues. QUANTITY OF FIBRINE IN ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 100 Parts. Fibrine. Authority. Blood of the Hog " " Ox " " Sheep . Beef (muscle of) . 046 ) . . . C Andral, Gavarret, . 0*3 S I and Delafond. . 20*0 including albumen Brande. Veal (ditto) . 19*0 ditto Ditto. Mutton (ditto) . 22 ditto Ditto. Pork (ditto) . 19 ditto Ditto. Chicken (ditto) . . 20 ditto Ditto. Cod (ditto) . 14 ditto Ditto. Haddock (ditto) . . 13 ditto Ditto. Sole (ditto) . 15 ditto Ditto. Calf's Sweetbread ) (Thymus) J " . 8 Morin. Fibrine (as beefsteak, &c.) is readily soluble in the artificial digestive liquid already described, (see p. 35, foot-note.) It is also speedily dissolved in the living stomach; and is generally considered, even by dyspeptics, as being easy of digestion. It is an important element of nutrition, and yields fibrine, albumen, and caseine, as well as the tissues composed of these substances. Alone, however, it is incapable of support- ing life, except for a very limited period. Magendief mentions, as a most singular and surprising circumstance, that animals who took regularly for two months from 500 grammes [1 lb. 4 oz. 37 grs. troy] to 1000 grammes [2 lbs. 8 oz. 74 grs. troy] of fibrine daily, died of inanition ; and on a post-mortem examination, it was found that the blood had almost entirely disappeared. " Notwithstanding," says Magendie, " the care we took to collect it, [the blood,] a few minutes after death, scarcely a gramme [15*444 grs. tray] of fibrine could be obtained." b. Albumen; Animal Albumen.—This substance constitutes the most important part of * Turner's Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 1185. 1842. f Ibid, p. 1197. X Comptes Rendus, Aoiit, 1841. 92 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. animal foods. The albumen, both of the egg (ovalbumen) and of the serum of the blood, (seralbumen,) is liquid. But the albumen of flesh, glands, and viscera of animals, is solid. The quantity of albumen contained in several aliments is as follows :— QUANTITY OF ALBUMEN IN ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 100 Parts. Blood of the Ox " " Hog (English Breed) " " Goat . " " Sheep (Merino) . " " Ditto (Dishley breed) East India Isinglass Egg, white of ... " yolk of Liver of Ox, parenchyma of . Sweetbread (Thymus) of Calf Caviare, fresh unpressed Muscle of Beef Veal " Pork .. " Roe Deer " Pigeon " Chicken " Carp " Trout Albumen. 18*6 18-58 19-28 18-35 18-74 2 to 13-5 15-5 17*47 20*19 1400 3100 2*2 3-2 to 2*6 2*6 2*3 4-5 30 5-2 4*4 Authority. Mean quantity of blood corpuscles and .solid contents of the serum, ac- cording to MM. Andral, Gavarret, and Delafond. E. Solly, jun. Bostock. Prout. Braconnot, Morin. John. Soluble Albumen and Hsematosine, according to Sehlossberger. I have included the blood corpuscles among the albuminous constituents of some of the preceding alimentary substances, since albumen is their principal constituent* Albumen is highly nutritious, and, when either raw or lightly boiled, is easy of diges- tion ; but when boiled hard, or especially when fried, its digestibility is considerably im- paired, (see Eggs.) The gastric juice has the property of coagulating liquid albumen, and afterwards of dissolving the coagula which are formed. The influence of an artifi- cial gastric juice on cubes of coagulated albumen, (white of egg,) I have already men- tioned, (see p. 35, foot-note.) " Albumen," says Liebig, f " must be considered as the true starting point of all the ani- mal tissues; and all nitrogenized articles of food, whether derived from the animal or vege- table kingdom, are converted into albumen befere they can take part in the process of nutrition. This appears from the phenomena of incubation, where all the tissues are de- rived from the albumen of the* white and of the yolk, which contain albumen also, with the aid only of the air, of the oily matter of the yolk, and of a certain proportion of iron, also found in the yolk." Out of this albumen, therefore, must be formed flesh, blood, membrane and cellular tissue, blood-vessels, feathers, claws, &c. Notwithstanding this, however, animals cannot subsist solely on albumen, (see p. 23, foot-note.) After a few days' use of it they refuse to take it, preferring to suffer the most violent pangs of hunger rather than eat it; and ultimately they die of inanition.^: It has * According to Denis, (Essai sur VApplication de la ChimiehVEtude Physiologique du Sang de f Homme, p. 205, 1838,) the blood corpuscles have the following composition :— Envelopes \ Coloring matters (Hmmatosine).....1-8 r (Peroxide of Iron........0-2 Central nucleus (albuminous matters)....... 980 Blood Corpuscles......... _ 100*0 t Turner's Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 1187. X The reason why graminiferous animals cannot subsist on albumen alone, according to the theory of Liebig, is that when deprived of free motion, they cannot obtain from the waste, or transformation of the tissues, a sufficient quantity of carbon for the respiratory process. For example, 2 lbs. of albumen con- tain only 3i oz. of carbon, of which, among the last products of transformation, a fourth part is given off in the form of uric acid.—L CASEINE. 93 been justly observed by Magendie,* that white of eggs combines a number of conditions favorable to digestion. " It is alkaline, contains saline matters, and especially common salt in very large proportion : the animal matter which it contains is the same as that found in the chyle and in the blood: it is liquid, but is coagulated by the acids of the stomach, forming flocculi having but little cohesion. Lastly, white of egg contains some organized membranes which may perform, in digestion, some useful and perhaps indis- pensable function. But notwithstanding all these good reasons, albumen is refused by animals." Albumen (as the white or glaire of eggs) is used by the cook and confectioner as a clar- ifying or clearing agent for syrups, jellies, &c. Its efficacy depends on its coagulation, by which it entangles in its meshes the impurities, with which it either rises to the surface or precipitates. When the liquid to be clarified does not spontaneously coagulate the albu- men, it is necessary to apply heat. c. Animal Caseine; Caseum; Lactalbumen; Curd.—This is the coagulable matter of milk, and its only nitrogenized constituent, and is closely allied to albumen, of which it may be regarded as a modification. Liquid caseine, unlike liquid albumen, does not coagulate by heat, though when milk is heated in an open vessel an insoluble pellicle forms on it, owing to the action of the atmospheric oxygen. " The ashes of soluble caseine," says Liebig,f " are very strongly alkaline; and there is reason to believe that the potash found in the ashes had served, by combining with the caseine, to render it soluble." The quantity of caseine contained in different kinds of milk is as follows : QUANTITY OF CASEINE IN MILK. 100 Parts. Caseine. Authority. Cow's milk...............4*48 O. Henry and Chevallier. Ditto fed on hay............3-0] Ditto " turnips..........3*0 Ditto " clover ...........4*0 >-Boussingault and Le Bel. Ditto " potatoes and hay........15*1 I Ditto " ditto ........3*3 J Ewe's milk...............4*50 O. Henry and Chevallier. Goat's milk............... 4*02 Ditto. Asses' milk...............1*82 Ditto. Woman's milk.............1*52 Ditto. i Mulder| has shown that caseine, like albumen and fibrine, is a proteinaceous substance. It differs, however, from the two last-mentioned principles, in containing no phosphorus, (see p. 20 and 90.) When coagulated by rennet and afterwards burnt, it yields 6 per cent of phosphate of lime and a half per cent, of caustic lime.§ Coagulated caseine, deprived of whey by pressure, and usually mixed with more or less of butter, constitutes cheese; the richness of which is in proportion to the quantity of butter present. Rich cheese, when toasted, undergoes a kind of semifusion, and becomes soft and viscid. The poorer cheeses, or those which contain very little butter, are better adapted for keeping. When toasted they shrivel like horn. Stilton Cheese is prepared from milk to which cream is added. Cheshire and the best Gloucester Cheeses are made from unskimmed milk. Suffolk and Parmesan Cheeses are prepared from skim-milk.|| An- notta is often employed, as a coloring agent, in the preparation of cheese. Salt is used to preserve it, as well as to improve the flavor and add to the weight. * Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. i Pharmaceutisches Central-Blalt fur 1839, p. 244. t Turner's Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 1190. § Berzelius, Traite de Chimie, t. vii. p. 603. || Gruyere cheeses are made of skimmed milk and flavored with herbs. The most celebrated cheese, as well as butter of this country, is that made in Goshen, Orange county, New York.—L. 94 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. When long kept cheese undergoes a series of peculiar changes. According to Chev- reul,* its odor depends on the development of the fatty acids of butter ; and, when the fermentation is prolonged, to the alteration of the capric acid. Roquefort Cheese owes its odor to the latter circumstance. By the decomposition of moist cheese, there is developed a solid substance, which Braconnotf called aposepedin, (from aieu>, from, and snxti&v, putre- faction, because it is the produce of putrefaction,) but which Proust} had previously de- nominated caseic oxide. This last-mentioned chemist also mentions caseic acid as a con- stituent of cheese; but Braconnot states that the substance to which Proust gave this name is a compound or mixture of no less than nine substances, viz. free acetic acid, aposepedine, animal matter soluble in water and insoluble in rectified spirit, (osmazome,) animal matter soluble in water and alcohol, yellow acrid oil, brown slightly sapid oil, ace- tate of potash, chloride of potassium, and traces of acetate of ammonia. From 750 parts of cheese, Braconnot obtained 36 parts of fatty matter, composed of margarate of lime 14*92, margaric acid 2*57, oleic acid retaining margaric acid and a brown animal matter 18*51. The piquant flavor of old cheese depends on oleic acid and an acrid oily matter-J Cheese is subject to the attacks of both animals and vegetables. The Fly called Musca (Tephrilis) pulris deposits its leaping larvae or magots (called hoppers or jumpers) on cheese. The Cheese-mite (Acarus dojmesticus) is another animal of frequent occurrence. The Mould of cheese is composed of minute fungi. Blue Mould is the Aspergillus glaucus of Berkeley ;|| while Red Cheese-mould is the Sporendonema Casei of the same authority. Liquid caseine, as it exists in milk, is coagulated in the stomach by the gastric secretion,IT and the coagula thus formed are subsequently redissolved.** In this form, caseine is easy of digestion. Cheese, however, is digested with difficulty, especially by dyspeptics.ff In the toasted state it is still more obnoxious to the stomach.}} * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxiii. p. 29. -J Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. x. p. 39. t Ibid, xxxvi. p. 159. § Appendix, V. || Smith's English Flora, Vol. v. Part ii. Fungi, by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley. Lond. 1836. IT " The action of the digestive principle on caseine deserves a more particular consideration. Ber- zelius had already pointed out that the rennet of the calf has the property of coagulating milk, even after all traces of acidity have been removed by washing. It is known, too, that the coagulation of the caseine produced by rennet is peculiar; inasmuch as the curds are insoluble in water and in an addi- tional quantity of acid. Now Schwann has shown that this property of coagulating the caseine is possessed by the artificial digestive fluid, even when neutralized. On the addition of a very small quantity of the acid fluid to milk, and the application of heat, the coagulated caseine soon separates: of the neutral fluid, more than 0*42 per cent, are necessary; 0*83 is sufficient. The power of the arti- ficial digestive fluid to coagulate milk is destroyed by the boiling temperature; it cannot, therefore, be the saline ingredients which produce the coagulation. This peculiar action of the digestive principle on milk renders the latter fluid a test for its presence. Schwann has in this way proved that the digestive principle which we are here considering, really exists in the stomach. He divided the stomach of a rabbit, which had died immediately after birth, into two portions; boiled one, and then added to each some milk. On the application of a gentle heat, the milk coagulated in the portion which had not been boiled, while in the other it remained unchanged," (Mliller's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 547.) ** According to Schwann, caseine dissolves in the acid of the gastric juice; whereas albumen requires the presence of pepsine to effect its solution. tt " By many," says Dr. Dunglison, (Elements of Hygiene, p. 278, Philadelphia, 1835,) " cheese is supposed to be an excellent condiment, and, accordingly, it is often systematically taken at the end of dinner as a digestive, in accordance with the old proverb:— ' Cheese is a surly elf, Digesting all things but itself.'" XX " With respect to cheese," says Dr. Cullen, (Materia Medica, p. 331,) "there is yet one particular to be mentioned, and which is to remark, that it is often ate after having been toasted—that is, heated over CASEINE. 95 The time required for the chymification of cheese is, according to Dr. Beaumont's ex- periments, as follows:— ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF THE CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Cheese, old, strong, . " new, mild . Raw 3 30 Masticated Entire piece Divided 7 15 18 0 8 30 Caseine is highly nutritious, constituting a plastic element of nutrition, (see p. 16,) by which, in the young mammal, the development of the tissues is effected. " The young animal," says Liebig,* " receives, in the form of caseine, which is distin- guished from fibrine and albumen by its great solubility, and by not coagulating when heated, the chief constituent of the mother's blood. To convert caseine into blood no foreign substance is required, and in the conversion of the mother's blood into caseine, no elements of the constituents of the blood have been separated. When chemically examined, caseine is found to contain a much larger proportion of the earth of bones than blood does, and that in a very soluble form, capable of reaching every part of the body. Thus, even in the earliest period of its life, the development of the organs, in which vital- ity resides, is, in the carnivorous animal, dependent on the supply of a substance, identi- cal in organic composition with the chief constituents of its blood." 2. Vegetable Peoteinaceous Principles.—According to Liebig, vegetables contain proximate principles, which are not only similar to, but absolutely identical with, the fibrine, albumen, and caseine of animals; and he, therefore, denominates them respect- ively vegetable fibrine, vegetable albumen, and vegetable caseine. There is also a fourth proteinaceous vegetable principle called glutine, or pure gluten. The composition of these substances may be assumed identical, for their analyses do not differ more than two analyses of the same substances differ from each other. COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLE FIBRINE. Obtained from Wheat-Gluten. From Rye Meal t Scherer. ■*-Scherer. •i Jones. Scherer 53064 7*132 15*359 54-603 7*302 15*810 53*83 702 15*58 54*617 7*491 15-809 [ 24*445 22*285 23-56 22*083 100000 100*000 100*00 100*000 the fire to a considerable degree; whereby a portion of its oil is separated, while the other parts are united more closely together. 1 know many persons who seem to digest this food pretty well; but it is certainly not easily digested by weak stomachs; and for those who can be hurt by indigestion, or heated by a heavy supper, it is a very improper diet." • Animal Chemistry, p. 52. Carbon . . Hydrogen . Nitrogen . . Oxygen . . Sulphur . . Phosphorus . 96 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLE ALBU3IEN, CASEINE, AND GLUTEN. Vegetable Albumen from Rye. Vegetable Caseine. Pure Gluten. (Jones.) (Scherer.) (Jones.) Carbon.......5474 54138 5522 Hydrogen......7*77 7156 7*42 Nitrogen.......15*85 15-672 15-98 Oxygen, &c...... 21*64___________♦ 23034______________21*38 10000 100000 100*00 No experiments have been made on the nutritive powers of these principles in the separate state; but they are doubtless equal to those of the same principles procured from animals, (see p. 20.) "How beautifully and admirably simple," says Liebig, "appears the process of nutri- tion in animals, the formation of their organs in which vitality chiefly resides! Those vegetable principles which, in animals, are used to form blood, contain the chief constitu- ents of blood, fibrine, and albumen, ready formed, as far as regards their composition. All plants, besides, contain a certain quantity of iron, which reappears in the coloring matter of the blood. Vegetable fibrine and animal fibrine, vegetable albumen and animal albumen, hardly differ, even in form; if these principles be wanting in the food, the nu- trition of the animal is arrested ; and when they are present the graminivorous animal obtains in its food the very same principles on the presence of which the nutrition of the carnivora entirely depends. Vegetables produce in their organism the blood of all ani- mals, for the carnivora, in consuming the blood and flesh of the graminivora, consume, strictly speaking, only the vegetable principles which have served for the nutrition of the latter. Vegetable fibrine and albumen take the same form in the stomach of the gram- inivorous animal as animal fibrine and albumen do in that of the carnivorous animal." a. Vegetable Fibrine.—This principle is most abundant in the seeds of the cereal grasses, as Wheat,* Rye, Barley, Oats, Maize, and Rice. It exists also in Buckwheat. The Juice of Grapes is especially rich in it. It is also found in the newly-expressed juices of most vegetables, as of Carrots, Turnips, and Reet-root from which it coagulates spon- taneously on standing. It is a constituent of the raw gluten obtained from the dough of wheaten flour. From both vegetable albumen and vegetable caseine, it differs in being insoluble in water. Moreover, it does not dissolve in ammonia. b. Vegetable Albumen.—This, like vegetable fibrine, is a constituent of the seeds of the Cereal Grasses, as of Wheat In the preparation of raw gluten from wheaten dough, it is washed away along with the starch. It is found in great abundance in the Oily Seeds, as Almonds, Nuts, &c. Most Vegetable Juices contain a considerable quantity of it Thus the juices of Carrots, Turnips, Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Asparagus, and other cul- tivated nutritious vegetables, after being separated from the coagulum of fibrine, which spontaneously forms in them, yield by boiling a second coagulum of vegetable albumen. This principle differs from vegetable fibrine in being soluble in water, and from vegeta- ble caseine in coagulating when heated. c. Vegetable Caseine.—This is chiefly found in Leguminous Seeds, as Beans, Peas, Lentils; and has, in consequence, been termed Legumine. The oily seeds, such as Al- monds, Nuts, &c, also contain it along with albumen. It exists, perhaps, in solution in grape juice, and in other vegetable juices which yield very little vegetable albumen on being heated. It differs from vegetable fibrine in being soluble in water : and from vege- table albumen in not coagulating when its aqueous solution is heated. d. Pure Gluten.—By washing wheaten dough with a stream of water, the gum, sugar, * The vegetable fibrine of wheat is identical with the zymome of Taddei, and with the vegetable albu- men ofBerzelius. GLUTEN. 97 starch, and vegetable albumen, are removed ; while a ductile, tenacious, elastic, gray mass is left, which is usually denominated gluten. I shall distinguish it as raw, impure, ox comr.v.n gluten. It is sometimes called Beccaria's gluten. It is a mixture of several organic principles. When raw gluten is boiled in alcohol, it is resolved into two portions, one soluble, the other insoluble in this liquid. The insoluble portion is Liebig's vegetable fibrine. It is identical with what Taddei called zymome, (from x,iUn, ferment,) and which Berzelius de- scribes as vegetable albumen. The soluble portion is that which Jones (quoted by Liebig) analyzed as pure gluten, and which Taddei called gliadine, (from y\ia, glue.) It probably consists of at least two substances; one which deposits as the hot alcoholic solution cools, and which has been termed mucine; the other remains in solution in the cold liquor, and has been called glutine. The quantity of pure gluten (glutine and mucine) contained in different alimentary substances, has not been accurately determined. According to Saussure,* raw gluten has the following composition:— COMPOSITION OF RAW GLUTEN. Glutine........ Vegetable albumen [vegetable fibrine of Liebig] Mucine .... ... Oily matter 20 72 4 3-7 Starch (accidental).......small quantity. Raw Gluten 99*7 The quantity of raw gluten contained in various alimentary substances is as follows:— QUANTITY OF GLUTINOUS MATTER CONTAINED IN SEVERAL ALIMENTARY SUB- STANCES. 100 Parts. Wheat, Middlesex (average crop) " Spring..... " Mildewed of 1806 . " Blighted of 1804 " Thick-skinned Sicilian of 1810 " Thin-skinned Sicilian of 1810 " from Poland .... " North American " of the neighborhood of Paris . " cultivated in soil manured with ox-blood Ditto " Ditto " Ditto " Ditto " Ditto " Ditto " Ditto " Ditto " Ditto, not manured with human faeces with sheep's dung with goat's dung with human urine with horse-dung with pigeon's dung with cow-dung with vegetable humus Wheat " Bavarian ..... Barley, Norfolk ..... " grown in soil manured with horse-dung Oats from Scotland..... " grown in soil manured with horse-dung Rye from Yorkshire..... " grown in soil manured with horse-dung Rice, Carolina...... Glutinous Matter. 19-0 240 3*2 130 230 23-9 200 22-5 9-2t 34*24 33-94 32-9 32-88 351 13*68 12*2 11*96 9*6 9*2 12*5 240 60 5*7 8-7 4-0 10-9 7*98 3-60 Authority. Davy. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Boussingault Hermbstaedt Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Proust. Vogel. Davy. Hermbstaedt. Davy. Hermbstaedt. Davy. Hermbstaedt. Braconnot. * Bibliothlque UniverseUe. Sciences et Arts, t. liii. p. 260. 1833. t Mechanical analysis gave Boussingault only 9*2 per cent, of raw gluten ; but the quantity of nitrogen contained in the same wheat indicated 14*4 per cent, of raw gluten. The difference (5*2 per cent.) he ascribes to the vegetable albumen and gluten carried away by washing in the mechanical analysis, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. lxv. p. 308-9.) 98 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 100 Parts. Glutinous Matter. Authority. Rice, Piedmont . .......3*60 Braconnot. Maize .........(zelne) 30 Gorham. "..........(ditto) 5*758 Bizio. Beans, common.........10*3 Davy. Peas, dry ... ......3*5 Davy. Potatoes........ . 4 to 3 Davy. Beet, Red .... . 1*3 Davy. Turnips, common ...... 0*1 Davy. Cabbage..........0*8 Davy. From Schwann's experiments it appears that gluten dissolves in the acid of the gastric secretion; for when it was digested separately with dilute acid and dilute digestive fluid, no difference could be perceived in the change which it underwent in the two fluids. Tincture of iodine threw down a precipitate in the solution of gluten in the dilute acid, but produced no change of color.* Gluten is easy of digestion; at least substances (as the preparations of wheat) which contain it in the largest quantity, are readily digested even by invalids and dyspeptics. Gluten is highly nutritious, and alone is capable of the prolonged nutrition of animals. " Gluten," says Magendie,-j* " obtained either from wheat or maize, presented a phenomenon which we had not observed in our experiments with organic immediate principles, which, in every instance, excited greater or less aversion in the animals obliged to subsist on it solely. " Gluten, notwithstanding that its odor is savorless, and sometimes somewhat nause- ous, while its taste has nothing agreeable, was taken without difficulty from the first day, and the animals continued to use it without distaste for three months uninterruptedly. The dose was 120 to 150 grammes [1852 to 2315 grs. troy] daily, and the animals pre- served all the characters of excellent health. This fact appeared the more remarkable to us, as it was in opposition to the law which seemed to result from very numerous facts before stated, namely, that an alimentary substance, especially if it were an isolated im- mediate principle, is not fitted for supporting life beyond a very limited period. '• Here, however, is a substance heretofore considered as an immediate azotized principle, which, without any preparation or seasoning, excited neither repugnance nor disgust and which alone nourished completely and for a long period." Magendie subsequently observes that gluten ought not to be considered as an imme- diate principle. " That which we employed," he adds, " undoubtedly contained some traces of fecula. Exclusive of this, we know that it may be resolved into two distinct substances; one of an albuminous nature, the other called glai'adine. This latter is like- wise separable into gluten properly so called, gum, and mucilage." " Our dogs, therefore," he continues, " eat much gluten, combined with a little albumen, gum, mucilage, fecula, and even sugar arising from the fecula. This aliment simple in appearance, was then, in reality, very compounded." " It is the presence of gluten"n wheaten flour that renders it pre-eminently nutritious, and its viscidity or tenacity confers upon that species of flour its peculiar excellence for the manufacture of macaroni, vermicelli, and similar pastes, which are made by a kind of wire-drawing, and for which the wheat of the south of Europe (more abundant in gluten than our own) is particularly adapted. The superiority of wheaten over other bread depends upon the greater tenacity of its dough, which, in panary fermentation, -ds puffed * Muller's Physiology, Baly s Translation, vol. i. p. 547. t Rapport fait a I Acade'mie des Sciences au nom de la Commission dite de la Gilaline. Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. VflF GELATINE. 99 up by the evolved carbonic acid, and retained in its vesicular texture, so as to form a very light loaf."* Gluten being nutritious and unobjectionable as an article of food in diabetes, has been recently used in the preparation of what has been called gluten bread, for the use of dia- betic patients.f 11. THE GELATINOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Dr. ProutJ comprehends gelatine among albuminous aliments. He considers it to be a modification of albumen, or " as the least perfect kind of albuminous matter existing in animal bodies." But gelatine and albumen, and the proteinaceous and albuminous tissues respectively differ in their chemical properties and composition. And though it is probable that in the animal system, gelatinous tissues are formed out of proteine compounds, chemists have hitherto totally failed to convert albumen into gelatine, or, vice versa, to change gelatine into albumen. Moreover, as the composition of proteine compounds is identical with that of the flesh and blood of animals, while that of the gelatinous tissues is not it follows that the nutritive qualities of the proteinaceous and gelatinous tissues cannot be identical. For these reasons I have thought it desirable to separate gelatinous aliments from albu- minous ones. Albuminous or proteinaceous tissues are insoluble in water, and by boiling become hard. Gelatinous tissues, on the other hand, yield, by boiling, a substance called gelatine, which is soluble, and forms with water a tremulous mass, termed jelly, (animal jelly.) The quantity of gelatinous matter obtained from different alimentary substances is as fol- lows :— QUANTITY OF GELATINOUS MATTER OBTAINED FROM ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES. 100 Parts. Gelatine. Isinglass (East Indian) 865 to 92*8 " (good quality) . . 700 Muscle of Beef .....60 Veal Mutton . Pork Chicken Cod Haddock Sole 60 7*0 50 70 70 50 60 Caviare, fresh unpressed Sweetbread (Thymus) of Calf. 60 Antlers of Stag (Hartshorn) . 270 Bones, spongy portions ... 39 Bones of Sheep (Ileum) . 43-3 to 47*2 <* of Ox (Ileum) .... 48-5 « of Haddock (Vertebras) 39.49 q.5 * (including* I some salts) *J (Cartilage) (ditto) Authority. E. Solly, jun. John. Brande. John. Morin. Merat-Guillot D'Arcet. Dr. T. Thomson. Under the name of gelatine are included several substances which differ more or less from each other, but which agree in most of their principal characters. Two of these have been distinguished by distinct names, viz., Collin or Colla and Chondrin. «. Collin, Thomson; Colla, M'dller; Common Gelatine.—This is obtained from Isin- glass, Skins, Tendons, Cartilage of bone after ossification has taken place, Cellular Tis- sue, and the Serous Membranes. It is distinguished from chondrin by not being precipi- * Brande's Manual of Chemistry p. 1091, 5th ed. 1841. t See the article Bread. X On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, pp. xii. and *riii. 3d ed. 1840. 100 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. tated from its aqueous solution by muriatic acid, acetic acid, acetate of lead, alum, sul- phate of alumina, or sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. Glue, Size, and Isinglass Jelly, are examples of collin. p. Chondrin, Miiller.—This is obtained from the Cornea, the Spongy Cartilage?, the Permanent Cartilages, Cartilage of bone before ossification, the Unossified Cartilages of the Cartilaginous fishes, and the Bony Crusts of the Armadillo. It is distinguished from collin by being precipitated from its aqueous solution by muriatic acid, acetic acid, acetate of lead, alum, sulphate of alumina, and sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. y. Gelatine from Elastic Tissues.—The gelatine obtained from the Elastic Tissues, as the Inner Arterial Coat, the Ligaments of the Larynx, &c, is identical with neither collin nor chondrine, though it approximates nearer to the latter. Its aqueous solution is ren- dered turbid by acetic acid and acetate of lead, and is precipitated by alum and sulphate of alumina, but does not form a precipitate with sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. i. Gelatine altered by heat.—When gelatine is submitted to prolonged ebullition, or to a temperature exceeding 220°F., it undergoes important changes. It evolves ammonia, becomes syrupy, loses its characteristic property of forming with water a jelly, and very speedily undergoes putrefaction. Thus altered, it has a disagreeable flavor. Its nutritive properties are greatly deteriorated, if not altogether destroyed. It is less digestible, and readily deranges the functions of the digestive organs. The ultimate composition of gelatinous substances is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF GELATINOUS SUBSTANCES. Carbon . . . Hydrogen . . Nitrogen . . Oxygen. Tissues yielding Collin. Collin. Tissues yielding Chondrin. Tendons of Isinglass. Calf's Foot. (Scherer.) (Scherer.) 50-557 50-960 6*903 7188 18*790 18*320 23*750 23-532 Hartshorn jelly. (Mulder.) 50048 6-643 18*388 24*921 Cartilages of Calf's Ribs. [Scherer.] 50*895 6*962 14*908 27*235 100-000 100000 I 1U0-000 100*000 From the researches of Mulder and Scherer, Liebig has deduced the following empiri- cal formulae of the composition of various organic substances. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC TISSUES. Albumen.....C48 N° H36 O14 4- P -f- S* Fibrine.....C«F H"Oh + P+2S Caseine.....C48 N8 H36 O14 4- S Gelatinous tissues, tendons . . C48 N7'6 H41 O18 Chondrine ..... C48 N8 H40 O120 Hair, horn.....qab ^ H39 O" Arterial membrane . . • C48 N8 H38 O10 "The composition of these formulae shows that when proteine passes into chondrine, (the substance of the cartilages of the ribs,) the elements of water, with oxygen, have been added to it; while in the formation of the serous membranes, nitrogen also has en- tered into combination. " If we represent the formulae of proteine C« N6 H36 O14 by Pr, then nitrogen, hydro- 1 gen, and oxygen, have been added to it in the form of known compounds, and in the fol- lowing proportions, in forming the gelatinous tissues, hair, horn, arterial membrane, &c." * "The quantities of sulphur and phosphorus here expressed by S and P are not equivalents, but only give the relative proportions of these two elements to each other, as found by analysis." GELATINE. 101 Proteine. Ammonia. W ater. Oxygen. Fibrine1 Pr Albumen Pr + 2 HO Chondrine Pr -. + 4 HO . 20 Hair, horn Pr + NH* . ■+ 3 0 ' Gelatinous tissues 2 Pr + 3 N» + . HO •4- 70 According to Schwann, the artificial digestive liquor (described at p. 35, foot-note,) pro- duced no other change upon gelatine than what simple acidified water equally produced. His statements are confirmed by Dr. Beaumont's experiments.* The digestibility of the different varieties and forms of gelatinous matter is not uniform. Calf s-foot jelly, when fresh prepared, I believe to be readily digested even by invalids and dyspeptics, with whoni I have rarely found it disagree. I am confirmed in this opinion by the experiments of Dr. Beaumontf Isiiiglass jelly, when fresh prepared from isinglass of good quality, and also Hartshorn jelly, are probably equally easy of digestion.J But other forms of gelatinous matter are more difficult of digestion, and some are very apt to derange the functions of the digestive organs. Thus very hard gelatinous tissues, as tmdons, require a larger quantity of gastric juice and a longer time for their complete digestion.} Gelatinous liquids, when very weak, or which are obtained by means of a high temperature or prolonged ebullition, or which are procured from tissues containing fat or other matters apt to become rancid, readily disturb the functions of the stomach and intestines. The injurious effects of gelatine which has been altered by heat, I have already had occasion to mention, (see p. 100.) Soups, hashes, and slcivs, all of which con- tain gelatine, are obnoxious to the digestive organs of dyspeptics and invalids, partly perhaps on account of the changes effected in the gelatinous matter by heat, but principally from the presence of fatty and other substances difficult of digestion, (see p. 84.) It is customary with writers on dietetics to declare all gelatinous substances difficult of digestion : but such assertions are, in my opinion, far too sweeping. They can apply only to certain kinds of gelatinous foods; and not to some of the simplest and purest forms of gelatine, such as plain calfs-foot jelly. The times required for the digestion of various substances, as ascertained by Dr. Beau- mont are as follows:— ' * Op. supra, cit. pp. 237-238. t The experiments of Dr. Beaumont, above referred to, were made on the Canadian whose case I have already noticed, (see p. 82.) The following are the notes of one experiment :— " Experiment 41.—At 1 o'clock, p.m., he ate eight ounces of Calfs-foot jelly, and nothing else. " In twenty minutes, examined stomach, and took out a portion of its contents, consisting of gastric juice, combined with the jelly, nearly all of it in a fluid form ; a few particles only of entire jelly, sus- pended in the fluids, with a few small yellowish-white coagula floating near the surface, could be per- ceived. " At 2 o'clock examined again, extracted a little fluid, but found no appearance of jelly. " Remarks.—The operation of gastric juice on gelatine is very difficult to be detected. Unlike albu- men, it is unsusceptible of coagulation ; and it is probable that the gastric juice acts upon it in its soft solid state. This was disposed of in a short period. It was, however, but a small quantity, and was much sooner digested than a full meal would have been. From various trials, I am disposed to think that gelatine, if not in too concrete a state, is a very digestible article of diet." X We have found Isinglass jelly a better article of nourishment, in cases of cholera infantum in children, than farinaceous substances.—L. <"*. Beaumont, op. supra, cit. p. 194-5. 102 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. DIGESTION OF GELATINOUS SUBSTANCES. 1 Mean time of Chymification. Articles of Diet In Stomach. In Phials. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Calf's-foot Jelly (Exp. 41) Isinglass Jelly (Exp. 64) Aponeurosis .... Tendon of young beef Bone, beef, solid . . . " hog's, solid . . Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled 1 0 1 0 2 30 3 0 4 15 5 30 — Boiled Boiled Divided Masticated Entire piece Entire piece Entire piece 4 45 6 30 12 0 12 45 24 0 80 0 80 0 A gelatinous substance, though possessing some degree of nutritive power, cannot alone sustain animal life; but, when taken in conjunction with other alimentary sub- stances, takes part in the nutrition of the body. Different gelatinous substances, how- ever, are unequally nutritive. Thus gelatine is less nutritive than the bone which yields it The French Gelatine Commission found that dogs fed solely on raw bones and water for three months, continued in perfect health, and lost none of their weight by the use of this kind of food. Now as by boiling in water the cartilaginous tissue of bone is resolved into gelatine principally, it follows that a gelatinous tissue (that is, a tissue which by boiling is resolved into gelatine) contributes to the nutrition of the body ; though it cannot be said to be the exclusive agent in this process, since bones contain other alimentary principles (such as fatty and albuminous matters) besides the earthy salts and the substance which is resolvable into gelatine. The same experimenters found that the nutritive quality of bones is deteriorated, or even destroyed, by boiling them, by digesting them in hydrochloric acid, and especially by resolving their cartilaginous tissue into gelatine. Thus the very same kind of bones which in the raw state effected nutrition, failed to support animal life after they had been boiled; for dogs which had been fed on them died at the end of two months, with all the signs of inanition, and with a considerable diminution of their weight. An exclusive diet of beef tendon and water is incapable of effecting perfect nutrition. A dog ate the tendons for eighteen days, and then manifested dislike to them ; but he continued to take them for five days longer, when he refused them. He had now lost considerably in weight, and manifested other signs of inanition. Gelatine extracted from bones was refused by dogs,—by some from the first by others after once or twice using it. They preferred enduring the pangs of hunger to eating it; though it was tried in various forms, namely, both in the dry and humid states, and as a tremulous jelly. Seasoned gelatine prepared for the use of man, and which had a very agreeable flavor, was eaten for a few days, and then refused ; the animals dying of star- vation on the twentieth day. These experiments, therefore, are tolerably conclusive that animals cannot be nourished on gelatine exclusively. M. Donne tried its effects on him- self. He took daily from 20 to 50 grammes [from 308J grs. to 771f grs. troy] of dry gelatine (in the form of a sugared and aromatized jelly, with either lemon or some spirit,) and from 85 to 100 grammes [from 1312 grs. troy to 1543i grs. troy] of bread. At the expiration of six days he had lost two pounds in weight, and 0.5 ing water. . . . $ Free acids and salts . . 4*0 Water ... .7*5 Isinglass of good quality . . 100*0 Mr. E. Solly, jun. Gelatine. Albumen. Saline and earthy substances (small quantity.) Osmazome. Odorous oil (a minute trace.) East Indian Isinglass. Isinglass. Soluble Gelatine 100 . . 86*5 . 100 . . 90*9 . 100 . . 92*8 . The relative proportions of gelatine and albumen in three specimens of East Indian isinglass were, according to Mr. E. Solly, jun., as follows:— Insoluble Albumen. . 135 . 91 . 7*2 When isinglass is reduced to small shreds (picked or cut isinglass) it is scarcely possible to distinguish, by the age, some of the inferior from the finer kinds. The best criteria are its whiteness, freedom from unpleasant odor, and its complete solubility in water. Isinglass is a very pure form of gelatine, and is employed in the preparation of jellies, blanc-mange, &c. It is frequently added to fruit jellies, (see p. 70,) to give them firmness or stiffness. Dissolved in milk, and flavored with sugar, lemon, and some aromatic, it is frequently taken in the liquid state by convalescents with advantage, when recovering from the effects of extreme debility, (as that brought on by hemorrhage;) but this form of exhibition does not suit all stomachs. Isinglass is also used in domestic economy as a clarifying, clearing, or fining agent for coffee, wine, beer, &c. For this purpose it is extensively used by brewers,* who employ principally the Brazilian variety., 2. Cod Sounds.—These are analogous to isinglass, being prepared from the swimming pp. 1859 and 1861, vol. ii. ed. 2d, 1842.) The innermost membrane of cod sounds and of the Hudson's Bay and East Indian isinglasses, is insoluble in water. If the Siberian purse isinglass be carefully ex- amined, the bag will be found to have been deprived of its innermost lining, * Mr. Metcalfe, who supplied me with the table of isinglass already given, (p. 104,) has kindly furnish- ed me with the following information as to the mode of preparing and using isinglass for beer-finings. " I herewith beg to hand you such particulars as have come under my own observation as Jo the method generally adopted by brewers in their mode of preparing isinglass for beer-finings, and the way in which it is customarily applied. Firstly, with regard to the more insoluble sorts, such as the Lump Brazilian and common Book Glasses, as much should be put in a cask as it is likely will be required for three months' consumption; to this should be added just sufficient of strong sours to cover the isinglass, and as it swells above the liquor fresh sours of the first strength should be added daily, covering the isinglass to the depth of about 3 inches in the liquor after it .has done swelling. It is a practice with some brewers to add a small quantity of pyroligneous acid to cut or dissolve it the more quickly, though if the first sours are good, and care is taken that the fresh, added from time to time during the process of swelling, is of equal strength, the pyroligneous acid may be advantageously dispensed with : care should be taken not to add more sours than is just necessary. In this state they should be well stirred up fre- quently with a stiff birch-broom, or some similar instrument, which materially assists the cutting or dis- solving. The liquor should be used in a cold state, or at a very moderate heat, as by using it hot it would form a jelly, and be perfectly useless as finings. It having become thoroughly dissolved or cut by the cold sours, it may be kept for any length of time by being frequently well stirred up as above described. In applying it for use, a proportionate quantity should be taken to the beer requiring fining, and press- ed through a horse-hair sieve into as much mild beer as will reduce it to the consistency of thin treacle * of this about one pint is enough to fine a barrel, (36 gals.,) unless the beer is what is termed stubborn, when it will take sometimes double the quantity. One pound of good Brazilian isinglsss, if treated in this 106 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. bladder of the Common Cod, (Morrhua vulgaris) In the dried state they are brought from Scotland, and are used as a substitute for isinglass. They are, however, usually preserved soft by salting, and dressed for the table. The glue obtained by boiling the cod sounds does not gelatinize, but dries into a hard brown substance, which may be em- ployed to glue pieces of wood together.* 3. Dry and Hard Gelatine.—This is a pure kind of glue prepared for dietetical use. Nelson's Patent Opaque Gelatine (called, in the specification of the patent,*)* gelatine of the first quality) is prepared, by preference, from " the cuttings of the hides of beasts or of the skins of calves," " freed from hair, flesh, and fat." It is sold in the form of cuttings. I have been furnished with a similar kind of gelatine, prepared by another maker, under the name of Pale Gelatine English Machine cut. A third kind of gelatine is met with in the shops, under the name of French Gelatine or Greneline.\ It occurs in sheets, or thin plates or cakes, marked by the nets in which it has been dried. White grenetine of the first quality is transparent, inodorous, tasteless, and almost colorless. Colored grenetine is rose-red, yellow, blue, or green. Grenetine is extracted from bones, either by the pro- longed action of boiling water under pressure, or by first digesting the bones in dilute hydrochloric acid, and afterwards submitting them to the action of boiling water.§ These different kinds of gelatine are employed in the preparation of jellies, blanc- manges, soups, gravies, &c, as substitutes for isinglass and calves' feet, to which I con- sider them inferior in nutritive power and digestibility. For it is well known that gela- tinous substances, when subjected to the prolonged action of water and heat suffer changes in their chemical properties ; and the French Gelatine Commission has shown that the nutritive qualities of at least one gelatinous tissue (bone) are diminished or even destroyed by submitting it either to decoctipn in water or to the action of hydrochloric acid, or by resolving it into gelatine. It is not, therefore, too much to assume that the different operations to which the gelatinous tissues, used in the preparation of gelatine, are subjected, must deteriorate the dietetical qualities of the product. Moreover, a knowledge of the substances from which commercial gelatine is procured, is not calcula- ted to create an appetite for foods obtained from such sources. 4. Hartshorn.—~Shavings or raspings of the antlers of the stag, commonly called harts- horn shavings, are employed in the preparation of jellies and gelatinous solutions. Their composition is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF HARTSHORN. Soluble cartilage........27'0 Subphosphate of lime......) . 57*5 Carbonate of lime .......1*0 Water and loss........14*5 Total ; ; : ; : : ; ; ; : iso-o manner, will make 15 gallons of strong finings. The liquid finings having been thus prepared, about one pint should be whisked up with about a gallon of the beer from each barrel intended to fine, and then poured in through the bung-hole of the cask. Under some circumstances a small quantity of strong infusion of hops, added after the finings, will cause a perfect precipitation of all the impurities in the beer, and leave it thoroughly cleansed and bright after standing a few hours. The only advantages gained by using the more expensive qualities of isinglass are, that the process of cutting or dissolving is less tedious, the fine Long Staple, Siberian Purse, and Astrakhan Pickings, not requiring above 48 hours for preparing, and that a milder Alegar will answer the purpose of cutting it; it may also possess some advantages in purity, for fine ales. Its mode of application should be similar to that given for the Bra- zilian and Book." * Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 216. t For the specification, see The Mechanic and Chemist for 1840. X The word Grenetine is derived from Grenet, the name of the first manufacturer who supplied a white, transparent, and very pure gelatine for sale. Grenetine is now made by M. Grenet fils, of Rouen. § Lecanu, Cours Complet de Pharmacie, t. i. p. 451. 1842. HARTSHORN.—COMMON SALT. 107 By boiling, the cartilage is resolved into gelatine; and the decoction, if sufficiently con- centrated, gelatinizes on cooling. Bones cannot be substituted for hartshorn, on account of the fat they contain. Decoction of Hartshorn is prepared by boiling one ounce of the shavings in four pints of water, down to two pints. When sweetened, it is sometimes taken as a mild demulcent and emollient drink, in intestinal and pulmonary irritation. An elegant Hartshorn Jelly is prepared by boiling down half a pound of the shavings in three quarts of water to one quart and adding to the strained liquor an ounce of Seville orange or of lemon jujce, a quarter.of a pint of mountain wine, and half a pound of fine sugar ; and boiling down the mixture to a due consistence.* It is sometimes used, as a grateful kind of aliment by invalids and convalescents. 5. Several gelatinous tissues, besides those already noticed, are employed in the pre- paration of jellies and gelatinous liquids, (as soups.) Thus a jelly is obtained from Calves' Feel ; and Calves' Heads are used in the preparation of mock-turtle soup. These sub- stances yield, by boiling, an oily or fatty matter, as well as gelatine. Cows' Heels, Sheeps' Trotters, and Petit-toes (sucking pigs' feet) abound in gelatinous tissues, for which they are principally employed as aliments. 12. THE SALINE ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Saline matters are essential constituents of the blood, of the organized tissues, and of the secretions. They are, therefore, necessary components of our food ; for without them health and vitality cannot be maintained. The alimentary salts, which, on account of their occurring more frequently and large- ly in the system, may be regarded as of the most importance in a dietetical point of view, are Common Salt and the Earthy Phosphates. Ferruginous compounds (salts 1) and probably salts of Potash, are also indispensable ingredients of our food. 1. Common Salt, (Chloride of Sodium.)—Though salt is a constituent of most of our foods and drinks, we do not, in this way, obtain a sufficient supply of it to satisfy the wants of the system ; and nature has accordingly furnished us with an appetite for it. The salt, therefore, which we consume at our table as a condiment, in reality serves other and far more important purposes in the animal economy, than that of merely grati- fying the palate. It is a necessary article of food, being essential for the preservation of health and the maintenance of life. It forms an essential constituent of blood, which fluid doubtless owes many of its im- portant qualities to it. Thus it probably contributes to keep the blood corpuscles un- changed ; for when these are put into water a powerful and rapid endosmose takes place, in consequence of which they swell up and assume a globular form ; whereas in a weak solution of salt they remain unchanged. In malignant cholera, and some other diseases in which there is a deficiency of the saline ingredients of the blood, this fluid has a very dark or even black appearance ; whence it has been assumed by some writers that the : red color of the blood is dependent on the presence of its saline ingredients. From the salt of the blood, aided by water, the gastric juice derives its hydrochloric acid, and the blood and the bile their soda, (see p. 35, foot-note, and p. 40.) The soda which exists in the blood in combination with albumen, passes out of the system in union with organic matter, (C70 Hca Na 0M) represented by choleic acid: in other words, bile contains the ele- ments of chloleate of soda, though not necessarily arranged as such. Lastly, " the soda, which has been used in the vital processess, and any excess of soda, must be expelled in the form of salt, after being separated from the blood by the kidney," (Liebig.) * Lewis's Materia Medica. 108 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. It has been calculated that the average annual consumption of salt by an adult amounts to 16 lbs.; equal to about 5 ounces per week. The salt consumed in this country is obtained principally from fossil or rock salt, and by the evaporation of the water of brine springs. The salt districts are Northwich, Mid- dlewich, and Nan.wich, in Cheshire ; Shirleywich, in Staffordshire; and Droitwich, in Worcestershire. Salt is also procured in Durham. In some parts of England, as at Lymington in Hampshire, and some parts of Scotland, salt is procured by the evapora- tion of sea-water.* The small-grained salt is formed by the strongest heat, and constitutes the butter, stov- ed, lump, and basket salt of commerce ; while the larger crystals, forming the bay and fishery salts, are formed at a lower temperature. For table use, for salting butter, and for vari- ous domestic purposes, the small-grained salt is preferred. It is also employed for making the pickle for striking the meat, which is the first part of the process in curing fish and preserving animal flesh. The coarse or large-grained salt is preferred for the packing and preservation of fish and other provisions. For these purposes it is greatly superior to the small-grained salt: hence it is technically termed a stronger salt. Its superiority depends, not on any difference in its chemical composition, but on its greater cohesiveness and hardness of texture, whereby it dissolves much less readily. Common salt, or chloride of sodium, formerly called muriate of soda, has the following composition:— COMPOSITION OF CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 1 equivalent of Chlorine . . . 1 36 or per cent. . 60 1 equivalent of Sodium . . . . | 24 or per cent. . 40 1 equivalent of Chloride of Sodium . . 60 or Chloride of Sodium 100 A little water is frequently lodged (mechanically) between the plates of the crystals. Common salt, as found in commerce, is not absolutely pure ; being contaminated with some other salts. The following table shows the composition of several varieties of salt, according to the analyses of Dr. Henry:— COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF SALT, '(HENRY.) 1000 Parts by Weight consist of Kind of Salt. o '"- . 3 c8 ©OS -1° o v . I3 .2 & 1^ Ms .2 is o *^§ o a 2 S3 -B* e*> sg (/J 3 a o a "3*c >» . ( St. Ube's..... aa*3 < St. Martin's .... pTH «!3 *-< ^ 2 CScotch (common) . . "* 2 l Scotch (Sunday) . . 50 £ 1 Lymington (common) ■£* tDi"°(cat) •••••• 2 fCxushed rock . . . 960 9594 964* 9351 971 937 988 983* 986 983* 9824 trace do. do. 01-16 0-i 0-i o* 3 34 2 28 111 11 5 0*3-16 9** 0*J 0*| 3 34 2 28 1H 11 5 o*i-1 1 1 231 19 191 15 12 15 1 64 11* 144 154 44 6 44 174 44 35 5 28 25 23* 324 164 50 6 64 11* 144 154 9 12 10 4 1 2 1 10 1 1 1 40 404 35* 644 29 63 12 16f 131 164 174 * Appendix, W. CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 109 Besides its use at the table as a flavoring or seasoning agent, salt is extensively em- ployed in the preservation and curing of alimentary substances. Its antiseptic power is by no means well understood. It is usual to ascribe it to the desiccating influence of the salt but the explanation is not a satisfactory one. A dry bladder, says Liebig, remains more or lesa dry in a saturated solution of common salt. The solution runs off its surface in the same manner that water runs from a plate of glass besmeared with tallow. " Fresh flesh, over which salt has been strewed, is found, after 24 hours, swimming in brine, although not a drop of water has been added. The water has been yielded by muscular fibre itself, and having dissolved the salt in immedi- ate contact with it, and thereby lost the power of penetrating animal substances, it has on this account separated from the flesh. The water still retained by the flesh contains a proportionally small quantity of salt, having that degree of dilution at which a saline fluid is capable of penetrating animal substances. This property of animal tissues is taken advantage of in domestic economy for the purpose of removing so much water from meat that a sufficient quantity is not left to enable it to enter into putrefaction."* But the fact that a dilute aqueous solution of salt possesses antiseptic properties, appears to me to render Liebig's explanation inadmissible; and we are compelled, therefore, to admit that the preservative power depends either on the chemical combination of the salt with the organic tissues,! or on occult causes more or less analogous to those which pre- vent the development of the volatile oils of black mustard and bitter almonds, when in contact with mineral acids and salts. 2. Earthy Phosphates.—These are almost universal constituents of the ashes of animal tissues. From their constant presence, we cannot suppose them to be accidental: we have a right to infer that they are in some way necessary to vitality. Phosphoric acid and lime combine together in several proportions. Of these combina- tions two have been found in the human solids and fluids. The bone subphosphate of lime (8 Ca O + 6 PO2'6) is by far the most frequently met with calcareous phosphate. It constitutes the principal part of the earthy matter of bones, and is probably tgi© calcareous phosphate usually found in the ashes of animal tissues. According to Dr. Wollaston,| it exists in ossifications of arteries, veins, valves of the heart, bronchise, and tendinous portion of the diaphragm, as well as in the tartar of the teeth. According to the same authority, the neutral phosphate of lime (Ca O + POs'6) exists in the urine, from which it is sometimes deposited in a pulverulent form. The phosphate of lime calculus, prostatic calculi, and pineal concretions, also contain the neutral phosphate. Phosphate of magnesia, though of very frequent occurrence, is formed in the animal solids and fluids in very small quantities only. Sometimes it exists in combination with ammonia, (ammoniacalphosphate of magnesia.) The system obtains its supply of earthy phosphates from both vegetable and animal foods, (see pp. 29-31, and 36.) Corn, potatoes, milk, and the flesh and blood of animals, * Liebig, Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, 2d ed. 35-67. 1842. t The conservative efficacy of bichloride of mercury, sulphate of copper, and some other metallic ialts, depends on the union of these substances with the animal matter; and the formation of compounds which are not subject to the putrefactive process. Chemists, however, have hith%rto refused to admit that common salt, nitrate of potash, and some alkaline salts, owe their antiseptic efficacy to the exercise of a chemical influence. But an argument in favor of this view may be derived from the well-known reddening effect-produced by saltpetre (nitrate of potash) on beef, during the process of curing. More- over, ^augmented firmness or hardness of fibre, possessed by old salted meats, is, I suspect, an evi- dence of chemical action. t Phil. Trans, for 1797. 110 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. furnish us with more than the wants of the system require, and the excess is eliminated in the secretions. ' QUANTITY OF EARTHY PHOSPHATES IN FOODS. 100 Partt*.. Earthy Phosphates. Authority. Wheat from 0*36 to 0*9 "1 Rye Barley 0*6 0! to tc 4*18 1 0-6 f Hermbstaedt. Oats 016 c 0*6 J 0*4 Braconnot. 11 Cadet. Caseine 60 Berzelius. Milk . 0*1975 Schwartz. Blood . 003 Denis. Bones (ileum of sheep 50*58 ) " (ileum ) of ox 45*2 f Thomson. " (vertebrae) of haddock 56*08 ) Muscular fles h of ox calf . traces "1 0*1 » u P'g • roe . traces 1 0-4 f Sehlossberger u u chicken 0*6 2*2 J " " trout . The amount of earthy phosphates in several foods which contain these salts, has not been ascertained. 3. Potash Salts.—Minute quantities of potash salts exist in the ashes of blood and sev- eral of the animal tissues. They are derived from both animal and vegetable food, (see pp. 37 and 93.) 4. Ferruginous Compounds.—The existence of iron in the animal system, and the sources of it have been already noticed, (see pp. 33-35.) The precise state in which this metal exists in, and is introduced into, the system, has not been made out. In some cases it is supposed to be in the form of a phosphate. 4 — Chap. III.—Of Compound Aliments. The foods which consist of two or more alimentary principles, may be conveniently termed Compound Aliments. These it is customary to divide into Solid Foods or Aliments Proper, Liquid Foods or Drinks, and Seasoning Agents or Condiments. This division, though by no means accurate, is both familiar and convenient; and I shall, therefore, adopt it. 1. SOLID ALIMENTS, OR ALLMENTS PROPER. Man obtains his food from both the animal and vegetable kingdoms. This is almost universally the case, and is a strong confirmation of the correctness of the inference drawn by the anatomist from the structure of the entire human digestive apparatus, that man is omnivorous. "It is quite certain," says Dr. Carpenter,* "that the most perfect physical development, and the greatest intellectual vigor, are to be found among those races in which this [a mixed] diet is the prevalent habit." Yet a modern writer.f who eloquently and ably advocates the exclusive use of vegetable food, declares that " the ad- herence to the use of animal food is no more than a persistence in the gross customs of * Principles of Human Physiology, p. 349. 1842. t Dr. Lambe, Additional Reports on the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen, p. 243. 1815. ANIMAL FOODS. Ill savage life ; and evinces an insensibility to the progress of reason, and to the operation of intellectual improvement" ! !* SECT. 1.—ANIMAL FOODS. Exclusive of water and saline matters, we obtain, from animal foods, Proteinaceous, Gelatinous, and Fatty alimentary principles; to which must be added, in the case of milk, Sugar. These are derived from flesh, blood, viscera, bones, cartilages, ligaments, cellular tissue, the milk of the mammals, and the eggs of some of the oviparous animals. The proximate composition of the muscular flesh of different animals has been ex- amined by Mr. Brandef and more recently by Sehlossberger :{ their results are as fol- lows :— COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE, ACCORDING TO MR. BRANDE. 100 Parts Muscle of Water. Beef ... 74 Veal ... 75 Mutton ... 71 Pork ... 76 Chicken . . 73 Cod ... 79 Haddock . . 82 Sole ... 79 COMPOSITION OF MUSCULAR FLESH, ACCORDING TO SCHLOSSBERGER. A'bumen Total of Nutri- or Fibrine. Gelatine. tive Matter. 20 6 . . . 26 19 6 25 22 7 29 19 5 24 20 7 27 14 7 21 13 5 18 15 6 21 Ox. Calf. Pig- Roe. Pigeon. Chicken. Carp. Trout. Flesh, Vessels, nerves, ) and cellular tissue . } Soluble albumen and he-) matosine . . . . $ Alcoholic extract with salts Watery extract with salts . Phosphate of lime contain- > ing albumen . . . ) Water and loss .... 17*5 2-2 1-5 1*3 traces 77*5 15—16*2 3*2 — 2*6 11 — 1*4 10 — 1*6 01—traces 79*7 —78*2 16*8 2-4 0*8 $ traces 78*3 18-0 2*3 2*4 0*4 76*9 17-0 4*5 10 1*5 760 16-5 30 1*4 1*2 0*6 77*3 12-0 5-2 1*0 f ^01 Ill 4-4 1-6 0-2 2-2 80*5 1000 100*0—100-0 1000 1000 1000 100-0 1000 1000 A very large number of animals is used, in different parts of the world, as food. In this work, however, I purpose speaking of those only which are employed in Eng- land.^ CLASS I. MAMMALIA.—MAMMALS. In England, the mammals, employed by man as food, are, the Ox, the Sheep, the Hog, the Deer, the Rabbit, and the Hare. _ These animals furnish their Bones, Cartilages, Tendons, Aponeuroses, Ligaments!1 Cellular Tissue, Fat, Muscles or Flesh, Viscera, Blood, and Milk, as alimentary sub- stances. 1. Bones.—The bones of the ox and sheep are those principally which serve for aliment- ary purposes. Their composition, exclusive of the marrow (see p. 87) which they con- tain, is as follows :— * Appendix, X. 1" Manual of Chemistry. X Pharmaceutisches Central-Blait, 1842, p. 41. $ For an account of other animals used as food, the reader is referred to the article Aliment, in the Encychpcedia Metropolitana, and Lardner's Cabinet Clyclopcedia, Domesiic Economy, vol. ii., by Mr. Donovan. 112 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF BONE, (THOMSON.) Ox. Sheep. Uium or Haunch-bone. Ilium. Cartilage Phosphate of lime Carbonate of lime Magnesia Soda Potash 48-5 45*2 61 0*24 0*20 Oil 43*30— 47-20 50*58— 46*35 4-49_ 4.88 0-86— 0-64 0*31— 2*09 0*19— 0*25 Tibia. 51*97 40*42 7*03 0*22 0*19 traces 100*35 . . . 99*73—101*41 . . . 99*83 By digesting bones in hydrochloric acid they are deprived of part of their earthy salts. They are then semi-transparent, flexible, and elastic; and have a fatty smell and an acid taste. In this state they are known in France under the name of Alimentary gelatine. Their composition is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF BONES WHICH HAVE BEEN DIGESTED IN HYDROCHLORIC HAVE BEEN ACID. Water ...... Fat....... Matter which may be transformed into gelatine . Earthy phosphates and other salts Insoluble animal matter Sheep's feet bones, 47*22 5-55 17*30 12*42 17*51 10000 Ox-head bones. 22*87 11*54 27*99 32*77 4*83 100*00 The cartilage of bone, after ossification has taken place, is resolved by boiling into collin or common gelatine, (see p. 99.) Hence bones are employed in domestic economy for the preparation of soups. But the quantity of gelatine extractable from bones by the ordinary mode of boiling, is comparatively small. To increase it, Papin* proposed to ex- pose them to the action of water and steam under pressure. By this means he declared that he could make the oldest and hardest cow as tender and well-flavored as the finest meat!! 4^ At the cof^Hneement of the French revolution, the attention of every one in France was direete^.^0 the improvement of the food for the poor and for the army. All were agreed in employing for, this purpose bones. The government, led away by the en- thusiastic reports of scientific men, (Proust, d'Arcet, Pelletier, Cadet de Vaux, &c.,) issued a public instruction, declaring that " a bone is a tablet of soup formed by nature: a pound of bone gives as much soup as six pounds of meat: bone soup, in a dietetical point: of view, is preferable to meat soup." It need scarcely be stated that these inflated expfes- siona-were gross exaggerations. It is obvious, as Magendie has justly observed, that in thisMryperbolic language the terms jelly (gelatine) and nutritive matter were considered onymous. The favorable report made by the Faculty of Medicine, on the nutritive easily digestible properties of gelatine, induced the French administration des hospices, in 1824, to introduce its employment into the public hospitals of Paris; and for this pur- pose, in many of these establishments d'Arcet's apparatus for obtaining a solution of gelatine from bones, by the aid of steam, was fitted up. In most if not in all, its em- ployment was, however, soon abandoned. At the Hotel-Dieu its use was abolished in consequence of the unfavorable report given of its properties by the medical officers of that institution. The report concludes with the following summary:— 1. The soup made with the gelatinous solution is of bad quality. 2, It is more liable to putrefaction than soup prepareiby the old method. * A New Digester, or Engine for Softening Bones, 4to. Lond. 1681.—A Continuation of the New Digester of Bones, 4to. Lond. 1687. FLESH. 113 3. Its taste is disagreeable, and even disgusting. 4. It is less digestible than common soup, and may even derange the functions of the digestive organs. 5. It contains a smaller quantity of nutritive matter than common soup. 6. Its nutritive matter is inferior to that contained in common soup. This report which is dated November 8th, 1831, is signed by MM. Petit Recamier, Caillard, the Baron Dupuytren, Breschet Gueneau de Mussy, Honore Husson, Sanson, Magendie, Bally, Henry, Duval, and Gendrin. The nutritive qualities of bone, as well as of bone-gelatine, have been already noticed, (see p. 102.) The time required for the chymification of bone contained in a phial has likewise been stated, (see p. 102.) 2. Cartilages, Tendons, Aponeuroses, and Ligaments.—The cartilage of unossified parts, by boiling, yields chondrine. Tendons, (popularly called sinews,) the aponeuroses, and most of the ligaments, by long boiling, yield collin. All these, therefore, are gelatinous tissues, and have been before noticed, (see pp. 100-102.) The ligament nucha (commonly termed pack-wax) of ruminants differs, however, from ordinary ligament. Though it yields a little gelatine to water, it does not soften or dissolve by long boiling. 3. Cellular Tissue.—This, by boiling in water, becomes soft, and is ultimately convert- ed into collin. It, therefore, belongs to the gelatinous substances, (see p. 99.) 4. Fat.—The fat of mammals is lodged in the cells of the adipose tissue, which pro- bably is only a modification of, if, indeed, it be not identical with, the common cellular tis- sue. The animal fats have already been described, (see p. 80, et seq.) 5. Muscles or Flesh.—The flesh of mammals consists principally and essentially of the muscles, intermixed, however, with tendons, aponeuroses, fasciae, nerves, vessels, cellular tissue, blood, serum, and fat. That part of the flesh which consists of muscle without the fatty and other matters, is called the lean. The chemical constituents of flesh are the following:— CONSTITUENTS OF FLESH. f Water. Fatty matter Gelatinous Osmazome. Albumen. Peculiar nflPhs matter. Fibrine. Creatine. Hematosine Salts. in™ Osmazome (from dour), a smell, and gauds, broth or soup) is an alcoholic extract obtained from the flesh, brain, and other parts of animals. It has a reddish brown color, and the smell and taste of soup. It is generally mixed with lactic acid, the lactates, and common salt. To this principle, broths and soups owe their flavor and smell, and part of their nutritive qualities. The substance called, by its discoverer, Chevreul,* creatine, (from Kpias,flesh,) is a^tiro- genous, crystallizable substance, insoluble in alcohol. Liebigf calculates that ordinary meat, as bought from the butcher, contains about o>ue seventh of its weight of fat and cellular tissue; and that meat devoid of fat contains, on the average, 74 per cent, water, and 26 dry matter ; the latter of which contains 13*6 parts of carbon. On these assumptions, therefore, 100 parts of ordinary butcher's meat has the following composition :— COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY BUTCHER'S MEAT. (j Water.....63*418 Meat devoid of fat . . . 85*7 j Dry matter containing 11*6552 ) 22*282 ( parts of carbon . . $ Fat, cellular tissue, &c...........14*300 Ordinary Butcher's meat '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. 100*000 * Journal de Chimie Med. t. viii.p. 548. t Animal Chemistry, p. 286. 114 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The following are analyses of the muscular flesh of the ox :- COMPOSITION OF BEEF FLESH. Lean of Beef. (Berzelius.) Heart of an Ox. (Braconnot.) 17*70 2*20 ) 008 < 1*80 105 77*17 18*196 2*733 1*566 0*465 77036 10000 100*000 Muscular fibre, vessels, and nerves 15*8 * Cellular tissue convertible into gela- tine by boiling . . . 1*9' Soluble albumen and coloring matter Phosphate of lime and albumen Alcoholic extract with salts (osmazome) . Aqueous extract with salts Lactate and phosphate of potash, and corn- j mon salt......< Water....... The analyses of Brande and Sehlossberger have been already given, (p. 111.) The fibrine of the muscular flesh of different animals is very uniform in its chemical properties, and appears to be identical in its composition. The flesh of the mammalia of the chase is of a darker color, and is sometimes called black meat; while that of the rab- bit, after boiling, is pale, and may be termed while meat. The quantity of blood in the flesh of animals augments with their age. Sehlossberger found it to be inversely to that of the water, but directly to that of the fibrine. To augment the whiteness of veal, it is said that butchers sometimes repeatedly bleed calves, by which an anaemic state is in- duced. Young meats yield, by boiling, a larger amount of gelatine than old meats. Every one is probably familiar with the fact that the gravy of lamb more readily gelatin- izes when cold than that of mutton. The osmazome augments with the age of the ani- mal. The fhj-gh of wild animals, as the stag and the roe, contains a very small quantity of fat, comp-jflp with that of the well-fed domesticated animals, as the sheep and hog. The ultimare composition of flesh is identical with that of blood. " The analyses of Playfair and Boeckmann," says Liebig, " give for flesh (fibrine, albumen, cellular tissue, and nerves) and for blood, as the most exact expression for their numerical results, one and the same formula, namely, C48 Ne H39 O15. This may be called the empirical formula of blood. Moreover, it appears that roasting and boiling alter in no way the composition of animal food. ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF FLESH AND BLOOD. Roasted Flesh. Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Ashes Ox Blood. (Playfair.) 51*95 7*17 15*07 21-39 4*42 Dry Beef Muscle. (Playfair.) 51.83 7*57 1501 21*37 4' Beef. Veal. Roe Deer. (Playfair. (Playfair.) (Boeckmann.) 100-00 ■37) •23$ 52*590 52-52 7-886 7*87 15*214 14*70 24*310 24*91 52*60 7*45 15-23 24*72 100*00 100000 10000 10000 The tenderness of flesh is influenced by a variety of circumstances; as age, sex, .ean- ness or fatness, mode of slaughtering, and incipient decomposition. Thus the flesh of young animals is more tender than that of old ones. That of the entire male adult is coarser and tougher than that of the female. The meat of the bull and of the cow are familiar illustrations of this. The flesh of castrated animals is not only more delicate, FLESH. 115 more tender, and finer grained, but has a more agreeable odor and flavor than that of the uncastrated animal; and a similar improvement in the flesh of the female is effected by the operation of spaying. The flesh of lean animals is generally firmer than that of plump ones, in which the fibres are penetrated with fat The mode of preparation for slaughter affects the tenderness of the meat. Hunting, baiting, fighting, and whipping inimals just before death, augments the tenderness of their flesh. With the exception of the first one, these barbarous and cruel practices are now justly exploded in the most civilized countries of the world. Another circumstance which promotes the tenderness of meat is incipient decomposition ; hence the flesh of most animals is kept for some time after death. With regard to digestibility, Dr. Beaumont* found that digestion is facilitated by minute- ness of division and tenderness of fibre; and retarded by opposite qualities. " Chymifi- cation," he observes, " is most readily effected on solid food, or rather on a soft solid, which is easily divisible into shreds or small particles. Such is particularly the character of venison, which is ascertained to be one of the most digestible substances. The qual- ities of looseness of texture and susceptibility of division belong to most of those wild meats and game which are generally acknowledged to be easy of digestion. Beef and mutton, of a certain age, possess similar qualities." As young meats are more tender than old meats, and as tenderness of fibre facilitates digestion, it might be expected that the flesh of young animals would be more digestible than that of old ones; and this inference is favored by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont, who found that roasted sucking-pig was more speedily digested than broiled pork-steak, and boiled fresh lamb sooner than boiled fresh mutton; though, on the other hand, veal proved less digestible than beef. DIGESTIBILITY OF MEATS. ARTICLES OF MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATiad| DIET. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M Venison steak Broiled 1 35 Pig, sucking Roasted 2 30 Lamb, fresh .... Broiled 2 30 Beef, with salt only Boiled 2 45 9 30 " fresh, lean, raw . Roasted 3 0 Roasted " steak .... Broiled 3 0 Masticated 8 15 Pork, recently salted . Raw 3 0 Raw 8 30 » ti " Stewed 3 0 Mutton, fresh Broiled 3 0 Masticated 6 45 k » h Boiled 3 0 Pork, recently salted . Broiled 3 15 Pork-steak .... Broiled 3 15 Mutton, fresh Roasted 3 15 Beef, fresh, lean, dry . Roasted 3 30 Roasted 7 45 " with mustard, &c. Boiled 3 30 u u u Fried 4 0 12 30 Veal, fresh .... Broiled 4 0 Beef, old, hard, salted . Boiled 4 15 Pork, recently salted . Fried 4 15 Veal, fresh .... Fried 4 30 Pork, fat and lean Roasted 5 15 * Op. ante cit. pp. 36 and 142. 116 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Notwithstanding the preceding facts, experience seems to show that young meats fre- quently prove less digestible than old ones. Dr. Cullen,* after stating that young meat is universally more soluble than old, adds: "There is, however, a difficulty which occurs here. Although from their texture young meats are more soluble than old, and appear to be so in decoctions with water, yet in some stomachs the young meats are more slowly digested than old; and thus in some persons veal is more slowly digested than beef, and lamb than mutton. Animal flesh is a plastic element of nutrition, (see p. 16.) Being identical, in composi- tion, with our own flesh and blood, it requires neither addition nor subtraction to render it nourishing ; but in order that it may reach the different organs, it is necessary that it should be reduced to a liquid form, (blood.) " Muscular flesh," says Magendie,f " in which gelatine, albumen, and fibrine, are com- bined according to the laws of organic nature, and where they are associated with other matters, such as fats, salts, &c, suffices, even in very small quantity, for complete and prolonged nutrition." Dogs fed solely for 120 days on raw meat from sheep's heads pre- served their health and weight during this period ; the daily consumption never exceed- ing 300 grammes, [=4630i grs. troy,] and often being less than this quantity. But 1000 grammes [=-15434 grs. troy] of isolated fibrine, with the addition of some hundreds of grammes of gelatine and albumen, were insufficient to support life. "What, then," ex- claims Magendie, "is the peculiar principle which renders meat so perfect an aliment! Is it the odorous and sapid matter, which has this function, as seems probable 1 Do the salts, the trace of iron, the fatty matters, and the lactic acid, contribute to the nutritive ef- fect, notwithstanding that they constitute so minute a portion of meat1." The meats of different species of mammals are unequally digestible and nutritive: but the digestibility of the same kind of meat is by no means uniform in different individuals. Venison, as I have already stated, is easy of digestion; but it is generally considered to be more stimulating than other meats, (e. g. mutton ;) and, therefore, less fitted for con- valescents. Occasionally mutton disagrees with certain individuals.^ I know a gentle- man who has repeatedly had an attack of indigestion after the use of roast mutton ; but I have reason to suppose that it was caused by the mutton fat, and probably, therefore, depended on the hircic acid, (see p. 83.) 4. Viscera.—The brain, the tongue, the heart the thymus, the liver, the kidneys, and the alimentary canal of quadrupeds, are employed as food. The following are the mean times of chymification of some of these, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments:— * A Treatise on the Materia Medica, vol. i. p. 358. t Rapport fait a VAcademie des Sciences au nom dela Commissiondile de la Gelatine. Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. X Dr. Prout (On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach, and Urinary Diseases, p. xxx. 3d ed.) knew an individual on whom mutton acted as a poison. He " could not eat mutton in any form. The peculiarity was supposed to be owing to caprice, and the mutton was repeatedly disguised and given unknown to the individual; but uniformly with the same result of producing violent vomiting and diarrhoea. And from the severity of the effects, which were, in fact, those of a virulent poison, there can be little doubt that if the use of mutton had been persisted in, it would soon have destroyed the life c*f the individ- ual." VISCERA OF QUADRUPEDS. 117 ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Tripe, soused...... Liver, ox's, fresh . . . Spinal marrow, ox's . Boiled Boiled Broiled Boiled Fried 1 0 1 45 2 0 2 40 4 0 Boiled Cut fine Boiled Entire piece 4 30 6 30 5 25 13 30 Its other constituents are albumen It exists free or combined with soda a. The brain contains about 80 per cent, of water. and fatty matters. The principal fat is cerebric acid. and phosphate of lime. COMPOSITION OF CEREBRIC ACID. Carbon........66*7 Hydrogen.......10*6 Nitrogen........2*3 Phosphorus.......0-9 Oxygen........19-5 1000 It differs, therefore, from ordinary fats in containing nitrogen and phosphorus. From the proteine compounds it differs in .containing so small a proportion of nitrogen, (see p. 91.) The other cerebral fats are oleophosphoric acid, (which contains about 2 per cent of phosphoru.s, and probably consists of oleine and phosphorus,) oleine, margarine, small quantities of oleic and margaric acids, and cholesterine. In composition, then, brain may be regarded as intermediate between ordinary fat and the proteinaceous substances. It appears, from Dr. Beaumont's experiments, (see p. 116,) to be somewhat more digestible than common fat. b. and c.—The tongue and heart of mammals are muscular organs, (see p. 114,) for the composition of the heart of the ox,) and in their dietetical properties agree with the flesh of these animals. d. The thymus of the calf is employed as food, under the name of sweetbread. Its com- position, according to Morin,* is as follows:— COMPOSITION OF CALF'S SWEETBREAD. Albumen.........1400 Osmazome........1*65 Gelatine.........600 Peculiar animal fat.......0*30 Margaric acid........0 05 Fibrine.........800 Water.........70*00 Thymus or Sweetbread......10000 A fresh sweetbread, when plainly cooked (by boiling) and moderately seasoned, forms a very agreeable and suitable dish for the convalescent; but when highly dressed, is im- proper both for dyspeptics and invalids. e. The liver of the ox has been analyzed by Braconnotf who found its composition to oe as follows :— * Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iii. p. 450. t Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, t. x. p. 189. 118 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF THE LIVER OF THE OX. Vascular and cutaneous tissues .... 18*94 Parenchyma (j. e. soluble parts) . . . 81-06 Liver...........10000 The parenchyma consisted of the following substances :— Brown oil, containing phosphorus . . . 3*89 White fatty flocculi Nitrogenous matter Albumen Blood . Salts . Water . 7 6*07 2019 ? i-2i 68*64 Parenchyma of the liver.....10000 On account of the oily matter which it contains, the liver of quadrupeds is not an ap- propriate food for invalids, or for those whose stomachs are weak. Moreover, the ordin- ary mode of cooking it, (frying,) renders it still more inappropriate. / The kidneys.—From Berzelius's experiments it appears that the solid part of the kidney is neither fibrine nor cellular tissue, but approaches nearer to the substance of which the fibrous coat of the arteries consists, (see p. 101.) The liquid portion of the kidney contains albumen and lactic acid. Berzelius could detect no urea in it. But the urinous odor which a cooked kidney presents is a sufficient evidence that it contains some of the essential constituents of this secretion. Dr. T. Thomson* states that urea has been detected in the kidney. g. Alimentary Canal.—The stomachs of ruminants when prepared as food constitute tripe. Its principal organic constituents are albumen and fibrine. " Few things," says Dr. A. T. Thomson,f " are more readily digested than tripe, when it is properly cooked. After partially boiling, in the usual manner, and also some onions, in two waters, both should be slowly boiled together, until the tripe is very soft and tender. A sufficient quantity of salt, and a pinch or a few grains of cayenne pepper, may be added." Dr. Beaumont's experiment, before quoted, (see p. 117,) also shows the ready digestibility of tripe. 5. Blood.—Blood forms a greater or less constituent of the flesh and viscera of quadru- peds, notwithstanding that in the ordinary mode of slaughtering these animals they are deprived of the greater part of their circulating fluid. J Among civilized nations, the pig is the only animal whose blood furnishes a distinct article of food. Mixed with fat and aromatics, and enclosed in the prepared intestines, the blood of this animal constitutes the sausages sold in the shops under the name of black puddings. The following table shows the mean composition of the blood of several animals em- ployed as food, according to the analyses of MM. Andral, Gavarret, and Delafond.§ * Animal Chemistry, p. 330. t The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room, p. 433. X Some animals are bled to death ; others, after being knocked down, have the vessels of their neck divided. By the Mosaic law the Jews are expressly forbidden to eat the blood of any beast or bird, or to partake of the flesh of any beast or bird, whose throat has not been cut in order to drain off its blood. They are not to eat of any creature that dies of itself, (Leviticus, chapters 7, 11, and 17.) " Previously to boiling any meat, they are required to let it lie half an hour in water and an hour in salt, and then to rinse off the salt with clean water. This is designed to draw out any remaining blood," (Allen, Modern Judaism, p. 420-21, 2d. ed. 1830.) § Annates de Chimie et de Physique, 3e serie, t. v. MILK. H9 MEAN COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD OF THE OX, THE SHEEP, AND THE PIG. Constituents. Oxen. Sheep. Pigs of from 2 to 6 months old, English Breed. Merino. Dishley Breed. Fibrine........... 3*7 99*7 86*3 810*3 30 101*1 82*4 813*5 2*6 950 92-4 810*0 4*6 105-7 80*1 809*6 Solid matters of the serum .... Water........... 10000 10000 10000 10000 The composition and alimentary properties of fibrine have already been stated, (see pp. 90-91.) I have also given the composition of the blood corpuscles according to Denis, (see p. 92, foot-note.) Their alimentary properties are similar to those of albumen and other proteinaceous substances. The solid matters of the serum of the blood consist of albumen, (see pp. 90-93,) which constitutes more than 1-10 of their weight of fatty matters, (see p. 85, foot-note,) of, ac- cording to Denis--, two coloring matters, (yellow biliary matter and traces of a blue sub- stance,) and, lastly, various salts, (viz. alkaline chlorides, alkaline carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate, carbonates of lime and magnesia, and phosphates of lime and magnesia.) The nutritive quality of blood is equal to that of flesh, with which it is identical in com- position, (see p. 114.) 6. Milk.—On account of its liquidity milk ought, perhaps, to be placed among Drinks ; but inasmuch as it contains, in solution and suspension, a large quantity of alimentary matter ; as it constitutes the sole food of mammals during a certain period of their life, after birth ; and, lastly, as it yields some solid alimentary substances, (butter, cheese, and sugar of milk,) it will be, on the whole, most convenient to notice it here. Milk, or, to be more precise in our description, Cow's Milk, is an opaque, white emulsive liquid, with a bland, sweetish taste, a faint peculiar odor, and a specific gravity of about 1*030: the latter property, however, is subject to considerable variation. When recently drawn from the animal it is slightly alkaline, (see p. 93.) Subjected to a mi- croscopical examination, it is observed to consist of myriads of excessively minute globular particles floating in a serous liquid. These particles are butter. They instantly disappear, by solution, on the addition of a drop of caustic alkali; and they may be sepa- rated by filtration,—the filtered liquor being transparent. Being specifically lighter than the liquor in which they are suspended, they readily separate by standing. They rise to the surface, carrying with them some caseine, and retaining some of the serum, thus forming cream. The milk from which the cream is separated is termed skimmed milk. Milk has been the subject of repeated chemical investigation. The following is the composition of several kinds of milk, according to the very elaborate experiments of MM. O. Henri and Chevallier,* published in 1839. Milk of the Constituents. Cow. Caseine 4-48 Butter 313 Sugar of Milk . 4.77 Various Salts 0-60 Water 87-02 Total- 100-Oil Solid substances 12*98 1*82 0-11 6*08 0-34 91*65 Woman. 1-52 3*55 6*50 0-45 87*98 Goat. 4-0*2 3*32 5-28 0*58 86*80 Ewe. 4*50 4*20 5*00 0*68 85*62 1OU-00 8*00 100-00 1300* 100-00 13*20 100*00 14*33 * Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxv. p. 340. t According to the preceding data the quantity of solid substances in woman's milk is 1202; but 13*00 is given in the memoir quoted, and I have no means of discovering where the error exists. 120 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. But the relative proportions of the constituents of milk vary with the quality of the food, the age of the animal, and the period after parturition. The following table, taken from the memoir of the last-mentioned chemists, shows the influence of food. COMPOSITION OF COW'S MILK. Kind of Food. Carrots. Beets. Caseine . 4*20 .. . 3*75 Butter . . . 308 . . . 2*75 Sugar of Milk . . 5*30 . . . 5*95 Salts .... 0*75 . . . 0*68 Water . . . 86-67 . . . 86*87 Total . . . 100*00 . . . 100*00 Solid substances . . 13*33 . . . 1313 MM. Boussingault and Le Bel* have also made a series of experiments to determine the effect of various kinds of food upon the quantity and quality of the milk given by cows. Some of their results have been before noticed, (see ante, p. 93.) I have already considered the composition and alimentary qualities of butter, (pp. 81- 87,) and of caseine, (pp. 90-91, 93-95.) Sugar of Milk, in its nutritive qualities, is similar to saccharine substances in general, and which have been already stated, (see pp. 55-59.) In its chemical properties it is allied to gum. Its alimentary uses are precisely similar to those of whey. Dissolved in skimmed cow's milk, I have occasionally employed it in consumptive cases, where un- skimmed milk disagreed with the stomach. The homoeopathists use it as the vehicle (excipiens vel conslituens) for the exhibition, in a pilular (globular) form, of small doses of their remedies; as they object to the use of common sugar, for this purpose, on ac- count of the lime which it contains. The saline constituents of milk have been slightly alluded to, (see p. 93.) According to Schwartzf the following is the composition of the ashes of cow's milk. COMPOSITION OF THE ASHES OF 100 PARTS OF COW'S MILK. Soda (in milk combined with lactic acid) . . . 0-0115 Chloride of potassium......0*1350 Phosphate of soda.......0 0225 Phosphate of lime.......0-1805 Phosphate of magnesia......00170 Phosphate of iron.......00032 0*3697 But according to Berzelius the lactic acid is combined with potash. Cream of cow's milk has a variable specific gravity: perhaps the average is 1*2044. According to the analysis of Berzelius, it has the following composition:— COMPOSITION OF CREAM OF COW'S MILK. Butter..........4-5 Caseine or curd........3-5 Whey . . . .... 920 100*0 The upper stratum of cream is richer in butter, the lowest in caseine. By agitation, as in the process called churning, the fatty globules unite to form butter: the residue, called butter-milk, consists of caseine, serum, (whey,) and a little butter. Skimmed milk, like cream, has a variable specific gravity: perhaps the average is 1*0348. If left to itsdf, it readily acquires acid properties; white coagula, commonly * Ann. ae Chim. et de Physique, t. Ixxi. p. 65. t Gmelin, Handbuch der theoretischen Chemie, vol. 2, p. 1404. MILK. 121 called curds, separate from it If an acid or rennet (the infusion of the fourth or true stomach of the calf) be added to skimmed milk, this change is immediately produced. The curd separated by rennet is the caseine. But after rennet has ceased to produce any more coagula, acetic acid will cause a further quantity to be formed. The curd thus sub- sequently separated by the acid is known by the various names of zieger, serai, ricotta, and bracotte. It is probably nothing else than uncoagulated caseine united to acetic acid. The whey left after the separation of the caseine and zieger, yields, on evaporation, sugar of milk, one or more nitrogenous substances, (osmazome,) lactic acid, and salts. The following table shows the composition of several domestic preparations of milk :— CONSTITUENTS. ( solid fat . . . . 1. Margarine. f Butter ] r 2. Butyroleine. (liquid fat . . .1 3. Butyrine. { j 4. Caproine. Butter-milk \caseu™- I 5- Caprine. L *• <" serum or whey. Matters coa- (by -rennet . . . 6 Caseine. Kulable < not by rennet, but by acetic ( acid.....7. Zieger or Serai. 'Cream Milk- Skimmed L milk ^Whey or se rum ,_ | azotized matter saccharine matter zed matter f soluble in alcohol 8. Sugar of Milk. 9. Osmazome. 10. Alkaline and earthy lactates 1 and phosphates. soluble in water, not 11. Alkaline sulphate and phos- in alcohol . . phates. insoluble in water . 12. Earthy and ferruginous phosphates. The morbid changes produced in the quality of the milk by diseased conditions of the cows, have recently attracted considerable attention in Paris, owing to the prevalence of a malady, called the cocole, among the cows in that capital.* Those which have been recognised are want of homogeneousness, imperfect mobility or liquidity, capability of becoming thick or viscid on the addition of ammonia, and the presentation of, when ex- amined by the microscope, certain globues (agglutinated, tuberculated or mulberry-like, mucous or pus globules) not found in healthy milk.*)* LabillardiereJ states that the milk of a cow, affected with a kind of turbercular phthisis (pommeliere) contained seven times more phosphate of lime than usual; and Dupuy also§ speaks of the large quantity of calcareous matter in the milk of cows, in whose lungs abundant deposits of the same sub- stance were found.|| Good milk is quite liquid and homogeneous; not viscid; and, when examined by the microscope, is found to contain only spherical transparent globules, soluble in alkalies and ether. Moreover, good milk yields a flocculent precipitate with acetic acid, but is not coagulated by heat. The relative quantity of cream, which it affords, is estimated by a glass tube divided into 100 parts. Such an instrument is called a lactometer. The thick- ness of the layer of cream which, in a few hours, forms at the top of the milk, may be easily led off. I have repeatedly submitted the milk supplied to me by a respectable dealer in London, to examination by the lactometer, but the results have been very unsatisfac- * See Journal de Pharmacie, vol. xxv. p. 301-318. t Recherches micros copiques sur divers tails oblenus de vaches plus ou mains affecties de la Maladie qui a rigni pendant VHiver de 1828 a 1839, et designee vulgairement sous la denomination de Cocote, par M. Turpin, in the Mimoires de VAcaddmie Royale des Sciences de Vlnstitut, t. xvii. Paris, 1840. X Diet. Mat. Med. iv. 23. § Quoted by Andral, Treat, on Path. Anatomy, Engl. Transl. vol. i. p. 675. II Appendix, Y. 122 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. tory, as the quantity of cream which I procured varied from 5 to 23 per cent by measure. I subjoin a few results obtained in November, 1840 :— QUANTITY OF CREAM IN COW'S MILK. 100 Parts by measure Quantity of Cteam of Milk. by measure. 1840, November 6,- -'Morning . . Hi » Afternoon 5 " 7,- —Morning . 10 " Afternoon . 161 100 Parts by measure of Milk. >, November 8,—Afternoon "10, . . . . Quantity of Cream by measure. . . 101 . . 8 "17, . . . . "18, . . . . 23 . . 23 The milk yielded by an Alderney cow, belonging to a gentleman in the neighborhood of Whitechapel, yielded 17£ per cent, (by measure) of cream. The following table of the quantity of cream contained in the milk supplied by con- tract to the London Hospital, has been kindly furnished me by Mr. Macmeikan, the apoth- ecary to that establishment. The specific gravity was, for convenience, taken by the urinometer. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND PROPORTION OF CREAM ON MILK SUPPLIED TO THE LONDON HOSPITAL. Date. 1842. Sept. 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Oct. Specific Gravity. 26 days. 1*023 1030 1026 1*025 1030 1-026 1030 1027 1*026 1026 1-026 1-027 1026 1-027 1025 1-028 1-028 1-027 1-030 1-027 1-028 1-027 1-030 1-027 1029 1028 Cream. Average) 7 sp. gr. $ A U4 ' 2 6 9 5 5 5 5 41 51 51 51 5 5 51 5 41 41 41 5 5 5 7 6 7 7 7 71 7 Tempera- ture. Average quantity of cream ) ) **; 19 quantity > <-*-?-*-< 62 62 62 63 61 60 62 62 64 64 Donne* says ordinary cow's milk should furnish 12 to 15 per cent, of cream,—woman's milk, of good quality, 3 per cent,—and ass's milk from 1 to 2 per cent. The influence which many medicines, taken by the parent, have over the offspring, is a circumstance known to every nurse, though Cullen denies it. We can modify the eolor of the milk by mixing saffron or madder with the food ; the odor may be affected by various cruciferous and alliaceous plants ; the taste may be altered by the use of bitters, as wormwood ; and lastly, the medicinal effect may be also influenced. Children may be * Conseils aux Mires sur la Manilre d'Elever les Enfans nouveau-nds. 1842. MILK. 123 salivated by sucking nurses under the influence of mercury, or purged by the exhibition of drastics, or narcotized by the administration of opiates to the nurse. These facts are so familiar to every one, that further evidence of them is scarcely requisite. Mental emotions also affect the quality of the milk. Thus the action of the bowels of the child is frequently disordered in consequence of some sudden emotion on the part of the mother. The quality of the milk is also affected by the state of health of the female supplying it I have already mentioned the effect of tubercular disease of the lungs in increasing the quantity of phosphate of lime in the milk, (see p. 121.) This subject is one of the greatest moment, not only in reference to the frequency of disease in cows, and, there- fore, to the possible morbific character of their milk, but also in reference to the milk of the human subject. I think, with these facts before us, it would be highly improper to allow a female, with any trace or suspicion of tuberculous disease, to suckle. Not that a few grains, more or less, of phosphate of lime in the milk, can probably do any injury j to the child ; but the fact once established, that the milk may be thus altered by disease, leads to the suspicion that some other substances, not yet recognised by their physical or chemical characters, may be in the milk of diseased nurses, and which may have an injurious influence on the child; and the suspicion does not confine itself to those affect- ed with tuberculous diseases: other hereditary or constitutional affections may also be attended with altered conditions of the milk. This suspicion is strengthened by the com- mon observation that the milk of different nurses does not equally suit the same child ; nor that of the same nurse, different children. Milk being furnished by nature as the only food for the young mammal, during a cer- tain period of his existence, contains all the elements necessary for the nutrition and growth of the body. Out of the caseine of milk are formed the albumen and fibrine of the blood, and the proteinaceous and gelatinous tissues. The butter serves for the formation of fat and contributes, with the sugar, to support the animal heat by yielding carbon and hydrogen to be burnt in the lungs. The earthy salts are necessary for the development of the osseous system ; the iron is required for the blood corpuscles and the hair; while i the alkaline chloride furnishes the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice. j Milk is in general readily digested by children, unless it contain too large a quantity of nutritious matter,* when it is apt to induce various disorders of the digestive organs, (vomiting, griping, &c.) It frequently disagrees with adults. With some it proves heavy and difficult of digestion, owing to its oily constituent, (butter.) With such, ass's milk, (which contains very little butter,) or skimmed cow's milk, usually agrees. The follow- ing table of the digestibility of milk, &c, is taken from Dr. Beaumont's work:— ARTICLES OF DIET. 3IEAN TIME OF CHY3IIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. .Milk .... Milk .... Butter .... Cream - Boiled Raw Melted 2 0 1 Boiled 2 15 Raw 3 30 — — ! Raw 4 15 4 45 25 30 ' * See Payen, Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iv. p. 118. Also Donne, Conseils aux Mires sur la Manilre d'Elever les Enfans nouveau-ncs. 1842. 124 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Pure milk injected into the veins exerts no deleterious effects, except in the horse.* Milk is a very useful and valuable article of food as well for the adult as for the child, __and for healthy individuals as for invalids and convalescents. The principal drawback to its employment, in many cases, is the difficult digestibility of its fatty constituent, (butter.) Under the name of Milk Diet it is extensively employed, in conjunction with farinaceous substances and light puddings, with great benefit in many maladies. (See the article Milk Diet, in a subsequent part of this work.) Whey is an excellent diluent and nutritive. It may be used in febrile and inflamma- [ tory complaints. It is usually prepared by means of rennet ;f and when thus procured may be denominated Rennet Whey, in order to distinguish it from whey prepared by other methods. While Wine Whey, taken warm and combined with a sudorific regimen, acts powerfully on the skin, and is a valuable domestic remedy in slight colds and febrile dis- orders. Cream of Tartar Whey is prepared by adding a quarter of an ounce of cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash) to a pint of milk. It may be diluted with water, and taken in febrile and dropsical complaints. It is refrigerant and diuretic. Alum Whey is made by boiling a quarter of an ounce of powdered alum with a pint of milk ; then straining. It may be flavored with sugar and nutmeg. This is a pleasant mode of exhibiting alum, and may be beneficially resorted to in disorders requiring the use of this astringent, as in lead colic, hemorrhages, and colliquative sweating. The dose is a wine-glassful. Tama- rind Whey is prepared by boiling an ounce of tamarind pulp with a pint of milk, and then straining. It is refrigerant, slightly laxative, and nutritive, and may be exhibited in febrile disorders. Mustard Whey is prepared by boiling together half an ounce of bruised mustard seeds and one pint of milk, until the milk is curdled : then strain, to separate the whey. " This whey has been found to be a useful drink in dropsy : it stimulates the kidneys ; and, consequently, augments the urinary secretion. It may be taken in a tea- cupful at a time."J Milk and lime-water forms a very useful remedy in some irritable conditions of stomach arising from uterine and other maladies. It oftentimes proves a most effectual remedy for obstinate vomiting. I have likewise found it highly serviceable in the climacteric disease, or, what is technically known as " a breaking up of the constitution." It nourishes, while it checks sickness and relaxation of bowels. One part of lime-water may be taken with one, two, or three parts of milk, according to circumstances. The milk completely covers the offensive taste of the lime-water. Whey possesses slightly nutritive qualities : these it derives from the sugar of milk which it contains. It is devoid of all stimulating properties with reference either to the vas- cular or nervous systems. It, therefore, forms a very agreeable and excellent diluent , and slight nutrient in febrile and inflammatory complaints ; and is well adapted for catarrhal and pulmonary affections, especially incipient phthisis, haemoptysis, atrophy, scrofula, and chronic disorders of the liver, and other digestive organs. It very gently * Donne, Comptes Rendus, 1841. i t The term Rennet, or Runnet, is applied to the stomach of a sucking animal (as of the calf) preserved by means of salt. These terms are also applied to the liquid obtained by macerating this stomach in water. It is the gastric juice which is the effective agent in coagulating or curdling milk, (see pp. 35, and 94.) According to Deschamps, (Journ. de Pharm. vol. xxvi. p. 412,) liquid rennet contains hydrochloric acid, (in great quantity,) butyric, caproic, capric, and lactic acids, sal ammoniac, chloride of sodium, (inde- pendently of that which has been added,) magnesia, (not as ammoniacal phosphate,) soda, (probably with the magnesia, as lactate,) traces of a sulphate, phosphate of lime, and a peculiar matter which he calls chymosin" (from x"^, chyme, xfyioais, chymification.) X Dr. A. T. Thompson, The Domesiic Management of the Sick-Room, p. 420. MILK. 125 promotes the action of the secreting organs, and in this way may prove useful in con- gestion of the liver and of other abdominal viscera. In various parts of Switzerland and Germany there are special establishments for the cure of chronic disorders by the use of pure or aromatized whey, (Molkencuren; Cures de Petit Lail.) The whey is obtained from the milk of the cow, the goat, or the ass ; and is used as a drink, as a lavement, or as a bath. Its use is often associated with that of mineral waters; as at Salzbrunn, Rcinerz, Kreuth, Gaiss, Weissbad, and many other continental watering places. Butter-milk, when made from whole milk, differs from this in the absence of butter. As it contains the caseine, the sugar, and the salts of milk, it must possess nutritive qualities. It is extensively used as an article of food by the lower classes in Ireland. It forms a very agreeable cooling beverage in febrile and inflammatory cases. As " it can- not be procured at all times in large town;, and not always in the country, the method of making it in small quantities, daily, should be understood. It is readily pre- pared by putting a quart of new milk into a bottle which will hold a gallon, corking the bottle, and covering it with a towel in such a manner, that by drawing alternately each end of the towel, the bottle can be rolled upon a table. This movement should be con- tinued until such time as all the butter is separated, which is known by its appearing in clots or masses swimming in the milk. During the rolling, it is necessary to open the bottle occasionally to admit fresh air into it, as that is essential for the formation of butter. When the process is finished, all the butter should be carefully separated from the but- ter-milk."* This may be drank ad libitum. The preparations of milk known as Corstorphin Cream, Devonshire Cream, or Clotted Cream, consist of cream and the coagulated curd. They are nutritive and delicious substances, but apt to disagree with dyspeptics on account of the butter which they con- tain. Having noticed the leading alimentary properties of milk, and its most frequently used preparations, it may be proper now to say a few words on the distinctive properties of the different milks in most frequent use. It will be seen by reference to p. 119, Ewes' milk contains the largest amount of nutri- tive matter, (caseine and butter;) but on this account is less easy of digestion, and, there- fore, unfitted for dyspeptics. Next to this is Goats' milk, concerning which the same remarks may be made. It is said to be useful in checking obstinate diarrhoea. Ass's milk is the least nutritive, but the most easy of digestion. With the exception of woman's milk, it is the richest in sugar of milk. In the convalescence from acute maladies, in consumptive cases, and chronic diseases of the digestive organs, it is a most valuable aliment. Its medicinal value seems to depend on the small quantity of butter and large quantity of sugar of milk which it contains. An artificial ass's milk may be prepared by dissolving a couple of ounces of sugar of milk in a pint of skimmed cow's milk. Cow's milk is intermediate, in nutritive and digestible properties, between goat's milk and ass's milk. Donnef says that it is the only milk which is either very feebly alkaline often neutral, and sometimes slightly acid. The milk of the ass and the woman are always very obviously alkaline. He thinks that the cause of this peculiarity of cow's milk is referable to the fact that this milk is, to a certain extent, an artificial production : that i.s it is furnished by the animal long after the time of suckling its offspring, and it is well known that the milk varies in its qualities at different periods after the parturition of the animal. * Dr. A. T. Thomson, The Domestic Management of the Swk-Room. t Comptes Rendus, 1841, p. 1064 ; also Conseils aux Meres, 1842. 126 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. CLASS II. AVES.—BIRDS. This class of animals, like the preceding one, furnishes a very safe aliment to man, for none of the species are poisonous ; and, accordingly, a very large number are em- ployed as food. My remarks, however, will be directed to those in most frequent use in England;—principally to the Common Fowl, the Pheasant the Partridge, the Pigeon, the Duck, and the Goose. The flesh, viscera, and eggs of birds, are used as food. 1. Flesh.—The composition of the muscular flesh of birds, according to the analyses of Mr. Brande and Sehlossberger, has been already stated, (see p. 111.) " The flesh of birds," says the late Dr. Duncan, jun.,* " differs very much in its sensible properties, not only in different kinds, but even in the different muscles of the same bird. The pectoral muscles which move the wings are drier and more tender than those which move the legs. The tendons of the legs are also very strong, and at a certain age become bony ; but the flesh of the legs, when sufficiently tender, either from the bird being young, or from long keeping, or sufficient cookery, is more juicy and savory than that of the wings. Of a few birds, especially the woodcock and snipe, the legs are at all times preferred to the breast. In the black-cock, the outer layer of the pectoral muscle is of a dark-brown color, while the inner is white. A similar difference is observed in many other birds, and perhaps it is general in a slight degree. The muscular organs of birds differ from those of quadrupeds in their flesh never being marbled, or having fat mixed with the muscular fibres." The muscles of those parts of the body most frequently exercised become firmer, harder, and tougher than those which are more rarely used. " That exercise produces strength and firmness of fibre," says Dr. Kitchener, f "is excellently well exemplified in the wood- cock and partridge. The former flies most—the latter walks ;—the wing of the woodcock is always very tough,—of the partridge very tender: hence the old doggerel distich,— 1 If the Partridge had but the Woodcock's thigh, He'd be the best bird that e'er doth fly.' The breast of all birds is the most juicy and nutritious part." Castration improves the flesh of birds for the table, rendering it more tender and sa- vory. Of this we have an illustration in the capon, (the castrated cock.) Spaying exer- cises a similar influence over the female bird ; as in the poulard, (the spayed hen.) The flesh of the older and larger birds is in general coarser than that of the younger and smaller animals. Though great diversity exists in the flesh of different orders of birds, yet no accurate distribution of those animals, founded on the kind of flesh, can be made, because though the extremes are well marked, they run insensibly into each other. The usual division is into four classes, as follows : a. The While-fleshed, as the common fowl and the turkey. The meat of these animals is white, contains but little osmazome, when good is generally liked, and when young is exceedingly tender. Chicken flesh is, in general, easily digested. Dr. Beaumont* states that it is more difficult of digestion than beef. He says, that the texture of the chicken being closer than that of beef, the gastric juice does not insinuate itself into the insterstices of the muscular fibre so readily as into beef, but operates entirely upon the outer surface, which it dissolves, as a piece of gum arabic is dissolved in the mouth, until the last particle is dissolved. * Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, art. Food. t Cook's Orach. X Op. supra cit. p, 122. FLESH OF BIRDS. 127 Chicken flesh is nutritious, and is, pe-haps, the least stimulating of animal foods. It is often retained on the stomach of invalids when other meats would be immediately re- jected. Chicken broth is well adapted for irritable stomachs. b. The Dark-Fleshed Game, as the grouse, and the black-cock. The flesh of the wild gallinaceous birds is darker-colored, firmer, richer in osmazome, somewhat less digestible, and more stimulating, than that of the chicken. When sufficiently kept it acquires a pe- culiar odor, called fumet, and an aromatic bitter taste, most sensible in the back. In this condition it is said to be ripe or high, and is much esteemed as a luxury. c. The Aquatic, (including swimmers and waders,) as the goose and the duck. The flesh of water fowl is mostly firm, penetrated with fat, (which often acquires a rancid and fishy taste,) and is more difficult of digestion. It forms, therefore, a less appropriate ali- ment for invalids. d. The Rapacious, as the hawk and the owl. None of these are eaten, partly, perhaps, from prejudice, and partly because those which touch carrion acquire a cadaverous smell. The following table contains Dr. Beaumont's results respecting the digestibility of the flesh of birds. DIGESTIBILITY OF THE FLESH OF BIRDS. 31EAN TI3IE OF CHYMIFICATION. ARTICLES OF DIET. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Turkey, wild . " domestic . Goose, wild Chicken, full grown Fowls, domestic Ducks, domestic Roasted Boiled Roasted Roasted Fricasseed Boiled Roasted Roasted Roasted 2 18 2 25 2 30 2 30 2 45 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 30 Masticated 6 30 2. Viscera.—Some of the viscera of birds are employed as aliment They constitute part of what is called, in the case of the goose and duck, giblets. a. The brains of birds are eaten at the table. In their chemical properties they resem- ble calves' brains. John says the cerebrum contains a larger quantity of fat (part of which is crystallizable) than the brain of the calf; the cerebellum of birds contains less water and no crystallizable fat. b. Gizzard.—This is the muscular or pyloric portion of the stomach. It consists of a very dense and firm muscular or fleshy texture, lined by a thick, hard, fibrous, or ten- dinous membrane. On account of its density and hardness of texture, it is very slowly digested; and hence is not adapted for persons with weak stomachs. Dr. Beaumont found that the gizzard of a chicken, introduced into the stomach of the Canadian, was not completely dissolved at the end of five hours,—the residuum, consisting principally of tendinous fascia, weighed seven and a half grains. c. Intestine.—In the woodcock, the intestine (called the trail) is, by epicures, considered a bonne bouche. . d. Liver.__The liver of most birds is a favorite morsel. Its peculiar flavor it owes to the bile which it contains. Its oily constituent would seem to render it difficult of diges- 128 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. tion; but Dr. Beaumont found that it was almost as completely dissolved in the same time as the breast of a fricasseed chicken. I have already (p. 11) referred to the morbidly enlarged liver of the goose,* employed in the preparation of the celebrated Pates de Foies gras de Strasbourg. The principal agents in inducing it are external heat, obscurity, inactivity, and cramming the animals with food.f At Alsace, a trough in front of the animal is always kept " full of water, in which some pieces of wood charcoal} are left to steep," (Sonnini.) In this way the liver becomes enormously enlarged, and oftentimes weighs one or two pounds; while the ani- mal is excellent for the table, and furnishes, during roasting, from three to five pounds of fat. The change thus induced in the liver is that known to pathologists by the name of fatty degeneration,^ in which the liver is very rich in a phosphoric oil. It is obvious, therefore, that these diseased livers must be difficult of digestion, and unfit for persons with delicate stomachs. Dr. Prout|| has endeavored to deter indolent and dyspeptic in- dividuals from partaking of them, by suggesting that they " cannot be supposed, in all instances, to assimilate them; and consequently run considerable risk in inoculating and converting their own livers, or other organs, into a similar mass of disease." 3. Fat.—The composition of the fat of the goose, the duck, and the turkey, has been already stated, (see p. 88.) Goose grease, when spoiled (by keeping 1) has produced symptoms of poisoning.IT 4. Eggs.—Both the white or glaire, and the yolk of eggs, are employed as food. a. White or Glaire of Eggs.—-This is also termed the Albumen of Eggs, or Ovalbumen. Its composition, according to Dr. Bostock, is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF WHITE OF EGG- Water..........80-0 Albumen.........155 Uncoagulable matter [mucus].....4-5 1000 Couerbe has extracted from the white of egg a peculiar non-nitrogenous principle, which he first called albuminin, but afterwards, oonin. * These livers were highly esteemed by the Romans, who effected their enlargement by cramming the animals as in modern times. Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. x. cap. 27, ed. Valp.) tells us, that the honor of the discovery was contested for by Scipio Metellus and M. Seius. t The ordinary method of producing the disease at Strasburgh, I have before noticed, (p. 11.) For further details, the reader is referred to Sonnini, (Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. art. Ok,) and to the article Food, in the Supplement to the Encychpcedia Britannica. X Liebig (Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and/ Physiology, p. 133, 2d ed. 1842) observes, that " it is well known that charcoal powder produces such an excessive growth of the liver of a goose as at length causes the death of the animal." But there is no valid reason for supposing that charcoal has any thing to do with the effect in question: indeed it does not appear that this substance is used at Strasburgh; for Tiedemann, (Unteisuchungen il. das Nahrungs-Bedurfniss, den Nahrungs-Trieb und die Nahrungs-Mittel des Menschen, p. 127,1836,) after describing the mode adopted in that city, adds, " In other places charcoal powder is mixed with the drink." § Cruveilhier, Diet, de Med. et de Chir., prat. t. viii. p. 326.—An analysis of a fatty liver has been pub- lished by Vauquelin (quoted by Mr. W. J. E. Wilson, in the Cyclopcedia of Anatomy, art Liver,) " from which the quantity of oily matter present may be fairly estimated thus:—in 100 parts he found, Oil......45 Parenchyma . . . .19 Water......36 100." II On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 244. 1840. IT Christison, Treatise on Poisons, p. 593, 3d ed. EGGS. 129 The composition and dietetical uses of the white of egg have been previously stated, (see pp. 89-93.) b. The Yolk of Egg is a kind of yellow emulsion, consisting of oil suspended in water by means of albumen, and enclosed in a sac called the yolk bag. Its composition, ac- cording to Dr. Prout is as follows:— COMPOSITION OF YOLK OF EGG. Water . . . .... 53*78 Albumen.........17*47 Yellow oil . . .... 28*75 100*00 According to Planche, the oil of yolk of eggs consists of stearine 10, oleine 90. Liebig states that cholesterine and iron may be detected in the yellow oil of the yolk. The albumen of the yolk is identical in its nature with that of the white. Dr. Prout ascertained by combustion the relative proportions of the fixed constituents of the jphite and yolk of three eggs. Assuming the weight of each egg to be 1000 grs. the proportions of the mineral substances were as follows:— FIXED CONSTITUENTS OF EGGS. Sulphuric acid..... Phosphoric acid..... Chlorine...... Potash, soda, and their carbonates Lime, magnesia, and their carbonates WHITE OF EGG. YOLK OF EGG. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 1. No. 2. 1 No. 3. 0*29 0*45 0*94 2*92 0-30 015 0-46 0-93 2*93 0*25 0*18 0-48 0-87 2-72 0*32 0*21 356 0*39 0*50 0-68 006 3*50 0-28 0*27 0*61 019 400 0*44 0*51 0-67 4*90 4*72 4*57 5*34 4*72 5*81 Dr. Prout's observations on the supposed production of lime during the incubation of the egg have been before noticed, (see p. 3, foot-note.) Fresh or newly laid eggs, when lightly cooked, as when poached or very slightly boiled, are nutritive, and moderately easy of digestion. Dr. Pearson* has justly observed that in general, the lightest as well as the simplest mode of preparing eggs for the table is to boil them only as long as is necessary to coagulate slightly the greater part of the white, without depriving the yolk of its fluidity. Raw eggs are said to be gently laxative, and were formerly in repute in cases of jaundice and obstructed liver. When boiled hard, and especially when fried in butter, oil, or fat, they are less readily soluble in the gastric juice, and are commonly very difficult of digestion. Cooked in this way they prove in- jurious to persons whose stomachs are delicate, giving rise to various disorders of the digestive organs. These observations also apply to omelettes, pancakes, fritters, and other dishes made with eggs and cooked by frying. Yet there are " instances of laboring people, and persons who use violent exercise, with whom eggs, hardened by boiling or frying, agree better than in the soft or liquid state," (Pearson.) These, however, are exceptions to the general rule. The following are the mean times of the digestion of eggs, as observed by Dr. Beau- mont :— * A Practical Synopsis of the Materia Akmentaria 1808. 130 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. DIGESTIBILITY OF EGGS. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Eggs, whipped " fresh it tt Raw Raw Roasted Soft boiled Hard boiled Fried 1 30 2 0 2 15 3 0 3 30 3 30 Whipped Raw Soft boiled Hard boiled 4 0 4 15 6 30 8 0 The raw yolk of egg is often taken whipped up in tea, as an agreeable and easily di- gestible aliment. Mixed with sugar, brandy, and a little cinnamon, it forms an exceed- ingly valuable restorative and stimulant, (see Brandy Mixture, p. 78.) Wine is sometimes substituted for brandy. Flip is prepared with hot ale, eggs, nutmeg or ginger, and some ardent spirit, (rum or brandy.) CLASS III. REPTILIA.—REPTILES. The number of reptiles employed by man as food is small; indeed, the Green or Edible Turtle is the only one used in this country. The flesh of some of them, however, forms a delicious and wholesome aliment. When cooked, it resembles somewhat that of chicken or veal, is pale, aqueous, soft, rich in gelatine, poor in fibrine, and contains little or no osmazome. It is easily digestible and nutritive, and, by decoction, yields highly restorative broths, which have been much valued in consumptive and other maladies. The eggs of several are eaten as agreeable and nutritive articles of food. The Green or Edible Turtle, above referred to, is greatly prized by the epicure. In the markets of Jamaica it is bought and sold like beef.* To the tropical navigator it is highly important as forming a valuable article of food. The female with egg is most esteemed. In this country the principal use of the turtle is for the preparation of soup. An imitation (called mock-turtle) is prepared with the integuments (scalp) of the calf's head. The large shield of the turtle's back (dorsal shield) is called by naturalists the Carapace, by cooks the Callipash, (Callapash or Calipash;) while the shield of the belly, (ventral or sternal shield) is denominated by naturalists the Plastron, by cooks the Callipee, (Calipee or Callepee.) When these two shields have been removed from the animal, preparatory to dressing, they are scalded, to enable the cook to separate the scalesj- or shell. They are then boiled until the bones can be separated, the liquor being kept as a kind of stock. The softer parts of the shields (thus deprived of their bones) as well as portions of the fins, are, when cold, cut into square or oblong pieces, which constitute the favorite glutinous or gelatinous morsels in turtle soup; and which by turtle-eaters are often erroneously supposed to be green fat. They considerably resemble the pieces of the scalp of the calf contained in mock-turtle. The pieces from the callipash are dark colored externally, and are sometimes called black or green meat: while those from the callipee are white externally. " The callepee, or under part of the breast or belly, baked," says Sir Hans Sloane,J " is reckoned the best piece." The flesh of the turtle is sometimes * Dr. P. Browne's History of Jamaica, p. 465. t The scales of the dorsal shield are used for veneering ladies' work boxes, and for other purposes. t Jamaica, vol. i. FISH. 131 dressed at taverns, in London, as a steak ; but it is more commonly used in the prepara- tion of soup. By boiling it becomes white, like veal or chicken. Besides contributing to flavor the stock, it is cut in small pieces and put into the soup. The viscera of the turtle are not used, in London, as food. But Sir Hans Sloane says that " the livers are counted delicacies. Those who feed much on them," he adds, " sweat out a yellow serum, es- pecially under the armpits." The fatty tissue (green fat) of the turtle is of a greenish yellow color, and on this account the animal has been termed the green turtle. The lard or fat when melted out of the tissue in which it is naturally contained, is of a warm yel- low color, and resembles, both in appearance and taste, marrow. It communicates a yel- low tinge to the sweat of those who feed on it; " whence," says Sir Hans Sloane, *' their shirts are yellow, their skin and face of the same color, and their shirts under their arm- pits stained prodigiously. This, I believe," he adds, " may be one of the reasons of the complexion of our European inhabitants, which is changed, in some time, from white to that of a yellowish color, and which proceeds from this, as well as the jaundies, which is common, sea air, &c. The fat is used in the preparation of the soup ; but many of the turtles used in soup, in London, contain very little fat The green fat is said to commu- nicate a green color to the urine. Turtle is highly nutritious, and, probably, when plainly cooked, is easy of digestion; but when taken in the form of the highly esteemed " turtle soup," is very apt to disagree with dyspeptics. " Turtle," says Dr. P. Browne,* " is deli- cate, tender food, while young; but as it grows old, it grows more tough and gristly, and is not so agreeable to the stomach in those warm countries, [Jamaica;] the juices, however, are generally reckoned great restoratives."f CLASS IV. PISCES.—FISHES This class of animals yields an almost endless variety of food for man. It furnishes a much greater number of edible genera and species than any other class. From it, some nations derive their chief sustenance. The inhabitants of the most northern parts of Eu- rope, Asia, and America, where but few alimentary plants are found, are compelled to live almost exclusively on fish. In ancient times, fish formed the chief or sole nutriment of certain people, who were in consequence called Ichthyophagi, (from lx$v$i a- fish, atid (pdyo>, I eat.) Heit)dotusJ says that there were three tribes of Babylonians whose food was fish. They prepared it thus : having dried it in the sun, they beat it very small in a mortar, and afterwards sifted it through a piece of fine cloth ; they then formed it into cakes, or baked it as bread. The same mode of preparing fish is practised at this day, among the Esquimaux, and north- ern Indians of the American continent. In another place, HerodotusJ states that with a considerable part of the Egyptians, fish constituted the principal article of food ; they dried it in the sun, and ate it without any other preparation. Some of the smaller and more delicate fishes are eaten whole, as the White Bait|| * The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. t Appendix, 1. X Clio, cc. § Euterpe, xcii. II White Bait, formerly supposed to be the fry of some other fish, as the Shad, but now universally ad- mitted to be a distinct species, (Clupea alba,) is found in immense shoals, during the summer season, in the Thames, in the neighborhood of Blackwall and Greenwich, to which places the London admirers of this ds'.icacy repair to enjoy their favorite dish; the fish-dinners of these places being proverbially ex- cellent. Having had an opportunity of seeing the mode of cooking this fish, as practised at Lovegrove's at Blackwall, the following notice of the process may not, perhaps, be uninteresting :— I was informed that the fish should be cooked within an hour after being caught, or they are apt to cling together. Thoso which I saw cooked were contained in water in a pan, from which they were from time to time removed, as required, by a skimmer. They were then thrown on a stratum of flour contained 132 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Some are eaten whole, with the exception of the head. The skin, the flesh, and the viscera only, of others, are eaten. 1. Integument.—The corium or true skin of fishes, as of many higher animals, is a gelatinous tissue, (see p. 100;) but varies considerably in thickness in different species. On account of their gelatinous nature, the skins of some fishes are used as food, and em- ployed for various purposes in the arts. Thus, by boiling, the skin of the Turbot and Ling becomes pulpy and gelatinous, and forms a rich and favorite nutriment; and vari- ous parts about the jowl of the Cod are much esteemed by epicures, on account of their gelatinous quality. Sole skins, when clean, sweet, and well prepared, are used as a sub- stitute for isinglass in fining, (see pp. 103, 105.) Dr. Fleming says that the skin of the Cod is employed for the same purpose. Eel skins are used in the preparation of size. 2. Flesh.—The great bulk of the soft parts of fishes consists of voluntary muscles form- ing the flesh, which are disposed upon the sides of the spinal column,—in four series on either side. They are soft, pellucid, and but little permeated with blood. The composition of the flesh of the Cod, Haddock, Sole, Carp, and Trout, has already been stated, (see p. 111.) It will be seen, by reference to the analyses of Brande and Sehlossberger, that fish-flesh contains more water than the flesh of either quadrupeds or birds. In many fishes the flesh is mixed with, or covered by, oily or fatty matter, as in the Salmon, the Herring, the Pilchard, the Sprat, and the Eel. This is more abundant in the thinner or abdominal parts than in the thicker or dorsal portions. Hence the thin- nest part of salmon is preferred by epicures. After spawning, the quantity of this oil is greatly diminished. But in the Cod, the fish of the Ray kind, and some others, the liver is the only organ which contains fat; the flesh being quite devoid of it. The flesh of the Smelt has been analyzed by Morin,* who found its composition to be as follows:— COMPOSITION OF THE FLESH OF THE SMELT. Yellow phosphoric oil. Fibrine. Albumen. Gelatine. Osmazome. Mucus. Salts—viz. sal ammoniac, phos- phates of potash, lime, iron, and magnesia; chlo- ride of potassium, carbo- nate of lime, and lactate of soda. Water. In the Cod and many other fishes, the muscles are arranged in more or less wedge- shaped masses, called flakes, which, after cooking, readily separate from each other, owing partly to the contraction of the muscular fibre, and partly to the solution of the in- terposed ligamentous or tendinous matter. The white curdy matter observed between the flakes of boiled fresh fish is a film of albumen produced by the coagulation of the serous juices intervening between the muscular layers. In the flat or eel-shaped fishes, the flesh has rather a fibrous than a flaky arrange- ment. The flesh of the Whiting, the Cod, the Haddock, the Sole, the Plaice, the Flounder, in a large napkin, in which they were shaken until completely enveloped with flour. In this stale they were placed in a cullender, and all the superfluous flour removed by sifting. They were now thrown into hot melted lard, contained in a copper caldron or stew-vessel placed over a charcoal fire. A kind of ebullition immediately commenced, and in about two minutes they were removed by a tin skimmer, thrown into a cullender to drain, and served up by placing them on a fish-drainer in a dish. At tablp they are flavored with cayenne and lemon juice, and eaten with brown-bread and butter;—iced punch being the favorite accompanying beverage. * Journal de Pharmacie, t. viii. p. 61. FISH. 133 the Turbot and many other species, is white : hence they are termed While-fish. The flesh of these fishes, when in season, becomes white and opaque by boiling; but, when ; the animal is out of condition, it remains semi-transparent and bluish after being suffi- j ciently cooked. I The flesh of some species is colored : thus that of the Salmon is pale-red. The higher the color, the more highly the flesh of these fishes is esteemed. The flesh of the male fish, called the meller or soft-roed, is in general considered to be superior to that of the female, called the hard-roed: at least this is certainly the case with the Salmon and the Herring. The flesh of fish is in the greatest perfection for food at the period of the ripening of the milt and the roe. It is then said to be in season. At this time, the flesh, especially of the thinner or abdominal part of many fishes, as of the Salmon and Herring, abounds in oily matter, and possesses, in the highest degree, flavor and richness. But after the fish has deposited its spawn, the flesh becomes soft, flabby, and inferior in flavor, owing to the disappearance of the oil or fat which has been consumed in the function of repro- duction. " The superiority of deep-sea herrings over those caught near the shore and in bays, arises," says Dr. Fleming,* " from this circumstance. The former are fat while the latter have either recently spawned, or are nearly ready for spawning, and consequently lean." The digestibility of fish varies considerably in different species. The oily fishes are always more difficult of digestion; and, in consequence, are unfit for the use of invalids. Melted butter, lobster-sauce, shrimp-sauce, and egg-sauce, are very indigestible additions to fish : they are exceedingly obnoxious to the stomach, and should be excluded from the table of the invalid, (see p. 84.) The digestibility of fish is also injured by frying them, (see p. 83.) The following are the mean times of digestion of several kinds of fish, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments:— DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Trout, Salmon, fresh u tt (■ Codfish, cured dry Flounder, fresh . . Catfish, fresh . . . Salmon, salted . . Boiled Fried Boiled Fried Fried Boiled 1 30 1 30 2 0 3 30 3 30 4 0 Boiled Boiled Boiled 3 30 5 0 7 45 The Whiting, the Haddock, the Sole, the Plaice, the Flounder, the Cod, and the Tur- bot, are devoid of oil or fat, (except in their livers ;) and, therefore, belong to the more easily digestible fish. They are also less stimulating to the system. On these accounts they are preferred to other species for the use of invalids. The Whiting and the Had- dock are the most delicate and tender ; the Turbot and Cod the least so. The Whiting, sometimes called '• the chicken of the sea," stands pre-eminent among them for its ten- derness, delicacy, easy digestibility, and purity of flavor. The Haddock is very similar * Philosophy of Zoology, vol. ii. p. 373. 134 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. to the whiting, but has a firmer texture, and is inferior in flavor and digestibility. The Cod, when in good condition, yields an excellent food, but it is denser, less delicate, and probably somewhat less easy of digestion, than either the whiting or haddock. Crimped Cod is firmer, keeps longer, and has a better flavor, than that which is not crimped. The Dogger-Bank Cod is more flaky than the Scotch Cod, which is stringy or woolly.* Among flat fish, the Sole is distinguished for its tenderness, delicacy, and easy digestibility. The Flounderf and the Plaice, especially when small, are tender and delicate. The Turbot for flavor is justly regarded as " the prince of flat fish," but is richer and less digestible than the flat fish just mentioned. The gelatinous skin is especially unfit for delicate stomachs. The Brill, though an excellent fish, is inferior in flavor to the turbot, for which, however, it is sometimes substituted.! Salmon, Eels, Herrings, Pilchards, and Sprats,§ abound in oil, and are, in consequence, difficult of digestion, very apt to disturb the stomach, and exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic. Moreover, they prove stimulant to the general system. The thirst, and un- easy feeling at the stomach, frequently experienced after the use of the richer species of fish, have led to the employment of spirit to this kind of food. Hence the vulgar proverb that " Brandy is Latin for Fish." The flesh of fish is less satisfying to the appetite than the flesh of either quadrupeds or birds. As it contains a larger proportion of water, (see p. Ill,) it is obviously less nourishing.!! A fish diet, therefore, is less substantial than either butcher's meat or poul- | try. Medicinally, we employ it when the digestive powers are unable to assimilate | stronger kinds of aliments, or when it is considered desirable to avoid the stimulus which * There are two well-marked varieties of the Cod, which are known respectively as Dogger-Bank and Scotch Cod. The first has a sharp nose, elongated before the eye, and the body of a very dark- \ brown color : the second has a round blunt nose, short and wide before the eyes, and the body of a light yellowish ash-green color. (See Yarrell's British Fishes.) t Dr. A. T. Thomson (Domesiic Management of the Sick-Room, p. 434) gives, under the head of | " Cookery for the Convalescent," the following directions for the preparation of Water-Souchy. " Take i; two small Thames flounders, boil them in a quart of water to one-third, long enough to reduce the fish ■{ almost to a pulp. Strain the liquor through a sieve, and, having cut the fins off four other small noun- ! ders, put them into the above-mentioned liquor, with a sufficient quantity of salt, a few grains of cayenne [, pepper, and a small quantity of chopped parsley ; and boil just long enough to render the fish proper to i| be eaten. The fish and the sauce should be eaten together. If flounders are not in season, soles or j whitings, or small haddocks, may be prepared in the same manner. I know few dishes which are so much relished as this by convalescents from fever. I have heard invalids ask for it daily for ten or j more days. In advanced convalescence, the yolk of one or two eggs may be beaten up with a little soft J water, and added to the strained liquor before the fi.-h is put into it." X Appendix. 2. § In the Standard of Feb. 9, 1342, is a notice of an inquest held on the body of a person whose death was caused by the use of sprats. II Haller (Elem. Phys., xix.) found himself weakened by a fish diet; and he states that persons are generally debilitated by Lent diet. Pechlin (Observat. physico-mediccv. Hamburgi, 1691, p. 513) also states that a mechanic nourished merely by fish had less muscular power than one who lived on the i flesh of warm-blooded animals. Dr. Cullen, (Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 390,) however, maintained that the nu- j tritive powers of fish are nearly, if not quite, equal to those of meat; and in support of his opinion he \ states that he has known " several instances of persons who felt no weakness from a Lent diet, when a j great deal of fish was taken ;" and he further observes that there are " several instances of villages in- j habited almost only by fishers, and who, therefore, live very much upon tais sort of aliment, but in ' whom no diminution of health or vigor appears." His evidence, however, is by no means satisfactory, l But to avoid the fallacies attendant on appeals to experience, I have relied, in the text, on the chemical j composition of fish, as an evidence of the r inferior nutritive power. \ FISH. 135 butcher's meat communicates to the system. " The jockeys who waste themselves at Newmarket in order to reduce their weight are never allowed meat, when fish can be ob- tained."* It is an ancient and popular notion that the frequent employment of fish is favorable to the powers of generation ; and that those who live principally on this kind of food are unusually prolific.*)* These effects have been ascribed to the oil contained in fishes, the phosphorus of which possesses aphrodisiac properties. That the frequent use of those fish which abound in phosphoric oil may have an exciting effect on persons previously unaccustomed to this kind of diet, I am neither prepared to admit nor to deny. But there is, I think, sufficient evidence to prove that the ichthyophagous people are not more prolific than others. " In Greenland, and among the Esquimaux," says Foster,| " where the natives live chiefly upon fish, seals, and oily animal substances, the women seldom bear children oftener than three or four times : five or six births are reckoned a very extraordinary instance. The Pesserais, whom we saw, had not above two or three children belonging to each family, though their common food consisted of muscles, fish, and seal flesh. The New Zealanders absolutely feed on fish, and yet no more than three or four children were found in the most prolific families ; which seems strongly to indi- cate that feeding on fish by no means contributes to the increase of numbers in a na- tion." An ill effect ascribed to fish diet is the production or augmentation of skin diseases, es- pecially leprosy and elephantiasis. This notion is a very ancient one, and probably has some foundation in fact. It is not improbable that it was, in part at least, the origin of the prohibition from eating fish, under which the Egyptians labored ;$ as well as of the Mosaic law, that fish without fins and scales must not be eaten.|| Some species of fish, especially in tropical climates, possess poisonous properties, either' at all times or at certain seasons ; or to all persons or only to particular individuals. The subject, however, is veiled in great obscurity. Sometimes the symptoms are allied to those of cholera. An eruption, (often resembling nettle-rash,) and various nervous symp- toms, (as trembling or convulsive twitches of the limbs, paralysis, and stupor,) are occa- ! sionally observed. These poisonous effects have been variously ascribed to the aliment on which the fish have fed,—to disease in the fish, to the putrefaction of the fish, and to the idiosyncrasy of the patient: but none of these hypotheses are satisfactory. " For dietetical uses, fishes have frequently to undergo some sort of preparation, vary- ing according to the situation, the necessities, or the taste of the consumers. When cir- cumstances permit, they are in general used in a fresh state ; and in large cities, where the supply must be brought from a distance, various expedients are resorted to, to pre- vent the progress of putrefaction. By far the best contrivance for this purpose is the well-boat, in which fish maybe brought to the place of sale even in a living state. Placing the fish in boxes, and packing with ice, is another method, and has been extensively em- ployed, particularly in the supply of the capital with salmon. " In many maritime districts, where fish can be got in abundance, a species of refine- ment in taste, or at least a departure from the simplicity of nature, prevails, to gratify * A Treatise on Diet, p. 210-211, 5th ed. 1837. t Montesquieu (QZuvres Completes, t. 51-2, 1767) mentions, as instances in point, the Japanese and Chinese. X Observations made during a Voyage Round the World, p. 315. Lond. 1778. •J Herodotus, (Euterpe, xxxvii.) Perhaps the supposed aphrodisiac effect of fish may have been one of the causes of the prohibition. || Leviticus, ch. xi. verse ix—xii. 136 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. which, the fish are kept for some days, until they begin to putrefy. When used in this state they are far from disagreeable, unless to the organs of smell. Such fish are termed by the Zetlanders blawn-fish. " Where fish are to be procured only at certain seasons of the year, various methods have been devised to preserve them during the periods of scarcity. The simplest of these processes is to dry them in the sun. They are then used either raw or boiled, and and not unfrequently, in some of the poorer districts of the north of Europe, they are ground into powder, to be afterwards formed into bread. " But by far the most successful method of preserving fish, and the one in daily use, is by means of salt. For this purpose they are packed with salt in barrels, as soon after being taken as possible. In this manner are herrings, pilchards, cod, and salmon pre- served, as well as many other kinds of esculent fish. " The fish, in rrtany instances, after having been salted in vessels constructed for the ' purpose, are exposed to the air on a gravelly beach, or in a house, and dried. Cod, ling, and tusk, so prepared, are termed in Scotland, salt-fish. Salmon in this state is called kipper; and haddocks are usually denominated by the name of the place where, they have been cured. "After being steeped in salt, herrings are, in many places, hung up in houses made for the purpose, and dried with the smoke of wood. In this state they are sent to market, under the name of red-herrings. " Although salt is generally employed in the preservation of fish, whether intended to ■ be kept moist or to be dried, vinegar in certain cases is added. It is used, in this coun- try at least chiefly for the salmon sent from the remote districts to the London market j It can only, however, be employed in the preservation of those fish to which this acid is | • served as a sauce."* By drying, salting, smoking, and pickling, the digestibility of fish is greatly impaired ; though, in some cases, their savory, stimulating, and even nutritive qualities, may be aug- mented. Dried, salted, smoked, and pickled fish, therefore, are totally unfit for dyspeptics and invalids. By drying, part of the water is got rid of, and thereby the relative propor- j tion of solid or nutritive matter is augmented : but the fish is more difficult of digestion. | Salt-fish excites thirst and feverish symptoms. Smoked-fish, as smoked sprats, some- times prove injurious. " Putrid pickled salmonf has occasioned death in this country; and I may mention," says Dr. Christison,J " that I have known most violent diarrhoea occasioned in two instances by a very small portion of the oily matter about the fins of Kipper or smoked salmon, so that I have no doubt a moderate quantity would produce very serious effects." 3. Viscera.—Several of the viscera of fishes are used as aliments; as the Liver, the Swimming Bladder, the Roe or Ovary, and the Milt or Testicle. a. The Liver.—The livers of fishes always abound in oil. In the Cod, the Whiting, the flat fish, and some others, this is the only organ which contains oil. Though the livers of some fishes, as the Cod and Barbot, are much admired as articles of food, yet they are not adapted for invalids and dyspeptics, on account of their fatty nature. The oil obtained from the liver of the Cod (Cod oil) is celebrated in obstinate rheumatic, gouty, * Fleming's Philosophy of Zoology, vol. ii. p. 371-2. t " The three indispensable marks of the goodness of Pickled Salmon are, 1st, The brightness of the scales, and their sticking fast to the skin; 2dly, The firmness of the flesh; and, 3dly, Its fine pale- red rose color:—without these it is not fit to eat, and was stale either before it was pickled, or has been kept too long after," (Dr. Kitchener, Cook's Oracle.) X Treatise on Poisons, p. 593. 3d ed. FISH. 137 and scrofulous maladies, as well as in chronic skin diseases. Dr. Ure* has suggested the adoption of cod livers as a diet for patients who are recommended to take the oil, which, on account of its nauseous flavor, is very objectionable. In order to prevent the loss of oil during the process of cooking, " he recommends the livers to be immersed entire in boiling water, to which a sufficient quantity of salt has been added, to raise the boiling point about 220° F. The sudden application of this high temperature coagulates the al- bumen of the liver, and prevents the escape of the oil. When the liver is cut, the oil exudes, and mashed potato may be used as a vehicle." The constituents of cod-liver oil are stated to be as follows*— COMPOSITION OF COD-LIVER OIL Fatty matter (oleic and margaric acids com- bined with glycerine.) Resin. Gelatine. Coloring matter. Chlorides of calcium and sodium. Sulphate of potash. Iodide of copper. Bromide of potassium. The two last ingredients were detected by Herberger; but Dr. Ure has recently statedf that he could not detect iodine in the cod-liver oil sold in London. b. The Swimming Bladder.—This organ is a gelatinous tissue, and has already been considered, (see pp. 103-106.) It constitutes the well-known Isinglass and Sound. c. The Roe or Ovary, commonly called the Hard Roe, of many fishes is eaten. That of the Carp, Pike, Perch, Salmon, Trout, and many other fishes, furnishes a much es- teemed and nourishing aliment The roe of the Barbel, and of some others, has at times proved injurious; giving rise to nausea, vomiting, and purging. The roe has been analyzed by several chemists; that of the Pike by Vauquelin,^ of the Trout and Carp by Morin,§ and of the Barbel by Dulong d'Astafort|| Their results show that the roes of different fishes have a similar composition and bear a striking analogy to the eggs of birds. COMPOSITION OF THE ROE OF FISHES. Pike. Trout. Albumen + Osmazome . . ( Gelatine Oil ... Phosphorus . Sal-Ammoniac Chloride of Sodium ( 5" Chloride of Potassium . - Phosphate of Potash . - " of Lime - " of Magnesia Sulphate of Potash Carbonate of Soda - I > i i ( ) H - " of Potash . '> - " of Lime 0 H - An organic salt with base o] pots sh ( ) ( i Carp. 0 0 + 0 t 0 .t t Barbel. 0 0 0 0 + The purgative property, said to be possessed by the roe both of the Pike and the Bar- bel, is ascribed to the oil, which possesses acrid properties. The substance called Caviare^ is the roe of several species of Acipenser, (Sturgeons,) preserved by salting. The best is that prepared on the shores of the Caspian. The fol- lowing is the composition of Caviare :— * Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii. p. 361. t Ibid p. 459. } Journal de Pharmacu, t. iii. p. 385. $ Ibid, t ix. p. 203. II Ibid. t. xiii. p. 521. H Several kinds of Caviare are met with in Russia. The worst sort is the common pressed caviare, (pajusnaja ikra.) A better sort is that called grained caviare, (sernistaia ikra.) The cleanest and best 138 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF CAVIARE. Yellow odorous fatty oil.......43 Soluble albumen.........6*2 Insoluble albumen........24*8 Chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda .... 6*7 Gelatine, with some salts.......0*5 Water...........57.5 Fresh unpressed Caviare . '. '. '• '• 1000 Caviare is difficult of digestion, and apt to excite nausea. Very little of it is used in England ; but considerable quantities of it are exported from Russia to Italy. It is extensively employed in Russia and other places on fast-days ; and is eaten raw with toasted bread, or with vinegar and oil, or with lemon juice. 4. Milt or Testicle.—This is usually called the Soft Roe. Messrs. Fourcroy and Vau- quelin analyzed the milt of the Carp ; and John, that of the Tench. The milt of the Carp consisted of 75 parts water and 25 parts of dry residuum. COMPOSITION OF THE MILT OF THE TENCH. White fat. Phosphates of ammonia, lime, magnesia, / Osmazome. and potash or soda. Animal Jelly. Water. Insoluble albumen. It appears from Fourcroy and Vauquelin's experiments that phosphorus (not as phos- phoric acid) exists in the milt. The milt of the Cod is used as a garnish, and is eaten at the table; but, on account of its fatty constituent, is not adapted for delicate stomachs. That of the Herring is also employed as food. The latter (testes harengi) has been recommended by Ritter, Neumann, Frank, Siemerling, and Hufeland, as a remedy for obstinate cough, hoarseness, and phthisis laryngea. It is to be taken in the morning fasting. Its efficacy (V) has been ascribed to the common salt which it contains. CLASS V. CRUSTACEA.-CRUSTACEANS. Many of the species of this class are esculent; and some of them form highly esteem- ed articles of food. Those in use in this country are the Common Lobster, (Aslacus marinus,) the Thorny Lobster, better known as the Common Sea Crawfish, (Palinurus vulgaris,) the River Crawfish, (Astacus fluviatilis,) the Large Edible or Black-clawed Crab, (Cancer Pagurus,) the Common or Small Edible Crab, (Cancer Mccnas,) the Prawn, (Palamon serratus,) and the Shrimp, (Crangon vulgaris.) These Crustaceans have " a white firm flesh, which contains much gelatine. In the membrane, which encloses the calcareous shell, is found a resinous substance, which, in the living animals, is of a brownish-green color, but becomes red by boiling. From this matter proceeds the peculiar odor and taste of these animals. The flesh is difficult of diges- tion ; the broth is stimulant. In febrile and inflammatory complaints, their use is injurious."* The coloring matter of the shells of the crustaceans, above referred to, has been termed Cancrin. Its composition is as follows :__ COMPOSITION OF CANCRIN OR COLORING MATTER OF CRUSTACEANS. 16 atoms of Carbon . . . 96 or per cent . . . 68*08 13 atoms of Hydrogen . . 13 9.00 4 atoms of Oxygen . 32 '.'.'.'. 22*70 1 atom of Cancrin . . 241 '. ". 100-00 sort bag-pressed caviare, (Meschechaja ikra.) In some parts of Russia a reddish kind of caviare (Kramaja ikra) is prepared from the roes of the white salmon and pike. -Tor further information consult Brandt and Ratzeburg's Medicinische Zoologie ■ and Tooke's View of the Russian Empire, vol. iii., p. 467-469.) * Tiedemann, Untersuchungen uber Nahrungs-Bedurfniss &c MOLLUSKS. 139 Both the Crab and the Lobster excite, in some constitutions, Urticaria or nettle-rash, and even colic. Neither of them are easily digestible ; so that though they form very agree- ble and moderately nutritive articles of food, they are not appropriate substances for dys- peptics or invalids. The parts of Crustaceans employed as food are the muscles and some of the viscera. The branchiae or gills are commonly known under the name of dead men's fingers. The muscles (flesh) of the lobster and crab are principally cortfined to the parts moving the tail and limbs. Their alimentary properties are very similar to those of fishes. Both lobsters and crabs are apt to disagree with some persons; and to give rise to a sensation of heaviness at the epigastrium, nausea, depression, giddiness, and nettle-rash. Cullen mentions violent colic as also having been produced in several instances. These effects appear to depend on some peculiar susceptibility (idiosyncrasy) of particular per- sons. In some parts of the world poisonous crustaceans are found. The Lobster is found in considerable abundance on the rocky coasts of various parts of England and Scotland. The males are preferred, especially in winter, for eating: they are distinguished by the narrowness of their tails, and by " their having a strong spine upon the centre of each of the transverse processes beneath the tail, which support the four middle plates of their tails." The females (called hen-lobsters) are preferred for making sauce on account of the coral (ovary) and spawn, (ova or eggs .*) the former, when boiled, is bright red, and is useful for garnishing ; the latter serves to communicate both color and flavor. They are known by their broader tail and smaller claws. The muscles (flesh or meat) of the lobster reside principally in the tail and claws: those of the claws being more tender, delicate, and easily digestible. It is a popular notion that a part of the body of the lobster, called " the old lady in her arm-chair," proves injurious when eaten. This part is the bony teeth of the stomach, and, being indigestible, should not be eaten. The bag, in which " the old lady" is contained, is the stomach. The flavor of the lobster is generally considered to be superior in both purity and delicacy to that of the other crustaceans. But, on account of its difficult digestibility, as well as of its occasional ill effects, before referred to, it does not form a fit aliment for invalids and dyspeptics. "As found in the London market," says Dr. Paris, lobsters "are generally under boiled, with a view to their better keeping ; and in that case they are highly indigestible." The injurious effects of lobster sauce have been already alluded to, (see p. 133.) The Sea Craivfish is frequently used as a substitute for the lobster, with which it agrees in its general alimentry properties. But it is usually thought to be inferior in delicacy of flavor and tenderness. Of the Crab the same remarks may be made. The muscles or flesh (contained in the claws) is much less apt to disturb the stomach than the viscera (liver, testicles, ovaries, &c.,) which constitute the soft contents of the shell. Prawns and Shrimps are almost universal favorites on account of their delicious flavor. They are generally and correctly regarded as being easier of digestion than the preceding crustaceans.* CLASS VI. MOLLUSCA.—MULLUSKS. In England a few species only of this class are used as food. Among the bivalves, the principal are the Oyster, the Mussel, the Cockle, and the Scallop: among univalves, we have the Periwinkle, the Limpet, and the Whelk. To these, as well as to the Crustaceans, (Lobsters, Crabs, &c.,) the term Shell Fish is usually applied. * Appendix, 3. 140 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Some of the edible mollusks are principally and extensively used by the poor ; but the Oyster constitutes a favorite article of food to all classes. Molluscous foods are not without danger ; since Mussels, and even Qysters, occasion- ally give rise to deleterious effects. The Oyster holds the most distinguished place among the foods of this class. It was greatly admired by the luxurious Romans, who , highly esteemed the Oysters of Britain. They are found on various parts of our coast, and are caught by dredging. But in order to improve their flavor and size, or, as it is termed, to fatten them, they are not immedi- ately consumed, but are laid in beds in creeks along shore, where they rapidly improve. Colchester and other places of Essex are the nurseries or feeding grounds for the me- tropolis. The flesh, and the liquor or water, of the oyster have been analyzed by Pasquier.* COMPOSITION OF THE OYSTER. Fibrine "j Albumen Gelatine Osmazome Mucus Water . Flesh. 12*6 87*4 Liquor or Water. Osmazome. Albumen. Chloride of sodium. Sulphate of lime. Sulphate of magnesia. Chloride of magnesium. Water. 1000 By incineration the organic matters yielded 1*84 of a white ash, contain- ing phosphate of lime and the same salts as tne liquor contained. The oyster furnishes a delicious and favorite article of food. It is more digestible in the raw state than when cooked, (by roasting, scolloping, or stewing ;) for the heat em- ployed coagulates and hardens the albumen, and corrugates the fibrine, which are then less easily soluble in the gastric juice ; and the heated butter, generally used as an ac- companiment, adds still more to the indigestibility of the oyster. The following are the mean times of digestion of oysters, according to the experiments of Dr. Beaumont:— DIGESTIBILITY OF OYSTERS. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. u i4 Raw Roasted Stewed 2 55 3 15 3 30 Raw, entire Stewed 7 30 8 25 As far as my own personal observation extends, the finest raw oysters of the London market, usually called natives, rarely disagree even with convalescents and dyspeptics; and Dr. Cullen declares oysters to be easy of digestion. But the experience of some other physicians is very different to this. In the raw state, says Dr. Pearson,f " they agree very well with strong stomachs, but by no means so with persons who are subject to indigestion ; and dyspeptic and gouty persons, who have ventured to swallow them in this state, have often been violently disordered by them. Such persons, if they eat them * Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med. t. v.; and Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, vol. ii. p. 1478. t A Practical Synopsis of the Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica, p. 55. 1808. MOLLUSKS. 141 at all, should have them well stewed and seasoned with some aromatic. But even in that state they should be eaten rather sparingly in the instances above mentioned." Dr. Paris* also observes, that " when eaten cold, they are frequently distressing to weak stomachs, and require the aid of pepper as a stimulant; and since they are usually swal- lowed without mastication, the stomach has an additional labor to perform, in order to reduce them into chyme." In reply to this last statement however, it may be observed, that Dr. Beaumont found that an entire raw oyster was chymified, in a phial, in 7-J hours, —while masticated beefsteak required 8-J hours. It cannot be doubted that oysters disagree with some constitutions; and that occa- sionally they have appeared to possess noxious properties. But considering the enor- mous consumption of these animals, their supposed deleterious effects are exceedingly rare.f The late Dr. ClarkeJ has related some remarkable cases, in which convulsions, followed in two cases by death, occurred in women who had taken oysters soon after their delivery. But we are not authorized in adopting his conclusion, that fresh healthy oysters are apt to occasion apoplexy and convulsions in puerperal women. The fact that the symptoms did not come on until the day after the oysters were taken, is against such an assumption. The green color, which certain parts of the oyster sometimes assume, has been as- cribed by some to marine Ulvae, on which the animal has fed,—by others, to the absorp- tion of a green-colored microscopical animalcule, (called Vibrio ostrearius.) Very recently, Valenciennes^ has shown that the green coloring matter is a peculiar organic substance, derived perhaps from a peculiar state of the bile of the animal. The popular notion that the color is produced by coppery beds, on which the animal is supposed to have laid, is totally unfounded.il It is a popular notion that the oyster possesses aphrodisiac properties, derived from the phosphorus which it contains; but it has not yet been shown that oysters contain more phosphorus than the flesh of other animals. As 100 parts of the flesh of the oyster contain only about 12*6 parts of solid matter, while 100 parts of butchers' meat contain, on an average, about 25 parts, it is obvious that oysters must be less nutritive than butchers' meat. When eaten raw it is customary to swallow the oyster entire; but for stewing or making sauce they are deprived of the beard, (the branchiae or gills.)"" The indigestible nature of oyster sauce has been alluded to. * Treatise on Diet. t Some cases of supposed deleterious properties acquired by oysters are referred to by Dr. Christison, (Treatise on Poisons,) as having occurred in the years 1816-19 at Havre and Dunkirk. But it is by no means clear that the diseases which prevailed at these places originated from the use of oysters. MM. Vauquelin and Chaussier, who were appointed to inquire into these cases, denied that they were caused by oysters, since many persons were attacked who had not eaten them. (See Merat and De Lens, Diet. de Mat. Med. vol. v. p. 123.) X Transactions of the London College of Physicians, vol. v. p. 109. § Comptes Rendus, t. xii. p. 345. Fevrier, 1841. II " I am acquainted with a lady," says Dr. Paris, (Treatise on Diet, p. 8, 5th ed.,) " who is constantly made sick by eating a green oyster; the cause of which may be traced to an erroneous impression she received with respect to the coloring matter being cupreous." V " Wc cannot walk the streets without noticing that, in the fish-shops, the oysters are laid with their flat sides uppermost; they would die were it otherwise. The animal breathes and feeds by opening its shell, and thereby receiving anew portion of water into the concavity of its under shell; and if it did not thus open its shell, the water would neither be propelled through its branchiae or respiratory appara- tus, nor sifted for its food. It is in this manner that they lie in their native beds : were they on their flat 142 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Oysters have been employed as medicinal agents in phthisis, (in which disease they have been vaunted as a specific,) in chronic affections of the digestive organs, in scrofula, and several other complaints. They are useful as nutrients in the stage of convalescence of many disorders, but I am unacquainted with any evidence of their curative powers beyond this. The Mussel is used as food by the lower classes principally. Its flesh is yellowish and difficult of digestion. Dr. Paris* states that the common people, in eating mussels, take out a dark part, (the heart,) which is erroneously supposed to be poisonous. Under some circumstances mussels acquire deleterious qualities, and occasionally prove fatal. The symptoms which they give rise 'to, however, are by no means uniform. At one time they are those of irritation of the alimentary canal; but " much more commonly the local effects have been trifling, and the prominent symptoms have been almost entirely indirect and chiefly nervous. Two affections of this kind have been noticed. One is an eruptive disease, resembling nettle-rash, and accompanied with violent asthma ; the other, a comatose or paralytic disorder of a very peculiar description."*!* The presence of cop- per, a putrid condition of the mussels, idiosyncrasy on the part of the sufferers, a mor- bid condition of the mussels, and the poisonous quality of their food, (medusae or starfish,) have, at different times, been supposed to be the source of the deleterious effects; but at present the cause is involved in considerable obscurity.J Cockles, Scallops, Periwinkles, Limpets, and Whelks, are of inferior moment as aliments. They are principally used by the poorer inhabitants on the coast, and are not adapted for persons of delicate stomachs. Snails are employed in some countries as food. In England the Great or Vineyard Snail (Helix pomatia) is a popular remedy for emacia- tion with hectic fever and phthisis, on account of its nourishing qualities. Figuier§ says its medicinal property resides in an oil, which he calls Helicine.\\ Diseased and Decayed Animal Substances.—On several occasions (pp. 121,123,128, and 135-141) I have incidentally alluded to the deleterious qualities sometimes acquired by certain animal foods. It deserves, however, to be specially noticed, with regard to animal foods in general, that when obtained from animals affected with disease at the time of their death, they are always dangerous, and have in some cases proved fatal.1T Moreover, Animal foods, even if procured from perfectly healthy individuals, some- times suffer a peculiar kind of decay or putrefaction, by which they acquire poisonous properties. Thus, Sausages made of the flesh, viscera, or blood of animals, and cured by smoking, have sometimes acquired, by keeping, highly deleterious qualities, which in surface, no food could be gathered, as it were, in their cup ; and if exposed by the retreating tide, the opening of the shell would allow the water to escape, and leave them dry—thus depriving them of res- piration as well as food." (Sir Charles Bell's notes to Paley's Natural Theology, vol. ii p. 220-1.) The same author also observes, that " in confirmation of these remarks, the geologist, when he sees those shells in beds of diluvium, can determine whether the oysters were overwhelmed in their native beds, or were rolled away and scattered as shells merely." * Treatise on Diet. -f Dr. Christison, Treatise on Poisons. X It is a very common thing, for persons to be poisoned in this city by eating mussels, produced from our adjacent waters. In one instance a whole family were made dangerously ill by them, with symptoms of Cholera Morbus, of the most malignant kind, of which the father of the family died.—We could not ascertain that the mussels were putrid, or affected by disease, though we have noticed that they are n ore apt to produce deleterious effects in the hottest season of the year.—L. •J Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvi. p. 113. || Appendix, 4. f Tiedemann, Vntersuchungen vber das Nahrungs-Bedurfniss, &c.pp. 119-120; also, Lona Med Gazette Oct. 21, 1842. VEGETABLE FOODS. 143 many cases, has been attended with fatal results. Buchner ascribes the effects to the presence of a peculiar fatty acid, which has been termed botulinic acid, (Wurst-fett-saure.) Bacun, probably other kinds of cured meat, Ham-pie, Cheese, Milk, Goose-grease, (see p. 128,) Smoked Sprats, Pickled Salmon, Kipper or Smoked Salmon, see p. 136,) and the de- cayed flesh of quadrupeds (as veal and beef) have also at times produced effects analogous to those caused by the sausages above alluded to.* The cause of the poisonous quality of those animal foods is involved in complete ob- scurity. Liebigf has offered an ingenious but gratuitous hypothesis concerning it The sausages, he says, are in a peculiar state of putrefaction ; and in this condition "exercise an action upon the organism, in consequence of the stomach, and other parts with which they come in contact, not having the power to arrest their decomposition; and entering the blood in some way or other, while still possessing their whole power, they impart their peculiar action to the constituents of that fluid."J The subject of fish-poison^ has been already noticed, (see pp. 135, 136, 139, 141, and 142.) SECT. II.—VEGETABLE FOODS. The aliments obtained from the Vegetable kingdom greatly exceed in number and va- riety those procured from Animals; and it is not very easy to adopt a classification which shall be at the same time accu»ate and practical. * For further details consult Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons ,* Tiedemann, op. cit.,* and Buchner's Tokicologie. t Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, pp. 368-369. 2d edit. 1842. 1 Appendix, 5. § In connection with the above subject, I subjoin the following table, taken from the Times newspaper of April 14, 1842 :— Annual Return of Fish seized at Billingsgate, (being unfit to be used as human food,) from the 1st of January, 1841, to the 1st of January, 1842. Salmon Turbot Cod . Haddocks Scate Gurnets Mackerel Soles Maids Plaice Herrings Whitings Brills Spruts . Pickled Salmon Eels . Winkles Whelks Mussels 136 185 1,295 28,611 287 5,700 39,520 9,790 7,372 50,085 27,720 1,706 222 172,629 36 bushels. 3 kits. 1,232 lbs. 50 bushels. 38 bushels. 22 bushels. Salt-fish Smelts Mullets Hallibuts Trout . Lings . Dories Dried Haddock Roach and Dace Tench Pickled Herrings Total Oysters Shrimps Lobsters Crabs . Crawfish 86 1,100 61 24 224 14 13 324 300 82 2,800 5,028 172,629 . 177,657 51 bushels. 12 bushels. 2,819 2,332 122 Total number of Fish seized and condemned:— In tale........177,657 Sprats........ 36 bushels. Pickled Salmon...... 3 kits. Eels........1,232 lbs. Shell-fish in tale . . ... 5,774 Shell-fish.......173 bushels. 144 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The Natural-history method which I have elsewhere* adopted for the Vegetable and Animal Materia Medica, and which I have followed to a certain extent in the present work, in noticing animal aliments, does not appear to me to be sufficiently practical, for my present purpose, to be exclusively adopted. Nor can we adopt a chemical classifica- tion, since most of the substances which we have to notice owe their dietetical properties to more than one proximate principle, and oftentimes to several. On the whole, then, I believe the arrangement of Tiedemannf to be the most appro- priate for my present purpose, and I shall therefore adopt it. It is founded partly on Natural History, partly on the Vegetable organs which are used as food. The following table presents a general view of the classes and orders :— CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLE ALIMENTS. I. Aliments derived from Flowering Plants. 1. Seeds. 2. Fleshy Fruits. 3. Roots, Subterraneous Stems, and Tubers. 4. Buds and Young Shoots. II. Aliments derived from Flowerless Plants. 5. Leaves, Leaf-stalks, and Flowers. 6. Receptacles and Bracts. 7. Stems. 1. Ferns. I 3. Algae, or Sea-weeds. 2. Lichens. | 4. Fungi, or Mushrooms. CLASS I. ALIMENTS DERIVED FROM FLOWERING PLANTS. The Flowering Plants are also called by botanists Phenogamous or Vascular plants. They are Phanerogamia, the Colyledonea, or Embryonata: of some authors. ORDER I. SEMINA OR SEEDS. The seeds employed as food are of two kinds, farinaceous and oleaginous. 1. Mealy or Farinaceous Seeds.—This division includes the alimentary seeds of the Cerealia, Polygonaceae, Chenopodiacese, Leguminosse, and Cupuliferae. a. Cereal Grains or Corn.—These are the seeds of certain grasses, which, on account of their comparatively much larger size, are preferred, for dietetical purposes, to other grass seeds. Those commonly employed are Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye, Rice, Maize or Indian Corn, Millet and Sorghum, Durra or Guinea Corn. The fruit of the grasses is one-seeded, and is called a caryopsis. Its endocarpium ad- heres inseparably to the integuments of the seed. The seed, exclusive of its coats, con- sists of a farinaceous albumen, on the outer side and at the base of which lies the embryo. In a dietetical point of view the albumen is the most important part of the seed. The proximate constituents of the Cereal grains are as follows :— PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES OF CORN. Starch. Vegetable albumen. Vegetable Fibrine. ) Glutine. f RaW 0r Mucine. ( Ordinary Gluten. Oily Matter. J Sugar. Gum. Earthy Phosphates. Ligneous Matter, (bran, husk, &c.) Water Elements of Materia Medica t Untersucnungen uoer das Nahrungs-Bedurfniss, den Nahrungs-Trieb und die Nahrungs-Mittel. 1836. WHEAT. 145 A bitter principle and resin have been found in some kinds of corn. The dietetical properties, and the proportions, of the alimentary principles found in corn have been already stated. The ultimate composition of several kinds of corn is, according to Boussingault* as follows:— ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF CORN DRIED AT 230° F. Carbon...... Hydrogen ...*.. Oxygen ...... Nitrogen . .... Ashes...... Total . Wheat. Rye. Oats. 46*1 58 43*4 2*3 2*4 46-2 5*6 44*2 1*7 2.3 50-7 6-4 36*7 2-2 40 1000 1000 1000 The Cereal grains and the farinaceous foods obtained therefrom, are, when sufficiently and plainly cooked, nutritive, and readily digestible. Their nitrogenized constituents, or, in the language of Liebig, their plastfc elements of nutrition, are vegetable albumen, vege- table fibrine, glutine, and mucine ; while their non-nitrogenized constituents, or the elements of respiration, are starch, (principally,) sugar, and gum. The following table, drawn up from Dr. Beaumont's work, shows the mean time of chymification of several kinds of foods, composed? wholly, or partially, of the cereal grains:— DIGESTIBILITY OF THE CEREAL GRAINS. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. ur PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Rice .... Barley Soup .... Barley ..... Cake, Sponge . Custard ... Dumpling, Apple Cake. Corn .... Bread, Corn .... Bread, Wheat, fresh Boiled Boiled Boiled Baked Baked Boiled Baked Baked Baked 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 0 30 0 30 45 0 0 15 30 Broken Baked Masticated 6 15 6 30 4 30 1. Wheat.—The grains of several species of Triticum are employed as food under the name of wheat; viz., Triticum vulgare, lurgidum, polonicum, Spelta, and monococcum. In this country, the first species is that which is principally cultivated. The flour obtained from Lammas Wheat (Triticum vulgare, variety hybernum) has the following compo- sition :— * Memoires de VAcademie RoyaU des Sciences de VInstitut de France, t. xviii. p. 345. 1842. 10 146 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF WHEATEN FLOUR. French Wheat. Odessa Hard Wheat. Odessa Soft Wheat. Ditto. Ditto. Flour of Paris bakers. Ditto, of good qual-ity used in public establishments. Ditto inferior kind. Starch . . Gluten . . Sugar . . . Gum . . . Bran . . . Water . . 71*49 10*96 4*72 3*32 10*00 56*5 14*55 8*48 4*90 2*30 12*00 62*00 1200 7*56 5*80 1*20 10*00 70*84 1210 4*90 4*60 800 72*00 7*30 5*42 3*30 12*00 72*8 10*2 4*2 2*8 100 71*2 10*3 4*8 3*6 80 67-78 9-02 4*80 4*60 2*00 1200 100*49 98*73 93*56 100*44 100*02 100*0 97*9 100*20 The quantity of gluten contained in wheat is subject to very considerable variation, as will be obvious by reference to the table at p. 97. " In general," says Sir H. Davy,* " the wheat of warm climates abounds more in gluten and in insoluble parts; and it is of greater specific gravity, harder, and more difficult to grind. The wheat of the South of Europe, in consequence of the larger quantity of gluten it contains, is peculiarly fitted for making macaroni, and other preparations of flour, in which a glutinous quality is considered as an excellence."—"In the South of Europe," the same authority adds, " hard or thin-skinned wheat is in higher estimation than soft or thick-skinned wheat; the reason of which is obvious, from the larger quantity of gluten and nutritive matter it contains."*)* I am informed oy Mr. Hards, miller, of Dartford, that the following are the products obtained by grinding one quarter or eight bushels of wheat:— PRODUCE OF ONE QUARTER OF WHEAT WEIGHING 504 POUNDS. Flour .... ........392 ibs. Biscuit or fine middlings.........10 Toppings or specks..........8 Best pollard, Turkey pollard, or twenty-penny.....15 Fine pollard ...........18 Bran and coarse pollard . . .... . . . 50 Loss, sustained by evaporation, and waste in grinding, dressing, &c. 11 504 lbs. Owing to the larger quantity of gluten which it contains, (see p. 139,) wheat is more nutritive than the other cereal grains; and its nutritive equivalent founded on the quantity of its nitrogen, is, therefore, less than these, (see p. 27.) It yields the finest, whitest, lightest, and most digestible kind of bread; the greater lightness of which de- pends on the toughness of its dough, which, retaining the evolved carbonic acid, swells up during fermentation, and thus acquires a vesicular or cellular character. This light- ness or sponginess contributes to the digestibility of bread; since the gastric juice more easily permeates and acts on it when it has this loose texture.} Semolina, Soujee, and Mannacroup, are granular preparations of wheat, deprived of bran. A manufacture^ of these substances informs me that they are prepared from the best Kentish wheat. They possess all the nutritive qualities of wheat, and are very agreeable, light, nutritive articles of food, well fitted for invalids and children. Macaroni, Vermicelli, and Cagliari Paste, are prepared from wheat. They are im- ported from Genoa and Naples, and are manufactured in London by Mr. Walter Levy, who prepares them from a paste made from semolina. Macaroni and vermicelli have * Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, pp. 130-131. 4th ed. 1827 t Ibid. pp. 13&-9. $ Appendix, 6. § Mr. Walter Levy, of No. 2, White's Row, Spitalields, London. FERMENTED BREAD. 147 their well-known forms given to them by forcing the tenacious paste through a number of holes in a metallic plate. Three varieties of macaroni are kept in the shops, the pipe, the celery, and the ribbon macaroni. The Cagliari paste is sold in the form of stars, rings, fleurs de lis, Maltese crosses, &c. The nutritive qualities of all these preparations are identical with those of wheat; and when plainly cooked, as by boiling, they are easily digestible. Boiled in beef-tea, they form a nutritious kind of soup (Macaroni or Vermi- celli Soup) for invalids. Or they may be made into puddings. Dr. A. T. Thomson* gives the following directions for the preparation of Macaroni or Vermicelli Pudding:— " Take two ounces of macaroni or vermicelli, a pint of milk, and two fluid ounces (four table-spoonfuls) of cinnamon water; simmer until the macaroni or vermicelli is tender. Next beat up three yolks of eggs and the white of one egg, one ounce of sugar, one drop of the oil of bitter almonds, and a glass of,raisin wine, in half a pint of milk; and add the mixture to the macaroni or vermicelli. Bake in a slow oven." Some of the powders sold under the name of Farinaceous Foods for infants*)* consist wholly or partially of wheaten flour, with which, therefore, they agree in nutritive qual- ities. Hards's Farinaceous Food is prepared, as Mr. Hards positively assures me, from the finest wheat only. Judging from its color, smell, and microscopic appearance, it must have been submitted to some heating process (baking?) by which its properties are modified. It is a deservedly esteemed aliment for infants. Densham's Farinaceous Food is a mixture of three parts wheat-flour and one part barley-meal.:}: It is an excellent preparation. Bread is the most important article of food prepared from the flour or meal of wheat. It is of two kinds; fermented or leavened, and unfermented or unleavened. a. Fermented or Leavened Wheat-Bread.—This is the ordinary Loaf Bread. Wheaten flour, salt, water, and either yeast§ or leaven (old dough already in a state of fermenta- tion) are the ingredients from which it is prepared. Bakers generally employ, in addition, potatoes and alum. The yeast or leaven causes the sugar of the flour to undergo the vinous fermentation, by which carbonic acid gas and alcohol|| are formed. It is not im- * The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room. t Bright's Nutritious Farina is Potato-starch, (see Potatoes.) X Mr. Hooper, chemist, of Pall Mall, who prepares Densham's farinaceous food, has kindly furnished me with the method of preparing it: Three parts of the best wheat-flour and one part of the best barley- meal are intimately mixed, and the mixture being placed in tins lined with paper, is submitted to a heat of about 200° F. in a baker's oven, for three hours. The time generally chosen is between ten o'clock A. M. and two o'clock P. M., when the oven has cooled considerably. The mixture should not be browned by the process, as it then acquires a pea-flavor. It acquires by heating an improved flavor. In this state it keeps well, without becoming sour or musty, and makes excellent puddings. The barley used in preparing this food is intended to prevent the supposed constipating effects of the wheat. § Ale and table-beer yeast answer perfectly well. An artificial yeast, prepared by fermenting a wort made of malt, Is sometimes employed. Lately, German yeast has been extensively used. It is a friable soft solid, which, when examined by the microscope, appears to consist wholly of yeast globules, (Torula Cerevisite.)—[A good solid yeast may be made by boiling three ounces of hops in two gallons of water down to a quart; strain it, and stir in a quart of rye-meal while boiling hot—cool it, and add half a pint of good yeast; after it has risen a few hours, thicken it with Indian meal stiff enough to roll out into cakes, half an inch thick, upon a board; put them in the sun and air for a few days to dry—turn- ing them frequently. A piece of this cake two inches square, dissolved in warm water, and thickened with a little flour, will make a large loaf of bread. These cakes, if rightly made, and preserved in coarse cotton bags, in a cool dry place, will keep a year, and are very convenient when fresh yeast is not to be obtained.—L.] || The alcohol is dissipated by the heat of the oven. A few years ago a patent was taken out by Mr. Hicks for collecting the alcohol during the baking process; and above £20,000 were expended in the 148 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. probable that the fermentation is promoted by the starch, a proportion of which may, perhaps, yield an additional -quantity of sugar. The carbonic acid is prevented from escaping by the tenacity of the dough, which, becoming distended with gas, swells up and acquires a vesicular texture, forming a kind of spongy mass.* In this way, therefore, are produced the vesicles or eyes which give to ordinary loaf-bread its well-known light- ness and elasticity. In well-baked bread these vesicles are stratified in lavers which are perpendicular to the crust; forming thus what bakers termed piled or flaky bread. The tenacity of the dough, on which the vesicular structure of the bread depends, is owing to the gluten. If the vinous fermentation be not checked in due time by baking, the dough becomes sour, owing, probably, to the formation of both acetic and lactic acids. On weighing bread, when taken from the oven, it is found to be from 28 to 34 per cent. heavier than the flour used in its preparation. " In the formation of wheaten bread," says Sir H. Davy,f " more than one-quarter of the elements of water combine with the flour ; more water is consolidated in the formation of bread from barley, and still more in that from oats; but the gluten in wheat being in much larger quantity than in other grain, seems to form a combination with the starch and water, which renders wheaten bread more digestible than other species of bread." The common salt used in bread-making serves principally to flavor; but it also im- proves the color of, and gives stiffness to, the dough. Notwithstanding that the law prohibits, under a penalty, the use of alum by bakers, it is very frequently employed under the name of " stuff." It augments the whiteness and firmness of bread made from inferior kinds of flour, and, by the latter effect, renders the bread less liable to crumble when cut, while it enables the baker to separate the loaves more readily after their removal from the oven. Whatever doubts may be entertained as ! to the ill effects of alum on the healthy stomach, none can exist as to its injurious influ- ence in cases of dyspepsia. Bread which oontains alum is objectionable, not merely on account of its containing this salt, but because it is generally made from inferior flour, which, when mixed with yeast and water, and formed into dough, quickly passes through the stage of vinous fermentation, and becomes acid.| Potatoes are very commonly used in bread-making. They assist fermentation in the establishment of a manufactory for bread and spirit; but, as a commercial speculation, the scheme | failed. The bread prepared under the patent was baked in pans, and was generally considered to be less agreeable than the ordinary loaf-bread.—fMr. Hicks, who is a very scientific man, and excellent surgeon, informed the Editor that his plan of collecting the spirit from bread, during the process of baking, succeeded perfectly; but that the other London bakers circulated so many false reports re- specting his bread, that the people could not be persuaded to purchase it. One was, that Mr. Hicks extracted all the spirit from his bread by a patent process; whereas, theirs contained the whole, and of course was far more nourishing and wholesome ! " This it was," said Mr. H., " that blew off the cap of my still, and caused the whole concern to explode."—L.] * In the ordinary mode of bread-making, the baker mixes together water, a little flour, yeast, and potatoes, and sets the mixture aside for six or eight hours, to undergo fermentation. The fermented mixture is, "in the language of the bakehouse, the sponge; its formation and abandonment to spon- taneous decomposition is termed setting the sponge; and according to the relation which the amount of water in the sponge bears to the whole quantity to be used in the dough, it is called quarter, half, or whole sponge." (Dr. Colquhoun, Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. xii. p. 165. 1S26.) t Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, 4th ed. p. 127. 1827. % Alum is used to some extent by bakers in this country, but not generally, we believe. Mr. Allison states (On Culinary Poisons, p. 132) that without the addition of alum, it does not appear possible to make white, light, and porous bread, such as is used in London, unless the flour be of the very best quality. When bread contains alum, it may be detected as follows: mix the crumbs of stale bread in water, FERMENTED BREAD. 149 manufacture of bread, and render the product lighter. As they contain less gluten, they are, of course, less nutritive than wheat flour; but in other respects their use is unobjec- tionable, and the law imposes no penalty on the baker for employing them. The following is Vogel's analysis of wheaten bread :— COMPOSITION OF 100 PARTS OF WHEATEN BREAD, (MADE WITH WHEAT-FLOUR, DISTILLED WATER, AND YEAST, BUT WITHOUT SALT.) Starch........53 5 Torrefied or gummy starch .... 180 Sugar........3-6 Gluten combined with a little starch . . 20*75 95 85 Exclusive of carbonic acid, chloride of calcium, and chloride of magnesium. From this it appears that a portion of the starch is gummified (converted*into dextrine) by the process of panification. Moreover, as the quantity of sugar in the baked loaf is nearly equal to that of the flour, it is probabie that a certain portion of saccharine matter is formed at the expense of the starch. The gluten does not appear to have suffered much change in its amount; but in some of its qualities (tenacity and elasticity) it has undergone considerable alteration. If a piece of bread be " placed in a lukewarm decoc- tion of malt, the starch and the substance called dextrine are seen to dissolve like sugar in water, and, at last, nothing remains except the gluten, in the form of a spongy mass, the minute pores of which can be seen only by a microscope."* Liebigf states that 100 parts of fresh bread contain, on an average, 30*15 parts of car- bon : and though this statement is meant to apply to rye-bread, (Schioarlzbrod or black bread,) it is probably equally applicable to wheaten bread. Notwithstanding that bread is denominated the staff of life, alone it does not appear to be capable of supporting prolonged human existence. Boussingault:); came to this con- clusion from observing the small quantity of nitrogen which it contains ; and the Reports of the Inspectors of Prisons, on the effects of a diet of bread and water, favor this notion. The fine bread prepared from flour only is the most nutritive and digestible. Brown bread, made from wheaten meal, which contains bran, is laxative, as I have already stated, (see p. 68,) and is used by persons troubled with habitual constipation, as well as by those laboring under diabetes.^ Hot rolls are indigestible, and unfit for dyspeptics and invalids. Indeed, all kinds of new bread are injurious. Rolls, both English and French, are made squeeze the pasty mass through a piece of cloth, and then pass the liquor through a filter paper; the limpid infusion resulting, will, if it contain alum, exhibit a white cloud, more or less dense, on adding to it a dilute solution of the muriate of barytes— (Ure.)—L. * Liebig's Cliemistiy in Us Application to Agriculture and Physiology, 2d ed. pp. 38, 39. 1S42. t Animal Chemistry, p. 237. X Ann. de Chim. et. Phys. t. lxviii. § Brown or Dyspepsia bread, erroneously called Graham bread, is highly useful :n cases of habitual costiveness, and for most persons of sedentary habits. It may be used in every family with advantage, but never to the exclusion of fine bread. 3Iuoh of the bread sold as dyspepsia bread in our cities, is made of the bran or middlings from which the fine flour has been separated * it is a popular notion that saw- dust is sometimes mixed with the meal. The coarse and harsh particles should be previously separated by passing the flour through a common hair sieve. Good bread may be made by taking six quarts of this wheat meal thus prepared, one tea-cup of yeast, and half a tea-cup of molasses; mix these with a pint of milk-warm water and a tea-spoonful of pearl- ash or sal seratus; make a hole in the flour, and stir this mixture in the middle of the meal till it is like batter; make the dough, when sufficiently fermented, into four loaves, which will weigh two pounds per loaf when baked. It requires a hotter oven than fine flour bread, and must bake about an hour and a half.—L. 150 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. with a much larger proportion of yeast than is employed for ordinary bread. The dif- ferent kinds of fancy breads are less adapted for the use of invalids and of those who suf- fer with a tender stomach, than the common loaf-bread. Bread which has been submit- ted to compression by the hydraulic press becomes dry and hard, and may be kept for an almost indefinite period. When used, this compressed bread requires to be granulated like semolina.* Very recently, Bourchardatf has suggested the use of what he calls gluten bread, by diabetic patients. It is bread made of wheat dough deprived of the chief portion of its starch. It is impossible to eat bread made of gluten only, on account of its hardness and toughness. Hence one fifth of the normal quantity of starch is allowed to remain in; and in this form the bread is tolerably light, edible, and moderately agreeable.}: But though the substitution of this bread for ordinary loaf-bread is attended with a diminu- tion of the quantity of sugar contained in the urine, yet the remedy is a mere palliative, and has no curative tendency. I have tried it in one case only, and that for about ten days, when the patient (a medical man) finding himself not improved by it, ceased its use. In a case related by Dr. Budd,§ the general symptoms of diabetes appeared to be relieved by its use.|| Rusks and Tops and Bottoms belong to the class of fermented breads. Both are made with wheat flour, butter, sugar, milk, and a considerable quantity of yeast, to give them lightness. Notwithstanding that they are frequently employed as infants' food, it is ob- vious that they are objectionable, on the double ground of containing butter and of being fermented. /?. Unfermented or unleavened bread-—There are two principal kinds of unfermented bread, the one heavy and compact, the other light and elastic. Of the heavy and compact unfermented bread we have an excellent example in the com- mon sea-biscuit, called ship-bread, which is hard, compact heavy, and difficult either to cut or chew. That made at the Government Victualling Establishment at Weevil, near Portsmouth, is composed of wheaten meal (containing a certain portion of bran) and water only. It must be very obvious that this very cohesive, firm, and compact bread, must be slowly digested, as the gastric juice cannot so speedily and readily permeate it as the light and elastic kinds of bread. It requires, therefore, a very perfect mastication and insalivation. Notwithstanding this objection, biscuit sometimes agrees better with the dyspeptic than fermented bread. In such cases the biscuits prepared by Mr. Dodson, on the patent un- fermented principle, deserve a trial. Biscuit powder is frequently used for infants' food, and is, of course, free from the objection raised to the whole biscuit; the cohesiveness of which has been overcome by grinding. It is generally prepared1 for use by the aid of hot water, which likewise tends to obviate the foregoing objection. It is greatly superior to rusks and to tops and bottoms. The Captains' biscuits sold in the shops are professedly unfermented, and made of wheaten flour and water, with a small portion of butter. Milk is sometimes used instead of water. It is reported that some biscuit-bakers employ a little yeast, to render the pro- duct somewhat less dense. The meal biscuit is prepared with wheaten meal, which con- * See Laignel, Comptes Rendus, 1841, 1" Sem. p. 25. t Comptes Rendus, Nov. 1841, p. 942. X Gluten bread is prepared and sold by Mr. Bullock, chemist, of Conduit-street, London. $ Lond. Medical Gazette, April 22, 1842. II See Appendix, 7. UNFERMENTED BREAD. 151 tains a portion of bran. The common buttered biscuit is rendered somewhat light by a little yeast; and contains, as its name indicates, butter. Abernethy's biscuits are variously made by different bakers: yeast is generally used in their preparation. They contain caraway-seeds. The small square York biscuit is prepared with wheaten flour, butter, milk, and sugar, but without yeast. Of course those biscuits which contain butter* are more objectionable for dyspeptics than plain biscuits. Of the light and elastic (spongy) unfermented breads, there are several kinds. They owe their lightness to a cellular or vesicular texture (similar to that of ordinary fermented bread) produced by a gaseous or volatile body, not developed by fermentation, but other- wise set free in the dough, and, being expanded by the heat of the oven, distends the dough. The Patent Unfermented Bread obtains its lightness from carbonic acid developed within the dough by the action of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, sometimes called spirits of salts, on the sesquicarbonate of soda. Gingerbread is also rendered light by carbonic acid gas; but the latter is obtained by the mutual action which takes place between car- bonate of potash and treacle.*)* I have tasted some excellent Gingerbread and Ginger- bread Nuts made by Mr. Dodson, by the patent unfermented process, without either alum or potashes. Several kinds of light biscuits owe their lightness to sesquicarbonate of am- monia (volatile or smelling salts) which is dissolved in the water used in the formation of the dough. In the oven, the heat converts the ammoniacal salt into vapor, which dis- tends the dough. When the whole salt has been nearly evaporated, the texture of the dough has become sufficiently stiff and dry to prevent the mass shrinking to its former dimensions. Biscuits thus prepared are porous, but have not the piled texture of ordi- nary fermented bread. As examples of unfermented biscuits, in the manufacture of which sesquicarbonate of ammonia is used, I may mention Cracknells, and the Victoria and Clarence Biscuits. Cracknells are prepared with wheaten flour, a small quantity of sugar, a little milk, butter, eggs, and the sesquicarbonate of ammonia. The curl of the oak-leaved cracknells is produced by the latter salt. The Victoria Biscuit contains, be- sides the smelling salt, flour, eggs, sugar, milk, and butter. The Clarence Biscuit con- tains some eggs, and a few caraway seeds. The Patent Unfermented Bread deserves a more extended notice. Many years since it was stated in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, (art. Baking,) that if, in- stead of the ordinary dose of common salt being mixed with the dough in the usual way, we substitute carbonate of soda and muriatic acid in due proportion, and knead them as rapidly as possible with the dough, it will rise immediately, fully as much, if not more, * The difficult digestibility of butter, and its injurious effects on dyspeptics, have been already al- luded to, (see pp. 83-85.) t The ingredients used in the manufacture of gingerbread are flour, treacle, butter, common potashes, and alum. " After the butter is melted, and the potashes and alum are dissolved in a little warm w-jter, these three ingredients, along with the treacle, are poured among the flour which is to form the basis of the bread. The whole is then thoroughly incorporated together, by mixture and kneading, into a stiff dough." This dough, " however thoroughly kneaded, almost invariably requires to stand over for the space of from three or four to eight or ten days, before it arrives at that state which is best adapted for its rising to the fullest extent, and becoming duly gasified in the oven." The alum is the least essential ingredient; " although it is useful in having a decided tendency to make the bread lighter and crisper, and in accelerating the tardy period at which the dough is in the most advantageous condition for being baked." (Dr. Colquhoun, Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. xii. p. 271. 18*26.) Treacle contains free glucic and melassic acids, which, by their action on the carbonate of potash, set carbonic acid free. It is not improbable that, during the rising of the gingerbread dough, more glucic acid may be formed by the action of the potashes on the saccharine matter. 152 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. than dough mixed with yeast, and, when baked, will constitute a very light and excellent bread. By the mutual action of the muriatic acid and carbonate of soda we obtain common salt, (chloride of sodium,) water, and carbonic acid gas. The latter ingredient being set free distends the dough and gives it a vesicular character. In this way the bread is ren- dered light without the destruction of any of the nutritive ingredients of the flour ; and without the risk of the production of acetous fermentation, or of the decomposition of the gluten. Dr. Colquhoun tried this plan ; and though he used an unnecessarily large quantity of the carbonate and acid, the bread which he obtained proved, as he says, " doughy and sad, possessed but a few diminutive vesicles, and was never piled." His failure arose, I suspect, from setting aside the dough for twenty minutes before putting it in the oven ; whereas it cannot be too quickly heated. In 1836, Dr. Whiting* took out a patent for rendering bread, cakes, light biscuits, and such like farinaceous foods, cellular, light (spongy,) without the aid of fermentation. His process is essentially that just described. The proportions of the ingredients which he directs to be used are as follows:— Wheaten Flour .... 7 lbs. Carbonate of soda . . . 350 grs. to 500 grs. Water ..... 21 pints. Muriatic acid . . . from 420 to 560, or as much as may be sufficient. Mr. Dodson, of 98 Blackman-street, Southwark, London, having purchased the patent of Dr. Whiting, prepares bread, (white and brown,) biscuits, biscuit-powder, and cakes, according to the unfermented process. The bread appears to me to be made of excellent flour, and though it is scarcely so light as the ordinary loaf-bread, its flavor is very agree- able. It resembles home-made bread rather than bakers' bread, and keeps well without becoming sour or mouldy. I greatly prefer the brown to the white unfermented bread. A most delicious unfermented bread, equal in lightness to any bread prepared by the fermented process, was made, in my presence, by the cook of Mr. John Savory, of New Bond-street, London, according to the following formula :f— Flour, 1 lb. Sesquicarbonate of soda, 40 grains. Cold water, half a pint, or as much as may be sufficient. Muriatic acid of the shops, 50 minims [drops.] Powdered white sugar, a tea-spoonful. Intimately mix the sesquicarbonate of soda and the sugar with the flour, in a large basin, by means of a wooden spoon. Then gradually add the water, with which the acid has been previously mixed, stirring constantly, so as to form an intimate mixture very speedily. Divide into two loaves, and put into a quick oven immediately. If any soda should escape the action of the acid it causes a yellow spot which, however, is more un- sightly than detrimental. The sugar can be omitted if thought desirable. The unfermented bread possesses several advantages, besides those already speci- fied, over the ordinary fermented bread. In its manufacture both time and trouble are saved; and all risk of vitiating the bread by the use of inferior yeast or by carrying the fermentation too far, is thereby avoided. It is well adapted for the use of invalids and dyspeptics, with whom the ordinary fermented bread disagrees. In urinary maladies, likewise, it deserves a trial. In its porosity and lightness it is superior to bis- cuits, (see p. 150,) since it is more speedily permeated, and more readily acted on, by the gastric juice. * Repertory of Patent Inventions, N. S. vol. vii. p. 267. 1837. t This formula differs somewhat from that published by Mr. Deane, (Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 492,) for making what he terms "Pharmaceutical Bread." UNFERMENTED BREAD. 153 Mouldy bread, (that is, bread covered with Mucor Mucedo, and other allied fungi,) has on several occasions proved injurious.* Colic, headache, great thirst, dry tongue, fre- quent pulse, and stupor, have been induced by it. Wheat is liable to several disorders, f produced by the attack of certain fungi and animals, and probably in these states is more or less deleterious to health, independent of losing, partially or entirely, its nutritive qualities. Cakes, of which the Plum-cake may be taken as the type, may be regarded as a rich variety of bread; though in common parlance they are considered distinct from this. They are composed of wheaten flour, butter or lard, eggs, sugar, raisins, (the larger kind as well as the small Corinthian raisin, popularly called the currant,) frequently almonds, &c. They form a most indigestible kind of food, totally unfit for children, invalids, and dyspeptics. Their indigestible quality is principally derived from the butter or lard which they contain, (see p. 84.) Mr. Dodson prepares cakes, (plain, currant, sultana, or fig,) by the unfermented patent process, without butter. They are, therefore, free from the objections raised to ordinary cakes. The action of heat on the butter or lard used in the manufacture of pastry, (baked paste,) renders this compound highly injurious to the dyspeptic, who should, therefore, most carefully avoid its use. " All pastry is an abomination," justly observes Dr. Paris.J " I verily believe," he adds, "that one half, at least, of the cases of indigestion which occur, after dinner-parties, may be traced to this cause." I have already (p. 83-84) pointed out the injurious influence of heat on oily and fatty substances, especially butter. The same authority correctly adds, that " the most digestible pudding is that made with bread, or biscuit and boiled flour: baiter pudding is not so easily digested; and suet pud- ding is to be considered as the most mischievous to invalids in the whole catalogue. Pancake is objectionable, on account of the process of frying imparting a greasiness, to which the dyspeptic stomach is not often reconciled.''^ * See Chevallier's paper in the Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. vii. p. 122. 1831. The author refers to Bar- rurel's observations, and also quotes some cases published by Westerhoffin 1826. t The Rev. Professor Henslow, in his Report on the Diseases of Wheat, (published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii.,) states that he bas examined wheat infested by five species of parasitic fungi; by the Ergot; by the little animalcule, (Vibrio Tritici,) which produces the Earcookle, Purple;, or Peppercorn; and the fly called the Wheat Midge, (Cecidomyia Tritici.) The five fungi referred to are:— 1st. The Bunt, Smut-balls, or Pepperbrand, (Uredo Canes, De Cand.; Uredo fatida, Bauer.) 2d. The Smut or Dust Brand, (Uredo Segetum.) 3dly and 4thly. The Rust, Red-rag. Red-robin, or Red-gum, (Uredo rubigo and Uredo linearis.) 5thly. The Mildew, (Puccinia graminis.) Mr. Quekett and others have, I think, satisfactorily shown the Ergot to be a disease induced by the attack of a fungus, which Mr. Quekett has denominated the Ergotaetia abortifaciens. (See Trans, of the Linn. Society, vol. xviii.; also my Elements of Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 913, 2d ed.) X Treatise on Diet, 5th ed •5 Paste Puddings or Dumplings are often brought on our tables, but they are extremely indigestible, and should therefore never be eaten by invalids. It is doubtful whether there is any way of boiling wheat dough so as to render it fit for food ; it will always be crude and heavy, and impermeable to the gastric juice. Our best puddings are those made of rice, bread, sago, or Indian meal, baked. Boiled Indian puddings are not very indigestible, and are far preferable to those of wheat. In preparing pud- dings, the eggs should be beat very light—the yolks and whites apart; the flour should be dried and sifted; if currants are used, they must be carefully washed and dried, and dusted with flour before being put into the batter; raisins must be stoned ; sugar dried and pounded; spices finely ground; and all the ingredients thoroughly mixed. It is better to mix the pudding an hour or two before it is to be baked or boiled.—L. 154 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The following is a formula for a boiled bread-pudding, adapted for the convalescent:* " Grate half a pound of stale bread, pour over it a pint of hot milk, and leave the mixture to soak for an hour in a covered basin ; then beat it up with the contents of two eggs. Put the whole into a covered basin, just large enough to hold it, which must be tied in a cloth, and placed in boiling water for half an hour. It may be eaten with salt or with sugar; and, if wine be allowed, it may be flavored with sherry." Panada is prepared as follows:—Place some very thin slices of crumb bread in a sauce- pan, and add rather more water than will cover them. Boil until the bread becomes pulpy, then strain off the superfluous water, and beat up the bread until it becomes of the consistence of gruel; then add white sugar, and, when permitted, a little sherry wine. This forms a very agreeable aliment for the sick. 2. Oats.—The Oat cultivated in England is the Avena saliva or Common Oat. When the grains are deprived of their integuments they are called groats or grits; and these, when crushed, are denominated Embden groats, and when ground into flour, prepared groats. Oatmeal is prepared by grinding the kiln-dried seeds, deprived of their husk and outer skin. It is not so white as wheaten flour, and has a somewhat bitterish taste. The following is the composition of oats, according to Vogel:— COMPOSITION OF OATS. The Entire Seeds. Meal ... 66 Husk ... 34 100 Dried Oatmeal. Starch . Bitter matter and sugar Gray albuminous matter Fatty oil ... Gum .... Husk, mixture, and loss 59*00 8-25 4*30 2*00 250 23-95 10000 But oatmeal yielded Dr. Christison the following results :— COMPOSITION OF OATMEAL. Starch ........72'8 Saccharo-mucilaginous extract ... 5*8 Albumen........3*2 Oleo-resinous matter.....0*3 Lignin (bran).......11*3 xMoisture........6*6 1000 Oats are generally considered somewhat less nutritive than wheat. But from Boussin- gault's ultimate analysis, already referred to, (see p. 145,) the quantity of nitrogen yielded by them is nearly equal to that obtained from wheat; and, accordingly, the nutritive equivalent for oats, according to this chemist, differs but little from that of wheat, (see p. 28.) Oat- meal, says Dr. Cullen,f " is especially the food of the people of Scotland, and was formerly that of the northern parts of England; counties which have always produced as healthy and as vigorous a race of men as any other in Europe." Oats are apt to disagree with some dyspeptics; or, in popular language, they are liable to become acescent on the stomach. Unfermented oat-bread, in those unaccustomed to it, is apt to occasion dyspepsia, with heartburn, and was formerly thought to have a tendency to produce skin diseases, but without just grounds. Gruel is a mild, nutritious, and, in most cases, an easily digested article of food, in chronic diseases, and in the convalescence from acute maladies. In some irritable conditions of the stomach it is occasionally retained when many other foods * See Dr. A. T. Thomson's Domestic Management of the Sick-Room. + Materia Medica, vol. i., p. 278. OATS? 155 are rejected. Yet it is less demulcent than barley-water. " Unless gruel be very thin," says Dr. A. T. Thomson, " it can scarcely be regarded as a diluent; and when thick, it is too heating an aliment for patients laboring under febrile symptoms." On account of the nitrogenous principle which it contains, it is of course more nourishing than the starchy preparations (arrow-root, tapioca, sago, &c.) frequently employed in the sick- chamber. It is prepared from either groats or oatmeal. It may be sweetened, acidulated with a little lemon-juice, or aromatized with a very small portion of some spice. Butter, which is frequently added, is objectionable in dyspeptic and other cases where the stom- ach is tender.* Oatmeal Porridge or Stir-about is a moderately consistent mixture, composed of oat meal and water, and prepared by boiling. It is sometimes eaten with milk as a moder- ately nutritive diet When mixed with the thin liquor of boiled meat, or the water in which cabbage or kale has been boiled, it is called beef-brose or kale-brose. The husk and some adhering starch separated from oats in the manufacture of oat- meal are sold in Scotland " under the inconsistent name of Seeds."j These, " if infused in hot water, and allowed to become sourish in this state, yield, on expression, a muci- laginous liquid, which, on being sufficiently concentrated, forms a firm jelly, known by the name of Sowins." Dr. A. T. Thomson^ gives the following directions for the preparation of " Flummery or Sowans .*"— " Take a quart or any quantity of groats, or of oatmeal; rub the groats or the meal for a considerable time with two quarts of hot water, and leave the mixture for several days at rest, until it becomes sour; then add another quart of hot water, and strain through a hair sieve. Leave the strained fluid at rest until it deposits a white sediment, which is the starch of the oats; lastly, pour off the supernatant water, and wash the sediment with cold water. The washed sediment may be either boiled with fresh water, stirring the whole time it is boiling, until it forms a mucilage or jelly, or it may be dried, and after- wards prepared in the same manner as arrow-root mucilage.^ Flummery is light, mod- erately nutritious, and very digestible; it is, consequently, well adapted for early conva- lescence. It may be eaten with milk or wine, or lemon-juice and sugar." "A diet of oats," says Dr. Christison, "has the credit of tending to keep the bowels open; and I have seen it apparently have this effect in several instances of habitual con- stipation, when taken at breakfast in the form of porridge. In cases of dyspepsia, associ- ated with acidity of stomach, it is on the contrary in general a noxious article of food ; and some dyspeptics among the working classes recover entirely on abandoning it for a time. A curious, though now rare, consequence of its long habitual use as food, is the formation of intestinal concretions composed of phosphate of lime, agglutinating animal matter, and the small, stiff, silky-like bristles which may be seen at one end of the inner integument of the oat-seed. This affection must have been common in Scotland during the last century, as Dr. Monro Secundus collected forty-one specimens, still in the ana- tomical museum of this University. But it is now far less frequent, probably in conse- * Oatmeal gruel is not much used in this country, Indian being substituted in its place. Water gruel is prepared by first mixing well two table-spoonfuls of oatmeal with six of cold water in a basin, and then adding this gradually to a quart of boiling water, constantly stirring until it is sufficienth/boiled, which will be in about ten minutes. It is then to be strained, and, if it is desirable to have it clear, it may be decanted when cold. Sugar, acids, or aromatics may be employed for flavoring. When it is desired to have it more nutritive, a pint of boiling milk may be addec* to a pint ^g and lignin) ... . $ Gum......4-62 Sugar .....5*21 Gluten.....3*52 Albumen.....115 Phosphate of lime with albumen . 0-24 Moisture.....9-37 Loss......1*42 10000 The husk of barley is slightly acrid. Deprived of this, as in Scotch and pearl barley the seeds are highly nutritious. They are considered to be more laxative than the other cereal grains. The quantity of gluten which they yield, is, however, considerably less than that obtained from wheat, (see p. 97,) and as they contain less nitrogen, their nutri- tive equivalent is less than that of wheat, (see p. 27.) Count Rumford.f however, regarded barley-meal, when used for soup, as three or four times as nutritious as wheaten flour. It is a constituent of Densham's farinaceous food, (see p. 147,) being used, on account of its laxative operation, to counteract the supposed constipating effect of wheat Barley bread is somewhat more difficult of digestion than wheaten bread. Barley water is a light, mild, emollient demulcent liquid, which is slightly nutritive, and very easy of digestion. It forms an excellent diluent beverage in febrile and inflammatory cases, especially mala- dies of the chest, bowels, and urinary organs. It is prepared as follows :—Take two ounces and a half of pearl barley ; first wash away, with water, the foreign matters ad- hering to the seeds ; then add half a pint of water, and boil for a little while. This liquid being then thrown away, pour on them four pints (imperial) of boiling water; boil * It has been computed that there are 623,000 persons, consumers of oats in England and Wales. The export of oats from Ireland, chiefly for the English market, was, in 1825,12,025,632 bushels, and in the state of meal, 1,636,936 bushels. In France about 90,000,000 of bushels are produced annually, of which 25,000,000 of bushels are used by the inhabitants for food, chiefly in the southern part of the kingdom. Oats yield, on an average, eight pounds of meal for fourteen pounds of the grain. Oats have been used to some extent for the purpose of making malt, and oat ale is commended by Mr Mowbray as a pleasant summer drink. In former days, a drink called mum was manufactured for sale, in the preparation of which oatmeal was employed. English Geneva, or gin, is made of spirit obtained from oats and barley or malt, rectified or distilled, with the addition of juniper berries, oil of turpen- tine, &c. One hundred pounds of oatmeal will yield by distillation thirty-six pounds of spirits. One hundred millions of bushels of oats were grown in the United States in 1840, of which New York produced upwards of twenty millions, and Pennsylvania the same quantity.—L. t Essay on Feeding the Poor. RYE. 157 down to two pints, and strain. It is frequently flavored with sugar, and sometimes with slices of lemon-peel. Compound barley water is prepared by boiling together two pints of barley water, a pint of water, two ounces and a half of sliced figs, half an ounce of liquor- ice root, sliced and bruised, and two ounces and a half of raisins. They are boiled down to two pints, and strained. This decoction is emollient demulcent, and slightly aperient Mall.—This is barley which has been made to germinate by moisture and warmth, and afterwards dried, by which the vitality of the seed is destroyed. By this process a pecu- liar nitrogenous principle, called diastase, is produced. This, though it does not constitute more than l-500th part of the malt, serves to effect the conversion of the starch of the seed into dextrine and grape sugar, preliminary to the operation of brewing. The color of the malt varies according to the heat employed in drying it: pale or amber malt yields a fermentable infusion: brown or blown malt is not fermentable, but is used to communi- cate flavor ; while roasted or high-dried malt, which has been scorched, is employed for coloring. The infusion or decoction of malt, (called sweet-wort,) contains saccharine mat- ter, starch, glutinous matter, and mucilage. It is nutritious and laxative, and has been used as an antiscorbutic and tonic. Macbride recommended it in scurvy, but it is apt to increase the diarrhoea. As a tonic, it has been used in scrofulous affections, purulent discharges, as from the kidneys, lungs, &c, and in pulmonary consumption. The de- coction is prepared by boiling three ounces of malt in a quart of water. This quantity may be taken daily. 4. Rye.—The cultivated or common rye is the Secale cereale of botanists. Though in com- mon use among the northern inhabitants of Europe, it is rarely employed as food in England. COMPOSITION OF RYE. The Entire Seeds. Husk . Pure Meal Moisture 24*2 65*6 10-2 1000 Rye-Meal. Starch .... Gum..... Gluten .... Albumen .... Saccharine matter Husk .... Undetermined acid and loss 6107 1109 9*48 3-28 3*28 6*38 5*42 1000 It contains less gluten than wheat, (see p. 97,) and yields less nitrogen, (see pp. 145 and 28 :) hence it is inferior in nutritive properties to the latter. Rye-bread, called in Germany Schwarlzbrot, or Black Bread, has, according to Bceck- mann, the following composition :— COMPOSITION OF RYE BREAD. 1 2 Water Dry matter 33 - 31*418 67 - 68*592 100 - 100000 Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Ashes 45.09 -6*54 - 45*41 ■ 6-45 45.12 - - 44.89 3.25 - - 3.25 [ Dry matter . . 10000 10000 From these analyses Liebig calculates that 100 parts of fresh bread contain on an aver- age 30*15 parts of carbon. In those unaccustomed to it, rye bread is apt to occasion diarrhoea, which Dr. Cullen ascribes to its readily becoming acescent. Rye-pottage is said to be a useful article of diet in consumptive cases.* * Rye bread has one advantage, in its retaining its humidity at the same time that it preserves its flavor. Dr. Bell of Philadelphia remarks, (on " Regimen," &c, p. 144,) " When made of flour not too 158 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Rye is exceedingly subject to the attack of the Ergot; and to the use of ergotized rye a disease termed Ergotism has been ascribed. It assumes two forms, one called convul- sive,—the other, gangrenous ergotism. In the former, convulsion, in the latter, gangrene of the extremities, constitutes the most marked character.*)* [Buckwheat is a native of Asia, but somewhat extensively cultivated in many parts of the U. States for cakes. It is sometimes used for bread, but not often. In Germany, it forms a common ingredient in pottage and puddings; and in some countries, the poor mix buck- wheat meal with a small proportion of wheat flour, and make a kind of bread of the com- pound. Those who keep bees, frequently sow buckwheat in the vicinity, under a belief that these insects are partial to the flowers, and derive more materials for their honey from this than any other plant. Buckwheat may be converted into malt, and subsequently into beer and ardent spirit. In 1840, the quantity of buckwheat grown in Pennsylvania, amounted to 2,113,742 bushels; in New York, to 2,287,885; in Virginia, to 683,130; and in Ohio, to 681,215. The produce of the whole U. States was about eight millions and a half of bushels. In France there is annually raised about 25 millions of bushels of buckwheat it being very extensively employed among the people as an aliment. For making buckwheat cakes, take one quart of buckwheat meal, a handful of Indian meal, and a tea-spoonful of salt; mix them with two large spoonfuls of yeast, and suffi- cient cold water to make a thick batter. Put it in a warm place to rise, which will take 3 or 4 hours ; or, if mixed at night, let it stand where it is rather cool. Bake on a grid- dle, or in a pan.]—L. 5. Rice.—This is the well-known grain of Oryza sativa. While in the husk it is called paddy (padi or paddie) by the Malays, bras when deprived of the husk, and nasi after it has been boiled. It is extensively raised in India, China, and most, other Eastern coun- tries ; in the West Indies, Central America, and the United States; and in some of the southern countries of Europe. The kinds most esteemed in England are the Caroli- na and Patna rice. The composition of Carolina and Piedmont rice is, according to Braconnot as follows:— COMPOSITION OF RICE. Parenchyma (woody fibre) Glutinous matter Rancid, colorless, tallowy oil Uncrystallizable sugar .... Phosphate of lime Water .... Acetic acid, phosphate of potash, ) chloride of potassium, and vege- [ table salts of potash and lime . j Carolina Rice. Piedmont Rice. 85*07 4*80 3*60 013 0*29 0*71 0-40 500 traces 83*80 4*80 3*60 0*25 005 010 0*40 700 traces 100-00 100*00 finely bolted, rye bread is suited to certain forms of dyspepsia with costiveness, and the subjects of which are of a sanguine temperament." Spiced rye cakes were for a long period greatly in vogue in Europe— from the time of the Romans to that of Louis XIV. Rye meal boiled in water, (rye mush,) is very useful in cases of habitual costiveness, taken with molasses; or in cases less obstinate it may be eaten to advantage with milk.—L. t For further details, as well as for references, respecting ergot of rye, see my Elements of Materia Medica. RICE. 159 In the manufacture of rice starch by Mr. Orlando Jones's patent process, Patna rice is digested in a weak solution of caustic alkali, (soda,) by which the gluten, as it is techni- cally called, is dissolved and removed. The insoluble matter consists of starch, and a white substance termed by Mr. Jones, fibre. The last mentioned substance appears, when examined by the microscope, to consist chiefly of starch grains, but in drying it does not split into prismatic columnar masses,—in the language of the starch-maker, it does not race,—and, therefore, is not fit for commerce. Mr. Jones informs me that in manufactur- ing rice starch on the large scale, Patna rice, dried at from 160° to 180° F., for several days, yields 80 per cent, of marketable starch,* and 8*2 per cent, of fibre; the remaining 11*8 per cent, being made up of gluten, gruff or bran, and a small quantity of light starch, carried off in suspension by the alkaline solution.*)* If the alkaline solution of glutinous matter be carefully neutralized by an acid, the gluten is precipitated. I have received from Mr. Jones a quantity of this precipitate. It had a creamy consistence, an agreeable smell, and a bland taste, somewhat like pap. When heated it separates into two parts,—a coagulum or curd, and a serous or aqueous substance. By keeping it curdled, and subsequently underwent a peculiar kind of fer- mentation, evolving a smell somewhat like sour yeast. When fresh, it appeared to me well adapted for use as food; and I have a diabetic patient, in the London Hospital, now trying its effects. He uses it in the form of a baked pudding containing eggs. The only other vegetable food which he is permitted to take is cabbage. He has, however, a plen- tiful allowance of meat, cheese, milk, &c On this regimen the quantity of urine passed in twenty-four hours has beeti reduced, in about ten days, from 11 pints to 3«J. Its sp. gr., however, is but little changed. The granule of rice starch is excessively small. According to Vauquelin this starch begins to dissolve in water when this liquid has attained a temperature of from 122° F. to 132° F. The same authority states that an infusion of rice contains a little phosphate of lime, which is held in solution by the starch. Vogel obtained 1*05 per cent of oil from dried rice. " Rice," says Marsden,J " is the grand material of food on which a hundred millions of the inhabitants of the earth subsist, and although chiefly confined by nature to the re- gions included between, and bordering on the tropics, its cultivation is probably more ex- tensive than that of wheat, which the Europeans are wont to consider as the universal staff of life." Rice, though nutritious, is less so than wheat: this is proved by chemical analysis, which shows the much smaller proportion of glutinous or nitrogenous matter found in the former than in the latter grain. " Rice," says Boussingault? " is held up as a most nutritive food. But though I have lived long in countries which produce it, I am far from considering it as a substantial nourishment. I have always seen it, in ordinary use, replace bread; and when it has not been associated with meat, it has been employed with milk." ■ * According to Vogel, a dried rice yielded him 96 per cent, of starch. t Vauquelin (Memoircs du Museum d'Histoire NatureUe, t. iii. p, 229. 1817) says that rice contains scarcely an appreciable quantity of gluten. Braconnot, however, in his analyses, obtained 3*6 per cent. of gluten. It is probable that the 11*8 per cent, loss of weight, experienced by digesting rice in a weak alkaline solution, is ascribable, not merely to gluten, and the other substances named in the text, but also to gum, sugar, and water, contained in the grain. But even assuming this to be the case, 1 suspect that botli Vauquelin and Braconnot have underrated the glutinous or nitrogenous matter contained in rice. 31 y suspicion does not rest merely on Mr. Jones's results, but also on Boussingault's statement of the quantity of nitrogen contained in rice. X History of Sumatra, p. 05, 3d ed. 1811. § Ann. Chim. et Phys. Ixvii. p. 413. 160 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Rice is less laxative than the other cereal grains. Indeed, it is generally believed to possess a binding or constipating quality; and, in consequence, is frequently prescribed by medical men as a light, digestible, uninjurious article of food in diarrhoea and dysentery.* Various ill effects, such as disordered vision, -fee, have been ascribed to its use ;f but as I believe, unjustly so. Neither dees there appear to me to be any real foundation for the assertions of Dr. Tytler,] that malignant cholera (which he calls the morbus oryzeus, or rice disease) is induced by it. Rice is employed as a nutriment in a variety of forms. Mucilage of Rice, obtained by boiling well-washed rice in water, contains both starch and phosphate of lime in solution. It is used as a demulcent in diarrhoea. Rice-milk, rice-pudding, &c, are other prepara- tions of rice employed by invalids. Rice-cakes contain, besides flour, eggs, and sugar, about one third of their weight of rice.§ [Wild Rice, (Zizania Aqualica, Faluus Avena,) called by the Indians menomeme, is found in great abundance on the marshy margins of the northern lakes and waters of the upper branches of the Mississippi: it grows also as far south as Natchitoches, below lat 32c\ The grain has a long slender hull, much resembling that of oats, except that it is larger and darker. On it the migratory water-fowls fatten, before they wing their autumnal flight to the south. It furnishes the northern savages and the Canadian traders and hunters with their annual supplies of grain. But for this annual resource they could hardly exist. The wild rice is a tall, tubular, reedy, aquatic plant, not unlike the bas- tard cane of the southern countries. It springs up from waters of six or seven feet in depth, where the bottom is soft and muddy ; and it rises nearly to the same distance above the water. The grain, when detached from its chaff, is as white as the common rice. Puddings made of it, tasted to us like those made of Sago.—Bell on " Regimen," ticc, and Flint on the History and Geography of the Mississippi Valley.]—L. 6. Maize or Indian Corn.—This is the produce of the plant called by botanists the Zea Mays. Its composition, according to the analyses of Dr. Gorham and Bizio, is as fol- lows :— COMPOSITION OF MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. ml • . 1. Dr. Gorham's Analysis. Common State. Dried. Starchy ..........77*0 Zeine...........30 Albumen..........2*5 Gummy matter.........1*75 Saccharine matter.........1*45 84*599 3*296 2*747 1*922 1*593 %We regard rice as one of the most valuable of all the articles of food, in cases of derangement of the di- gestive organs. It nourishes, while it soothes the irritable mucous membrane, and while it supports the strength, it never seems to aggravate the existing disease. For acute or chronic affections of the alimen- tary canal, rice-water for drink, and rice-jelly for food, seem peculiarly well adapted, and in many cases appear almost to exert a specific influence in bringing about a recovery. The jelly may be prepared by boiling two ounces of the flour, and three ounces of loaf-sugar in a pint of water, until it becomes thick and transparent, flavoring with rose, or orange flower water. It may also be made by slow and careful boiling the whole rice, in a small quantity of water, until it assume the appearance and consistence of cream, when, on cooling, it assumes the form of a jelly. The same preparation is invaluable in convalescence from acute febrile and other maladies, and in the summer complaints of children.—L. t Bontius, Account of the Diseases, Natural History, tyc, of the East Indies, translated ir>*o English, 1769. Also, Bricheteau, in Tortuelle's EUm. d'Hygiene, 4me ed. X Lancet, 1833-34, vol. i. % Appendix, 8. || The substance sold under the name of Indian Corn Starch, in the London shops, is Potato Starch. LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 161 Common State. Dried. Extractive matter ... .....0.8 .. . 0*879 Cuticle and ligneous fibre ... ... 3*0 . . 3296 Phosphate, carbonate, and sulphate of lime, and loss . 1*5 . . 1*648 Water . ....... 90 . ' * 0 100*0 99.98 2. Bizio's Analysis. Starch . . ......80*920 (Fatty oil ......1152 Zeine . . ] Gliadine........2*499 (Zimome........2*107 Zimome...........0*945 Fatty oil...........0*323 Extractive matter and sugar.......1*987 Gum............2*283 Hordein...........7710 Acetic acid, salts, and loss........0074 100*000 MM. Dumas and Payen procured 9 per cent of yellow oil from maize ;* but Liebigf was able to obtain only 4*25 per cent. This oil consists, according to Fresenius, of carbon 79*68, hydrogen 11*53, and oxygen 8*79. In America, Asia, and some parts of Europe, maize is extensively used for human ex- istence. " Like the farina of the wheat," says Dr. Dunglison J, " it is formed into bread, alone or with various additions,—as milk, eggs, &c. It is a wholesome and nutritious aliment but with those who are unaccustomed to its use it is apt to produce diarrhoea; in consequence, probably, of the presence of the husk, with which it is always more or less mixed* in the state in which it is brought to market. It is on this account that it has been regarded as a bread but little adapted for those liable to, or laboring under, bowel affections, or in times when a choleric predisposition exists. The same author further adds,} that "the young grains, constituting the 'roasting ears,' make a delicious vegeta- ble, ready for the table, too, after the season for green peas has gone by. When very young, corn in this state is in its most digestible condition, the husk being comparatively tender; but when old, a considerable part of the grain withstands the digestive operation, and passes through the bowels unchanged. It need hardly, therefore, be added, that where bowel affections are rife, this vegetable ought to be used with caution. Corn meal, mixed with cheese, and baked into a kind of pudding, forms the dish which the Italians call polenia."\\ IT * - b. Leguminous Seeds.—Of the Leguminous Seeds the best known in England are Peas and Beans; but on the continent, and in eastern countries, Lentils are in common use. Their composition, as determined by Einhof, is as follows :— * See ante, p. So. t Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, Bd. xlv. S. 126. 1843. t Elements of Hygiene, p. 2S9. 1835. § Ibid. p. 294. || The substance sold in the London shops under the name of Polenta is the meal of Indian corn. IT Indian corn and potatoes, indigenous to our country, have contributed much to promote the health and longevity of mankind in both hemispheres. As they are among the cheapest, so also are they among the most wholesome of all articles of food employed by man. Good com weighs about 60 lbs. to the bushel and costs at present 56 cents per bushel, or nearly one cent per pound. Now a pound of corn when cooked, makes from two and a half to three and a half pounds of food, and this will suffice tor the daily support of a laboring man. If an individual could be supported on this alone, his annual expense for food would be but $3 65, or say $15 to a family of five. The average cost of po- tatoes may be put at about half a cent a pound, and allowing five pounds per day to an adult individual, tne expense will be about $9 a year; or for a family of five, (reckoning them at three and a half adults,) about $30. When we consider that it is not unusual for land to yield 100 bushels of corn to the acre, and 30 tons, or 67,200 pounds of potatoes to the acre, we may form some estimate of the population which this country is capable of supporting from the produce of the soil.-L. 162 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. Peas Garden Bean* (Pisum sativum.) (Vicia Faba.) Starch .... 32*45 . 3417 . Amylaceous fibre . . 21*88 . 15*89 . Legumine (Caseine) . 14*56 . 10*86 . Gum . . . 6*37 . 4*61 . Albumen . . . 1*72 . 0*81 . Sweet Extractive matter 2*11 . 3*54 . Membrane ... — . 10*05 . Water .... 14*06 . 15*63 . Salts ... 6*56 . 3*46 . Loss .... 0*29 . 0*98 . Kidney Beant Lentils (Phaseolus (Ervum Lena.' vulgaris.) . 35*94 . 32.81 1107 . 18*75 20*81 . 37*32 19*37 . 5*99 1*35 . 115 3*41 . 312 7*50 . _ (dried) . 0*55 . 0*57 — 0*29 100*00 100*00 10000 100*00 Peas, Beans, and Lentils, have been submitted to ultimate analysis by Boussingault} and by Playfair.J ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. Peas. Playfair. Peas. (dried in vacuo at 230° F.) Boussingault. Beans. Playfair. Lentils. Playfair. Carbon . . . 35*743 Hydrogen . . 5*401 Oxygen1 .' ! } »M8 Ashes . . . 3*440 Water . . . 16*000 46*5 6*2 40*0 4*2 31 00 38*24 5*54 * 38.10 3*71 14*11 37*38 5*54 37*98 3*20 15*90 100000 1000 10000 100*00 Liebig assumes, that the average amount of carbon in peas, beans, and lentils, in the state in which they are used, is 37 per cent.; an assumption sufficiently near the truth for all practical purposes. The quantity of nitrogen contained in these leguminous seeds is larger than that found in the cereal grains ; so that if the nutritive quality of vegetables was in proportion to the nitrogen which they contain, these seeds would be more nutritive than wheat; and, accordingly, in Boussingault's scale of nutritive equivalents, their nutritive equivalent is lower, or in other words, their nutritive quality is assumed to be higher than that of wheat, (see ante, pp. 27-28.) For 44 parts of horse beans, or ") 56 parts of white haricots, or I are said to be ) 1An , . . t _ 57 parts of lentils, or f equivalent to \ 10° Parte of wheat flour- 67 parts of peas, J Experience, however, by no means confirms these theoretical conclusions; and Liebig, therefore, offers the following explanation of the want of relation between their nutritive quality and the proportion of nitrogen which they contain. " The small quantity of phos- phates which the seeds of the lentils, beans, and peas contain," says Liebig.H "must be the cause of their small value as articles of nourishment since they surpass all other vegetable food in the quantity of nitrogen which enters into their composition. But as * This species is commonly known as broad bean, or Windsor bean. t The common dwarf kidney bean, the haricot of the French, is commonly termed French bean. It is a distinct species from the scarlet bean, (Phaseolus multiflorus.) X Memoires de VAcademie Royale des Sciences, t. xviii. p. 345. 1824. § Liebig's Animal Chemistry. || Chemistry in Us Application to Agriculture and Physiology, p. 147, 3d ed. OILY SEEDS. 163 the component parts of the bones (phosphate of lime and magnesia) are absent they satisfy the appetite without increasing the strength." I have already (see p. 28) remarked, that were this hypothesis correct, the addition of oone-ashes (earthy phosphates) ought to add greatly to the nutritive powers of the leguminous seeds, and would, in fact render them much more nutritious than the cereal grains. Peas and beans are very apt to occasion flatulence, and even colic; and their difficult digestibility augments with their age; for when very young they are sweet and more di- gestible, but less nourishing. They are usually regarded as being stimulating or heating,* and, on that account unfit for febrile and inflammatory cases. c. Seeds of Cupuliferaz.—The principal cupuliferous seeds used in this country as food is the Chestnut, (Castaneavesca.) It possesses considerable nutritive power, and in Lom- bardy is used as food by the lower classes. Its sweetness, especially when roasted, indi- cates the presence of sugar. No oil can be obtained from it by pressure. In the raw state, it is very difficult of digestion : it requires to be cooked (roasted) to split the starch grains which it contains, and thereby to render them readily digestible. Dyspeptics should carefully avoid chestnuts, even in the cooked slate. 2. Oily Seeds.—To this division belong the Almond, the Walnut, the Hazel-nut the Butter-nut, the Filbert, the Cashew-nut the Pistachio-nut the Stone-Pine-nut, (Pignoli- Pine,) and the Cocoa-nut. These contain vegetable albumen and caseine, on which their nutritive qualities principally depend. They also contain a quantity of fixed oil, which renders them very difficult of digestion ; and unfit for dyspeptics and others who have a delicate stomach. The Almond (both sweet and bitter) is the produce of the Amygdalus communis. BOULLAY AND VOGEL'S ANALYSES OF SWEET AND BITTER ALMONDS. Boullay's Analysis. VogeTs Analysis. Fixed oil . . 540 Volatile oil and hy- ) Quantity un- Emulsin . 240 drocyanic acid J determined. Liquid sugar 6*0 Fixed oil .... 28-0 Gum 3*0 Emulsin .... 30-0 Seed-coats . 5*0 Liquid sugar ... 6-5 Woody fibre 4*0 Gum.....3-0 Water 3*5 Seed-coats .... 8*5 Acetic acid and loss 0*5 Woody fibre ... 50 Loss.....19-0 Sweet almonds . 100*0 Bitter almonds . . 100*0 Sweet almonds are nutritive and emollient, but, on account of their fixed oil, difficult of digestion, at least when taken in large quantities, or by persons whose digestive powers are weak. When rancid they are still more apt to disorder the stomach. The husk or pellicle of the almqnd has been known to occasion nausea, uneasiness in the stomach and bowels, increased heat, cedematous swelling of the face, followed by nettle-rash. Dr. Winterbottomf suffered twice in this way from the use of unblanched sweet almonds ; but blanched almonds caused him no inconvenience. Almonds are employed as a des- sert, and in puddings, cakes, &c. For table use they should always be blanched, on ac- count of the injurious qualities of the husk. Bitter almonds are more or less poisonous to all classes of animals. They contain neither volatile oil nor prussic acid,J though they yield both these substances when sub- * Beans are believed, by veterinarians, to possess a stimulating influence over the horse. t Medical Facts and Observations, vol. v. p. 60. X For the facts in proof of the accuracy of this statement, see my Elements of Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 1535. 164 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. mitted to distillation with water; but they contain a peculiar crystallizable principle, called Amygdalin, whose composition is C40 H27 NO22. Now, when bitter almond cake is sub- mitted to distillation, with water, the amygdalin suffers decomposition by the united agencies of the emulsin (of the seed) and the water, and yields hydrocyanic acid, volatile oil of bitter almonds, sugar, formic acid, and water. PRODUCTS OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF AMYGDALIN BY EMULSIN. Atoms of 1 atom of Hydrocyanic Acid 2 atoms Volatile Oil of Bitter Almonds 2 atoms of Formic Acid Carbon 2 . 28 6 4 0 Hydrogen 12 5 2 7 Nitrogen 0 0 0 0 Oxygen 0 4 5 6 7 1 atom of Amygdalin . 40 27 1 22 When bitter almonds are chewed, the moisture of the mouth and the emulsin of the seeds effect the decomposition of the amygdalin, and the formation of prussic acid and volatile oil; and the poisonous operation of the seeds depends on the prussic acid. The smaller animals, as dogs, pigeons, &c, are readily destroyed by them. One drachm has killed a pigeon, and twenty seeds have destroyed a dog. On man they frequently prove injurious even in small doses, while, in large ones, they are highly deleterious. In some persons, nausea, vomiting, and purging, are readily caused by them. On the late Dr. Gregory* they produced first sickness, generally tremors, then vomiting, next a hot fit, with an eruption of nettle-rash, particularly on the upper part of the body. At the same time the face and head swelled very much, and there was a general feeling like in- toxication. The symptoms lasted only a few hours. The rash did not alternately appear and disappear, as in common nettle-rash. When eaten in large quantities, bitter almonds have caused serious and even fatal con- sequences. Pierer states that three children, having taken some of these seeds, were at- tacked in a few minutes with nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness and of speech, and convulsions; and Mr. Kennedy has noticed the case of a stout laborer who died after the use of a large quantity of them. These, and other observations referred to by Wibmer, Cullen, and others, prove that the poisonous effects of the bitter almond are similar to those of prussic acid, on the development of which, in fact their activity depends. Macaroons and Ratafia cakes, as well as Noyeau, which owe their peculiar flavor to these seeds, likewise prove injurious when taken in large quantities. The volatile oil of bitter almonds (frequently sold in the shops as essence of bitter almonds) is a most potent poison, being in general four times as powerful as the prussic acid kept in chemists' shops. A single drop of it will kill a cat in a few minutes. Sir Benjamin Brodie happening to touch his tongue with a probe which had been dipped in it, suffered, almost instantaneously, an indescribable sensation at the pit of the stomach, feebleness of the limbs, and loss of power over the muscles. These effects were, however, quite transient. A few years ago, a lady, in Aldersgate-street, London, was accidentally killed by it. She sent to a chemist's shop for beech nut oil, to destroy worms, and the person in the shop, mistaking the inquiry for peach nut oil, served her with oil of bitter almonds, of which she took half an ounce, by which she lost her life. An hypochondriacal gentleman, 48 years old, swallowed about two tea-spoonfuls of the oil, and in a few minutes after was found by his servant lying in bed, with his features spasmodically contracted, his * Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons. DRUPACEOUS FRUITS. 165 eyes fixed, staring, and turned upwards, and his chest heaving convulsively and hur- riedly. A physician, who entered the room twenty minutes after the draught had been taken, found him quite insensible, the pupils immoveable, the breathing stertorous and slow, the pulse feeble, and only thirty in a minute, and the breath exhaling strongly the odor of bitter almonds. Death ensued ten minutes afterwards. With these facts before us, it is, I conceive, highly improper for ignorant persons to employ it; yet it is extensively used by cooks and confectioners for flavoring !* ORDER II. FLESHY FRUITS. A very considerable number of fleshy or succulent fruits are employed as food. Of these, however, it is intended to notice only such as are in most frequent use in this country. 1. Drupaceous or Stone Fruits.—These are called by botanists Drupes. They con- tain one or two seeds (popularly termed the kernels) contained in a bony endocarp, com- monly called the stone, on the outside of which is a soft fleshy mesocarp or sarcocarp, (usually known as the pulp or flesh of the fruit) which is covered by the membranous epicarp, (generally denominated the skin.) From the Almond tribe are obtained several drupes in common use in England. Such are the Peach, the Nectarine, the Apricot the Plum, and the Cherry. They are usually regarded as difficult of digestion; and the popular opinion is probably the correct one, for Dr. Beaumont found that from six to ten hours were required for the artificial diges- tion of peaches. They are sometimes eaten with the view to open the bowels. When taken too freely they are apt to disorder the digestive organs, and to occasion griping and relaxation. The following is the composition of several of these fruits, according to Berard.f COMPOSITION OF DRUPACEOUS FRUITS OF THE ALMOND TRD3E. APRICOT. GREEN GAGE (rEINE CLAUDE.) PEACH 1 d'ete.) cherries (rofales.) Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. 0*76 0*17 0*45 0-28 0*41 0*93 0*21 0*57 004 0*10 003 0*08 0-27 " 005 " 3*61 1*86 1*26 111 3*01 1-21 2*44 112 410 5-12 5*53 2*06 4*22 4-85 6*01 3*23 traces 1C-48 17*71 24*81 0*63 11*61 112 18*12 2.70 1*80 0*45 0*56 1*07 1*10 1*75 201 very email quantity very small quantity traces traces 0-08 0*06 0*14 0*10 89*39 74*57 74*57 71*10 90*31 80-24 88*28 74*85 100*60 100*40 100*00 100*00 100*00 100*00 100*00 10000 * The Bitter Almond forms the basis of the delicious cordial called Creme de Noyeau. The following embrace the principal varieties of the Almond which are now cultivated : Sweet Soft-shelled Almond, (Amanda Sultan a Coque Tendre;) Amande Princesse, oudes Dames ; Amande Stdtan; Amande Pistache; Bitter Almurcl, (Amande Amere;)'Bitter Soft-shelled Almond, (Amande Amere a Coque Tendre;) Bitter Hard-shelled Almond, (Amande Amere a Coquc Dure;) Peach Almond, (Amande Pecker ,*) Great Flowering Almond; Dwarf Double Flowering Almond. The varieties of Almond are propagated by inoculation either on the native stocks of the common Almond, or on stocks of the peach or plum. They are equally as hardy as the peach, and flourish equally as well in this country.—L. t Ann. de Chimie et de Physique. 1821. Nitrogenous mat Coloring matter Lignine Gum Sugar Malic acid Lime Water . 166 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. In these analyses, however, no mention is made of vegetable jelly, (pectine or pectic acid,) which, as I have before stated, (see p. 69,) is always a constituent of these fruits ; but it is probable that, in the above table, it is included under the denomination of gum. The highly palatable flesh of the Peach is slightly nutritious from the nitrogenous mat- ter, sugar, gum, and pectine, which it contains, while the malic acid renders it cooling. Both in the fresh and preserved state it is employed as a delicious dessert Its use is objectionable in gouty persons, and in those whose bowels are easily disordered. When stewed with sugar it may be given as a mild laxative to convalescents.* The Nectarine differs from the Peach in having a smooth skin. This trivial distinction has led many botanists to regard it as a distinct species. Gardeners cultivate several hundred sorts of the Plum, (Prunus damestica.) De Can- dolle admits the following as distinct varieties :f— a. Armeniotdes, including the Mirabelle Plum. /?. Claudiana, including the Green Gage. y. Myrobalana, including the Myrobalan Plum. 6. Damascena, including the Damask Plum. t. Turonensis, including the Orleans Plum. 5. Juliana, including the" Officinal Prune. 17. Catharinea, including the St. Catharine Plum. 6. Aubertiana, including the Magnun Bonum, or Mogul Plum. 1. Prunealina, including the Damson. Dried plums, called prunes, are prepared in warm countries by drying the plums on hurdles by solar heat; but in colder climates artificial heat is employed. In France both methods are adopted ; the fruit being exposed to the heat of an oven, and to that of the sun, on alternate days. Table prunes are prepared from the larger kinds of plum—as the Saint Catharine and the Reine-Claude, (Green Gage:) Medicinal Prunes from the St. Julien. The former has an agreeable, very sweet taste ; the latter are somewhat austere. They are principally imported from Bordeaux. The edible part is the pulp. Fresh ripe plums, taken in moderate quantity, are wholesome and nutritive; but when eaten freely are apt to disorder the bowels ; an effect more readily excited by the unripe fruit.J The medicinal prune is slightly laxative. The finer kinds of plums are employed at the table as a delicious dessert: the inferior qualities are used in pies, tarts, conserves, and sweetmeats. The larger prunes are eaten at table as a dessert. The medicinal prunes form an agreeable and mild laxative for children, and during convalescence from frebrile and inflammatory disorders. The Cherry possesses dietetical properties similar to those of the plum. In the unripe state it readily disorders the bowels. The stones of all these drupaceous fruits should not be swallowed, as they are apt to * Appendix, 9. t Kenrick, in his "New American Orchardist," enumerates about seventy varieties of plum, which are cultivated in Europe and this country, of which fifty-two are produced here. Though the plum is generally considered a native of Asia, it is yet indigenous to North America, and is found from Canada to Mexico. The one best known, perhaps, is the Red o.r Yellow Plum, (Prunus Americana,) of a reddish- orange when ripe, with a juicy yellow pulp, and a thick tough skin, of from half an inch to an inch in diameter. The Chickasaw Plum is the domesticated fruit of the Prunus Chicasa, (va. Normalis of Michaux,) a native of the country west of the Mississippi, but extensively cultivated in the southwest- ern states and Arkansas, and sometimes in the northern states. The fruit is half an inch or more in ! diameter, with a thin skin and a tender pulp, and pleasant to the taste. The Beach Plum is the fruit i of the Prunus Maritima, (Wang,) is about half an inch in diameter, and often pretty well flavored, but |! only arrives to perfection on a warm sandy beach.—[Torrey & Gray's Flora.]—L. ' X Unripe plums are probably more unwholesome than any other kind of unripe fruit, often causing ! bowel complaints, dysentery, &c. In our cities they occasion much sickness, especially among chil- dren, in the summer and autumnal months.—L. POMACEOUS FRUITS. 167 cause intestinal obstruction. I have known fatal enteritic inflammation produced by the accumulation of cherry-stones in the appendix caeci. The kernels or seeds yield, like the almond, prussic acid.*' The Olive is a drupaceous fruit, which, when ripe, is remarkable for its sarcocarp abounding in a bland fixed oil, (see Olive Oil, p. 85-86.) Olives farcies a Vhuile are some- times imported. The preserved or pickled oliv;s, admired by most persons as a dessert, are the green unripe fruit, deprived of part of their bitterness by soaking them in water, and then preserved in an aromatized solution of salt Several varieties are met with in commerce, but the most common is the small French olive and the large Spanish olive. Olives a la picholine have been soaked in a solution of lime or alkali. Pickled olives are employed at the table to excite the appetite for, as well as to improve the flavor of, wine. They are also used in some sauces. The Date is a drupaceous fruit, of vast importance in the East, for a considerable por- tion of the inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, subsist in great part on it. It is the produce of the date palm, or Phcenix daclylifera of botanists. Dates have been recently analyzed by Reinsch,f who gives the following as their constituents:— COMPOSITION OF DATES. Kernel. Flesh. Uncrystallizable sugar Pectin Pectinaceous gum Bassorine . 58*0 8*9 3*4 41 Fatty oil......0-2 Wax.......01 Fibre, with traces of coloring matter? 0.3 and tannic acid . . . -5 Water......24*0 1010 Fibre.......39*6 Gummy matter.....36*4 Gum and mucus Epidermis (albumen) An astringent acid (catechuic 1) Stearine..... Oleine..... Water..... 2*5 0*6 71 0*5 0*3 13*0 100.0 It is obvious from this analysis that sugar is the leading alimentary constituent of this fruit. In this country dates are used principally as condiments. 2. Pomaceous Fruits or Apples.—These are the produce of the sub-order Pomeaz of Rosaceous plants. The edible or pulpy portion of the fruit is the sarcocarp or fleshy mesocarp, which is covered on the outside by a membranous epicarp, (commonly called the peel or skin,) and lined on the inner side by a cartilaginous endocarp (the core) en- closing the seed. Apples, Pears, and Quinces, are familiar examples of this division of fruits. The following are the results of Berard's analysis of the Jargonelle pear:— COMPOSITION OF JARGONELLE, (CUISSE-MADAME.) Nitrogenous matter Coloring matter Lignine Gum Sugar Malic acid Lime Water UNRIPE. RIPE. 0*08 0*21 0*08 001 3-80 219 317 2*07 6*45 11*52 011 008 003 0*04 86*28 83*88 100*00 100*00 resin sol- uble in alcohol 0*301 I 0*058 2*534 3*400 11*417 0*786 traces 81500 99*99 * The principal cherries indigenous to our country are the Sand Cherry, (Cerasus pumila,) Wild Red Cherry, or Bird Cherry, (Cerasus Pennsylvanica,) Choke Cherry, (Cerasus Virginiana,) Wild Cherry, Black Cherry, (C. serotina.) Besides these, there is the fruit of the C. ilicifolius, C. demissa, C. emar- ginata, C. umbellata, and probably a few others.—-L. + Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1810, p. 400. 168 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. No mention is here made of vegetable jelly, (pectine or pectic acid,) which the author included, I presume, under the head of gum. Apples and Pears are very agreeable fruits, but they are not in general regarded as easy of digestion ; and apples, being of a much firmer texture, are believed to be more, slowly digested than pears. "In the case of a dyspeptic stomach," says Dr. Cullen, "I have known apples, a long time after they had been taken down, brought up again by eructa- tion in the same masses they had been swallowed, and that even after two days." Dr. Beaumont's experiments, however, by no means confirm ordinary experience, for they appear to show that apples, even when raw, are readily digestible. DIGESTIBILITY OF APPLES. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Apples, sweet, mellow " sour, mellow " sour, hard . Apple dumpling. . Raw Boiled 1 30 2 0 2 50 3 0 Masticated Masticated Entire pieces 6 45 8 30 18 0 Both apples and pears are occasionally eaten to move the bowels. Roasted apples are much easier of digestion than raw apples. They gently promote relaxation of bowels; and are, therefore, used by persons troubled with habitual constipation.* The Quince is not eatable in its raw state; but stewed in pies or tarts, along with ap- ples, it is much esteemed. The expressed juice is cooling and astringent. An excellent marmalade (see p. 70) and syrup are prepared from the quince by the confectioner. Quince seeds abound in mucilage. 3. Baccate or Berried Fruits. Berries.—To this division belong the Currant, the Gooseberry, the Whortleberry, the Cranberry, the Elderberry, and the Grape ; the eatable part of which is the pulp. The epicarp, (commonly called skin or husk,) and the seeds * The apple is also a native of the East, but to such perfection has its cultivation been brought in the United States, that American apples are considered among the finest in the world. Those, however, from New York and New Jersey are the most prized, and among the last the Newtown Pippin is much esteemed. The annual export of apples from the United States, as estimated from an average of four years, ending in 1837, was 19,462 barrels, valued at 35,886 dollars. Of this quantity, 3,237 barrels were shipped for England ; 6,782 were sent to the British North American colonies ; and 4,280 to the island of Cuba. The value of the products of the orchard (including peaches) in the United States, in 1840 was about 8,000,000 of dollars. Although apples are very generally used in a raw state, yet we have much doubt as to their being easily digested, especially by persons of weak digestion. Dr. Bell remarks that "the apple containing both malic and acetic acids, with some sugar, has a pleasant and refreshing flavor, and to persons in health constitutes a useful addition to bread or other farinaceous food. It is inimical to the dyspeptic the rheumatic, the gouty, and those troubled with renal and cutaneous disorders ; ft is often a source of serious, sometimes fatal, disease in children who have not masticated the fruit sufficiently, but swallowed it in pieces of some size. Subjected to various changes by roasting, baking, and stewing, and the addition of sugar, apples acquire more nutritive value, and when eaten, as they often are, with milk or cream and bread, may be regarded as furnishing a meal equal to the subsequent requirements of active exer- cise, if not of labor. Duduit tells us that " one third part of boiled apple pulp, baked with two thirds of flour, and properly fermented with yeast for twelve hours, makes a very good bread, full of eyes, and quite palatable and light."— L. GRAPES. 169 are indigestible, and should not be swallowed. The pulp, when freely eaten, slightly re- laxes the bowels. In the unripe state these fruits readily disorder the alimentary canal, and occasion griping. The juice of Red Currants has, according to Proust, the following composition :_ COMPOSITION OF RED CURRANT JUICE. Citric Acid, Malic Acid, Sugar, Vegetable Jelly, Gum, Extractive. These fruits are very agreeable and cooling, and are eaten both raw and in tarts. A jelly and a jam are prepared from them, (see p. 70-71.) The constituents of Black Currants are similar to those of red currants, with the ad- dition of a peculiar volatile principle and a violet coloring matter. A jelly, (see p. 70,) a jam, (see p. 71,) a paste, and fruit lozenges, are made from them. These different pre- parations are employed in febrile and inflammatory cases, and are in particular request in hoarseness and affections of the throat. Gooseberries have been analyzed by Berard. Their composition is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF GOOSEBERRIES. UNRIPE. RIPE. Nitrogenous matter 107 0-86 Coloring matter 003 Lignine and seeds 8*45 801 Gum 1*36 0-78 Sugar Malic acid 0-52 6*24 1-80 2*41 Citric acid 012 0-3] Lime 0-24 0*29 Water . 86-41 8110 10000 lOTj-00 In their general properties they agree with currants. Their husks are indigestible, and should not be swallowed. In the unripe state, gooseberries are apt to gripe, and other- wise.disturb the bowels. The Cranberry is usually eaten when baked; and in this way proves an agreeable, and, in general, harmless fruit. The juice of the Elderberry contains malic acid, a little citric acid, sugar, pectin, and coloring matter. The inspissated juice, (elder rob,) diluted with water, forms a cooling beverage in febrile and inflammatory disorders. The berries are principally employed in the preparation of elder wine. The Grape is one of the most valuable and esteemed of fruits. Considered with regard to shape and color, the different varieties may be thus arranged:— 1. Round, dark-red, purple, or black grapes.—This division includes a considerable num- ber of sorts. The grapes from which port wine* is procured belong to this division. The black Muscardine, common on dwelling-houses about London, come under this head. The most remarkable variety of this division is the black Corinthian grape, which, when dried, constitutes the currant of the grocer. This was formerly produced at Corinth, (whence its name,) but it is now grown at Zante, Cephalonia, Patras, &c. At Zante the grapes are gathered in August, disposed in couches on the ground to dry, cleaned, and laid up in magazines, (called seraglios,) where they eventually adhere so firmly as to * In September, 1842, my friend Mr. Gassiot, of the firm of Martinez, Gasslot & Co., of Mark lane, London, showed me sixteen sorts of grapes which had been sent by their agent at Oporto as the grapes yielding port wine. They were all round, dark, and rather small. Those numbered " 2" and "16" 170 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. require digging out. They require eight, ten or fourteen days for drying. For exporta- tion they are trod in barrels. They form one of the constituents of the well-known English dish, plum pudding. 2. Oval, dark-red, purple, or black grapes.—To this division belong the black and purple Hamburgh grapes. 3. Round and white grapes.—Of this there are several sorts. 4. Oval and white grapes.—-The Portugal grape comes under this division. It is im- ported, packed in saw-dust, and contained in earthen jars, from Portugal and Spain The berries are large, fleshy, sweet, and slightly acidulous. They keep a long time after they have ripened. 5. Red, rose-colored, grayish, or striped grapes.—-Of'this there are several sorts ^ The juice of both unripe and ripe grapes has been examined by several chemists. The following are the most important results :— COMPOSITION OF GRAPE JUICE. JUICE OP THE UNRIPE GRAPE. Proust. Extractive. Malic acid, a little. Citric acid, much. Bitartrate of potash Sulphate of potash. Sulphate of lime. Unripe Grape juice Geiger. f Wax 1. Deposit I chloro hylle. from the t ^^ juice. 2. Filtered juice. Glutinous matter. Tannin. Extractive. Sugar (uncrystallizable.) Gallic acid. Tartaric acid (free) about 1 12 per cent. Malic acid (free) about 2* 19 per cent. Bitartrate of potash. Malate, phosphate, sulph- ate, and muriate of lime. Juice of White Grape of good quality. JUICE OP THE RIPE GRAPE. Proust. Extractive. Sugar (granular and uncrystallizable.) Gum. Glutinous matter. Malic acid, a little. Citric acid, a little. (tartaric, Bracon- not.) Bitartrate of potash Berard. Odorous matter. Sugar. Gum. Glutinous matter. Malic acid. Malate of lime. Bitartrate of potash. Supertartrate of lime. Ripe Grape juice. Ripe Grape juice. The composition of grape sugar (called also granular sugar or glucose) has been already stated, (see p. 55.) The bitartrate of potash contained in grape juice deposits, along with coloring and other matters, from wine, and forms what are termed crude tartar or argol, were the largest berries, and also formed the largest bunches; while " 7" and " 14" were the smallest. I subjoin the list of grapes, with the names and remarks, as sent by Messrs. Martinez & Gassiot's Oporto agent:— "LIST OF THE GRAPES, AS SHIPPED. . Dark colored wine. . Full bodied. . Good. No. 1. Tinta Francisca 2. Touriga 3. Tinta amarella ) 7. " Cao . . S 4. " grossa 5. Bastardo . 6. Alvarelhdo . 8. Negrao 9. Mourisco preto . 10. Castilloa. 11. Souzdo 12. Donzelinho do CasteUo 13. Tinta da Lameira 14. Bastardeira 15. Moretto 16. Noveira.......Gives abundance of wine, but of the worst quality; has the name of the lPoor Man's Wine.' " Give abundance, but not of the best. Rich. Good flavor, but little color. Body and flavor. Gives the darkest colored, but in general bad wine. Very little color, and not the best wine. Color and flavor. Good wine. GRAPES. 171 and the crust of wine. Crude tartar, when purified and deprived of coloring matter, constitutes cream of tartar, from which tartaric acid is obtained, (see p. 74.) Grapes when dried are called Raisins. In Granada the finest kinds of raisins, viz. the Muscatels and the Blooms, are sun-dried; while the Lexias (so called from the liquor in which they are immersed,) are dipped in a mixture of water, ashes, and oil, and after- wards sun-dried. By this treatment the juice exudes and candies on the fruit The raisins of Valentia are prepared by steeping them in boiling water, to which a lye of vine stems has been added. The alkaline solution serves to remove the waxy coat which checks the drying of the berry. The varieties of raisins known in the market are dis- tinguished partly from their place of growth, as Valenlias and Smyrnas; partly from the variety of grape from which they are prepared, as Sultanas, Blooms, and Muscatels; and partly from the mode of curing them, as Raisins of the Sun. Muscatels are the finest: Sultanas are stoneless. The raisins of Malaga are of three kinds: 1st Muscatels ; 2dly, Sun or Bloom Raisins; and 3dly, Lexia Raisins. The small or Corinthian raisins, (called, by grocers, currants,) have been already no- ticed, (see p. 169.) Fresh grapes, when ripe, are wholesome, nutritious, refrigerant, and, when taken freely, diuretic and laxative; but the skin and the seeds are indigestible, and should be rejected. In the alvine discharges of children who have eaten plum pudding, the currants (black Corinthian raisin) will be found almost entirely undigested. " I think we may assert," says Dr. Cullen, "that grapes which contain a large quantity of sugar, are, if taken with- out their husks, the safest and most nutritive of summer fruits." They are used at table as a dessert, and in febrile and inflammatory complaints as a very agreeable fruit, which allays thirst and checks febrile heat. In the inflammatory form of dyspepsia, (called by Sir James Clark and others gastritic dyspepsia,) and in pulmonary affections, ripe grapes are eaten in considerable quantities, in Switzerland and other parts of the continent occa- sionally with considerable benefit, and forming what is called the " Cure de Raisins." It deserves consideration how far the bitartrate of potash, contained in grapes, may con- tribute to the beneficial effect. For this salt, like the other vegetable alkaline salts, is con- verted, in the system, into an alkaline carbonate at the expense of atmospheric oxygen, (see p. 15.) In tubercular phthisis the system manifests no want, but rather redundancy, of oxygen. May not the bitartrate, in such cases, prove useful by appropriating to itself a portion of oxygen 1 If so, in bronchitis with a purple tint the same treatment would prove injurious, as there is a manifest deficiency of oxygen in the system* Raisins are somewhat more nutritive and less refrigerant than fresh grapes ; for they abound more in sugar and less in acid. If eaten freely they are apt to disorder the di- gestive organs and cause flatulence. They are employed at the table as a dessert and are used in various articles of pastry.f 4. The Orange or Aurantiaceous Fruits.—These fruits, called by botanists the Hesperidium or Auranlium, are the produce of the genus Citrus: they are the Orange, the Lemon, the Lime, the Citron, and the Shaddock. Their rind is leathery or spongy: the external portion, c&Wedflavedo or zesle, is yellow, and contains a volatile oil lodged in rounded or vesicular receptacles. The acid juice of the fruit is lodged in small pulpy bags, which are readily separated from each other. * Appendix, 10. t Raisins may be prepared in the following manner—Dip the ripe clusters of grapes, without separa- ting them from the branches, in a lye of wood-ashes, containing a small portion of sweet oil, and dry bv exposure to the sun.—L. 172 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Lemons, are imported from Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Azores. Their rind contains a volatile oil, (essence of lemons,) a bitter principle, (aurantiin,) and a peculiar crystalline substance, (hesperidin.) It is a grateful aromatic and stomachic, and is used as a flavor- ing substance. Candied lemon peel is an agreeable stomachic, and is employed as a des- sert and in confectionery. Lemon Juice is a slightly turbid, very sour liquid, with a grate- ful flavor. Owing to the mucilaginous matter which it contains, it readily becomes mouldy, and suffers decomposition. Its constituents, according to Proust, are as follows:— COMPOSITION OF LEMON JUICE. Citric acid. Bitter extractive. Malic acid. Water. Gum. The relative proportions of these ingredients vary somewhat according to the degree of ripeness of the fruit. One fluid ounce (two table-spoonfuls) of good juice is equal to thirty-two grains of crystallized citric acid, and saturates about 45$ grs. of bicarbonate of potash. Lemon juice furnishes a most agreeable and refreshing beverage, and proves refrigerant and anti-scorbutic. It may be either added to barley water, or mixed with sugar and water to form Lemonade.* The latter may be extemporaneously made, by adding two lemons sliced, and two ounces of sugar, to two pints of boiling water, and digesting until cold. A somewhat similar beverage has been denominated King's Cup. These acidulated drinks are exceedingly useful for allaying thirst, and as refrigerants in febrile and inflammatory complaints, and in hemorrhages. In the latter maladies iced lemonade is to be preferred. When there is nausea or a tendency to sickness, effervescent lemonade is useful. Lemon juice has long been justly regarded as a valuable anti-scorbutic; but on account of the difficulty of preserving it a solution of crystallized citric acid is often substituted. Experience, however, has proved that it is inferior to the recent juice. Even the con- centrated juice is not equal to the fresh fruit. Hence Sir Gilbert Blane suggested that the juice should be preserved by the addition of a little spirit, without the employment of heat; and this plan is usually followed. Lemon juice is not an infallible specific for scurvy, as Sir Gilbert Blane and some others have supposed; for occasionally the malady rages despite of the copious use of itf * " Lemonade, as a beverage in putrid diseases, was first introduced by the French physicians in the beginning of the seventeenth century; and about the year 1660, an Italian, from Florence, having learnt the process of freezing confectionery, conceived the happy idea of converting such beverage into ice. This found a ready sale, and was the occasion of so great an increase in the number of sellers of lemonade, that in the year 1676 the Limonadiers of Paris were formed into a company, and received a patent from government." (Dr- Paris, Pharmacologia.) t The following extract from Dr. Johnson's Medico-Chirurgical Remew, for 1824, serves to illustrate the statement in the text:— " Lemon Juice in Scurvy.—It has long been known to many intelligent observers that salt provisions are not the only cause of scurvy, and that lemon juice is by no means an infallible cure for the disease, however induced, notwithstanding the evidence of Sir Gilbert Blane, so positively advanced to lhe contrary. In support of our position,"we shall here bring forward an abstract from an official docu- ment of unquestionable authenticity and recent occurrence In the year 1822, his majesty's ship Leander sailed from Trincomalee for the Cape of Good Hope, taking on board the mechanics of the Dock Yard establishment, then reduced on the island. There were also embarked twenty-six invalids, and all the sick that could be removed from the hospital. These invalids and sick were principally affected witn chronic hepatitis, dysentery, and phthisis pul- monalisit all of which (even some who were expectorating large quantities of purulent matter) recov- ered on the passage to the Cape. This good fortune waacounterbalanced by scurvy, which broke out among the crew, and in spite of large quantities of lemon-juice plentifully administered, in conjunction CUCURBITACEOUS FRUITS. 173 The properties and the uses of the Lime are similar to those of the Lemon. Lime juice contains the same ingredients as lemon juice, but in somewhat different proportions. The Common or Sweet Orange is a most delicious fruit. Its juice has the following composition:— COMPOSITION OF ORANGE JUICE Citric Acid. Malic Acid. Mucilage. Albumen. Sugar. Citrate of Lime. Water. The proportions, however, vary with the degree of ripeness of the fruit. The juice of the ripe orange is a refreshing and grateful beverage, and is extensively used at the table. In febrile and inflammatory complaints it is a valuable refrigerant; allaying thirst and di- minishing preternatural heat The orange, when unripe, is very apt to cause griping; but when quite ripe, is rarely inadmissible: the seeds (called pips) and rind, however, should be rejected. Orange peel is used as a flavoring agent It is an agreeable sto machic. The Citron is seldom brought to the table in the raw state, but it yields some excellent preserves and sweetmeats. The juice is employed to flavor punch and negus. It forms, with sugar and water, a refreshing refrigerant beverage. Candied Citron peel is a favor- ite condiment and sweetmeat. The Seville Orange has a rough, sour, and somewhat bitter juice, which is used by the cook to flavor jellies, and for other purposes. The peel of the Seville orange, and also the small dried green fruits (Orangelles or Curacoa Oranges) of both the Seville and Sweet oranges, are employed for flavoring the liqueur termed Curagoa (p. 80) and other sub- stances. Candied orange peel is used as a condiment. 5. Cucurbitaceous Fruits ; Pepones ; Gourds.—Those cucurbitaceous fruits which are employed for alimentary purposes contain a pulpy, aqueous, sweet or somewhat acidulous, refreshing flesh, which, though agreeable to the palate, is difficult of digestion, and when eaten freely, relaxes the bowels, and sometimes occasions griping pain. It yields but little nutritive matter, and readily disagrees with the dyspeptic. Pepper is eaten with several of them with the view of assisting their digestion, and preventing any injurious effect on the stomach. The Cucumber is the most commonly employed, and, therefore, the best known fruit of this order. Its constituents, according to John, are as follows:— with every other antiscorbutic which l£e ship could produce, spread to an alarming extent, and in one case proved fatal. Had they not reached the Cape at the time they did, the Leander would have pre- sented as deplorable a spectacle as the Anson [Centurion,] at Juan Fernandez, notwithstanding the supposed infallible specific, lemon juice, which, in no instance, on board the Leander, had the slightest effect in even checking the ravages of the scurvy. Immediately the ship reached the Cape, and the crew got plenty of animal food in conjunction with vegetables, they rapidly recovered, (see Mr. Bamp- field's remarks on the subject, in his valuable work on Tropical Dysentery.) Specimens of the lemon juice used were transmitted to the Victualling Board, and carefully analyzed in London. It was found to be perfectly good."—[Scurvy is generally caused by a close humid atmosphere, in connection with faulty vegetable aliment. If a ship is kept dry and well ventilated, and furnished with good wa- ter, a diet consisting chiefly of salt provisions will not produce scurvy, especially if the crew be sup- plied with good biscuit, and a small allowance of peas and beans, with molasses and vinegar. It is a mistaken notion lhat vegetable acids will cure or even prevent scurvy, if the above precautions are neglected]—L. 174 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF THE GREEN CUCUMBER. The Peeled Fruit. Sugar and extractive . . . Chlorophylle...... Odorous matter..... Fungus-like membrane (lignin?) with phos- phate of lime . . Soluble albumen . . Mucus with free phos-1 phoric acid, an ammo- niacal salt, malate, phosphate, sulphate, > and muriate of potash, and phosphate of lime | and iron . . .J Water....... 1-66 0-04 ? 0-53 0-13 0.50 9714 100-00 The Fresh Peel. Solid matters (similar to"1 those of the peeled fruit, but containing much fun- gus-like matter) Water..... 15 85 100 In its raw state the cucumber is slowly, and with difficulty, digested, and is usually eaten with condiments (pepper, vinegar, and oil) as a salad; but its employment should be carefully avoided by dyspeptics. When stewed it forms a light and wholesome food. Young cucumbers, (called gherkins,) as well as the full-grown fruits, are eaten as condi- ments, when pickled. The Melon, when in perfection, is a very delicious fruit The Cantaloupe variety was examined by Payen,* who obtained the following results :— COMPOSITION OF THE CANTALOUPE MELON. 100 parts of Melon. (Flesh Internal portion 46*29 0*57 ^Rind {Juice....... Do. in the pulp . . . Fibrous pulp, washed and dried....... {Juice around the seeds.........6*97 Fresh seeds........1-54 Fibres .........019 .............44*44 10000 Flesh of the Melon. Crystallizable sugar Pectic acid . . . Uncrystallizable su- gar Vegetable albumen Mucilage Free acid Saponifiable fat Nitrogenous matter Coloring matter Aromatic matter Starch Lignin Salts Water 1-5 traces 1 ► 98-5 1000 The melon, like other cucurbitaceous fruits, is very apt to disagree with delicate sto- machs, and, to obviate this, is usually eaten with salt and pepper, and sometimes with sugar. The Water Melon possesses similar properties to tne melon. The Vegetable Marrow, when cooked by boiling, forms a very agreeable and wholesome article of food. The Pumpkin (Pompion) agrees with the other cucurbitaceous fruits in its alimentary qualities. 6. Leguminous Fruits ; Legumes or Pods.—The pulpy mesocarp or sarcocarp of the Tamarind possesses alimentary properties. Its composition, according to Vauquelin, is as follows:— COMPOSITION OF TAMARINDS. Citric acid Tartaric acid . Malic acid Bitartrate of potash Sugar 9*40 1*55 0*45 3-25 12*5 Journal dt Chimie Med. t. iii. p. 15. 1827. FIGS—MULBERRIES. 175 Gum..........4-7 Vegetable jelly (pectine)......6*25 Parenchyma (lignine).......34*35 Water..........27*55 100-00 Tamarind pulp is slightly nutritive. It allays thirst, diminishes febrile heat and when eaten freely proves laxative. It is adapted for febrile and inflammatory cases ; and is sometimes employed to form whey, (see Tamarind Whey, p. 124.) The East Indian tamarind has a much longer pod than the West Indian fruit. The unripe pods of Phaseolus vulgaris, (Kidney bean or Haricot,) commonly called French beans, form, when boiled, a favorite dish; though their nutritive properties are but slight. They are also eaten as a pickle. Scarlet beans, (the unripe pods of Phaseolus multiflorus,) when boiled, are also brought to table, and greatly resemble the French bean, to which they are preferred by many. 7. Syconus.—The Fig is a familiar illustration of the collective fruit called by botanists the Syconus. It consists of a pulpy or fleshy pear-shaped receptacle, within which are many seed-like bodies, which are the fruits (achenia) properly so called. In the green or unripe state figs contain an acrid bitter juice ; but as they ripen, this disappears, and is replaced by sugar ; and in this state they form an agreeable and wholesome food. The figs, which are imported, have been dried in the sun or in ovens, are compressed, covered with a whitish saccharine efflorescence, and have an agreeable though peculiar odor, and sweet taste. In this state if freely eaten they are apt to produce disorder of the stomach and bowels, and occasion flatulence, griping, and slight relaxation of bowels, especially in children. Their composition is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF FIGS. Granular sugar (glucose).......62-5 Fatty matter..........0-9 Extractive with chloride of calcium.....0-4 Gum with phosphoric acid.......5*2 Woody fibre and achenia.......15*0 Water...........160 1000 In eastern countries'figs are eaten as food; but here they are taken as a dessert princi- pally. A roasted or boiled fig is a popular poultice for gum-boils. 8. Sorosis.—The Mulberry belongs to this order of fruits. It consists of the female flowers, become fleshy and grown together, and enclosing a dry membranous pericarp. Its constituents are as follows:— CONSTITUENTS OF MULBERRIES. Coloring matter. Sugar. Pectine. Woody fibre. Bitartrate of Potash. I Water. Mulberries possess very slightly nutritive qualities. They check thirst relieve febrile heat, and, when eaten freely, gently relax the bowels. The Pine-apple,—the most delicious of fruits,—is, like the mulberry, composed of ova- ria and floral envelopes, which have become fleshy and grown together. It is a native of South America and of some of the West India Islands, and is now naturalized in several of the hotter parts of Asia and Africa. Its juice was examined by Adet who states its constituents to be as follows :— 176 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. CONSTITUENTS OF THE JUICE OF THE PINE-APPLE. Peculiar Aroma. Sugar. Gum. Malic Acid. Citric and Tartaric Acids. Water. " Ripe pine-apples," says Dr. Wright,* " are amongst the finest of our fruits in the West Indies, and are relished by all ranks of people, especially sick of acute diseases, dysenteries, &c. They have a detersive quality, and are better fitted to cleanse the mouth and gums than any gargle whatever. Besides being eaten raw, they are often candied with sugar, and sent home as presents." The same authority adds that they are made into tarts and pickles. I have before stated (see p. 79) that they are used for flavoring rum. 9. Et.erio.—To this order of fruits belong the Strawberry, the Raspberry, and the Blackberry. In the Strawberry, the seed-like pericacps are dry, but are placed upon a fleshy or pulpy receptacle, which forms the juicy or succulent part of the fruit. The strawberry consti- tutes one of the most delicious of our summer fruits. The following are the constituents of it :— CONSTITUENTS OF THE STAWBERRY. Peculiar volatile Aroma Sugar. Mucilage. Pectine. ManciCJdi^P^of^. Woody fibre. Pericarps. Water. Strawberries contain a very small portion only of nutritive matter. They are employed as a very admired dessert, and also in the preparation of jellies and jams, (see p. 70.) The grains or seed-like pericarps are not digestible, and, it is stated, are apt to excite intestinal irritation. The late Dr. Armstrong entertained a very strong opinion of the injurious effects of these grains, and, on one occasion, in which I met him in consulta- tion, he directed the patient to suck strawberries through muslin, in order to prevent the grains being swallowed. The cream frequently taken with strawberries is objectionable for dyspeptics. The Raspberry differs in several respects from the strawberry. The* pericarps (some- times called drupes) are succulent instead of dry; while the receptacle, which in the strawberry is juicy, is in the raspberry dry and spongy. In 1838 this fruit was analyzed by Bley, who found its constituents to be as follows :— ; CONSTITUENTS OF THE RASPBERRY. Volatile oil Citric acid. Malic acid. Crystallizable, fermentable sugar. Red coloring matter. Mucus. Woody fibre. It is obvious, however, that he has omitted pectine, which is a well-known constituent of raspberries. The ashes contained carbonate, phosphate, and muriate of potash, car- bonate and phosphate of lime and magnesia, silica, and oxide of iron. The raspberry is an agreeable acidulous fruit, containing very little nourishment but rarely disturbing the stomach. If eaten freely it promotes the action of the bowels. Be- sides being used at the table as a dessert, it is employed in the preparation of jellies, jams, raspberry vinegar, (see p. 70,) and creams. The latter preparation is an objec- tionable one for dyspeptics. * Medicinal Plants of Jamaica. TURNIPS. 177 \' ORDER III.—ROOTS, SUBTERRANEOUS STEMS, AND TUBERS. This order includes the Turnip, the Carrot, the Parsnip, the Beet, the Potato, and the Jerusalem Artichoke. Before proceeding to notice them individually, it may be advantageous to give a tabu- lar view of their relative digestibility, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments :— RELATIVE DIGESTIBILITY OF TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, POTATOES, CARROTS, AND BEETS. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. ARTICLES OF DIET. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. / Preparation. H. M. Parsnips Boiled 2 30 Mashed 6 45 Potatoes, Irish Roasted Baked 2 2 30 30 Carrot, orange Boiled 3 15 Mashed 6 15 Turnips, flat Boiled 3 30 Potatoes, Irish Boiled 3 30 Mashed 8 30 Beets . Boiled 3 45 Parsnips Boiled Entire piece 13 15 Parsnips Raw Entire piece 18 0 Carrot, orange Raw Entire piece Entire piece 12 30 17 15 Potatoes, Irish Entire piece 14 0 The Cruciferous or Siliquose root called the Turnip, is, on account of the large propor- tion of water of which it is made up, but slightly nutritive. By drying it in vacuo, at 230° F., Boussingault* found the relative proportion of solid and liquid matters which it con- tains to be as follows:— QUANTITY OF SOLID MATTER IN TURNIPS. Water..........92*5 Solid matter.........7*5 ' Turnips .......100*0 The same chemist submitted the solid or dried matter of turnips to ultimate analysis, and obtained the following results :— ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF THE DRIED TURNIP. 1 *• Carbon .........42C Hydrogen.........6'5 Oxygen..........423 Nitrogen..........1'7 Ashes..........7*6 " Dried Turnip......1000 The juice of the turnip contains two nitrogenous constituents, viz. vegetable fibrine and vegetable albumen. The first coagulates spontaneously on standing,—the second is after- wards coagulated by heat. The turnip, though very slightly nutritive, is in general easily digested; and though by some it is reputed flatulent, I have never seen it prove so when it has been well boiled. The Carrot and Parsnip are umbelliferous roots in common use. They contain vege- ble fibrine, vegetable albumen, sugar, and volatile oil. The following are the constituents of the expressed and dried juice of the carrot:— * Memoires de VAcademie Royale des Sciences, t. xviii. 1842. 12 178 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. EXPRESSED AND DRIED JUICE OF THE CARROT. Fixed oil, with some volatile oil ... Red crystalline neutral substance (carotin) Uncrystallizable sugar, with som i starch and mafic acid Albumen......... Ashes (alumina, lime, and iron) 10 0*34 93 71 435 060 10000 Both the carrot and the parsnip are highly nutritive; but the volatile oil which they contain renders their flavor unpleasant to many, and causes them to be apt to disagree with some dyspeptics. The Beet-root is the produce of a Chenepodiaceous plant, and is used both as a garnish and a salad. The Jerusalem Artichoke is the tuber of the Helianthus tuberosus. It is in use, on the continent as a substitute for the potato, to which it is inferior in nutritive power as well as in flavor. In taste it somewhat resembles the bottom of the Garden Artichoke, (Cynara Scolymus.) The Potato,* (Solanum tuberosum,) next to the Cerealia, is the most important and val- uable of the esculent vegetables. For its introduction into England, from America, we are indebted to Sir Walter Raleigh. The part of the plant which is used as food is the tuber attached to the subterranean stem, of which, in fact, it may be regarded as a part in a state of excessive development It is provided with a number of buds, commonly called eyes, which, with contiguous por- tions of the potatoes, are used, under the name of sets, for multiplying the species. When examined by the microscope the tissue of the potato is found to consist of a mass of cells, between and within which is an albuminous liquor. Each cell also contains about ten or twelve starch grains. Potatoes have been repeatedly subjected to chemical examination; but the most im- portant investigations are those of Einhof, Lampadius, Vauquelin, Otto, Baup, Michaelis, and Boussingault. The last-mentioned chemist submitted the potato to ultimate analysis,f and obtained the following results :— ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO. Water . . ... 75.9 Solid matter dried at 230° F. in vacuo......241 1000 Carbon......440 Hydrogen.....5*8 Oxygen......44*7 Nitrogen.....1*5 Ashes......40 Solid matter dried at 230° F. in vacuo.....1000 So that 100 parts of the Potato, in its ordinary state, contain the following substances:— Water....... ... ... 759 Carbon.....10604 T S&ST : : : . : iJS? *g«js-*«-""- M Nitrogen.....0*3615 ,n vacuo.....M l Ashes .....09640 J ----- 1000 * This plant is sometimes confounded by writers with the Batatas edulis, the Convolvulus Batatas of most botanists, whose tuberous roots are called Sweet Potatoes, Spanish Potatoes, or Batatas. The latter constitute the Potatoes of Shakespeare, as well as of some other authors. When boiled or baked they form a wholesome farinaceous food, which, however, is slightly laxative, and according to many writers, aphrodisiac. t Memoires de VAcademie des Sciences de YInstilut de France, t. xviii. 1842, p. 345. POTATOES. 179 From this analysis we learn that the proportion of nitrogen contained in the potato is very small; but it is still smaller in potatoes that have been kept for some time. 100 parts of Moisture. Nitrogen in dried substance. Nitrogen in un-dried substance. Potato, fresh Ditto, kept 10 months 79-4 ' 1-80 76-8 • 1-18 037 0*28 From these statements it follows, that if nitrogenized principles alone contribute to the nutrition of the body, the nutritive power of the potato must be very low; or, in other words, its nutritive equivalent must be very high, (see p. 28;) and accordingly both Bous- singault and Liebig have endeavored to show that this is really the case. Two milch cows, says Boussingault* were fed with a quantity of potatoes according to my equiva- lents. They always consumed their rations, and had they been fed with less would have been insufficiently nourished. A horse may be kept alive by feeding it with potatoes, ob- serves Liebig,f but life thus supported is a gradual starvation; the animal increases nei- ther in size nor strength, and sinks under every exertion. If we assume that all the nitrogenized principles of the potato are alimentary, it fol- lows that butcher's meat is about 10*4 times as nutritive as the potato. But solanine, and probably other constituents of the potato, are nitrogenized though not alimentary principles ; and we may, therefore, estimate 1 lb. of butcher's meat as being equal, in nu- tritive power, to 10£ lbs. of potatoes. In the year 1840 some experiments were made on the effects of different diets, on the prisoners confined in the. Glasgow Bridewell; and the following extract from the report! of the inspectors of prisons, deserves to be noticed here in connection with the preceding observations on the nutritive powers of potatoes. " Eighth. Diet—Cost, including cooking, lid. Breakfast.—2 lbs. of potatoes boiled. Dinner.—3 lbs. of potatoes boiled. Supper.—1 lb. of potatoes boiled. A class of ten young men and boys was put on this diet. All had been in confinement for short periods only, and all were employed at light work, teazing hair. At the beginning of the experiment eight were in good health, and two in indifferent health; at the end, the eighth continued in good health, and the two who had been in indifferent health had improved. There was on an average, a gain in weight of nearly 34 lbs. per prisoner, the greatest gain being 8i lbs., by a young man, whose health had been indifferent at the beginning of the experiment. Only two prisoners lost at all in weight, and the quantity in each case was trifling. The prisoners all expressed themselves quite satisfied with this diet, and regretted the change back again to the ordinary diet." Now the quantity of nitrogen, contained in the six pounds of potato allowed to each of these prisoners, was equal to that contained in somewhat more than nine ounces of butcher's meat The proximate principles of the potato are water, starchy matter, (starch grains and amylaceous fibre,) ligneous matter,proteinaceous principles, (vegetable fibrine, vegetable al- bumen, and gluten,) fat, gum, asparagine, extractive, vegetable acids, salts, and occasionally solanina. The following is a recent analysis, by Michaelis, of a red variety of potato, which was suspected to possess injurious properties. * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. 67, p. 410, et seq. t Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, p. 82, 2d ed. 1842. X Fifth Report of the Inspectors of Prisons. IV. Scotland, Northumberland, and Durham, pp. viii.—xi. 180 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO. Water...........66*875 Starch and amylaceous fibre......30*469 Albumen . . .......0*503 Gluten ... ........0055 Fat .... . . 0*056 Gum...........0020 Asparagin . ..........0063 Extractive..........0*921 Chloride of potassium........0-176 Silicate, phosphate, and citrate of iron, manganese, alumina, j) soda, potash, and lime, (of these, potash and citric acid are > 0815 the prevailing ingredients) ....*.) Free citric acid.........0047 100-000 I have already given some account of Potato Starch, (see p. 65,) as well as figures representing its microscopic appearance, (see p. 61.) The quantity obtained from potatoes is subject to considerable diversity, (see p. 59 ;) and varies not only with the sort of po- tato used but also with the season. QUANTITY OF STARCH YIELDED BY 100 lbs. OF POTATOES AT DIFFERENT SEASONS. In August, about . . 10 lbs. In September . . . 14i In October .... 14$ In November ... 17 In March .... 17 lbs. In April .... 13* In May .... 10 From this it will be seen that the quantity of starch is at its maximum in the winter season. In the spring vegetation becomes active, and the buds begin to grow at the ex- pense of the starch contained in the tuber. Hence at this season potatoes are less mealy, and, in consequence, less esteemed for the table. Potato starch agrees with the other amylaceous substances in its alimentary and dieteti- cal properties, (see pp. 62 and 65.) Being devoid of nitrogen it is of course inferior in the nutritive power to the flour or meal of the cereal grains, which contain vegetable fibrine, vegetable albumen, and gluten. But being readily soluble in boiling water, it yields several agreeable articles of food. It is sold in the shops under the name of Potato Flour or English Arrow-root. Bright's Nutritious Farina, sold for invalids and infants, is a carefully prepared potato starch slightly scented. The substance sold as Indian Corn Starch is potato starch colored blue. Bright's Universal Sanative Breakfast Beverage appears to be a mixture of potato starch and chocolate. The presence of Citric acid in the potato deserves to be especially noticed, since on it probably depends, in a great measure, the antiscorbutic property of this tuber. Baup* says that the potato yields sufficient citric acid to admit of its being employed for the preparation of this acid, for commercial purposes. Solanina, a vegetable alkali possessing powerfully narcotic properties, has been de- tected by Otto in the buds and underground shoots of the potato. " If potatoes are grown where they are not supplied with earth, the magazine of inorganic bases, (in cel- lars, for example,) a true alkali, called solanin, of very poisonous nature, is formed in the sprouts which extend towards the light, while not the smallest trace of such a sub- stance can be discovered in the roots, herbs, blossoms, or fruits of potatoes grown in the field."f The most delicate test of solanina is, according to Otto, iodine. If small pieces of this be added to a weak solution of solanina, (as the sulphate,) they become surround- ed by a brown syrupy fluid. A watery solution of iodine also forms, with a very weak * Pharmaceutisches CentralBlalt fur 1836, p. 47. t Otto, quoted by Liebig, Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, p. 100. 2d edit. POTATOES. 181 solution of solanina, a brownish color.* Michaelis,+ however, declares that the color thus j produced depends not on the solanina, but on the fatty acid of an alkaline [basic] cal- ( careous soap contained in the potato. Solanina or other noxious principle, if present at j all, must be contained in extremely small quantity in the potato, or must be destroyed or j removed by cooling, since notwithstanding the universal employment of this vegetable, poisonous effects from it are never heard of; or if they occur must be exceedingly rare, j Nauche asserts that the infusion or decoction of potatoes promotes the renal and biliary secretions, and slightly affects the nervous system. If the observation be correct, it would [ follow that the water, in which potatoes are boiled, extracts or destroys some noxious j matter; and as both baked and roasted potatoes are likewise wholesome, it follows that j heat alone is capable of destroying the noxious principle of the potato. When potatoes are boiled in water the albumen of the liquor contained in the cells and intercellular spaces is coagulated, and the starch grains absorb the watery portion of.it, swell up, and distend the cells in which they are contained. The coagulated albumen | forms irregular fibres between the starch grains, and probably, also, covers them with a j thin film of albumen. Lastly, the cells, in which the starch grains are contained, separate from each other. Potatoes in which these changes are complete are called mealy, while ! those in which they are only partially effected are called watery, doughy, or waxy. Pota- toes, unlike potato starch, do not yield, by boiling, a mucilage or jelly. This arises pro- J bably from the starch grains being enveloped by a coating of coagulated albumen, as well as by the membrane of the cell in which the grains are contained. Potatoes, when in good condition and cooked by boiling, form a nutritious and easily digestible article of food. From an experiment made on the prisoners in the Glasgow Bridewell, it would appear that baked potatoes are less nourishing than boiled ones. The following is an extract, from the report of the Inspectors, bearing on the point :J— "First Diet.— Cost, including cooking, 2Jd. Breakfast.—8 ozs. oatmeal, made into porridge, with a pint of Buttermilk. Dinner.—3 lbs. of boiled potatoes with salt. Su}>piT.—5 ozs. of oatmeal made into porridge, with half a pint of buttermilk. Ten prisoners were put on this diet, (five men and five boys,) all under sentences of confinement for two months, and all employed at light work, (picking hair and cotton.) At the beginning of the experi- ment eight were in good health and two in indifferent health ; at the end all were in good health, and they had on an average gained more than 4 lbs. each in weight, only one prisoner, (a man,) having lost j in weight. The greatest gain was 9 lbs. 4 ozs., and was made by one of the men. The prisoner who was reduced in weight had lost 5 lbs. 2 ozs." The second diet was similar to the first, except that a third of a pint of skimmed milk wis substituted ■ at breakfast for a pint of buttermilk. Five young men and five women, some of whom had been in prison for several months, were put on this diet. All were in good health at the beginning of the expe- riment, and all in good health at the end. On an average each prisoner had gained rather more than 4 lbs. in weight. " Third diet.__Cost, including cooking, ?.'!d. This diet was the same as the first, except that the pota- toes were baked instead of boiled. Three young men, two boys, and five young women, were put upon this diet. Most of them had been in confinement about five months. The men and boys and two of the women were employed in weaving, and the other three women in winding and twisting. All were in good health, both at the beginning and at the end of the experiment. There was, nowever, an average j loss of li lb. in weight, the greatest loss being 10 lbs., (by a man,) who had been in prison nearly five ! months, and the greatest, gain 6i lbs. by a woman, who had been in prison about eight weeks. The j prisoners all disliked the baked potatoes " I * Otto, Pliarmaceutisches Central Blattfur 1834, pp. 458-459. t Ibid, fur 1838, p. 379. i Fifth Report ofthe Inspectors of Prisons. IV. Scotland, Northumberland, and Durham, pp. viii.—xi. j 182 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. In order to render potatoes more palatable they are usually boiled only so far as to make them soft without affecting their shape; and probably in this state they contain a larger amount of nutritive matter than if longer boiled. It can scarcely, however, be doubted that they must be more readily permeated by the gastric juice, and, therefore, more easily digested, if boiled until they begin to break down, or are so softened as to be readily mashed. Hard and waxy potatoes must, for the same reason, be less digestible than mealy ones; and new potatoes being less mealy are less easily digested than old ones. The influence of a freezing temperature on the potato is remarkable. The effect is mechanical; the watery juice contained in the cells and intercellular spaces, expands in the act of freezing, and by this means ruptures and isolates the cells, and destroys the organization of the tuber. It does not appear, however, that any chemical change is produced in the first instance either on the starch or the other constituents, for Girardin* obtained the same proportions of water, fecula, woody fibre, albumen, sugar, and saline matters, from frosted, as from unfrosted potatoes. But it is obvious that when the organ- ization and life of the potato is destroyed, decomposition must soon succeed; though even then the fecula or starch seems but little altered. I have already slightly alluded to the antiscorbutic property of the potato, and which I have in part ascribed to the contained citric acid. The importance of the subject de- mands a more specific reference to it. Sir Gilbert Blanef mentions that raw potatoes sliced, with vinegar, had been found beneficial in scurvy. Much more recently, M. Julia FontanelleJ gave a brief sketch of its antiscorbutic effects on sailors, many of whom, he states, declared themselves to have been cured of the scurvy by long-continued use of potatoes very slightly baked under the ashes, and eaten without salt. Nauche§ also tes- tifies to the antiscorbutic properties of this vegetable; which he used in the form of a de- coction. Mr. Dalton|| and Mr. BerncastlelT have recommended the use of potatoes as a preventive of scurvy in ships making long voyages. Dr. Baly,** Physician to the General Penitentiary at Milbank, has published some interesting observations on the antiscorbutic quality of the potato; and he declares that its efficacy is not, as some had supposed, im- paired by a boiling heat, but " as ordinarily cooked, il is an admirable preservative against the scurvy." In 1840 he found that scurvy was a disease of rather frequent occurrence among the military prisoners, while among the convicts it was never seen. The exemp- tion of the latter he found could only be attributed to their weekly diet containing five lbs. of potatoes and an onion. The military prisoners, therefore, were allowed two lbs. of pota- toes weekly during the first three months of their imprisonment, three lbs. during the second three months, and four lbs. after the expiration of six months. " This addition to the dietary of the military prisoners was made in January, 1842, and not a single case of scurvy has since occurred." Dr. Baly has also shown, from the Reports of the Inspec- tors of Prisons, that in those prisons where scurvy has prevailed, the diet of the prisoners, though often abundant in other respects, has contained no potatoes, or only a very small quantity ; and that in several prisons the appearance of the disease has wholly ceased on the addition of a few pounds of potatoes being made to the weekly dietary. These facts, then, are of high importance, inasmuch as the potato is a cheap and rea- dily accessible preventive of scurvy—a disease which the excellent reports of the prison inspectors have shown to be of frequent occurrence in Great Britain.ff * Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxrv. p. 301. 1838. t Diseases of the Fleet. 1781. % Journal de Chimie Medicate, t. ii. p. 129. 1826. i, Ibid. t. vii. p. 374. || Lancet, Sept. 4, 1842. TT Ibid. Sept. 23, 1S42. ** London Medical Gazette, Feb. 10, 1843. tt Appendix, I. LEAVES AND LEAFSTALKS. 193 ORDER IV.—BUDS AND YOUNG SHOOTS. Onions, Leeks, Garlic, and Shallots, though usually ranked among roots, (bulbous roots,) are in reality buds, formed at or beneath the ground, and whose scales are thick and fleshy. They owe their peculiar odor and flavor, as well as their pungent and stimula- ting qualities, to an acrid volatile oil which contains sulphur. This oil becomes absorbed, quickens the circulation, and occasions thirst. Passing out of the system by the different excreting organs it communicates its peculiar smell to the secretions. Hence the well- known odor of the breath after eating onions or garlic. The following are the constitu- ents of onions, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin:— COMPOSITION OF THE ONION. Acrid volatile oil. Woody fibre. Uncrystallizable sugar. Acetic and phosphoric acids. Gum. Phosphate and carbonate of lime. Vegetable albumen. Water. Garlic, Leeks, and Shallots, have a similar composition. If the volatile oil be dissipated by boiling, these bulbs no longer possess any acrid or stimulating qualities. They then form mild and easily digestible aliments: whereas in the raw state, that is, with the oil, they are pungent, acrid, difficultly digestible, stimulating substances. The young shoots of Asparagus officinale form a delicious article of food, known at ta- ble as Asparagus. Their constituents are as follows :— COMPOSITION OF ASPARAGUS. Asparagine (Asparamide.) Woody fibre. Gum. Acetate, malate, phosphate, and muri- Uncrystallizable sugar. ate of potash and lime. Vegetable albumen. Iron. Resin. Asparagine is a crystalline substance whose formula is C8 H8 N3 O" + Aq2. Liebig re- gards it as a nutritive agent, (see Theine.) Asparagus is a wholesome, very agreeable, light kind of aliment, which acts as a mild diuretic, and communicates a peculiar and unpleasant odor to the urine. It was former- ly charged with causing bloody urine and accelerating the fits of the gout, but there does not appear to be any ground for such an accusation. It is usually fought to table with toasted bread and melted butter, and is sometimes eaten in soup. ORDER V.—LEAVES AND LEAFSTALKS. The green color of foliaceous parts depends on the presence of green globules contain- ed in the cells of the leaf. These globules consist of a substance called chlorophylle, which, in its properties, is intermediate between resin and fat. It does not appear to pos- sess any alimentary properties. " The green matter of plants," says Dr. Prout* " is in general little acted on by the stomachs of the higher animals; and hence may, in most cases, safely form the portion of the food of diabetic individuals, as first I believe, recommended by Dr. B. G. Babing- ton: though on very different principles. In many cases of common dyspepsia, also, more especially connected with derangements of the lower intestines, and with irritable states of the mucous membrane, the green matter of plants contributes, as above men- tioned, to the action of the bowels by its excremental properties. In dyspeptic affections, however, more immediately connected with the stomach, it is apt to disagree, by produ- cing acidity and flatulence, and their consequences; and as such forms of dyspepsia are by far the most common, herbaceous vegetable matters in general are much less suited for dyspeptic individuals than farinaceous." * On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 300, 3d ed. 1840. 184 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The CabbageTribe includes the Cabbage, (both white and red,) the Savoy, Greens, the Cauliflower, and Broccoli. The parts used are the leaves, and, in the case of the two last-mentioned substances, the young and compact flowering heads. These vegetables by drying lose more than 90 per cent, of water. The dried residue is remarkably rich in nitrogen as well as in sulphur. 100 parts of Water lost by drying at212°F. Nitrogen in the dried residue. Nitrogen in the undned plant. Cabbage .... 92-3 3*7 0-28 According to Boussingault,* from whom these data are taken, 810 parts of fresh cab- bage, or 83 parts of dried cabbage, are equal, in nutritive power, to 100 parts of wheat, (see p. 27.) The following are the results of Dr. Beaumont's experiments on the digestibility of the cabbage:— DIGESTIBILITY OF CABBAGE. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Cabbage with vinegar . . . Raw Raw Boiled 2 0 2 20 4 30 Shaved Masticated Boiled 10 15 12 30 20 0 The Cabbage has been analyzed by Schrader ;f the Cauliflower by Trommsdorff.| Cabbage Extractive Gummy extractive Resin Vegetable albumen . Green fecula jj. Water with acetic Ttcid, nitrate of potash, chloride of potassi um, malate and phosphate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, iron and man- ganese . . . . . sulphate and^ 234 2*89 005 029 063 93-80 100*00 Cauliflower Coloring matter. Mucilage. Resin. Vegetable albumen, (about 0*5 per cent.) Chlorophylle. Fatty matter. Pectic acid, (a product 1) Woody fibre, (about 1-8 per cent.) Silica. Water, (rather more than 90 per cent.) Malate of ammonia, malate of lime, free malic acid, acetate of potash, phosphate of lime, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of potash. Sourkrout or Sauerkraut.—Sauerkraut is prepared by the fermentatioii of cabbage. The plants are collected from the fields in autumn, divided, the stalks removed, and the leaves cut by machine or hand into slices, a layer of, which is placed into a vat, alter- nating with a layer of salt, until the vessel is filled, when it is subjected to the pressure of heavy weights placed on the whole. At the end of six weeks, (more or less, accord- ing to the temperature,) when the acetous fermentation is completed, it is considered fit for use. The method of cooking it in Germany is to stew it simply in its own liquor, with bacon, pork, or other fat meat. Dill, caraway seeds, and other carminatives, are sometimes added. * Ann. de Chim. et Phys. f Schweigger's Journ. fur Chem. Bd. v. S. 19. 1812. X Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fiir 1832, p. 97. f RECEPTACLES AND BRACTS.—STEMS. lbo Sauerkraut is not fitted for persons troubled with acidity of stomach. It has a slightly relaxing effect on the bowels. As an antiscorbutic it has long been celebrated, and was highly spoken of by Capt Cook. Turnip tops are frequently boiled and used as greens, but they are apt to disorder the bowels. The same remarks likewise apply to Spinage. The herbaceous part of the Water Cress, the seed leaves of While Mustard and of Common Crest, and the leaves of Lettuce and Endive, are eaten raw, under the name of Salads, (Acetaria,) with the addition of vinegar, oil, salt, and sometimes mustard. They of course yield very little nourishment The three first-named plants probably owe their pungency to a minute portion of sulphureted volatile oil, analogous to that found in horse-radish. Lettuce leaves are used at table as a salad. They usually abound in a cooling, bland, pellucid juice ; but the more advanced plant contains a bitter, milky juice, which has a slight tendency to promote sleep. Hence lettuce leaves are eaten at supper by those troubled with watchfulness. Galen, in his old age, obtained relief in this way. It is pru- dent, however, to avoid the use of this salad when any tendency to apoplexy manifests itself. The inspissated milky juice of the lettuce is called Laclucarium, or Lettuce Opium, and is employed medicinally as an anodyne, sedative, and soporific. Mr. Loudon enu- merates no less than fourteen varieties of the lettuce, which are cultivated by gardeners for the table. Of these, seven are Cabbage lettuces, and seven Cos lettuces. The stalks of Rhubarb leaves are used, when peeled, for making pies, tarts, and pud- dings, in the manner of apples and gooseberries. Most species of Rheum may serve for this purpose ; but Rheum Rhaponticum and Rheum hybridum are the kinds usually cul- tivated. Rheum palmatum and Rheum Emodi yield excellent tart rhubarb. Lassaigne fovmd in the stalks of Rheum Rhaponticum oxalic and malic acids. The presence of oxalates makes this food highly objectionable where there is a tendency to oxalate of lime calculi. " I have seen," observes Dr. Prout, " well-marked instances in which an oxalate of lime nephritic attack has followed the free use of rhubarb, (in the shape of tarts, &c.,) particularly when the patient has been in the habit, at the same time, of drinking hard water."* ORDER VI.-RECEPTACLES AND BRACTS. J Of this order it will be^jjecfRsary to notice one vegetable only, namely, the Garden Artichoke, (Cynara S&yrnlfa) whose flower-heads are used before the expansion of the flowers. The parts of these heads which are eaten, are, 1st, the fleshy receptacle, usu- ally called the bottom, deprived of the thistles and seed down, vulgarly termed the choke ; and, 2dly, the talus, or base of the involucral scales. These contain a sweet saccharine and mucilaginous juice with starchy matter, and they form a bland readily digestible arti- cle of food; but the melted butter, with which they are usually eaten, renders them objectionable for dyspeptics and others with delicate stomachs. ORDER VII.—STEMS. From the stems of several Cycadacese, as well as from some Palms, is obtained a fari- naceous substance, which is employed, in the East, as an article of food. Sago (see p. 63) is procured from this source. * Rhubarb tarts and pies are made of the young green stalks of the plant called in England « Spring Fruit » After peeling off the skin, cut the stalks into small pieces, and put them in a saucepan with plenty of brown sugar. Cover it, and let it stew slowly in its own juice, till soft enough to make a marmalade, then set away to cook. For pies, the rhubarb should be cut very small, and a great deal of su-rar mixed with it. Bake about three quarters of an hour.-L. 186 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. CLASS II. ALIMENTS DERIVED FROM FLOWERLESS PLANTS. ORDER I.—FERNS. From the tuberous rhizomes of ferns is obtained, in some of the Polynesian islands, as we1! as in some other parts of the world, a farinaceous or ligneous matter, which is em- ployed by the natives as a nutritive substance. The rhizomes are cooked by baking or roasting. In general, however, they are only resorted to in times of scarcity, when other and more palatable food cannot be obtained.* ORDER n.- LICHENS. Many lichens contain a starchy or amylaceous matter, analogous to gelatine, called lichenin or feculoid, (see p. 66,) to which they owe their alimentary qualities. But it is usually accompanied With a bitter principle, which gives them an unpleasant flavor, and renders them apt to disorder the bowels. To separate the latter substance they require to be soaked in a cold weak alkaline solution, and then washed with cold water. Several species of Gyrophora, as G. proboscidea, fa. arctica, G. hyperborea, G. Pennsyl- vanica, and G. Muhlenbergii, are employed by the hunters of the Arctic regions of America as articles of food, under the name of Tripe de Roche.f All four species were eaten by Capt Franklin and his companions, in 1821, when suffering great privations in America; and to its use may their preservation be in part ascribed.f But not having the means of extracting the bitter principle, these lichens proved noxious to several of the party, producing severe bowel complaints. Iceland Moss (Cetraria Islandica) is extensively used in England, but principally as a medicine.^ Its composition, according to Berzelius, is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF ICELAND MOSS. Starchy matter (lichenin) Bitter principle (cetrarin) Uncrystallizable sugar Chlorophylle Extractive matter Gum . 44*6 30 3*6 1*6 70 37 Bilichenates of potash and lime with phosphate of lime . 1*9 Amylaceous fibre ........ 36 2 101*6 Like the other lichens, it must be deprived of its bitteT*>fhatter before it is fit for use. One part of subcarbonate of potash (salt of tartar) dissolved m water, and rendered * Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. L, p. 363; Bennett, Narrative of a Whaling Voyage, vol. ii., p. 394. 1840.—Dieffenbach (Travels in New Zealand, vol. ii., 1843) says, that the " korau or mamako, the pulpous stem of a tree-fern, (Cyathea medullaris,) is an excellent vegetable ;" and he adds, " it is pre- pared by being cooked a whole night in a native oven."—[Besides these, the roots of Nephrodium escu- lentum are eaten in Nipal, according to Dr. Buchanan. Those of Angiopteris evecta are used for food in the Sandwich Islands, under the name of Nehai. Diplazium esculentum, Pteris esculenla, and Glei- chenia dichotoma, are also occasionally employed for food in different countries. Pteris aquilina, and Aspidiam filix mas have been used in the manufacture of beer, and Aspidium fragans as a substitute for tea.]—L. t Gyrophora Muhlenbergii is employed by the North American Indians, boiled with fish-roe or other animal matter, and is agreeable and nutritious. The G. proboscidea is found abundantly on our highest mountains, and is an extremely pleasant article of food, and of a sweetish taste.—L. X Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea. 1823. § The Cetraria nivalis is also found in abundance on our high mountains, and might be substituted, with advantage, for the C. Islandica. The Raindeer Moss, which forms the winter food of that ani- mal, is the Cenomyce rangiferina.—L. SEA WEEDS. 187 caustic by an equal weight of lime, is sufficient to extract the bitter principle out of twenty parts of Iceland moss; but for this purpose the plant must be soaked in the solution for ten or fourteen days. Thus deprived of its bitterness, Iceland moss may be used as food by boiling it in water or milk, and flavoring with sugar, lemon, wine, or spices. A con- centrated decoction gelatinizes on cooling. A decoction of Iceland moss, made with the unprepared plant and therefore containing the bitter principle, is used as a demulcent tonic in consumptive cases. It is prepared by boiling down five drachms of the moss and a pint and a half of water to one pint. The dose is from two table-spoonfuls to a wine-glassful. ORDER IH.—ALGvE OR SEA WEEDS. Several species of the inarticulated Algse are occasionally employed in some parts of the British islands as articles of food. Some of them abound in a mucilaginous or vegeto- gelatinous substance, to which they in part owe their dietetical uses. Starch, and in some cases sugar, are also alimentary principles of some of the Algae. Laver (Porphyra laciniata and vulgaris) is sold in the London shops. When boiled or stewed for several hours, until reduced to a pulpy substance, it is brought to table as a luxury, under the name of Marine Sauce, Sloke, or Slouk.* In its absence, Green Laver (VIva latissima) is sometimes Substituted for it. Carrageen or Irish Moss, called also Pearl Moss, (Chondrus crispus,) is extensively used, partly as a domestic remedy and partly as a nutritive substance. Its composition is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF CARRAGEENIN. Vegetable jelly (Carrageenin).....79-1 Mucus..........9*5 Resin..........0*7 Fat and free acid........traces Water.........\ in-7 Salts.........> 1000 The salts contain chlorine, iodine, bromine, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and calcium. The substance which I have elsewheref denominated Carrageenin (see p. 70,) ap- proximates to the mucilage of quince seed in composition. Mulder}: found it to consist of carbon 45*17, hydrogen 4*88, and oxygen 49*95. Carrageenin possesses slight nutritive qualities. In the form of decoction, it is em- ployed as a popular remedy for consumption, scrofula, &c. A very concentrated decoc- tion gelatinizes on cooling, and the jelly thus prepared is used, by careful housekeepers, in the preparation of Blanc-mange, jellies, white soup, &c.; but it is a wretched substi- tute for gelatine, (isinglass or calves' feet.) It has a fishy or sea-weed flavor, especially when it has been kept for some days. Ceylon or Jafna Moss (Gracilaria lichenoides) is a whitish filamentous sea weed brought from India. Its composition is as follows :— COMPOSITION OF CEYLON MOSS. Vegetable jelly.........5*j> True Starch..........15*0 Ligneous fibre.........18*0 * The Hon. W. H. Harvey's Manual of the British Alga. 1841. t See my Elements of Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 81., & ed. t Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1838. 188 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Gum...........40 Sulphate and muriate of soda......6-5 Sulphate and phosphate of lime .....1*0 Wax, iron, and loss, . .....10 100.0 By boiling in water it yields a liquid which gelatinizes on cooling. The decoction or jelly forms an agreeable, light, nourishing article of food for invalids and children.* ORDER IV. FUNGI OR MUSHROOMS. Though a considerable number of species of fungi are edible in fact, several form deli- cious articles of food—a small number only are in common use in England. This has arisen, in great measure, from the difficulty experienced by the public in discriminating- wholesome from poisonous species. Nay, it would appear that the same species is under some circumstances edible, under others deleterious. This,if true, is a very properground for distrust. " So strongly did the late Professor L. C. Richard feel the prudence of this, that although no one was better acquainted with the distinctions of fungi, he would never eat any, except such as had been raised in gardens in mushroom beds."f The edible species in most common use in England are—1st. Agaricus campestris, (Common Field or Cultivated Mushroom,) which, in the adult state, is employed in the preparation of ketchup, and is eaten fresh, either stewed or broiled : the young or button mushroom is pickled. 2dly. Morchella esculenta, (Common Morel,) employed to flavor gravies, ragouts, &c. 3dly. Tuber cibarium, (Common Truffle,) a subterraneous fungus, used for seasoning. No less than thirty-three species of fungi are eaten in Russia.}: The supposed alimentary principle of mushrooms is fungin, already described, (see p. 68,) to which must, in some cases, be added mannite. But it appears to me by no means clearly made out that these vegetables possess much nutritive power.§ They are cer- * Besides the Alga above mentioned, we may, on the authority of Lindley, add the Rhodomelapalmata, the dulse of the Scots, dillesk of the Irish, and saccharine Fucus of the Icelander?, which is consumed in large quantities throughout the maritime countries of the north of Europe, and in the Grecian Archipel- ago ; the Iridcea edulis, employed in Scotland and the southwest of England ; the Enteromorpha com- pressa, used by the Sandwich Islanders as an esculent, and found on our shores ; the Laurentia pinnali- fida (Pepper-dulse) and Laminaria digitata, (Tangle,) both eaten in Scotland, and hawked about the streets of Edinburgh with the cry, " buy dulse and tangle *" the Alaria esculenta, which forms part of the simple fare of the poorer classes of Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Denmark, and the Faroe Islands. The Laminaria potatorum furnishes the aborigines of Australia with a large proportion of their food, vessels, and instruments; the Durvillea utilis constitutes an equally important resource to the poor on the west coast of South America. In Asia several species of gelidium are made use of to render more palatable the hot and bit- ing condiments of the East. Some undetermined species of their gums furnish the materials of which the edible swallow's-nests are composed. Lamouroux remarks that three species of swallow construct edible nests, two of which build at a distance from the sea coast, and use the sea weed only as a cement for other matters. The nests of the third are consequently most esteemed, and sold for nearly their weight in gold. Gracilaria lichenoides, mentioned by our author, is highly valued for food in Ceylon and other parts of the east; and G. compressa, found in Great Britain and this country, is scarcely in- ferior to it. To the lower animals sea weeds also furnish invaluable resources in times of scarcity of other food. In the north of Europe the Rhodomelapalmata is a favorite article with sheep and goats : in some of the Scottish islands horses, cattle, and sheep feed chiefly upon Fucus vesiculosus during the winter months, and in Gothland it is commonly given to pigs. Fucus serratus and Chorda filum constitute a part of the fodder upon which the cattle are supported in Norway.—L. t Lindley, Natural System of Botany, 2d ed. p. 442 X Dr. (now Sir G.) Lefevre, London Medical Gazette, vol. xxiii. p. 414. § " We do not believe," says the eccentric Dr. Kitchener, in his Cook's Oracle, " that mushrooms are nutritive." TEA. 189 tainly difficult of digestion, and on certain constitutions act very injuriously. Invalids, dyspeptics, and others with delicate stomachs, will act prudently in avoiding the use of this doubtful order of foods.* 2. LIQUID ALIMENTS OR DRINKS. The basis of all drinks is water, which I have already considered among alimentary principles. I have now to notice the compounded liquid aliments, or those composed of water combined with some other substance. These I shall arrange in six orders, as follows:— 1. Mucilaginous, farinaceous, or saccharine drink? 2. Aromatic or astringent drinks. 3. Acidulous drinks. 4. Animal broths, or drinks containing gelatine and osmazome. 5. Emulsive or milky drinks. 6. Alcoholic and other intoxicating drinks. ORDER I.—MUCILAGINOUS, FARINACEOUS, OR SACCHARINE DRINKS. These drinks differ but little from common water. They are very slightly nutritive, and are employed as demulcents and diluents. They include the liquids popularly known in the sick-chamber as slops, and which on the continent are called tisans. They are well adapted for febrile and inflammatory maladies especially when combined with an affection of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal. One of the simplest of the drinks of this order is Toast Water, which is prepared by in- fusing toasted bread or biscuit in water. By this means the water is rendered much more palatable and agreeable, by the empyreumatic or aromatic and gummy or starchy matter which the toast communicates to it. It is a very wholesome and useful drink. The other drinks of this order have been already considered. (See Gum Water, p. 54, Sugar Water, p. 58, Sago Gruel, p. 64, Tapioca Gruel, p. 64, Arrow-root Gruel, p. 65, Common or Oat Gruel, p. 154, Barley Water, p. 156, Compound Barley Water, p. 157, and Mucilage of Rice, p. 160.) ORDER IL—AROMATIC OR ASTRINGENT DRINKS. Under this order are included Tea, Coffee, Chicory, Chocolate, and Cocoa. 1. Tea.__The shrub or shrubs from which Tea is procured are closely allied to the well-known Camelia Japonica. Two kinds, known respectively as the Thea viridis and Thea Bohea, are cultivated in the botanical gardens of England; the first is commonly said to yield Green Tea, the latter Black Tea. Though their general characters and ap- pearance give the idea of their being distinct species, yet by some botanists they are con- sidered to be mere varieties. Thus De Candolle refers them to one species, under the name of Thea Chinensis. Great discrepancy of opinion exists amongst writers as to whether the green and black teas of commerce are the produce of one or of two species. Some writers contend for one species; " the green and black, with all the diversities of each, being mere varieties produced by a difference in the culture, qualities of soil, age of the crop when taken up, and the modes of preparation for the market"! Others, however, assert the existence of * Repeated instances of poisoning from the use of mushrooms have occurred in the United States withm a few years past. There is no doubt that climate, as well as the mode of cooking, modifies, in an im portant manner, the qualities of these fungi; and there is some reason to believe that poisonous and wholesome species are sometimes confounded und r the same name. The plan which we adopt, and which we can recommend as perfectly safe, is never to eat them at all.—L. t Robinson's Descriptive Account of Asam. 1841. 190 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. two distinct species. Thus Mr. Reeves,* whose opinions are entitled to great weight ex- presses his surprise " that any person who has been in China, or, indeed, any one who has seen the difference in the color of the infusions of black and green tea, could sup- pose for a moment that they were the produce of the same plant, differing only in the mode of curing; particularly as they do not grow in the neighborhood of each other." The principal varieties of Black Teas are, Bohea, Congou, Campoi, Souchong, Caper, and Pekoe. The last-mentioned one is the best. It is prepared from the unexpanded leaf-bud. Bohea is the lower grade of black tea. To' the Green Teas belong Twankay, Hyson-skin, Hyson, Imperial, and Gunpowder. " The gunpowder here stands in the place of the pekoe, being composed of the unopened buds of the spring crop. Imperial, hyson, and young hyson, consist of the second and third crops. The light and inferior leaves, separated from the hyson by a winnowing machine, constitute hyson-skin."-f The latest analysis of tea is that of Mulder.J COMPOSITION OF TEA. Volatile oil . Chlorophylle Wax . Resin . Gum Tannin . Theine . Extractive Apotheme Ext. obtained by hydrochloric acid Albumen..... Fibrous matter .... CHINESE. JAVANESE. Hyson. Congou. Hyson. Congou 0*79 - 0-60 - 0*98 - 0-65 2*22 - 1*84 - 3*24 - 1-28 0*28 — 000 - 0-32 - 000 2*22 - 3*64 - 1*64 - 2*44 8*56 - 7*28 - 12*20 - 11-08 17*80 - 12*88 - 17*56 - 14-80 0*43 - 0*46 - 0-60 - 0-65 22*80 — 19*88 - 21*68 - 18-64 - 1*48 _ - 1-64 23-60 - 19*12 - 20*36 - 18-24 3*00 - 2*80 - 3*64 - 1-28 17-08 - 28*32 - 18-20 - 2700 98*78 - 98*30 -100*42 - 97*70 5*56 - 5*24 - 4*76 - 5*36 Salts included in the above According to this analysis, green tea contains more tannin than black tea. This accords with every-day experience, as well as with the experiments of Mr. Brande ;§ but it is op- posed to the results obtained by Sir H. Davy|| and Frank,1T both of whom state that black tea is the most astringent. It is probable, therefore, that the amount of tannin in differ- ent teas is subject to variation. The substance called Theine, or Theina, is a crystalline salifiable base, discovered some years since by Oudry,§ and since found to be identical with caffeine, obtained from coffee. Its formula is C8 H5 N2 O2. It exists in tea, in combination with tannic acid. Hot water extracts the tannate of theina as well as free tannic acid; but by cooling, both of these substances almost entirely precipitate. According Mulder, theina is not to be regarded as the principle which confers on tea its peculiar or characteristic properties. Its action on the system is not very obvious. He gave half a grain to a rabbit; the animal ate but lit- tle the next day, and aborted the day after. Liebig+f has suggested that it may contribute to the formation of bile. " Without entering minutely into the medicinal action of caf- feine, (theine,)" he observes, "it will surely appear a most striking fact, even if we were to deny its influence on the process of secretion, that this substance, with the addition of * Loudon's Gardener's Magazine, vol. ix. p. 713. t M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce. X Pharmaceutisches CenlralBlatt fur 1838, p. 403. % Quarterly Journal, vol. xii. p. 201. || Philosophical Transactions for 1803, p.268. IT Gmelin, Handbuch der Chemie, vol. ii. p. 1252. ** Thomson, Organic Chemistry, p. 295. tt Animal Chemistry, p. 179, et seq. TEA. 191 oxygen and the elements of water, can yield taurine, the nitrogenized compound peculiar to bile:— 1 atom Caffeine or Theine . = C8 N2 H* Oa 9 atoms Water ... = H9 Oa 9 atoms Oxygen = O9 Ce N-> H14 O™ = 2 atoms Tauniws . . . . 2 (C4 N H' O1")" The same authority adds, that "2JLths grains of caffeine [theine] can give to an ounce of bile the nitrogen it contains in the form of taurine. If an infusion of tea con- tain no more than the J-th of a grain of caffeine, [theine,] still, if it contribute in point of fact to the formation of bile, the action even of such a quantity cannot be looked upon as a nullity. Neither can it be denied that, in the case of an excess of non-azotized food and a deficiency of motion, which is required to cause the change of matter in the tis- sues, and thus to yield the nitrogenized product which enters into the composition of bile, that in such a condition the health may be benefited by the use of compounds which are capable of supplying the place of the nitrogenized product produced in the healthy state of the body, and essential to the production of an important element of respiration. In a chemical sense—and it is this alone which the preceding remarks are intended to show —caffeine or theine, asparagine, and theobromine, are, in virtue of their composition, better adapted to this purpose than all other nitrogenized vegetable products. The ac- tion of these substances, in ordinary circumstances, is not obvious, but it unquestion- ably exists." These views, though quite hypothetical, are highly ingenious and interest- ing. The peculiar flavor of tea depends on the volatile oil, which is lighter than water, and has a lemon yellow color, and the taste and smell of tea. Alone it acts as a narcotic, but in combination with tannin, as a diuretic and diaphoretic. It is extracted from tea by hot water, in which, however, it is not always equally soluble, its solubility being modified by the other constituents. The following is the composition of the ashes of black tea :— ASHES OF CONGO TEA. Chinese. Javanese. Potash, sulphate, phosphate, and muriate of potash . . 2*84 — 3*40 Oxide of iron, carbonate, sulphate, and phosphate of lime,) , _„ j.fi. and carbonate of magnesia......5 Hypermanganate of potash......traces — 0 Silica .... ..... 0-68 — 0*32 5*24 5*36 Notwithstanding the extensive employment of tea in this country, it is no easy matter to ascertain its precise effects on the constitution. Its astringency, proved by its chemi- cal properties, depends on the presence of tannin. Of this quality we may beneficially avail ourselves in some cases of poisoning, as by poisonous mushrooms, by opium or laudanum, or by any other vegetable substance containing a vegetable alkali, with which tannin combines. Schwann* found that tannin throws down a precipitate from the arti- ficial digestive liquids, and renders this fluid inert Does the copious use of strong tea, therefore, immediately after a meal, impede the process of digestion 1 The peculiar influence of tea, especially of the green variety, over the nervous system, depends on the volatile oil above referred to. This influence is analogous, in some re- ! spects, to that of foxglove ; for both green tea and foxglove occasion watchfulness, and * Quoted by Muller, in his Elements of Physiology: see Baly's translation, p. 546. 192 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. act as sedatives on the heart and blood-vessels. These effects of tea are familiar to most persons. It is a common practice with those who desire nocturnal study to use tea; and on the same principle it may be employed as an antisoporific to counteract the effects of opium and intoxicating liquors, and to relieve the stupor of fever. As a diluent and se- dative it is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory disorders, and most persons can bear testimony to its good effects in these cases. To its sedative influence also should be ascribed the relief of headache sometimes experienced by the use of strong tea. In colds, catarrhs, and slight rheumatic cases, warm tea is ysed as a diluent, diaphoretic, and diuretic. Strong green tea produces on some constitutions, usually those popularly known as nervous, very severe effects. It gives rise to tremor, anxiety, sleeplessness, and most distressing feelings. On others, however, none of these symptoms are manifested. Part of the ill effects sometimes ascribed to tea may be owing to the use of so much aqueous liquid,—to the temperature of the liquid,—to milk and sugar used with it—or to the action of the tannin on the digestive liquid. But independently of these, tea pos- sesses a specific and marked influence over the functions of the brain not referrible to any of the circumstances just alluded to. Weak tea rarely disagrees with the invalid, and is admissible in a variety of maladies, in most of which it proves refreshing and agreeable. It is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory complaints ; and is particularly valuable when we are desirous of checking sleep. Moreover, if the suggestions of Liebig, before noticed, be correct, tea is by no means to be considered as a mere diluent, but as possessing nutritive powers of no mean kind.* 2. Coffee.—The Coffee plant (Coffea arabica) is a native of Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, but is extensively cultivated in Asia and America. It is an evergreen shrub, from fifteen to twenty feet high, and bears an oval, succulent, blackish red or purplish two-seeded berry. The seeds are enclosed in a membranous coat, (endocarp,) called by some bota- nists a parchment-like putamen. Occasionally they are imported with this coat remaining on them, and in this state they form what is called in commerce coffee in the husk. In general, however, they are met with without this coat, and in this state are called simply coffee, or raw coffee. They then consist of a horny, yellow, bluish or greenish albumen, which is convex on one side, but flat on the other side, with a longitudinal furrow. At one end of the seed is the embryo, with its cordiform cotyledons. The varieties of coffee are distinguished in commerce according to their places of growth; but considered with reference to their physical properties, they are characterized by color (yellow, bluish, or greenish) and size, (the smallest seeds being about three lines long and two broad, the largest five lines long and two lines and a half broad.) Arabian or Mocha Coffee is small and dark yellow. Java and East India (Malabar) kinds are larger and paler yellow. The Ceylon is more analogous to the West India kinds, (Jamai- ca, Berbice, Demerara, Dominica, Barbadoes, &c) which, as well as the Brazilian, have a bluish or greenish gray tint. Roasted Coffee is, when ground, extensively adulterated with chicory. To detect the adulteration, shake the suspected coffee with cold water in a wineglass: if it be pure coffee, it will swim, and scarcely communicate any color to the fluid. Chicory, on the other hand, sinks, and communicates a deep red tint to the water. The microscope serves also to detect the adulteration; fragments of dotted ducts being found when chicory is present, but not wheli the coffee is pure. The presence of roasted corn may * Appendix, 12. COFFEE. 193 be detected by the blue color produced on the addition of a solution of iodine to the cold decoction. Coffee has been the subject of repeated chemical investigation ; but a good analysis of it is still a desideratum. The following probably are the constituents of raw coffee :— COMPOSITION OF RAW COFFEE. Caffeic acid. Tanno-caffeic* acid (Gallic acid of some ?) Caffeine. Wax. Fixed oil. Resin. Gum. Extractive. Albumen. Lignin. Sulphur (Robiquet.) Lime and Magnesia. Iron. Caffeic acid is a white powder insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in water. Its charac- teristic property is, that when heated it emits an odor precisely similar to that of roasted coffee; so that the aroma of roasted coffee must depend on the decomposition by heat of this acid.* Zenneck,f it is true, denies this, and asserts that the aromatic principle is neither acid nor alkaline ; but he admits that alkalies render it odorless, while the subse- quent addition of an acid causes the smell to reappear; a fact strongly confirmatory of its acid nature. Pfaff J analyzed this acid, and found it to consist of carbon 29*1, hydrogen 6*9, and oxygen 6*4. Tanno-caffeic acid is a dark brown extractiform substance, whose solution yields a green color with the salts of the peroxide of iron, but no precipitate with a solution of isinglass. In these properties it resembles catechine, (catechuic acid.) Caffeine is identical with Theine, already described, (see p. 190.) By roasting, coffee suffers some remarkable and well-known changes in its sensible pro- perties ; but, in a chemical point of view, the precise nature of these changes is by no means well determined. The aroma is, as I have already stated, ascribed by Pfaff to the effect of heat on the caffeic acid. The infusion or decoction of coffee forms a well-known favorite beverage. Like tea, it diminishes the disposition to sleep, and hence is often resorted to by those who desire nocturnal study. It may also be used to counteract the stupor induced by opium, alco- holic liquors, and other narcotics. In some constitutions it acts on the bowels as a mild laxative. I have known several persons on whom it had this effect; yet it is usually de- scribed as producing constipation. Employed moderately, I believe it to be a wholesome and slightly nutritive beverage. I have already (see p. 190 et seq.) explained Liebig's hypothesis of the nutritive agency of caffeine, (theine.) The immoderate use of coffee is said to produce various nervous disorders, such as anxiety, tremor, disordered vision, palpitation, and feverishness. Coffee is occasionally useful in the sick-chamber. It relieves some forms of headache, especially those denominated nervous, and which are unaccompanied with sanguineous congestion. It likewise proves beneficial in some cases of spasmodic asthma. § Dunn's Essence of Coffee is prepared by subjecting moistened roasted coffee to pres- sure 3. Chicory or Succory.—The substance sold in the shops under the name of chicory is the roasted root of the Cichorium Intybus, (Wild Succory, or Wild Endive,) an indi- * Pfaff, Pharmaceuiisches Central Blatt, fiir 1831, pp. 423 & 441. t Ibid. p. 444. X Ibid. p. 443. § Coffee is one of the most valuable cordials and restoratives after exhaustion and great fatigue, and in cases of sudden withdrawal of alcoholic liquors: See Appendix, 13.—L. 13 194 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. genous syngenesious plant, extensively cultivated in Holland, Belgium, and Germany, from whence it is largely imported. The root is cut, dried, roasted like coffee in heated iron cylinders which are kept revolving, and then ground in mills. The powder is em. ployed by grocers and others to adulterate coffee, (see p. 192.) Its infusion or decoction forms a perfectly wholesome beverage, but which wants the fine flavor for which genuine coffee is renowned. I have been informed, however, that some persons prefer the flavor of a mixture of coffee and chicory to that of unmixed coffee. Chicory is frequently adul- terated. A grinder of the article tells me that roasted peas and beans, damaged corn, and coffee husks, are used as sophistications, and that Venetian red or Armenian bole is em- ployed as a coloring agent* 4. Chocolate.—This is prepared from the seeds of the Theobroma Cacao, a native of the West Indies and of Continental America. The kernels of the seeds have, according to Lampadius,t the following composition :— COMPOSITION OF THE KERNELS OF CACAO SEEDS. Fat or oil (butter of cacao).........tr.'-w! Albuminous brown substance........., IS Starch.............1091 Mucilage or gum...........7*75 Red coloring matter..........2*01 Lignine.............090 Water..............5*20 Loss (from adhesion of mucilage to the filter).....343 100 00 The fat or oil, called butter of cacao, is, therefore, the principal ingredient of the seeds. It is a white solid substance, has a chocolate flavor, and is chiefly composed of oleine and stearine; but, unlike most other fats, is not apt to become rancid. More recently, a nitrogenized crystalline principle, called theobromine, has been discov- ered in these seeds. Its formula is CD H5 N3 O2, or C18 H10 Ns O4. It is very similar to caffeine. The husks consist principally of lignine, but they yield by boiling a brownish mucilagi- nous extract. Chocolate is prepared by roasting the seeds, and depriving them of their husks, which constitute about 23 per cent, of the whole. The kernels of the roasted seeds constitute what is called Nib Cocoa. They are ground in a mill, whose sole rests on a heated iron plate, by which they are made into a brown pasty mass, which, when sweetened with some saccharine matter, flavored with either vanilla or cinnamon, and placed in proper moulds, constitutes Chocolate. In a large manufactory of this substance in London, honey is employed as a sweetener, and a portion of starchy matter (sago flour or potato starch) is added, in order to give the chocolate a thickening quality. Most of the chocolate made at this establishment consists merely of the decorticated roasted seeds, sago flour, and honey, without any other flavoring ingredient.t Chocols^ furnishes a moderately nourishing and very agreeable beverage. On hypo- thetical grounds, Liebig has suggested that the theobromine may contribute to the forma- tion of the nitrogenized principle of the bile and urine; for with the addition of the ele- * We have used a decoction of chicory with great benefit in congestions and torpor of the liver and other forms of hepatic disease. With equal parts of dried Dandelion root, it forms a not unpleasant beverage, and may be employed as a substitute for coffee in such cases.—L. t Quoted in Dulk's Preussische Pharmakopoe. X A similar manufactory has lately been established in this city, (N. York,) and the process of grind- ing may be seen at almost any hour, especially in the evening, in a certain window in Broadway.—L. ACIDULOUS DRINKS. 195 \ ments of water and of a certain quantity of oxygen, it yields the elements of taurine and urea. 1 at. theobromine, C18 N« Hw O4 "i f 4 at. taurine . . Cw N4 H58 O" 22 at. water . . H° 0« | 16 at. oxygen . . O" V = l 1 at. urea . . C Na H4 0s C18 N6 HM 0° J {_ C18 N6 H88 O43 Chocolate, though devoid of the disagreeable qualities frequently evinced by tea and coffee, of disturbing the nervous functions, yet is difficult of digestion, on account of the large quantity of oil which it contains, and is, therefore, very apt to disturb the stomach of dyspeptics and of others troubled with a delicate stomach. 5.—Cocoa.—Under this name is sold in the shops another preparation of the seeds of the Theobroma Cacao. It is prepared by grinding the entire roasted seeds, (kernels and husks,) sometimes mixed with sago meal or potato starch. I suspect that besides the entire seeds, the husks separated in the manufacture of chocolate are also intermixed. It is somewhat less oily than chocolate, and being rather astringent is adapted for persons with relaxed bowels. ORDER III.-ACIDULOUS DRINKS. These drinks consist of water, as their basis, and an acid, which is usually a vegetable one. a. A considerable number of acidulous drinks are prepared with the juices of fruits. Of these Lemonade, already noticed, (see p. 172,) is the most familiar example. 0. Acidulous drinks are also prepared by dissolving vegetable acids or acidulous salts in water, and variously flavoring the liquid. Raspberry-vinegar water (see p. 70) and Imperial (see p. 75) are drinks of this kind. The general effects of these acidulous drinks have been already explained, (see p. 72.) They allay thirst, both as well by the acid as the water which they contain. They form cooling, refreshing, antiscorbutic drinks, and are well adapted for hot seasons and for febrile and inflammatory cases. y Decoctions of fruits likewise form acidulous drinks. They promote the secretions of the alimentary canal, and act as laxatives. Apple Tea is prepared by boiling an apple in half a pint of water, and adding sugar to the decanted liquor. S The carbonated or effervescent drinks belong to this order. They owe their brisk- ness and sparkling quality to carbonic acid gas, which has been either forced into the liquid by pressure, or developed in it after the corking of the bottle. The Bottle Soda Water of the shops is, in general, merely a solution of carbonic acid gas in water; and might therefore, be more properly denominated Carbonic acid Water. \\ Webb's Soda Water is an exception to this statement as, in the preparation of it, 15 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda are added to every 10 fluid ounces of water ; and, in con- sequence, it effervesces on the addition of an acid, after the escape of the free carbonic acid. The quantity of gas contained in these effervescing waters depends on the pressure employed in their preparation. At the ordinary temperature and pressure of the atmo- sphere, water absorbs its own volume of carbonic acid gas, and acquires a specific gravity of 1*0018. By doubling the pressure, it takes up two volumes of gas; by trebling it, three volumes; and so on. Mr. Webb informs me that a pressure of eleven atmospheres is used in the preparation of his soda water.* Water thus charged with carbonic acid * " Hudson's Soda Water," which is in very general use in New York, is prepared under an equal I degree of pressure. More than one fatal accident has occurred from the explosion of the fountains in j which it is confined.—L. I 196 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. forms a refreshing cooling beverage. It acts both as a diaphoretic and diuretic, and is a most valuable agent for checking nausea and vomiting. When it contains bicarbonate of soda in solution, it proves antacid, and is a most valuable beverage for persons afflicted with calculi in the bladder. The facts adduced by M. Chevallier* appear to me to be conclusive that bicarbonate of soda promotes the solution of uric acid in the bladder, and that it assists in breaking up and dividing other calculi, (the phosphates.) Ginger Beer is a well-known popular and agreeable beverage. A very superior pre- paration of this kind is made as follows:—Take of White Sugar 20 lbs., Lemon or Lime Juice 18 oz., Honey 1 lb., Ginger, bruised, 22 oz., Water 18 gallons. Boil the ginger in three gallons of water for half an hour; then add the sugar, the juice, and the honey, with the remainder of the water, and strain through a cloth. When cold, add the White of one Egg and half an ounce of Essence of Lemons. After it has stood for four days, let it be bottled. This preparation will keep for many months. Several other effervescing or carbonated drinks have already been noticed—(see Lemon and Kali, p. 74; Concrete Acidulated Alkali, p. 74; Soda Powders, p. 74; Ginger Beer Powders, p. 75; Effervescing Saline Draught, p. 75; and Seidlitz Powders, p. 75.) They are prepared with a vegetable acid (citric or tartaric) and an alkaline carbonate. Hence there is formed, in their manufacture, a vegetable alkaline salt, (citrate or tartrate,) the general effects of which on the system have been already noticed, (see p. 15.) ORDER IV.—DRINKS CONTAINING GELATINE AND OZMAZOME. (Broths and Soups.) These are essentially decoctions of animal flesh, (meat;) though frequently vegetables are also used in their preparation. The composition of the flesh of various species of animals has been already stated, (see pp. Ill, 113, and 114;) but the changes which it suffers in the operation of boiling are by no means well ascertained. The fibrine of the meat is rendered harder, but being insoluble in water, contributes nothing to this liquid. The albumen of meat is partly solid, partly liquid; the latter is coagulated by the boiling water. By the united agency of water and heat, a portion of albumen—or at least a nitrogenous matter—is rendered soluble, and therefore is contained in the broth. The hematosin, (see pp. 92 and 119,) or coloring matter of the blood, dissolves in, and communicates a red color to, cold water: but, as soon as the water becomes sufficiently heated, the hematosin coagulates, and forms brown flocculi, which float on the top of the liquor, and constitute part of what is called the scum. The cellular tissue, the bones, the aponeuroses, and the tendons, yield, by boiling in water, gelatine. The fatty matters melt, and, except when they are contained in closed cells, escaping from the meat float on the top of the broth. The nervous or cerebral fatty matter, (see p. 117,) which principally constitutes the pulp of the nerves, is softened by the heat, and is in part carried off during the process. The odor which it evolves when heated is recognised both in the broth and the boiled meat. During the ebullition there are obtained, by unknown reactions, other products; viz. lstly, creatine, (see p. 113,) 2dly, osmazome, (see p. 113,) or the extractive matter on which the odor and flavor of broth principally depend; 3dly, ammonia; 4thly, a sulphureted compound, (sulphureted hydrogen 1) which blackens paper moistened with a solution of acetate of lead; 5thly, a volatile acid, analogous to acetic acid ; 6thly, an odorous volatile acid, similar to butyric acid. The three last-mentioned substances are partially or wholly volatilized. * London Medical Gazette, vol. xx. p. 542. BROTHS AND SOUPS. 197 Thus, then, the following are the constituents of broth and boiled meat:— Broth. Gelatine. Albuminous matter. Creatine. Extractive matters (Osmazome.) Lactic acid. Salts. A little fatty matter. Saccharine matter. Water. Boiled Meat. Fibrine. Albumen (coagulated.) Gelatinous cellular tissue. Fat. Nervous matter. Water. Besides meat, it is customary to employ vegetables, (as turnips, carrots, onions, &c.) in the preparation of broths. These communicate coloring and mucilaginous matters, sugar, nitrogenized matter, volatile oils and salts. All the cruciferous plants, as turnips and cab- bages, yield a sulphureted and nitrogenized principle. Onions and leeks furnish an acrid volatile oil: the sweet herbs an aromatic oil. The following table, drawn up from Chevreul's results, shows the quantity of aliment- ary matter contained in broth :— Substances used in the preparation of broth. Beef . Bone . Common salt Water Turnips Carrots Onions (burnt) 1*433 0-430 0-040 5000000 0*331 Products. Broth Boiled meat Bone Vegetables 4 litres \ (-8i?o (_ wine pints.) 0-858 0-392 0-340 The specific gravity of the broth was 1*0136. tained— One litre ( = 2-JJ^ wine pints) con- . 985*600 Organic matters f Potash "1 | Soda I <{ Chlorine 5- 16-917 f soluble 10*721 | Phosphoric acid Salts ( Oxide copper ) 8*539 1013-6 Magendie* states that 1 litre (= 2T>J_3_ wine pints) of the broth, whieh is very care- fully prepared by the " Compagnie hollandaise" in Paris, contains from 24 to 25 grammes (= 370*416 to 385*85 troy grains) of dry matter, of which from 8 to 10 grammes (= 123-472 to 154*34 troy grains) are saline substances. It is obvious from these state- ments that the actual amount of nutritive matter in broths is very small. Beef Tea, Mutton, Veal, and Chicken Broths, are the lightest forms of animal food, and are employed by invalids and convalescents. Beef Tea is a light and pleasant arti- cle of diet. Mutton Broth is apt to disagree with persons having delicate stomachs, es- pecially if the fat be not skimmed from it. It is frequently given to promote the opera- tion of purgative medicine. Chicken Broth, of all the animal decoctions, is the least dis- posed to disturb the stomach. It is especially adapted for invalids with great irritability of stomach. Veal Broth is less frequently used. When prepared from a knuckle of veal, and sufficiently concentrated, it gelatinizes on cooling. ORDER V—EMULSIVE OR MILKY DRINKS. These liquids hold in suspension an oily or fatty substance in a finely divided state. * Comptes Rendus, 1841, t. xiii. 198 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Animal Milk, the principal and most important drink of this order, has been already fully considered, (see p. 119, et seq.) Almond Milk is an emulsive liquid used as a drink. It is prepared as follows:—Take of Sweet Almonds, blanched, half an ounce, Powdered Gum Arabic a drachm, White Sugar two drachms, and Water six ounces and a half. Beat the almonds with the sugar and water, and then gradually add the water. Almond milk agrees with animal milk in many of its properties. It contains in solution caseine, sugar, and gum, and retains in suspension a fixed oil. It forms a very agreeable demulcent drink in colds, coughs, and inflammatory affections of the bowels and urinary organs. Orgeat, Syrup of Orgeat, or Sy?-up of Almonds, is thus prepared:—Take of Sweet Almonds a pound; Bitter Almonds four ounces; Water three wine pints ; and Sugar six pounds. Blanch the almonds, and beat them in a mortar to a fine paste, adding three fluid ounces of the water and a pound of the sugar. Mix the paste thoroughly with the remainder of the water, strain with strong expression, add the remainder of the sugar to the strained liquor, and dissolve it with the aid of a gentle heat. Strain the syrup through the linen, and, having allowed it to cool, put it into bottles, which must be well stopped, and kept in a cool place.—In most recipes for it, about an ounce of Powdered Gum is directed to be used, and about half a pint of Orange Flower Water: but the latter, as found in the shops, is frequently contaminated with lead. Orgeat is demulcent and slightly narcotic, owing to the presence of prussic acid, (derived from the bitter almonds.) It is used to flavor drinks for invalids, and to allay troublesome coughs. The dose of it is from one to two table-spoonfuls. The Milk of the Cocoa Nut is an albuminous liquid, closely allied to vegetable emul- sions, though it is devoid of oily matter. It holds in solution a proteine compound, (vege- table caseine 1) sugar, gum, and some salts. It is, therefore, slightly nutritive. ORDER VI.—ALCOHOLIC AND OTHER INTOXICATING DRINKS. I have already fully considered the dietetical properties of Alcohol and of the different kinds of Ardent Spirit in ordinary use in England, (see pp. 25 to 27, and 76 to 80.] Of alcoholic drinks, therefore, Malt Liquor and Wine alone remain for consideration. 1. Malt Liquor or Beer.—Under this head are included Ale, Stout, Porter, and the weaker kinds of beer commonly known as Table or Small Beer. All these are ferment- ed infusions of malt flavored with hops. The densities of different kinds of beer are, according to Mr. Richardson, as follows :— DENSITY OF BEER. Kinds of Beer. Excess in pounds per barrel over a barrel of water. Specific Gravity. " best brown stout .... 40 to 43 35 to 40 28 to 33 25 to 57 21 18 20 23 26 6 12 to 14 1111 to 1120 1-097 to 1*1 U 1077tol*0!J2 1070 to 1073 1058 1050 1055 1064 1072 1014 1 033 to 1*039 The following are the principal constituents of beer :— BEER 199 COMP': Alcohol. Starch sugar. Dextrine, (starch gum.) Extractive and bitter matter. Fatty matters. Aromatic matters. r-ITION OF BEER. Glutinous matters. , Lactic acid. Carbonic acid. Salts. Water. 1. Alcohol—The quantity of spirit contained in different kinds of beer, according to the experiments of Brande and Christison, has been already stated, (see p. 77.) We may safely assume, with Dr. Ure,* that the amount of spirit " in common strong ale or beer, is about 4 per cent, or four measures of spirits, specific gravity 0*825, in 100 measures of the liquor. The best brown stout porter contains 6 per cent., the strongest ale even 8 per cent; but common beer only one."f 2. Carbonic Acid.—The quantity of free carbonic acid in beer is subject to considerable variation, as the following table, taken from Dumas, shows:— QUANTITY OF CARBONIC ACH) IN BEER. Carbonic Acid per cent. -T , . . - in volumes. Not frothy.........2 Beading, not frothy.......8 Yielding a little scum, not frothy.....4 Very slight froth........8 Slight froth.........11 Moderate froth........15 Rather strong froth .......20 to 22 Strong froth, much scum......25 to 26 3. Extract.—By evaporation we obtain the soluble but fixed and nutritive constituents of beer, in the form of an extract, which consists of starch-sugar, dextrine, lactic acid, different salts, the extractive and aromatic parts of the hop, gluten, and fatty matters. The quantity of extract yielded by beer is subject to considerable variation. It depends not only on the strength of the wort, but on the length of the fernientation and the age of the beer. An imperial pint of good porter yields in general about one ounce and a half of extract. The following is the composition of six varieties of beer, according to Wackenroder :J— COMPOSITION OF BEER. •s O ar. -3 . u-S CS© BXl a G ° aJi 5 ° — •- '7-, V.'-^o CONSTITUENTS. 1> rl Qj Qj r-- cj il, Ok O 3 M *—' 3 Q. a. f Jena Dopp sp. gr. G "■ h ^ D O Absolute alcohol..... 3-168 3 096 3*018 2-834 2567 2 080 Albumen coagulated by heat . 0-048 0 079 0 045 0 030 0 020 0-028 4-185 7 1/72 6144 6349 7316 7153 Water . ) Carbonic acid > 92-299 S9 753 90 793 90 787 90-097 90739 Acetic acid ) Total .... 100*000 100000 100 000 100 000 100 000 100000 Soluble salts; viz., phosphate of potash, more or less chloride, of potassium and sulphate of potash, with some intermixed phosphates of lime and magnesia 0 073 0 107 0-118 0101 0 107 0085 Insoluble substances; viz., phosphates of lime and magnesia, with some silica . 0162 0104 0071 0 076 0196 0103 * Dictionary of Arts, p. 105.—For further information respecting the quantity of alcohol in beer, the reader is referred to Accum's Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and to the writings of Leo, (Pharma- ceutuiches CentralBlatt fur 1833, p. 413,) Schrader, Wackenroder, and Lampadius, (Ibid, fur 1834, p. 96, et seq.) t Appendix, 14. X Traite de Chimie, t. vi. 1843. § Pharmaceutisches Cmtral-Blatt fdr 1834, p. 100. 200 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Considered dietetically, beer possesses a three-fold property:—it quenches thirst; it stimulates, cheers, and, if taken in sufficient quantity, intoxicates; and, lastly, it nour- ishes, or strengthens. Its poweV of appeasing thirst depends on the aqueous ingredient which it contains, assisted somewhat by its acidulous constituent. Its stimulating, cheer- ing, or intoxicating power, is derived either wholly, or principally, from the alcohol which it contains. Lastly, its nutritive or strengthening quality is derived from the sugar, dex- trine, and other substances contained in the extract. Moreover, the bitter principle of hops confers on beer tonic properties. From these combined qualities beer proves a refreshing and salubrious drink, (always presuming that it is used in moderation,) and an agreeable and valuable stimulus and support to those who have to undergo much bodily fatigue. When Dr. Franklin* as- serted that a penny loaf and a pint of water yielded more nourishment than a pint of beer, it is obvious that he regarded beer merely as a nutrient, and overlooked its stimulating and cheering qualities, of which bread and water are totally devoid. It is a popular notion, which has, perhaps, some foundation in fact, that beer has a tendency to promote corpulency. This cannot be the effect of the alcohol which it con- tains, since it is well known that confirmed spirit-drinkers are usually slender, or even emaciated, (see p. 27.) Considered dietetically, beer differs from wine, in containing less alcohol, but more nu- tritive matter; and, in addition, a bitter tonic extractive derived from the hop. The practice of taking a moderate quantity of mild malt liquor, of sound quality, at dinner, is in general not only unobjectionable, but beneficial. It is especially suited for those who lead an active life, and are engaged in laborious pursuits. For the sedentary and inactive it is less fitted. In the convalescence after lingering diseases, it often proves a most valuable restorative; but in delicate conditions of the stomach, and in relaxation of the bowels, its use should be prohibited. With bilious and dyspeptic individuals it frequently disagrees, and by such, therefore, should be avoided. In plethoric constitu- tions, especially when there is a tendency to apoplexy, it is objectionable. In some per- sons it is apt to produce headache, and by such it should be either used sparingly, or totally abstained from.f There are considerable differences in the dietetical properties of different kinds of malt liquors, to which it is necessary to make allusion. Ale is prepared with pale malt and on this account is much lighter colored than Porter and Stout. The strongest kinds of ale are richer in alcohol, sugar, and gum, than any other kind of malt liquor : but though they thus contain a larger amount of nutritive mat- ter, they are not fitted for ordinary use, on account of their intoxicating and stupefying qualities, and are especially to be avoided in diabetic and dyspeptic cases. On some per- sons they act as purgatives. The Pale Ale prepared for the India market, and, there- fore, commonly known as the Indian Pale Ale,\ is free from these objections. It is care- fully fermented, so as to be devoid of all sweetness, or, in other words, to be dry; and it contains double the usual quantity of hops : it forms, therefore, a most valuable restora- tive beverage for invalids and convalescents. It is taken with benefit by many persons on whom other kinds of ale act injuriously. For ordinary use at table, the weaker kinds of ale, popularly known as Table Ale, are to be preferred. Porter is prepared from a mixture of pale and high-dried or charred malts; the pale t Select Works, by W. T. Franklin, vol. i., p. 36. Lond., 1818. * Appendix, 15. X " The beer which the English send to the Indies," says Dumas, " is more highly charged with the essential oil [of hops.]" WINE. 201 kind being used to give body or strength—the dark kind to communicate color.* More- over, a larger amount of hops is used in the preparation of porter than of the ordinary kinds of beer. Porter is much better adapted for table use than strong ale. It agrees with many individuals on whom the latter liquid acts injuriously. When new, as gene- rally prepared at the present day, it is called mild; by keeping, a portion of acid is devel- oped in it, and it is then denominated hard. Formerly, when hard porter was in request, publicans were in the habit of rendering new beer hard, or, as it was called, of bringing it forward, by the addition of sulphuric acid. To render old beer mild, carbonate of lime, or of soda, or of potash, is used to neutralize the acid. Beer, especially Porter, is very extensively adulterated.f Coculus indicus is used to augment its intoxicating quality; and some of the popular treatises on brewing give di- rections for employing it. Thus Morrice directs three lbs. of Coculus to be used for every ten quarters of malt " It gives," says he, " an inebriating quality which passes for strength of liquor;'' and he adds, that it prevents second fermentation in bottled beer, and consequently the bursting of the bottles in warm climates." This sophistication is a highly dangerous one, coculus indicus being a very poisonous fruit, as well for man as for the inferior animals; and the legislature has, therefore, very properly imposed a penalty of £200 upon the brewer, and £500 upon the seller of the drug. In order to avoid detection, brewers' druggists are in the habit of preparing a watery extract of the fruit, which is sold as black extract or hard multum.\ Quassia is used as a substitute for hops, to communicate a bitter taste. Grains of Paradise and Cayenne give pungency; though it is a common but erroneous opinion, that grains of paradise have an intoxicating or narcotic property. Coriander, Caraway, Sic, are used to communicate flavor; Liquor- ice, Treacle, and Honey, give color and consistence. A mixture called Beer-heading, composed of green vitriol, (sulphate of iron,) alum, and common salt, is used to give a fine frothy or cauliflower head to beer. 2. Wine.—By the term wine is usually meant a drink or liquid prepared by the vinous fermentation of must, (i. e. the juice of the grape ;) but sometimes it is made to include the fermented juices of fruits generally, as of elderberries, currants, gooseberries, &c.; and, in a more general sense, it comprehends all saccharine liquids which have been subjected to the vinous fermentation. The liquid called ginger wine is an instance of this more ex- tended use of the word wine. In a dietetical point of view it will be necessary to notice those wines only which are obtained from the grape; and to these, therefore, the following remarks are intended to apply. Must__the expressed juice of the grape—whose composition I have already noticed, (see p. 170,) readily undergoes fermentation when subjected to a temperature of between 60° F. and 80° F.; while in the grape itself the juice does not ferment owing, as Gay- * The high.temperature employed in preparing the brown or black malts greatly alters or actually de- composes the saccharine matter, the diastase and other constituents of the grain, and gives rise to the for- mation of a coloring matter analogous to caramel. t In the Sunday Times of March 13, 1842, is the report of the conviction of a druggist for selling, and of a brewer for buying, various drugs to adulterate beer. Each was fined £200. The drugs were Cocu- lus indicus, Grains of Paradise, Liquorice, Linseed, Cararvay, and Cayenne Pepper. - X In addition to this, Opium, Extract of Poppies, St. Ignatius' Bean, Nux Vomica, Tobacco, Bohemian Rosemary and Henbane are used to augment the intoxicating quality of malt liquors; Aloes, Gentian, Wormwoou, Horehound, and Bitter Orange, as a substitute for hops, and a vast variety of articles to give flavor color consistency, &c. The " Domestic Chemist" enumerates forty-six different articles which are used for the manufacture of beer and porter.—L. 202 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Lussac has shown, to the exclusion of atmospheric air, the presence of which, therefore, is in some way necessary to set up the process of fermentation.* The peculiar qualities of the different kinds of wine depend on several circumstances; such as the variety and place of growth of the vine from which the wine is prepared— the time of year when the vintage is collected—the preparation of the grapes previously to their being trodden and pressed—and the various manipulations and processes adopted in their fermentation. The wines of different countries are distinguished in commerce by. various names. The following is a list of the wines most commonly met with, arranged according to the coun- tries producing them :— 1. French Wines.—Champagne, (of which we have the still, creaming, or slightly sparkling,—the/uH- frothing, the white, and the pink ; Burgundy, (red and while ,*) Hermitage ; Colie Rdtie ; Rousillon; From- lignac; Claret, (the most esteemed being the produce of Lafilte, Latour, Chateau Margaux, and Haut- Brion;) Vin de Grave; Sauterne; and Bar sac. 2. Spanish Wines.—Sherry, (Xeres ;) Tent, (Rota;) Mountain, (Malaga ;) Benicarlo, (Alicant.) 3. Portugal Wines.—Port, red and white, (Oporto;) Bucellas, Lisbon, Calcavalla, and Colares, (Lis- bon:) An inferior description of Red Port Wine is shipped at Figuera and Aveiro. 4. German Wines.—Rhine and Moselle Wines. The term Hock, (a corruption of Hochheimer,) is usually applied to the first growths of the Rhine. The term Rhenish commonly indicates an inferior Rhine wine. 5. Hungarian Win-es.—Tokay. 6. Italian and Sicilian Wines.—Lachryma Christi; Marsala; Syracuse; Lissa. 7. Grecian and Ionian Wines.—Candian and Cyprus wines. 8. Wines of Madeira and the Canary Islands.—Madeira and Canary, (Teneriffe.) 8. Wines of the Cape of Good Hope.—Cape Madeira, Pontac, Constantia red and white, (a sweet, luscious wine, much esteemed.) 10. Persian Wines.—Shiraz. 11. English or Home-made Wines.—Grape, Raisin, Currant, Gooseberry, &c. The composition of wine is subject to considerable variation; but, in a general way, the following may be said to be its constituents:— CONSTITUENTS OF WINE. Water. Alcohol. Bouquet (volatile oil? an ether?) Sugar. Gum. Extractive matter. Gluten (except when tannin is present.) Acetic acid. Bitartrate of potash. Tartrate of potash and v'emina (in German wines.) Sulphate of potash. Chlorides of potassium and sodium. Tannin ) ,. . . . Coloring matter of the husk \ " Goat's .... 13*20 86*80 ** I " Ewe's .... 14-38 85*62 •• J Butcher's meat, devoid of fat 26 74 13*6 " " with l-7th fat and cellular tissue 21*75 " " including bones, as purchased 29 71 Fresh beef fiesh .... 25 75 12*957 3-752 Muscular flesh of Ox . 22-5 77*5 Calf I 20-3 to > 21-8 79*7 to 78*2 j " " Pigeon . 240 760 " " Chicken . 22-7 77*3 " " Carp and Trout (average) 19 7 80*3 " " Cod, Haddock, & Sole (average) 20-0 80*0 Egg, white of ... . 20*0 80*0 " yolk of .... 46*23 53*77 " dried and purified albumen of 55*00 15-681 Calf's sweetbread 300 700 12*6 87*4 92*5 7*5 BeefTea..... 1*5625 98*4375 Soup of the House of Arrest at Giessen .... 0*75 Authority. Playfair. Boussingault. Einhof. Playfair. Einhof. Playfair. Boussingnult. Boussingault. Liebig. Boussingault. Boussingault. Boussingault. Boussingault. Boussingault Berard. Berard. Berard. Berard. Berard. Berard. Bley. John. Liebig. O. Henri and Chevallier. Liebig. Liebig. Liebig. Bceckmann. Sehlossberger Sehlossberger, Sehlossberger Sehlossberger Sehlossberger Brande. Bostock. Prout. Scherer. Morin. Pasquier. John. Christison. Liebig. In several parts of this work (see pp. 84, 87, 88, 91, 93,102,112, and 116) I have refer- red to the statements contained in the Report made to the Academy of Sciences in Paris, by the Gelatine Commission ; and I, therefore, think it advisable to subjoin the conclusions wnich Magendie, in the name of the Commission, has drawn from the facts detailed:— 1. Wc cannot, by any known proceeding, extract from bones an aliment which, either alone or mixed with other substances, can be substituted for meat. 2. Gelatine, albumen, and fibrine, taken separately, nourish animals for a very limited period only, and in an incomplete manner. In general they soon excite such an insurmountable disgust, that ani- mals die rather than partake of them. 3 The same immediate principles artificially reunited, and rendered agreeably sapid by seasoning, are eaten more readily, and for a longer period, than the same substances singly, but their ultimate 220 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. influence on nutrition is not hetter; for animals who take them, even in considerable quantities, die ultimately with all the symptoms of complete inanition. 4. Muscular flesh, in which gelatine, albumen, and fibrine are united according to the laws of organic nature, and where they are associated with other matters, as fat, salts, &c, suffices, even in very small quantity, for complete and prolonged nutrition. 5. Raw bones have the same effect, but the quantity consumed in twenty-four hours ought not to be much greater than in the case of meat. 6. Every kind of preparation, such as decoction with water, the action of hydrochloric acid, and espe- cially the transformation into gelatine, diminishes, and, in some cases, seems even to destroy the nutritive quality of bones. 7. The Commission, however, does not wish at present to offer an opinion on the employment of gela- tine, associated with other aliments, in the nourishment of man. It believes that direct experi- ment can alone illustrate this subject in a definite manner. It has been actively occupied with this subject, and the results will be published in the second and last part of this Report. 8. Gluten, from wheat or maize, alone satisfies complete and prolonged nutrition. 9. Fat, taken alone, sustains life during s.ome time, but the nutrition is imperfect and disordered. It accumulates in all the tissues, sometimes in the state of elaine (oleine) and of stearine, sometimes in the state of almost pure stearine. I Chap. III.—Of the Times of Eating. An able writer (Dr. Combe) on Digestion and Dietetics, has very justly observed, that ! " the grand rule in fixing the number and periods of our meals, is, to proportion them to the real wants of the system as modified by age, sex, health, aud manner of life, and as indica- ted by the true returns of appetite." \ The time required for the digestion of the food, by the healthy stomach, varies from one to three or four hours; but hunger, or the desire to take more food, is not usually expe- rienced until some time after this viscus has disposed of its contents. If fresh food be -j i introduced into the stomach before that of the previous meal has been digested, the pro- j cess of digestion is disturbed. The solution which Dr. Beaumont offers of this generally admitted fact is, that more food is received into the stomach, in the aggregate, than the gastric j juice can dissolve. But this explanation is by no means a satisfactory one. It leads to the ' conclusion, that eating a little and often is not injurious, provided the total amount of food | taken does not exceed that capable of being dissolved by the gastric juice. General expe- I rience, however, is opposed to this practice; and it can scarcely be doubted that, in the i healthy state of the system, the custom of eating moderately at more prolonged intervals ! ;. is most natural to man. j !j A variety of circumstances affect the length of the interval between each meal. On \ \\ account of the greater activity of the organs of respiration, children require to be more , ji frequently fed than adults, and they bear hunger less easily. For the same reason, also, < jj persons who take much exercise, or labor hard, require more frequent and copious meals i than the indolent and sedentary. In the former the number of respirations is greater than ,| in the latter; and, therefore, a more frequent supply of food is required to supply the jl necessary quantity of carbon and hydrogen to be consumed in the lungs. "A bird de- jj prived of food," says Liebig, "dies on the third day, while a serpent, with its sluggish re- \\ spiration, can live without food three months or "longer." From experiments* made a few years ago at the Zoological Gardens, it appears that * See the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Xo. xviii. p. 49. TIME OF EATING. 221 carnivorous mammalia require one meal in twenty-four hours only, and that if fed more frequently their health suffers. It was found that when Leopards and Hyaenas were fed j with two meals daily they did not continue in equally good condition with those which j had the same quantity of flesh daily in one meal only. It further appears, that in one j instance (that of the Leopard) the temper changed for the worse; and in another in- stance the habits were altered as regarded exercise, a diminution of which, in confined j animals, must be injurious to health. It cannot be doubted that the practice of having fixed periods for eating is more condu- j cive to health than eating at irregular intervals. But it will be obvious, from the forego- I ing observations, that the periods should vary for different classes of individuals. "So ; strong is the tendency to periodicity in the system," says Dr. Combe, "that the appetite !! returns at the accustomed hour, even after the mode of life, and consequently the wants I of the system, have undergone a change; and if not gratified, it again subsides. Ulti- j I mately, however, its calls become too urgent to admit of being a second time disregarded." j The number of meals per day, and the intervals between them, must vary according i i to several circumstances; but for adults it may be admitted, as a general rule, that three j ! meals at least are essential to health, though five are in frequent use; viz. breakfast, \ I luncheon, dinner, tea, and supper. In public pauper establishments three only are per- | mitted ; viz. breakfast, dinner, and supper. I 1. Breakfast.—The system is more susceptible of the influence of morbific causes before Ii breakfast than at any other period of the day. "It is well known," observes Dr. Combe, I "that the system is more susceptible of infection, and of the influence of cold, miasma, 11 and other morbid causes, in the morning before eating than at any other time ; and hence Ij it has become a point of duty with all naval and military commanders, especially in bad j climates, always to give their men breakfast before exposing them to morning dews and !| other noxious influences. Sir George Ballingall even mentions a regiment quartered at j \. Newcastle, in which typhus fever was very prevalent, and in which, of all the means ! Ii used to check its pro-iToss, nothing proved so successful as an early breakfast of warm j il coffee. In aguish countries, also, experience has shown that the proportion of sick among i ii those who are exposed to the open air before getting any thing to eat, is infinitely greater i than among those who have been fortified by a comfortable breakfast." j it In some constitutions, especially those denominated delicate, much exercise, either of j i: body or mind, before breakfast, operates injuriously ; producing exhaustion, languor, and' I ij unfitness for the ordinary occupations of the day. ji These facts show the importance of breakfasting soon after rising and dressing; at j ji least in many cases. I am fully aware that there are numerous exceptions to this. Some j ! persons not only suffer no injury from, but actually appear to be benefhed by, active exer- i cise taken before breakfast; its effect being with them to create or augment the appetite. • |i But in others the effects are those which I have already stated. I am satisfied, from re- ji pea ted observation, that in children disposed to spasmodic and other brain diseases, the i ij practice of making them attend school for two hours before breakfast is injurious; and I j, ! fully agree, therefore, with Dr. Combe, that in " boarding-schools for the young and grow- j j! ing, who require plenty of sustenance, and are often obliged to rise early, an early break- j !l fast is almost an indispensable condition of health." Epileptics, especially those disposed jj to morning attacks, should invariably breakfast soon after rising. I think I have seen the jj fits brought on by neglecting this precaution. For travellers a light breakfast before start- j; ing is a great protection " against colds and subsequent fatigue or exhaustion." Medical jj j men and others should not, if possible, expose themselves to the influence of infectious or j contagious disorders, as fevers, Sec, before breakfast, as the danger of infection then is I i, ^— ===:_____[ j 222 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. greatly enhanced. For the same reason the practice of making post-mortem examina- i tions and dissections before breakfast is to be condemned. 2. Luncheon.—This meal is admissible only when either the interval between the break- ■! fast and dinner is very prolonged, or when the quantity of food taken at breakfast is very i small. The lower classes, as well as the children of the higher classes, dine early, and I thus with them luncheon is unnecessary, and accordingly is not usually taken. Not so, however, with adults of the middling and higher classes. With them, either from busi- ness or other causes, the practice of dining late has become general; and with such lun- cheon becomes a necessary meal. It should be taken about five hours after breakfast, and though called by another name, it may be considered as a light dinner, taken to allay the I cravings of nature, but not entirely to destroy the appetite. 3. Dinner.—" Supposing nine o'clock to be the hour of breakfast," observes Dr. Combe, "the natural dinner-hour would be two o'clock; and such, accordingly, is that sanction- ed by the most extended experience, and which ought to be adhered to by all whose oc- cupations will admit of its observance, and who wish to enjoy the highest health of which they are susceptible." This rule is a very good general one for adults, to which, how- ever, exceptions oftentimes occur. Digestion is a process which is not effected in the same period of time in different individuals,—in some it is slow, in others rapid. In the former a longer interval between breakfast and dinner is necessary than in the latter. A variety of other circumstances, such as the quantity of food taken at breakfast, the occupation of j the individual, &c. &c, also affect the length of the interval. Business and the customs of society have led to the practice of dining late, which, as I j have already stated, involves the propriety of taking the intermediate meal called luncheon, i 4. Tea.—The moderate use of tea or coffee, two or three hours after dinner, forms a very agreeable and refreshing meal. 5. Supper.—General experience is unfavorable to the use of much food at supper. To those who dine late, supper is an unnecessary meal; whereas to those who dine early, and who take much active exercise, or are employed in laborious work after dinner, it is by no means an unnecessary or unwholesome meal. An empty stomach, under such cir- cumstances, will sometimes prove a most disagreeable preventive of sleep.* , Chap. IV.—On Dietaries. > It will, I think, be generally admitted, that an accurate acquaintance with the quantity and quality of food necessary to the maintenance of human health and life, under dif- ferent circumstances, is a matter of great interest to every one; but it is more especially so to statesmen, magistrates, naval and military officers, physicians and surgeons, govern- ors of hospitals and other public institutions, and the guardians of the poor. To them are intrusted the care and supervision of the inhabitants of prisons, ships, garrison!?, armies, asylums, hospitals, and poor-houses; and on their knowledge or ignorance de- pends the health or disease—the life or the death—of a considerable portion of the com- munity. The Reports of the Inspectors of Prisons have furnished abundant evidence of the errors committed by magistrates in the dieting of criminals. Debility, diarrhcea, scurvy, * Appendix, 18. DIETARIES. 223 and other evils known to be consequences of defective nutriment, have prevailed in many of the prisons of this country to a serious and alarming extent. I am fully aware of the difficulty, in many cases, of determining the cause or causes of these evils, and I am willing to admit that, possibly, in some of the instances in which defective nutriment has alone been charged with the production of diseases of an epidemic character, that other morbific causes, either alone or concurrently with defective nutriment, may have con- tributed to the result. But in some cases the cause of the evil is too clear and unequivo- cal to admit of any doubt. Take the case of the Lewes House of Correction. The Inspec- tors of Prisons* inform us, that " Scurvy at one time prevailed in the prison : by an increase of the diet it disappeared. The diet was again diminished, and the scurvy again appeared. The diet was then permanently increased ; the scurvy again disappeared, and has not since occurred." The actual quantity of food required for the support of human health and life is sub- ject to considerable modification by a variety of circumstances; and, therefore, it is quite impossible to lay down a fixed rule, or to adopt any standard: for the quantity of food which may be suited to the wants of one individual may be insufficient for another, or too much for a third. Age, sex, the amount and kind of exercise and labor, the con- stitution, the state of health, and the condition of life, are some of the modifying circum- stances ; the agency of several of which is too obvious to require comment. Captain Parry,f in his Account of one of the Polar Expeditions, states, that experience satisfied him that the following daily allowance was quite enough to support his crew on ship-board ; that is, while performing the ordinary or regular ship duties:— Biscuit.......10 ounces. Beef Pemmicant......9 ounces. Sweetened Cocoa Powder .... 1 ounce. Rum ... .... 1 gill. Tobacco.......3 ounces per week. But this quantity was found to be by no means sufficient to support the strength of the men during their harassing journey across the ice, living constantly in the open air, ex- posed to the wet and cold for twelve hours a day, seldom enjoying the luxury of a warm meal, and having to perform very severe labor. Their strength became considerably im- paired, owing to want of sufficient sustenance; and both Captain Parry and Mr. Bever- ley, the surgeon, wrere of opinion, that in order to maintain the strength of the men thus employed for several weeks together, an addition would be requisite, of at least one third more, to the provisions daily issued.^ * Third Report of the Inspectors of Prisons. Supplement to Part I. Home District, p. 94. 1838. t Narrative of an Attempt, to reach the North Pole in boats fitted for the purpose, and attached to his ma- jesty's ship Hecla, in the year 18-27. London, 1828. t Pemmican is prepared by drying large thin slices of the lean of the meat over the smoke of wood fires, then pounding it, and, lastly, mixing it with about an equal weight of its own fat. In this state it is ready for use without further cooking. <■> May not the loss of strength have been partly owing to the habitual use of rum and tobacco ? Sir John Ross states, that when on the same expedition to the North Pole, he, with his crew, abandoned the use of spirituous'liquors " with the most gratifying results." The result of his experiment he gives as follows :— " When men under hard and steady labor are given their usual allowance, a draught of grog, or a dram, they become languid and faint, losing their strength in reality, while they attribute that to the continuance of their fatiguing exertions. He who will make the corresponding experiments on two equal boats' crews, rowing in a heavy sea, will soon be convinced that the water-drinkers will far out- do the others."—(Sir John Ross's " Arctic Expedition.") There can be no doubt, however, that the allowance of food was much too small to support the Btrength.—L. | 224 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. In framing prison dietaries, an important element for consideration is the amount and nature of the labor to which the prisoners are subjected; those who are put to hard labor requiring a greater quantity of food to enable them to support the augmented expenditure of power. Accordingly, in the dietaries framed by the Inspectors of Prisons, and adopted by Sir James Graham, her majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Department, this element has been kept in view. An opinion has of late prevailed that the condition of life, as regards liberty or imprison- ment, is a circumstance which modifies the quantity of food necessary for the mainte- nance of health. On this point I shall quote the opinion of one of the Inspectors of Prisons, in his own words:—"In the construction of a dietary for a House of Correction, it is not unfrequently assumed that something less than what is the customary food of the laboring population of the vicinity should be sufficient for those in the degraded condition of criminals. Accordingly, in those agricultural districts where meat forms but a very small proportion of the ordinary food, less has been accorded, and in some instances none, without consideration being given to the wide distinction between the condition of the freeman and the prisoner:—the one enjoying purity of air, acth'e bodily and healthful mental exercise, social intercourse, choice and diversity of diet. It is under such cir- cumstances that the smallest modicum of animal food proves sufficient for the preserva- tion even of the most robust health. But reverse the situation: place the individual, as an offender against the law, in a small, cold, ill-ventilated cell; a prey to his own reflec- tions, or, what is worse, with his mind almost a vacuum, cut off from all real social Inter- course, subjected to the irksome, uninteresting labor of treading a wheel or picking oak- um ; it is in this condition, I contend, that the stimulus of animal food beflftnes indispen- sable for his support against the inroads of low and debilitating diseases. T'-••scarcely re- collect an instance of scurvy being prevalent in a prison but where it might be distinctly traced to a want of variety in the diet, and its deficiency in nutritive qualities."* That deprivation of liberty, with all its accompanying restrictions',''•exercises a depress- ing influence on the mind, and through this on the body, cannot be for «."'moment doubted. In this indirect way it becomes a means of affecting the organic functions ; and thus it happens that an amount of nutriment, which, under the most cheering circumstances, is barely sufficient to sustain health, may prove, when conjoined with depressing mental in- fluences, totally insufficient for the maintenance of health, and may be followed by scurvy and other diseases known to be common consequences of defective sustenance. And here I may be permitted to remind^my reader, that scurvy has ever been a dis- ease remarkable for the influence exercised over it by passions of the mind. In Lord Anson's Voyage, we are told, " that whatever discouraged the seamen, or at any time damped their hopes, never failed to add new vigor to the distemper; for it usually killed those who were in the last stages of it, and confined those to their hammocks who were before capable of some kind of duty. So that it seemed as though alacrity of mind and sanguine thoughts were no contemptible preservatives from its fatal malignity." Mr. Ives, in his Journal, also gives an excellent illustration of the beneficial influence of men- tal exhilaration on this disease ; for he states, "Upon the British fleet coming into the Bay of Hieres, (February, 1744,) our men understood that the enemy's fleet and ours were soon to engage. There appeared not only in the healthy, but also in the sick, the highest marks of satisfaction and pleasure, and these last mended surprisingly daily, insomuch that on the 11th of February, the day we engaged the combined fleets of France and Spain, we had not above four or five but what were at their fighting quarters." Dr. * Seventh Report of the Inspectors of Prisons. II. Northern and Eastern District, p. iii. London, 1842. DIETARIES. 22o Lind* relates a still more striking exemplification of the position here contended for, as having occurred at the siege of Breda in 10*25. In the Dietaries for Prisons recently adopted by the Secretary of State, the length of imprisonment has, very properly as I conceive, been taken into consideration. For if it be admitted that imprisonment has an injurious influence over the nutrition of the body, it is obvious that the longer the period the more marked will be the effect. Those, therefore, who have to suffer prolonged terms of imprisonment require to be better nourished than those who are sentenced for shorter periods, in order to enable them the better to resist the depressing influences to which they are, for a more lengthened term, to be subjected ; and the consequences of which (viz. loss of health and strength) constitute " a punish- ment not contemplated by law, and which it is unjust and cruel to inflict"! Observation and experiment have fully proved the absolute necessity of considerable variety of food for the preservation of health and life; and there is nothing surprising in this. The body is made up of many principles, differing the one from the other in com- position and chemical properties; and we might d priori have presumed, that textures wnich are chemically different would require different aliments for their nourishment. The living body, as I have already stated (see p. 3, el seq.,) has no power of creating elementary substances; and it is obvious, therefore, that the system must be supplied with foods containing all the elements which enter into its composition. Moreover, it is not sufficient to present animals with these elements in their raw or uncombined state ; for the animal system has no power of forming its organic constituents out of simple or elementary, bodies. It is capable of effecting a considerable number of combinations and decompositions; but there is a limit to its chemical powers. It cannot form the organic constituents of the tissues out of any substances which may happen to contain the same .elements, but only out of those substances whose composition and properties are analo- gous to, or identical with, those of the principles of which the tissues are composed. With the exception of cellular tissue and of membranes, of the brain and nerves, which vegetables cannot produce, Liebig denies that the animal organism has the power of creating any of the organic principles which compose the animal tissues. Nitrogenized foods are necessary for the formation of tissues into the composition of which nitrogen enters. Thus proteinaceous substances (fibrine, albumen, caseine, and gluten) serve for the formation of muscle and of the albuminous tissues, and, in the case of infants nourished by milk alone, they must also become food for the gelatinous tissues (cartilage, cellular tissue, membrane, the true skin, &c.) But as the foods on which the adult animal feeds, contain, or are capable of yielding, gelatine, it is probable that the gelatinous tissues are, in this case, wholly or partially nourished from this source. Non-nitrogenized foods serve several important purposes in the animal economy; though perhaps their ultimate use is to act as fuel to be burnt in the lungs, and thereby to develop sufficient heat to support the high temperature necessary for the manifestation of vital power. Oily or fatty substances, sugar, and the starchy or amylaceous substances, serve this purpose. They save the injurious and excessive action of oxygen on the tis- sues of the body. "By diminishing the amount of alkali in the blood, and by giving non- nitrogenous food, the scurvy is cured, or prevented, in consequence of such substances being acted on instead of the tissues of the body. No other explanation can be given of the benefit which arises from vegetable acids, from fresh vegetables, from sugar, wine, * Treatise on the Scurvy. t Sir J. R. G. Graham, in a Circular Letter to the Chairmen of Quarter Sessions, dated Jan. 27, 1843. 15 226 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. beer, wort, treacle, potatoes, &c., all of which have been used with the best effects."* Oily or fatty substances are absorbed, and afterwards either laid up in cells, to be consumed at some future time, or immediately burnt in the lungs to furnish heat. According to Liebig, saccharine and farinaceous substances also contribute to the formation of fat, though, as I have before stated, Dumas denies this. I. DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN. In children the function of nutrition is more active than in adults. They have not merely to repair the daily waste, that is, to renovate their tissues, but to grow. Their functions of circulation and respiration are, therefore, more active than in after life ; and they require food; that is, substances to support the process of respiration, to be admin- istered at shorter intervals. There is also another reason why in children the elements of respiration (non-nitroge- nous foods) are more necessary than in adults. In the former the transformation or me- tamorphosis of the existing tissues is less intense than in the latter. In an adult, who neither gains nor loses in weight perceptibly from day to day, the nourishment and waste of organized tissue are equally balanced; but in the young the weight augments daily, and, consequently, the nourishment must exceed the waste. In order that this may take place, the child must be supplied with a sufficient quantity of non-nitrogenous food, which, by yielding carbon and hydrogen to be burnt in the lungs, protects the organized tissues from the transformations consequent on the injurious action of oxygen. " What is wanting for these purposes an infinite wisdom has supplied to the young animal in its natural food. The carbon and hydrogen of butter, and the carbon of the sugar of milk, no part of either of which can yield blood, fibrine, or albumen, are destined for the support of the respiratory process, at an age when a greater resistance is opposed to the meta- morphosis of existing organisms; or, in other words, to the production of compounds which in the adult state are produced in quantity amply sufficient for the purpose of respiration. The young animal receives the constituents of its blood in the caseine of the milk. A metamorphosis of existing organs goes on, for bile and urine are secreted; the matter of the metamorphosed parts is given off in the form of urine, of carbonic acid, and of water; but the butter and sugar of milk also disappear; they cannot be detected in the feces. The butter and sugar are given out in the form of carbonic acid and water, and their conversion into oxidized products furnishes the clearest proof that far more oxygen is absorbed than is required to convert the carbon and hydrogen of the metamorphosed tissues into carbonic acid and water. The change and metamorphosis of organized tis- sues going on in the vital process in the young animal, consequently yield, in a given time, much less carbon and hydrogen, in the form adapted for the respiratory process, than corresponds to the oxygen taken up in the lungs. The substance of its organized parts would undergo a more rapid consumption, and would necessarily yield to the action of oxygen, were not the deficiency of carbon and hydrogen supplied from another source."! Children, for the most part, evince an almost instinctive fondness for sugar, which is supplied to them in their mother's milk. This perhaps is to be explained by the fact that it is an element of respiration, and, therefore, is more necessary for them than adults, on account of the greater activity of their function of respiration. But this fondness for sugar is by no means universal among children. In very cold countries, substances ricnu. in carbon and hydrogen, and, therefore, yielding more heat by combustion, are pre- ferred, "in one of those late extravagant voyages to discover a northwest passage," * Mr. Bence Jones, On Gravel, Calculus, and Gout, p. 48. Lond. 1842. t Liebig's Animal Chemistry, pp. 68 and 69. DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN. 227 says Sir Anthony Carlisle,* "the most northern race of mankind were found to be unac- quainted with the taste of sweets, and their infants made very wry faces, and sputtered out sugar with disgust; but the little urchins grinned with ecstasy at the sight of a bit of whale's blubber." The natural appetite I believe to be an index of the wants of the system; and ought, therefore, to be consulted, to a certain extent in the dieting of children; and I believe that parents commit a gross error who totally disregard it. I have seen children refused vegetable food, though they ardently desired it, because they would not eat what their nurses supposed to be the proper proportion of animal food; and, on the other hand, I have known children denied animal food, on the mistaken notion that it would be inju- rious to them, though the digestive functions were active, and the appetite for meat most keen. Arrow-root tapioca, sago, potato-starch, lous-les-mois, sugar, butter, and other fatty bodies, are elements of respiration, and if used in greater quantity than is necessary for combustion in the lungs, they contribute to the increase of fat;'but they do not contain the necessary ingredients for the growth of bone, cartilage, ligament, muscle, membrane, and cellular tissue. For the latter purpose, nitrogenized food is necessary. The caseine or curd of milk is an aliment of this kind, supplied by nature, for the use of mammals. It is a proteinaceous substance, adapted for the growth of the organized tissues; and is accompanied by phosphate of lime, which is necessary for the solidification of bone. The cereal grains (as wheat, barley, oats) also yield most valuable nitrogenized foods for chil- dren; and of these, Hard's Farinaceous Food, Semolina, Groats, Oatmfial, Sic, have been already noticed. The uses of animal foods (meats) have been so fully described, that any further refer- ence to them is unnecessary here. Children may be over fed or under fed. Instances of the former, however, are com- paratively rare. Of the ill consequences of defective nutriment we have, unfortunately, too many instances continually presented to our notice. Irritable bowels or diarrhoea, tumid abdomen, mesenteric disease, wasting, and fever, are the ordinary and obvious effects.*)* They frequently follow the continued use of pea-soup and potato stews,—dishes which are in common use at poor-houses and other establishments for pauper children. Scrofulous and strumous diseases, marasmus, rickets, distortions, and pot bellies, so com- monly met with among children of the poor, are referrible, in part at least, to food defec- tive either in quantity or quality, or perhaps in both. I think it will be found that more than two thirds of pauper children are strumous. They derive this condition in part, perhaps, from hereditary tendency ; but partly also, as I believe, from defective nutriment. To the same cause also is ascribable- their inferior development. If the children in poor- houses be examined, they will be found, for the most part, smaller and shorter for their age, more frequently distorted, and more readily fatigued, than the children of the mid- dling and higher classes. Subjoined are the dietaries of several of the principal metropolitan establishments for children:— * Practical Observations on the Preservation of Health, p. 73. London, 1S38. f To this may be added Ophthalmia, formerly a very prevalent disease in the Almshouse and Orphan Asylums of this city.—L. 228 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 1. FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Breakfast Dinner ,1. DIET FOR CHILDREN UNDER NINE Bread, 4 oz. Milk, half pint, boiled with an equal quantity of water. f Monday . . . 4 oz. uncooked Mutton for roasting; 6 oz. Potatoes ; 2 oz. of Bread. Tuesday. . . 4 oz. of uncooked Beef to be boiled into soup, with IJ oz. of Rice; 4 oz. of Bread. Wednesday Same as Monday. Thursday .. Same as Tuesday. Friday .... Same as Monday. Saturday. . . Rice Pudding (viz. milk i pint, rice 3 oz., treacle -I oz.) and Suet Pudding (viz. flour 7i oz. suet 1J oz. milk J of a pint) alternately. [_ Sunday .... 4 oz. of uncooked Beef for roasting (cold ;) 6 oz. of Potatoes; 2 oz of Bread. ■upper.....Bread, 4 oz.; J of a pint of Milk. 2. DIET FOR CHILDREN AT AND ABOVE NINE. Breakfast .... Bread 6 oz., Milk i pint, boiled with an equal quantity of water. 'Monday . .. 7 oz. of uncooked Mutton, for roasting; 10 oz. of Potatoes. Tuesday. . . 7 oz. of uncooked Beef, to be boiled into soup; 4 oz. of Bread. Wednesday Same as Monday. Dinner ....■{ Thursday . . Same as Tuesday. Friday .... Same as Monday. Saturday. . . Rice Pudding, with Suet Pudding alternately. Sunday.... 7 oz. of uncooked Beef for roasting (cold;) with 10 oz. of Potatoes Supper .... Bread, 6 oz.; Butter, -J oz.; Treacle alternate nights. 2. ROYAL MILITARY ASYLUM, CHELSEA. (Boys of from 5 to 14 Years of Age.) Breakfast Dinner Milk Pottage. Milk, l-6th of a quart; Oatmeal, l-16th of a lb.; Bread, l-20th of a quartern loaf. (Sunday----"j Meat, 8 oz.; Potatoes, 12 oz.; Bread, l-20th qu. loaf. Tuesday . . . S- j> 1 [On Sunday the meat is roast beef; on Tuesday and Thursday... | A ni*l \ Thursday, stewed beef; and on Saturday, stewed Saturday . . J " Plnt* ) mutton.] Monday . . .. > Pudding, Suet H oz.; Flour, 6 oz.; Potatoes, 8 oz.; Beer, half a Friday.....$ pint. [Wednesday .. Pea Soup, 1 gill; Potatoes, 12 oz.; Bread, l-20th of a quartern loaf; Beer, half a pint. Daily.......Bread, l-20th of a quartern loaf. Sunday . . . ."] Thursday '. '. )"Cneese> ** oz-" Beer, half a pint. Supper.....-j Saturday . . .J Monday.... 1 Wednesday . > Milk, half a pint. 1^ Friday.....) N. B.—The Meat is estimated as taken from the butcher, including bone. A proportion of the very small children on 6 oz. of Meat. DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN. 229 3. NAVAL ASYLUM, GREENWICH. Breakfast .... 1 pint Cocoa (i oz. cocoa, J oz. sugar, 1 gill ^rilk;) 5 oz. Bread. , Sunday . . . . fgoast Bee/* 9« oz* Tuesday . . . U°tat?e|* 8 oz* Thursday... | lread'3f °z* I^Beer, hali pint. Dinner 1 £? ' " ' ' I S™ Adding * " oz--.?uet- n . ._ •L''n7lcr.....1 "iday.....} ° $ 6 oz. Flour—Bread and Beer as above Wednesday * Pea tSoup (1 SiU °fP«M*> „ ■" \ Potatoes, 8 oz.—Bread and Beer as above. 1 Saturday . . . j {g^ ^ j Irish Stew_Bread and Beer. Supper.....Half pint Milk, and 5 oz. of Bread. 4. INFANT ORPHAN ASYLUM, DALSTON. Brealfast Dinner Bread and Milk daily. C Monday .... Meat, or boiled Beef-steak Pudding. Tuesday . . . Mutton, (not over boiled,) Potatoes, and boiled Rice. Wednesday . Cold Mutton, and Family Pudding. Thursday Friday . . Saturday . Sunday . . Roasted Legs of Mutton and Potatoes. Cold Mutton, and Family Pudding. Roasted Beef, Potatoes, and Suet Pudding. Cold roasted Beef, and mashed Potatoes. Beverage—Toast-water. Supper.....Bread and Butter, with Milk and Water. Children under three years of age to have Beef Tea, or Mutton Broth, besides cold Meat, on Sundays. Where the medical officers prescribe, Beer is substituted at dinner for Toast-water. Family Puddings to consist of dried Raisins, Apples, Rhubarb, &c. according to the season. Green Vegetables are occasionally introduced, as circumstances require. The Bread to be of the best quality, and two days old before cut. The joints to consist of top sides of rounds of the best Ox Beef, weighing about 28 lbs., and legs of the best Wether Mutton, weighing about 10 lbs. each. As much as they like to eat, within moderation. 5. MR. AUBIN'S ESTABLISHMENT AT NORWOOD, SURREY. Breakfast .... Milk Porridge, with Bread in it. 'Sunday . . .. ) Tuesday . . . > Baked or Boiled Mutton or Beef, with Vegetables and Broth. Thursday. . . ) Dinner.....-{ Monday . Friday . . ' > Soup with Bread in it. SaturuVy a7 f Baked °r Boiled Rice Puddin&* with Milk and Su8ar* Supper.....Bread and Butter, with Milk and Water. Children under 8 years not restricted to quantity,: those from 8 to 14 or 15 are allowed H pints Por- ridge, 4 oz. Bread, 5 oz. Meat, 1 lb. Potatoes, * pint Broth, IJ pints Soup, 16 oz. boiled Rice, 6 or 8 oz. of Hread and Butter. Those under 7 years of ago to be allowed Sago, Arrow-root, Milk, or any other iiiiiirishmcnt their tender age may require. I Children, when ill, to be dieted by the medical attendant. Roast Veal or Pork to be allowed on] i-'.asti-r and Whit-Sundays, and Roast Beef and Plum Pudding on Christmas day. 230 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 6. DIETARY FOR FOUNDLINGS AND ORPHANS OF THE HOSPICE DES ENFANS TROUVES, AND THE LUNATIC AND INFIRM CHILDREN OF THE HOSPICES DES INCURABLES.* IN PARIS. Division of THE Day. Kind of Food. QUANTITY ALLOWED. Unprepared. Prepared, Daily . . Daily Class I.—Infants less than a Month old. Milk.......... Vermicelli, Semolina, Wheaten or Rice Flour Sugar.......... Class II.—Infants from One to Twelve Months old, or until weaning. Milk........ White Bread ....... Vermicelli, Semolina, Wheaten or Rice Flour Sugar........ Daily . . . Breakfast Dinner upper Class III.—Children from One to Two Years old White Bread......... Soup or Milk Porridge....... Meat Broth for Soup, or Vegetable Broth for Soup Meat...... ... or Dry Legumes (Haricots, Split-peas, Lentils) or Fresh Vegetables (Cabbage, Turnips, Carrots) . or Potatoes......... or Rice.......... or Eggs.......... Dry Legumes........ or Fresli Vegetables....... or Potatoes......... or Rice.......... Prunes......... or Currant Jelly........ or Cheese......... Daily Breakfast Dinner . . Supper Breakfast Class IV.—Children from Two to Six Years old. White Bread for Soup, for Boys and Girls . Middling Bread j J*^ * \ \ \ \ [ Wine for Boys and Girls..... Jours Gras, (Sundays, Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays.) Vegetable Broth (Bouillon maigre) for Soup < r^?\l Meat Broth (Boullion gras) for Soup $ P^ Boiled Meatj^ [ [ . [ [ . [ ' Dry Legumes........ or Fresh Vegetables....... or Potatoes......... or Rice........... Cheese.......... or Prunes.......... or Raisinc (Thick confection of Grapes) .... Jours Maigres (Fridays and Saturdays.) Vegetable Broth for Soup | f$* 10 decag. 5 cent. 18 decag. 18 decag. 3 decag. 5 cent. 18 decag. 18 decag. 3 decag. 5 decag. 15 d£cag. 12 decag. 6 cent. 24 decag. 24 decag. 4 decng. 8 decag. * From the JYe^lcmmt sur !e Regime Alimentaire des Hjpilai/r et Hospices civils de la Ville Paris, ap- prouve par I Mn'sire deVInt'erieur,le'iQ Novembre, 1811. Paris, 1841. DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN. 231 TABLE SIX.—Continued. Division OF THE Day. QUANTITY ALLOWED. Kind of Food. Unprepared. Prepared. Dinner. Supper Vegetable Broth for Soup I g?^ Dry Legumes or Fresh Vegetables or Potatoes or Kggs . Dry Legumes jor Fresh Vegetables jor Potatoes >;* Rice . Cheese ir Prunes i lb. Meat, 6 oz. Potatoes, 4$ oz. Flour. Thursday .. j Friday.....J Mondav { ^ *^s" -^"'e' boiled and divided among 90 children. ^ Saturday . . . | j0 lbg peas in goup) divided among 90 children. i lb. Bread, 1 oz. Cheese. 2. DIETARY FOR THE NAVAL SERVICE * " The victualling of the Navy," says Dr. John Wilson,f " is as nearly as possible uni- form throughout the service as circumstances will permit; at sea it is almost entirely so ; in harbor it varies more or less, according to the supplies of fresh provisions procurable in different places." In the "Regulations for His Majesty's Service at Sea," established rv the King in Council, Jan. 1st, 1833, is contained the following scale of diet used in the Navy :— * Appendix, 19. t Statistical Reports of the Health of the Navy, for the Years 1830-1836. South American, West Indian and North American, Mediterranean and Peninsular Commands. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, March 24, 1840. NAVAL DIETARY. 233 "There shall be allowed to every person serving in His Majesty's ships the following quantities of provisions :—viz: Bread...... ] Beer...... 1 Cocoa..... 1 Sugar..... Ii oz. lb. gallon. Fresh Meat...... 1 lb. and Vegetables...... 4 lb. Tea........... 4 oz. " When Fresh Meat and Vegetables are not issued, there shall be allowed in lieu thereof- Salt Beef.. . * lb. 1 l or Salt Pork ... Hb. and > alternately } and Flour...... i lb. ) ( Peas......... 4 pint. "And weekly, whether Fresh or Salt Meat be issued— Oatmeal ... 4 pint. Vinegar........ 4 pint. " The following Scheme shows the proportion of Provisions with Salt Meat for each man forl4 days:— Days of the Week. Bread Beer Sugar Cocoa Tea Beef Pork Flour Peas Oat-meal Yine-| gar- lb. gall. oz. oz. oz. ft. lb. lb. pint Sunday 1 14 1 4 * — i Monday 1 14 1 * — i — L\ Tuesday 1 n 1 4 * — i — Wednesday 1 14 1 4 — * — 4 Thursday 1 ii- 1 4 * — i — f i 4 Friday 1 14 1 4 — * — i Saturday 1 1 14 14 . 1 1 *> i * 4 *] Sunday Monday 1 14 1 4 i — * - Tuesday 1 14 1 4 — * — * Wednesday 1 li 1 4 i — * - J. 4 4 Thursday 1 14 1 4 — * — 4 Friday 1 li 1 4 i — i — Saturday 1 1': 1 * — * — 5Ta Proportion > for 14 days $ 14 14 21 11 34 54 54 54 31- 1 1 " On the days on which Flour is ordered to be issued, Suet and Raisins or Currants may be substituted for a portion of Flour. 1 lb. of Raisins being considered equal to 1 lb. of Flour Hb. of Currants . . > diUo ditt0 4 lb. of Suet ....*) " In case it should be found necessary to alter any of the above species ot 1 rovisions, and to issue others as their substitutes, it is to be observed that— 14 lb. of Soft Bread ~| or 1 lb of Rice ... r to be considered equal to 1 lb. of Biscuit. 1 1 lb. of Flour ... J 1 pint of Wine . . ) or \ is to be considered equal to 1 gallon of Beer.* 4 pint of Spirits . . ) 1 oz. of Coffee is to be considered equal to 1 oz. of Cocoa. oz. of Tea lb. of Rice 1 pint of Calavancest > is to be considered equal to 1 pint of Peas. pint of DholU lb. of Butter lbs. of Cheese lb. of onions or lb. of Leeks . is to be considered equal to 1 lb. of Cocoa. are to be considered equal to 1 lb of Cocoa. is to be considered equal to 1 lb. of other Vegetables.' * Half a pint of spirits is not equal to one gallon of beer, nor to one spoonful. It contains no nutri- ent, as we have shown elsewhere, but is a pure stimulant.—L. a kind of pulse. According to Sir II. Sloane it is the Phaseolus sptuerospermus. il'm the split peas of India. That which is obtained from Phaseolus radiatus is reckoned t C/A.-i t DhoU or D the best kind. 234 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. "After fourteen days' use of salt food, lemon juice, with an additional allowance of sugar, is issued as an antiscorbutic."* From these statements it is obvious that the quantity of food supplied to the Navy is most ample, though not excessive. The total weekly allowance, when either fresh or salt meat is issued, is as follows:— Fresh Meat Diet. Salt Meat Diet Bread 112 oz. 112 oz. Meat 112 oz. 84 oz. Vegetables 56 oz. 0 Flour .... 0 42 oz. Peas 0 [H pints say] 29J oz. Oatmeal [4 pint say] 5 oz. 0 oz. Sugar 104 oz. . 104 oz. Cocoa 7oz. . 7oz. Total 3024 2904 Beer .... 7 oral Ions 7 gallons Vinegar «,. 4 pint. 4 pint Tea lloz. . IJ oz. on of one kind of t irovision for another is an excellent am which considerable variety of food, so necessary for the preservation of health, is ob- tained. A reasonable complaint, however, may be made with regard to the scale of equi- valents adopted. It will be perceived that 8 oz. of fresh vegetables are considered equal to 12 oz. of flour, or to half a pint of peas: whereas in reality at least 86 oz. of fresh vegetables are required to be equal to 12 oz. of wheat flour.f Dr. Wilson declares the naval rations to be both abundant in quantity and excellent in quality ; and he adds that they contribute largely to the high degree of health now enjoyed in the Royal Navy. The water employed in the navy was formerly carried to sea in casks, and soon be- came putrid and offensive owing to the vegetable admixture. The substitution of iron tanks for casks has remedied this evil; and the water can now be kept for any length of time without becoming offensive either to the palate or nose. The metal becomes oxi- dized, and the oxide of iron thus formed mixes with the water; but, by its weight and insolubility, it soon falls, at least for the most part, to the bottom; and should a small portion remain suspended and be drank, it can have no injurious effect, but may possibly prove beneficial. * Dr. J. Wilson's Statistical Reports. t In making the above calculation, I have assumed that 100 parts of wheat flour contain 89 parts of dry nutritive matter, and that 100 parts of fresh vegetables (potatoes, cabbage,"carrots, and turnips) con- tain, on the average, only 12*15 parts of dry nutritive matter. For 100 parts of potatoes contain about *' cabbage " " turnips " " carrots " 21 parts dry matter 7-7 7-5 12-4 Total......486 Average.....12-15 If we calculate according to Boussingault's nitrogen scale of nutritive equivalents, (see p. 27-28,) about 1054 parts of fresh vegetables, (potatoes, cabbage, carrot, and turnips,) are equivalent to 12 parts of wheat flour. DIETARY FOR TROOPS TO INDIA. 235 Subjoined are the Scale of Victualling for Troops from England to India, as fixed by the East India Company; and the Dietary for Emigrants, as fixed by Her Majesty's C«W-al Land and Emigration Commissioners :— SCALE OF VICTUALLING FOR TROOPS FROM ENGLAND TO INDIA. For Two Days ( Beef,* Two Pieces, o; ] Flour ( Suet $ Preserved Meat \Rice . For One Day For Three Days $ £ork'* Three Pieces- •' I Peas For Seven Days 16 lb. 51b. lib. 61b. 3 1b. 181b. 5 Pints 5 1b. * lb. 141b. 41b. 30 1b. lib. 6 1b. 3 Pints 42 Pints For a Mess of Six Men per Week. eas Flour . For One Day 2 Suet ( Plums f Mustard . I Biscuit j Tea j Sugar (crushed) Vinegar [_ Best London Porter Waterat the rale of Seven Pints per man per day, for twenty weeks: this quantity covers Wastage. Lemon Juice at the rale of One Quart per man for the Voyage out. The allowance of Porter to be exclusive of Wastage. Fresh Beef or Mutton to be issued to the Troops when procurable ; 14 lb per man per day, with Vegetables for the Soup, and Oatmeal. * New India Beef and New India Pork of British curing. QUANTITIES FOR EACH MAN PER DAY. 1 •—* o o L* 5 o 1 a £-3 6 '3 ■j> *"• c 5 = C3 d 03 -3 03 3 o C3 OZ. oz. :/2 OZ. oz. OZ. CU pis. ft. U>. lb. pt. lb. ft. k* « ^ pts. ft. ft. Sunday 214 6* 14 - — 5 p- . _ _ 1 ■„ .3 "3-* is ^-'a Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 214 134 G3- 14 4 16 16 7~ a u 2 S .3- 1 4 S3 1 1 1 1 1 "^"o n ~ "o ■jr. Z) :3 S ,2 c 1^ .o ~ jj > *^ «■* S o ).eachManper )J iou of Flour & S as, or Uice. Saturday — — — — lb —1 I - --o -;, •h .= **- N.B. Wonrn receive the same rations as Men, and Children half the ration, with the exception of iirer, half the ration only being allowed to Women. The Porter to be in Hogsheads when the number of Persons is under 120. DAILY iMEALS. Breakfast Dinner . Supper . Biscuits, Tea and Sugar. According to the above Scale. Biscuits, Tea and Sugar. 1 236 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. DIETARY FOR EMIGRANTS. The passengers to be in Messes of six or more, as the Surgeon may determine; and to be victualled ac- cording to the following Scale, for one Adult:— Days. s -H CD w O -e o > +i t. oS V CD 3 O .S '3 15 3 CO 03 6 o 03 CD 6 o O t* 03 ho 3 02 k*. CD 3 M CD a o? o _Q 03 3 *C3 CO Sunday . . . Monday . . . Tuesday . . Wednesday . Thursday . . Friday . . . Saturday . . lb. i a. i i i i i lb. ft. ft. ft. i OZ. 2 2 2 2 oz. 14 14 14 14 PL ft. oz. 4 oz. 4 ft. oz. 3 3 Qts. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 pt. J* cu is C 'S, 03 o OZ. j>> "cu o is CD O C 3 o -w oz. >> u CO o a 3 o CM * The Biscuit must not be of a more inferior description than the second quality of that article. t Prime new Irish East India Beef, and prime mess Pork. t During the first month 14 lbs. of potatoes may be substituted for 4 lb. of Rice. Women and Children of 14 years and upwards, to receive the same rations as Men ; Children from 7 to 14 to receive two thirds, and Children from 1 to 7 years of age to receive one half, of the above quantities. The Children between 1 and 7 shall, three times a week, receive 4 oz. of Rice, or 3 oz. of Sago, each, in lieu of their salt Meat. Children under twelve months receive no rations. One pound of fresh Meat and one pound of soft Bread per adult, to be issued, with a suita-ble quantity of Vegetables, until one day after passing the Downs, and whenever opportunity shall offer, in lieu of the salt and preservad Meat, and of the Flour, Suet and Raisins, Rice and Peas. 3. ARMY RATIONS.* The daily allowance to the Soldier in Great Britain is 1 lb. of Bread, and $ lb. of Meat, making together 196 oz. of solid food weekly. For this he pays a fixed sum daily, viz. 6d. whatever may be the market price ; any excess being paid for by Government. He furnishes himself with other provisions. 4. DIETARIES FOR PAUPERS. It has been very properly stated by the Poor Law Commissioners, that in the dieting of the inmates of workhouses, the object is to give them an adequate supply of wholesome food, not superior in quantity or quality to that which the laboring classes in the respective neighborhoods provide for themselves. To effect so desirable an object, the Commissioners, in their Second Annual Report (1836) have adopted six dietaries (numbered from 1 to 6) for use in poorhouses; and we are told that all of them have been employed in different parts of England, and have been proved to be sufficient in quantity, and perfectly unexceptionable as to the nature of the provisions specified in each. * The U. States Army Ration, is, for each man, daily, 18 ounces of bread, and either 20 ounces of beef, or three fourths of a pound of pork, but no vegetables.—This amounts to 266 oz. of solid food weekly, when beef is allowed, or 210 oz. when pork is allowed.—L. DIETARIES FOR PAUPERS. 237 1. DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED MEN AND WOMEN. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Gruel. Cooked Mem. Pota-toes. Soup. Suet or Rice Pudd.n». Bread. Cheese. Broth. Sunday . . C Mm . . . Tuesday . . < Thursday . ( Women . . Monday . . ( M'n ... Wednesday . } Women . . Saturday . . f ^day • . \lZnen \ 03. 6 5 6 5 6 5 pints. It OZ. 5 5 lbs. i i pints. Ii OZ. 14 12 OZ. 6 5 6 5 6 5 OZ. 2 2 2 2 pints. Ii li Old people of 60 years of age oz. of sugar, per week, in lieu o Children under 9 years of ag quantities as women. and u "gruel 1 e to b p wards or brea 9 dietec may be allow tfast, if deeme 1 at discretion ed 1 oz. of tea, 5 oz. of butter, and 7 d expedient to make this change. ; above 9, to be allowed the same 2. GENERAL DIETARY FOR THE ABLE-BODIED. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Cheese. Butler. t. Jo i^3 m3 "-S1 Bread. Cheese. Bread. Cheese. Butter. Sunday . . -] Women Monday . . (Men . Wednesday . J Thursday . . ] Women Saturday . . L Tuesday . . $ Men . Friday . . . ( Women OZ. 6 5 6 5 6 5 OZ. 1 1 1 OZ. i If oz. 16 10 OZ. 16 10 OZ. 7 OZ. 1 1 OZ. 6 5 6 5 6 5 oz. 1 1 1 oz. i Old people, being all 60 years oi milk or sugar; also an additional n and cheese, to those for whose age Children under 9 years of age :-milk cannot be obtained; also sucl spective ages. * The vegetables ar ' age ai leat pu and in -Bread l propo e extra id upwards :—The weekly addition of 1 os iding dinner on Thursday in each week, in [irraities it maybe deemed requisite. and milk for their breakfast and supper, c rtions of the dinner diet as may be requisit and not included In the weight specified. . of tea, and lieu of bread r gruel when e for their re- 238 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 3. DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED PAUPERS. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Gruel. Cooked Meat. Potatoes or other vegeta-bles. Soup. Bread. Cheese. Bread. Cheese. Sy [*» Wednesday j TfW . . . Tuesday \Womm . . . Thursday {w^nuk '. '. * Saturday {jvLen .' ! . OZ. 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 pints. Ii li li li li li li li OZ. 8 6 Bacon. 5 4 lb. * pints. li li OZ. 7 6 6 5 OZ. 2 li OZ. 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 OZ. li li li li li li li li Old people of 60 years of age and upwards may be allowed 1 oz. of tea, 5 oz. of butter, and 7 oz. of sugar, per week, in lieu of gruel for breakfast, if deemed expedient to make this change. Children under 9 years of age to be dieted at discretion; above 9, to be allowed the same quantities as women. 4. DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED PAUPERS OF BOTH SEXES. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Gruel. Pickled Pork or Bacon wifli vege'bls. Soup. Bread. Meat Pud-ding with vegetables. Rice or Suet Pud-ding-with vegetables. Bread. Cheese. Say 5-g" Fridayy \Womm . . . Monday tt ding . . 3 Cheese . . . " Meat Pudding with ) « vegetables*)* . ) Butter . . . " Bacon . . . " Yeast dumpling . " Vegetable . . " 84 15 24 14 8 70 15 24 12 8 112 32* IS 16 98 20* 4 10 7 132 8 24 18i 5 106 6 24 16i 4 116 24* 14 12 6 92 20* lOi 10 5 98 10 48 14 8i 24 84 10 48 12 8i 24 102 8 24 16 15 1 22 88 8 24 12 3 6 22 Total .... Gruel . . pints Soup . . . " Broth Vegetables . . " 145 lOi 4i 4i 129 lOi 4i 4i 178 139 *! 187i lOi li 156 i-lOi li 172 lOi 6 1 137i lOi 4i 202i lOi 3 lS6i lOi 3 188 2 163 2 * Besides vegetables. t The vegetables are extra, and are not included in the weights specified. The average weekly amount of solid food supplied by these dietaries is for men nearly 179 ounces, and for women abo it 152 ounces. Dietary No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. 145 178 187i 172 202i 188 129 139 156i 137i 186i 163 1073 178 5-6 911i 152 (about.) Average Now according to the result of the Commissioners of Inquiry,* agricultural laborers are unable to procure for themselves and families an average allowance of more than tt2jt oz. of solid food (principally bread) weekly; and if we assume that the man consuiplr 140 ounces (say 134 bread and 6 meat) as his share, it is evident that his allowance would not be equal to that of the above dietaries. The dietary marked No. 2 is that of twenty-six Unions of the county of Kent; and, at a meeting of the chairmen and vice-chairmen of all the twelve East Kent Unions, it was unanimously declared that this dietary had answered well, and that no alteration in it was desirable.*)- I have inquired at several workhouses the composition of the suel-pudding, the soup, and the gruel, used in these establishments. Subjoined are some of the answers which I have received. 1. Soup, (in use at the Wapping Workhouse.\)—Liquor in which 119 lbs. of meat have * See Mr. Tuffnell's report, in the Second Annual Report of the Poor Law Commissioners. t See Mr. Tuffnell's report, before cited. •J: For the above and some of the subsequent information respecting the Wapping Workhouse, I am indebted to Mrs. Megson, the very intelligent matron of that establishment. DIETARIES FOR PAUPERS. 241 been boiled, Legs and Shins of Beef 42 lbs., Residual Cuttings of Meat 9$ lbs, Split-peas 40 lbs., Onions and Carrots 16 lbs., Oatmeal 6 lbs., Dripping 6 lbs., Pepper 3 oz., Salt 1 lb., and Crumbs of Bread 5 lbs. This quantity is for 240 females, each having 1 pint, (weighing about 1£ lb.) A pint and a half of the soup prepared at the poorhouse of St. George's, Middlesex, contains 6 ounces of meat and bone, (equal to about 4£ ounces solid meat,) l-7th of a pint of Peas, l-3d of an ounce of Groats, l-120th of an ounce of Pepper, l-15th of an ounce of Salt, and l-25th of a pennyworth of Vegetables. 2. Gruel, (in use at the Wapping Workhouse)—Each pint of gruel contains 1-J oz. of the best Berwick Oatmeal. 3. Suet Puddings, (in use at the Wapping Workhouse.)—Flour 1 lb., Suet \ lb., Water 13 oz. These quantities yield, when boiled, full 2 lbs. of pudding. Mr. Gray, of the Stepney Union, informs me that,— "lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. 10 Flour with 2i Suet and 11 Water lost in cooking 2 1 and yielded 21 7 pudding. 10 " 2i 8 " 0 4 " 20 12 10 " 2i " 6 " " 1 13 " 20 5 " So that by making the puddings over stiff, that is, with 6 oz. of water, 1 lb. 2 oz. more were lost (equal to about 5 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 oz. of W \ Bread.....\ Bread. Prisoners of this class, employed at hard labor, to have, in addition, 1 pint of Soup per week. CLASS III. Prisoners employed at hard labor for terms exceeding fourteen days, but not more than six weeks:— Males. Females. Breakfast.—I pint of Oatmeal gruel;) 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 oz. of 8 oz. of Bread . . . . $ Bread. Sunday and {Dinner.—I pint of Soup; 8 oz. of), • . f0 e »t, , Thursday . . . \ Bread . . . . \1 Pint of SouP' 6 oz*of Bread- Tuesday and < 3 oz. of cooked Meat, without bone; > 3 oz. of cooked Meat without bone ; Saturday . . . \ 8 oz. of Bread ; i lb. of Potatoes, \ 6 oz. of Bread ; i lb. of Potatoes. Monday, ( 8 oz. of Bread; 1 lb. of Potatoes, or ) 6 oz. of Bread ; 1 lb. of Potatoes, or Wednesday, and j 1 pint of Gruel, when Potatoes [ 1 pint of Gruel when Potatoes Friday . . . . ( cannot be obtained . . . ) cannot be obtained. Supper.—Same as breakfast . . Same as breakfast. CLASS IV. Prisoners employed at hard labor for terms exceeding six weeks, but not more than three months:— Males. Females. Breakfast.—1 pint of Oatmeal gruel;) 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 oz. of 8 oz. of Bread . . . . $ Bread. (Dinner.—3 oz. of cooked Meat, with- out bone ; i lb. of Potatoes ; 8oz. of Bread..... Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, . . Monday, Wednesday, and Friday . . . 3 oz. of cooked Meat, without bone ;; i lb. of Potatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread. 1 pint of Soup; 6 oz. of Bread. Same as breakfast. Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday Monday, Wednesday, Friday, . of 1 pint of Soup; 8 oz. of Bread Supper.—Same as breakfast . CLASS V. Prisoners employed at hard labor for terms exceeding three months:— Males. Females. 'Breakfast.—1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; ) 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 6 oz. of Bread . . . . $ Bread. Dinner.-4 oz. of cooked Meat, with- ) 3 QZ of cooked M wUhout bone of Bread ' ') * lb" of Potatoes 5 C oz* of Bread- 'Breakfast.—1 pint of Cocoa, made ofi 1 pint of Cocoa, made of i oz. of i oz. of flaked cocoa or cocoa-1 flaked cocoa or cocoa-nibs, sweet- nibs, sweetened with i oz. of mo- j ened with i oz. of molasses or lasses or sugar; 6 oz. of Bread, J sugar; 6 oz. of Bread. Dinner.—1 pint of Soup ; 1 lb. of Po- ) 1 pint of Soup ; s lb. of Potatoes ; 6 tatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread . . $ oz. of Bread. Supper, the seven days.—1 pint of> 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 oz Oatmeal gruel; 6 oz. of Bread, $ Bread. CLASS VI. Convicted prisoners not employed at hard labor for periods exceeding fourteen days :— Males. Females. Brealcfast.— \ pint, of Oatmeal gruel;) 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 oz 8 oz. of Bread . . . *) Bread. [ Dinner.—3 oz. of cooked Meat, with- \ out bone ; s lb. of Potatoes ; 8 oz. j of Bread..... of of Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday Monday, Wednesday, Friday 3 oz. of cooked Meat, without bone; i lb. Potaloes; 6 oz. of Bread. 11 pint of Soup ; 8 oz. of Bread Supper.- 1 pint of Soup ; 6 oz. of Bread. Same as breakfast. Females. The same as Class VI. Same as breakfast . CLASS VII. Prisoners sentenced by Court to solitary confinement :— Males. The same as Class VI. CLASS VIII. Prisoners for examination, before trial, and misdemeanants of the first division, who do not main Iain themselves:— „ Males. Females. The same as Class IV. The same as Class IV. CLASS IX. DESTITUTE DEiiTORS. Males. Females. The same as Class IV. The same as Class IV. CLASS X. Prisoners under punishment for prison offences for terms not exceeding three days — 1 lb. of Bread per diem. Prisoners in close confinement for prison offences under the provisions of the 42d section of the Jail Act 1— r- r Mules. Females. Breakfast . . 1 pint of Gruel; 8 oz. of Bread . . 1 pint of Gruel; 6 oz. of Bread. Dinner . . . 8 oz. of Bread........6 oz. of Bread. Sitinxr . . . 1 pint of Gruel; 8 oz. of Bread . . 1 pint of Gruel; 6 oz. of Bread. Note _The Soup to contain, per pint, 3 oz. of cooked meat, without bone, 3 oz. of potatoes, 1 oz of barley rice or oatmeal, and 1 oz. of onions or leeks, with pepper and salt. The Gruel, when made in Quantities exceeding 50 pints, to contain U oz. of oatmeal per pint, and 2 oz. per pint when made in less quantities. The Gruel on alternate days to be sweetened with * oz. ol molasses or sugar, and seasoned with salt. 248 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The following table gives a comparative view of the weekly quantity of food allowed to prisoners confined for terms exceeding three days :— Class 4. Class 6. Class 7. Class 2. Class 3. Class 8. Class 9. Class 5. Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. Women. Bread . . . . oz. 168 126 168 126 168 126 126 126 168 126 Cooked meat, oz. 0 0 6 6 12 12 16 12 12 12 Potatoes ... 02. 0 0 64 64 32 32 112 56 3*? 32 Total solid food 168 126 238 196 212 170 254 194 212 170 Gruel . . . pints 14 14 14 14 14 14 11 11 14 14 Soup . . . pints 0 0 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 Cocoa . . . pints 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 These dietaries appear to me well calculated to carry into effect the principles laid down by the Prison Inspectors, that the quantity of food supplied to prisoners should in all cases be sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to maintain health and strength. They have, however, been objected to, on the ground that the amount of food which they supply is greater than the hard-working, sober, and honest laborer can in general obtain for himself and family; and, therefore, that they hold out rather a temptation than a discouragement to crime. Should such be their effect, it is greatly to be regretted ; but it cannot form a valid ground for altering them. For the question is, not what the honest laborer can obtain, but what is necessary for the prisoner ; and under this point of view it appears to me that there exists no just ground of objection to these rates of diet. The dietary for the fifth class, which has been especially objected to, as being indulgent if not luxurious, allows an ample, but by no means an excessive, amount of food, when we take into consideration the hard labor to which the prisoners of this class are subjected, as well as their term of imprisonment, (see p. 224, et seq.)* 6. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. In the treatment of many diseases, attention to diet is a point of considerable impor- tance ; and in none is it more necessary than in non-febrile disorders of the digestive and urinary organs. For in acute maladies, in which abstinence or low diet is requisite, there is usually no disposition to take food: on the contrary, solids of all kinds are generally loathed ; and in such cases, therefore, there is little or no chance of any error of diet being committed. Dietetical regimen is more important in chronic diseases of the assimilating organs, in which the appetite is unimpaired, or even increased,—since in such the patient is more apt to overstep the bounds of prudence by the employment of a diet improper, either from the quantity or quality of the food used. In chronic local diseases, when the constitution is unimpaired, and the appetite for food remains natural, I would, by no means, advocate the adoption of a spare or low diet; since I brieve that in such cases the indulgence of a moderate appetite for plain food is attended with beneficial results. From this statement, however, maladies affecting the organs of assimilation must be fre- quently excepted. " Natural instincts," justly observes Dr. Billing,* '• are too often thwarted: it is much too common to put patients empirically on lew diet; and patients of the higher classes—the better educated—very often put themselves on low diet un- necessarily. So far as we may take natural instinct for a guide," he further observe-, * Appendix, 21. t First Principles of Medicine. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 217 " we may assert, that when a patient can eat, he may be allowed to do so ; for if he has even a slight degree of fever, he cannot eat." Several diets, or kinds of dietetical regimen, are employed in the treatment of diseases. The most important of these are the following :— 1. Full, Common, or Meat Diet.—On many occasions where it is desirable to restore or support the powers of the system,\patients are permitted to satisfy their appetite for plain vegetable and animal food. In'many indolent diseases, in scrofula, in some affec- tions of the nervous system, (as chorea and epilepsy,) and in the stage of convalescence after acute maladies, &c, this kind of diet is frequently directed. In these cases beer and, sometimes, wine are permitted; and spirit is occasionally required. In some dis- eases of, and in accidents occurring in, confirmed drunkards, it is frequently found inju- rious to withhold the stimulus to which the patient's system has been long accustomed ; and thus wine, brandy, rum, or gin, is ordered, according to circumstances. 2. Animal Diet.—This term is applied to a diet composed of animal food, either ex- clusively or principally. The only disease, in which a' diet exclusively of animal food is recommended, is diabetes. In this malady, strict abstinence from vegetable substances is attended with the diminution of both the quantity, and the saccharine condition, of the urine. But it deserves especial notice that the amount, as well as the nature, of the food taken in this disease, requires carefully attending to, as the craving for food is sometimes apt to induce the patient to indulge to an injurious extent. A considerable variety of food is necessary for patients limited to the exclusive use of animal diet, on account of the loathing of the same substance if frequently repeated. Butcher's meal, bacon, poultry, game, fish, shell-fish, cheese, eggs, sausages, and brawn, are allowed in private practice. For common drink, water, beef-tea, or mutton broth, may be sparingly used. Milk is generally permitted, but as it contains sugar, its use is not unob- jectionable. By the use of animal food exclusively, the quantity of sugar in the urine of diabetic pa- tients is greatly reduced; but I have never seen this secretion entirely lose its saccha- rine condition by even the most rigorous adoption of animal diet. In one case, recently under my care in the London Hospital, the quantity of urine passed in twenty-four hours was reduced from about eleven, to three or four pints in the twenty-four hours ; but its specific gravity (1040 to 1045) and saccharine quality remained unaltered. From whence, it may- be asked, in such cases, is the sugar derived 1 Where the use of milk is permitted, this perhaps is in part the source of it. I have, however, found it, where neither milk* nor vegetable food was employed ; and in such cases the substances which were used as food, and from which sweet or saccharine matter is known to be obtainable, were gelatine and oil or fat. But neither the sugar of gelatine (glycicoll) nor the sweet principle of oils and fats (o-lycerine) is identical with the diabetic sugar, (glucose;) and we are unacquainted with any means of converting the two former into the latter substance. Patients, we are told, sometimes evince such an inordinate craving for vegetable food, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to persevere for any considerable length of time on an exclusively animal diet. In the cases which have fallen under my observation this has not been the case. I have several times met with patients who have objected to persevere with this diet, not on the above ground, but simply because they became satis- fied of its inefficacy ; the diminution in the quantity of urine not being attended with a corresponding relief of the constitutional symptoms. In those diabetic cases in which it is thought advisable to permit a limited quantity of vegetable food, in conjunction with animal diet, those vegetables should be selected which are most highly nitrogenized, and which are freest fiom sugar or substances capable of 248 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. being converted into saccharine matter, as the starchy bodies. These conditions are best fulfilled by the cruciferous plants,—as cabbage, greens, cauliflower, broccoli, watercress, and mustard and cress. Sauerkraut, or fermented cabbage, (see p. 184,) is sometimes per- mitted. The aromatic condiments (as sage, mint, marjoram, fennel, parsley, caraway, cin- namon, nutmegs, allspice, pepper, mustard, &c.) are, of course, unobjectionable, as far as sugar is concerned. Fruits, especially apples and pears, are highly objectionable, on ac- count of the saccharine and amylaceous matters which they usually contain. For drink, Dr. Prout recommends sound porter in preference to wine or spirits. Some practitioners, among whom Dr. Prout deserves to be especially mentioned, object to the exclusive use of animal food in diabetes; " but consider a certain proportion of farinaceous matters proper. The recommendation of this admixture of farinaceous mat- ters is founded upon a fact already alluded to, and apparently well established, viz. that the assimilation of the saccharine principle is one of the last functions that becomes ex- tinct in animals. The proportions of these two forms of aliment must be varied accord- ing to the circumstances of the patient; and particularly according to the degree in which he is able to assimilate albuminous, in preference to farinaceous, matters; a point not difficult to be determined by a little attention. Of farinaceous matters, the high or strong, as the farina of wheat in the shape of bread, &c, seem to be most easily assimilated. The low kinds of farinaceous matters, as arrow-root, potatoes, &c, (with the exception perhaps of rice,) seem to be reduced to a species of sugar, more difficult of assimilation than the sugar from wheat-flour, &c, and in general, therefore, should be avoided."* Gluten is a nutritious vegetable principle, to the employment of which in diabetes no objection can be raised; and I have already (see p. 150) had occasion to notice gluten bread, which has been made for the use of diabetic patients. 3. Vegetable Diet.—The exclusive employment of vegetable food, in conjunction with the use of distilled water, has been recommended, by Dr. Lambe,f as a remedy for cancer, scrofula, consumption, asthma, and other chronic diseases; but he has, I suspect, gained few, if any, proselytes to his opinions and practice. 4. Spare or Abstemious Diet.—The term spare or abstemious diet is sometimes used to indicate the employment of vegetable substances principally, (not exclusively.) It gen- erally includes the use of the white-fish, (the flesh of which is less nourishing and stim- ulating than butchers' meat, see p. 134,) sometimes alternating with a limited quantity of poultry or butchers' meat. In plethoric habits, where the appetite is unimpaired, this diet is ordered in cases of threatened apoplexy, gout, &c. By its adoption we diminish the quantity of nutritive matter supplied to the system, while we keep the digestive organs actively employed. 5. Fever Diet, (Thin Diet; Spoon Diet; Slops.)—"In febrile diathesis," says Dr. Beaumont,* " very little or no gastric juice is secreted. Hence the importance of with- holding food from the stomach in febrile complaints. It can afford no nourishment, but is actually a source of irritation to that organ; and, consequently to the whole system." In another placef the same author observes, "that drinks received are immediately ab- sorbed, or otherwise disposed of, none remaining in the stomach ten minutes after being swallowed. Food taken in this condition of the stomach remains undigested for twenty- * On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 41. London, 1840. t Rqjorts of the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen on Scirrhous Tumours and Cancerous Ulcers. Lond. 1809. Additional Reports on the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen in cases of Cancer, Scrofula, Consumption, Asthma, and other Chronic Diseases. Lond. 1815. t Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, &c, p. 132. $ Op. supra cit. p. 99. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 249 four or fo.ty-eight hours, or more, increasing the derangement of the whole alimentary canal, and aggravating the general symptoms of disease." These observations suggest the appropriate diet for febrile states of the system. Foods which require digestion are to be withheld: indeed, they are generally loathed,—want oi appetite being one of the early symptoms of fever. Aqueous drinks, (commonly called diluents or slops,) however, are rapidly absorbed without undergoing digestion. Tea, toast-water, and barley-water, therefore, may be taken ad libitum. Of the foods which are most admissible when the patient feels capable of taking them, the saccharine and the amylaceous are the lightest and most appropriate. Acidulous fruits and drinks some- times prove most refreshing. Saccharine substances are absorbed and pass into the chyle, and subsequently support the process of respiration, while amylaceous substances yield sugar in the stomach independently of the gastric juice, and probably by the aid of the saliva merely, (see p. 62.) 6. Low Diet.—In acute inflammation of important organs, and after serious accidents, surgical operations, and parturition, patients in general are directed to adopt a low diet, consisting principally of liquid foods, as gruel, broth, milk, tea, and barley-water, and a moderate allowance of bread or biscuit, and light farinaceous puddings. The effect of low diet on the blood is similar to that of loss of blood; namely, a diminution of the number of the blood disks.* 7. Milk Diet.—Besides cow's milk, Avhich constitutes the principal article of food, this diet includes the use of farinaceous substances, (such as arrow-root, sago, and tapioca,) bread, and light puddings, (of rice, bread, or batter.) Milk is ordered when we are desirous of affording support to the system with the least possible stimulus or excitement. It is well adapted for inflammatory diseases of the chest, (phthisis especially,) of the alimentary canal, and of the bladder, when it is considered expedient to employ a nutritious but not stimulating diet. After hemorrhages, when the powers of the system have been greatly exhausted, a milk diet is frequently beneficial. It has also been considered one of the best means of preventing and of curing the gout. It is a good diet also for many of the diseases of children, especially those of a strumous or scrofulous nature. In some of the above-mentioned maladies, where the stomach is weak and irritable, cow's milk is apt to occasion vomiting and other unpleasant effects, in consequence of the butter which it contains. In such cases, skim-milk or ass's milk may be advantageously substituted. 8. Dry Diet.—In several maladies it becomes necessary to restrict the quantity of liquids used: as'in valvular disease of the heart, aortic aneurism, diabetes, and diuresis with either excess or deficiency of urea. The first of these diseases is incurable, and, therefore, our object is its palliation. One mode of attempting this is, to relieve the ob- structed circulation by lessening the volume of blood ; and which may be in some degree effected by limiting the amount of drink. In aneurism of the aorta we endeavor to lessen the tension of, and to promote the deposition of fibrine within, the sac. The indications are in part fulfilled by a dry diet, by which fulness of vessels and thinness of the blood are lessened. In diabetes, and also in diuresis, with either excess or deficiency of urea, a most important part of the treatment is to diminish, as much as possible, the quantity of fluids taken. I have said nothing of the nature of the solid food which is used by those who adopt a dry diet; because it is subject to considerable variation. In some cases a generous, in others a spare, diet should accompany it. * See Andral and Gavarret's Rccherches sur les Modifications de Proportion de quelaues Principes du Sang. Paris, 1842. 250 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Subjoined are the diet-tables of the Metropolitan Hospitals for the Sick,* of the Royal Ordnance Hospitals, and of the Royal Navy Hospitals and Marine Infirmaries:— 1. LONDON HOSPITAL. (j COMMON DIET. MIDDLE DIET. LOW DIET. MILK DIET. 12 oz. Bread. 1 Per Day . . . . 1 1 pint Porter, Men. 5 pint do. Women. 8 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. Gruel. Gruel. Gruel. r 8 oz. Beef, with Potatoes, thrice a week. 8 oz. Mutton, with | The same, except )■ that 4 oz. of Meal Potatoes, twice a shall be given in- week. stead of 8 oz. Broth. 1 pint Milk. 8 oz. Potatoes, and Soup, with Vege- tables, twice a . week. 1 pint of Broth. Gruel or Broth. 1 pint Milk. * 2. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL. THIN OR FEVER COMMON DIET. BROTH DIET. DIET. MILK DIET. Milk Porridge. Milk Porridge. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 6 oz. Mutt" or Beef 1 pint of Milk, with 2 pt Milk, with Ta- 1 pi. Broth [wills Milk Porridge. Tapioca, Arrow- pioca, Arrow-root, Peas or Potatoes, 12 oz. Bread. root, Sago, or Sago, or Rice, as 4 times a week.] 2 pints Broth. Rice, as may be maybe prescribed. 2 pis. Beer, Men. 1 pint Beer. prescribed. Barley-waler. 1 pint, Women. 1 oz. Butter. Barley water. 1 oz. Butter. 1 oz. Butter, twice Bread Pudding, 3 a week. times a week, when ordered. 3. GUY'S HOSPITAL. D.d'y . « Full Middle Diet. 14 oz. Br-Md. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 7 oz. Bu ier. Is oz Butter. 1 oz. Butler. 1 oz. Butter. 1 quart T ibl-j 1 pt. Table Beer. Tea and Sugar. 2 pints milk. Beer. 4 oz. Meat, when 8oz. Ment when dressed, and drerjsed. i pint Broth. For each diet. Gruel or Barley-water, as required Lo-,y Diet. Mi-.r. Diet. 6 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. Tea and Su^ar. Haifa pound of Beef, (for Beef-tea,) or Arrow- root or Sago, when ordered. Fever Diet. * In addition to the substances specified in the following Diet Tables of the Metropolitan Hospitals, other articles (as chops, steaks, fish, wine, spirit, porter, &c.) are permitted, when specially ordered by the medical officers. These are denominated extras. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 251 4. ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL. Daily . . . . \ FULL DIET. MILK DIET. DRY DIET. FEVER DIET. 2 pints of Beer; 14 12 oz. of Bread. 14 oz. of Bread 12 oz. of Bread ; oz. of Bread. 2 pints of Beer. 2 pints of Beer. Brealifast . . . Water Gruel. 1 pint of Milk. Water Gruel. Water Gruel. ' 1 lb. of Beef, when dress? 1 pint of milk 4 oz. of Butter, i of a lb. of Beef ed, twice a week ; 4 four times a four times a for tea. oz. of Butter, or 6 oz. week. week ; Rice Dinner . . . -| of Cheese thrice a week; * lb. of Mut- Rice Pudding thrice a week. Pudding and 4 oz. of Butter, I ton, when boiled. three times a thrice a week. week. Supper ... 5 1 pint Broth, four times a week. 1 pint of Milk. 5. ST. GEORGE'S HOSPITAL. r EXTRA DIET. ORDINARY DIET. FISH DIET. FEVER DIET. BROTH DIET. MILK DIET. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. Mm. 1 pint Beer. Barley Wa- Daily . . < 2 pint.s Beer. Women. li pts. Beer. ter ad libitum. Breakfast < 1 pint Tea, 1 pint Tea. 1 pint Tea. 1 pint Tea. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. * pint Milk. i pint Milk. i pint Milk. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. 12 oz. Meat, roasted i pint Miik. Dinner . - (weighed with the bone before it is dressed) One half the meat allow-ed for extra diet. i lb. Potatoes 4 oz. of plain boiled white fish (as Whi-ting, I'iaice, Flounders, or Haddock.) Arrow-root, oirui,Lre, or Rice L.iuel. Porridge, or thin Gruel. with Sujrar and Miik. with Sugar and Milk. 252 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 7. MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. Daily . . . Breakfast Dinner .< Supper . < DLETA CARNIS, OR MEAT DIET. DliETA JUSCULI OR SOUP DIET. DliETA LACTIS OR MILK DIET. DliETA SIMPIKX OR SIMPLE DIET. CANCER DIET. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. Physicians'1 Patients. £ lb. Potatoes, 4 oz. dressed meat (beef or mutton,) roast and boiled alter-nately, 4 days. 4 oz. Meat in Soup, 3 days. Surgeons'1 Patients. i lb. Potatoes, 4 oz. dressed meat (beef or mutton,) roast and boiled alter-nately. 1 pint Gruel alter-nately, with 1 pint of Barley-water. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Soup, made with 4 oz. Beef, alter-nately with 1 pint of Broth with Barley. 1 pint Gruel. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. £ pint Milk with Rice Pudding, 4 days, and with Batter Pudding 3 days. £ pint Milk, or 1 pint of Gruel. 6 oz. Bread. 1 pint Barley-water. 1 pint Gruel. 1 pint of Gruel or Barley-wa-1 ter. 12 oz. Bread. £ lb. Meat. £ lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk. 8. KING'S COLLEGE HOSPITAL. Daily ....•? Breakfast . . . < Dinner . . . . < Supper . . . . < FULL DIET. MIDDLE DIET. MILK DIET. LOW DIET. FEVER DIET. 1 pint Beer, or £ pint Porter. 14 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk Porridge. £ lb. Meat. £ lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 14 oz. Bread. lpint Milk Porridge. i lb. Meat. £ lb. Potatoes. lpint Milk Porridge. 1 lb. Bread. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. 8 oz. Bread. 1 pint Gruel. 1 pint Broth. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 1 pint Gruel. 2 pints Barley Water. lpint Milk Porridge. 9. DREADNOUGHT HOSPITAL SHIP. Breakfast . • \ Dinner ....-! Supper ... < FULL DIET. ORDINARY DIET. LOW DIET. MILK DIET. FEVER DIET. 1 pint Tea. 1 lb. Bread. * lb. Meat. i lb. Potatoes. 2 pints Beer, (if ordered.) 1 pint Broth. Ditto. Ditto. £ lb. Meat. £ lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Beer, (if ordered.) 1 pint Broth or Gruel. Ditto. £ lb. Bread. lpint of Beef Tea. 1 pint Gruel or Milk, (if ordered.) Ditto. 1 lb. Bread. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. Ditto. Gruel. Gruel or Bar-ley Water. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 253 10. NORTH LONDON HOSPITAL. Daily.......\ { FULL DIET. MIDDLE DIET. LOW DIET. MILK DIET. 16 oz. Bread. i pint Milk. £ lb. Meat and £ lb. Potatoes 4 days. 1 pint Soup or Rice three days. 16 oz. Bread. £ pint Milk. 1 pint Soup or Rice. 8 oz. Bread. £pint Milk. Oatmeal for Gruel. 17 oz. Bread. 2 pints Milk. Dr. Carpenter* observes that " there can be little doubt that, as a whole, the diet of ; patients in English hospitals is much too high, being far better than that to which the ] same class of persons is accustomed in health: this is attended with injury to the pa- ! tients, and with increased expense to the institution; and it has further the injurious I effect of tempting the patients to stay in the hospital for a longer time than is neces- sary." Taking the dietaries of the metropolitan hospitals as fair samples of those of the English '■ hospitals generally, I am quite willing to admit that the full diet of these establishments I | is, in many cases, "better than that to which the same class of persons is accustomed in I health ;" but I by no means agree with Dr. Carpenter in his sweeping assertion that it is j " much too high." That life may be supported on a more restricted diet cannot be de- j j nied ; but I agree with the Rev. Mr. Porteus, in his letterf to the citizens of Glasgow, that ■ j " it is a difficult matter to ascertain what is necessary to preserve life," and that "where- j ever the starving point lies, the managers of charity funds should endeavor to be above it." ; j In framing dietaries for the public hospitals, it is necessary to adapt, them to the wants ; j of the average of the patients. No diet scale can be formed which will not be open to < objection in individual cases ; but I contend as a whole the dietaries of the metropolitan | hospitals are unobjectionable. To take the hospital (London Hospital, Mile End) with j which I am connected, as an example, I may observe, that it is much more common to j hear the patients complain of the insufficiency than of the superabundance of its full diet, j ' Many of them are strong, healthy men, as sailors, accustomed to eat heartily, and who have received some accident which has led to their admission into the hospital. Others I are convalescents from long and lingering illnesses, with depressed vital powers, which require, not merely to be maintained, but to be renovated or raised to the healthy stand- 1 ard. The rations allowed are not, in general, greater, but oftentimes less, than can be eaten with appetite ; but should, in any particular case, the quantity served out be more than is requisite, it is the duty of the medical officer to place such patient on a more limited diet. The objection raised by Dr. Carpenter to the diet of the English hospitals, that it has "the injurious effect of tempting the patients to stay in the hospital for a longer time than is necessary," would be valid, if these establishments were compelled to retain the patients as long as they are disposed to stay ; but such is not the case. They are dis- charged by the surgeon or physician, under whose care they have been placed, as soon as their state of health permits this to be done with safety.\ * Principles of Human Physiology, p. 384. t See Mr. Mott's report, in The Second Annual Report of the Poor Law Commissioners. + Appendix, 22. 254 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 11. DIETARIES OF ROYAL NAVAL HOSPITALS AND MARINE INFIRMARIES. FULL. HALF. LOW. FEVER Bread . . . lib. lib. 8oz. | 8 oz. or Sago 4 oz. Beef or mutton . . lib. 8oz. 0 0 Potatoes or greens . lib. 8oz. 0 0 Herbs for broth . . 25 drachms 25 drachms 12£ drachms 0 Barley . . - . . 14 ditto 14 ditto 7 ditto 0 Salt...... 8 ditto 8 ditto S ditto 0 Vinegar .... 16 ditto 16 ditto 0 0 Tea...... 4 ditto 4 ditto 4 ditto 4 oz. Sugar ..... 16 ditto 16 ditto 16 ditto 20 ditto Miik $fortea • • -,LlUc $ for diet . . 2-6ths of a pint 2-6ths of a pint 2-6ths of a pint 2-6ths of a pint 0 0 1 ditto i pint Broth..... 1 pint 1 pint £ ditto tt„.,„„ S Beer, (small House \ or strong) . 2 pints 1£ pints 1£ pints 1 pint ( Wine ( at Sur- 1 pint Foreign I or I neon's ( Porter ( discretion 1£ pints Veal.......1 Fish.......| Such quantities in lieu of beef or mutton as the medical of- . 1 ficer may pre- scribe. At the discretion Rice or flour pudding . < of the medical officer. Note.—Two drachms of souchong tea, 8 drachms of Muscovad o sugar, and one-sixth of a pint of evening. milk, to be allowed to each patient for a pint of tea morning and The meat for the full and half diet is to be boiled together, with the 14 drachms of Scotch barley. 8 drachms of onions, 1 drachm of parsley, and 16 drachms of cabb age, for every pint of broth ; or, at the discretion of the medical officers, 8 drachms of carrots, and i. i drachms of turnips, in lieu of the cabbage, which will make a sufficient quantity of good broth (o allow a pint to each on full and hall diet, and half a pint to each on low diet:— Rice Pudding.—Each to contain Flour P udding.—Each to contain Rice . . . . 3 oz. Flour . 4 oz. Sugar.....1 oz. Sugar . 1 oz. Milk.....* pint Eggs.....1 No. ' Milk . i pint. . INo. Eggs Cinnamon .... 1 blade. Ginger . a few grains. 12. ROYAL ORDNANCE HOSPITALS. Breakfast Dinner Supper ESTABLISHED DIET TABLE. 1 pint of Tea. 1 pint of Water Gruel. Bread £ lb. 1 pint of tea. 1 pint of Tea. Broth or > , . BeefteaJ1*"* Bread £ lb. Meat £ lb. (to make broth)' Potatoes £ lb. I 1 pint of Rice 1 pint of Rice Gruel. Gruel. 1 pint of Milk Porridge. Meat £ lb. Bread * lb. Broth 1 pint. Potatoes 1 lb. 1 pint of Milk Porridge. Meat * lb. Bread 1 lb. Broth 1 pint. Potatoes £ lb. Beer 1 pint. 1 pint of Rice Gruel. COMMON DRINKS. Toast and Water. Acidulated drink or Cream of Tartar and Water. Barley > Wa- or Rice $ ter. DIETARIES FOR THE INSANE. 255 ROYAL ORDNANCE HOSPITALS— Continued. The Fever Diet is adapted to such cases as will not allow of any excitement from animal food, in the shape of Broth or otherwise: extras, therefore, to this rate of Diet, are to be given with the same view, except in cases of early convalescence from Febrile Diseases, and of such as are attended with great debility. The Bread is for Panado or Toast and Water. It is to be considered a General Rule that extras are to be ordered in addition to the Fever Diet. In particular cases, however, Rice or Bread Pudding, Sago, an increased quantity of Bread, or other similar articles, may be added to the low diet. . Milk Diet is to be formed by the substitution of one pint of Milk for Tea, either in the Fever or Low Diet, for Breakfast or Supper, or both, at the discretion of the prescribing Medical Officer. Tin- Meat mentioned in the three first classes of Diet is to be Beef and Mutton alternately ; and th" best pieces for making Broth are to he selected. In particular rases Coffee may be ordered instead of Tea. . . . As i he Diet Table provides liberally for almost every case of Disease that can occur in Hospital Practice, Medical Officers are strictly to adhere to it, unless very peculiar circumstances render a i!enation unavoidable. The Diet ordered for Convalescents should always be increased gradually, and with discrimination. The following proportions of Articles are to be allowed for those parts of the above-mentioned Diet to which they belong:— Tea for one ineal . . Tea 1-6 ounce, Sugar * ounce, Milk £ gill. C'olu-e .... Coflee £ ounce, Sugar i ounce, Milk 1 gill. Milk Porridge . . . Oatmeal li ounce, Milk 1 gill, Salt 1-8 ounce. Rice Gruel . . . Rice H ounce, Sugar i ounce, Milk 1 gill. Water Gruel . . . Oatmeal 1£ ounce, Sugar £ ounce. Broth .... Oatmeal J ounce, Barley * ounce, Salt £ ounce. < Saoo 1 ounce, Sugar i ounce, Water i pint.—Wine may be added Sago for one allowance . < at the discretion of the Medical Officer. „. „ , ,. SRice 2 ounces, Egg 1, Sugar 1 ounce, Miik £ pint, Cinnamon 1 Rice Pudding . . < scrUpie. ( Bread (from the Maote allowance) 2 ounces, Milk 1£ gill, Egg 1, a } little Salt, and a i'M grains of Ginger, Butter £ ounce, to smear ( the inside of the basin. Bread Pudding 7. DIETARIES FOR THE INSANE. I have selected the diet tables of Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, Bethlem Hospital, and St. Luke's Hospital, as examples of the dietaries of public establishments for the reception of the insane. It has been remarked by Dr. Conolly* that in all Lunatic Asylums " there are patients who require food in much greater proportion than others; there are also some whose restlessness at night seems to be allayed by food, although they do not complain of hunger. The capriciousness of some patients respecting taking food is only to be over- come bv temporary indulgence and little extra allowances. Without this consideration a great amount of discontent will occasionally prevail in the wards, particularly among the female patients; and attention to this point is to them more important than the applica- tion of medicine." * r ' i e r * u ■ ' The same writer in another placet observes that the cases of refusal of food by insane ; patients are chiefly of two kinds :—" one, in which food is refused in consequence of ' Bom- delusion, or some vow, or from mere obstinacy ; the patient being in tolerable bodi- ly health, or certainly not incapable of digesting food ;-another, in which it is utterly re- pugnant to a stomach in a high state of disorder." In the first description of cases, if all other means (such as varying the food, persuasion, &c ) "tried with the utmost patience, fail, it is justifiable and even necessary to introduce food into the stomach by artificial means." This is usually effected by the stomach pu.no " In the second, the condition of the patient is entirely different. The tongue is red, or thickly coated ; the bowels are disordered ; there is present a low kind of lever; * The Report of the Resident Physician of the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, presented to the Court of Quarter Sessions for Middlesex, at the Mimaehnas Sessions, 1840. i The Third Report of the llsidnt Physician of the County of Middlesex Pauper Lunatic Asylum at Hanwell, Oct. 1st, 1841. 256 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. the brain is highly excited, and the patient almost too feeble to stand or walk except by sudden and frantic efforts. His face is pale, the eyes are sunk, and wild in their ex- pression ; and the whole frame is emaciated to an extreme degree. All these are so many sure signs of death ensuing on long-continued disease of the brain, with all its complications. Nowhere except in a Lunatic Asylum would such signs of sinking life be recorded as the result of food being refused. The aversion to take food arises, in such cases, as in cases of fever, from the general and terrible disorder of the system; from a diseased condition of the stomach itself, among other organs, associated with a brain disturbed to excess. To force food into the enfeebled and dying stomach of such patients would not be sanctioned by any well-regulated hospital, or by any competent physician; and their distinction ought not to be overlooked because they occur in an hospital for the insane." 1. THE HANWELL LUNATIC ASYLUM. Breakfast Dinner Supper Extras Males.—Milk thickened with Oatmeal and Flour, 1 pint; Bread, 6 ounces. Females.—Bread, 5 ounces ; Butter, half an ounce ; Sugar, 4 ounces per week ; Tea, 1 pint. Sunday .... ('Meat, 5 ounces, cooked. Tuesday .. . ! Yeast Dumpling, 4 ounces. Wednesday .1 Beer, half a pint. Friday.....(Vegetables. 1 pint Soup. Bread, 6 ounces. Monday.. Thursday. Saturday . Beer, halLa pint. Meat PieaRrust, 12 ounces. * u u Meat, 1£ ounces ( Beer, half a pint. Males.—Bread, 6 ounces ; Cheese, 2 ounces ; Beer, half a pint. Females.—Milk thickened with Oatmeal and Flo^N*, 1 pint; Bread, 5 ounces. To Workmen.—Out-door Workers to be allowed half a pint of Beer at 11 o'clock, A. M., and at 4 P. M., daily, and 1 ounce of Tea and 4 ounces of Sugar per week. To Laundry Women, &c.—Laundry Women to be allowed half- a pint of Beer at 4 P. M., and together with Helpers, &c, 1 ounce of Tea an'P*eas cojitain, according to Braconnot, 1*20 of a substance soluble in ether, which he c*s*eaf-green, (chlorophyll.) The bean of the Phaseolus vulgaris, according to the same chemist, contains 0*70 of fat, soluble in ether; from linseed 1*3 per cent. "For every 1,000 lbs. of peas or beans, the organism receives, according to Braconnot, 12 lbs., according to Fresenius, 21 lbs. of fat, and from as many beans, only 7 lbs. of fat. "Beer, as far as I am aware of, contains no fat. Fresenius obtained from the pulp of the beet-root 0*67 per cent, of a substance soluble in ether. " According to further direct examinations made in our laboratory, 1,000 parts of dried potatoes gave 3*05 parts of a substance soluble in ether. This substance possessed all the properties of resin or wax; we will, however, assume that potatoes contain T7^ of their weight of fat. Three one-year-old pigs, fattened with 1,000 lbs. peas and 6,825 lbs. potatoes, fresh boiled, which are equal to 1638 lbs. of dried potatoes, increased in weight in 13 weeks from 80 to 90 lbs. each. A fully fattened pig averages in weight from 160 lbs. to 170 lbs., and after killing the fat weighs from 50 lbs. to 55 lbs. The three pigs have consumed 21 lbs. of fat, contained in the 1,000 lbs. peas, and 6 lbs. in the 1,638 lbs. of potatoes ; together, therefore, 27 lbs. Their bodies, however, contained from 150 lbs. to 165 lbs. of fat. There is an increase of from 123 to 135 lbs. more fat than the food contained. A pig one year old weighs from 75 lbs. to 80 lbs.; suppose it to contain 18 lbs. of fat, there still remains, leaving entirely out of the question the matters soluble in ether contained in the excrements, 69 lbs. to 74 lbs. of fat; the production of which in the organization cannot be doubted, and whose formation remains to be accounted for. APPENDIX. 273 " M. Boussingault's examinations concerning the influence of food on the quantity and composition of the milk of the cow, furnish other more important grounds for the opinion that animals produce fat out of certain food, which is neither fat itself, nor contains fat."—(Annul, de Chim.et de Phys. v. 71, p. 65.) "M. Boussingault's experiments correspond with universal experience, and I believe are i to be relied upon; it is, therefore, the more inconceivable to me that he has placed him- self by the side of those who support the opposite opinion. j " A cow was fed at Bechelbrunn during eleven days upon daily rations of 38 kilo- grammes of potatoes, and therefore in eleven days upon 418 kil., also 375 kil. chopped straw ; in eleven days, 41*25 kil. In these eleven days she gave 54*61 litres of milk, which contained 22*84 gram, of butter. As 418 kil. of fresh potatoes are equal to 96*97 kil. of dry potatoes, (potatoes contain, according to M. Boussingault, 768 water, and 23*2 solid matter,) further, as 1000 gram, potatoes contain only 305 gram, of soluble matter, and the straw, according to experiments made here, contains only 0*832 per cent, of a substance soluble in ether, (a crystalline wax,) the cow had, therefore, in eleven days consumed 291-J-343 gram. =634 gram, of substance, soluble in ether. There was contained in this milk, however, 2284 gram, of fat. " In another case, in a trial carried on in winter, the daily rations of the cow were for a long time 15 kil. of potatoes and 7i kil. of hay. The quantity of milk amounted in six days to 64*92 litres. These 64*92 litres of milk contained 3116 gram, of butter. In six days the cow consumed 90 kil. of fresh potatoes, equal to 19*88 of dried ; in the same time 45 kil. of hay were consumed. Suppose that the 19*88 kil. of potatoes supplied to the cow contained 60 gram, of fat, the other 3056 gram, of butter must have originated from the 45 kil. of hay. According to this, hay must contain nearly 7 per cent, of fat. This is easily ascertained by experiment. "From hay of the best quality, in the state in which it is consumed by thJkpws, 1j56 per cent, of a substance soluble was obtained in the Giessen laboratory. Taking the hay to contain 1*56 per cent, of butter, the 45 kil. of hay could supply the cow with only 6*91 gram.; there remains, therefore, to discover whence the other 23*65 grarfc of butter originated, which M. Boussingault found in the milk. In a note which M.- Dumas has appended to a communication of M. Romanet (Comptes Rendus de I'Acad. des Sciences, 24 Oct.) the following remarks are made:— "' Hay contains, in the state in which it is consumed by the cow, nearly 2 per cent, of fatty matter. We will show that the ox which is fattened, and the milch-cow, furnish a I smaller quantity of fatty material than the fodder contains. As regards the mibh-cow in i particular, the butter in the milk corresponds very nearly with the quantity of fatty 1 material contained in its food ; at least, as far as in that of the food we have yet studied, namely, hay and Indian corn, which last the cow does not usually obtain as food.' "After the foregoing fact's, which I could considerably multiply, it will be very difficult for MM. Dumas and Payen to prove that the cow, for instance, furnishes from the fatty matter contained in the food only the corresponding quantity of butter. The proof of the supposition, besides, that animals receive the fat in their food in the same state as it is found in their bodies, is impossible. Nothing is easier to decide than the question whether or not the butter which the cow produces is contained as butter in the hay. " Hay gives, after exhaustion by ether, a green solution, and on evaporation a green residue, with a strong agreeable smell of hay, which possesses no properties character- istic of fatty substances. This green residue consists of various substances, of which one is of a waxy or resinous nature, known under the name of chlorophylle; another in- gredient of the same crystallizes from a concentrated ethereal solution in minute laminas, 18 274 APPENDIX. and is the crystalline wax which Proust obtained from plums and cherries, from the leaves of cabbages, from a species of Iris, and from grasses, and which is probably iden- tical with the wax that Aveguin collected in such large quantities from the leaves of the sugar-cane. M. Dumas has analyzed this substance, and found it to differ, both in com- position and properties, from any of the known fats; in consequence of which he felt justified in giving the name cerosine to this substance. M. Fresenius obtained, by means of ether, from straw, and M. Jagle, of Strasburg, from the fresh plant, Fumaria Officinalis, by means of alcohol, a crystalline wax, very similar to cerosine. The occurrence of wax in the vegetable kingdom is very extensive, generally accompanied by chlorophylle. " Margaric or stearic acid, the principal ingredient of the fat of animals, is neither found in the seeds of corn, nor in herbs, nor in roots, which serve as food. It is evident that if the ingredients of the food soluble in ether are convertible into fat, margarine and stearine must be formed out of wax or chlorophylle." M. Liebig then goes on to prove, that the chlorophylle is given out from the body un- changed ; and that the excrements of the cow contain as much of the substances soluble in ether as has been consumed in the food, and consequently that these articles can have no share in producing butter; but that this is produced from the other ingredients of the food. M. Liebig states that this opinion of Dumas is a necessary consequence of the exclusive hypothesis, that animals produce in their organism no substances serving as food, but that they receive all sustenance, whether sugar, starch, or fat, from the vege- table kingdom. These distinguished chemists, however, agree in relation to the sub- stances which serve for the formation of blood. "In regard to the principle of M. Dumas," says Liebig, "that the organism of an ani- mal is not able to produce any substance serving as food, it is equivalent to saying that the organism produces nothing, but transforms it; that no combination takes place in its body, vJ^fc the materials are not present by means of which the metamorphosis originates. Thus the formation of sugar of milk in the bodies of carnivorous animals cannot take place, for dog's milk, according to Simon, contains no sugar of milk. Thus also fat can- not be produced in their organism, because, besides fat, they do not consume any non- nitrogenous food. But starch, gum, and sugar contain, even with their large quantity of oxygen, all the ingredients of fatty bodies; and the formation of butter in the body of the cow, and of wax in that of the bee, leave hardly any doubt that sugar, starch, gum, or pectine, furnish the carbon for the formation of the butter or of the wax. " It is further certain that the brain, the nerves, the blood, the feces, and the yellow of the egg contain a substance in considerable quantity, with a far smaller proportion of oxygen than the known fatty acids, a substance which has not hitherto been found in the food of graminivorous animals. The formation of cholesterine from fat cannot be sup- posed without a separation of oxygen or of carbonic acid and water; it must be derived from a substance far richer in oxygen, in consequence of a process of decomposition or metamorphosis, which, applied to the case of starch or sugar, explains their conversion into fat in the simplest manner."—(Ed. and Lond. Phil. Mag., July, 1343, p. 25-6.) (P.)—Page 28. USES OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. The hypothesis of Liebig, that fat does not serve for the renovation of any of the animal tissues, requires further proof. Muller states that the use of the fat consists part- ly in contributing to preserve the proportions of the external form, and partly in protect- APPENDIX. 275 | ing the internal parts, by virtue of its being a bad conductor of caloric; but that it also * serves as a deposit of nutriment, which, during fasting, and also during wasting of the body, is again easily dissolved by being united with other animal matters, or by being con- verted into a saponaceous state, and having thus again entered the circulation, is applied to the formation of other organic compounds. When food is withheld, as in the case of hybernating animals, fat is absorbed and carried into the blood, where it exists in a free state, and we have detected it under these circumstances in considerable quantity ; in one instance it abounded to that extent, as to give the blood the appearance of milk, on stand- ing a few minutes. We also have observed the same phenomenon in a patient laboring under violent hepatic disease. In a few cases we have found fat in a fluid state effused into the abdominal cavity; also into the intestinal canal, where death had been occasioned by inflammation of some of the abdominal viscera. The experiments of Dumas seem to prove that fat exists to some extent ready formed in the food, that it is absorbed by the chy- liferous vessels and carried into the blood, and thence deposited in the cellular tissue, as well as in every part of the animal economy, in small quantity. But all blood contains more or less fat; generally about 5 per cent. Prout has described oil or fat as one of the three great staminal principles from which all organized bodies are essentially constituted, and states that it exists, under an infinite variety of forms, both in vegetables and animals. Elliotson also remarks, that "vegetables contain fatty substances, volatile as well as fixed." (Physiology, p. 302, vol. 1.) The same author remarks, that " fat nourishes the body, when food cannot be procured or cannot be assimilated." Although it may not be capa- ble of demonstration, we have no doubt of the correctness of Prout's assertion, that fat may be converted into most, if not all, of the matters necessary for the existence of ani- mal bodies. Though it contains no nitrogen, is it not possible that this may be obtained from the decomposition of the tissues, and thus, by recombining with the elements of fat, form not only the excretory matters, but also the substance of the solid tissues 1 There are some facts which render it probable that alcohol, under some circumstances, forms fat. Spirit drinkers, it is well known, are not invariably lean; some of them, though un- able to take or retain but very small quantities of food, being exceedingly fat and cor- pulent. We lately noticed this, particularly in the case of a notorious gin-drunkard, whose appetite and digestive powers had long since failed him; but in whose cellular membrane we found, on post-mortem examination, a deposit of fat nearly two inches in thickness. When we consider that the composition of human fat is, Carb. . . 79 Hyd. . . 11 Oxygen . . 9 per cent. and of Alcohol " . . 52 " . . 13 " . . 34 " it may be difficult, perhaps, to conceive how such a transformation of elements takes place; but yet, if we adopt the opinion that fat is ever formed in the system, out of the elementary principles contained in different articles of food, it is as easy to conceive how it may be produced from alcohol, as from other substances, whose chemical composition bears no closer resemblance to fat than that of alcohol does. ■ We have no doubt that, by the present researches of Liebig and his followers, this and other kindred subjects will soon be better understood. (F 2.)—Page 34. IRON IN THE BLOOD. ' The remark of Scherer, quoted by our author, that the presence of iron is not necessary to the color of the blood, is undoubtedly erroneous. Berzelius found that the ashes of 276 APPENDIX. the coloring matter amount to 1} or 1$ per cent, of the weight of the dried coloring matter, and, in the blood of the calf, to 2*2 per cent. For example, from 400 grains of dried coloring matter, he obtained five grains of ashes, which were composed of Oxide of iron.........500 Sulphate of iron........7-5 Subphosphate of lime.......60 Pure lime.........20*0 Carbonic acid and loss . : 16-5 1000 The average result of Berzelius's experiments is, that the coloring matter contains rather more than one half per cent, of its weight of metallic iron. According to Lecannu, however, the ashes of the red pure coloring matter obtained by his new process from human blood contain 10 per cent, of oxide of iron. Now Engelhardt has shown that a solution of the coloring matter of the blood in water, when impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen, after a time loses its color, becoming first violet, then green. This is exactly the effect which the same gas has on iron, and the experiment, therefore, seems to prove that this metal contributes to the production of the red color. (Muller.) As iron is not extracted from the blood by muriatic and other acids, which have a great affinity for metallic oxides, but none for the metals themselves, Ber- zelius considers it probable that the iron exists in the blood in the metallic state, and not in the state of an oxide, although, as Muller remarks, there is no analogous instance known of a quinary combination of a metal with nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Mr. Rose, however, agrees with Liebig in opinion, that the iron exists in the blood as an oxide, combined with animal matter, and has detailed a series of experiments (Pog- gendorfs Ann. vii. 81) to prove that such is the fact. Chemists are, therefore, divided in opinion on this point: as facts appear to be equally balanced on either side, further researches are perhaps needed before the question can be considered as fully settled. Gmelino pposes the view that the red color of the blood is principally owing to iron, but admits that it exists in the metallic state, combined with nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in the coloring matter. (G.)—Page 36. SALT AS A CONSTITUENT OF THE BLOOD. Liebig has well remarked, that the presence of free muriatic acid in the stomach, and that of soda in the blood, prove, beyond all doubt, the necessity of common salt for the organic processes; but the quantities of soda required by animals of different classes to support the vital processes are very unequal. " If we suppose," he adds, " that a given amount of blood, considered as a compound of soda, passes in the body of a carnivorous animal, in consequence of the change of mat- ter, into a new compound of soda, namely, the bile, we must assume, that in the normal condition of health, the proportion of soda in the blood is amply sufficient to form bile with the products of transformation. The soda which has been used in the vital pro- cesses, and any excess of soda, must be expelled in the form of a salt, after being sepa- rated from the blood by the kidneys. " Now if it be true that, in the body of an herbivorous animal, a much larger quantity of bile is produced than corresponds to the amount of blood formed or transformed in the vital processes—if the greater part of the bile in this case proceeds from the non-azotized APPENDIX. constituents of the food, then the soda of the blood, which has been formed into organized tissue, (assimilated or metamorphosed,) cannot possibly suffice for the supply of the daily secretion of bile. The soda, therefore, of the bile of the herbivora must be supplied di- rectly in the food : their organism must possess the power of applying directly to the for- mation of bile all the compounds of soda present in the food, and decomposable by the organic process. All the soda of the animal body evidently proceeds from the food, but the food of the carnivora contains, at most, only the amount of soda necessary to the formation of blood; and in most cases, among animals of this. class, we may assume that only as much soda as corresponds to the proportion employed to form the blood, is expelled in the urine. When the carnivora obtain in their food as much soda as suffices for the production of their blood, an equal amount is excreted in their urine ; when the food contains less, a part of that which would otherwise be excreted is retained by the organism. All these statements are unequivocally confirmed by the composition of the urine in these different classes of animals."—(See Liebig's Organic Chemistry, pp. 163, 4, 5.) (H.)—Page 39. WATER AS AN ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. It has been abundantly shown by Liebig, that water contributes to the greater part of the transformations in the body. For different " Formulas," showing this, the reader may consult the American Edition, (pp. 136, 140, 141, 142, 148, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 180, 181, &c.) The spirit of dietetical reform has, however, been carried so far of late, that some devotees, if not martyrs of abstinence, have questioned whether even water was necessary to man, and have accordingly set to work to settle it by experiments in their own persons. Mr. Alcott states that he has succeeded in abstaining entirely from drink for more than a year, and during the whole period has not experienced the sensa- tion of thirst more than two or three times, and then after copious perspiration from working in hot weather. But during this whole period his diet consisted wholly of vege- tables, chiefly of a succulent kind, and it is probable that he swallowed as much fluid in this form as he would have done had he lived as people generally do. Others have tried the same experiment, and found that with food of the above description they seldom felt thirst. These facts coincide with the statement of Blumenbach, that "although thirst is a violent desire, drink appears not very necessary to life and health; for many warm- blooded animals—mice, quails, p?riots, &c.—do not drink at all; and some individuals of the human species have lived in perfect health and strength without tasting liquids."— Sauvages mentions a member of the Academy of Toulose who never thirsted, and passed whole months of the hottest summer without drinking; and a woman who passed 40' days without liquids or thirst. The average amount of solid and fluid aliment taken into the system in 24 hours by a healthy adult, is about 6 pounds; but as it appears by ana- lyses in another part of this work that vegetable food contains, on an average, about 5-6ths of water, the vegetable-eater swallows five pounds of fluid daily, which is sufficient for all the demands of the system. That fluid must be taken in considerable quantity in some form, will not be doubted when we reflect that the average amount of water given off from the skin and lungs in 24 hours is about 40 ounces, and that this contains foreign matters which cannot be re- tained in the blood without injury to the health. Were not this loss regularly supplied by the ingestion of liquid, either as food or drink, the blood would speedily become so 278 APPENDIX. thick as to be unfit for circulation, as in Asiatic cholera. The absence of thirst shows conclusively that the amount of fluid circulating in the vessels is sufficient for the wants of the economy ; for Dupuy tren found by his experiments that thirst could be allayed by injecting milk, whey, water, and other fluids into the veins. But though the desire for liquids is in general an indication of their propriety, yet care should be taken not to drink largely during or immediately after eating, as thereby the gastric juice becomes too much diluted, and the process of digestion materially disturbed. By the same cause, the mu- cous membrane becomes too much relaxed, its secretions changed, and the stomach too much distended to act upon the food with advantage. " Experience," says Dr. Combe, "proves that a moderate quantity of liquid during a meal is beneficial; and if we drink little at a time, the risk of exceeding the proper limit will be very small. Dyspeptics, however, ought to be on their guard against taking too much, as they are apt to be misled by uneasy sensations in the region of the stomach, which are relieved for the moment, but afterwards aggravated, by the free dilution of the food. Those, also, who live well, and are in the habit of taking wine daily, whether the system requires it or not, often fall into the error of excessive indulgence in liquids, to mitigate the thirst and irritability which the unnecessary use of stimulus never fails to induce, especially at night. The continual dilution, however, adds to the mischief, by increasing the debility of the stomach, and, as pointed out in the chapter on Thirst, the only effectual remedy is to adapt the diet and regimen to the real wants of the constitution. Except in disease, a continually recurring thirst must proceed from mismanagement, and it is to be satisfied by an improved and rational regimen, and not by oceans of fluid, which only weaken the stomach still more, and aggravate the craving they are meant to cure." (I.)—page 49. IMPURE WATER AS A SOURCE OF DISEASE. We are satisfied that impure Avater is more frequently a cause of disease than is gene- rally supposed. It has been thought that decaying vegetable matter, when received into the stomach, was entirely innoxious, the antiseptic properties of the gastric fluid cor- recting all its injurious properties, and making that bland and innocent, which, if intro- duced into the system in any other manner, would be productive of disease and death. But this opinion is evidently erroneous, for, in addition to the cases mentioned by our author, an immense number of facts could be adduced to show that this is the frequent cause of disease. The British Army "Medical Reports" abound with such instances, and our Medical Journals contain many facts of a similar kind. The fever which carried off so many of the United States mounted dragoons, a few years since, while on a visit to the Pawnee settlements, was believed to have been occasioned chiefly by drinking stagnant water, filled with decaying vegetable and animal matter. Dr. Paris states that " it would be highly dangerous to deny the morbid tendency of water that holds putres- cent animal or vegetable matter in solution, or which abounds in mineral impregnation." We know that calculous affections are most frequent in countries in which the water j; I abounds in lime, and the same author informs us that "hard water has a tendency to j produce disease in the spleen of certain animals, especially the sheep." Galen ascribes the Elephantiasis of Egypt to the impure water of the Nile; an opinion which has been adopted by Lucretius— " Est elephas morbus, qui propter fiumina Nili, Gignitur iEgypto in Medio."— ! APPENDIX. 279 (K.)—Page 52. MINERAL WATERS OF THE UNITED STATES. No country in the world abounds in a greater variety of mineral waters than the United States; and as they are now resorted to by all classes, not only for medicinal but dietetical purposes, it is proper to notice them somewhat in detail. The most celebrated mineral waters in our country are those of Saratoga, and of these, the Congress water maintains the pre-eminence. There are other waters whose medicinal properties equal, if they do not surpass, those of this famous spring: but there are certainly none which combine, with these, so many properties of a delightful beverage, causing them to be sought after and drunk by all classes of people, for no other purpose than simply to gratify the palate or to allay the thirst. It is somewhat remarkable that, although this water possesses ac- tive medicinal qualities, yet that, except in diseases attended with inflammatory action, it seldom, if ever, occasions any unpleasant consequences. When drunk, however, in very large quantities, as it often is by persons who are in the habit of visiting the Springs, even to the extent of 30 or 40 tumblers before breakfast, it often causes serious if not dangerous effects, and in no case can such immense quantities of fluid be imbibed with- out doing more or less injury. Even five or six tumblers, which is the minimum quan- tity drunk before breakfast, is too much for invalids generally to use, or for people in health, though many seem to drink a much larger quantity with impunity. Dr. Steel re- marks, that " from one to three pints of the water, taken in the morning before eating, usually operates freely as a cathartic, and at the same time has a most powerful effect in increasing the ordinary secretions of the kidneys; but its operation, like that of all other medicines, is much influenced by the condition of the stomach and bowels at the time of receiving it, as well as by the state of the system generally. " It is a cathartic possessing evidently interesting and important qualities, and as such, it is recommended and used in all those chronic diseases where cathartics and gentle aperients are indicated; and such are its peculiar effects, when judiciously administered, that it may be persevered in for almost any length of time, and a daily increased evacuation from the bowels produced, without debilitating the alimentary canal, or in any way impairing the I digestive powers of the stomach; but, on the contrary, the spirits, appetite, and general health will be improved and invigorated." Dr. Steel recommends that about three pints should be taken an hour or two before breakfast in the morning, and followed by a proper share of exercise, in order to produce a cathartic effect; but where it would require more, he advises to add a tea-spoonful or two of Epsom salts to the first tumbler. It should not be drunk at all during the remain- der of the day by those who wish to experience the full benefit of its use ; and the same writer, who, from a long residence at the Springs, had abundant experience on the sub- ject, remarks, that " it would be much better for those whose complaints render them fit subjects for its administration, if the fountain should be locked up and no one suffered to approach it after the hour of nine or ten in the morning." One gallon of this water, according to the same writer, contains as follows :— ! 3850 grains. 3*5 grains. 8-982 grains. 95*778 grains. 5075 grains. 1*5 grains. 597-943 Chloride of sodium Hydriodate of soda Bi-carbonate of soda Bicarbonate of magnesia . Carbonate of iron Silex...... Hydro-broraate of potash, a trace. 280 APPENDIX. Carbonic acid gas.....311 cubic inches. Atmospheric air.....7 cubic inches. Gaseous contents.....318 cubic inches. IODINE SPRING, SARATOGA. One gallon of the water contains— Chloride of soda..... 187 grains. Carbonate of magnesia.....75 grains. Carbonate of lime..... 26 grains. Carbonate of soda......2 grains. Carbonate of iron...... 1 grain. Iodine........35 grains. 294-5 solid contents. Carbonic acid gas . . . 336 cubic inches. Atmospheric air . - 4 cubic inches. 340 gaseous contents. (Emmons.) SANS SOUCI SPRING, BALLSTON SPA A wine gallon contains of— Chloride of sodium......143*7 grains. Bi-carbonate of soda.....12-6 grains. Carbonate of lime......43-4 grains. Carbonate of iron...... 5-95 grains. Hydriodate of soda...... 1*3 grain. Silica........ 1 grains. Total.....247* 15 grains (Steel.) The Salt Sulphur Springs of Virginia contain sulphate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, chloride of sodium, chloride of magnesium, chloride of calcium, iodine, sulpho-hydrate of sodium and magnesium, sulphur in combination with a peculiar organic matter, per-oxide of iron, sulphureted hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic acid, &c. The White Sulphur Water of Greenbriar county, Va., contains in one quart— Carbonate of lime......12 grains. Sulphate of magnesia......5 grains. Sulphate of lime.......2 grains. Muriate of lime.......H grains. Iron.........1 grain. Sulphur (precipitated)...... i grain. Sulphureted hydrogen Carbonic acid 211 grains. For further information on the mineral waters of the United States, see Bell " On Baths and Mineral Waters." (L.)-p.57. PURIFICATION OF SUGAR. It is a well-known fact, that many vegetable substances undergo important alterations in their chemical constitution and medicinal properties, if they be exposed for a long time to a heat of 212° ; and hence, in the preparation of extracts and inspissated juices of plants, forms of apparatus are sometimes employed in which the evaporation is carried on in close vessels connected with an air-pump, and in which a partial vacuum, measured APPENDIX. 281 by a barometer-gauge, may be established. This principle of evaporation at low tem- peratures, by removal of the atmospheric pressure, was formerly introduced with much advantage into the manufacture of sugar, as the true crystallizable sugar is converted into the uncrystallizable sugar (treacle) with great rapidity at the temperature of boiling sirup, and is hence, to a great extent, lost to the manufacturer. By later improvements, however, in the mode of applying heat, the necessity of evaporating the sirup in vacuo has been completely obviated. To refine sugar, it is redissolved, and the liquor, having been cautiously evaporated to the necessary degree, is poured into cones of unglazed earthenware, which are placed on their summits, the orifice in which is stopped by a plug. When, by cooling, the sirup has crystallized, during which the mass is contin- ually stirred about to render the crystals very minute and close, the plug below is re- moved, and the colored liquid drains out; the last portions of it being removed by laying a sponge moistened with some spirit, or with a clear sirup, on the sugar at the base of the cone, and allowing the pure liquid to filter through. If a strong sii*up be laid aside in a warm place, it crystallizes in very beautiful oblique rhombs, which constitute the sugar- candy of commerce. (M.)—p. 66. FARINACEOUS FOOD IN DISEASE. Most of the farinaceous articles enumerated under the head of "The Amylaceous Ali- mentary Principle" are composed in a great degree of starch, which, we are told, is con- verted, by digestion, into gum and sugar, the latter being probably absorbed. Though we have been in the habit, for many years, of using these articles in our practice, in most cases of disease, and especially in derangement of the digestive organs, we have latterly seen much reason to doubt whether they are as well adapted for the treatment of many cases in which they are usualiy prescribed, as a preparation of animal food. In cases of Cholera Infantum, for example, a jelly prepared from the sounds of the cod, or from Russia isinglass, or calves' feet, answers far better than any kind of farinaceous food, which passes the ali- mentary canal, apparently, entirely undigested. The same is true in some forms of dyspepsia. This, however, is in accordance with the well-known fact, that animal food is of easier digestion than vegetable, as it requires less change to assimilate it to the wants of the system. (N.)—p. 68. STARCH IN WOOD AND BARK. In times of great scarcity, and where famine threatens, it is well to know how to pre- pare a nutritious substance, which may go under the name of bread, from the beech and other woods destitute of turpentine. According to Prof. Autenreith, every thing soluble in water is first removed by frequent maceration and boiling; the wood is then to be reduced to a minute state of division, not merely into fine fibres, but actual powder; and after being repeatedly subjected to heat in an oven, is ground in the usual manner of corn. Wood thus prepared acquires the smell and taste of corn-flour. It is, however, never quite white. It agrees with corn-flour in not fermenting without the addition of leaven, and in this case some leaven of corn-flour is found to answer best With this it forms a perfectly uniform and spongy bread; and when thoroughly baked, and has much crust, it is by no means unpalatable. Wood flour, also, boiled in water^forms a thick, tough, trembling jelly, which is very nutritious, (Bell.) Dr. Turner states that fungin is nutritious in a high degree, and yields nitrogen gas when digested in dilute nitric acid. Its composition would seem to be very analogous to animal substances. 282 APPENDIX. (O.)—Page 72. THE ACIDULOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. The propriety of admitting the existence of an acidulous alimentary principle may perhaps admit of doubt. If it be said that vegetable acid is contained in our food, it may be replied that lime, potash, and other inorganic elements, are likewise contained in it, and, as far as we can judge, are as essential to the maintenance of health. That it has al- ways been used by man, and is contained in many of the fruits employed by him as food, is not conclusive, because the first may be said of narcotic substances, and the latter of organic principles, not alimentary. We speak now of pure acetic acid. Vinegar, as it exists in the shops, contains gum, starch, sugar, gluten, &c, and therefore is strictly en- titled to rank among alimentary substances. Chloride of soda, in the form of common salt, appears to be as necessary for the preservation of health as vegetable acid, which in the northern latitudes cannot be obtained, at least during a greater portion of the year. Indeed, it may well be doubted whether there are any facts which would warrant the be- lief that in cold climates acids are necessary to health ; while in tropical countries, the abundant supply which nature has furnished in the fruits and vegetables, seems to justify the belief that under such circumstances they perform an important office in the animal economy, perhaps as condiments. The fact, moreover, that pure vegetable acids " suffer no chemical change in the system, except combining with a base," would seem to weigh against the opinion that they are alimentary principles. The absence of acids in our food will not necessarily produce scurvy, provided the other conditions of health are present, especially pure air, and a due proportion of vegetable and animal food. (P.)—Page 72. VINEGAR. -•In the United States, vinegar is chiefly made from cider. In families it is made from cider which has become too sour, and from the daily remains of the family consumption. These are put into a barrel, standing in a warm place, along with some good vinegar, or with what is called the mother of vinegar, and which seems to act as a ferment. It re- quires generally several weeks to form strong vinegar. When made on a large scale from cider, the liquor is placed in barrels, with their bung-holes open, which are exposed dur- ing the summer to the heat of the sun. Perfect acetification requires about two years. The progress of the fermentation, however, must be watched, and, as soon as perfect vinegar has formed, it should be racked off into clean barrels. Without this precaution, the acetous fermentation would be followed by the putrefactive, and the vinegar be spoiled. Early cider is not so good for conversion into vinegar as the late, in consequence of the abun- dance of malic acid which the former contains ; for, as is well known, the malic acid is not the subject-matter of the acetous fermentation, but the alcohol which it contains as a vinous liquor. Vinegar may be clarified, without injuring its aroma, by throwing about a tumbler-full of boiled milk into from 50 to 60 wine gallons of the liquid, and stirring the mixture. This operation has the effect, at the same time, of rendering red vinegar pale. Vinegar is also sometimes made in New England from the sap of the sugar maple. Chaptal states, that if two pints of brandy be carefully mixed with about four drachms of yeast and a little starch, there will be produced an extremely strong vinegar, which will begin to form about the fifteenth day. Vinegar may also be made by means of the starch APPENDIX. 283 and ferment, without the alcoholic liquor ; but in this case the process will be longer, and the product much weaker. The acetous fermentation is not always necessary for the production of acetic acid. Sugar, for example, mixed with water in which the gluten of wheat has fermented, will be converted into vinegar without access of air, and without any appearance of fermen- tation. Beer and cider, if long kept, become sour, although the air be carefully excluded, and an infusion of malt becomes acid in a few days under the same circumstances, (Bache.) Vinegar is sometimes adulterated with sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid. Sul- phuric acid may be detected by acetate of baryta, which throws down sulphate of baryta, distinguishable from the malate and tartrate of the same base by its insolubility in nitric acid. Muriatic acid is shown by a precipitate being formed by nitrate of silver, insoluble in nitric acid, but perfectly soluble in water of ammonia. To detect nitric acid, add a little common salt, saturate by adding carbonate of potassa, and evaporate to dryness. Upon the dry residue pour equal parts of sulphuric acid and water, through which some gold- leaf has been diffused, and boil the mixture. If nitric acid be present, nitro-muriatic acid will be generated, in consequence of the decomposition of the common salt and the gold- leaf will be dissolved. (QO—p. 76. THE ALCOHOLIC ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. It may be doubted whether any substance can properly be called an alimentary prin- ciple, which, if introduced into the system, is not capable in some degree of nourishing it, and repairing its losses. Liebig remarks, that " if we hold that increase of mass in the animal body, the develop- ment of its organs, and the supply of waste,—that all this is dependent on the blood, that is, on the ingredients of the blood, then only those substances can properly be called nu- tritious, or considered as food, which are capable of conversion into blood." If we follow this definition, then it is pretty evident that alcohol cannot be admitted to be an alimentary principle ; for most certain is it that it contains nothing adapted to the formation of blood, or which is essential to the constitution of the organized tissues. But then its chemical composition resembles that of other non-nitrogenized substances which are recognised as food, as fat, starch, gum, and sugar; may it not then serve, like them, as an element of respiration, according to Liebig's hypothesis ] It may not be an easy matter to prove that it does not, and yet we are inclined to believe that the statement of Liebig, that it is not given off by any of the secretions or excretions, remains yet to be proved. More- over, the doctrine that the non-nitrogenized substances serve only as elements of respiration, can, as yet, be regarded in no other light than that of an hypothesis. In Liebig's " Organic Chemistry of Agriculture," p. 290, we are told that " the direct formation of carbonic acid is the last stage of its oxidation, and that it is preceded by a series of changes, the last of which is a complete combustion of the hydrogen. Aldehyde, acetic acid, formic acid, oxalic acid, and carbonic acid form a connected chain of products, arising from the oxidation of alcohol; and the successive changes which this fluid expe- riences from the action of oxygen rtiay be readily traced in them." If this be so, then it would appear that all these substances must, after alcohol is drunk, be found in the system ; a supposition which is far from being probable. We believe that facts will hardly sustain these views, which seem to have been lately adopted in order to support a new hypothesis. Dr. Percy, of Edinburgh, (see Appen- dix, D.,) has detected alcohol in the blood, the urine, the bile, and in the substance of 284 APPENDIX. most of the organs : Magendie has also detected it in the blood. From the strong odor of alcohol in the breath after this substance has been drunk, there can be little doubt that a very large proportion of it is given off by pulmonary exhalation, though under some circumstances, as we have suggested in another place, a part of it may, perhaps, be converted into fat. That animal heat is promoted to any extent by the combustion of alcohol in the lungs we think still more questionable, for experience has proved that, other things being equal, a person will perish sooner when exposed to severe cold, if he uses alcoholic drinks, than if he entirely abstains from them. For proof of this, we refer to facts contained in the 16th chapter of" Bacchus," some of which will be found in another part of this Ap- pendix, (D.) There is, it is true, a popular delusion on this subject, for if "coachmen and others take alcoholic drinks in cold weather to keep them warm," they also take them in hot weather to keep them cool; but in neither case can the custom be quoted as an argument in favor of such use, or of the justness of the views on which such use is founded. (R.)—p. 78. CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES. A great change has taken place within a few years past in relation to the drinking habits of the people of the United States ; and if the signs of the times are not entirely deceptive, we may venture the belief that the period is not far remote when the common use of intoxicating drinks as a beverage, will be entirely unknown. The need of such a reform will be perceived from the statement of a few facts. In 1830, there were over 72,000,000 gallons of ardent spirits consumed in the United States, by a population of not quite 13,000,000, which would give five and a half gallons for each individual, with- out taking into the account wine, beer, or cider. The quantity of wine consumed during the same year was about 3,000,000 gallons. In 1840, the amount of home-spirits con- sumed was about 36,343,000 gallons ; of foreign spirits, 2,500,000; and of wines, 4.000,000 gallons ; making a total of 42,843,000 gallons, which is a reduction in ten years of over 57 per cent. Within the last three years the reduction has gone on with still greater rapidity. (S.)—Page 80. AMERICAN LIQUEURS. A great variety of Liqueurs is manufactured in this city from rectified whiskey, sugar, and essential oils, and drunk in confectionery shops and other similar establishments. The greatest proportion of these fascinating liquors is consumed by females, who would think it highly ungenteel, if not decidedly vulgar, to be seen drinking gin or brandy ; and yet the effects of the former are quite as pernicious. Some of the flavoring ingredients are also poisonous, as the oil of bitter almonds, &c.; and we have known many instances where the health was entirely ruined by their use, and the foundation laid for fatal diseases. (T.)—Page 87. BUTTER. Dr. Bell states, (on " Regimen," 2s.6d. per pound. - £75 per cwt. ad valorem do. or 10s. per pound. ► 2s. &d. per pound. '2s. per pound. Inspector-General's Office, Custom House,) London, *27th June, 1834.________$ WILLIAM IRVING, Inspector-General of Imports and Exports. The following are a few out of a large number of instances of the prosecution and con- viction of English brewers, between the years 1813 and 1819, for receiving and using illegal ingredients fn brewing:— Richard Gardner, for using adulterating ingredients, £100. Stephen Webb, and another, for using adulterating ingredients and mixing strong and table beer, £500. Henry Wyatt, brewer, do., verdict £400. Philip Blake and others, do., verdict £250. John Swain, do., verdict £200. John Gray, do., £300 and costs. Richard Bowman, for using liquid in bladder, supposed to be extract of cocculus indicus, £100 and costs. S. Stephens, for do., £50. James Rogers, do., £220 and costs. George Moore, for using coloring, £300 and costs. Webb & Ball, for using ginger, Guinea pepper, and brown powder, (name unknown,) 1st, £100, 2d, £500. Henry Clark, for using molasses, £150. Kewell & Burrows, for using cocculus indicus, multum, &c, £100. Alatson & Abrahams, for using cocculus, multum and porter flavor, &c., £630. Swain & Sewel, for using cocculus, Guinea opium, &c, £200. John Gray, for using ginger, hartshorn shavings, and molasses, £300. Mr. Betteley, for using wormwood, coriander seed, and Spanish juice, £200. Convictions of druggists, for the sale of adulterating ingredients, have been numerous in England, but notwithstanding the heavy penalties, the occupation of brewers' druggist 304 APPENDIX. is still carried on, and becoming an extensive business. We shall give but a single instance:— 1817.—Josiah Nibbs, Surrey. Multum . . ... 84 lbs. I Honey.........180 lbs. Cocculus Indicus.....12 lbs. Spanish juice........46 lbs. Coloring........4 galls, j Orange powder . . ... 17 lbs. Hartshorn shavings .... 14 lbs. Ginger......... 56 lbs. Penalty, £300. But if these articles are constantly used, the question may be asked, why there are no more convictions 1 Perhaps the following item of evidence, given by an excise officer, Mr. Wells, on an examination before a Committee of the House of Commons, may throw some light on the subject. He stated that the " adulterating ingredients were not kept on the premises, but in the brewer's house, and that the brewer had a very large jacket, made* expressly for that purpose, with very large pockets, and that on brewing mornings he would take his pockets full of the different ingredients. Witness supposed that such a uiau's jacket, similar to what he had described, would carry quite sufficient for any brewery in England, as to cocculus indicus." (16).—Page 207. WINE. To the very excellent and judicious remarks of Dr. Pereira, respecting the dietetical aud sut-dicinal uses of wine, there needs but little to be added. Those who wish for further details upon the subject, may consult our American edition of " Bacchus," passim. We may, however, be permitted to offer a few considerations. [t Uas been proved by abundant experience, that those who have been accustomed to the uaily moderate or immoderate use of wine, as well of other alcoholic stimulants, may not only omit their use with safety, but with very great benefit. The effects of wine, as described by our author, prove that it is a valuable stimulant, and a highly useful medi- cin*-* in some states of the system ; but these very facts show very conclusively that it is not. u proper agent to be drank habitually in a state of health. Some wine-drinkers, it is trui-i, have lived to a good old age ; and so also have some persons who resided in malarious districts of counuw, but these facts do not prove that wine or malaria are con- genial to the human constitution; they indeed constitute exceptions to a general law of an opposite character.