VALUABLE MEDICAL BOOKS, / PHILADELPHIA: T. K. AND P. G. COLLINS, PRINTERS. TO JOSEPH PARRISH, M.D., AND THOMAS T. HEWSON, M.D., AS A MARK OF RESPECT FOR THEIR PRIVATE WORTH AND PROFESSIONAL CHARACTER, AND AS AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THEIR NUMEROUS KIND OFFICES, THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THEIR FRIENDS, THE AUTHORS. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The objects of a Dispensatory are to present an account of medi- cinal substances in the state in which they are brought into the shops, and to teach the modes in which they are prepared for use. The importance of these objects, and the general value and even necessity of a work of this nature, will not be disputed. It may, howrever, be a question, how far the wrants of the medical and pharmaceutical community in this country are supplied by the Dispensatories already in circulation; and whether such a deficiency exists as to justify the offer of a new one to the public attention. The great merits of the works severally entitled " The Edinburgh New Dispensatory," and " The London Dispensatory," the former edited by the late Andrew Duncan, M. D., the latter by Anthony Todd Thomson, M. D., are well known wherever the English language is spoken. Founded, as they both are, upon the excellent basis laid by Lewis, they are never- theless entitled, from the great addition of valuable materials, and the distinctive character exhibited in the arrangement of these materials, to be considered as original works ; w7hile the style in which they have been executed speaks strongly in favour of the skill and industry of their authors. But they were calculated especially for the sphere of Great Britain, and are too deficient in all that relates exclusively to this country, to admit of being received as standards here. In the history of our commerce in drugs, and of the nature, growth, and collection of our indigenous medical plants; in the chemical opera- tions of our extensive laboratories ; and in the modes of preparing, dispensing, and applying medicines, which have gradually grown into use among us; there is much that is peculiar, a knowledge of which is not to be gained from foreign books, and is yet necessary to the character of an accomplished American pharmaceutist. We have, moreover, a National Pharmacopoeia, which requires an explanatory 1* vi Preface. commentary, in order that its precepts may be fully appreciated, and advantageously put into practice. On these accounts it is desirable that there should be a Dispensatory of the United States, which, while it embraces whatever is useful in European pharmacy, may accurately represent the art as it exists in this country, and give instruction adapted to our peculiar wants. It appears due to our national cha- racter, that such a work should be in good faith an American work, newly prepared in all its parts, and not a mere edition of one of the European Dispensatories, with here and there additions and altera- tions, which, though they may be useful in themselves, cannot be made to harmonize with the other materials so as to give to the whole an appearance of unity, and certainly would not justify the assump- tion of a new and national title for the book. Whether, in the Dis- pensatories which have been published in the United States, these requisites have been satisfactorily fulfilled, it rests with the public to determine. That valuable treatises on Materia Medica and Pharmacy have been issued in this country, no candid person, acquainted with our medical literature, will be disposed to 'deny. In offering a new work to the medical and pharmaceutical professions, the authors do not wish to be considered as undervaluing the labours of their pre- decessors. They simply conceive that the field has not been so fully occupied as to exclude all competition. The pharmacy of conti- nental Europe is ground which has been almost untouched ; and much information in relation to the natural history, commerce, and management of our own drugs, has lain ungathered in the possession of individuals, or scattered in separate treatises and periodicals not generally known and read. Since the publication of the last edition of our National Pharmacopoeia, no general explanation of its pro- cesses has appeared, though required in justice both to that work and to the public. The hope of being able to supply these deficiencies may, perhaps, be considered a sufficient justification for the present undertaking. The Pharmacopoeia of the United States has been adopted as the basis of this Dispensatory. It is followed both in its general division of medicines, and in its alphabetical arrangement of them under each division. Precedence is, in every instance, given to the names which it recognises, while the explanations by which it fixes the significa- tion of these names, are inserted in immediate connexion with the titles to which they severally belong. Every article which it desig- nates is more or less fully described; and all its processes, after being literally copied, are commented on and explained whenever comment Preface. vii and explanation appeared necessary. Nothing, in fine, has been omitted, which, in the estimation of the authors, could serve to illustrate its meaning, or promote the ends which it was intended to subserve. This course of proceeding appeared to be due to the national character of the Pharmacopoeia, and to the important object of establishing, as far as possible, throughout the United States, uni- formity both in the nomenclature and preparation of medicines. In one particular, convenience required that the plan of the Pharma- copoeia should be departed from. The medicines belonging to the department of Materia Medica, instead of being arranged in two divisions, corresponding with the Primary and Secondary Catalogues of that work, have been treated of indiscriminately in alphabetical succession ; and the place which they respectively hold in the Phar- macopoeia is indicated by the employment of the term Secondary, in connexion with the name of each of the medicines included in the latter catalogue. But, though precedence has thus been given to the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, those of Great Britain have not been neglected. The nomenclature adopted by the different British Colleges, and their formulae for the preparation of medicines, have been so extensively followed throughout the United States, that a work intended to repre- sent the present state of pharmacy in this country would be imperfect without them; and the fact that the writings of British physicians and surgeons, in which their own officinal terms and preparations are ex- clusively employed and referred to, have an extensive circulation among us, renders some commentary necessary in order to prevent serious mistakes. The Pharmacopoeias of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin have, therefore, been incorporated, in all their essential parts, into the present work. Their officinal titles are uniformly given— always in subordination to those of the United States Pharmacopoeia, when they express the same object; but in chief, when, as often hap- pens, no corresponding medicine or preparation is recognised by our national standard. In the latter case, if different names are applied by different British Colleges to the same object, that one is generally preferred which is most in accordance with our own system of nomen- clature, and the others are given as synonymes. The medicines directed by the British Colleges are all described, and their processes either copied at length, or so far explained as to be intelligible in all essential particulars. Besides the medicinal substances recognised as officinal by the Pharmacopoeias alluded to, some others have been described, which, viii Preface. either from the lingering remains of former reputation, from recent reports in their favour, or from their important relation to medicines in general use, appear to have claims upon the attention of the phy- sician and apothecary. Opportunity has, moreover, been taken to introduce incidentally brief accounts of substances used in other countries or in former times, and occasionally noticed in medical books; and, that the reader may be able to refer to them when desi- rous of information, their names have been placed with those of the standard remedies in the Index. In the description of each medicine, if derived immediately from the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, the attention of the authors has been directed to its natural history, the place of its growth or pro- duction, the method of collecting and preparing it for market, its com- mercial history, the state in which it reaches us, its sensible properties, its chemical composition and relations, the changes which it under- goes by time and exposure, its accidental or fraudulent adulterations, its medical properties and application, its economical uses, and the pharmaceutical treatment to which it is subjected. If a chemical preparation, the mode and principles of its manufacture are indicated in addition to the other particulars. If a poison, and likely to be accidentally taken, or purposely employed as such, its peculiar toxi- cological effects, together with the mode of counteracting them, are indicated; and the best means of detecting its presence by reagents are explained. The authors have followed the example of Dr. A. T. Thomson, in giving botanical descriptions of the plants from which the medicines treated of are derived. In relation to all indigenous medicinal plants, and those naturalized or cultivated in this country, the advantages of such descriptions are obvious. The physician may often be placed in situations, in which it may be highly important that he should be able to recognise the vegetable which yields a particular medicine; and the apothecary is constantly liable to imposition from the collec- tors of herbs, unless possessed of the means of distinguishing, by in- fallible marks, the various products presented to him. A knowledge of foreign medicinal plants, though of less importance, will be found useful in various ways, independently of the gratification afforded by the indulgence of a liberal curiosity in relation to objects so closely connected with our daily pursuits. The introduction of these botani- cal notices into a Dispensatory appears to be peculiarly appropriate • as they are to be considered rather as objects for occasional reference than for regular study or continuous perusal, and therefore coincide Preface. ix with the general design of the work, which is to collect into a con- venient form for consultation all that is practically important in rela- tion to medicines. The authors have endeavoured to preserve a due proportion between the minuteness of the descriptions, and their value as means of information to the student; and, in pursuance of this plan, have generally dwelt more at length upon our native plants, than upon those of foreign growth: but, in all instances in which they have deemed any botanical description necessary, they have taken care to include in it the essential scientific character of the genus and species, with a reference to the position of the plant in the artificial and na- tural systems of classification; so that a person acquainted writh the elements of botany may be able to recognise it when it comes under his observation. In preparing the Dispensatory, the authors have consulted, in addi- tion to many of the older works of authority, the greater number of the treatises and dissertations which have recently appeared upon the various subjects connected with Pharmacy, and especially those of the French writers, who stand at present at the head of this department of medical science. They have also endeavoured to collect such detached facts, scattered through the various scientific, medical, and pharmaceutical journals, as they conceived to be important in them- selves, and applicable to the subjects under consideration; and have had frequent recourse to the reports of travellers in relation to the natural and commercial history of foreign drugs. The occasional references in the body of the work will indicate the sources from which they have most largely drawn, and the authorities upon which they have most relied. In relation to our own commerce in drugs, and to the operations of our chemical laboratories, they are indebted for information chiefly to the kindness of gentlemen engaged in these branches of business, who have always evinced, in answering their numerous inquiries, a promptitude and politeness which merit their warm thanks, and wTbich they are pleased to have this opportunity of acknowledging.* It has not been deemed necessary to follow' the example of the British Dispensatories, by inserting into the work a treatise upon * The authors deem it proper to state that they are peculiarly indebted for assistance to Mr. Daniel B. Smith, president of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, to whom, besides much important information in relation to the various branches of the Apothe- cary's business, they owe the prefatory remarks on Pharmacy which are placed at the commencement of the second part of the work, and the several articles, in the Materia Medica, upon Leeches, Litmus, and the Carbonate and Sulphate of Magnesia. x Preface. Chemistry under the name of Elements of Pharmacy. Such a treatise must necessarily be very meagre and imperfect; and, as systems of chemistry are in the hands of every physician and apothecary, would uselessly occupy the place of valuable matter of less easy access. The authors may perhaps be permitted to observe, in relation to themselves, that they have expended much time and labour in the preparation of the work; have sought diligently for facts from every readily accessible source ; have endeavoured, by a comparison of authorities, and a close scrutiny of evidence, to ascertain the truth whenever practicable; and have exerted themselves to the extent of their abilities to render the Dispensatory worthy of public approba- tion, both for the quality and quantity of its contents, and the general accuracy of its statements. They are conscious, nevertheless, that, in so great a multiplicity of details, numerous errors and deficiencies may exist, and that the faults of undue brevityin some cases, and prolixity in others, may not have been entirely avoided; but they venture to hope that a candid public will make all due allowances; and they take the liberty to invite from all those who may feel interested in the diffusion of sound pharmaceutical knowledge, the communication of friendly suggestions or criticisms in relation to the objects and execu- tion of the work. Philadelphia, January, 1833. PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. In the several editions of this Dispensatory subsequent to the first, such modifications of the original plan as set forth in the foregoing preface, and such additions and emendations have been made, as were thought calculated to increase the usefulness of the work, and to maintain it on a level with the advancing knowledge of the times. In the second edition, an Appendix was introduced containing notices and descriptions of numerous drugs, which, though not in general use, were possessed of some interest from their former or existing relations to Medicine and Pharmacy. In the third edition, the authors adopted the present plan of treating, in the body of the work, of those medicines and preparations exclusively which are recognised in the American and British Pharmacopoeias, while all others deemed worthy of notice were placed in the Appendix; thus giving a precision to the arrangement which was before wanting. In the preparation of the fourth edition, many changes were rendered necessary by the previous publica- tion of the revised London Pharmacopoeia of 1836. On no revision of the Dispensatory did the authors bestow so much labour as on the one preparatory to the fifth edition. The new editions of the United States and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias required comment; and the recent phar- macological treatises of Dr. Pereira and Dr. Christison, containing much original observation, and the Medical Flora of Dr. Lindley, not to speak of other valuable works in different departments of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, afforded a great mass of new material for selection and arrange- ment. The periodical press had also presented much that demanded notice; and the changes in the commerce in drugs, and the various modi- fications in pharmaceutical operations, resulting from increased experience and the advancement of science, called for careful personal examination and inquiry. It was the aim of the authors, by pruning redundances and concentrating the new matter within the smallest space, to swell the Dispensatory as little as consisted with the great object of utility; but, with all their endeavours, they were compelled to exceed the former limits by more than one hundred pages. Comparatively little addition was required in the sixth edition; and the same remark is applicable to the present. The authors, however, have endeavoured to select and condense from the periodical journals, and from recent European treatises, every thing of value which came within the scope of the work; and, in offering it for the seventh time to the public, they feel themselves justified in expressing the hope that it will be found, not less than formerly, to meet the wishes of the medical and pharmaceutical community. Philadelphia, July, 1847. ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED IN THE WORK. U.S.-*Tbx Pharmacopeia of the United States of America By authority of the National Medical Convention, held at Washington, A. D. 1840." Lond.—London Pharmacopeia, A. D. 1836. Ed.—Edinburgh Pharmacopeia, A.D. 1841. Dub.—Dublin Pharmacopeia, A. D. 1826. Off. Syn.—Officinal Svnonymes, or the titles employed by the Pharma- copoeias with the accompanying explanations, when these titles are not given in chief. Sex. Syst.—The Sexual System, or the artificial system of Linnaeus, founded on the sexual organization of plants. Nat. Ord.—The Natural Order to which any particular genus of plants belongs. When not otherwise stated, it is to be understood that the natural orders referred to are those recognised by Professor Lindley, of the University of London, in his "Introduction to the Natural System of Botany." Gen. Ch.—The Generic Character, or scientific description of any par- ticular genus of plants under consideration. Off. Prep.—Officinal Preparations; including all the preparations into which any particular medicine directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia or the British Colleges enters. When the same preparation has received different names in the different Pharmacopoeias, only one of these names is mentioned, and precedence is always given to that of the U. S. Phar- macopoeia. Sp. Gr.—Specific Gravity. Equiv., or Eq.—Chemical Equivalent, or the number representing the smallest quantity in which one body usually combines with others. Linn., Linn^us.—Juss., Jussieu.—De Cand., De Candolle.—Willd. Sp. Plant., WlLLDENOVv's EDITION OF THE SPECIES PLANTARUM OF LlNN^EUS. —Woodv. Med. Bot., Woodville's Medical Botany, 2d edition.__B. Baume's Hydrometer. Fr., French. — Germ., German. — Jtal., Italian.— Span., Spanish.__ Arab., Arabic THE DISPENSATORY OF THE UNITED STATES. PART I. MATERIA MEDICA. The Materia Medica, in its most comprehensive sense, embraces all those substances which are capable of making sanative impressions on the human system; but,as the term is employed in this work, it has a more re- stricted signification. The Pharmacopoeias of the United States and Great Britain very appropriately arrange medicines in two distinct divisions, one including all those which are furnished immediately by nature, or thrown into commerce by the manufacturer; the other, those which are prepared by the apothecary, and are the objects of officinal directions. The former are enumerated under the title of "Materia Medica;" the latter, under that of "Preparations," or "Preparations and Compositions." In Dispensa- tories, which may be considered as commentaries on the Pharmacopoeias, the same arrangement is usually followed; and the authors of the present work adopt it the more willingly, as, independently of the weight of autho- rity in its favour, it has the recommendation of being the most convenient. By this plan, all the directions which relate to the practical operations of the apothecary are collected in one place, and are thus more easily referred to than if mixed indiscriminately with other matters, as they must be by any mode of arrangement which makes no distinction between the original medicinal substances and their preparations. Under the head of Materia Medica, therefore, in this Dispensatory, we treat of medicines in the state only in which they are produced by nature, or come into the hands of the apothecary. Of these medicines, such as are recognised by our National Pharmacopoeia are most minutely described; but we consider also all that are included in the officinal catalogues of the British Colleges. Another point in which we accord with the Pharmacopoeias is the alpha- betical arrangement of the objects of the Materia Medica. As a Dispensatory is intended rather for reference than for regular perusal, it is important that its contents should be so disposed as to facilitate consultation. Medicines, in a work of this kind, are considered as independent objects, to be studied 2 2 Materia Medica. PART I. separately, and without any reference to community of source, or similarity of character. Their scientific classification belongs to works which treat of them rather in their relations than their essential properties; and af- ferent systems have been adopted according to the set of relations towards which the mind of the author has been especially directed, lhus, tne naturalist classifies them according to the affinities of the several objects in nature from which they are derived; the chemist, according to their com- position; the practitioner of medicine, according to their effects upon the system in a state of health and disease. But none of these classifications is without imperfections; and a simple alphabetical arrangement is de- cidedly preferable, in every case in which the medicines are considered solely in their individual capacity. Yet, as it comes within the scope of this work to treat of their physiological and therapeutical effects, and as the terms by which these effects are expressed are also the titles of classes to which the medicines belong, it will not be amiss to present the reader with the outlines of a system of classification, by consulting which he will be enabled to ascertain the precise meaning we attach to the terms em- ployed to designate the peculiar action of different medicinal substances. Remedies are divided into general and. local, the former acting on the whole system, the latter on particular parts or organs. I. GENERAL REMEDIES include 1. Arterial Stimulants, some- times called Incitants, which, while they raise the actions of the system above the standard of health, exhibit their influence chiefly upon the heart and arteries; 2. Narcotics, which especially affect the cerebral functions, and are either stimulant onsedative according as they increase or diminish action; 3. Antispasmodics, which, with a general stimulant power, exert a peculiar influence over the nervous system, exhibited in the relaxation of spasm, the calming of nervous irritation, &c, without any special and decided tendency to the brain; 4. Tonics, which moderately and perma- nently exalt the energies of all parts of the frame, without necessarily producing any apparent increase of the healthy actions; and 5. Astrin- gents, which have the property of producing contraction in the living tissues with which they may come in contact. II. LOCAL REMEDIES may be divided into four sections: a. Those affecting the function of a part, namely, 1. Emetics, which act on the stomach, producing vomiting; 2. Cathartics, which act on the bowels, producing a purgative effect; 3. Diuretics, which act on the kidneys, pro- ducing an increased flow of urine; 4. Antilithics, which act on the same organs, preventing the formation of calculous matter; 5. Diaphoretics, which increase the cutaneous discharge; 6. Expectorants, which augment the secretion from the pulmonary mucous membrane, or promote the dis- charge of the secreted matter; 7. Emmenagogues, which excite the men- strual secretion; 8. Sialagogues, which increase the flow of saliva; and 9. Errhines, which increase the discharge from the mucous membrane of the nostrils: b. Those affecting the organization of a part, including 1. Rube- facients, which produce redness and inflammation of the skin • 2. Epis- pastics or Vesicatories, which produce a serous discharge beneath the cuticle, forming a blister; and 3. Escharotics or Caustics, which destrov the life of the part upon which they act: c. Those operating by a mecha- nical agency, consisting of 1. Demulcents, which lubricate the surface to which they are applied, and prevent the contact of irritating substances or mingle with these and diminish their acrimony; and 2. Emollients, which serve as vehicles for the application of warmth and moisture at the time excluding the air: d. Those which act on extraneous 'matters same con- PART I. Materia Medica. 3 tained within the organs, including 1. Anthelmintics, which destroy worms, or expel them from the bowels; and 2. Antacids, which neutralize acid, whether existing in the alimentary canal, or circulating with the blood. It is believed that all substances employed as medicines, with the excep- tion of a very few which are so peculiar in their action as scarcely to admit of classification, may be distributed without violence among the above classes. Some substances, however, in addition to the properties of the classes to which they are severally attached, possess others in common, which give them practical value, and authorize their association in distinct groups, not recognised in the system of classification, but constantly referred to in medical language. Thus we have Refrigerants, which, when in- ternally administered, diminish animal temperature; Alteratives, which change, in some inexplicable and insensible manner, certain morbid actions of the system; and Carminatives, which, by promoting contraction in the muscular coat of the stomach and bowels, cause the expulsion of flatus. It is common, moreover, to attach distinct names to groups of remedies, with reference to certain effects which are incident to the properties that serve to arrange them in some more comprehensive class. Thus Narcotics fre- quently promote sleep and relieve pain, and, in relation to these properties, are called Soporifics and Anodynes ; and various medicines, which, by diversified modes of action, serve to remove chronic inflammation and en- largements of the glands or viscera, are called Deobstruents. These terms are occasionally employed in the following pages, and are here ex- plained, in order that the sense in which we use them may be accurately understood. W. 4 Absinthium. part i. ABSINTHIUM. U. S., Lond., Ed, Wormwood. "The tops and leaves of Artemisia Absinthium." U. S. "Artemisia Absinthium." Lond. » Herb of Artemisia Absinthium." Ed. Off. Syn. ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM. Summitates florentes. DuD. Absinth, Fr.; Gemeiner Wermuth, Gem.; Assenzio, Ital.; Artemisio Axenjo, 6pan. Artemisia. Sex. Stjst. Syngenesia Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Composite Senecionideae. De Cand. Asteraceae. Lindley. Gen.Ch. Receptacle sub-villous or nearly naked. Seed-down none. Calyx imbricate, with roundish, converging scales. Corollas of the ray none. Willd. . ... Several species of Artemisia have enjoyed some reputation as medicines. The leaves of A. Abrolanum, or southernwood, have but recently been discharged from the Pharmacopoeias. They have a fragrant odour, and a warm, bitter, nauseous taste ; and were employed as a tonic, deobstruent, and anthelmintic. Similar virtues have been ascribed to A. Santonica. A. pontica has been occasionally substituted for common wormwood, but is weaker. A. vulgaris, or mugwort, formerly enjoyed considerable repu- tation as an emmenagogue, and a few years since came into some notice, in consequence of the recommendation of its root as a remedy in epilepsy by Dr. Burdach of Germany. For this purpose, it should be collected in autumn or early in the spring, and the side roots only dried for use. These should be powdered as they are wanted, the ligneous portion being rejected. The dose is about a drachm, to be administered in some warm vehicle in anticipation of the paroxysm, and to be repeated once or twice, at intervals of half an hour, till perspiration is produced, the patient being confined to bed. In the intervals, it may be given every second day. This is merely the revival of an old practice in Germany. The A. vulgaris of this country is thought by Nuttall to be a distinct species, and may not possess similar properties. In China, moxa is said to be prepared from the leaves of Arte- misia Chinensis, and A. Indica, which are for this reason ranked among the officinal plants by the Dublin College. (See Moxa.) The medicine known in Europe by the name of wormseed, is probably the product of dif- ferent species of Artemisia. (See Artemisia Santonica.) But the only spe- cies which requires particular description, in this place, is A. Absinthium. Artemisia Absinthium. Willd. Sp.Plant, iii. 1844; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 54. t. 22. Wormwood is a perennial plant, with branching, round, and striated or furrowed stems, which rise two or three feet in heio-ht, and are panicled at their summit. The lower portion of the stem lives several years, and annually sends up herbaceous shoots, which perish in the winter. The radical leaves are triply pinnatifid, with lanceolate, obtuse, dentate divi- sions; those of the stem, doubly or simply pinnatifid, with lanceolate, some- what acute divisions; the floral leaves are lanceolate; all are hoary. The flow- ers are of a brownish-yellow-colour, hemispherical, pedicelled, nodding, and in erect racemes. The florets of the disk are numerous, those of the ray few This plant is a native of Europe, where it is also cultivated for medical use. It is among our garden herbs, and has been naturalized in the moun- tainous districts of New England. The leaves and flowering summits are the parts employed, the larger parts of the stalk being rejected Thev should be gathered in July or August, when the plant is in flower'. Thev preserve their peculiar sensible properties long when dried. PART I. Absinthium.—Acacia. 5 Wormwood has a strong odour, and an intensely bitter, nauseous taste, which it imparts to water and alcohol. A dark green volatile oil, upon which the odour depends, is obtained by distillation. The constituents, according to Braconnot, are a very bitter, and an almost insipid azotized matter, an ex- cessively bitter resinous substance, a green volatile oil,chlorophylle, albumen, starch, saline matters, and lignin. Among the saline substances, Braconnot found one consisting of potassa, and an acid which he supposed to be pecu- liar, and denominated absinthic am?, but which is now asserted to be perfectly identical with the succinic. This acid maybe recognised among the products of the dry distillation of wormwood. (Annal. der Chem. undPharm. xlviii. 122.) The substance formerly called salt of wormwood (sal absinthii) is impure carbonate of potassa, obtained by lixiviating the ashes of the plant. Medical Properties and Uses. Wormwood was known to the ancients. It is highly tonic, and probably enters the circulation, as it is said to render the flesh and milk of the animals fed with it bitter. It formerly enjoyed great reputation as a remedy in numerous complaints, attended with a debilitated condition of the digestive organs, or of the system generally. Before the introduction of Peruvian bark, it was much used in the treatment of inter- mittents. It has also been supposed to possess anthelmintic virtues. At present, however, it is little used in regular practice on this side of the At- lantic. A narcotic property has been ascribed to it by some writers, in con- sequence of its tendency to occasion headache, and, when long continued, to produce disorder of the nervous system. This property is supposed to de- pend on the volatile oil, and therefore to be less obvious in the decoction than in the powder or infusion. In large doses, wormwood irritates the stomach, and excites the circulation. The herb is sometimes applied externally, by way of fomentation, as an antiseptic and discutient. The dose in substance is from one to two scruples; of the infusion, made by macerating an ounce in a pint of boiling water, from one to two fluidounces. Off. Prep. Extractum Artemisise Absinthii. Dub. W. ACACIA. U.S., Lond. Gum Arabic. " The concrete juice of Acacia vera and other species of Acacia." U. S. "Acacia vera. Gummi." Lond. Off. Syn. GUMMI ACACI^E. Gum of various species of Acacia. Ed. ACACIA ARABIC A et ACACIA VERA. Gummi. Dub. Gomme Arabique, Fr.; Arabisches Gummi, Germ.; Gomma Arabica, Ital.; Goma Ara- biga, Span.; Samagh Arabee, Arab. Acacia. Sex. Syst. Polygamia Moncecia. — Nat.Ord. Leguminosae, Trib. Mimoseae. This genus is one of those into which the old genus Mimosa of Linnasus was divided by Willdenow. The name Acacia was employed by the ancient Greeks to designate the gum-tree of Egypt, and has been appropriately ap- plied to the new genus in which that plant is included. Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-cleft, or formed of five petals. Stamens 4-100. Pistil one. Legume bivalve. Male. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-cleft, or formed of five petals. Stamens 4-100. Willd. Several species of Acacia contribute to furnish the gum Arabic of the shops. Among the most important are A. vera and A. Arabica, confounded together by Linnaeus under the title of Mimosa Nilotica. 2* 6 Acacia. part i. Acacia vera. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1805; Hayne, Darsfel. und Beschretb. fyc. x. 31. This is a tree of middling size, with numerous scattered branches, of which the younger are much bent, and covered with a reddish-brown bark. The leaves are alternate and bipinnate, with two pairs of pinnae, ot which the lower are usually furnished with ten pairs of leaflets, the upper with eight. The leaflets are very small, oblong-linear, smooth, and sup- ported upon very short footstalks. On the common petiole is a gland between each pair of pinnae. Both the common and partial petiole are smooth. Two sharp spines, from a quarter to half an inch long, of the colour of the smaller branches, and joined together at their base, are found at the insertion of each leaf. The flowers are yellow, inodorous, small, and collected in globular heads supported upon slender peduncles, which rise from the axils of the leaves, in number from two to five together. The fruit is a smooth, flat, two-valved legume, divided by contractions, occurring at regular intervals, into several roundish portions, each containing a single seed. This species flourishes in Upper Egypt and Senegal, and is probably scattered over the whole intervening portions of the African continent. The Acacia of the Cape of Good Hope, considered by Sparrman and Thunberg as the Mimosa Nilotica of Linn., and hence treated by some authors as identical with the present species, appears to be distinct, and has received the name of Acacia Karroo. It exudes a gum, which is collected at the Cape. A. Arabica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1805; Hayne, Darstel.und Beschreib. x. 32.—Acacia Nilotica, Delil. III. for. de PEgypt, p. 79.—Acacia vera. Vesling. Mgypt. p. 8. This species, though often little more than a shrub, attains in favourable situations the magnitude of a considerable tree, being sometimes forty feet high, with a trunk a foot or more in diameter. The leaves are alternate and doubly pinnate, having from four to six pairs of pinnae, each of which is furnished with from ten to twenty pairs of minute, smooth, oblong-linear leaflets. The common petiole has a gland between the lowest pair of pinna?, and often also between the uppermost pair. Both the common and partial petiole, as well as the young branches, are downy. The thorns are straight, and disposed as in the former species. The flowers are also arranged as in A. vera, and the fruit is of a similar shape. A. Arabica is perhaps the most widely diffused of the gum-bearing species. It grows in Upper and Lower Egypt, Senegal, and other parts of Africa, flourishes also in Arabia, and is abundant in Hindostan, where its gum is used for food by the natives. Besides the two species above described, the following afford considerable quantities of gum :—A. Senegal, a small tree, inhabiting the hottest regions of Africa, and said to form vast forests in Senegambia; A.gummifera, seen by Broussonet in Morocco near Mogador; A.Ehrenbergiana, a shrub six or eight feet high, named in honour of the German traveller EhrenberV™ea, that the moist oxide gradually decreases in its power of neutralizing arseni- ous acid the longer it is kept; and that this decrease in power is more rapid in the oxide, when mixed with much water, than when in the torm oi a thick magma. , . c It follows from the above facts and observations, that the forms of sesqui- oxide of iron are efficacious as antidotes to arsenic in the following order, beginning with the one having the least power:—1, dry hydrated oxide; 4, hydrated oxide, long kept and mixed with much water; 3, the same long kept, and in the form of a thick magma; 4, the same just precipitated and still pulpy. The form of antidote which can be obtained first must be used first, although not the best, and may be replaced by a better as soon as it can be procured. The apothecary should, therefore, always keep the oxide in the form of thick magma, and be prepared, at a moment's warning, to make the antidote. When applied to for it, he must instantly furnish the magma, or, if unprovided with this, the rust or precipitated subcarbonate, and im- mediately proceed to prepare the antidote, which maybe done in ten or fif- teen minutes, if the proper solutions are always kept ready for ■effecting the precipitation. These are the solutions of the tersulphate of sesquioxide of iron, and solution of ammonia. The preparation of the tersulphate in so- lution forms the first step in the officinal formula for obtaining the antidote. (See Ferri Oxidum Hydratum.) The antidote having been faithfully applied, the subsequent treatment consists in the administration of mucilaginous drinks. Should the patient survive long enough for inflammatory symptoms to arise, these should be combated on general principles. Accordingly, venesection and leeches may become necessary; and, in the course of the treatment, emollient enemata, antispasmodics, and narcotics will often prove useful in mitigating pain and allaying nervous irritation. Convalescence is generally long and distressing, and hence it is of the greatest importance to attend to the diet, which should consist exclusively of milk, gruel, cream, rice, and similar bland articles. Recently, Bussy has proposed light magnesia, or the kind which has not been too strongly calcined, as well as recently precipitated gelatinous mag- nesia, as an antidote for arsenious acid; and a case is given by him in which it proved efficacious. (Journ. de Pharm., x. 81.) Dr. Christison also saw a case in which this antidote seemed very serviceable. For the salts of the acids of arsenic, the subacetate of the sesquioxide of iron has been suggested as an antidote by Duflos. In poisoning by these salts, the ses- quioxide is said to be without effect. It was formerly supposed that bodies poisoned by arsenious acid were unusually prone to putrefaction; but so far from this being true, it exerts a preservative effect. Reagents for detecting Arsenious Acid. As arsenic is so frequently em- ployed for criminal purposes, it becomes important to detect its presence in medico-legal investigations. The tests for it may be divided into, 1st, those which indicate indirectly its presence; and 2d, those which demonstrate its presence incontestably, by bringing it to the metallic state. The former embrace all the liquid reagents, so called; the latter, the different processes for metallization. r The most characteristic reagents, according to Dr. Christison, are sul- PART I. Acidum Arseniosum. 25 phuretted hydro gen, ammoniacal nitrate of silver, and ammoniacal sulphate of copper. In the opinion of this writer, the concurrent indications of these three tests are all-sufficient for detecting, in an infallible manner, the pre- sence of arsenious acid; but we think that, in questions involving life and death, the metallization of the poison should never be omitted. In using sulphuretted hydrogen, the solution must be neutral. An excess of alkali may be neutralized with acetic acid; and an excess of nitric or sul- phuric acid by potassa. A slight excess of acetic acid is not hurtful, but rather favours the subsidence of the precipitate, which is the tersulphuret of arsenic. According to Dr. Christison, this test is so exceedingly deli- cate, that it detects the poison, when dissolved in one hundred thousand parts of water. The colour it produces is lemon or sulphur-yellow; but the presence of vegetable or animal matter commonly gives it a whitish or brownish tint. Some medical jurists recommend the use of sulphuretted hydrogen water; but the gas is far preferable. It can be applied with much convenience by using one of Dr. Hare's self-regulating gas reservoirs. Dr. Christison has shown, that, how delicate soever the ammoniacal nitrate of silver may be in ordinary solutions, it is not to be depended upon in dilute solutions of the poison, where animal or vegetable matter is pre- sent; for the precipitate is either not formed in consequence of the organic principles exerting a solvent power over it, or, if formed, is essentially altered in colour. The ammoniacal sulphate of copper is a test of very great delicacy. The precipitate occasioned by it is the arsenite of copper, of an apple-green or grass-green colour. Its operation is prevented by muriatic, nitric, sulphuric, acetic, citric, and tartaric acids in excess; as also by ammonia. But a greater objection to it is, that its indications fail when animal or vegetable matter is present, in case the arsenic is not abundant. Of the three tests mentioned, perhaps sulphuretted hydrogen is the most delicate; and it has the advantage of yielding a precipitate eligible for subsequent reduction. But they are all liable to the objection of being obscured in their indications, where the amount of poison is minute, by the presence of organic principles; a complication constituting the most diffi- cult problem that can be presented to the attention of the medical jurist. As this case includes all others of more easy solution, we shall suppose it to occur, and shall indicate the steps which are to be pursued. Having obtained general indications of the presence of arsenic, the first step will be to separate the organic matters; the second to throw down the arsenic by means of sulphuretted hydrogen; and the third, to reduce the precipitate obtained. The following are the directions given by Dr. Christison for separating the organic principles. Boil the suspected matter with distilled water for half an hour, and filter, first through gauze to separate the coarser particles, and afterwards through paper. To the transparent solution thus obtained, add acetic acid, which will coagulate some animal principles. To ascertain whether the solution has been sufficiently freed from animal matter by this measure, neutralize with ammonia, and test a small portion of it with the ammoniacal nitrate of silver. If this gives a characteristic precipitate, the solution is sufficiently deprived of animal matter; if not, another measure must be adopted to separate it. This consists in first rendering the solution neutral or slightly alkaline, next faintly acidulating with muriatic acid, and then adding an excess of nitrate of silver. This salt precipitates the animal matter in combination with oxide of silver. After this step, the excess of 4 26 Acidum Arseniosum. part i. silver is thrown down by a slight excess of chloride of sodium, and the solu- tion filtered. , . . . moit__ ,u Having in this manner disembarrassed the solution of organic matter, tne free nitric acid is neutralized by potassa in slight excess, and the solution acidulated with acetic acid. A stream of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed through it, which will throw down the arsenic as the tersulphuret. If the proportion of arsenic be very small, a yellowishness only will be pro- duced, owing to the precipitate being soluble in an excess of the precipitant. In this case, it is necessary to boil, to drive off the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen. The precipitate is then collected and dried. 11 it be very minute, it must be allowed to subside, and the clear liquid having been withdrawn, the remainder is to be poured upon a filter. After filtration, the precipitate is washed down to the bottom of the filter, by means of the pipette, an instrument employed for washing scanty precipitates. The filter is then gently pressed between folds of bibulous paper, and the pre- cipitate removed with the point of a knife before it dries, and then dried in little masses on a- watch-glass. In this manner, Dr. Christison states that it is easy to collect a portion of the tersulphuret so small as the twenty-fifth part of a grain. When the precipitate is small and not easily separated, Devergie recommends to dissolve it in a small quantity of ammonia, to filter the solution, and then evaporate it in a watch-glass, when the tersulphuret will be left. The precipitate is then to be reduced by means of a flux, which this author recommends to consist of two parts of ignited carbonate of soda and one of charcoal, as preferable to black flux. The best flux for arsenious acid is freshly ignited charcoal. A method different from that of Dr. Christison has been recommended by M. Maufflier for separating organic substances. It consists in adding to the liquid, resulting from the decoction of the suspected matters, a solution of oxide of zinc in potassa. The oxide precipitates in union with the organic substances, while the potassa unites with the arsenious acid and remains in solution. The clear solution, obtained by decantation or filtration, being then acidulated with muriatic acid, the arsenic is precipitated by sulphu- retted hydrogen, as recommended by Dr. Christison. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 492.) The general formula for reduction is as follows. The operation is per- formed in a small glass tube. If the matter to be operated on is small, it is introduced to the bottom of the tube, and then a little of the flux is added to cover it, care being taken that the materials are conducted to the place they are to occupy, by means of a small glass funnel with a slender stem, with- out soiling the empty part of the tube. The heat is applied by means of a spirit lamp, the upper part of the material being first heated with a small flame, and afterwards the lower part with a larger flame. A little water, disengaged at first, should be removed with a roll of filtering paper, before sufficient heat has been applied to sublime the metal. When the dark crust begins to form, the tube should be held quite steady, and in the same part of the flame. This crust is the metallic arsenic, having the surface next the tube resplendent and polished, and the interior surface crystallized. Its characters are quite distinct, even when it does not amount to more than the three-hundredth part of a grain. If any doubt should be felt as to the nature of the crust, it may be driven up and down the tube, so as to con- vert it into sparkling octohedral crystals of arsenious acid, the triangular facets of which may be seen with a magnifying glass. Finally, the crystals may be dissolved in a drop or two of distilled water, and the solution will react characteristically with the liquid tests. PART I. Acidum Arseniosum. 27 A new method of testing for arsenic has been proposed by Mr. Marsh. (Edin. New Phil. Journ. for Oct., 1836.) It consists in taking advantage of the power, which nascent hydrogen possesses, of decomposing the acids of arsenic, with the result of forming water and arseniuretted hydrogen. The liquid in the stomach, or obtained from its contents by boiling water, is mixed with some dilute sulphuric acid, and placed in a self-regulating reservoir for hydrogen, in which a piece of zinc is suspended. The mate- rials are here present for the production of hydrogen ; but if the liquid from the stomach contain arsenic, the nascent hydrogen will combine with the metal, and the nature of the compound gas formed may be ascertained by burning a jet of it from a fine jet-pipe connected with the reservoir, taking care that the atmospheric air is first expelled before applying the fire, for fear of an explosion. The flame will have a characteristic blue colour, and by holding a piece of white porcelain over it, a thin film of metallic arsenic will be formed. Liebig and Mohr bear testimony to the delicacy of this test; but to remove every source of fallacy, it is necessary to be sure of the purity of the apparatus, as well as of the zinc and sulphuric acid; as these latter are liable to contain a minute portion of arsenic. The piece of zinc employed should be changed after every experiment. A modification of Marsh's apparatus, which is praised by Berzelius for the certainty and dis- tinctness of its results, is figured in the 54th No. of the Chem. Gazette, for January 15th, 1845. Lassaigne has proposed to pass the arseniuretted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate of oxide of silver. Arsenious acid is formed, nitric acid set free, and metallic silver deposited in black flocculi. Muriatic acid is cautiously added to the decanted liquid to decompose the excess of the nitrate, by throwing down its silver in the form of a chloride. The filtered liquor will contain nitric and arsenious acids, the latter of which may be detected by the usual tests. Or it may be evaporated to dryness, whereby the arsenious becomes arsenic acid, by oxygen derived from the nitric acid. The solution of arsenic acid obtained from the dry residuum is then tested by nitrate of silver, which forms with it a brick-red precipitate of arseniate of silver. Marsh's test has been objected to by Mr. L. Thompson, who alleges that antimony forms a compound with hydrogen, very similar to arseniuretted hydrogen, both in the colour of its flame, and in the metallic crust which it deposits during combustion on cold surfaces. Still, the two metals may be discriminated by acting on the metallic crust with a drop or two of fuming nitric acid, with the assistance of heat. Arsenic will thus be converted into the soluble arsenic acid, precipitable brick-red by nitrate of silver ; antimony, on the other hand, into the insoluble antimonic acid. Besides, acocrding to Lassaigne, arsenical spots become lemon yellow by the vapour of iodine ; while antimonial spots, by the same vapour, assume a deep yellow colour, afterwards passing into orange. (Journ. de Pharm., ix. 235.J Professor Reinsch has proposed a new method for detecting arsenic in organic liquids, which is praised by Dr. Christison as being of great delicacy, and as leaving none of the metal in the subject of analysis. It consists in acid- ulating the suspected liquid with muriatic acid, and heating a slip of copper foil in it, on which the arsenic is deposited as a white alloy; and then sepa- rating it in the state of arsenious acid, by subjecting the copper, cut into small chips, to a low red heat in the bottom of a small glass tube. The pe- culiar crystalline appearance of arsenious acid, mentioned in the last page, is conclusive of its presence. The merit of this test is not that it gives a cha- racteristic deposit on the copper, for bismuth, tin, zinc, and antimony give 28 Acidum Citricum. part I. a similar deposit; but that it furnishes the arsenic without loss, and in a convenient form for applying the liquid and subliming tests. Off. Prep. Arsenici Oxydum Album Sublimatum, Dub.; Liquor Potassse Arsenitis, U. S., Lond., Ed. "' ACIDUM CITRICUM, U S., Lond, Ed., Dub. Citric Acid. Acidum limonis, Lat.; Acide citrique, Fr.; Citronensaure, Germ.; Acido citrico, Ital, Span. . ; Citric acid is the peculiar acid to which limes and lemons owe their sour- ness, being found in greatest abundance in the former. It is present also in the juice of other fruits, though in smaller amount; such as the cranberry, the red whortleberry, the berry of the bittersweet, the red gooseberry, the currant, the strawberry, the raspberry, and the tamarind. The acid is extracted from lemon or lime juice by a very simple process, for which we are indebted to Scheele. The boiling juice is first completely saturated with carbonate of lime (chalk or whiting), in fine powder, and the citrate of lime formed is allowed to subside. This is then washed re- peatedly with water, and decomposed by diluted sulphuric acid. An inso- luble sulphate of lime is immediately formed, and the disengaged citric acid remains in the supernatant liquor. This is carefully concentrated in leaden boilers, until a pellicle begins to form, when it is transferred to other vessels in order to cool and crystallize. As the crystals obtained by the first crystallization are generally brown, they require to be redissolved and re- crystallized several times, in order to render them pure and white. The late Mr. Parkes, in his Chemical Essays, has given a very interest- ing account of the manufacture of citric acid, which is made in large quan- tities in London for the use of the calico-printers. As Mr. P. was himself engaged in this manufacture, the following outline of the process which he pursued, may be received with the greater confidence. The heated juice is placed in large square vats, in which it is saturated with clean soft chalk or whiting, gradually added to prevent excessive effervescence. The inso- luble citrate of lime is allowed to subside, and the supernatant liquid, con- taining mucilage, saccharine matter, and a little malic acid, is drawn off by means of a syphon. The citrate is then passed through a seive, and washed with warm water, until all remaining mucilage, and other soluble impurities are removed. It is then decomposed, while yet moist, by sulphuric acid, taken in the proportion of nine pounds and a half of the strong acid diluted with seven gallons of water, for every ten pounds of chalk used. Some de- duction, however, maybe made from the water of dilution, in consideration of the water present in the moist citrate. The quantity of chalk expended may be easily ascertained by weighing out more than is sufficient for the purpose of saturation, and weighing the remainder after the saturation has been completed. The sulphuric acid is gradually poured in immediately after the water has been added to it, in order that the decomposition may be assisted by the heat generated by its dilution; and at the same time, the whole is well stirred, in order to prevent the citrate from running into lumps and thus escaping the action of the acid. As the point of complete decom- position of the citrate approaches, the sulphate of lime precipitates more and more quickly, and the quantity of supernatant liquid becomes sensibly greater. When the decomposition has been completed, the solution of citric acid is drawn off, and the sulphate of lime washed repeatedly with cold PART I. Acidum Citricum. 29 water to separate any remains of acid. The solution of the acid, together with the washings, is then concentrated by evaporation in leaden boilers, until it reaches the sp.gr. of about 1-130; when the fire is withdrawn, and the acid removed to a smaller leaden vessel, where it undergoes a further concentration by means of a water-bath. When the bulk of the acid liquor becomes very much reduced by evaporation, it must be transferred to a still smaller leaden boiler, where it is further evaporated by the same means, until the liquor acquires the consistence of very thin molasses It is then watched with the greatest attention for noting the production of a pel- licle, upon the appearance of which over the whole surface of the liquor the acid is to be deemed sufficiently concentrated, and must be immediately re- moved from the water-bath, and put aside to cool and crystallize. If at this stage of the process the acid were not removed from the fire, the whole would be in danger of being charred and spoiled. The liquor is allowed to remain at rest four days, that crystals may be formed, from which the mother waters, presenting a black colour, are to be drained. These are then diluted with ten or twelve times their bulk of water, saturated anew by means of carbonate of lime, and treated in all respects as if they had consisted of fresh lemon juice. By this proceeding a new crop of crystals will be obtained. to' Whatever care may be taken in conducting the process, the first crop of crystals will be of a light brownish colour; but if the solution has been burnt during the evaporation, or the mucilage imperfectly separated, they will be dark-brown or black. In order to have the crystals perfectly pure and white, it is necessary to subject them to repeated solutions and crystallizations. According to Mr. Parkes, a gallon of good juice, if the process be well con- ducted, will yield eight ounces of white crystals. But the product depends very much on the proportion of citric acid in the juice, which is very vari- able. The more recent the juice the better the quality. That which is stale will sometimes be quite sour, without containing any citric acid, in consequence of its having undergone the acetous fermentation. In decomposing the citrate of lime by sulphuric acid, it is not prudent to trust altogether to the appearance of the liquor, in deciding when the decom- position is complete. A more certain criterion is to filter a small portion of the liquor, and test it with acetate of lead. If no sulphuric acid be pre- sent in excess, the precipitate will consist of citrate of lead, and be entirely soluble in nitric acid. On the contrary supposition, the precipitate will be a mixture of citrate and sulphate of lead, the latter of which will remain undissolved on the addition of nitric acid. It is desirable to have a slight excess of sulphuric acid; as it rather favours than otherwise the crystallization of the citric acid. It is found necessary, also, to add occasionally a small portion of sulphuric acid to the citric acid' liquor, during the progress of its concentration. Citric acid is manufactured in different cities of the United States, for use in the arts and in medicine. In Philadelphia it is made in the usual manner, from the juice of limes and lemons. The imported juice furnishes from four to six ounces of the pure crystallized acid to the gallon. Citric acid is properly placed in the Materia Medica list of the United States Pharmacopoeia, as an article purchased from the manufacturing chemist. The British Colleges place it among the preparations. The following is an outline of the process of the London Pharmacopoeia of 1836, for preparing this acid. Four ounces and a half of prepared chalk are added by degrees to eighty fluidounces-of heated lemon juice. The resulting citrate of lime is carefully washed with tepid water, and decom- 4* 30 Acidum Citricum. part i. posed, while yet moist, by the addition of twenty-seven and a half fluid ounces of diluted sulphuric acid, and forty fluidounces of distilled water. The liquor is boiled for a quarter of an hour, and, after having been strained throuo-h a cloth with strong compression, is filtered. The filtered liquor is then evaporated by a gentle heat, and set aside to crystallize. Ine solu- tion and crystallization are to be repeated several times, in order to get tne crystals pure. . „ , The process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is substantially the same with that of the London. The principal differences are, that the Edinburgh College purifies the lemon juice to a certain extent from mucilage by boil- ing, rest, and subsidence, before it is boiled with a view to the addition ol the chalk, and indicates the proportion of the diluted sulphuric acid to the chalk expended, without fixing the absolute quantities. These are improve- ments ; for the presence of much mucilage interferes with the purification of the crystals, and the quality of the juice is too variable to allow the quantity of chalk necessary for saturation to be fixed. Dr. Christison states that the juice is advantageously clarified by albumen. In the process of the Dublin College, the citrate of lime, which is unne- cessarily directed to be dried, is decomposed by a quantity of diluted sul- phuric acid, equal to eight times the weight of the chalk employed. Properties. Citric acid is a white crystallized solid, often in large crystals, having'the form of rhomboidal prisms with dihedral summits. It is perma- nent in a dry air, but becomes moist in a damp one. Itssp. gr. is 1-6. Its taste is strongly acid, and almost caustic. When heated, it dissolves in its water of crystallization, and, at a higher temperature, undergoes decomposi- tion, becoming yellow or brown, and forming a very sour syrupy liquid, which is uncrystallizable. By destructive distillation, it gives rise to water, empyreumatic oil, acetic and carbonic acids, carburetted hydrogen, and a number of pyrogenous acids, among which is the aconitic. A voluminous coal is left. Citric acid dissolves in three-fourths of its weight of cold, and half its weight of boiling water. It is also soluble in alcohol. A weak solution of it has an agreeable taste, but cannot be kept, as it undergoes spontaneous decomposition. It is incompatible with alkaline solutions, whether pure or carbonated, converting them into citrates ; also with the earthy and metallic carbonates, most acetates, the alkaline sulphurets and soaps. It is charac- terized by its taste, by the shape of its crystals, and by its forming an inso- luble salt with lime, and a deliquescent one with potassa. If sulphuric acid be present, the precipitate by acetate of lead will not be entirely soluble in nitric acid; the insoluble portion being sulphate of lead. Sometimes large crystals of tartaric acid are substituted for or mixed with the citric, a fraud which is readily detected by adding a solution of carbonate of potassa to one of the suspected acid; when, if tartaric acid be present, a crystalline precipi- tate of bitartrate of potassa (cream of tartar) will be formed. Lime or other fixed impurity is detected by incinerating the acid, either alone or by the aid of red oxide of mercury, when the fixed matter will be left. Composition. The formula of this acid, considered dry, as it exists in the citrate of silver, is C12H5Ou. As crystallized from its solution by cool- ing, it contains four eqs. of water. Medical Properties. Citric acid is principally employed for making a substitute for lemonade, and in the composition of effervescing draughts. It is used also for preparing the neutral mixture, for which a formula was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia at its last revision. (See Liquor Potassse Citralis, U. S.) When added in the quantity of nine drachms and PART I. Acidum Muriaticum. 31 a half to a pint of distilled water, it forms a solution of the average strength of lemon juice. Of this solution, or of lemon juice, a scruple of bicarbo- nate of potassa saturates three fluidrachms and a half: a scruple of carbo- nate of potassa, four fluidrachms ; and a scruple of carbonate of ammonia, six fluidrachms. Half a fluidounce of lemon juice, or of an equivalent solu- tion of citric acid, when saturated, is considered a dose. An agreeable sub- stitute for lemonade may be formed by dissolving from two to four parts of the acid, mixed with a little sugar and oil of lemons, in nine hundred parts of water; or a scruple of the acid may be dissolved in a pint of water, and sweetened to the taste with sugar which has been rubbed on fresh lemon-peel. Off. Prep. Liquor Potassse Citratis, U. S. B. ACIDUM MURIATICUM. U.S., Dub. Muriatic Acid. "Aqueous solution of chlorohydric acid gas of the specific gravity 1-16." U.S. Off. Syn. ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM. Lond. ACIDUM MU- RIATICUM PURUM. Hydrochloric acid. ACIDUM MURIATICUM. Hydrochloric acid of commerce. Ed. Spirit of sea-salt, Marine acid, Hydrochloric acid, Chlorohydric acid; Acide hydro- chlorique, Fr.; Salzsaure, Kochsalzsiiure, Germ.; Acido muriatico, Ital, Span. The muriatic acid of pharmacy and the arts is a solution of muriatic acid gas in water. It is sometimes called liquid muriatic acid, but more properly hydrated muriatic acid. The acid is officinal in its pure form in the U. S., London, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, and in its pure and com- mercial forms in the Edinburgh. The sp. gr. of the pure acid is directed to be 1-16 in the U. S., London, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, and 1-17 in the Edinburgh. The three British Colleges give processes for the pre- paration of the pure acid; while, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, it is placed exclusively in the list of the Materia Medica, as an article to be procured from the manufacturing chemist. Preparation. Muriatic acid is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on chloride of sodium or common salt. The commercial acid is procured, on a large scale, by distilling the salt with an equal weight of sulphuric acid, somewhat diluted with water, from iron stills furnished with earthen heads, into earthenware receivers containing water. When thus obtained, it is con- taminated with iron and other impurities, and is not fit for medicinal purposes. Commercial muriatic acid is now procured in large quantities in England, during the decomposition of common salt for the purpose of making sulphate of soda, from which soda-ash and carbonate of soda are afterwards manufac- tured in immense quantities. Indeed the quantity of muriatic acid generated in soda works is so great, that, in many cases, so far from its being valuable, it is a difficult problem to devise means to get rid of it. When the object is to obtain sulphate of soda, the decomposition of the sea salt is performed in semi-cylindrical vessels, the curved part, next the fire, being made of iron, and the upper or flat surface, of stone. If the acid be saved, it is conveyed by a pipe to a double-necked stoneware receiver, half filled with water, and connected with a row of similar receivers, likewise containing water. The acid, when required to be pure, is generally prepared, in the labora- tory, by saturating distilled water with the gas in a Woulfe's apparatus. A quantity of pure fused* common salt is introduced into a retort or mattrass, * According to Thenard, the fusion of the common salt will very much facilitate the conducting of the process. 32 Acidum Muriaticum. part i. placed on a sand-bath. The vessel is then furnished with an S tube, and connected with a series of bottles, each two-thirds full of water. A quan- tity of sulphuric acid is then gradually added, equal in weight to tne com- mon salt employed, and diluted with one-third of its weight of water, ine materials ought" not to occupy more than half the body of the retort, w nen the extrication of the gas slackens, heat is to be applied, and gradually increased until the water in the bottles refuses to absorb any more, or until, upon raising the heat, no more gas is found to come over. As soon as tne process is completed, boiling water is to be added to the contents of the retort, in order to facilitate the removal of the residue. During the progress of the saturation, the water in the several bottles increases in temperature, which lessens its power of absorption. It is therefore expedient, in order to obtain a strong acid, to keep the bottles cool by means of water or ice. The connecting tubes need not plunge deeply into the acid. The rationale of the process for obtaining this acid is sufficiently simple. Common salt is a compound of chlorine and sodium; muriatic acid, of chlorine and hydrogen; and liquid sulphuric acid, of dry sulphuric acid and water. The water is decomposed; its oxygen, combining with the sodium of the common salt, generates soda, which unites with the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of soda; while the hydrogen and chlorine, being both in the nascent state, combine and escape as muriatic acid gas. The residue of the process is consequently sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt. It is reserved by the British Colleges, to be dissolved and crystallized, in order to form the officinal sulphate of soda. (See Sodse Sulphas.) The following is a synopsis of the proportions of the ingredients pre- scribed by the British Colleges, for obtaining the pure acid:—London,two pounds of dried chloride of sodium, twenty ounces of sulphuric acid, and twenty-four fluidounces of distilled water;—Edinburgh, equal weights of purified and well dried salt, pure sulphuric acid, and water;—Dublin, one hundred parts of dried salt, eighty-seven of commercial sulphuric acid, and one hundred and twenty-four of water. The Edinburgh College distils "with a gentle heat by means of a sand-bath or naked gas-flame, so long as any liquid passes over, preserving the receiver constantly cool by snow or a stream of cold water." The Dublin College distils the materials to dryness. One-third of the water prescribed in the.Edinburgh formula, and one-half of that directed in the London and Dublin, is mixed with the sulphuric acid; the rest being put into the receiver to absorb the gas. From the above view it is perceived, that the British Colleges differ as to the proportion of acid and salt. Theory calls for a little less than 82 parts of the liquid sulphuric acid to 100 of the common salt; while the London College uses about 83 parts, the Dublin 87, and the Edinburgh 100 parts of acid to that quantity of salt. The London proportions are, therefore, nearest the theoretical quantities, and would even seem to furnish a slio-ht excess of acid; but from careful experiments made by Dr. Barker, of Dublin, it appears to be demonstrated, that to decompose completely the whole of the salt, 87 parts of strong acid are necessary; for it is a principle now generally conceded, and which was contended for many years ago by the late Dr. Hope, that to produce the complete decomposition of a salt, it is sometimes necessary to use more than an equivalent quantity of the de- composing agent. Accordingly, Dr. Hope found that the Edinburgh pro- portion of equal weights of sulphuric acid and salt gave a larger product of muriatic acid, with less expense of time and fuel, than when a smaller quantity of the decomposing acid was employed. The common salt is directed to be purified by the Edinburgh College by PART I. Acidum Muriaticum. 33 dissolving it in boiling water, concentrating the solution, skimming off the crystals as they form on the surface, draining from them the adhering solu- tion, and subsequently washing them slightly with cold water. Dr. Chris- tison states that the object of the process is to separate nitrate of soda, which is almost always present in the common salt of commerce. It will also separate nitrate of potassa if it happen to be present. The same College directs pure sulphuric acid, on the ground that the commercial usually con- tains nitrous acid. (See Acidum Sulphuricum Purum.) Properties of the Hydrated Acid. Muriatic acid, when pure, is a trans- parent colourless liquid, of a corrosive taste and suffocating odour. Exposed to the air, it emits white fumes, owing to the escape of the acid gas, and its union with the moisture of the atmosphere. When concentrated, it blackens organic substances like sulphuric acid. Itssp. gr. varies with its strength. When as highly concentrated as possible, its density is 1-21. The medici- nal acid has the sp. gr. of 1-16, and 100 grains of it saturate 134 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda. When of this strength, it contains rather more than 33-9 per cent, of muriatic acid gas. (Phillips.) Mixed with nitric acid, it forms nitromuriatic acid, or aqua regia. (See Acidum Nitro- muriaticum.) As it is desirable to know, on many occasions, in chemical and pharma- ceutical operations, the quantity of strong hydrated acid, of acid gas, and of chlorine, contained in samples of acid of different densities, we subjoin a table by Dr. Ure, containing this information, as abridged by the late Dr. Duncan. Table of the Quantify of Hydrated Muriatic Acid of sp. gr. 1-2, of Mu- riatic Acid Gas, and of Chlorine, in 100 parts of Hydrated Acid of dif- ferent densities. Sp. Gr. Hydrated Acid of sp. gr. 1-2 Acid Gas. Chlorine. Sp. Gr. Hydrated Acid of sp. gr. 1-2 Acid Gas. Chlorine. 1-2000 1-1910 1-1822 1-1721 1-1701 1-1620 1-1599 1-1515 1-1410 1-1308 1-1206 100 95 90 85 84 80 79 75 70 65 60 40-777 38-738 36-700 34-660 34-252 32-621 32-213 30-582 28-544 26-504 24-466 39-675 37-692 35-707 33-724 33-328 31-746 31-343 29-757 27-772 25-789 23-805 1-1102 1-1000 1-0899 1-0798 1-0697 1-0597 1-0497 1-0397 1-0298 1-0200 1-0100 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 , 5 21-822 20-388 18-348 16-310 14-271 12-233 10-194 8-155 6-116 4-078 2-039 22-426 19-837 17-854 15-870 13-887 11-903 9-919 7-935 5-951 3-968 1-984 Muriatic acid is characterized by forming, on the addition of nitrate of silver, a white precipitate (chloride of silver), which is insoluble in nitric acid, but readily soluble in ammonia. It is incompatible with alkalies and most earths, with oxides and their carbonates, and with sulphuret of potas- sium, tartrate of potassa, tartar emetic, tartarized iron, nitrate of silver, and solution of subacetate of lead. Adulterations. This acid, when pure, will evaporate without residue in a platinum spoon. If sulphuric acid be present, a solution of chloride of barium will cause a precipitate of sulphate of baryta in the acid previously diluted with distilled water. Iron may be detected by saturating the dilute acid with carbonate of soda, and then adding ferrocyanuret of potassium, which will strike a blue colour if that metal be present. Free chlorine may be discovered by the acid having the power to dissolve gold leaf. Any 34 Acidum Muriaticum. part I. minute portion of the leaf which may be dissolved, is detected by adding a so- lution of protochloride of tin, which will give rise to a purplish tint. 1 he free chlorine is derived from the reaction of nitric or nitrous acid on a small portion of the muriatic acid, which is thus deprived of its hydrogen. These contaminating acids are derived from nitrates in the common salt, and from nitrous acid in the commercial sulphuric acid, employed in the prepa- ration of the muriatic acid. Hence it is that when free chlorine is present, nitrous acid, or some other oxide of nitrogen, is also present as an impunty. Muriatic Acid of Commerce. This acid has the general properties of the pure hydrated acid. It has a yellow colour, owing to the presence of sesqui- chloride of iron, or of a minute proportion of organic matter, such as cork, wood, &c. It usually contains sulphuric acid, and sometimes chlorine and nitrous acid. But the most injurious impurity to those who consume it in the arts, is sulphurous acid. To detect this, M. Girardin, Prof, of Che- mistry at Rouen, has proposed a very delicate test, namely, the protochlo- ride of tin. The mode of using the test is to take about half an ounce of the acid to be tested, and add to it two or three drachms of the protochloride. The mixture having been stirred two or three times, as much distilled water as of the protochloride is to be added. If sulphurous acid be present, the muriatic acid becomes turbid and yellow, immediately upon the addition of the protochloride; and, upon the subsequent addition of the water, a slight evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen takes place, perceptible to the smell, and the liquid assumes a brown hue, depositing a powder of the same colour. The manner in which the test acts is as follows. By a transfer of chlo- rine the test is converted into bichloride and metallic tin, the latter of which, by-reacting with the sulphurous acid, gives rise to a precipitate of the deut- oxide and protosulphuret of tin. M. Lembert has proposed the following, which he considers as a more delicate test of sulphurous acid. Saturate the suspected muriatic acid with carbonate of potassa. Then add success- ively a little weak solution of starch, one or two drops of a solution of iodate of potassa, and sulphuric acid, drop by drop. If sulphurous acid be pre- sent, it will be set free along with iodic acid, and these, by reacting on each other, will develope iodine, which will cause a blue colour with the starch. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e Ser., iii. 207.) Another impurity occasionally present in the commercial acid, as shown by Dupasquier, is arsenic. The immediate source of this impurity is the sulphuric acid used to prepare the muriatic acid. The sulphuric acid derives the arsenic from the sulphur used in its manufacture,and this last from pyrites containing a little of the poisonous metal. The arsenic, when present, is in the form of a chloride, and, from its volatility in this state of combina- tion, is transferred to the muriatic acid, distilled from the commercial acid. This impurity is separated by diluting the acid with an equal volume of water, and passing through it sulphuretted hydrogen, which throws down the arsenic as a sulphured' Where leaden vessels are used in preparing this acid, it is apt to contain chloride of lead, which may be detected by sulphuretted hydrogen. This impurity, being fixed, is got rid of by distil- ling the acid. (Dr. A. Vogel, Jr.) Muriatic acid of commerce is officinal only in the Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia. Its density is directed to be at least 1-180. Dr. Christison states that it varies in this respect from 1-180 to 1-216. Thus the commercial acid is stronger than the pure acid of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and consequently more fuming. It is officinally defined to be always yellow, and commonly to contain a little sulphuric acid, oxide of iron, and chlorine. Properties of Muriatic Acid Gas. Muriatic acid gas is a colourless PART I. Acidum Muriaticum. 35 elastic fluid, possessing a pungent odour, and the property of irritating the organs of respiration. It destroys life and extinguishes flame. It reddens litmus powerfully, and has the other properties of a strong acid. Its sp. gr. is 1-269. Subjected to a pressure of 40 atmospheres, at the temperature of 50°, it is condensed into a transparent liquid, to which alone the name of liquid muriatic acid properly belongs. It absorbs water with the greatest avidity, and, according to the temperature and pressure, unites with a greater or less quantity of that liquid. Water, at the temperature of 69°, takes up 464 times its volume of the gas, increasing one-third in bulk, and about three-fourths in weight. Water thus saturated constitutes the strong hy- drated acid already described. With metallic oxides it forms a chloride of the metal and water. Composition. Muriatic acid gas consists of one eq. of chlorine 35-42, and one of hydrogen 1=36-42; or of one volume of chlorine and one of hydrogen united without condensation. Medical Properties. Muriatic acid is refrigerant and antiseptic. It is exhibited, largely diluted with water, in fevers, some forms of syphilis, and to counteract phosphatic deposits in the urine. Dr. Paris has given it with success in malignant cases of typhus and scarlatina, administered in a strong infusion of quassia. The same writer has found it one of the most efficacious remedies for preventing the generation of worms, after a free evacuation of the bowels. It proves also a good adjunct to gargles in ulcerated sore- throat and scarlatina maligna. The dose for internal exhibition is from ten to twenty minims, in a sufficient quantity of some bland fluid, as barley water or gruel. In the composition of gargles, it may be used in the pro- portion of from half a fluidrachm to two fluidrachms, mixed with six fluid- ounces of the vehicle. The diluted acid is the most convenient form for pre- scribing. (See Acidum Muriaticum Dilulum.) Toxicological Properties. Muriatic acid, when swallowed, is highly irri- tating and corrosive, but less so than sulphuric and nitric acids. It produces blackness of the lips, fiery redness of the tongue, hickups, violent efforts to vomit, and agonizing pain in the stomach. There is much thirst, great rest- lessness, a dry and burning skin, and a small concentrated pulse. If the acid has been recently swallowed, white vapours of a pungent smell are emitted from the mouth. The best antidote is magnesia, which acts by satu- rating the acid. Soap is also useful for the same reason. In the course of the treatment, bland and mucilaginous drinks must be freely given. When inflammation supervenes, it must be treated on general principles. Muriatic acid is used as a pharmaceutical agent by one or more of the Pharmacopoeias in the preparation of tartaric acid, tartrate of antimony and potassa, oxide of antimony, tartrate of iron and potassa, muriate of morphia (Ed.), sulphate of quinia, bicarbonate of soda, strychnia, and precipitated sulphur. In the following list of officinal preparations, we shall assume that the Edinburgh College intended the use of pure muriatic acid in forming the diluted acid; although the kind of acid, whether pure or commercial, is not indicated in the formula. Off. Prep, of Muriatic Acid. Acidum Muriaticum Dilutum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Acidum Nitromuriaticum, U. S., Dub.; Antimonii Oxydum Nitromuriaticum, Dub.; Barii Chloridum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Calcii Chloridum, Lond.; Calx Chlorinata, Lond.; Ferrum Ammoniatum, U. S., Lond.; Liquor Calcii Chloridi, U. S.; Morphise Murias, U. S., Lond.; Tinctura Ferri Chloridi, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Zinci Chloridum, U. S. Off. Prep, of Muriatic Acid of Commerce. Calcis Murias, Ed.; Ferri Muriatis Tinctura, Ed. B. 36 Acidum JVitricum. part i- ACIDUM NITRICUM. U.S., Lond., Dub. Nitric Acid. "Nitric acid of the specific gravity 1-5." U. S. _ ^ _,. Off. Syn. ACIDUM NITRICUM PURUM. Pure nitric acid, aoi- DUM NITRICUM. Nitric acid of commerce. Ed. Spirit of nitre; Aqua fortis; Acide nitrique, Acide azotique, Fr.; Salpetersaure, wrm, Zalpeterzuur, Sterkwater, Dutch; Skedwatter, Swed.; Acido nitnco, Ital., Span. Nitric acid is now officinal in three forms,—the strong, the commercial, and the diluted. The strong and commercial acids wih be noticed here; tbe diluted, under another head. (See Acidum Nitricum Dxlutum.) 1 he strong acid is officinal in all the Pharmacopoeias, and is directed to have the sp.gr. 1-5 in the U. S., Lond., and Ed. Pharmacopoeias, and 1-49 m the Dublin. The commercial acid is a new officinal of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, 'and peculiar to it, and is defined by the College to have a density varying from 1-38 to 1-39. In the British Pharmacopoeias, the strong acid is di- rected to be obtained according to a given formula, but it is more properly placed in the Materia Medica list of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, as an article to be purchased from the manufacturing chemist. The usual process adopted in the laboratory for obtaining this acid is to add to nitrate of potassa in coarse powder, contained in a retort, an equal weight of strong sulphuric acid, poured in by means of a tube or funnel, so as not to soil the neck. The materials should not occupy more than two- thirds of the capacity of the retort. A receiver being adapted, heat is ap- plied by means of a spirit-lamp, the naked fire, or a sand-bath, moderately at first/but afterwards more strongly when the materials begin to get solid, in order to bring the whole into a state of perfect fusion. Red vapours will at first arise, and afterwards disappear in the progress of the distillation. Towards its close they will be reproduced, and their reappearance will indi- cate that the process is completed. The rationale of the process, when the ordinary acid of commerce is used, is as follows. Nitrate of potassa is a dry salt, consisting of one eq. of nitric acid and one of potassa. Hydrated sulphuric acid of ordinary strength (sp. gr. 1.8433, Phillips), consists of one eq. of dry sulphuric acid, and one and a quarter eqs. of water; and hydrated nitric acid, of one eq. of dry acid, and one and a half eqs. of water. The equivalent quantities of the materials for mutual decomposition are one eq. of nitrate of potassa, and two eqs. of com- mercial sulphuric acid, containing two and a half eqs. of water. Two eqs. of dry sulphuric acid combine with one eq. of potassa, forming one eq. of bisulphate of potassa, which remains in the retort retaining one eq. of water; while the remaining one and a half eqs. of water from the sulphuric acid, uniting with one eq. of dry nitric acid, form one eq. of hydrated nitric acid, which distils over. The nitric acid thus formed is, according to Mr. Phil- lips, the strongest procurable, and varies in density from 1-5033 to 1-504. If, in the above process, the decomposition were performed by the strongest sulphuric acid, the proportions, in round numbers, would be one eq. of the salt 102, and two eqs. of sulphuric acid 98, containing two eqs. of water. Now this approaches nearly to equal weights; and when in practice an equal weight of the commercial weaker acid is taken, the increased quantity merely furnishes the additional portion of water, necessary to make up two and a half eqs. of water, which is the amount required for the bisulphate of po- tassa and the nitric acid formed. The British Colleges differ somewhat in the proportion of the materials PART I. Acidum Nitricum. 37 employed for making this acid. The following is an outline of their respective processes. The London College takes equal weights, (two pounds, each,) of dried nitrate of potassa and sulphuric acid. These are mixed in a glass retort, and the nitric acid is distilled by means of a sand-bath. About two hundred and seventeen grains of crystallized carbonate of soda are saturated by one hun- dred grains of this acid. The Edinburgh College mixes in a glass retort equal weights of purified nitrate of potassa and of sulphuric acid, and dis- tils into a cool receiver, with a moderate heat, from a sand-bath or naked gas- flame, so long as the fused material continues to give off vapour. The pale- yellow acid thus obtained may be rendered colourless by heating it gently in a retort. The nitrate is purified from the chlorides of sodium and potas- sium (the usual impurities) by two or more crystallizations; the absence of the chlorides being ascertained by the non-action of the nitrate of silver on a solution of the purified salt. The Edinburgh College has dismissed its "Acidum Nitrosum," and substituted the above for its former faulty and wasteful process for nitric acid. The Dublin College mixes one hundred parts of nitrate of potassa with ninety-seven parts of commercial sulphuric acid, " in a glass retort, and, with.an apparatus adapted to collecting the acid products, distils until the residuum in the retort concretes, and again becomes liquid." The proportion of equal weights, now adopted by the Edinburgh College, after the London, is the best for operations on a small scale in the laboratory. This proportion is preferred by Thenard. In operations on a large scale, where iron vessels are used, a strong heat applied, and water placed in the receivers to condense the acid, less sulphuric acid may be advantageously employed. Preparation of Nitric Acid for the Arts. Two strengths of this acid occur in the arts;—double aquafortis, which is half the strength of concen- trated nitric acid, and single aquafortis, which is half as strongasthe double. Aqua fortis is sometimes obtained by distilling a mixture of nitre and calcined sulphate of iron. By an interchange of ingredients, sulphate of potassa and nitrate of iron are formed, the latter of which, at the distilling heat, readily abandons its nitric acid. The sulphate of potassa is washed out of the residue, and the sesquioxide (peroxide) of iron which is left, is sold, under the name of colcothar, to the polishers of metals. The distillation is performed in large cast-iron retorts, lined on the inside with a thick layer of red oxide of iron, to protect them, from the action of the acid. The acid is received in large glass vessels containing water. A considerable portion of the acid is decomposed by the heat into reddish vapours, which subsequently dissolve in the water, and absorb the oxygen which had been disengaged. The acid thus obtained is red and tolerably strong; but it is diluted with water before being thrown into commerce. The sp. gr. of this acid is about 1-22. In France, nitric acid is manufactured on the large scale from nitre and sulphuric acid in cast-iron cylinders. The cylinders are disposed horizon- tally across a furnace, and are strewed internally throughout their whole length with nitre. Two circular cast-iron plates, each pierced with a hole, serve to close the ends. At one end, the sulphuric acid is poured in, and, by means of a stoneware tube connected with the other, the nitric acid is conducted to receivers. The sulphate of potassa is removed after each opera- tion. The iron cylinders are acted upon by the acid; yet,notwithstanding this disadvantage, the process, when conducted in such vessels, is attended with a great saving of expense. In England, nitric acid is generally procured for the purposes of the arts, 5 38 Acidum JVitricum. part i- by distilling the materials in earthenware retorts, or cast-iron pots with an earthen head, connected with a series of glass or stoneware receivers con- taining water. The proportion of sulphuric acid, employed by the manu- facturer, is between one and two equivalents to one of the salt; and hence the product has an orange-red colour, which is removed by heating the acid. In the United States, nitric acid is made on the large scale, in a distillatory apparatus, having the same general arrangement as in France and England. Sometimes a cast-iron cylinder is used as in France, and sometimes a thick cast-iron pot, with an earthenware head. The pot is set in brick-work over a fire-place, and the materials having been placed in it, the head is luted on with a fat lute, and made to communicate with two receivers, either of stone- ware or glass, connected together by means of a tube. Large demijohns of glass answer the purpose of receivers very well. The incondensible pro- ducts are made to pass by means of a tube into a portion of water. The quantity of sulphuric acid employed in different establishments, varies from one-half to two-thirds of the weight of the nitre. Nitrate of soda, imported into the United Slates from Peru, is used by some manufacturing chemists to obtain nitric acid. One objection to this salt is that it often contains much common salt. Supposing it pure, it yields a larger amount of acid for a given weight than nitrate of potassa; but the residuum, sulphate of soda, is less valuable than sulphate of potassa. The latter salt, under the name of sal enixum, is sold to the alum makers. Properties of Strong Nitric Acid. Nitric acid, so called from nitre, is a dense liquid, extremely sour and corrosive. It was discovered by Raymond Lully, in the 13th century, and its constituents, by Cavendish, in 1784. When perfectly pure, it is colourless; but as usually obtained, it has a straw colour, owing to the presence of nitrous acid. Exposed to the air, it emits white fumes, possessing a disagreeable odour. By the action of light, it undergoes a slight decomposition, and becomes yellow. It acts powerfully on animal matter, producing its decomposition. On the living fibre it ope- rates as a strong caustic. It stains the skin and most animal substances of an indelible yellow colour. On vegetable fibre, it acts peculiarly, abstracting hydrogen or water, and combining with its remaining elements. With the fibre of cotton, paper, and other ligneous substances, it forms an explosive compound, which, in the case of cotton, consists, according to Mr. T. Ran- some, of the elements of cotton (C^H^O^,), minus two eqs. of hydrogen, plus two eqs. of nitric acid (C12H Oa0N2). (Phil. Mag., Jan., 1847.) For the explosive compound, first formed, as derived from paper, by Pelouze, this chemist proposes the name of pyroxyline, restricting Braconnot's name of xyloidine to the substance obtained by precipitating the nitric solution of starch and other ligneous substances by water. When diluted, nitric acid converts most animal and vegetable substances into oxalic, malic, and car- bonic acids. The general character of its action is to impart oxygen to other bodies, which it is enabled to do in consequence of the large quantity of this element which it contains in a state of loose combination. It acidifies sul- phur and phosphorus, and oxidizes all the metals, except chromium, tung- sten, columbium, cerium, titanium, osmium, rhodium, gold, platinum, and iridium. In the liquid state, it always contains water, which is essential to its existence in that state. It combines with salifiable bases and forms ni- trates. When mixed with muriatic acid, mutual decomposition takes place and a liquid is formed, capable of dissolving gold, called nitro-muriatic acid or aqua regia. (See Acidum Nitromuriaticum, U. S., Dub.) When of the sp. gr. 1-42, its composition being one equivalent of dry acid to four of water, it boils at 250°. When either stronger or weaker "than this, it vola- PART I. Acidum JYitricum. 39 tilizes at a lower temperature; and by losing more acid than water in the first case, and more water than acid in the second, it constantly approaches to the sp. gr. of 1-42, when its boiling point becomes stationary. As a nitric acid below the standard strength is necessarily employed in many chemical and pharmaceutical operations, it often becomes important to know the proportion of dry acid, and of acid of the standard strength of 1-5, contained in an acid of any given specific gravity. The following table, drawn up from experiments by Dr. tire, gives information on these points. Table, showing the Quantity of Nitric Acid, (sp. gr. 1-5,) and of Dry Nitric Acid, contained in 100 parts of the Acid at different Densities. Hyd. Dry Hyd. Dry Hyd. Dry Sp.Gr. Acid Acid Sp. Gr. Acid And \Sp. Gr. Acid Acid in 100 in 100 in 100 mlOO in 100 in 100 1-4189 75 59-775 1-2947 50 39-850 1-1403 25 19-925 1 4147 74 58-978 1-2887 49 39-053 1-1345 24 19-128 1 4107 73 58-181 1-2826 48 38-256 1-1286 23 18-331 1 4065 72 57-384 1-2765 47 37-459 1-1227 22 17-534 1 4023 71 56-587 1-2705 46 30-662 1-1168 21 16-737 1 397S 70 55-790 1-2644 45 35-865 1-1109 20 15-940 1 3945 69 54-993 1-2583 44 35-068 1-1051 19 15-143 1 38S2 68 54-196 1-2523 43 34-271 1-0993 18 14-346 1 3833 67 53-399 1-2402 42 33-474 1-0935 17 13-549 1 3783 66 52-002 1-2402 41 32-677 1-0878 16 12-752 1 3732 65 51-805 1-2341 40 31-880 1-0821 15 11-955 1 3681 (U 51-068 1-2277 39 31-083 1-0704 14 11-158 1 3630 63 50-211 1-2212 38 30-286 1-0708 13 10-361 1 3579 62 49-414 1-2148 37 29-489 1-0651 12 9-564 J 3529 61 48-617 1-2084 36 28-692 1-0595 11 8-767 1 3477 60 47-820 1-2019 35 27-895 1-0540 10 7-970 I 3127 59 47-023 1-1958 34 27-098 1-0485 9 7-173 1 3377 58 46-226 1-1895 33 26-301 1-0430 8 6-376 1 3323 57 45-429 1-1833 32 25-504 1-0375 7 5-579 1 3270 56 44-632 1-1770 31 24-707 1-0320 6 4-782 1 3216 55 43-835 1-1709 30 23-910 1-0267 5 3-985 1 3163 54 43-038 1-1048 29 23-113 1-0212 4 3-188 1 3110 53 42-241 ill-1587 28 22-316 1-0159 3 2-391 1 3056 52 41-444 |tl-1526 27 .'1-519 1-0106 2 1-594 1 3001 51 40-047 | 1-1465 26 20-722 10053 1 0-797 Nitric acid, when uncombined, is recognised by its dissolving copper with the production of red vapours, and by its forming nitre when saturated with potassa. When in the form of a nitrate, it is detected by its action on gold- leaf, after the addition of muriatic acid, in consequence of the evolution of chlorine; or it may be discovered, according to Dr. O'Shaughnessy, by heating the supposed nitrate in a test tube with a drop of sulphuric acid, and then adding a crystal of morphia. If nitric acid be present, it will be set free by the sulphuric acid, and reddened by the morphia. The same effect is produced by brucia; as also by commercial strychnia, on account of its con- taining brucia. To prevent all ambiguity, arising from the accidental pre- sence of nitric acid in the sulphuric acid employed, the operator should satisfy himself by a separate experiment, that the latter acid has no power to produce the characteristic colour with morphia. The most common impurities in nitric acid are sulphuric acid and chlo- rine ; the former derived from the acid used in the process, the latter from common salt, which is not an unfrequent impurity in nitre. They may be detected by adding a few drops of the solution of chloride of barium and of Hyd. Dry Sp. Gr. Acid Acid in 100 in 100 1-500 100 79-7001 1-498 99 78-903 1-49GO 98 78-106 1-4 940 97 77-309! 1-4910 90 76-512 1-4880 95 75-715 1-4850 94 74-918 1-4820 93 71-121 1-4790 92 73-3241 1-4760 91 72-527 1-4730 90 71-730 1-4700 89 70-933 1-4670 88 70-136; 1-4640 87 69-339 1-4600 80 68-542. 1-4570 85 67-745J 1-4530 84 66-948 1-4500 83 60-1551 1-4460 82 65-354! 1-4424 81 64-557J 1-4385 80 63-700 1-4346 79 62-963 1-4306 78 62-166' 1-4209 77 61-369; 1-4228 76 60-572; 40 Acidum JVitricum. part i. nitrate of silver to separate portions of the nitric acid, diluted with three or four parts of distilled water. If these precipitants should produce a clouo, the chloride will indicate sulphuric acid, and the nitrate, chlorine. I nese impurities may be separated by adding nitrate of silver in slign-excess, which will precipitate them as chloride and sulphate of silver, and tnen ois- tilling nearly to dryness in very clean vessels. The chlorine may be goi rid of, without the use of nitrate of silver, by distilling the commercial acid, and rejecting the first eighth or fourth which comes over, according to tne quality of the acid, and reserving that which passes subsequently, which is absolutely pure. (Ch. Barreswil.) The sulphuric acid may also be got rid of by distilling from a fresh portion of nitre. These impurities, how- ever, do not in the least affect the medicinal properties of the acid. Properties of the Nitric Acid of Commerce.—This has the general pro- perties of the strong acid. The Edinburgh acid of commerce is character- ized as colourless or nearly so, and, if diluted with distilled water, as preci- pitating but slightly, or not at all, with solution of nitrate of baryta, or of nitrate of silver. According to M. Lembert, the nitric acid of commerce sometimes contains iodine, probably derived from the native nitrate of soda, in which he found iodine. It may be detected by saturating the suspected acid with a carbonated alkali, pouring in a little clear solution of starch, and then adding a few drops of sulphuric acid. If iodine be present, the sul- phuric acid will set it free, and the starch solution will become blue. Composition. The officinal nitric acid consists of one eq. of dry acid 54, and one and a half eqs. of water 13-5 = 67-5. The dry acid consists of one eq. of nitrogen 14, and five eqs. of oxygen 40=54; or, in volumes, of one volume of nitrogen and two and a half volumes of oxygen, supposed to be condensed, to form nitric acid vapour, into one volume. The strongest pos- sible liquid acid consists, according to Thenard, of one eq. of dry acid and one of water, and has the sp. gr. 1-513. Mr. Phillips thinks the strongest acid does not exceed the density of 1-504. (See p. 36.) Incompatibles. Most of the substances with which nitric acid is incom- patible, may be inferred from what has been already said. It is incompati- ble with the sulphate of protoxide of iron, which it converts into the sul- phate of the sesquioxide, with salifiable bases, carbonates, and sulphurets, and with the acetates of lead and potassa. Medical Properties. Nitric acid is tonic and antiseptic. Largely diluted with water it forms a good acid drink in febrile diseases, especially typhus. In syphilis, and in the chronic hepatitis of India, it is highly extolled by Dr. Scott, formerly of Bombay. It has occasionally excited ptyalism. It cannot be depended upon as a remedy in syphilis, but is often an excellent adjuvant in worn-out constitutions, either to prepare the system for the use of mer- cury, or to lessen the effects of that metal on the constitution. Externally, it has been used with advantage as a lotion to ulcers, of the strength of about twelve minims to the pint of water. This practice originated with Sir Eve- rard Home, and is particularly applicable to those ulcers which are superficial and not disposed to cicatrize. In sloughing phagedeena, strong nitric acid is one of the best applications, applied by means of a piece of lint, tied round a small stick. As nitric acid dissolves both uric acid and the phosphates, it was supposed to be applicable to those cases of gravel in which the uric acid and the phosphates are mixed ; but experience has not confirmed its efficacy in such cases. Nevertheless, when the sabulous deposit depends upon certain states of disordered digestion, this acid may prove serviceable by restoring the tone of the stomach. The dose is from five to twenty minims in three fluidounces or more of water, given three or four times a day. The diluted acid is more convenient for prescription. part i. Acidum Nitricum.—Acidum Pyroligneum. 41 Nitric acid, in the state of vapour, is considered useful for destroying con- tagion, and hence is employed in purifying gaols, hospitals, ships, and other infected places. It is prepared for use by the extemporaneous decomposi- tion of nitre by sulphuric acid. Half an ounce of powdered nitre is put into a saucer, which is placed in an earthen dish containing heated sand. On the nitre, two drachms of sulphuric acid are then poured, and the nitric acid fumes are immediately disengaged. The quantities just indicated are con- sidered to be sufficient for disinfecting a cubic space of ten feet. Fumigation in this manner was first introduced by an English physician, Dr. Carmichael Smyth, who received from the British Parliament, for its discovery, a reward of five thousand pounds. It may well be doubted whether the nitric acid, as a disinfector, is at all comparable to chlorine ; and since the introduction of chlorinated lime, and solution of chlorinated soda as disinfecting agents, this gas has been brought into so manageable a form, that its use may very well supersede that of every other agent employed with similar intentions. (See Calx Chlorinata and Liquor Sodse Chlorinatse.) Properties as a Poison. Nitric acid, in its concentrated state, is one of the mineral poisons most frequently taken for the purpose of self-destruc- tion. Immediately after swallowing it, there are produced burning heat in the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, acute pain, disengagement of gas, abundant eructations, nausea, and hiccup. These effects are soon followed by repeated and excessive vomiting of matter having a peculiar odour and taste, tumefaction of the abdomen with exquisite tenderness, a feeling of coldness on the surface, horripilations, icy coldness of the extremities, small depressed pulse, horrible anxieties, continual tossings and contortions, and extreme thirst. The breath becomes extremely fetid, and the countenance exhibits a complete picture of suffering. The cases are almost uniformly fatal. The best remedies are repeated doses of magnesia as an antidote, mucilaginous drinks in large quantities, olive or almond oil in very large doses, emollient fomentations, and clysters. Until magnesia can be ob- tained, an immediate resort to a solution of soap in large amount will be proper. Nitric acid is used to prepare Acidum Phosphoricum Dilutum, Lond.; Antimonii et Potassee Tartras, U. S.; Antimonii Oxydum Nitromuriaticum, Dub.; Calomelas, Ed.; Ferri Ferrocyanuretum, U. S.; Ferri Oxidum Hy- dratum, U. S.; Ferri Oxidum Nigrum,Ed.; Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum, U. S., Lond.; Sublimatus Corrosivus, Ed.; Zinci Chloridum, U. S. In preparing Ferrugo (Ferri Oxidum Hydratum, U.S.), the Edinburgh Col- lege uses its nitric acid of commerce. Off.Prep, of Nitric Acid. Acidum Nitricum Dilutum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Acidum Nitromuriaticum, U. S., Dub.; Argenti Nitras, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Bismuthi Subnitras, U. S., Lond.; Spiritus iEtheris Nitrici, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Acidi Nitrici, Dub.; Unguentum Hydrar- gyri Nitratis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Off. Prep, of Nitric Acid of Commerce. Bismuthum Album, Ed. B. ACIDUM PYROLIGNEUM. Ed. Pyroligneous Acid. "Diluted acetic acid, obtained by the destructive distillation of wood." Ed. Acide pyro-ligneux, Fr.; Brenzliche Holzsiiure, Holzsessig, Germ.; Acido pyrolignico, Ital. Wood, when charred, yields many volatile products, among which are 5* 42 Acidum Pyroligneum. PART I. an acid liquor, empyreumatic oil, and tar containing creasote and some other proximate principles. When the carbonization is performed in close vessels, these products, which are lost in the ordinary process of charring, may be collected, and, at the same time, a large amount of charcoal is obtained. The carbonization of wood in close vessels, with a view to preserve the condensible products, was first put in practice by Mollerat in France. The apparatus employed atChoisy, near Paris, is thus described by Thenard. It consists of, 1st, a furnace with a movable top; 2d, a strong sheet-iron cylin- der, sufficiently capacious to contain a cord of wood, and furnished with a sheet-iron cover; 3d, a sheet-iron tube proceeding horizontally from the upper and lateral part of the cylinder to the distance of about a foot; 4th, a copper tube connected with the last, which is bent in such a manner as to plunge successively to the bottom of two casks filled with water, and, after rising out of the second, is bent back, and made to terminate in the furnace. At the bottom of each cask, the tube dilates into a ball, from the under part of which another tube proceeds, which, passing water-tight through the cask, terminates above a vessel, intended to receive the condensible products. The sheet-iron cylinder, being filled with wood, and closed by luting on its cover with fire-clay, is let down into the furnace by the help of a crane. The fire is then applied, and, when the process is completed, the cylinder is removed by the same means, to be replaced by another. During the carbonization, the volatile products are received by the tube; and those which are condensible, being the pyroligneous acid and tar, are condensed by the water in the casks, and collect in the lower bends of the tubes, from which they run into the several recipients; while the incondensible pro- ducts, being inflammable gases, are discharged into the furnace, where, by their combustion, they assist in maintaining the heat. Eight hundred pounds of wood afford, on an average, thirty-five gallons of acid liquor, weighing about three hundred pounds. This is the crude pyroligneous acid, sometimes called pyroligneous vine- gar. It is a dark brown liquid, having a strong smoky smell, and consists of acetic acid, diluted with more or less water, and holding in solution chiefly tar and empyreumatic oil. The Edinburgh officinal pyroligneous acid is this crude acid purified. Its purification is effected by repeated distillation, and then neutralizing it with lime or carbonate of soda. The acetate formed is decomposed by sulphuric acid, and the disengaged acetic acid repeatedly distilled, until it is obtained nearly colourless. Properties. The pyroligneous acid of the Edinburgh College is a pale straw-coloured liquid, having a strong acetic odour, scarcely empyreumatic if well prepared. Its density must be at least 1.034. One hundred minims of acid of this density neutralize fifty-three grains of carbonate of soda. The acid is often stronger than this. The Scotch acid has sometimes the density of 1-042, and the English, a specific gravity nearly as high as 1-050. (Christison, Ed. Dispensatory.) As tests of its freedom from cop- per, lead, and sulphuric acid, the Edinburgh College directs that it should be "unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen or solution of nitrate of baryta." Thus it appears that this new officinal of the Edinburgh College is nothing but acetic acid, whose density is not to be under 1-034, but may be higher. This want of precision in the specific gravity of the acid is objectionable. c !■ "T6-10°' glVen by the College, is indefensible. A complex product of distillation, characterized by the presence of an acid, may be designated by an unchemical name; but the convenience of such a nomenclature is no reason why the acid, when separated, should be called by the same part i. Acidum Pyroligneum.—Acidum Sulphuricum. 43 name, merely on account of its source. On the contrary, the nature of the acid and not its source should determine its appellation. Dr. Christison insists that the acetic acid of the London College is really pyroligneous acid, because it is prepared from acetate of soda, which is usually made from the acid obtained from wood by destructive distillation! Medical Properties and Uses. Pyroligneous acid, as defined by the Edinburgh College, is an acetic acid of medium strength, and, therefore, applicable to the general purposes of that acid. It is accordingly employed by the College for forming several acetates. Dr. Christison states that it is useful for preserving vegetable specimens, such as pulpy fruits, bulbs, and fresh leaves. Uses of the Crude Acid. The crude acid, in a dilute state, has been used as an application to gangrene and ill-conditioned ulcers. It acts on the principle of an antiseptic and stimulant, the former property being pro- bably chiefly due to the presence of creasote. Several cases in which it was successfully employed, are reported in a paper by Dr. T. Y. Simons, of Charleston, S. C, published in the fifth volume of the American Journal of Medical Sciences. The crude acid is advantageously applied to the preservation of animal food. Mr. William Ramsay (Edin. Phil. Journ., iii. 21) has made some interesting experiments on its use for that purpose. Herrings and other fish, simply dipped in the acid and afterwards dried in the shade, were effectually preserved, and, when eaten, were found very agreeable to the taste. Herrings slightly cured with salt, by being sprinkled with it for six hours, then drained, next immersed in pyroligneous acid for a few seconds, and afterwards dried in the shade for two months, were found by Mr. Ramsay to be of fine quality and flavour. Fresh beef, dipped in the acid in the summer season for the short space of a minute, was perfectly sweet in the following spring. Professor Silliman states, that one quart of the acid added to the common pickle for a barrel of hams, at the time they are laid down, will impart to them the smoked flavour as perfectly as if they had undergone the ordinary process of smoking. Off. Prep. Acetum Cantharidis, Ed.; Extractum Colchici Aceticum,.£7/.," Morphia? Acetas, Ed.; Plumbi Acetas, Ed.; Potassse Acetas, Ed. B. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM. U.S., Lond. Sulphuric Acid. "Sulphuric Acid of the specific gravity 1-845." U.S. "Acidum Sul- phuricum. Hujus pondus specificum est 1-845." Lond. Off.Syn. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM. Sulphuric acid of commerce. Ed.; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM VENALE. Dub. Oil of vitriol; Acide sulphurique, Fr.; Vitriolol, Schwefelsaure, Germ.; Acido solfo- rico, Ital.; Acido sulfurico, Span. Sulphuric acid is placed in the Materia Medica list of all the Pharmaco- poeias noticed in this work, as an acid to be obtained from the wholesale ma- nufacturer. Its officinal sp. gr., as prescribed in the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, is 1-845; in the Edinburgh, 1-840 or near it; and in the Dublin, 1-850. Preparation. Sulphuric acid is obtained by burning sulphur, mixed with one-eighth of its weight of nitre, over a stratum of water, contained in a chamber lined with sheet lead. If the sulphur were burned by itself, the product would be sulphurous acid, which contains only two-thirds as much oxygen as sulphuric acid. The object of the nitre is to furnish, by its 44 Acidum Sulphuricum. PART I. decomposition, the requisite additional quantity of oxygen. To understand the process, it is necessary to bear in mind that nitric acid contains five, sulphuric acid three, sulphurous acid two, nitric oxide two, hyponitrous acid three, and nitrous acid four equivalents of oxygen, combined with one equiv. of their several radicals. One equiv. of sulphur decomposes one equiv. of nitric acid of the nitre, and becomes one equiv. of sulphuric acid, which combines with the potassa of the nitre to form sulphate of potassa. In the mean time, the nitric acid, by furnishing three eqs. of oxygen to form the sulphuric acid, is converted into one equiv. of nitric oxide, which is evolved. This gas, by combining with two eqs. of the oxygen of the air, immediately becomes nitrous acid vapour, which diffuses itself through- out the leaden chamber. While these changes are taking place, the re- mainder of the sulphur is undergoing combustion, and filling the chamber with sulphurous acid gas. One equiv. of nitrous acid gas, and one equiv. of sulphurous acid gas, being thus intermingled in the chamber, react on each other, by the aid of moisture, so as to form a crystalline compound, consisting of one equiv. of sulphuric acid and one equiv. of hyponitrous acid, united with a portion of water. This compound falls into the water of the chamber, and instantly undergoes decomposition. The sulphuric acid dissolves in the water, and the hyponitrous acid, resolved, at the mo- ment of its extrication, into nitrous acid and nitric oxide, escapes with effer- vescence. The nitrous acid thus set free, as well as that reproduced by the nitric oxide uniting with the oxygen of the atmosphere, again react with sulphurous acid and humidity, and give rise to a second portion of the crystalline compound, which undergoes the same changes as the first. In this manner, the nitric oxide performs the part of a carrier of oxygen from the air of the chamber to the sulphurous acid, to convert the latter into sul- phuric acid. The residue of the combustion of the sulphur and nitre con- sists of sulphate of potassa, and is sold to the alum makers. Preparation on the Large Scale. The leaden chambers vary in size, but are generally from thirty to thirty-two feet square, and from sixteen to twenty feet high. The floor is slightly inclined to facilitate the drawing off of the acid, and covered to the depth of several inches with water. There are several modes of burning the mixture of sulphur and nitre, and otherwise conducting the process, but that pursued in France is as follows. Near one of the sides of the chamber, and about a. foot from its bottom, a cast iron tray is placed over a furnace, resting on the ground, its mouth opening ex- ternally, and its chimney having no communication with the chamber. On this tray the mixture is placed, being introduced by a square opening which may be shut by means of a sliding door, and the lower side of which is level with the surface of the tray. The door being shut, the fire is gradually raised in the furnace, whereby the sulphur is inflamed, and the products already spoken of are generated. When the combustion is over, the door is raised, and the sulphate of potassa removed. A fresh portion of the mix- ture is then placed on the tray, and the air of the chamber is renewed by opening a door and valve situated at its opposite side. Next, the several openings are closed, and the fire is renewed. These operations are repeated with fresh portions of the mixture, every three or four hours, until the water at the bottom of the chamber has reached the sp. gr. of about 1-5. It is then drawn off and transferred to leaden boilers, where it is boiled down until it has attained the sp. gr. of 1-7. At this density it begins to act on lead, and, therefore, its further concentration must be conducted in large glass or platinum retorts, where it is evaporated as long as water distils over. This water is slightly acid and is thrown back into the chamber. When the acid is fully concentrated, opaque grayish-white vapours arise, the PART I. Acidum Sulphuricum. 45 appearance of which indicates the completion of the process. The acid is allowed to cool, and is then transferred to large demijohns of green glass, called carboys, which, for greater security, are surrounded with straw or wicker-work, and packed in square boxes, or in flour-barrels sawed in two. The method of manufacturing this acid, as described by Mr. Parkes, is somewhat different. The mixture is usually spread on iron or leaden plates, resting on stands of lead within the chamber, placed at some distance from each other, and a foot or two above the surface of the water. The sulphur is then lighted by means of a hot iron, and the doors closed. If the sulphur and nitre be well mixed, the combustion will last for thirty or forty minutes; and in three hours from the time of lighting, the condensation of the gases having in that interval been completed, the doors are thrown open for from fifteen to thirty minutes, to admit fresh atmospheric air, and to allow time for the residuary nitrogen to escape, preparatory to the next burning. These operations are repeated with fresh charges of the mixture, every four hours, both night and day, until the water has attained the requisite acid impregnation, when it is transferred to leaden boilers, and otherwise treated as just explained. The quantity of the charge for each burning is determined by the size of the chamber, allowing one pound of the mixture for every three hundred cubic feet of atmospheric air which it may contain. As, in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the nitre is the most expensive material, many plans have been resorted to, for the purpose of obtaining the nitrous acid at a cheaper rate. One plan is to procure it by treating molasses or starch with common nitric acid. In this case, the manufacturer obtains oxalic acid as a collateral product, which serves to diminish his expenses. In some manufactories of sulphuric acid, nitrate of soda is substituted for nitre. The advantages of the former salt are its greater cheapness, and the circumstance of its containing a larger proportional quantity of nitric acid. A new method is now practised by some manufacturers for making sul- phuric acid. It consists in filling the leaden chamber with sulphurous acid by the ordinary combustion of sulphur, and afterwards admitting into it nitrous acid and steam. The nitrous acid is generated from a mixture of sulphuric acid with nitrate of potassa or nitrate of soda, placed in an iron pan, over the burning sulphur in the sulphur furnace, where the draught serves to conduct the nitrous acid fumes into the chamber. As, under these circumstances, sulphurous and nitrous acid, and the vapour of water are intermingled in the chamber, it follows that all the conditions necessary for generating the crystalline compound, already alluded to, are present. Of course, the rationale of this new process is the same as that already given. The details of this process, and a wood-cut of the sulphur-furnace, steam boiler, and chamber employed, are given by Dr. Pereira in his Materia Medica, Second Edition, p. 465. The above explanations relate to the mode of preparing common sulphu- ric acid ; but there is another kind known on the continent of Europe by the name of the fuming sulphuric acid of Nordhausen, so called from its pro- perties, and a place in Saxony where it is largely manufactured. This acid is obtained by distilling dried sulphate of iron in large stoneware retorts, heated to redness, and connected with receivers of glass or stoneware. The acid distils over, and sesquioxide of iron is left behind in the form of colco- thar. The process for making sulphuric acid by the combustion of sulphur with nitre was first mentioned by Lemery, and afterwards put in practice by an Eno-lish physician of the name of Ward. As practised by him the combus- tion was conducted in very large glass vessels. About the year 1746, the 46 Acidum Sulphuricum. PART I. great improvement of leaden chambers was introduced by Dr. Roebuck, an eminent physician of Birmingham, where the first apparatus of this kind was erected. In consequence of this improvement, the acid immediately fell to one-fourth of its former price, and was employed for many purposes for which previously it could not be used on account of its cost. Manufactories of sulphuric acid are in successful operation in most of the cities of the Union. These supply the entire demand of the United States. Properties. Sulphuric acid, or, as it is commonly called, oil of vitriol, is a dense, colourless, inodorous liquid, of an oleaginous appearance, and pos- sessing strong corrosive qualities. On the living fibre, it acts as a powerful caustic. Rubbed in small quantity between the fingers, it has an unctuous feel, in consequence of its dissolving the cuticle. In the liquid form, it al- ways contains water, which is essential to its existence in that form. When pure and as highly concentrated as possible, its sp. gr. is l-845,afluidounce weighing a small fraction over fourteen drachms. When of this specific gravity, it contains about 18 per cent, of water. Whenever its density exceeds this, the presence of sulphate of lead, or of some other impurity is indicated. The commercial acid is seldom of full strength. According to Mr. Phillips, it has generally a sp. gr. of only 1-8433, and contains 22 per cent, of water. The strong acid boils at 515°, and freezes at 15° below zero. When diluted, its boiling point is lowered. Whenofthesp.gr. 1-78, it freezes above 323; and hence it is hazardoas to manufacturers to keep an acid of that strength in glass vessels in cold weather, as they are liable to burst. With salifiable bases, it forms a numerous class of salts called sul- phates. It acts powerfully on organic bodies, whether vegetable or animal, depriving them of the elements of water, developing charcoal, and turning them black. A small piece of cork or wood dropped into the acid, will, on this principle, render it of a dark colour. When diluted with pure water, it ought to remain limpid, and, when heated sufficiently in a platinum spoon, the fixed residue should not exceed the four-hundredth part-of the acid em- ployed. When present in small quantities in solution, it is detected unerr- ingly by chloride of barium, which causes a precipitate of sulphate of baryta. The most usual impurities in it are the sulphates of potassa and lead, the former derived from the residue on the iron tray, the latter from the leaden boilers in which the acid is concentrated. Occasionally nitre is added to render dark samples of acid colourless. This addition will give rise to the impurity of sulphate of potassa. These impurities often amount to three or four per cent. The commercial acid cannot be expected to be absolutely pure; but, when properly manufactured, it ought not to contain more than one-fourth of one per cent, of impurity. The fixed impurities are discover- able by evaporating a portion of the suspected acid, when they will remain. If sulphate of lead be present, the acid will become turbid on dilution with an equal bulk of water. This impurity is not detected by sulphuretted hydrogen, unless the sulphuric acid be saturated with an alkali. If only a scanty muddiness arises, the acid is of good commercial quality. Other impurities occur in the commercial sulphuric acid. Nitrous acid is alvyays present in more or less amount. It may be detected by gently pouring a solution of green vitriol over the commercial acid in a tube; when the solution, at the line of contact, will acquire a deep red colour, due to the sesquioxidation of the iron by the nitrous acid. The commercial acid is not to be rejected on account of the indications of this test, unless it shows the presence of nitrous acid in unusual quantity. When sulphate of potassa is fraudulently introduced into the acid to increase its density, it may be de- tected by saturating the acid with ammonia and heating to redness in a cru- cible ; when the sulphate of ammonia will be expelled, and the sulphate of PART I. Acidum Sulphuricum. 47 potassa left behind. The dangerous impurity of arsenic is sometimes pre- sent in sulphuric acid. In consequence of the high price of Sicilian sul- phur, some of the English manufacturers at one time employed iron pyrites for the purpose of furnishing the necessary sulphurous acid in the manufac- ture of oil of vitriol. With this view the pyrites is subjected to combustion, and the sulphurous acid fumes are conducted into the leaden chamber. As the pyrites usually contained arsenic, it happened that the sulphurous acid fumes were accompanied by this metal, and thus the sulphuric acid became contaminated. From 22 to 35 grains of arsenious acid have been found in 20 fluidounces of oil of vitriol of English manufacture, by Dr. G. O. Rees and Mr. Watson. To detect this impurity, the acid, previously diluted with distilled water, must be examined by Marsh's test. (See Acidum Arseniosum.) According to Dupasquier, the arsenic is present in sulphu- ric acid in the form of arsenic acid, which may be completely separated by the sulphuret of potassium, sodium,or barium, but preferably by the last. The same chemist states, that tin is sometimes present in commercial sul- phuric acid, derived from the solderings of the leaden chambers. It may be discovered by sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a precipitate of sulphuret of tin, convertible by nitric acid into the white insoluble deutoxide of tin. If the precipitate should be the mixed sulphurets of arsenic and tin, the former is converted by nitric acid into arsenic acid and dissolved, and the latter into deutoxide and left. As sulphuric acid is often under the standard strength, it becomes im- portant to know how much hydrated sulphuric acid of the standard specific gravity, and of dry acid, is contained in an acid of any given density. The following table, drawn up by Dr. Ure, gives this information. Table of the Quantity of Hydrated Sulphuric Acid of Sp. Gr. 1-8485, and of Dry Acid, in 100 parts of Dilute Acid at Different Densities. Hyd. Dry Hyd. Dry Hyd. Dry Hyd. Dry Sp. Gr. Acid Acid Sp.Gr. Acid Acid Sp. Gr. Acid Acid Sp.Gr. Acid Arid in 100 in 100 in 100 in 100 in 100 in 100 in 100 in 100 1-8485 100 81-54 1-6520 75 61-15 1-3884 50 40-77 1-1792 25 20-38 1-8475 99 80-72 1-6415 74 60-34 1-3788 49 39-95 1 1706 24 19-57 1-8460 98 79-90 1-6321 73 59-52 1-3697 48 39-14 1 1626 23 18-75 1-8439 97 79-09 1-6204 72 58-71 1-3612 47 38-32 1 1549 22 17-94 1-8410 96 78-28 1-6090 71 "57-89 1-3530 46 37-51 1 1480 21 17-12 1-8376 95 77-46 1-5975 70 57-08 1-3440 45 36-69 1 1410 20 16-31 1-8336 94 76-65 1-5868 69 56-26 1-3345 44 35-88 1 1330 19 15-49 1-8290 93 75-83 1-5760 68 55-45 1-3255 43 35-06 1 1246 18 14-68 1-8233 92 75-02 1-5648 67 54-63 1-3165 42 34-25 1 1165 17 13-86 1-8179 91 74-20 1-5503 66 53-82 1 -3080 41 33-43 1 1090 16 13-05 1-8115 90 73-39 1-5390 65 53-00 1-2999 40 32-61 1 1019 15 12-23 1-8043 89 72-57 1-5280 64 52-18 1-2913 39 31-80 1 0953 14 11-41 1-7962 88 71-75 1-5170 63 51-37 1-2826 38 30-98 I 0887 13 10-60 1-7870 87 70-94 1-5066 62 50-55 1-2740 37 30-17 1 0809 12 9-78 1-7774 86 70-12 1-4960 61 49-74 1-2654 36 29-35 1 0743 11 8-97 1.7673 85 69-31 1-4860 60 48-92 1-2572 35 28-54 1 0682 10 8-15 1-7570 84 68-49 1-4760 59 48-11 1-2490 34 27-72 1 0614 9 7-34 1-7465 83 67-68 1-4660 58 47-29 1-2409 33 26-91 I 0544 8 6-52 17360 82 66-86 1-4560 57 46-48 1-2334 32 26-09 1 0477 7 5-71 1-7245 81 66-05 1-4460 56 45-66 1-2260 31 25-28 1 0405 6 4-89 1-7120 80 65-23 1-4360 55 44-85 1-2184 30 24-46 1 0336 5 4-08 1-6993 79 64-42 1-4265 54 44-03 1-2108 29 23-65 1 0268 4 3-26 1-6870 78 63-60 1-4170 53 43-22 1-2032 28 22-83 1 0206 3 1-636 1-6750 77 62-78 1-4073 52 42-40 1-1956 27 22-01 1 0140 2 1-63 1-6030 76 61-97 1-3977 51 41-58 1-1876 26 21-20 1 0074 1 01854 48 Acidum Sulphuricum. part i. The only way to obtain pure sulphuric acid is by distillation. Owing to the high boiling point of this acid, the operation is rather precarious, in con- sequence of the danger of the fracture of the retort, from the sudden concus- sions to which the boiling acid gives rise. Dr. Ure recommends that a retort of the capacity of from two to four quarts be used in distilling a pint of acid. This is connected, by means of a wide glass tube three or four feet long, with a receiver surrounded with cold water. All the vessels must be perfectly clean, and no luting is employed. The retort is then to be cautiously heated by a small furnace of charcoal. It is useful to put into the retort a few sharp-pointed pieces of glass, or slips of platinum foil, with the view of diminishing the shocks produced by the acid vapour. The dis- tilled product ought not to be collected until a dense grayish-white vapour is generated, the appearance of which is a sign that the pure concentrated acid is coming over. If this vapour should not immediately appear, it shows that the acid subjected to distillation is not of full strength, and the distilled product, until this point is attained, will be an acid water. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges give formulae for purifying the com- mercial acid. (See Acidum Sulphuricum Purum.) The strong acid is not convenient for medicinal use ; and hence a formula for a diluted acid is given in the United States Pharmacopoeia, following the example of the British Colleges. (See Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum.) Incompatibles. Sulphuric acid is incompatible with most metals ; with salifiable bases and their carbonates; with most salts, effecting their de- composition ; with alcohol, which it converts into ether; with all organic substances, which it chars or otherwise decomposes ; and with vegetable astringent solutions. Composition. The hydrated acid of the sp. gr. 1-845, consists of one , equivalent of dry acid 40, and one eq. of water 9=49; and the dry acid, of one eq. of sulphur 16, and three eqs. of oxygen 24=40. The ordinary commercial acid (sp. gr. 1-8433) consists, according to Mr. Phil- lips, of one eq. of dry acid, and one and a quarter eqs. of water; or four eqs. of the former to five of the latter. The hydrated acid of Nordhausen has a density as high as 1-89 or 1-9, and consists of two eqs. of dry acid, and one eq. of water. This acid is particularly adapted to the purpose of dissolving indigo for dyeing the Saxon blue. When heated gently in a retort, connected with a dry and refrigerated receiver, dry or anhydrous sul- phuric acid distils over, and the common protohydrated acid remains behind. The anhydrous acid under 64° is in the form of small colourless crystals, resembling asbestos. It is tenacious, difficult to cut, and may be moulded in the fingers like wax, without acting on them. Exposed to the air, it emits a thick opaque vapour of an acid smell. Above 64° it is a liquid, very nearly of the density of 2. . Medical Properties. Sulphuric acid is tonic, antiseptic, and refrigerant. Internally it is always administered in a dilute state. For its medical pro- perties in this form, the reader is referred to the title, Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum. Externally it is sometimes employed as a caustic ; but, from its liquid form, it is very inconvenient for that purpose. It is employed also as an ointment mixed with lard, in swellings of the knee-joint and other affections, in the proportion of a drachm to an ounce. (See Unguentum Acidi Sulphurici, Dub.) Charpie, corroded by it, forms a good application to gangrene. When mixed with saffron to the consistence of a ductile paste, Velpeau found this acid to form a convenient caustic, not liable to spread or to be absorbed, and giving rise to an eschar which is promptly detached. Toxicological Properties. The symptoms of poisoning by this acid are Acidum Sulphuricum.—Acidum Tartaricum. 49 the following:—Burning heat in the throat and stomach, extreme fetidness ot the breath, nausea and excessive vomitings of black or reddish matter excruciating pains in the bowels, difficulty of breathing, extreme anguish, a reeling of cold on the skin, great prostration, constant tossing, convulsions, and death. The intellectual faculties remain unimpaired. Frequently the uvula, palate, tonsils, and other parts of the fauces are covered with black or white sloughs. The treatment consists in the administration of large quantities of magnesia, or, if this be not at hand, of a solution of soap. The safety of the patient depends upon the greatest promptitude in the applica- tion of the antidotes. After the poison has been neutralized, mucilaginous and other drinks must be taken in large quantities. Uses in the Arts. Sulphuric acid is more used in the arts than any other acid. It is employed to obtain nearly all other acids; to extract soda from common salt; to make alum and sulphate of iron, when these salts command a good price, and the acid is cheap; to dissolve indigo ; to prepare skins for tanning; to prepare phosphorus, chlorinated lime or bleaching salt, sulphate of magnesia, &c. The arts of bleaching and dyeing cause its principal con- sumption. Sulphuric acid is used as a chemical agent, in one or more of the Pharma- copoeias commented on in this work, for preparing the following officinals: —-acetic, hydrocyanic, muriatic, and nitric acids; sulphuric ether and spirit of nitric ether; carbonic acid water and chlorine water; ferrocyanuret, hy- drated oxide, and black oxide of iron; mild and corrosive chlorides of mer- cury; solution of chlorinated soda; bicarbonates of potassa and soda; and phosphate of soda. Off. Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum,^^.,^/.,^^..; Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum, U. S., Lond.. Ed.; Acidum Sulphuricum Purum. Ed., Dub.; Ferri Sulphas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Hydrargyri Persul- phas, Dub.; Hydrargyri Sulphas Fiavus, U. S.; Magnesia? Sulphas Purum, Dub.; Oleum ^Ethereum, U.S., Lond:,- Potassa? Bisulphas, Lond., Ed.. Dub; Potassa? Sulphas, Lond.; Gluiniae Sulphas, U.S., Lond.,Ed.; Un- guentum Acidi Sulphurici, Dub.; Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum. U. S.; Zinci Sulphas, U. S., Dub. B. ACIDUM TARTARICUM. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tartaric Acid. Acide tartrique, Fr.; Weinsteinsilure, Germ.; Acido tartarico, Ital, Span. Tartaric acid is placed among the preparations by the British Colleges: but stands more properly, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, in the Ma- teria Medica list, as an article to be purchased from the manufacturing che- mist. It is extracted from tartar, a peculiar substance which concretes on the inside of wine-casks, being deposited there during the fermentation of the wine. Tartar, when purified and reduced to powder, is the cream of tartar of the shops, and is found to consist of two equivalents of tartaric acid and one of potassa. (See Potassse Bitartras.) Tartaric acid was first obtained, in a separate state, by Scheele in 1770. The process consists in saturating the excess of acid in the bitartrate of potassa or cream of tartar with carbonate of lime, and decomposing the resulting insoluble tartrate of lime by sulphuric acid, which precipitates in combination with the lime, and liberates the tartaric acid. The equivalent quantities are one eq. of bitartrate, and one of carbonate of lime. The pro- cess, when thus conducted, furnishes the second equivalent, or excess of 6 50 Acidum Tartaricum. PART I. acid only of the bitartrate. The other equivalent may be procured by de- composing the neutral tartrate of potassa, remaining in the solution after the precipitation of the tartrate of lime, by chloride of calcium in excess. By double decomposition, chloride of potassium will be formed in solution, and a second portion of tartrate of lime will precipitate, which may be de- composed by sulphuric acid in the same manner as the first portion. The process, when thus conducted, will furnish twice as much tartaric acid, as when the excess of acid only is saturated and set free. Preparation on the Large Scale. The mode of obtaining this acid, on the large scale, is as follows." Mix intimately, by grinding in a mortar and pass- ing through a sieve, 100 parts of bitartrate of potassa ;cream of tartar) with 26| parts of pulverized chalk. Throw the mixture, by spoonfuls, into 8 or 10 times its weight of boiling water, waiting until the effervescence has ceased, before every fresh addition. Examine the solution by litmus paper, and if not neutral, make it so by the addition of a little chalk. Wash the tartrate of lime with abundance of cold water, and add to it a quantity of sul- phuric acid equal in weight to the chalk employed, and diluted with from 10 to 16 times its weight of water. Agitate the mixture frequently for 24 hours, and then test a small portion of the clear solution for sulphuric acid by acetate of lead. A precipitate will be formed, which is either tartrate of lead, or a mixture of tartrate and sulphate of lead. If the former, it will dissolve en- tirely in dilute nitric acid; if the latter, only partially, as the sulphate of lead is insoluble in that acid. If a slight excess of sulphuric acid should be indi- cated, it is of no consequence; but if the excess be considerable, it must be removed by a fresh addition of chalk. On the other hand, an excess of tartrate of lime, which interferes very much with the crystallization of the tartaric acid, must be decomposed by adding a small quantity of sulphuric acid. The clear liquor, separated from the sulphate of lime, is concentrated by evaporation to the consistence of syrup, and allowed to crystallize. Re- peated solutions and crystallizations are necessary to get the crystals white. The mode of ascertaining the quantity of chalk consumed, is to weigh out more than is necessary in the process, and, after the saturation has been com- pleted, to weigh what is left. If the neutral tartrate of potassa be also con- verted into tartrate of lime, in the manner already explained, the quantity of sulphuric acid for decomposition must be doubled. Sometimes the bitartrate of potassa is decomposed by lime, in which case the whole of the tartaric acid present is converted into tartrate of lime at one operation; but the caustic potassa at the same time liberated, renders this process ineligible, by dis- solving the tartrate of lime formed, and preventing it from precipitating. The reader is now prepared to understand the formula? of the British Colleges. In that of the London College, the Imperial measure is of course employed. "Take of bitartrate of potassa four pounds; boiling distilled water two gallons and a half; prepared chalk twenty-five ounces and six drachms; diluted sulphuric acid seven pints and seventeen fluidounces; hydrochloric acid twenty-six and a half fluidounces, or as much as may be sufficient. Boil the bitartrate of potassa with two gallons of the distilled water, and add, by degrees, the half of the chalk; when the effervescence is over, add the remainder of the chalk, previously dissolved in the hydrochloric acid, diluted with four pints of the distilled water. Then set aside that the tartrate of lime may subside, and, having poured off the liquor, wash the tartrate fre- quently with distilled water until it is free from taste. Then pour on the diluted sulphuric acid, and boil for a quarter of an hour. Having strained the liquor, evaporate it by a gentle heat, that crystals may form. These, in PART I. Acidum Tartaricum. 51 order to be pure, must be dissolved in water two or three times, and the solution as often strained, evaporated, and set aside." Lond. The formula of the Edinburgh College is substantially the same as that of the London. The following is the Dublin formula. " Take of bitartrate of potassa, reduced to powder, ten parts; prepared chalk, four parts; sulphuric acid,seven parts; water, one hundred and twenty parts. Mix the bitartrate of potassa with one hundred parts of hot water, and gradually add the prepared chalk; then, as soon as the effervescence shall have ceased, pour off the supernatant liquor. Wash the residual tar- trate of lime, until it becomes tasteless. Into the clear decanted liquor, drop as much of the water of muriate of lime as may be sufficient to throw down the tartrate of lime. Let this also be washed with water, and mixed with the former deposit. Then add the sulphuric acid, diluted with twenty parts of water, and, employing frequent agitation, digest the mixture with a me- dium heat during three days. Pour off the supernatant acid fluid, and wash out the acid from the sediment. Let the liquors, including the first acid liquor and the washings, evaporate with a gentle heat to the point of crystal- lization. Let the crystals, purified by repeated solutions and crystallizations, be kept in a stopped glass vessel." Dub. The quantity of chalk directed in the Dublin formula is excessive, being two-fifths of the weight of the bitartrate ; whereas, by theory, a portion only one-fourth the weight of the latter is required; and making every allowance for impurities, one-third would be amply sufficient. The plan of dissolving the bitartrate in boiling water, and then adding the chalk, is not an eligible one. It is better to mix them together according to the plan given by Dr. Henry, as described in the beginning of this article, and to throw the mix- ture by spoonfuls at a time into boiling water. In this way Jess water is necessary; and less excess of chalk is required, as less of it escapes decom- position. Instead of prescribing the quantity of chalk, it would, perhaps, have been an improvement, if the Colleges had directed a quantity "suffi- cient for saturation." The London and Edinburgh Colleges have very pro- perly followed the example of the Dublin College, in directing the decom- position of the neutral tartrate of potassa by means of a solution of chloride of calcium. Properties. Tartaric acid is a white crystallized solid, in the form of irre- gular six-sided prisms. Sometimes two opposite sides of the prism become very much enlarged, so as to cause the crystals to present the appearance of tables. As found in the shops, it is in the form of a fine white powder, formed by pulverizing the crystals. It is unalterable in the air, and possesses a strong acid taste, which becomes agreeable when the acid is sufficiently diluted with water. It is soluble in five or six times its weight of cold, and twice its weight of boiling water. It is also soluble in alcohol. A weak solution undergoes spontaneous decomposition by keeping, becoming covered with a mouldy pellicle. In the form of crystals, it always contains combined water, from which it cannot be separated without the substitution of a base. In uniting with bases, it has a remarkable tendency to form double salts, several of which constitute important medicines. When subjected to heat it gives rise to three peculiar acids, described in systematic chemical works. It is distinguished from all other acids by forming a precipitate, consisting of bitartrate of potassa, when added to a neutral salt of that alkali. Its most usual impurity is sulphuric acid, which may be detected by the solution affording, with acetate of lead, a precipitate only partially soluble in nitric acid. When incinerated with red oxide of mercury, it leaves no residuum, or a mere trace. 52 Acidum Tartaricum.—Aconitum. part I. Tartaric acid is incompatible with salifiable bases and their carbonates; with salts of potassa, with which it produces a crystalline precipitate of bitar- trate ; and with the salts of lime and of lead, with which it also forms preci- pitates. It consists, when dry, of four eqs. of carbon 24, two of hydrogen 2, and five of oxygen 40=66; and, when crystallized, of one eq. of dry acid 66, and one of water 9=75. Medical Properties. Tartaric acid, being cheaper than citric acid, forms, when dissolved in water and sweetened, a good substitute for lemonade. It is very much used in medicine to form acid refrigerant drinks and efferves- cing draughts. It is also employed in making soda powders, a preparation which has been made officinal in the last Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, under the name of Pulveres Effervescentes. Tartaric acid is a constituent in the gentle aperient called Seidlitz powders. These consist of a mixture of two drachms of tartrate of potassa and soda (Rochelle salt), and two scruples of bicarbonate of soda, put up in a white paper, and thirty-five grains of tar- taric acid contained in a blue one. The contents of the white paper are dis- solved in about half a pint of water, to which those of the blue paper are added; and the whole is taken in a state of effervescence. The excess of acid renders the medicine more pleasant, without injuring its aperient qua- lity. This acid, dried by a gentle heat, and then mixed in due proportion with bicarbonate of soda, forms a good effervescing powder, a teaspoonful of which, stirred into a tumbler of water, forms the dose. The mixture must be kept in well-stopped vials. The neutralizing power of tartaric acid is about the same as that of citric acid. Off. Prep. Pulveres Effervescentes, Ed.; Trochisci Acidi Tartarici, Ed. ACONITUM. U.S., Ed. Aconite. "The leaves of Aconitum Napellus and of Aconitum paniculatum (De Candolle)." U.S. "Leaves of Aconitum Napellus." Ed. Off. Syn. ACONITI FOLIA. ACONITI RADIX. Aconitum pani- culatum. Folia. Radix. Lond.; ACONITUM PANICULATUM. Folia. Dub. Aconit, Fr.; Eisenlmt, Monchskappe, Germ.; Aconito, Napello, Ital; Aconito, Span. Aconitum. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranunculacea?. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five, the highest arched. Nectaries two, peduncled, recurved. Pods three or five. Willd. The plants belonging to this genus are herbaceous, with divided leaves, and violet or yellow flowers, disposed in spikes, racemes, or panicles. In the French Codex three species are recognised as officinal, A. Anthora, A. Cammarum, and A. Napellus. The Edinburgh College adopts only A. Napellus, which was erroneously supposed to be the plant employed by Storck, who introduced the medicine into notice. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia at present recognises A. Napellus and A. paniculatum of De Candolle, the London and Dublin Colleges only the latter. De Candolle, in his Prodro- mus, divides the genus Aconitum into four sections—Anthora, Lycoctonum, Cammarum, and Napellus. A. paniculatum belongs to the third section; and the particular plant believed to have been used by Storck, is a variety of this species, distinguished in the Prodromus as the Stbrckianum. A. neomontanum of Willdenow, for which the honour has been generally claimed, is, according to Geiger, possessed of little acrimony, and is there- fore very different from Storck's plant, which is represented as extraordina- PART I. Aconitum. 53 rily acrid. It is, however, of little consequence which was used by Storck; as most of the species possess similar virtues, and one is frequently substi- tuted for another in the shops. Geiger states that he has found none equal to A. Napellus in acrimony; and this may, therefore, be considered as the most efficacious. A. uncinatum is the only species indigenous in this country. Most of the others are natives of the Alpine regions of Europe and Siberia. Those employed in medicine appear to be indiscriminately called by English writers wolfsbane or monkshood. Aconitum Napellus. Linn. Flor. Suec. ed. 1755, p. 186.—A. neuber- gense. De Cand. Prodrom. i. 62. — A. variabile neubergense. Hayne, Darstel. und Beschreib. &c, xii. 14. This is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a turnip-shaped or fusiform root, seldom exceeding at top the thickness of the finger, three or four inches or more in length, brownish externally, whitish and fleshy within, and sending forth numerous long, thick, fleshy fibres. When the plant is in full growth, there are usually two roots joined together, of which the older is dark brown and supports the stem, while the younger is of a light yellowish-brown, and is destined to furnish the stem of the following year. The stem is erect, round, smooth, leafy, usually simple, and from two to six or even eight feet high. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, divided almost to the base, from two to four inches in diameter, deep green upon their upper surface, light green beneath, somewhat rigid, and more or less smooth and shining on both sides. Those on the lower part of the stem have long footstalks and five or seven divisions; the upper, short footstalks and three or five divisions. The divisions are wedge-form, with two or three lobes, which extend nearly or quite to the middle. The lobes are cleft or toothed, and the lacinia? or teeth are linear or linear-lanceolate and pointed. The flowers are of a dark violet-blue colour, large and beautiful, and are borne at the summit of the stem upon a thick, simple, straight, erect, spike-like raceme, beneath which, in the cultivated plant, several smaller racemes arise from the axils of the upper leaves. Though without calyx, they have two small calycinal stipules, situated on the peduncle within a few lines of the flower. The petals are five, the upper helmet-shaped and beaked, nearly hemispherical, open or closed, the two lateral roundish and internally hairy, the two lower oblong-oval. They enclose two pediceled nectaries, of which the spur is capitate, and the lip bifid and revolute. The fruit consists of three, four, or five podlike capsules. The plant is abundant in the mountain forests of France, Switzerland, and Germany. It is also cultivated in the gardens of Europe, and has been introduced into this country as an ornamental flower. All parts of it are acrid and poisonous. The leaves are usually employed, and should be collected when the flowers begin to appear, or shortly before. In the last edition of the London Pharmacopoeia, the root also has been adopted as offi- cinal. According to Dr. Turnbull, this is by far the most active part of the plant. It should be gathered in the spring, before the leaves appear. Properties. The fresh leaves have a faint narcotic odour, which is most sensible when they are rubbed. Their taste is at first bitterish and herba- ceous, afterwards burning and acrid, and attended with a feeling of numb- ness and tingling on the inside of the lips, tongue, and fauces, which is very durable, lasting sometimes many hours. W'hen long chewed, they inflame the tongue. The dried leaves have a similar taste, but the acrid impression commences later. Their sensible properties and medicinal activity are impaired by long keeping. They should be of a green colour, and free from mustiness. The root has the same effect upon the mouth and fauces. 6* 54 Aconitum. PART I. It shrinks much in drying, and assumes a darker colour. Those parcels, whether of leaves or roots, should always be rejected, which are destitute of acrimony. The analysis of aconite, though attempted by several chem- ists, has not been satisfactorily accomplished. Bucholz obtained from the fresh herb of A. neomontanum, resin, wax, gum, albumen, extractive, hg- nin, malate and citrate of lime and other saline matters, besides 83-33 per cent, of water. During the bruising of the herb, he experienced headache, vertigo, &c, though water distilled from it produced no poisonous effect. It has been rendered probable by the researches of Geiger and Hesse, that there are two active principles in aconite, one easily destructible, upon which the acrimony depends, the other less acrid, having alkaline proper- ties, and capable of exerting a powerful narcotic influence over the system. For the latter the name of aconilin or aconitia has been proposed. Hesse obtained it from the dried leaves by a process similar to that employed in procuring atropia. (See Belladonna.) The London College has adopted it as officinal, and given a process for its preparation under the name of aconitina. (See Aconitina, in the second part of this work.) Peschier dis- covered a peculiar acid in aconite, which he called aconitic acid. Medical Properties and Uses. Aconite was well known to the ancients as a powerful poison, but was first employed as a medicine by Baron Storck, of Vienna, whose experiments with it were published in the year 1762. In moderate doses, it has been said to excite the circulation, and occasionally to increase the perspiratory and urinary discharge, while it exercises con- siderable influence over the nervous system. Recent writers, however, deny that it possesses any decided diaphoretic or diuretic properties. Ac- cording to Dr. Fleming, it is a powerful sedative to the nervous system, reducing also the force of the circulation. In moderate doses, it produces warmth in the stomach and sometimes nausea, general warmth of the body, numbness and tingling in the lips and fingers, muscular weakness, dimi- nished force and frequency of pulse, and diminished frequency of respira- tion. From larger doses, all these effects are experienced in an increased de- gree. The stomach is more nauseated; the numbness and tingling extend over the body; headache, vertigo, and dimness of vision are induced; the patient complains occasionally of severe neuralgic pains; the pulse, respira- tion, and muscular strength are greatly reduced; and a state of general prostration may be induced, from which the patient may not quite recover in less than two or three days. The effects of remedial doses begin to be felt in twenty or thirty minutes, are at the height in an hour or two, and continue with little abatement from three to five hours. In poisonous doses, besides the characteristic tingling in the mouth and elsewhere, it occasions burning heat of the oesophagus and stomach, thirst, violent nausea, vomiting, purging, severe gastric and intestinal spasms, headache, dimness of vision with contracted or expanded pupil, numbness or paralysis of the limbs, diminished sensibility in general, stiffness or spasm of the muscles, great prostration of strength, pallid countenance, cold extremities, an extremely feeble pulse, and death in a few hours, sometimes preceded by delirium, stupor, or convulsions. All these effects are not experienced in every case ; but there is no one of them which has not been recorded as having occurred in one or more instances. Dissection reveals inflammation of the stomach and bowels, and engorgement of the brain and lungs. Life may usually be saved by a timely and thorough evacuation of the stomach, and the use of stimulant remedies internally and externally; and it is wonderful how rapidly the patient passes from a state of imminent danger to perfect health. Pereira states that, when dogs are opened immediately after death from PART I. Aconitum.—Adeps. 55 aconite, no pulsations of the heart are visible. Applied to the skin, aconite is said to occasion a feeling of heat and prickling or tingling followed by numbness (Turnbull), and, if in contact with a wound, produces its peculiar constitutional effects. Applied to the eye, it causes contraction of the pupil. (Pereira.) In relation to its mode of action, aconite appears to be locally irritant, and, at the same time, entering the system, to operate powerfully on the brain, spinal marrow, and nerves, directly diminishing their power, and thus producing, to a greater or less extent, paralysis both of sensation and motion. The heart feels also this paralyzing influence, and hence proceeds the great depression of the pulse under the full action of the medicine. Aconite has been employed in rheumatism, neuralgia, gout, scrofula, phthisis, secondary syphilis, scirrhus and cancer, certain cutaneous diseases, amaurosis, paralysis, epilepsy, intermittent fever, dropsies, and other com- plaints. It has long enjoyed, in Germany, a high reputation as a remedy in rheumatism ; and has recently come into great vogue elsewhere in the treatment of that disease, especially in its chronic and neuralgic forms. By some practitioners it is considered as one of the most effectual remedies in neuralgia, in which it is used both internally and as a local application. Dr. Fleming considers it highly useful as an antiphlogistic remedy, and espe- cially applicable to cases of Active cerebral congestion or inflammation; while it is contra-indicated in the headache of ana?mia, and in all cases attended with a torpid or paralytic condition of the muscular system. It may be administered in powder, extract, or tincture. The dose of the pow- dered leaves is one or two grains, of the extract from half a grain to a grain, of the tincture twenty or thirty drops, to be repeated twice or three times a day, and gradually increased till the effects of the medicine are experienced. Dr. Fleming recommends a tincture made from the root, carefully dried and powdered, by macerating sixteen ounces with a pint of alcohol for four days, then placing the mixture in a percolator, and adding alcohol until twenty- four fluidounces of tincture are obtained. Of this, five minims may be given three times a day, and gradually increased till its effects become obvious. Few patients will bear more than ten minims. Aconite may be used exter- nally in the form of the strong tincture just referred to, of extract mixed with lard, of a plaster made with the extract, or of aconitina. (See Extrac- tum Aconiti, Extractum Aconili Alcoholicum, and Aconitina.) The tinc- ture may be applied by means of a piece of soft sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Off. Prep. Aconitina, Lond.; Extractum Aconiti, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Extract. Aconiti Alcoholicum, U. S., Ed.; Tinctura Aconiti, U. S. W. ADEPS. U.S., Lond. Lard. " The prepared fat of Sus Scrofa, free from saline matter." U. S. " Sus Scrofa. Adeps prseparatus." Lond. Off. Syn. AXUNGIA. Fat of Sus Scrofa. Ed.; ADEPS SUILLUS PRiEPARATUS. Dub. Axonge, Graissc, Saindoux, Fr.; Schweineschmalz, Germ.; Grasso di porco, Lardo, Ital.; Manteca de puerco, Lardo, Span. Lard is the prepared fat of the hog. The Dublin College gives a process for its preparation; but, as in this country it is purchased by the druggists already prepared, the introduction of any officinal directions in our Pharma- 56 Adeps. PART I. copceia was deemed superfluous. The adipose matter of the omentum and mesentery, and that which surrounds the kidneys, are usually employed; though the subcutaneous fat is said to afford lard of a firmer consistence, in the crude state it contains membranes and vessels, and is more or less con- taminated with blood, from all which it must be freed before it can be tit for use. For this purpose, the fat, having been deprived, as far as possible, by the hand, of membranous matter, is cut into pieces, washed with water till the liquor ceases to be coloured, and then melted, usually with a small portion of water, in a copper or iron vessel, over a slow fire. The heat is continued till all the moisture is evaporated, which may be known by the transparency of the melted fat, and the absence of crepitation when a small portion of it is thrown into the fire. Care should be taken that the heat is not too great; as otherwise the lard might be partially decomposed, acquire a yellow colour, and become acrid. The process is completed by straining the fluid through linen, and pouring it into suitable vessels, in which it concretes upon cooling. Lard, as offered for sale, often contains common salt, which renders it unfit for pharmaceutic purposes. To free it from this, the Dublin College directs that it be melted with twice its weight of boiling water, the mixture well agitated and set aside to cool, and the fat then separated. Properties. Lard is white, inodorous, with little taste, of a soft consistence. at ordinary temperatures, fusible at about 100°€\, insoluble in Avater, partially soluble in alcohol, more so in ether and the volatile oils, dissolved and de- composed by the stronger acids, and converted into soap by union with the alkalies. When melted, it readily unites with wax and resins. According to Braconnot, it contains, in 100 parts, 62 of olein or the liquid principle of oils, and 38 of stearin or the concrete principle. But M. Le Canu ascertained, that the stearin of Braconnot consists of two distinct substances, differing in fusibility and solubility. For the least fusible of these he retained the name of stearin, and to the other applied that of margarin, from its resemblance to the principle of the same name in vegetable oils. Most fats and oils, of animal origin, are composed of these ingredients, upon the relative propor- tion of which their consistence respectively depends. The liquid and concrete principles may be obtained separate by the action of boiling alcohol, which, on cooling, deposits the latter, and yields the former upon evaporation. Another method is to compress fat, or oil congealed by cold, between the folds of bibulous paper. The olein is absorbed by the paper, and may be separated by compression underwater; the stearin and margarin remain. Olein, originally denominated eldin, resembles oil in appearance, is colour- less when pure, congeals at 20° F., has little odour and a sweetish taste, is insoluble in water, but soluble in boiling alcohol, and consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The olein of lard has recently been introduced ex- tensively into use for burning in lamps. Stearin is white, concrete, of a crystalline appearance like spermaceti, pulverizable, fusible at about 143°, soluble in alcohol and boiling ether, inso- luble in cold ether and in water, and composed, like the former principle, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It may be separated from the concrete matter of lard by treating it with cold ether so long as anything is dis- solved. The stearin is left behind, and the ethereal solution yields marga- rin by evaporation. The margarin of animal fats resembles stearin very closely, differing only in its melting point, which is about 118D,and in being soluble in cold ether. Very good candles are now made out of the concrete constituents of lard. Exposed to the air, lard absorbs oxygen and becomes rancid. It should, therefore, be kept in well closed vessels, or procured fresh when wanted for PART I. Alcohol. 57 use. In the rancid state, it is irritating to the skin, and'sometimes exercises an injurious reaction on substances mixed with it. Thus, the ointment of iodide of potassium, which is white when prepared with fresh lard, is said to be more or less yellow when the lard employed is rancid. Medical Properties and Uses. Lard is emollient, and is occasionally employed by itself in frictions, or in connexion with poultices to preserve their soft consistence; but its chief use is in pharmacy as an ingredient ol ointments and cerates. It is frequently added to laxative enemata. W. ALCOHOL. U.S. Alcohol. " Rectified spirit of the specific gravity 0-835." U. S. Off. Syn. SPIRITUS RECTIFICATUS. Lond., Ed., Dub. Spirit of wine; Alcool, Esprit de vin, Fr.; Rectificirter Weingeist, Germ.; Alcoole, Acquavite rettificata, Ital; Alcohol, Espritu rectificado de vino, Span. SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI. Lond. Brandy. " Spiritus. E vino Gallico deslillatus." Lond. Eau de vie, Fr.; Brantwein, Germ.; Acquavite, Ital.; Aqua ardiente, Span. The Pharmacopoeias have recognised several pharmaceutical strengths of the liquid, which, in its pure state, is known to the chemist under the name of alcohol. The British Colleges have adopted three strengths of this sub- stance; while the United States Pharmacopoeia has admitted only two. The following table presents a view of the names and strengths of the alcohol according to these different authorities ; assuming those spirits to be identi- cal, the specific gravities of which approach to equality. 1 U.S. | Lond. Ed. Dub. Highest off. ( strength. ( ------------- „ ,. , S 'Alcohol. Medium do. < c ■ no,c ) ,Sp. gr. 0-835. T ^ , ( Alcohol Dilutum. Lowest do. < c n nor I |Sp. gr. 0-935. Alcohol. Sp. gr. 0-815. Spiritus Rectifi-catus. Sp. gr. 0-838. Spiritus Tenuior. Sp. gr. 0-920. Alcohol. Sp.gr. 0-794-6. Spiritus Rectifi-catus. Sp. gr. 0-838. Spiritus Tenuior. Sp. gr. 0-912. Alcohol Sp. gr. 0-810. Spiritus Rectifi-catus. Sp. gr. 0-840. Spiritus Tenuior. Sp. gr. 0-919 The London College, in its revised Pharmacopoeia for 1836, has in- troduced brandy, under the officinal name of Spiritus Vini Gallici. As this is an alcoholic liquor, and may be considered as a fourth form of alco- hol recognised by that College, its officinal title has been associated with "Alcohol," in forming the heading of this article. By the table it is perceived that the officinal "Alcohol" of the United States Pharmacopoeia is a rectified spirit of the sp.gr. 0-835; while the spirit, under the same officinal name, of the British Colleges is much stronger. It is certainly to be regretted that the same name has been ap- plied to the substance of such different strengths, as it leads to confusion. Our principal object, however, in this article, is to describe the alcohol of the United States Pharmacopoeia, corresponding to the British Spiritus Rectificatus; and we shall introduce incidentally our notice of brandy, and of the stronger spirit of the British Colleges, also called alcohol. The 58 Alcohol. PART I. Alcohol Dilutum, and the corresponding preparations of the British Phar- macopoeias, will be considered in their appropriate place in the second part of this work. (See Alcohol Dilutum.) Alcohol, in the chemical sense, is a peculiar liquid, generated for the most part in vegetable juices and infusions by a peculiar fermentation, called the vinous or alcoholic. The liquids which have undergone it are called vinous liquors, and are of various kinds. Thus, the fermented juice of the grape is called wine; of the apple, cider; and the fermented infusion of malt, beer. With regard to the nature of the liquids susceptible of the vinous ferment- ation, one general character prevails, however various they may be in other respects; that, namely, of containing sugar in some form or other. It is found further, that, after they have undergone the vinous fermentation, the sugar they contained has, either wholly or in part, disappeared, and that the onfy new products are alcohol, which remains in the liquid, and carbonic acid, which escapes during the process; and these, when taken together, are found to be equal in weight to the sugar lost. It is hence inferred, that sugar is the subject-matter of the changes that occur during the vinous fer- mentation, and that it is resolved into alcohol and carbonic acid. Additional facts in support of this view, will be adduced under the head of the com- position of alcohol. Sugar, however, Avill not undergo the vinous fermentation by itself; but requires to be dissolved in water, subjected to the influence of a ferment, and kept at a certain temperature. Accordingly, sugar, water, the presence of a ferment, and the maintenance of an adequate temperature, may be deemed the pre-requisites of the vinous fermentation. The water acts by giving fluidity, and the ferment and temperature operate by commencing and main- taining the chemical changes. The precise manner in which the ferment operates in commencing the reaction is not known. Neither has it been certainly ascertained whether it is a peculiar vegetable principle, or whether a number of distinct vegetable substances are capable of acting in a similar way. As a general rule, substances containing nitrogen, such as gluten, albumen, caseous matter, &c, possess the property of inducing the vinous fermentation. The proper temperature ranges from 60° to 90°. Certain vegetable infusions, as those of potatoes and rice, though con- sisting almost entirely of starch, are, nevertheless, capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation, and form seeming exceptions to the rule, that sugar is the only substance susceptible of this fermentation. The apparent excep- tion is explained by the circumstance, that starch is susceptible of a spon- taneous change which converts it into sugar. How this change takes place is not well known, but it is designated by some authors as the saccharine fermentation. Thus Kirchoff proved, that if a mixture of gluten from flour, and starch from potatoes, be put into hot water, the starch will be converted into sugar. When, therefore, starch is apparently converted into alcohol by fermentation, it is supposed that during the change it passes throuo-h the intermediate state of sugar. Alcohol, being the product of the vinous fermentation, necessarily exists in all vinous liquors, and may be obtained from them by distillation. For- merly it was supposed that these liquors did not contain alcohol, but were merely capable of furnishing it, in consequence of a new arrangement of their ultimate constituents, the result of the heat applied. Brande, however, dis- proved this idea, by showing that alcohol may be obtained from all vinous liquors without the application of heat, and, therefore, must pre-exist in them. His method consists in precipitating the acid and colouring matter PART I. Alcohol. 59 from each vinous liquor by subacetate of lead, and separating the water by carbonate of potassa. Gay-Lussac and Donovan have proved the same fact. According to the former, litharge, in fine powder, is the best agent for precipitating the colouring matter. In vinous liquors, the alcohol is diluted with abundance of water, and asso- ciated with colouring matter, volatile oil, extractive, and various acids and salts. In purifying it we take advantage of its volatility, which enables us to separate it by distillation, combined with some of the principles of the vinous liquor employed, and more or less water. The distilled product of vinous liquors forms the different varieties of ardent spirits of commerce. When obtained from wine, it is called brandy; from fermented molasses, rum; from cider, malted barley, or rye, whisky; from malted barley and rye-meal with hops, and rectified from juniper berries, Holland gin; from malted barley, rye, or potatoes, rectified with turpentine, common gin; and from fermented rice, arrack. These spirits are of different strengths, that is, contain different proportions of alcohol, and have various peculiarities by which they are distinguished by the taste. Their strength is accurately judged of by the specific gravity, which is always less in proportion as their concentration is greater. When they have the sp.gr. of 0-920, they are desig- nated in commerce by the term proof spirit. If lighter than this, they are said to be above proof; if heavier, below proof; and the per centage of water, or of spirit of 0-825, necessary to be added to any sample of spirit to bring it to the standard of proof spirit, indicates the number of degrees the given sample is above or below proof. Thus, if 100 volumes of a spirit require 10 volumes of water to reduce it to proof spirit, it is said to be "10 over proof." On the other hand, if 100 volumes of a spirit require 10 volumes of a spirit of 0*825 to raise it to proof, the sample is said to be " 10 under proof." Proof spirit is still very far from being pure ; being a dilute alcohol, con- taining about half its weight of water, together with a peculiar oil and other foreign matters. It may be further purified and strengthened by redistilla- tion, or rectification as it is called. Whisky is the spirit usually employed for this purpose ; and from every hundred gallons, between fifty-seven and fifty-eight may be obtained, of the average strength of rectified spirit, (sp.gr. 0-835,) corresponding to the alcohol of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, and the Spiritus Rectificatus of the British Colleges. When this is once more cau- tiously distilled, it will be further purified from water, and attain the sp. gr. of about 0-825, which is the lightest spirit which can be obtained by ordi- nary distillation, and is the pure spirit or alcohol of the British system of excise. It still, however, contains eleven per cent, of water. In the mean while, the spirit, by these repeated distillations, becomes more and more freed from the contaminating oil, called grain oil or fusel oil. If it be desired to obtain alcohol of still greater concentration, it is neces- sary to avail ourselves of certain substances which have a powerful affinity for water. Of this nature are lime, carbonate of potassa, and chloride of cal- cium. These, being mixed with the rectified spirit, unite with the water and sink, while the purer spirit floats above, and may be separated by decant- ation or distillation. By using substances of this nature, the British Col- leges are enabled to produce their strongest spirit, which they denominate alcohol. (See tabular view, page 57.) The following are the processes which they adopt. Alcohol (sp. gr. 0-815), Lond.—" Take of rectified spirit, a gallon [Imperial measure] ; chloride of calcium, a pound. Add the chloride of cal- cium to the spirit, and when it has dissolved, distil seven pints, and five fluidounces." 60 Alcohol. PART I. Alcohol (sp. gr. 0-794-6), Ed.—" Take of rectified spirit, one pint [Imp. meas.]; lime, eighteen ounces. Break down the lime into small irag- ments: expose the spirit and lime together to a gentle heat in a glass matrass till the lime begins to slake ; withdraw the heat till the slaking is hnished, preserving the upper part of the matrass cool with damp cl°tns- lft?" attach a proper refrigeratory, and with a gradually increasing heat disti lot! seventeen fluidounces. The density of this alcohol should not exceed 7JO: if higher, the distillation must have been begun before the slaking of the lime was finished." , Alcohol (sp. gr. 0-810), Dub.—" Take of rectified spirit, a gallon; pearl- ashes, dried and still hot, three pounds and a half; muriate of lime, dried, a pound. Add the pearlashes in powder to the spirit, and let the mixture digest in a covered vessel for seven days, shaking it frequently. Draw off the supernatant spirit, and mix with it the muriate of lime. Lastly, distil, with a moderate heat, until the mixture in the retort begins to thicken." In these processes, the London College uses chloride of calcium, the Edin- burgh, lime,and the Dublin, both carbonate of potassa and chloride of calcium, for separating the water. These substances are all well fitted to remove the water, on account of their strong attraction for that liquid. Formerly, the London Pharmacopoeia directed the use of carbonate of potassa for this pur- pose ; but in the revision of 1836, the chloride was advantageously substi- tuted, which, on account of its solubility in alcohol, is more powerful than the alkaline salt, as an agent for separating water. By the processes of the London and Dublin Colleges, the rectified spirit is not entirely deprived of water ; but by the Edinburgh formula, it is brought at once to its highest strength, when it has a specific gravity between 0-794 and 0-796, and is called anhydrous or absolute alcohol. The officinal alcohol of the London and Dublin Colleges may be brought to the same strength, by very care- fully and repeatedly distilling it from chloride of calcium. Soubeiran recommends the following as an easy method for obtaining ab- solute alcohol abundantly and economically. 1st. Rectify alcohol, marking 86° of the centesimal alcoholmeter of Gay-Lussac (rectified spirit), by dis- tilling it from carbonate of potassa. This operation raises its strength to 94° or 95°. 2d. Raise this alcohol to 97°, by distilling it with fused chlo- ride of calcium, or by digesting it with quicklime, from which it must be afterwards poured oft, in the proportion of a pint of the alcohol to 1£ ounces of the chloride, or 2? ounces of the lime. 3d. Distil the product of this operation slowly, with quicklime, in the proportion of 3| ounces to the pint. The product will be absolute alcohol. The operation may be shortened to two steps, by distilling the alcohol of 94° or 95°, with an excess of quick- lime (7£ ounces to the pint). In all cases, before decanting or distilling, the alcohol must be digested for two or three days with the lime, at a tempera- ture between 95° and 100° F. Lime will not answer as a substance to be distilled from, unless it be in sufficient excess; for, otherwise, towards the end of the distillation, the hydrate of lime formed will yield up its water to the alcohol, and weaken the distilled product. (Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 1. Jan., 1839.) It thus appears that the process adopted by the Edinburgh College for absolute alcohol, now first introduced into its Pharmacopoeia, is substan- tially the same as that recommended by Soubeiran. Dr. Christison assures us, that, on using pure quicklime, with the precautions mentioned in the Edinburgh formula, he has " always obtained from rectified spirit of the density of 0-838, seventeen-twentieths of its volume of alcohol, of density 0-796; and if the first tenth be kept apart, the rest may be obtained so low PART I. Alcohol. 61 as 0-7942." A good way for ascertaining when all the water has been removed, is to drop into the liquid a piece of anhydrous baryta, which will remain unchanged if the alcohol be free from water; otherwise it will fall to powder. Alcohol, though freed from' water by the processes indicated, may still be impregnated with a portion of the essential oil called grain oil. This is usually removed by digesting the spirit with charcoal, especially animal charcoal. The same end may be attained on a small scale, by adding a little of the solution of nitrate of silver to the spirit, and exposing it to a bright light. By the action of the oxide of silver on the oil, it is converted into a black powder, and by a new distillation, the spirit is obtained pure. The absolute alcohol of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is submitted to this test. Its purity is directed to be such, that, " when mixed with a little solu- tion of nitrate of silver and exposed to bright light, it remains unchanged, or only a very scanty dark precipitate forms." Properties. Alcohol is a colourless, transparent, volatile liquid, of a penetrating, agreeable odour, and strong burning taste. When free from water of dilution, its sp. gr. is 0-796, or a little under, at the temp, of 60°. Its density progressively increases by dilution, so that its sp. gr. is an index of its strength. When of the sp. gr. 0-820, its boiling point is at 176° ; this point being always lower in proportion as the alcohol is stronger. Its spe- cific gravity, as a vapour, is 1-60 compared with air. Absolute alcohol has never been frozen ; but Dr. J. K. Mitchell, of this city, succeeded by a cold of 146° below zero, in rendering alcohol of 0-798 viscid, so as to resemble melted wax. In Dr. Mitchell's experiments, alcohol of 0-820 froze readily. On account of the property of alcohol of resisting extreme degrees of cold without freezing, it is used in thermometers for measuring low degrees of temperature. Alcohol is inflammable, and burns without smoke or residue, the products being water and carbonic acid. Its flame is of a bluish colour when strong; but yellowish, when weak. It combines with water and ether in all propor- tions. Its value depends upon the quantity of absolute alcohol which it contains ; and as this is greater in proportion as the sp. gr. of any sample is less, it is found convenient to take the density in estimating its purity. This is done by instruments with bulbs and long stems, called hydrometers, which, by being allowed to float in the spirit, sink deeper into it in propor- tion as it is lighter. Any given hydrometer strength corresponds with some particular specific gravity; and, by referring to tables constructed for the purpose, the per centage of absolute alcohol indicated in each case is at once shown. The following table, constructed by Lowitz and improved by Thomson, is of this kind. We have placed in notes, referring to their re- spective specific gravities in the table, the names of the different officinal spirits, whereby the per centage of absolute alcohol is indicated which they severally contain. 7 62 Alcohol. PART I. Table of the Specific Gravity of different Mixtures of Absolute Alcohol and Distilled Water, at the Temperature of 60°. 100 Parts. Sp. Gr. at 60°. 100 Parts. Sp. Gr'. at 60°. 100 Parts. Sp. Gr. at 60°. 100 Parts. Sp. Gr-at 60°. Jilc. Wat. Ale. Wat. Ale. Wat. Ale. Wat. 100 0 •796* 76 24 •857 52 48 •912-ft 28 72 •962 99 1 •798 75 25 •860 51 49 •915 27 73 •963 98 2 •801 74 26 ■863 50 50 •917 26 74 •965 97 3 •804 73 27 •865 49 51 •920ft 25 75 •967 96 4 •807 72 28 •867 48 52 •922 24 76 ■968 95 5 •809f 71 29 ■870 47 53 •924 23 77 •970 94 6 •812 70 30 •871 46 54 •926 22 78 •972 93 7 •815$ 69 31 •874 45" 55 •928 21 79 •973 92 8 •817 68 32 ■875 44 56 •930 20 80 •974 91 9 •820 67 33 •879 43 57 •933 19 81 ■975 90 10 ■822 66 34 •880 42 58 •935§§ 18 82 •977 89 11 ■825§ 65 35 •883 41 59 •937 17 83 •978 88 12 •827 64 36 •886 40 60 •939 16 84 •979 87 13 •830 63 37 •889 39 61 •941 15 85 ■981 '.' 86 14 ■832 62 38 •891 38 62 ■943 14 86 •982 85 15 •835|| 61 39 •893 37 63 •945 13 87 •984 84 16 ■8381T 60 40 •896 36 64 •947 12 88 •986 83 17 ■S40** 59 41 •898 3.5 65 •949 11 89 •987 82 18 •843 58 42 •900 34 66 •951 10 90 •988 81 19 ■846 57 43 •903 33 67 •953 9 91 •989 80 20 •848 56 44 •904 32 68 •955 8 92 •990 79 21 •851 55 45 •906 31 69 •957 7 93 •991 78 22 •853 54 46 •908 30 70 •958 6 94 •992 77 23 •855 53 47 •910 29 71. •960 Alcohol is capable of dissolving a great number of substances ; as, for example, sulphur and phosphorus in small quantity, iodine and ammonia freely, and potassa, soda, and lithia in the caustic state, but not as carbonates. Among organic substances, it is a solvent of the organic vegetable alka- lies, urea, tannic acid, sugar, mannite, camphor, resins, balsams, volatile oils, and soap. It dissolves the fixed oils sparingly, except castor oil, which is abundantly soluble. It acts on most acids, forming ethers with some, and effecting the solution of others. All deliquescent salts are soluble in alcohol, except carbonate of potassa; while the efflorescent salts, and those either insoluble or sparingly soluble in.water, are mostly insoluble in it. It dis- solves muriate of ammonia, and most of the chlorides that are readily soluble in water; also some nitrates, but none of the metallic sulphates. It is capable of combining, in the solid form, with different substances, so as to form definite compounds, which, from their analogy to hydrates, are called alcoates. Composition. Alcohol consists of four eqs. of carbon, 24, six of hydro- gen 6, and two of oxygen 16=46; or, in volumes, of four volumes of the vapour of carbon, six volumes of hydrogen, and one volume of oxygen. These elements may be viewed as united, so as to form a compound of one eq. of ether and one of water (C4H50-f HO). It has already been stated that, in the vinous fermentation, sugar is con- verted into alcohol and carbonic acid. This conversion is thus explained. * Alcohol, Ed. f Alcohol, Dub. (nearly.) J Alcohol, Lond. § Lightest spirit obtained by ordinary distillation. \\ Alcohol, U. S. IT Spiritus Rectificatus, Lond., Ed, ** Spiritus Rectificatus, Dub. fj- Spiritus Tenuior, Ed. ff Spiritus Tenuior, Lond. §§ Alcohol Dilutum, U. S. PART I. Alcohol. 63 The sugar, supposing it cane-sugar, is first changed into grape sugar, or, according to Mitscherlich and Soubeiran, into uncrystallizable sugar. The two latter sugars, at the temperature of 212°, consist of C13HiaOi2, and are resolved by the fermentation into two eqs. of alcohol C H1204, and four eqs. of carbonic acid (C408). Medical Properties, fye. Alcohol is a very powerful diffusible stimulant. It is the intoxicating ingredient in all spirituous and vinous liquors, includ- ing under the latter term, porter, ale, and cider, and every liquid in short which has undergone the vinous fermentation. In its pure state it is never used in medicine; but, diluted to a greater or less extent, it forms a men- struum for many remedies. In a diluted state, and taken in small quantity, it excites the system, renders the pulse full, communicates additional. energy to the muscles, and gives temporary exaltation to the mental facul- ties. In some states of acute disease, characterized by excessive debility, it is a valuable remedy. In the form of brandy, it is frequently given in the sinking stages of typhus with advantage. Other kinds of ardent spirit are occasionally administered, and each is supposed to have its peculiar quali- ties. Thus, according to Dr. Paris, brandy may be esteemed simply cordial and stomachic; rum, heating and sudorific; and gin and whisky, diuretic. Physicians should be on their guard not to prescribe alcoholic remedies in chronic diseases, whether alone or in the form of tinctures, for fear of beget- ting intemperate habits in their patients. Externally, alcohol is sometimes applied to produce cold by evaporation., or to stimulate when its evaporation is repressed. A mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and white of egg is stated by Dr. Christison to be an excellent application, in the early stage of excoriation from pressure, in protracted diseases. It is to be applied fre- quently by a fine brush or feather, and renewed as it dries, until an albu- minous coating is formed over the excoriated surface. As an article of daily use, alcoholic liquors produce the most deplorable consequences. Besides the moral degradation which they cause, their habitual use gives rise to dyspepsia, hypochondriasis, visceral obstructions, dropsy, paralysis, and not unfrequently mania. In the arts, alcohol is used to form drying varnishes, and in chemistry, as an important analytic agent. Being a powerful antiseptic, it is very useful in preserving anatomical preparations. Effects as a Poison. When taken in large quantity, alcohol, in the form of various ardent spirits, produces a true apoplectic state, and occasionally speedy death. The face becomes livid or pale, the respiration stertorous, and the mouth frothy; and sense and feeling are more or less completely lost. Where the danger is imminent, an emetic may be administered, or the stomach pump used. The affusion of cold water is often very useful. As a counter-poison, acetate of ammonia has been found to act with advan- tage. After death, abundant evidence is furnished of the absorption of the alcohol. By Dr. Percy it was detected by chemical analysis in the brain, and by others in the ventricles. Pharmaceutic Uses. Alcohol is very extensively employed as a phar- maceutic agent. Either in its rectified state, or diluted with water, it is used in the formation of all the tinctures, spirits, ethers, and resinous ex- tracts. It is added to the vinegars, some of the medicated waters, and one or more of the decoctions and infusions, to assist in their preservation; and serves as a vehicle or diluent of certain active medicines, as in the Spiritus Ammonias, and Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum. It is also employed for various incidental purposes connected with its solvent power. Off. Prep, of Alcohol. Alcohol Dilutum, U. S., Ed. Off. Prep, of Brandy. Mistura Spiritus Vini Gallici, Lond. B. 64 Aletris. —, 11lium. PART I. ALETRIS. U S. Secondary. Star Grass. "The root of Aletris farinosa." U. S. Aletris. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Liliacese. Gen. Ch. Corolla tubular, six-cleft, wrinkled, persistent. Stamens in- serted into the base of the segments. Style triangular, separable into three. Capsule opening at the top, three-celled, many seeded. Bigelow. Aletris farinosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 183; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 92. This is an indigenous perennial plant, the leaves of which spring immediately from the root, and spread on the ground in the form of a star. Hence have originated the popular names of star grass, blazing star, and mealy starwort, by which it is known in different parts of the country. The leaves are sessile, lanceolate, entire, pointed, very smooth, longitudi- nally veined, and of unequal size, the largest being about four inches in length. From the midst of them a flower stem rises, one or two feet in height, nearly naked, with remote scales, which sometimes become leaves. It terminates in a slender scattered spike, the flowers of which stand on very short pedicels, and have minute bractes at the base. The calyx is wanting. The corolla is tubular, oblong, divided at the. summit into six spreading segments, of a white colour, and, when old, of a mealy or rugose ap- pearance on the outside. The plant is found in almost all parts of the United States, growing in fields and about the borders of woods, and flower- ing in June and July. Properties. The root, which is the officinal portion, is small, crooked, branched, blackish externally, brown within, and intensely bitter. The bitterness is extracted by alcohol, and the tincture becomes turbid upon the addition of water. The decoction is moderately bitter; but much less so than the tincture. It affords no precipitate with the salts of iron. (Bigelow.) Medical Properties. In small doses the root appears to be simply tonic, and may be employed advantageously for similar purposes with other bitters of the same class. When largely given it produces nausea!" The powder may be administered as a tonic in the dose of ten grains. W. ALLIUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Garlick. "The bulb of Allium sativum." U.S., Ed. "Allium sativum. Bulbus-." Lond. Off. Syn. ALLIUM SATIVUM. Bulbus. Dub. Ail, Fr.; Knoblauch. Germ.: Aglio, Ital; Ajo, Span. Allium. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Liliaceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla six-parted, spreading. Spathe many-flowered. Um- bel crowded. Capsule superior. Willd. This is a very extensive genus, including more than sixty species, most of which are European. Of the nine or ten indigenous in this country, none are employed. Of the European species, several have been used from a very early period, both as food and medicine. Three only are officinal— A. sativum, or garlick; A. Cepa, or onion; and A. Porrum, or leek. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia has adopted only A. sativum, and to this we shall con- fine our observations in the present place, simply stating, that few genera PART I. Allium. 65 present a greater resemblance in medical and sensible properties among the various species that compose them, than the present. Allium sativum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 68; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 749, t. 256. This is a perennial plant, and like all its congeners, bulbous. The bulbs are numerous, and enclosed in a common membranous covering, from the base of which the fibres that constitute the proper root descend. The stem is simple, and rises about two feet in height. The leaves are long, flat, and grass-like; and sheath the lower half of the stem. At the termination of the stem is a cluster of flowers and bulbs mingled together, and enclosed in a pointed spathe, which opens on One side and withers. The flowers are small and white, and make their appearance in July. This species of gar- lick grows wild in Sicily, Italy, and the south of France; and is cultivated in all civilized countries. The part employed, as well for culinary purposes as in medicine, is the bulb. The bulbs are dug up with a portion of the stem attached, and, hav- ing been dried in the sun, are tied together in bunches, and thus brought to market. They are said to lose by drying nine parts of their weight out of fifteen, with little diminution-of their sensible properties. This species of Allium is commonly called English garlick, to distinguish it from those which grow wild in our fields and meadows. Properties. Garlick, as found in the shops, is of a shape somewhat spherical, flattened at the bottom, and drawn towards a point at the summit, where a portion of the stem several inches in length projects. It is covered with a white, dry, membranous envelope, consisting of several delicate laminae, within which the small bulbs are arranged around the stem, having each a distinct coat. These small bulbs, which in common language are called cloves of garlick, are usually five or six in number, of an oblong shape, somewhat curved, and in their interior are whitish, moist, and fleshy. They have a disagreeable pungent odour, so peculiar as to have received the name of alliaceous. Their taste is bitter and acrid. This smell and taste, though strongest in the bulb, are found to a greater or less extent in all parts of the plant. They depend on an essential oil, which is very volatile, and may be obtained by distillation, passing over with the first portions of water. It is of a yellow colour, exceedingly pungent odour, and strong acrid taste; is heavier than water; contains sulphur; and when applied to the skin pro- duces much irritation, and sometimes even blisters. Cadet-Gassicourt ob- tained six drachms of it from 20 lbs. of garlick. Besides this oil, fresh garlick, according to the same chemist, contains in 1406 parts, 520 of mu- cilage, 37 of albumen, 48 of fibrous matter, and 801 of water. Bouillon- Lagrange mentions, among its constituents, sulphur, a saccharine matter, and a small quantity of fecula. The fresh bulbs yield upon pressure nearly a fourth part of juice, which is highly viscid, and so tenacious as to require dilution with water before it can be easily filtered. When dried it serves as a lute for porcelain. It has the medical properties of the bulbs. Water, alcohol, and vinegar extract the virtues of garlick. Boiling, however, if continued for some time, renders it inert. Medical Properties and Uses. The use of garlick, as a medicine and con- diment, ascends to the highest antiquity. When it is taken internally, the active principle is very speedily absorbed, and, penetrating throughout the sys- tem, becomes sensible in the breath and various secretions. Even externally applied, as for example to the soles of the feet, it imparts its peculiar odour to the breath, urine, and perspiration, and, according to some writers, may be tasted in the mouth. Its effects upon the system are those of a general stimulant. It quickens the circulation, excites the nervous system, promotes 7* 66 Allium.—Allium Cepa. PART I. expectoration in a debilitated state of the vessels of the lungs, produces dia- phoresis or diuresis according as the patient-is kept warm or cool, and acts upon the stomach as a tonic and carminative. It is said also to be emmena- gogue. Applied to the skin, it is irritant and rubefacient, and moreover exercises, to a greater or less extent, its peculiar influence upon the system, in consequence of its absorption. Moderately employed, it is beneficial in enfeebled digestion and flatulence; and is habitually used as a condiment by many who have no objection to an offensive breath. It has been given with advantage in chronic catarrh, humoral asthma, and other pectoral affections in which the symptoms of inflammation have been subdued, and a feeble condition of the vessels remains. We use it habitually, and with great bene- fit, in such affections occurring in children, as well as in the nervous and spasmodic coughs to which this class of patients are peculiarly liable. Some physicians have highly recommended it in old atonic dropsies and calculous disorders; and it has been employed in the treatment of intermittents. It is said also to be an excellent anthelmintic. If taken too largely, or in excited states of the system, it is apt to occasion gastric irritation, flatulence, hemor- rhoids, headache, and fever. As a medicine, it is at present more used externally than inwardly. Bruised and applied to tHe feet, it acts very beneficially, as a revulsive, in disorders of the head; and is especially useful in the febrile complaints of children, by quieting restlessness and producing sleep. In the same state it is used to resolve indolent tumours. Its juice mixed with oil, or the garlick itself bruised and steeped in spirits, is fre- quently used as a liniment in infantile convulsions, and other cases of spas- modic or nervous disorder among children. The same application has been made in cases of cutaneous eruption. A clove of garlick, or a few drops of the juice introduced into the ear, are said to prove highly efficacious in atonic deafness; and the bulb, bruised and applied in the shape of a poultice above the pubis, has sometimes restored action to' the bladder, in cases of retention of urine, from debility of that organ. In the same shape, it has been recom- mended as a resolvent in indolent tumours, and may, perhaps, prove bene- ficial by stimulating the absorbents. Garlick may be taken in the form of pills; or the clove maybe swallowed either whole, or cut into pieces of a convenient size. Its juice is also fre- quently administered mixed with sugar. The infusion in milk.was at one time highly recommended, and the syrup is officinal. The dose in substance is from half a drachm to a drachm, or even two drachms, of the fresh bulb. That of the juice is half a fluidrachm. Off. Prep. Syrupus Allii, U. S. W. ALLIUM CEPA. Bulbus. Dub. Onion. Ognon, Fr.; Zwiebel-Lauch, Germ.; Cipolla, Ital; Cebolla, Span. Allium. See ALLIUM. U. S. Allium Cepa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 80. The onion is a perennial bulb- ous plant, with a najted scape, swelling towards the base, exceeding the leaves in length, and terminating in a simple umbel of white flowers. The leaves are hollow, cylindrical, and pointed. The original country of this species of Allium is unknown. The plant has been cultivated from time immemorial, and is now diffused over the PART I. Allium Cepa.—Aloe. 67 whole civilized world. All parts of it have a peculiar pungent odour, but the bulb only is used. Properties. The bulb is of various size and shape, ovate, spherical, or flattened, composed of concentric fleshy and succulent layers, and covered with dry membranous coats, which are reddish, yellowish, or white, accord ing to the variety. It has, in a high degree, the characteristic odour of the plant, with a sweetish and acrid taste. Fourcroy and Vanquelin obtained from it a white acrid volatile oil holding sulphur in solution, albumen, much uncrystallizable sugar and mucilage, phosphoric acid, both free and com- bined with lime, acetic acid, citrate of lime, and lignin. The expressed juice is susceptible of the vinous fermentation. Medical Properties and Uses. The onion is stimulant, diuretic, expec- torant, and rubefacient. Taken moderately, it increases the appetite and promotes digestion, and is much used as a condiment; but in large quantities it is apt to cause flatulence, gastric uneasiness, and febrile excitement. The juice is occasionally given, made into syrup with sugar, in infantile catarrhs and croup, in the absence of much inflammatory action. It is also recom- mended in dropsy and calculous disorders. Depriveiof its essential oil by boiling, the onion becomes a mild esculent; and it is much more used as food than as medicine. Roasted and split, it is sometimes applied as an emollient cataplasm to suppurating tumours. W. ALOE. U.S., Lond. Aloes. " The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe spicata, and other species of Aloe." U. S. " Aloe spicata. Foliorum succus spissatus." Lond. Off. Syn. ALOE BARBADENSIS. ALOE INDICA. ALOE SOCO- TORINA. From undetermined species of Aloe. Ed.; ALOE HEPATIC A, ex A. vulgari. ALOE SOCOTOR1NA, ex A. spicata. Dub. Sue d'aloes, Fr.; Aloe, Germ., Ital.; Aloe, Span.; Musebber, Arab. Most of the species belonging to the genus Aloe are said to yield a bitter juice, which has all the properties of the officinal aloes. It is impossible, from the various and sometimes conflicting accounts of writers, to determine exactly from which of the species the drug is in all instances actually derived. Aloe spicata, however, is generally acknowledged to be an abundant source of it; and Aloe Vulgaris and Aloe Socotrina are usually ranked among the medicinal species. In Lindley's Flora Medica, A. purpurascens, A. arborescens, A. Commelyni, and A. multiformis, all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, are enumerated as yielding aloes; and others are, without doubt, occasionally resorted to. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia and that of Lon- don at present recognise particularly only the Aloe spicata. We shall confine ourselves to a description of the three following species, which pro- bably yield most of the aloes of commerce. Aloe. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Liliaceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla erect, mouth spreading, bottom nectariferous. Fila- ments inserted into the receptacle. Willd. Aloe spicata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 185. This species of aloe was first described by Thunberg. The stem is round, three or four feet high, about four inches in diameter, and leafy at the summit. The leaves are spreading, subverticilate, about two feet long, broad at the base, gradually narrowing to the point, channeled or grooved upon their upper surface, and with remote 68 Aloe. PART I. teeth upon their edges. The flowers are bell-shaped, and spread horizon- tally in very close spikes. They contain a large quantity of purple honey juice. Beneath each flower is a broad, ovate, acute bracte, of a white colour with three green streaks, and nearly as long as the corolla. Of the six petals, the three inner are ovate, obtuse, white, with three green lines, and broader than the outer, which otherwise resemble them. The stamens are much longer than the corolla. The spiked aloe is a native of Southern Africa, growing near the Cape of Good Hope, and, like all the other species of this genus, preferring a sandy soil. In some districts of the colony it is found in great abundance, particularly at Zwellendam,near Mossel Bay, where it almost covers the surface of the country. Much of the Cape aloes is said to be derived from this species. A. Socotrina. Lamarck, Encycl.fi. 85; De Cand. Plantes Grasses,fig. 85; Curtis' Bol. Mag. pl.,472.—A. vera. Miller, Diet., ed. 8, no. 55. The stem of this species is erect, a foot and a half or more in height, woody, and leafless below, where it is very rough from the remains of former leaves. At top it is embraced by green, sword-shaped, ascending leaves, somewhat concave on their upper surface, convex beneath, curved inward at the point, with numerous small white serratures at their edges. The flowers, which are in a cylindrical, simple raceme, are scarlet near the base, pale in the centre, and greenish at the summit, and have unequal stamens, of which three are longer than the corolla. The plant received its name from the island of Socotra, of which it is said to be a native; and it is supposed to be the source of the Socotrine aloes. A. vulgaris. Lamarck, Encycl., i. 86; De Cand. Plantes Grasses, fig. 27. This species has a very short woody stem, and lanceolate embracing leaves, which are first spreading, then ascending, of a glaucous-green colour, somewhat mottled with darker spots, flat on the upper surface, convex be- neath, and armed with hard reddish spines, distant from each other, and per- pendicular to the margin. The flower-stem is axillary, of a glaucous-reddish colour, and branched, with a cylindrical-ovate spike of yellow flowers, which are at first erect, then spreading, and finally pendulous, and do not exceed the stamens in length. A. vulgaris is a native of south-eastern Europe and the north of Africa, and is cultivated in Italy, Sicily, Malta, and especially in the W. Indies, where it contributes largely to furnish the Barbadoes aloes. The proper aloetic juice exists in longitudinal vessels beneath the epi- dermis of the leaves, and readily flows out when these are cut transversely. The liquid obtained by expression from the parenchyma is mucilaginous, and possessed of little medicinal virtue. The quality of the drug depends much upon the mode of preparing it. The finest kind is that obtained by exudation, and subsequent inspissation in the sun. Most of the better sorts, however, are prepared by artificially heating the juice which has sponta- neously exuded from the cut leaves. The chief disadvantage of this pro- cess is the conversion of a portion of the soluble active principle into an insoluble and comparatively inert substance, through the influence of an elevated temperature. The plan of bruising and expressing the leaves, and boiling down the resulting liquor, yields a much inferior product; as a large portion of it must be derived from the mucilaginous juice of the parenchyma. The worst plan of all is to boil the leaves themselves in water, and to eva- porate the decoction. The quality of the drug is also affected by the care- less or fraudulent mixture of foreign matters with the juice, and the unskilful management of the inspissation. Commercial History and Varieties. Four chief varieties of aloes are known in commerce, that of the Cape of Good Hope, the Socotrine, the PART I. Aloe. 69 Hepatic, and the Barbadoes, of which the first two are most used in this country. 1. Cape Aloes, which is by far the most abundant, and, by its extraordi- nary cheapness and excellent qualities, almost promises to supersede the other varieties, has been imported chiefly if not exclusively from Great Britain; as no direct trade has till recently been carried on between the U. States and the Cape of Good Hope. It is collected by the Hottentots and Dutch boors, indiscriminately from the A. spicata and other species, which grow wild in great abundance. The process is very simple. According to the account of Hallbeck, a Moravian missionary who resided at the Cape, a hole is made in the ground, in which a sheep skin is spread with the smooth side upward. The leaves are then cut off near the stem, and arranged around the hole, so that the juice which runs out may be received into the skin. The juice flows most freely in hot weather. (Un. Breth. Mission. Intelligencer, N. Y., vi. 436.) When a sufficient quantity of the liquor has been collected, it is inspissated by artificial heat in iron cauldrons, care being taken to prevent its burning by constant stirring. When sufficiently concentrated, it is poured into boxes or skins, where it concretes upon cooling. -The finest kind is collected at the Missionary Institution at Bethelsdorp, and hence called Bethelsdorp aloes. Its superiority is owing exclusively to the greater care observed in conducting the evaporation, and in avoiding the intermixture of earth, stones, and other impurities. (Dunsterville, in Pereira's Mat. Med.) Cape aloes has sometimes been eonfounded with the Socotrine, from which, however, it differs very considerably in appearance and sensible pro- perties. By the German writers it is called shining aloes. When freshly broken, it has a very dark olive or greenish colour approaching to black, pre- sents a smooth bright almost glassy surface, and, if held up to the light, ap- pears translucent at its edges. The small fragments also are semi-transparent, and have a tinge of yellow or red mixed with the deep olive of the opaque mass. The same tinge is sometimes observable in the larger pieces. The powder is of a fine greenish-yellow colour, and being generally more or less sprinkled over the surface of the pieces as they are kept in the shops, gives them a somewhat yellowish appearance. The odour is strong and disagree- able, but not nauseous. It has not the slightest mixture of the aromatic. Cape aloes, when perfectly hard, is very brittle, and readily reduced to pow- der; but, in very hot weather, it is apt to become somewhat soft and tena- cious, and the interior of the pieces is occasionally more or less so even in winter. It is usually imported in casks or boxes. Dr. Pereira says that a variety of aloes is sometimes imported into England from the Cape, of a reddish-brown colour like hepatic aloes. 2. Socotrine Aloes. The genuine Socotrine aloes is produced in the Island of Socotra, which lies in the Straits of Babelmandel, about forty leagues to the east of Cape Guardafui; but we are told by Ainslie, that the greater part of what is sold under that name is prepared in the kingdom of Melinda, upon the eastern coast of Africa; and Wellsted states that the aloes of the neighbouring parts of Arabia is the same as that of Socotra. It is probable that the commerce in this variety of aloes is carried on chiefly by the maritime Arabs, who convey it either to India, or up the Red Sea by the same channel through which it reached Europe before the discovery of the southern passage into the Indian Ocean. The species of aloe which yields it is not certainly known. Ainslie says that it is evidently from the same species with the Cape aloes; but he does not give his reasons for the opinion; and the external character of the two varieties is so different, that we cannot but hesitate in admitting their identity of origin. We have been 70 Aloe. part i. able to discover no good reason for depriving the A. Socotrina of the honour formerly conceded to it, of producing this highly valued variety of aloes. According to Wellsted, the plant grows on the sides and summits of moun- tains, from five hundred to three thousand feet above the level of the plains. It is found in all parts of the island, but most abundantly on the western por- tion, where the surface is thickly covered with it for miles. • It appears to thrive best in parched and barren places. Much less of the drug is -collected than formerly, and in the year 1833 only two tons were exported. The whole produce was formerly monopolized by the Arabian Sultan of Kisseen, who still claims sovereignty over the island. But at present the business of collecting the drug is entirely free to the inhabitants. The leaves are plucked at any period of the year, and are placed in skins into which the juice is allowed to exude. In what way the inspissation is effected we are not informed. The aloes is exported in skins. Its quality differs much according to the care taken in its preparation. The price varies in Muscat from two to four shillings a pound. (Wellsted''s Voyage to the coast of Arabia, and Tour in the Island of Socotra.) A portion ascends the Red Sea, and through Egypt reaches the ports of Smyrna and Malta, whence it is sent to London. Another portion is carried to Bombay, and thence transmitted to various parts of the world. The little that reaches this country either comes by special order from London, or is brought by our India traders. We have known of two arrivals directly into the United States from the Island of So- cotra, and have in our possession pareels of aloes brought by both. They are identical in character, and correspond exactly with the following de- scription. Socotrine aloes is in pieces of a yellowish or reddish-brown colour, wholly different from that of the former variety. Sometimes the colour is very light, especially in the fresh and not fully hardened parcels; sometimes it is a deep brownish-red like that of garnets. It is rendered much darker by exposure to the air; and the interior of the masses is consequently much lighter coloured than the exterior. Its surface is somewhat glossy, and its fracture smooth and conchoidal, with sharp and semi-transparent edges. The colour of its powder is a bright golden yellow. It has a peculiar, not unpleasant odour, and a taste, which, though bitter and disagreeable, is accompanied with an aromatic flavour. Though hard and pulverulent in cool weather, it is somewhat tenacious in summer, and softens by the heat of the hand. Under the name of Socotrine aloes are occasionally to be met with in the market, small parcels beautifully semi-transparent, shining, and of a yellow- ish, reddish, or brownish-red colour. These, however, are very rare, and do not deserve to be considered as a distinct variety. They are probably portions of the juice carefully inspissated in the sun, and may accompany the packages brought from any of the commercial sources of aloes. When in mass, as imported from the East, Socotrine aloes is soft and plastic, and of a very light yellowish-brown colour in the interior. It be- comes hard and brittle when broken into pieces; and the London dealers hasten the result by exposing it to a very gentle heat, so as to evaporate the moisture. Pereira tells us that impure and dirty pieces of the druo- are melted and strained, and that the skins from which the best portions°have been removed are washed with water, which is then evaporated. No in- considerable portion of the Socotrine aloes received from London has pro- bably undergone such processes. Much of the aloes sold as Socotrine, has never seen the Island of Socotra nor even the Indian seas. It has been customary to affix this title as a mark of superior value to those parcels of the drug, from whatever source they PART I. Aloe. 71 may have been derived, which have been prepared with unusual care, and are supposed to be of the best quality. Thus, both in Spain and the West Indies, the juice which is obtained without expression, and inspissated in the sun without artificial heat, has been called Socotrine aloes; and is pro- bably little inferior to the genuine drug. The Socotrine aloes has been very long known under this name, and in former times held the same superiority in the estimation of the profession, which it still to a certain degree retains. 3. Hepatic Aloes. Much confusion and uncertainty have prevailed in relation to this kind of aloes. The name was originally applied to a product from the East Indies, of a reddish-brown or liver colour, which gave origin to the designation. From a supposed resemblance between this and the aloes from the West Indies, the name was very commonly applied also to the latter variety, and was also extended to portions of the drug collected in Spain and other parts of the south of Europe. But the West India aloes is decidedly different from any now brought from the East, and deserves the rank of a distinct variety, with the name of Barbadoes aloes. In this country, we seldom meet with aloes bearing the name of the hepatic, although much that is sold as Socotrine probably deserves it. In the drug commerce of London, it is still recognised as a distinct variety. It is imported into Eng- land chiefly from Bombay; but, according to Ainslie, is not produced in Hin- dostan, being taken thither from Yemen in Arabia. It is probably obtained from the same plant or plants which yield the Socotrine, but prepared with less care, or by a somewhat different process. In relation to the Socotrine and hepatic aloes, we should probably not be far wrong in considering*the former as embracing the finest, and the latter the inferior parcels of the same variety ; and it is in fact stated that they sometimes come together, a large mass of the hepatic being crossed by a vein of the Socotrine. They are both embraced by the Edinburgh College under the title of Aloe Inpica—an improper designation; as the aloes which is produced in India is altogether inferior, and is seldom or never exported from that region. The variety which the Edinburgh College designates as Socotrine aloes, and defines to be " in thin pieces translucent and garnet-red, almost entirely soluble in spirit of the strength of sherry," has little claim to the title, being of unknown origin, very rare, and wholly unlike the drug usually brought from Socotra. Hepatic aloes is of a reddish-brown colour, but is darker and less glossy than the Socotrine. Its odour is somewhat like, that of* the Socotrine, but less agreeable, and is wholly different from that of Cape aloes. The taste is nauseous, and intense])'- bitter. The fracture is not so smooth, nor the edges so sharp and transparent as in either of the first mentioned varieties. It softens in the hand, and becomes adhesive. The powder is of a dull yel- low colour. 4. Barbadoes Aloes. This is the name by which the aloes produced in the West Indies is now generally designated. The aloes plants are largely cultivated in the poorer soils of Jamaica and Barbadoes, especially of the latter island. The species from which most of the drug is procured is A. vulgaris; but A. Socotrina, A. purpurascens, and A. arborescens, are also said to be cultivated. The process employed appears to be somewhat different in different places, or at least as described by different authors. A fine kind was formerly prepared by the spontaneous inspissation of the juice, placed in bladders or shallow vessels, and exposed to the sun. The common Barbadoes aloes, however, is now made, either by boiling the juice to a proper consistence, or by first forming a decoction of the leaves, chopped and suspended in water in nets or baskets, and then evaporating the decoc- 72 Aloe. PART I. tion. In either case, when the liquor has attained such a consistence that it will harden on cooling, it is poured into calabashes and allowed to con- crete. It is imported into England in gourds weighing from 00 to 70 pounds, or even more. In consequence of the great demand for it in veterinary prac- tice, it commands a high price in Great Britain ; and very little is con- sumed in the United States. • • i i The colour of Barbadoes aloes is not uniform. Sometimes it is dark brown or almost black, sometimes of a reddish-brown or liver colour, and again of some intermediate shade. It has usually a dull fracture, and is almost perfectly opaque, even at the edges, and in thin layers. It is also distinguishable by its odour, which is very disagreeable and even nauseous. The powder is of a dull olive yellow colour. Besides these varieties of aloes, others are mentioned by authors. A very inferior kind, supposed to consist of the dregs of the juice which furnished the better sorts, almost black, quite opaque, hard, of a rough fracture and very fetid odour, and full of various impurities, was formerly sold under the name of caballine, fetid, or horse aloes. It was used exclusively for horses ; but, in consequence of the cheapness of better kinds, has been banished from veterinary practice, and is not now found in the market. Aloes has been imported from Muscat, and a considerable quantity came oyer in a vessel sent by the Sultan to the United States. Some of a similar origin has been called Mocha aloes in London; but it is nothing more than an inferior sort of hepatic. Several inferior kinds produced in different parts of Hin- dostan have been described by Pereira under the name of India aloes ; but they are not brought, unless accidentally, into the markets of Europe or this country. General Properties. The odour of aloes is different in the different varie- ties. The taste is in all of them intensely bitter and very tenacious. The colour and other sensible properties have already been sufficiently described. Several distinguished chemists have investigated the nature and composition of aloes. The opinion at one time entertained, that it was a gum-resin, has been abandoned since the experiments of Braconnot, who found it to consist of a bitter principle, soluble in water, and in alcohol of 38° B., which he con- sidered peculiar and named resino-amer; and of another substance, in much smaller proportion, inodorous and nearly tasteless, very soluble in'alcohol, and scarcely soluble in boiling water, which he designated by the name of flea-coloured principle. These results have been essentially confirmed by the experiments of Trommsdorff, Bouillon-Lagrange, and Vogel, who con- sider the former substance as extractive matter, and the latter as having the chief characters of resin. Besides these principles, Trommsdorff discovered in a variety of hepatic aloes, a proportion of insoluble matter which he con- sidered as albumen ; and Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel found that Soco- trine aloes yields, by distillation, a small quantity of volatile oil, which they could not obtain from the hepatic. The proportions of the ingredients vary greatly in the different varieties of the drug ; and the probability is, that scarcely any two specimens would afford precisely the same results. Braconnot found about 73 per cent, of the bitter principle, and 26 of the flea-coloured principle. Trommsdorff obtained from Socotrine aloes about 75 parts of extractive, and 25 of resin ; and from the hepatic, 81-25 of extractive, 6-25 of resin, and 12-50 of albumen, in the hundred parts. The former variety, according to Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel, contains 68 per cent, of extractive and 32 of resin ; the latter 52 of extractive, 42 of resin, and 6 of the albuminous matter of Trommsdorff. We are not aware that any analysis has been published of the Cape aloes as a distinct variety. part i. Aloe. 73 Berzelius considers the resin of Trommsdorff and others, to belong to that form of matter which he calls apotheme (See Extracts), and which is nothing more than extractive, altered by the action of the air. It may be obtained separate, by treating aloes with water, and digesting the undissolved portion with oxide of lead, which unites with the apotheme forming an inso- luble compound, and leaves a portion of unaltered extractive, which had adhered to it, dissolved in the water. The oxide of lead may be separated by nitric acid very much diluted; and the apotheme remains in the form of a brown powder, insoluble in cold water, very slightly soluble in boiling water, to which it imparts a yellowish-brown colour, soluble in alcohol, ether, and alkaline solutions, and burning like tinder without flame and without being melted. According to the same author, the bitter extractive which constitutes the remainder of the aloes, and for which the name of aloesin has been proposed, may be obtained by treating the watery infusion of the drug with oxide of lead, to separate a portion of apotheme which adheres to it, and evaporating the liquor. Thus procured, it is a yellowish, translucent, gum-like substance, fusible by a gentle heat, of a bitter taste, soluble in ordinary alcohol, but insoluble in that fluid when anhydrous, and in ether. Chlorine produces with its solution a precipitate analogous to apo- theme. Cold sulphuric acid dissolves without changing it. Nitric acid dissolves it, producing a greenish colour. Its solution is rendered brighter by acids, which occasion a slight precipitate, and dark red by the alkalies and the salts of iron. Acetate of lead, tartar emetic, perchloride of tin, and the salts of manganese, zinc, and copper, do not disturb the solution; protochloride of tin, and the nitrates of mercury and silver occasion preci- pitates. It is probably the active portion of the drug. A portion of hyacinthine, transparent aloes, considered as genuine Soco- trine, has been examined by M. Edmond Robiquet, and found by him to consist, in 100 parts, of 85 of aloesin, 2 of ulmate of potassa, 2-of sulphate of lime, 0-25 of gallic acid, 8 of albumen, and traces of carbonate of po- tassa, carbonate of lime, and phosphate of lime. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. Se ser., x. 173.) Aloes yields its active matter to cold water, and when good is almost wholly dissolved by boiling water; but the resinous portion, or apotheme of Berzelius, is deposited as the solution cools. It is also soluble in alcohol, rectified or diluted. Long boiling impairs its purgative properties by con- verting the aloesin into insoluble apotheme. The alkalies, their carbo- nates, and soap alter in some measure its chemical nature, and render it of easier solution. It is inflammable, swelling up and decrepitating when it burns, and giving out a thick smoke which has the odour of the drug. Those substances only are incompatible with aloes, which alter or preci- pitate the aloesin, as the insoluble portion is without action upon the system. Its aqueous solution keeps a long time, even for several months, without exhibiting mouldiness or putrescency; but it becomes ropy, and acquires the character, which it did not previously possess, of affording an abundant precipitate with the infusion of galls. Medical Properties and Uses. Aloes was known to the ancients. It is mentioned in the works of Dioscorides and Celsus, the former of whom speaks of two kinds. The varieties are similar in their mode of action. They are all cathartic, operating very slowly but certainly, and having a peculiar affinity for the large intestines. Their action, moreover, appears to be directed rather to the muscular coat than to the exhalent vessels; and the discharges which they produce, are, therefore, seldom very thin or watery. In a full dose they quicken the circulation, and produce general 8 74 Aloe. PABT x- warmth. When frequently repeated, they are apt to irritate the rectum, giving rise, in some instances, to hemorrhoids, and aggravating them when already existing. Aloes has also a decided tendency to the uterine system. Its emmenagogue effect, which is often very considerable, is generally attri- buted to a sympathetic extension of irritation from the rectum to the uterus; but we can see no reason why the medicine should not act specifically upon this organ; and its influence in promoting menstruation is by no means con- fined to cases in which its action upon the neighbouring intestine is most conspicuous. A peculiarity in the action of this cathartic is, that an increase of the quantity administered, beyond the medium dose, is not attended by a corresponding increase of effect. Its tendency to irritate the rectum may be obviated, in some measure, by combining it with soap or an alkaline car- bonate; but it does not follow, as supposed by some, that this modification of its operation is the result of increased solubility; for aloes given in a liquid state produces the same effect as when taken in pill or powder, except that it acts somewhat more speedily. Besides, when externally applied to a blistered surface, it operates exactly in the same manner as when internally administered; thus proving that its peculiarities are not dependent upon the particular form in which it may be given, but on specific tendencies to particular parts. (Gerhard, N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ., x. 155.) With its other powers, aloes combines the property of slightly stimulating the sto- mach. It is, therefore, in minute doses, an excellent remedy in habitual costiveness, attended with torpor of the digestive organs. From its special direction to the rectum, it has been found peculiarly useful in the treatment of ascarides. In amenorrhoea it is perhaps more frequently employed than any other remedy, entering into almost all the numerous empirical prepa- rations which are habitually resorted to by females in that complaint, and enjoying a no less favourable reputation in regular practice. It is, more- over, frequently given in combination with more irritating cathartics, in order to regulate their liability to excessive action. In the treatment of amenorrhoea, it is said to be peculiarly efficacious when given in the form of enema, about the period when the menses should appear. Aloes is con- tra-indicated by the existence of hemorrhoids, and is obviously unsuitable, unless modified by combination, to the treatment of inflammatory diseases. The medium dose is 10 grains; but as a laxative it will often operate in the quantity of 2or 3 grains; and, when a decided impression is required, the dose may be augmented to 20 grains. In consequence of its excessively bitter and somewhat nauseous taste, it is most conveniently administered in the shape of pill.* Off. Prep. Decoctum Aloe's Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Enema Aloe's, Lond.; Extractum Aloes Hepaticae, Dub.; Ext. Aloe's Purificat., Lond.; Ext. Colocynth. Comp., U.S., Lond., Dub.; Piiulse Aloe's, U.S., Ed.; Pil. Aloes Comp., Lond., Dub.; Pil. Aloe's et Assafoetidae, U. S., Ed.; * Dr. Paris enumerates the following empirical preparations, containing aloes as a leading ingredient:—Anderson's pills, consisting of aloes, jalap, and oil of aniseed; Hooper's pills, of aloes, myrrh, sulphate of iron, canella, and ivory black; Dixon's anti- bilious pills, of aloes, scammony, rhubarb, and tartarized antimony; Speediman's pills, of aloes, myrrh, rhubarb, extract of chamomile, and ess. oil of chamom.; Dinner pills, of aloes, mastich, red roses, and syrup of wormwood; Fothergill's pills, of aloes, scammony, colocynth, and oxide of antimony; Peter's pills, of aloes, jalap, scammony, gamboge, and calomel; and Radcliff's Elixir, of aloes, cinnamon, zedoary, rhubarb, cochineal, syrup of buckthorn, and spirit and water as the solvent; to which may be added Lee's Windhax pills, consisting of gamboge, aloes, soap, and nitrate of potassa, and Lee's New London pills, of aloes, scammony, gamboge, calomel, jalap, soap, and syrup of buckthorn. part i. Aloe.—Uthaa. lb Pil. Aloe's et Ferri, Ed.; Pil. Aloes et Myrrhae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Colocynth. Comp., Dub., Ed.; Pil. Gambogiae Comp., Dub., Lond., Ed.; Pil. Rhei Comp., U. S., L,ond., Ed.; Pil. Sagapeni Comp., Lond.; Pulvis Aloe's Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Aloes et Canelke, U. S., Dub.; Tinctura Aloe's, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Aloes et Myrrhae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Benzoini Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Rhei et Aloe's, U. S., Ed.; Vinum Aloe's, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. ALTILEA. U.S. Marshmallow. "The root of Althaea officinalis." U. S. Off. Syn. AUYHM2E RADIX. ALTH^E^ FOLIA. Lond., Ed.; ALTH^A OFFICINALIS. Folia et Radix. Dub. Guimauve, Fr.; Eibisch, Germ.; Altea, Ital; Altea, Malvavisco, Span. Althaea. Sex. Syst. Monadelphia Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Malvaceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx double, the exterior six or nine-cleft. Capsules nume- rous, one-seeded. Willd. Althaea officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 770.; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 552. t. 198. The marshmallow is an herbaceous perennial, with a perpen- dicular branching root, and erect woolly stems, from two to four feet or more in height, branched and leafy towards the summit. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, nearly cordate on the lower part of the stem, oblong-ovate and obscurely three-lobed above, somewhat angular, irregularly serrate, pointed, and covered on both sides with a soft down. The flowers are terminal and axillary, with short peduncles, each bearing one, two, or three flowers. The corolla has five spreading, obcordate petals, of a pale purplish colour. The fruit consists of numerous capsules united in a compact circular form, each containing a single seed. The plant grows throughout Europe, inhabiting salt marshes, the banks of rivers, and other moist places. It is found also in this country on the borders of salt marshes. In some parts of the Conti- nent of Europe, it is largely cultivated for medical use. The whole plant abounds in mucilage. Both the leaves and root are officinal, but the latter only is employed to any extent in this country. The flowers are sometimes to be found in the shops, but are scarcely used. The roots should be collected in autumn from plants at least two years old. They are cylindrical, branched, as thick as the finger or thicker, from a foot to a foot and a half long, externally of a yellowish colour which be- comes grayish by drying, within white and fleshy. They are usually pre- pared for the market by removing the epidermis. Our shops are supplied chiefly if not exclusively from Europe. Properties. Marshmallow root comes to us in pieces three or four inches or more in length, usually not so thick as the finger, generally round, but sometimes split, white externally and downy from the mode in which the epidermis is removed, light and easily broken with a short somewhat fibrous fracture, of a peculiar faint smell, and a mild mucilaginous sweetish taste. Those pieces are to be preferred which are plump and but slightly fibrous. The root contains a large proportion of mucilage, besides starch and saccha- rine matter, which it yields readily to boiling water. The mucilage, without the starch, is extracted by cold water, which thus becomes ropy. A prin- ciple was discovered in the root by M. Bacon, which he supposed to be 76 Althcea.—Alumen. part i. peculiar to the marshmallow, but which has been ascertained to be identical with the asparagin of Robiquet. MM. Boutron-Charlard and Pelouze found it to belong to that class of organic principles, which are convertible by the agency of strong acids, of potassa or soda, or even of water alone at a high temperature, into ammonia and peculiar acids, and which are desig- nated by the termination amide. Thus asparagin, which must now be called asparamide, is converted into ammonia and asparmic, or, as it was formerly named, aspartic acid; and one atom of the resulting asparmate of ammonia is equivalent to one atom of asparamide and one of water. It is found in various other plants besides the marshmallow, as in the shoots of asparagus, in all the varieties of the potato, and in the roots of the com- frey and liquorice plant. (Journ. de Pharm., xix. 208.) Asparamide has no therapeutical value. Marshmallow is said to become somewhat acid by decoction. Those pieces should be rejected which are woody, discoloured, mouldy, of a sour or musty smell, or a sourish taste. The roots of other Malvaceae are sometimes substituted without disadvan- tage, as they possess similar properties. Such are those of Althaea rosea or hollyhock, and Malva Alcea. The leaves, which are recognised by the British Colleges, are without smell, and of a mucilaginous taste, and are used for the same purposes as the root. Medical Properties and Uses. The virtues of marshmallow are exclu- sively those of a demulcent. The decoction of the root is much used in Europe in irritation and inflammation of the mucous membranes. The roots themselves, boiled and bruised, are sometimes employed as a poultice. The leaves are applied to similar uses. In France, the powdered root is much used in the preparation of pills and electuaries. Off.Prep. Decoctum Althaeao, Dub., Ed.; Syrupus Althsex, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. ALUMEN. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Alum. " Sulphate of alumina and potassa." U. S. Alun, Fr., Dan., Swed.; Alaun, Germ.; Allume, Ital; Alumbre, Span. The officinal alum is a double salt, consisting of the tersulphate of alu- mina, united with sulphate of potassa. It is included in the Materia Medica list of the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, as an article to be procured from the wholesale manufacturer. Alum is manufactured occasionally from earths which contain it ready formed, but most generally from minerals, which, embracing most or all of its constituents, are called alum ores. The principal alum ores are the alum stone, which is a native mixture of subsulphate of alumina and sul- phate of potassa, found in large quantities at Tolfa and Piombino in Italy, and certain natural mixtures of sulphuret of iron with clay and carbona- ceous matter, called aluminous schist or alum-slate. It is particularly at the Solfaterra, and other places in the kingdom of Naples, that alum is extracted from earths which contain it ready formed. The ground being of volcanic origin, and having a temperature of about 104°, an efflorescence of pure alum is formed upon its surface. This is collected and lixiviated, and the solution made to crystallize by slow eva- poration in leaden vessels sunk in the ground. The alum stone is manufactured into alum by calcination, and subsequent PART I. Alumen. 11 exposure to the air for three months ; the mineral being frequently sprinkled with water, in order that it may be brought to the state of a soft mass. This is lixiviated, and the solution obtained crystallized by evaporation. The alum stone may be considered as consisting of alum, united with a certain quantity of the hydrate of alumina. This latter, by the calcination, loses its water, and becomes incapable of remaining united with the alum of the mineral, which is consequently set free. Alum of the greatest purity is obtained from this ore. Aluminous schist, when compact, is first exposed to the air for a month. It is then stratified with wood, which is set on fire. The combustion which ensues is slow and protracted. The sulphur is in part converted into sul- phuric acid, which unites with the alumina; and the sulphate of alumina thus formed generates a portion of alum with the potassa derived from the ashes of the wood. The iron, in the mean time, is almost wholly converted into sesquioxide, and thus becomes insoluble. The matter is lixiviated, and the solution crystallized into alum by evaporation. The mother-waters, containing sulphate of alumina, are then drawn off, and made to yield a further portion of alum by the addition of sulphate of potassa, or chloride of potassium. When the aluminous schist is easily disintegrated, it is not subjected to combustion, but merely placed in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled with water. The sulphuret of iron gradually absorbs oxygen, and passes into sulphate of the protoxide, which effloresces on the surface of the heap. Part of the sulphuric acid formed unites with the alumina; so that, after the chemical changes are completed, the heap contains both the sulphate of iron and the*sulphate of alumina. At the end of about a year, the matter is lixiviated, and the solution of the two sulphates obtained is concentrated to the proper degree in leaden boilers. The sulphate of iron crystallizes, while the sulphate of alumina, being a deliquescent salt, remains in the mother-waters. These are drawn off, and treated with sulphate of potassa in powder, heat being at the same time applied. They are then allowed to cool, that the alum may crystallize. The crystals are then separated from the solution, and purified by a second solution and crystallization. They are next added to boiling water to full saturation, and the solution is transferred to a cask, where, on cooling, nearly the whole concretes into a crystalline mass. The cask is then taken to pieces, and the salt, having been broken up, is packed in barrels for the purposes of commerce. This process is employed in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Alum is sometimes manufactured by the direct combination of its con- stituents. With this view, clays are selected as free from iron and carbonate of lime as possible, and calcined to sesquioxidize the iron, and render them more easily pulverizable; after which they are dissolved, by the assistance of heat, in weak sulphuric acid. The sulphate of alumina thus generated, is next crystallized into alum by the addition of sulphate of potassa in the usual manner. Besides the officinal alum, which is sometimes called potassa-alum, there are several varieties of this salt, in which the potassa is replaced by some other base, as, for example, ammonia or soda. Ammoniaccd alum, or the sulphate of alumina and ammonia, is sometimes manufactured in France, where it is formed by adding putrid urine to a solution of the sulphate of alumina. In Great Britain it is sometimes made by adding sulphate of ammonia from gas liquor to the sulphate of alumina. Scotch alum, made near Paisley, generally contains both potassa and ammonia. Ammoniacal alum resembles so exactly the potassa-alum, that it is impossible by simple 8* 78 Alumen. part I. inspection to distinguish them; and in composition it is perfectly analogous to the potassa salt. It may, however, be distinguished by subjecting it to a strong calcining heat,after which alumina will be found as the sole residue ; or by rubbing it up with potassa or lime and a little water, when the smell of ammonia will be perceived. Properties. Alum is a white, slightly efflorescent salt, crystallized in regular octohedrons, and possessing a sweetish, astringent taste. It dissolves in between fourteen and fifteen times its weight of cold, and three-fourths of its weight of boiling water. Its solution is precipitated by ammonia and potassa, which throw down the alumina as a gelatinous hydrate, free from colour if the alum be pure. Its sp. gr. is 1-71. It reddens litmus, but changes the blue tinctures of the petals of plants to green. It cannot, there- fore, be properly said to contain an excess of acid. When heated a little above 212°, it undergoes the aqueous fusion; and, if the heat be continued, it loses its water, swells up, becomes a white, opaque, porous mass, and is converted into the officinal preparation, called dried alum. (See Alumen Exsiccatum.) Exposed to a red heat, it gives off oxygen, together with sulphurous and anhydrous sulphuric acids; and the residue consists of alu- mina and sulphate of potassa. When calcined with finely divided charcoal, it forms a spontaneously inflammable substance, called Homberg's pyro- phorus, which consists of a mixture of sulphuret of potassium, alumina, and charcoal. Several varieties of alum are known in commerce. Roche alum, so called from its having come originally from Roccha in Syria, is a sort which occurs in fragments, about the size of an almond, and having a pale rose colour, which is given to it, according to Dr. Pereira, by bole or rose*-pink. Roman alum also occurs in small fragments, covered with a rose-coloured efflores- cence, derived from a slight covering of oxide of iron. All the alums of commerce contain more or less sulphate of iron, varying from five to seven parts in the thousand. Roman alum is among the purest varieties, and is, therefore, much esteemed. The iron is readily detected by adding to a solution of the suspected alum, a few drops of the ferro- cyanuret of potassium, which will cause a greenish-blue tint, if iron be present. It maybe detected also by precipitating the alumina with a solution of potassa, and afterwards adding the alkali in excess. This will redissolve the alumina; but any iron which may have been precipitated with it, will be left in the state of sesquioxide. The quantity of iron usually present, though small, is injurious to the alum when used in dyeing. It may, however, be purified, either by dissolving it in the smallest quantity of boiling water, and stirring the solution as it cools, or by repeated solu- tions and crystallizations. Incompalibles. Alum is incompatible with the alkalies and their carbo- nates, lime and lime-water, magnesia and its carbonate, tartrate of potassa, and acetate of lead. Composition. Alum was regarded as a sulphate of alumina, until it was proved by Descroizilles, Vauquelin, and Chaptal to contain also sulphate of potassa, sulphate of ammonia, or both these salts. When its second base is potassa, it consists of one equivalent of tersulphate of alumina 171-4, one of sulphate of potassa 87-15, and twenty-four of water 216=474-55. In the ammoniacal alum, the equivalent of sulphate of potassa is replaced by one of sulphate of oxide of ammonium. In other respects its composition is the same. Alumina is classed by the chemist as an earth. It is essential to the constitution of true alum, as it cannot be replaced by any other base. It may be obtained by precipitating a solution of alum by water of ammo- PART I. Alumen. 79 nia, added in excess. As thus procured, it presents a gelatinous appear- ance, and is in the state of hydrate. In this form, it has been used by some practitioners on the continent of Europe in diarrhoea. In the form of clay, dried, it has been employed as a styptic to leech bites. Alumina consists of two eqs. of a metallic radical called aluminium 27-4, and three of oxygen 24=51-4. It is, therefore, a sesquioxide. Medical Properties, fyc. Alum, in ordinary medicinal doses, is astrin- gent; in large doses, purgative. It is used both as an internal and local remedy. Internally it is employed as an astringent in passive hemorrhages, colliquative sweats, diabetes, and chronic dysentery and diarrhoea; also in gleet and leucorrhoea, in which latter diseases it is sometimes combined with cubebs. It has been recommended by Kreysig and Dzondi in dilatation of the heart and in aortic aneurism. A striking case of benefit from alum in dila- tation of the heart, by Schlesier, is recorded in the Eclectic Journal of Medi- cine, iv. 135,from the Medicinische Zeitung. In this case, the alum was given in combination with rhatany and digitalis. As a purgative, it has been employed in colica pictonum. The practice was introduced by a Dutch physician in 1752, and imitated by Dr. Percival with great success. Its use in this disease has been latterly revived, and its efficacy fully sustained by Kapeler and Gendrin, of Paris, and Copland, of London. It allays nausea and vomiting, relieves flatulence, mitigates the pain, and opens the bowels with more certainty than any other medicine. Its remarkable influence in allaying the tormina in this disease, has led some to attribute to it a sedative operation. Sometimes it is advantageously conjoined with opium and camphor. The local applications of alum are numerous. In various anginose affec- tions, it is found highly useful, applied topically either in powder or solution. When the affection is attended with membranous exudation, its efficacy has been particularly insisted on by Bretonneau, applied in solution prepared with vinegar, and honey for adults, and in powder, by insufflation, in the cases of children. When used in the latter way, a drachm of finely pow- dered alum may be placed in one end of a tube, and then blown by means of the breath into the throat of the child. M. Velpeau, in 1835, extended the observations of M. Bretonneau, and has used alum successfully, not only in simple inflammatory sorethroat, but in those forms of angina de- pendent on small-pox, scarlatina, &c. In these cases, the powdered alum may be applied several times a day to the fauces, by means of the index finger, so as to cover the affected surfaces. In relaxation of the uvula, and in the beginning of sorethroat, with or without membraniform exudation, a solution of alum forms*one of our best gargles. It forms also a useful astringent wash in certain states of mercurial sore-mouth. In gleet and leucorrhoea the solution is an approved remedy, either alone or conjoined with sulphate of zinc. (See Liquor Aluminis Compositus, Lond.) It is frequently applied as a local styptic, in epistaxis, by means of a plug soaked in a saturated solution, and pressed up the nostril, and in menorrhagia, by the aid of a sponge, soaked in a similar solution, and introduced into the vagina. In the latter stages of conjunctival inflammation it is often proper, and in the purulent ophthalmia of infants, it forms the most efficacious remedy we possess. In these cases, it is sometimes applied in the form of the alum cataplasm. (See Cataplasma Aluminis, Dub.) The ordinary dose of alum is from ten to twenty grains, repeated every two or three hours, taken in the form of pill or solution. To prevent nausea, nutmeg or some aromatic water may be added. In colica pictonum the dose is from half a drachm to two drachms, given in solution every three or 80 Alumen.—Ammonia. PART I. four hours. An elegant way of exhibiting alum, is in the form of alum whey, made by boiling two drachms of alum with a pint of milk, and then straining to separate the curd. The dose is a wineglassful, containing about fifteen grains of alum. As a collyrium, the solution is made of various strengths, as four, six, or eight grains to the fluidounce of water. A. solu- tion containing from half an ounce to an ounce of alum in a pint of water, and sweetened with honey, forms a convenient gargle. Solutions for gleet and leucorrhoea, and as topical applications to ulcers, &c, must vary in strength according to the state of the parts to which they are applied. Off Prep. Alumen Exsiccatum, U. S„ Lond., Ed., Dub.; Cataplasma Aluminis, Dub.; Liquor Aluminis Compositus, Lond.; Pulvis Aluminis Compositus, Ed. ■"• AMMONIA. Ammonia. All the ammoniacal compounds owe their distinctive properties to the pre- sence of a peculiar gaseous substance, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen, called ammonia. This is most easily obtained by the action of lime on muriate of ammonia or sal ammoniac; when the lime unites with the muri- atic acid, so as to form chloride of calcium and water, and expels the am- monia. It is transparent and colourless, like common air, but possesses a hot and acrid taste, and an exceedingly pungent smell. It has a powerful- alkaline reaction, and, from this property and its gaseous nature, was called the volatile alkali by the earlier chemists. Its sp. gr .is 0-59. It is irre- spirable, the glottis closing spasmodically when the attempt is made to breathe it. It consists of one eq. of nitrogen 14, and three of hydrogen 3=17; or, in volumes, of one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, condensed into two volumes. Its symbol is NH3. - The salts of ammonia may be divided into hydracid salts and oxacid salts. Thus, when muriatic acid unites with ammonia, we have the hydracid salt called muriate of ammonia, which is usually considered to be a compound of muriatic acid and ammonia, with the symbol NH3,HC1. But Berzelius supposes that, in the act of uniting, the hydrogen of the muriatic acid is transferred to the elements of the ammonia, and that the compound, thus formed, uniting with the chlorine, gives rise to a salt, represented by NH4,C1. To this hypothetical compound (NH4) Berzelius gives the name of ammo- nium, and, consequently, to muriate of ammonia, the appellation of chloride of ammonium. * Applying the same view to the oxacid salts of ammonia, Berzelius con- ceives that they are compounds of oxide of ammonium (NH40) with their several acids. It is found that the true oxacid salts of ammonia always con- tain one eq. of water, which cannot be separated from them without destroy- ing their nature; and it is supposed that the elements of this eq. of water, united with the elements of one eq. of ammonia, form oxide of ammonium. To apply the new view to sulphate of ammonia, this salt is usually con- sidered to be a protohydrated sulphate of ammonia (NH3,S03,HO); but on the new view, it is the sulphate of oxide of ammonium, without water (NH40,S03). The following is a table of the principal officinal preparations containing ammonia, included in the British and United States Pharmacopoeias, with the synonymes. PART I. Ammonia. 81 I. In Aqueous Solution. Liquor Ammoniae Fortior, U. S.; Ammoniae Liquor Fortior, Lond.; Ammonias Aqua Fortior, Ed.—Stronger Solution of Am- monia. Linimentum Ammoniae Compositum, Ed. Tinctura Ammoniae Composita, Lond. Liquor Ammoniae, U. S„ Lond.; Ammoniae Aqua, Ed.; Ammoniae Causticae Aqua, Dub.—Solution of Ammonia.—Water of Ammonia. Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum, U. S.; Hydrargyri Ammonio-Chlo- ndum, Lond.; Hydrargyri Praecipitatum Album, Ed.; Hy- drargyri Submurias Ammoniatum, Dub.—White Precipitate. Linimentum Ammoniae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub .—Liniment of Ammonia.— Volatile Liniment. Linimentum Camphorae Compositum, Lond., Dub. Linimentum Hydrargyri Compositum, Lond. II. In Spirituous Solution. Spiritus Ammoniae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.—Spirit of Ammonia. Tinctura Castorei Ammoniata, Ed. Tinctura Guaiaci Ammoniata, Ed. Tinctura Opii Ammoniata, Ed. Tinctura Valerianae Ammoniata, Ed., Dub. Spiritus Ammoniae Aromaticus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.—Aro- matic Spirit of Ammonia. Tinctura Colchici Composita, Lond. Tinctura Guaiaci Ammoniata, U. S., Dub.; Tinctura Guaiaci Composita, Lond. Tinctura Valerianae Ammoniata, U. S.; Tinctura Valerianae Com- posita, Lond. Spiritus Ammoniae Foetidus, Lond., Ed., Dub.—Fetid Spirit of Ammonia. III. In Saline Combination. Ammoniae Murias, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Ammonia? Hydrochloras, Lond.—Muriate of Ammonia.—Sal Ammoniac. Ferrum Ammoniatum, U. S.; Ferri Ammonio-Chloridum, Lond. Ammoniae Carbonas, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Ammonias Sesquicarbonas, Lond.—Carbonate of Ammonia.—Mild Volatile Alkali. Cuprum Ammoniatum, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Cupri Ammonio-Sul- phas, Lond. Liquor Ammoniae Sesquicarbonatis, Lond.; Ammoniae Carbonatis Aqua, Ed., Dub. Linimentum Ammoniae Sesquicarbonatis, Lond. Ammoniae Bicarbonas, Dub. Liquor Ammoniae Acetatis, U. S., Lond.; Ammonia? Acetatis Aqua, Ed., Dub.—Spirit of Mindererus. Ammoniae Hydrosulphuretum, Dub. The ammonia in the spirit of ammonia of the U. S. and Ed. Pharmaco- poeias is in the caustic state; in the corresponding preparations of the London and Dublin Colleges, it is carbonated. In the aromatic and fetid spirits of ammonia, the alkali is caustic in the Edinburgh preparations, but carbonated in those of the other Pharmacopoeias. It is seen by the table that the am- moniated tinctures are made in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia with the simple spirit of ammonia; in the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, with the aromatic spirit. Of the two ammoniated tinctures of the Dublin Col- lege, one is made with the simple, the other with the aromatic spirit. B. S2 Liquor Ammonite Fortior. part I. LIQUOR AMMONLE FORTIOR. U.S. Stronger Solution of Ammonia. "An aqueous solution of Ammonia of the specific gravity 0-882." U. S. Off. Syn. AMMONLE LIQUOR FORTIOR. Lond.; AMMONLJE AQUA FORTIOR. Ed. This preparation was first introduced into the London Pharmacopoeia ot 1836, and has since been successively admitted into those of Edinburgh and the United States. It is too strong for internal exhibition, but forms a convenient ammoniacal solution for reduction, with distilled water, to the strength of ordinary officinal solution of Ammonia (Liquor Ammoniae), or for preparing strong rubefacient and vesicating lotions and liniments. (See Linimentum Ammoniae Compositum, Ed.) The United States and London Pharmacopoeias include this solution in the list of the Materia Medica; but in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, a formula is given for its preparation, which is as follows : " Take of Muriate of Ammonia, thirteen ounces; Quicklime, thirteen ounces; Water, seven fluidounces and a half; Distilled Water, twelve fluid- ounces. Slake the Lime with the water, cover it up till it cool, triturate it well and quickly with the Muriate of Ammonia previously in fine powder, and put the mixture into a glass retort, to which is attached a receiver with a safety-tube. Connect with the receiver a bottle also provided with a safety-tube, and containing four ounces of the Distilled Water, but capable of holding twice as much. Connect this bottle with another loosely corked, and containing the remaining eight ounces of Distilled Water. The com- municating tubes must descend to the bottom of the bottles at the further end from the retort; and the receiver and bottles must be kept cool by snow, ice, or a running stream of very cold water. Apply to the retort a gradually increasing heat till gas ceases to be evolved; remove the retort, cork up the aperture in the receiver where it was connected with the retort, and apply to the receiver a gentle and gradually increasing heat, to drive over as much of the gas in the liquid contained in it, but as little of the water as possible. Should the liquid in the last bottle not have the density of 960, reduce it with some of the Stronger Aqua Ammonia? in the first bottle, or raise it with Distilled Water, so as to form Aqua Ammoniae of the prescribed density." In this process the ammonia is disengaged in the usual manner from muriate of ammonia by the action of lime, as explained under the head of Liquor Ammoniae. But it is perceived, by the details of the process, that the Edinburgh College propose to obtain both the stronger and ordinary solution of ammonia at one operation. This is done by connecting two bottles with the retort, through an intervening empty receiver, and charging them severally with one-third and two-thirds of the prescribed distilled water. The receiver between the retort and the bottles serves to detain impurities. The water in the first bottle becomes nearly saturated with ammonia, a result which is favoured by the application of cold. After the gas has ceased to be disengaged from the retort, it is removed; and any am- monia which may have been condensed with water in the receiver, is saved by being driven over by a gentle heat. As the water in the first bottle will not take up all the ammonia disengaged, the balance is allowed to pass into the second bottle, where it saturates the water to a greater or less extent, forming a weak aqueous ammonia. The aqueous ammonia in the first bottle is the Edinburgh Ammoniae Aqua Fortior, and that in the second is part i. Liquor Ammonice Fortior. 83 converted into Liquor Ammoniae of the proper officinal strength, by the addi- tion of aqueous ammonia from the first bottle, if too weak, or of distilled water, if too strong. The Edinburgh process has the merit of economizing the ammonia, and of furnishing two preparations at one operation. Properties of Aqueous Ammonia of maximum strength. It is a colour- less liquid, of a caustic, acrid taste, and peculiar, pungent smell. It is strongly alkaline, and immediately changes turmeric to reddish-brown when held over its fumes. Cooled down to 40° below zero, it concretes into a gelatinous mass, and at the temperature of 130° enters into ebullition, owing to the rapid disengagement of the gas. Its sp. gr. is 0-875 at 50°, when it contains 32-5 per cent, of ammonia. Properties of the Officinal Stronger Solution of Ammonia. This has similar properties to those mentioned above. Its officinal sp. gr. is 0-882, U. S., Lond.; 0-880, Ed. When of the density 0-882, it contains about 29 per cent, of ammonia. The liquor ammoniae fortior of the shops is usually not so strong, commonly ranging in density from 0-886 to 0-910. Even though of proper officinal strength at first, it generally becomes gradually weaker by the escape of ammonia. If precipitated by lime-water, it con- tains carbonic acid. After having been saturated with nitric acid, a preci- pitate produced by carbonate of ammonia indicates earthy impurity; by nitrate of silver, either muriatic acid or a chloride. IJquor Ammoniae Fortior is a convenient preparation for making Liquor Ammoniae, by due dilution with distilled water; and the Pharmacopoeias have given directions for this purpose. In the U. S. and London Pharma- copoeias, the stronger solution is directed to be diluted with two measures of distilled water; in the Edinburgh, with two and a half measures. By dilu- tion in these proportions, the stronger preparation is brought uniformly to the strength of Liquor Ammonia? (sp. gr. 0-960). When purchasing or making the Stronger Solution of Ammonia, the apothecary should not trust to its being of the officinal strength; but ascer- tain the point by taking its density, either with the specific gravity bottle or the hydrometer. In reducing it to make Liquor Ammonia?, the same pre- caution should be used; and if the mixture should not have the sp. gr. of 0-960, it should be brought to that density by the addition either of the stronger solution or of distilled water, as the case may require. Medical Properties and Uses. This solution is too strong for medical employment in its unmixed state. Its rubefacient, vesicant, and caustic pro- perties, when duly reduced by admixture with tincture of camphor and spirit of rosemary, will be noticed under the head of Linimentum Ammoniae Com- positum. When a solution of ammonia of 25° (sp. gr. 0-905) is mixed with fatty matter in certain proportions, the mixture forms the vesicating ammoniacal ointment of Dr. Gondret. The amended formula for this ointment is as follows: Take of lard 32 parts, oil of sweet almonds 2 parts. Melt them together by the gentle heat of a candle or lamp, and pour the melted mixture into a bottle with a wide mouth. Then add 17 parts of solution of ammonia, of 25°, and mix, with continued agitation, until the whole is cold. The ointment must be preserved in a bottle with a ground stopper, and kept in a cool place. When well prepared it vesicates in ten minutes. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser. ix. 39.) The officinal stronger solution of ammonia is used as a chemical agent to prepare two Edinburgh officinals, Ferrugo and Ferri Oxidum Nigrum. Off. Prep. Linimentum Ammoniae Compositum, Ed.; Liquor Ammoniae, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Ammonia? Composita, Lond. B. 84 Ammonice Murias. part I. AMMONLE MURIAS. U. S., Ed., Dub. Muriate of Ammonia. " Chlorohydrate of Ammonia." U. S. Off. Syn. AMMONIA HYDROCHLORAS. Lond. Sal ammoniac, Hydrochlorate of ammonia; Sel ammoniac, Fr.; Salmiak, Germ.; Sale ammoniaco, Ital; Sal ammoniaco, Span. This salt is placed in the Materia Medica list of all the Pharmacopoeias commented on in this work. It originally came from Egypt, where it was obtained by sublimation from the soot afforded by the combustion of camels' dung, which is used in that country for fuel. Preparation. At present muriate of ammonia is derived from two prin- cipal sources, the ammoniacal liquor, called gas liquor, found in the condens- ing vessels of coal gas-works, and the brown, fetid ammoniacal liquor, known under the name of bone spirit, which is a secondary product, obtained, dur- ing the destructive distillation of bones, by the manufacturers of animal char- coal for the use of sugar-refiners. These two liquors are the source of all the ammoniacal compounds; for they are both used to obtain muriate of ammonia, and this salt is employed, directly or indirectly, in obtaining all the other salts of ammonia. The gas liquor contains carbonate, hydrocyanate, hydrosulphate, and sul- phate of ammonia, but principally the carbonate. The first three salts are converted into sulphate by the addition of sulphuric acid, and due evapora- tion, whereby brown crystals of sulphate of ammonia are obtained. These are then sublimed with chloride of sodium in iron pots, lined with clay and furnished with a leaden dome or head. By the mutual action of the sul- phate, chloride, and water, there are formed muriate of ammonia which sublimes into the head, and sulphate of soda which remains behind. Thus NH3,S03,HO and NaCl become NH3,HC1 and NaO,S03. Sometimes, in- stead of the ammonia being first converted into the sulphate, it is made at once into muriate of ammonia by the addition of muriatic acid or chloride of cal- cium. When chloride of calcium is employed, the chief reaction takes place between carbonate of ammonia and the chloride, with the result of forming muriate of ammonia in solution, and a precipitate .of carbonate of lime. The solution is duly evaporated, whereby brown crystals of muriate of am- monia are obtained. These, after having been dried, are purified by sub- limation in an iron subliming pot, coated with a composition of clay, sand, and charcoal, and covered with a dome of lead. These pots are sometimes sufficiently large to hold 500 pounds. " A gentle fire is kept up under the subliming pot for seven or eight days, when the dome having cooled down, and the sal ammoniac somewhat contracted, so as to loosen from the sides, the dome is thrown off from the iron pot, and about two or three hundred weight of white, semi-transparent muriate of ammonia are knocked off in cakes." (Pereira.) In the destructive distillation of bones for making animal charcoal, or in- deed, of any animal substance whatever, the distilled products are the bone spirit already mentioned, being chiefly an aqueous solution of carbonate of ammonia, and an empyreumatic oil, called animal oil. These products all result from a new arrangement of the ultimate constituents of the animal matter. Hydrogen and oxygen form water; carbon and oxygen, carbonic acid ; nitrogen and hydrogen, ammonia; and carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen, the animal oil. PART I. Ammoniae Murias. 85 iusfde?rrih//f "^ may.b«obtained/rom bone spirit in the manner subhate n? Pr°CUnng U fT.gaJS- ]^UOr- Sometimes, however, the ?b( °f .ammonia ls not made by direct combination, but by dige ting the bone spirit with ground plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime). Bv doubli sulnhTnf'°n' SUl?hate °,f amm°nia and Carb0na'e of lime "™ fonSd The ommon sakTth? * ^ C°nVerte,d -^ the mUriate ^ ^blimation with common salt, in the manner just explained. For obtaining muriate of ammonia, other processes, besides those o-iven above, have been proposed or practised; for an accoun of which the rfX ks referred to the Chemical Essays of the late Mr. Parkes, who has appro pnated a separate essay to the subject PP VnhT4r?al- Hi*lory- AU the m^iate of ammonia consumed in the under th" ^Tl^ fr0m abr°ad' Its ^mercial varieties are known Cat, tL T68, °f thG C7'Ude and refinecL The crude » ^Ported from Calcutta m chests, containing from 350 to 400 pounds. This variety^ Z'Zt ahm0St exdfVel/rhy c°PPersmit^ and other artisans fn bm faces hTu g empl°yeduf°r -^ pUrpose of keePinS the metallic sur- from EnflanHPrePTt0ry t0 hrm§' ■ The refined comes t0 us exclusively rrom Lngland, packed in casks containing from 5 to 10 cwt ™hZertl-S' -Munate of ammonia is a white, translucent, tough, fibrous on one Jrngin C°mmerCe ? kT CakeS' ab0Ut Uvo inches thick convex no TelT Tta,lC°nCaVei°,Vhr ^ II h&S a pUn^ent' saline ™e, but no smell. Its sp gr. is 1-45. It dissolves in three parts of cold, and one of re STnr^^ C°ld " Pr°dUC/d dUn'^ itS S0luti0n- li is le- -luble in rectified spirit than in water, and sparingly so in absolute alcohol. A hot concentrated aqueous solution as it cools, deposits the salt in feathery crys- tals Ihis salt is very difficult to powder in the ordinary way. Its pulver- oEnorZer'iry,be-effeCted readily ^ makin^ a boiW saturated ?n ™» 1 / Sa•' aud SUmng ll as ll cools- The salt may thus be made solfZ ^' A aU ^ ?ate' *ftT ^^ been drained from the remaining solution and dried may be readily powdered. Muriate of ammonia, at a red heat, sublimes without decomposition, as its mode of preparation proves JS t0 a damP atmosphere, it becomes slightly moist. It has the pro- perty of increasing the solubility of corrosive sublimate in water. (See Liquor Hydrargyri BzchloruliLond.) It is decomposed by the strong mineral acids and by the alkalies and alkaline eanhs; the former disengaging muriatic acid, the latter, ammonia, both sensible to the smell. Muriate of Zl?^ 1S Sal, ",SUally emP,oyed f°r obtaining gaseous ammonia, wh.ch is conveniently disengaged by means of lime. Though neutral in composition, it slightly reddens litmus. It is incompatible with acetate of lead and nitrate of stiver, producing a precipitate, with the former, of chlo- ride of lead, with the latter, of chloride of silver. According to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, muriate of ammonia is not liable to adulteration. If it be not entirely volatilized by heat and soluble in water, it contains impurity. If the salt be entirely volatilized bv heat and yet produces a precipitate with chloride of barium, the presence of sulphate of ammonia is indicated. Composition. Muriate of ammonia is composed of one eq. of muriatic acid 36-42, and one of ammonia 17=53-42; or, in ultimate constituents, of one eq. of chlorine, one of nitrogen, and four of hydrogen. Viewed as chloride of ammonium, it consists of one eq. of chlorine and one of ammo- nium (I\H4,U). In equivalent volumes, it consists of two volumes of muri- atic acid gas, and two volumes of ammonia, condensed into a solid Medical Properties. Muriate of ammonia is employed both internally 86 Ammonia Murias.—Ammoniacum. part I. and externally. Internally it acts primarily on the alimentary canal, purging in large doses, but rather constipating in small ones. Its secondary action is alleged to be that of a stimulating alterative on the capillary, glandular, and lymphatic systems, and on the mucous, serous, and fibrous tissues, tne nutrition of which it is supposed to improve. It has been recommended in catarrhal and rheumatic fevers; in pleuritis, peritonitis, dysentery, and other inflammations of the serous and mucous membranes, after the nrst violence of the disease has abated; in chronic inflammation and enlargement of the thoracic and abdominal viscera; and in amenorrhoea, when dependent on deficient action of the uterus. Several cases of pectoral disease, simu- lating incipient phthisis, are reported to have been cured by this salt in Otto's Bibliothek for 1834. According to Dr. Watson, it is a very effica- cious remedy in hemicrania. The dose is from five to thirty grains' repeated every two or three hours, either given in powder mixed with powdered gum or sugar, or dissolved in syrup or mucilage. It is very little used as an internal remedy in the United States; but is a good deal employed on the continent of Europe, especially in Germany, where it is deemed a powerful alterative and resolvent. Externally, muriate of ammonia is used in solution as a stimulant and resolvent in contusions, indolent tumours, &c. The strength of the solution must be varied according to the intention in view. An ounce of the salt, dissolved in nine fluidounces of water and one of alcohol, forms a solution of convenient strength. When the solution is to be used as a wash for ulcers, or an injection in leucorrhoea, it should not contain more than from one to four drachms of the salt to a pint of water. Off. Prep. Ammoniae Aqua Fortior, Ed.; Ammoniae Carbonas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Ferrum Ammoniatum, U.S., Lond.; Liquor Ammonia?, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Hydrargyri Bichloridi, Lond.; Spiritus Ammoniae, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Spiritus Ammoniae Aromaticus, U.S., Lond.; Spiritus Ammoniae Foetidus, Lond. B. AMMONIACUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Ammoniac. "The concrete juice of Dorema Ammoniacum." U.S. "Dorema Am- moniacum. Gummi-resina." Lond. " Gummy-resinous exudation of Dorema Ammoniacum." Ed. Off. Syn. AMMONIACUM GUMMI. HERACLEUM GUMMIFE- RUM. Gummi Resina. Dub. Gomme ammoniaque, Fr.; Ammoniak, Germ.; Gomma ammoniaco, Ital; Gomma amoniaco, Span.; TJshek, Arab.; Scmugh belshereen, Persian. Much uncertainty long existed as to the ammoniac plant. It was gene- rally believed to be a species of Ferula, till Willdenow raised, from some seeds mixed with the gum-resin found in the shops, a plant which he ascer- tained to be an Heracleum, and named H. gummiferum, under the impres- sion that it must be the true source of the medicine. On this authority, the plant was adopted by the British Colleges, and recognised in former editions of our national Pharmacopoeia. Willdenow expressly acknowledged that he could not procure from it any gum-resin, but ascribed the result to the influ- ence of climate. The Heracleum, however, did not correspond exactly with the representations given of the ammoniac plant by travellers; and Sprengel ascertained that it was a native of the Pyrenees, and never produced gum. PART I. Ammoniacum. 87 xMr. Jackson, in his account of Morocco, imperfectly describes a plant indi- genous in that country, supposed to be a species of Ferula, from which gum-ammoniac is procured by the natives. This plant has been ascertained by Dr. Falconer to be Ferula Tingitana (Royle's Mat. Med.), and its product is thought to be the ammoniacum of the ancients, which was ob- tained from Africa; but this is not the drug now used under that name, which is derived exclusively from Persia. M. Fontanier, who resided many years in Persia, saw the ammoniac plant growing in the province of Fars, and transmitted a drawing of it with specimens to Paris. From these it was inferred to be a species of Ferula; and Merat and De Lens proposed for it the name originally applied to it by Lemery, of F. ammonifera. It was subsequently, however, ascertained, from specimens obtained in Persia by Colonel Wright, and examined by Dr. David Don, that it belonged to a genus allied to Ferula, but essentially different, and named by Mr. Don, Dorema. A description of it is contained in the 16th volume of the Lin- n3ean Transactions, under the name of Dorema Ammoniacum. This is now acknowledged by all the officinal authorities except the Dublin Col- lege. The same plant has been described and figured by Jaubert and Spach in their "Illustrations of Oriental Plants," (Paris, 1842, t. 40, p. 7b), by the name of Diserneston gummiferum, under the erroneous im- pression that it belonged to a previously undescribed genus. The ammoniac plant grows spontaneously in Farsistan, Irauk, Chorassan, and other Persian provinces. Dr. Grant found it growing abundantly in Syghan near Bameean, on the nothwest slope of the Hindoo Coosh moun- tains. It attains the height of six or seven feet, and in the spring and early part of summer abounds in a milky juice, which flows out upon the slightest puncture. From the accounts of travellers it appears, that, in the month of May, the plant is pierced in innumerable places by an insect of the beetle kind. The juice, exuding through the punctures, concretes upon the stem, and when quite dry is collected by the natives. M. Fonta- nier states that the juice exudes spontaneously, and that the harvest is about the middle of June. According to Dr. Grant, the drug is collected in Syghan, like assafetida, from the root of the plant. The gum-resin is sent to Bushire, whence it is transmitted to India. It reaches this country usually by the route of Calcutta. The name of the drug is thought to have been derived from the temple of Jupiter Ammon in the Lybian desert, where the ammoniac of the ancients is said to have been collected; but Mr. Don considers it a corruption of Armeniacum, originating in the circumstance that the gum-resin was formerly imported into Europe through Armenia. Properties. Ammoniac comes either in the state of tears, or in aggregate masses, and in both forms is frequently mixed with impurities. That of the tears, however,is preferable, as the purestmay be conveniently picked outand kept for use. These are of an irregular shape, usually more or less globular, opaque, yellowish on the outside, whitish within, compact, homogeneous, brittle when cold, and breaking with a conchoidal shining fracture. The masses are of a darker colour and less uniform structure, appearing, when broken, as if composed of numerous white or whitish tears, embedded in a dirty gray or brownish substance, and frequently mingled with foreign matters, such as seeds, fragments of vegetables, and sand, or other earth. The smell of ammoniac is peculiar, and stronger in the mass than in the tears. The taste is slightly sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid. The sp. gr. is 1-207. When heated, the gum-resin softens and becomes adhesive, but does not melt. It burns with a white flame, swelling up, and emitting a smoke of a strong, resinous, slightly alliaceous odour. It is partly soluble in water, alcohol, ether, vinegar, and alkaline solutions. Triturated with 88 Ammoniacum.—Amygdala Amara. part i. water, it forms an opaque milky emulsion, which becomes clear upon stand- ing. The alcoholic solution is transparent, but is rendered milky by the addition of water. Bucholz obtained from 100 parts of ammoniac, 22-4 parts of gum, 72-0 of resin, 1-6 of bassorin, and 4-0 of water including volatile oil and loss. Braconnot obtained 18-4 per cent, of gum, 70-0 of resin, 4-4 of a gluten-like substance (bassorin), and 6-0 of water, with 1.2 per cent, of loss. Hagen succeeded in procuring the volatile oil in a sepa- rate state by repeated distillation with water. It has a penetrating dis- agreeable odour, and a taste at first mild, but afterwards bitter and nauseous. The resin of ammoniac is dissolved by alcohol, and the fixed and volatile oils, but is divided by ether into two resins, of which one is soluble, the other insoluble in that menstruum. Medical Properties and Uses. This gum-resin is stimulant and expecto- rant, in large doses cathartic, and, like many other stimulants, may be so given as occasionally to prove diaphoretic, diuretic, or emmenagogue. It has been employed in medicine from the highest antiquity, being mentioned in the writings of Hippocrates. The complaints in which it is most fre- quently used are chronic catarrh, asthma, and other pectoral affections, attended with deficient expectoration without acute inflammation, or with a too copious secretion from the bronchial mucous membrane, dependent upon debility of the vessels. It is thought to have been useful in some cases of amenorrhoea, and in chlorotic and hysterical conditions of the system arising out of this complaint. It has also been prescribed in obstructions or chronic engorgements of the abdominal viscera, under the vague notion of its deob- struent power. Any good which it may do in these affections, is more probably ascribable to. its revulsive action upon the alimentary mucous membrane. Authors speak of its utility in long and obstinate colics de- pendent on mucous matter lodged in the intestines; but it would be difficult to ascertain in what cases such mucous matter existed, and, even allowing its presence, to decide whether it was a cause or a result of the diseased action. Ammoniac is usually administered in combination with other ex- pectorants, with tonics, or emmenagogues. It is much less used than for- merly. Externally applied in the shape of a plaster, it is thought to be useful as a discutient or resolvent in white swellings of the joints and other indolent tumours. (See Emplastrum Ammoniaci.) It is given in substance in the shape of pill or emulsion. The latter form is preferable. (See Mistura Ammoniaci.) The dose is from ten to thirty grains. Off.Prep. Emplastrum Ammoniaci, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emplas- trum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emplastrum Gum- mosum, Ed.; Mistura Ammoniaci, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Ipecacuanhae Composites, Lond.; Pilulae Scillae Compositae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. AMYGDALA AMARA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Bitter Almonds. "The kernels of the fruit of Amygdalus communis—variety amara." U. S. "Amygdalus communis. (De Cand.) var. a. Nuclei." Lond. "Ker- nels of Amygdalus communis, var. a. (DC.)" Ed. Off. Syn. AMYGDALAE AMAR^E. Amygdalus communis. Nuclei. Dub. Amande amere, Fr.; Bittere Mandeln, Germ.; Mandorle amare, Ital; Almendra amarga, Span. part i. Amygdala Amara.—Amygdala Dulcis. 89 AMYGDALA DULCIS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Sweet Almonds. "The kernels of the fruit of Amygdalus communis—variety dulcis." U. S. "Amygdalus communis. (De Cand.) var. j3. Nuclei." Lond. "Kernels of Amygdalus communis, var. j3. and y. (DC.)" Ed. Off. Syn. AMYGDALAE DULCES. Amygdalus communis. Nuclei. Dub. Amande douce, Fr.; Susse Mandeln, Germ.; Mandorle dolci, Ital; Almendra dulce, Span. Amygdalus. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Amygdalea;. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Petals five. Drupe with a nut perfo- rated with pores. Willd. Amygdalus communis. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 982; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 507. t. 183. The almond tree rises usually from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and divides into numerous spreading branches. The leaves stand upon short footstalks, are about three inches long, and three quarters of an inch broad, elliptical, pointed at both ends, veined, minutely serrated, with the lower serratures and petioles glandular, and are of a bright green colour. The flowers are large, of a pale red colour varying to white, with very short peduncles, and petals longer than the calyx, and are usually placed in nume- rous pairs upon the branches. The fruit is of the peach kind, with the outer covering thin, tough, dry, and marked with a longitudinal furrow, where it opens when fully ripe. Within this covering is a rough shell, which con- tains the kernel or almond. There are several varieties of this species of Amygdalus, differing chiefly in the size and shape of the fruit, the thickness of the shell, and the taste of the kernel. The two most important are the Amygdalus (communis) dulcis, and the Amygdalus (communis) amara, the former bearing sweet, the latter bitter almonds. Another variety is the fragilis of De Candolle, which yields the soft-shelled almonds. The almond tree is a native of Persia, Syria, and Barbary, and is very extensively cultivated in various parts of the South of Europe. It has been introduced into the United States; but in the northern and middle sections the fruit does not usually come to perfection. We are supplied with sweet almonds chiefly from Spain and the south of France. They are distinguished into the soft-shelled and hard-shelled, the former of which come from Mar- seilles and Bordeaux, the latter from Malaga. From the latter port they are sometimes brought to us without the shell. In British commerce, the two chief varieties are the Jordan and Valentia almonds, the former imported from Malaga, the latter from Valentia. The former are longer, narrower, more pointed, and more highly esteemed than the latter. The bitter almonds are obtained chiefly from Morocco, and are exported from Mogador. Properties. The shape and appearance of almonds are too well known to require description. Each kernel consists of two white cotyledons, en- closed in a thin, yellowish-brown, bitter skin, which is easily separable after immersion in boilincr water. When deprived of this covering, they are called blanched almonds." On exposure to the air they are apt to become rancid ; but, if thoroughly dried and kept in well closed glass vessels, they may be preserved unaltered for many years. The two varieties require each a sepa- rate notice. 9* 90 Amygdala Amara.—Amygdala Dulcis. parti. 1. Amygdala Dulcis. Sweet Almonds. These, when blanched, are without smell, and have a sweet, very pleasant taste, which has rendered them a favourite article of diet in almost all countries where they are readily attainable. They are, however, generally considered of difficult digestion. By the analysis of M. Boullay, it appears that they contain in 100 parts, 5 parts of pellicle, 54 of fixed oil, 24 of albumen, 6 of uncrystallizable sugar, 3 of gum, 4 of fibrous matter, 3-5 of water, and 0-5 of acetic acid comprising loss. The albumen differs somewhat from ordinary vegetable albumen, and has received the name of emidsin. It may be obtained separate by treating the emulsion of almonds with ether, allowing the mixture, after frequent agitation, to stand until a clear fluid separates at the bottom of the vessel, drawing this off by a syphon, adding alcohol to it so as to precipitate the emulsin, then washing the precipitate with fresh alcohol, and drying it under the receiver of an air-pump. In this state it is a white powder, inodorous and tasteless, soluble in water, and insoluble in ether and alcohol. Its solu- tion coagulates at 212°. Its distinguishing property is that of producing certain changes hereafter to be noticed in amygdalin, which property it loses when coagulated by heat. (Thomson and Richardson, Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 351, from Athenaeum.) It consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen, and is probably identical with the principle for which Robiquet proposed the name of synaptase. Thomson and Richardson sup- pose, from their experiments, that it may be an amide. (See Althaea.) The fixed oil, which may be obtained by expression, is colourless or slightly tinged with yellow, sweet and bland to the taste, and maybe substituted for olive oil in most of the economical uses to which the latter is applied. (See Oleum Amygdalae.) Almonds, when rubbed with water, form a milky emulsion, the insoluble matters being suspended by the agency of the albu- minous, mucilaginous, and saccharine principles. 2. Amygdala Amara. Bitter Almonds. These are smaller than the pre- ceding variety. They have the bitter taste of the peach-kernel, and, though in their natural state inodorous or nearly so, have, when triturated with water, the fragrance of the peach blossom. They contain the same ingredients as sweet almonds, and like them form a milky emulsion with water. It was formerly supposed that they also contained hydrocyanic acid and an essential oil, to which their peculiar taste and smell, and their peculiar operation upon the system were ascribed. It was, however, ascertained by MM. Robi- quet and Boutron, that these principles do not pre-exist in the almond, but result from the reaction of water; and Wohler and Liebig have proved, what was suspected by Robiquet, that they are formed out of a substance of pecu- liar properties, denominated amygdalin, which is the characteristic consti- tuent of bitter almonds. This substance, which was discovered by Robiquet and Boutron, is white, crystallizable, inodorous, of a sweetish bitter taste, unalterable in the air, freely soluble in water and hot alcohol, very slightly soluble in cold alcohol, and insoluble in ether. Its elementary constituents are nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and it is supposed to be an amide; as, when treated with an alkali, it yields ammonia and a peculiar acid which has been named amygdalic acid. Liebig and Wohler recommend the following process for procuring it, in which the object of the fermentation is to destroy the sugar with which it is associated. Bitter almonds, previously deprived of their fixed oil by pressure, are to be boiled in successive por- tions of alcohol till they are exhausted. From the liquors thus obtained, all the alcohol is to be drawn off by distillation ; care being taken, near the end of the process, not to expose the syrupy residue to too great a heat. This residue is then to be diluted with water, mixed with good yeast, and part i. Amygdala Amara.—Amygdala Dulcis. 91 placed in a warm situation. After the fermentation which ensues has ceased, the liquor is to be filtered, evaporated to the consistence of syrup, and mixed with alcohol. The amygdalin is thus precipitated in connexion with a portion of gum, from which it may be separated by solution in boiling alcohol, which will deposit it upon cooling. If pure, it will form a perfectly transparent solution with water. Any oil which it may contain may be separated by washing it with ether. One pound of almonds yielded at least 120 grains of amygdalin. (Annalen der Pharm., xxii. and xxiii. 329.) Amygdalin, when mixed with an emulsion of sweet almonds, gives rise, among other products, to the volatile oil of bitter almonds and hydrocyanic acid—the emulsin of the sweet almonds acting the part of a ferment, by setting on foot a reaction between the amygdalin and water; and the same result is obtained when pure emulsin is added to a solution of amygdalin. It appears then that the volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid,developed in bitter almonds when moistened, result from the mutual reaction of amygdalin, water, and emulsin. It is asserted that emulsin procured from other seeds, as those of the poppy, hemp, and mustard, is capable of producing the same reaction between water and amygdalin, though in a less degree than that of the sweet or bitter almonds. (Annul, der Pharm., xxviii. 290.) Bitter almonds yield their fixed oil by pressure; and the essential oil, impregnated with hydrocyanic acid, may be obtained from the residue by distillation with water. This oil, usually called oil of bitter almonds, has a bitter, acrid, burning taste, and the peculiar odour of the kernel in a very high degree. It is of a yellowish colour, heavier than water, soluble in alcohol and ether, slightly soluble in water, and deposits, upon standing, a white crystalline substance, which consists chiefly of benzoic acid. It may be entirely freed from hydrocyanic acid, by agitating it strongly with hydrate of lime and a solution of chloride of iron, and submitting the mixture to dis- tillation. The oil comes over with the water, from which it may be sepa- rated in the usual manner. Thus,purified, it still retains its peculiar odour, with a burning and aromatic taste; but, as proved by Dr. Goppert of Breslau, is destitute of those poisonous properties which distinguish the oil in its original state, and which depend on hydrocyanic acid. The odour of the oil of bitter almonds has been usually, but erroneously, ascribed to this acid, which, on examination, will be found to smell very differently. The same remark is applicable to the essential oils of the cherry laurel, of the bird cherry, and probably of other vegetables supposed to contain hydrocy- anic acid. The benzoic acid which the oil of bitter almonds deposits upon standing, has been proved by Robiquet and Boutron not to pre-exist in the oil, but to result from the absorption of oxygen; and Wohler and Liebig have rendered it probable that there exists a radical in the oil, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which, though it has not yet been isolated, is a distinct substance, and constitutes the basis of numerous compounds. The oil is composed of this radical, called benzyle, and hydrogen, with the former of which, oxygen when absorbed forms benzoic acid, and with the latter, water. The pure oil is therefore considered a hydruret of benzyle. Essential oil of bitter almonds operates upon the system in a manner closely analogous to that of hydrocyanic acid. A single drop is sufficient to destroy a bird, and four drops have occasioned the death of a dog of middle size. The distilled water of bitter almonds operates in a similar manner, though less powerfully; and the almonds themselves have proved deleterious when taken in considerable quantities. Confectioners employ bitter almonds for communicatingflavour to the syrup of orgeat. (See Syrupus Amygdalae.) The kernel of the peach possesses similar properties, and is frequently used 92 Amygdala Amara.—Amygdala Dulcis. part i. as a substitute. Oil of bitter almonds is much used by the perfumers. I: has been ascertained that substances which afford this oil, such as bitter almond paste, bruised cherry-laurel leaves, peach leaves, &c, have the property of destroying the odour of musk, camphor, most of the volatile oils, creasote, cod-liver oil, the balsams, &c; and M. Mahier, a French pharma- ceutist, has employed them successfully to free mortars and bottles from the odour of assafetida, and other substances of disagreeable smell. All that is necessary is first to remove any oily substance by means of an alkali, and then apply the paste or bruised leaves. (Am. J. of Pharm., xviii. 209.) Medical Properties and Uses. Sweet almonds exercise no other influ- ence upon the system than that of a demulcent. The emulsion formed by triturating them with water is a pleasant vehicle for the administration ot other medicines, and is itself useful in cases of catarrhal affection. Bitter almonds are more energetic, and, though not much in use, might undoubt- edly be employed with advantage in cases to which hydrocyanic acid is applicable. An emulsion made with them has been beneficially prescribed in pectoral affections attended with cough, and is said to have cured inter- mittents when bark has failed. (Bergius, Mat. Med.) It probably operates by diminishing the excitability of the nervous system, and moderating exist- ing irritation. Dr. A. T. Thomson says that he has found it extremely useful as a lotion in acne rosea and impetigo. Bitter almonds are said by Hufeland to have been successfully employed for the expulsion of the tape worm. In some persons theyfproduce urticaria, when taken in the smallest quantities. Oil of bitter almonds might probably be substituted with advantage for medicinal hydrocyanic acid; as the acid contained in the oil is much less liable to decomposition, remaining for several years unaltered, if the oil is preserved in well stopped bottles. According to Schrader, 100 parts of the oil contain sufficient acid for the production of 22-5 parts of Prussian blue. From this fact it may be inferred, that the oil is about four times as strong as our officinal hydrocyanic acid, and may therefore be given in the dose of from a quarter of a drop to a drop, to be gradually and very cautiously in- creased till some effect upon the system is observed. It may be administered in emulsion with gum Arabic, loaf sugar, and water. It has been employed externally, dissolved in water in the proportion of one drop to a fluidounce, in prurigo senilis and other cases of troublesome itching. To facilitate the solution in water, the oil may be previously dissolved in spirit. Wohler and Liebig propose, as a substitute for cherry-laurel water, which owes its effects to the hydrocyanic acid it contains, but is objectionable from its unequal strength, an extemporaneous mixture, consisting of 17 grains of amygdalin, and one fluidounce.of an emulsion made with two drachms of sweet almonds, and a sufficient quantity of water. This mixture contains, according to the above named chemists, one grain of absolute hydrocyanic acid, and is equivalent to two fluidounces of fresh cherry-laurel water. If it be found to answer in practice, it will have the great advantage of certainty in relation to the dose; as amygdalin may be kept any length of time unal- tered. If the calculation of Wohler and Liebig be correct as to the quantity of acid it contains, not more than a fluidrachm should be given as a com- mencing dose. Off. Prep, of Sweet Almonds. Confectio Amygdalae, Lond., Ed., Dub.: Mistura Acaciae, Ed., Dub.; Mistura Amygdalae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Camphorae, Ed.; Oleum Amygdalarum, Dub.; Syrupus Amyg- dalae, U. S. Off. Prep, of Bitter Almo?ids. Syrupus Amygdalae, U. S. W. PART I. Amygdalus Persica. 93 AMYGDALUS PERSICA. Folia. Dub. Peach Leaves. Pecher, Fr.; Pfirsichbaum, Germ.; Persico, Ital; Alberchigo, Span. Amygdalus. See AMYGDALA. Amygdalus Persica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 982; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 511. t. 184.—Persica vulgaris. Miller, Lamarck. Every one is familiar with the appearance of the common peach tree. It is characterized speci- fically by having "all the serratures of the leaves acute, and by its sessile solitary flowers." Though its native country is not certainly known, it is generally supposed to have been brought originally from Persia. In no country, perhaps, does it attain greater perfection, as regards the character of its fruit, than in the United States. Peaches are among the most grateful and wholesome of our summer fruits. They abound in saccharine matter, which renders their juice suscep- tible of the vinous fermentation; and a distilled liquor prepared from them has been much used in some parts of the country under the name of peach brandy. The kernels of the fruit bear a close resemblance in appearance and pro- perties, and probably in chemical nature, to bitter almonds, for which they are frequently, and without inconvenience, substituted in our shops. They are employed by distillers in the preparation of liqueurs, and by cake- bakers to give flavour to various productions of their ovens; and are said to yield as much amygdalin as bitter almonds. The flowers, leaves, and bark also have the peculiar odour and taste of bitter almonds, and would probably yield hydrocyanic acid. The leaves afford a volatile oil by distillation. These are the only part directed by the Dublin College. Medical Properties, #c. Peach leaves are said to be laxative; and they probably exert, to a moderate extent, a sedative influence over the nervous system. They have been used as an anthelmintic with great reported suc- cess. More recently their infusion has been recommended in irritability of the bladder, in sick stomach, and hooping-cough. Half an ounce of the dried leaves may be infused in a pint of boiling water, and half a fluidounce given for a dose three times a day, or more frequently. Dr. Dougos gives, in hooping-cough, a pint of the strong infusion, in small doses, in the course of the day. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiii. 356.) The flowers also are laxative ; and a syrup prepared from them is con- siderably used, in infantile cases, upon the continent of Europe. Woodville states that a drachm of the dried flowers, or half an ounce in their recent state, given in infusion, is the dose as a vermifuge. Cases of fatal poison- ing from their use in children are on record. The kernels have more of the peculiar powers of hydrocyanic acid, and therefore require to be used with some caution. Blanched, and rubbed up with hot water, thev form an emulsion well adapted to coughs depending on or associated with nervous irritation. Either the bruised leaves, flowers, or kernels, may be used by the apothecary for cleansing his vessels from disagreeable odours. (See page 92.) The dried fruit, stewed with sugar, is an excellent laxative article of diet, suitable to cases of convalescence attended with torpid bowels. W. 94 Amylum. BART I., AMYLUM. U S., Lond., Ed. Starch. "The fecula of the seeds of Triticum vulgare." U. S., Ed. "Triticum hybernum. Seminum Faecula." Lond. Amidon,. Fr.; StSLrkmehl, Germ.; Amido, Ital; Almidon, Span. _ Starch is a proximate vegetable principle contained in most plants, and especially abundant in the various grains; such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, maize, &c.; in other seeds, as peas, beans, chestnuts, acorns, &c.; and in numerous tuberous roots, as those of the potato {Solatium tuberosum), the sweet potato (Convolvulus Batatas), the arrow-root, the cassava plant, and different species of Curcuma. The process for obtaining it consists essentially in reducing the substances in which it exists to a state of minute division, agitating or washing them with cold water, straining or pouring off the liquid, and allowing it to stand till the fine fecula which it holds in sus- pension has subsided. This, when dried, is starch, more or less pure ac- cording to the care taken in conducting the process. The starch of com- merce is procured chiefly from wheat, sometimes also from potatoes. Our space will not allow us to enter into details in relation to the particular steps of the operation to which these substances are subjected; and the omission is of less consequence, as starch is never prepared by the apothecary. Starch is white, pulverulent, opaque, and, as found in the shops, is usually in columnar masses, having a somewhat crystalline aspect, and producing a peculiar sound when pressed between the fingers. Its specific gravity is 1-53. When exposed to a moist air, it absorbs a considerable quantity of water, which may be driven off by a gentle heat. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and cold water; but unites with boiling water, which, on cooling, forms with it a soft semi-transparent paste, or a gelatinous opaline solution, according to the proportion of starch employed. The paste, placed on folds of blotting paper, renewed as they become wet, abandons its water, con- tracts, and assumes the appearance of horn. If the proportion of starch be very small, the solution, after slowly depositing a very minute quantity of insoluble matter, continues permanent, and upon being evaporated yields a semi-transparent mass, which is partially soluble in cold water. The starch has, therefore, been modified by the combined agency of water and heat; nor can it be restored to its original condition. Exposed, in the dry state, to a temperature somewhat above 212°, it undergoes, according to Caventou, a similar modification; and a degree of heat sufficient to roast it slightly con- verts it into a substance soluble in cold water, called British gum, and applicable to the same purposes as gum in the arts. The same change in regard to solubility is, to a certain extent, produced by mechanical means, as by trituration in a mortar; and that the effect is not the result of heat evolved by friction, is evinced by the fact, that it takes place when the starch is tritu- rated with water. The views now generally entertained in relation to starch, by which the above mentioned phenomena may be most conveniently explained, are those originally presented by Raspail, and subsequently confirmed and extended by Guibourt, Guerin, and others. According to these views, starch consists of organized granules, which, examined by the microscope, appear to be of various form and size. These granules consist of a thin exterior pellicle or tegument, and of an interior substance, the former wholly insoluble, the latter soluble in water. The former constitutes, according to M. Pa'yen only 4 or 5 thousandths of the weight of starch. In relation to the interior PART I. Amylum. 95 portion, different opinions have existed. M. Guerin supposed that it con- sisted of two distinct substances, one soluble in cold water, the other soluble at first in boiling water but becoming insoluble by evaporation. Thus, when one part of starch is boiled for fifteen minutes in one hundred parts of water, and the liquid is allowed to stand, a small portion, consisting of the broken teguments, is gradually deposited. If the solution be now filtered and evaporated, another portion is deposited which cannot afterwards be dissolved. When wholly deprived of this portion, and evaporated to dry- ness, the solution yields the part soluble in cold water. According to MM. Pay en and Persoz, the interior portion of the globules consists only of a single substance, which is converted into the two just mentioned by the agency of water; and Thenard is inclined to the same opinion. An appro- priate name for the interior soluble portion of starch is amidin, which has been adopted by some chemists. Starch, in its perfect state, is not affected by cold water, because the exterior insoluble teguments prevent the access of the liquid to the interior portion; but when the pellicle is broken by the agency of heat, or by mechanical means, the fluid is admitted, and the starch partially dissolved. Another view of the structure of the starch granule, founded on microscopic observation, has been advanced by Schleiden. Ac- cording to this view, it consists of concentric layers, all of which have the same chemical composition; but the outer layers having been first formed, have more cohesion than the inner, and are consequently more difficult of solubility. The rings observed upon the surface of the granules, in some varieties, are merely the edges of these layers ; and the point or hylurn about which the rings are concentrically placed, is a minute hole, through which probably the substance of the interior layers was introduced. (Pharm., Central Blat. Juni, 1844, p. 401.) MM. Payen and Guibourt at present admit that the starch granule is organized throughout, and consists of but a single chemical principle; the differences in the relation to water being ascribable to the more compact organization of the exterior layer, which enables it to resist the action of water. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser ix. 193.) Iodine forms with starch, whether in its original state or in solution, a blue compound; and the tincture of iodine is the most delicate test of its presence in any mixture. The colour varies somewhat according to the proportions employed. When the two substances are about equal, the compound is of a beautiful indigo-blue ; if the iodine is in excess, it is blackish-blue; if the starch, violet-blue. A singular property of the iodide of starch is that its solution becomes colourless if heated to about 200°, and afterwards recovers its blue colour upon cooling. By boiling, the colour is permanently lost. Alkalies unite with starch, forming soluble compounds, which are decom- posed by acids, the starch being precipitated. It is thrown down from its solution by lime-water and baryta-water, forming insoluble compounds with these earths. The solution of subacetate of lead precipitates it in com- bination with the oxide of the metal. Starch may be made to unite with tannin by boiling their solutions together; and a compound results, which, though retained by the water while hot, is deposited when it cools. By long boiling with diluted sulphuric, muriatic, or oxalic acid, it is converted first into dextrine,* and ultimately into a saccharine substance similar to the sugar of grapes. A similar conversion into dextrine and the sugar of grapes * Dextrine is a substance resembling gum in appearance and properties, but differing from it in not affording mucic acid by the action of nitric acid. It is largely dissolved by water, hot or cold, and forms a mucilaginous solution, from which it is precipitated by alcohol. This fluid has no action on dextrine. 96 Amylum. part i. is effected by means of a principle calle'd diastase, discovered by MM. Payen and Persoz in the seeds of barley, oats, and wheat, after germination. (See Hordeum.) Strong muriatic and nitric acids dissolve it; and the latter, by the aid of heat, converts it into oxalic and malic acids. Concentrated sulphuric acid decomposes it. Mixed with hot water, and exposed to a temperature of 70 or 80°, it undergoes fermentation, which results in the formation of several distinct principles, among which are sugar, a gummy substance (perhaps dextrine), and a modification of starch which De Saus- sure called amidine. The tegumentary portion of starch, for which the name of amylin has been proposed, when entirely freed from the interior soluble matter, is wholly insoluble in water even by prolonged boiling, is insoluble in alcohol, and is said to suffer no change by the action of iodine or diastase. The acids, however, act upon it as they do upon starch. It approaches nearer in properties to lignin than to any other principle. Starch, as obtained from different substances, is somewhat different in its characters. Wheat starch, when examined with a microscope, is found to consist of granules of various sizes, usually rounded, but uneven upon the surface, and mixed with loose integuments, resulting from the process of grinding. It has also a certain degree of hardness and adhesiveness, owing. according to Guibourt, to the escape of a portion of the interior substance of the broken granules, which attracts some moisture from the air, and thus becoming glutinous, acts as a bond between those which remain unbroken. Another opinion attributes this peculiar consistence to the retention of a por- tion of the gluten of the,wheat flour, which causes the granules to cohere. Potato starch is employed in various forms, being prepared so as to imitate more costly amylaceous substances, such as arrow-root and sago. In its ordinary state, it is more pulverulent than wheat starch, has a somewhat glistening appearance, and may be distinguished, with the aid of the micro- scope, by the size of its granules, which are larger than those of any other known fecula, except canna or tous le mois. They are exceedingly diver- sified in size and shape, though their regular form is thought to be ovate:. They are characterized by concentric rings or rugae, which are most readily distinguishable in the fresh starch, and are said by Raspail to disappear upon desiccation. These surround a minute circular hole or hylum upon the surface of the granule. In some instances there are two of these holes, one at each end, or both at the same end. The characters of other kinds of fecula will be given under the heads of the several officinal substances of which they constitute the whole or a part. Starch consists of carbon, hy- drogen, and oxygen—its formula, from whatever source it may be derived, being, according to the latest opinions, C12H10O10. Medical Properties, fyc. Starch is nutritive and demulcent, but in its ordinary form is seldom administered internally. Powdered and dusted upon the skin, it is sometimes used to absorb irritating secretions, and pre- vent excoriation. Dissolved in hot water and allowed to cool, it is often employed in enemata, either as a vehicle of other substances, or as a demul- cent application in irritated states of the rectum. It may be used as an antidote to iodine taken in poisonous quantities. Off. Prep. Decoctum Amyli, Lond.; Enema Opii vel Anodynum, Ed.; Mucilago Amyli, Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Tragacanthae Comp., Lond., Ed.'; Trochisci Acaciae, Ed. W. PART I. Anethum.—Angelica. 97 ANETHUM. Lond., Ed. Dill Seeds. "Anethum graveolens. Fructus." Lond. "Fruit of Anethum graveo- lens." Ed. Aneth a odeur forte, Fr.; Dill, Germ.; Aneto, Ital.; Eneldo, Span. Anethum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae or Apiaceae. Gen. Ch. Fruit nearly ovate, compressed, striated. Petals involuted, entire. Willd. Anethum graveolens. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1469; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 125. t. 48. Dill is an annual plant, three or four feet high, with a long, spindle-shaped root; an erect, striated, jointed, branching stem; and bipin- nate or tripinnate, glaucous leaves, which stand on sheathing footstalks, and have linear and pointed leaflets. The flowers are yellow, and in large, %at, terminal umbels, destitute of involucre. The plant is a native of Spain, Portugal, and the south of France ; and is found growing wild in various parts of Africa and Asia. It is cultivated in all the countries of Europe, and has been introduced into our gardens. The seeds, as the fruit is commonly called, are the only part used. They are usually rather more than a line in length, and less than a line in breadth, of an oval shape, thin, concave on one side, convex and striated on the other, of a brown colour, and surrounded by a yellowish membranous expansion. Their smell is strong and aromatic, but less agreeable than that of fennel-seed ; their taste, moderately warm and pungent. These properties depend on a volatile oil, which may be obtained separate by distillation. It is of a pale yellow colour, and of the sp.gr. 0-881. The bruised seeds impart their virtues to alcohol and to boiling water. Medical Properties. Dill seeds have the properties common to the aro- matics, but are very seldom used in this country. They may be given in powder or infusion. The dose is from fifteen grains to a drachm. Off. Prep. Aqua Anethi, Lond., Ed.; Oleum Anethi, Ed. W. ANGELICA. U.S. Secondary. Angelica. " The root and herb of Angelica atropurpurea." U. S. Angelica. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae or Apiaceae. Gen. Ch. Fruit elliptic, compressed, somewhat solid and corticate, ridges three, dorsal acute, intervals grooved, margin alated. General involucre none. (Sprengel.) Umbel large, many-rayed, spreading; umbel let dense, subhemispheric; involucell about eight-leaved. Calyx five-toothed. Petals inflected. Nut tall. Angelica atropurpurea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1430. This indigenous species of Angelica, sometimes called masterwort, has a perennial purplish root, and a smooth herbaceous stem, the dark colour of which has given rise to the specific name of the plant. The leaves are ternate, and supported by very large inflated petioles. The partitions of the leaf are nearly quinate, with ovate, acute, deeply serrate, somewhat lobed leaflets, of which the three terminal are confluent. The flowers are greenish-white. The purple angelica extends throughout the United States from Canada 10 98 Angelica Archangelica. part i. to Carolina, growing in meadows and marshy woods, and flowering in June and July. It is smaller than A. Archangelica, with a less succulent stem. The whole plant is officinal. It has a strong odour, and a warm aromatic taste. The juice of the recent root is acrid, and is said to be poi- sonous; but the acrimony is dissipated by drying. Medical Properties, SfC. The medical virtues of the plant are similar to those of the garden Angelica of Europe, for which it has been proposed as a substitute. It is, however, little employed. An infusion is occasionally used in flatulent colic; and we are told that the stems are sometimes candied by the country people. **• ANGELICA ARCHANGELICA. Semina. Dub. Seeds of Garden Angelica. • ANGELICA. Ed. Root of Garden Angelica. " Root of Angelica Archangelica." Ed. Angelique, Fr,; Engelwurzel, Germ.; Arcangelica, Ital; Angelica, Span. Angelica. See ANGELICA. U. S. Angelica Archangelica. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1428; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 86. t. 35.—Archangelica officinalis. Hoch, De Cand., &c. Garden an- gelica has a long, thick, fleshy, biennial root, furnished with many fibres, and sending up annually a hollow, jointed, round, channeled, smooth, pur- plish stem, which rises five feet or more in height, and divides into nume- rous branches. The leaves, which stand upon round fistulous footstalks, are very large, doubly pinnate, with ovate lanceolate, pointed, acutely serrate leaflets, of which the terminal one is three-lobed. The flowers are small, greenish-white, and disposed in very large, many-rayed, terminal umbels, composed of numerous, dense, hemispherical umbellets. This plant is a native of the north of Europe, and is found in the high, mountainous regions in the southern section of that continent, as in Swit- zerland and among the Pyrennees. It is cultivated in various parts of Europe, and may be occasionally met with in the gardens of this country. It flowers during the summer. The whole plant has a fragrant odour, and aromatic properties; but the root and fruit only are officinal. 1. The root should be dug up in the autumn of the first year, as it is then less liable to become mouldy and worm-eaten than when taken from the ground in the spring. It is spindle-shaped, an inch or more in thickness at its upper extremity, and beset with numerous long descending radicles. The fresh root has a yellowish-gray epidermis, a fleshy yellow parenchyma, and when wounded yields a honey-coloured juice, having all the aro- matic properties of the plant. The dried root is grayish-brown and much wrinkled externally, whitish and spongy within, and breaks with a starchy fracture, exhibiting shining resinous points. It is very apt to be attacked by worms; and is said to keep best, in the state of powder, in full and well closed vessels. The smell is strong and fragrant, the taste at first sweetish, afterwards warm, aromatic, bitterish, and somewhat musky. These pro- perties are extracted by alcohol, and less perfectly by water. The con- stituents of the root, according to the younger Buchner, are volatile oil, a peculiar volatile acid which he calls angelicic acid, a wax-like substance a crystallizable sub-resin, a brittle amorphous resin, a bitter principle, tannic part i. Angelica Archangelica.—Angustura. 99 acid, malic acid, sugar, starch, albumen, pectic acid, fibrin, and various salts* (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser. ii. 124.) Five hundred parts yield by distilla- tion nearly four parts of volatile oil. 2. The seeds, as the fruit is commonly called, are two or three lines long, oval, obtuse or somewhat notched at the ends, flat, and marked with a longi- tudinal furrow on one side, convex with three angular ridges on the other. They are ash-coloured, and have the same smell and taste as the root. They are said to keep well. Medical Properties. Angelica is an elegant aromatic tonic; but is little employed in the United States. The Laplanders, in whose country it flourishes, are said to esteem it highly as a condiment and medicine. In Europe, the stems are frequently made into a preserve, and used in desserts in order to excite the stomach. The dose of the root or seeds is from thirty grains to a drachm. Off. Prep. Spiritus Anisi Compositus, Dub. W. ANGUSTURA. U.S. Angustura Bark. " The bark of Galipea officinalis. Hancock." U. S. Off. Syn. CUSPARIA. Galipea Cusparia. Cortex. Lond.; CUSPA- RIA. Bark of Galipea officinalis, Ed.; ANGUSTURA. BONPLAN- DIA TRIFOLIATA. Cortex. Dub. Angusture Fr.; Angusturarinde, Germ.; Corteccia dell' Angustura, Ital; Corteza de Angostura, Span. The subject of Angustura bark, in its botanical relations, has been in- volved in some confusion. The drug was at first supposed to be derived from a species of Magnolia, and in Europe was referred by some to the Magnolia glauca of this country. Humboldt and Bonpland were the first to enlighten the medical public as to its true source ; though the name which it bore was sufficient to indicate the neighbourhood of its growth. These naturalists, when at Angustura, a South American city upon the banks of the Orinoco, received specimens of the foliage of the plant from which the bark was obtained ; and afterwards believed that they had found the same plant in a tree growing in the vicinity of Cumana. This latter they had the opportunity of personally inspecting, and were therefore enabled to describe accurately. Unable to attach it to any known genus, they erected it into a new one, with the title of Cusparia, a name of Indian origin, to which they added the specific appellation of febrifuga. On the authority of these botanists, the Cusparia febrifuga was generally believed to be the true source of the medicine, and was recognised as such by the London College. A specimen having in the mean time been sent by them to Willdenow, the name of Bonplandia was imposed on the new genus by that celebrated botanist; and was subsequently adopted by Humboldt and Bonpland them- selves, in their great work on equinoctial plants. Hence the title of Bon- plandia trifoliata, by which the tree is described in many works on Materia Medica. De Candolle, however, having found in the description all the characters of the genus Galipea of Aublet, has rejected both these titles, and proposes to substitute that of Galipea Cusparia, which has been adopted by the London College in the last edition of their Pharmacopoeia. After all these commutations, however, it appears from the researches of Dr. Han- cock, who resided for several months in the country of the Angustura bark tree, that the plant described by Humboldt and Bonpland is not that which 100 Angustura. part i. yields the medicine, but probably another species of the same genus, which these authors had mistaken for it, having been led into error bv the imper- fect specimens which they received. Among other striking differences be- tween the two plants, is that of their size; the tree described by Humboldt and Bonpland being of great magnitude, attaining the height of sixty or eighty feet, while that from which the bark is obtained is never higher than twenty feet. Hancock proposes for the latter the title of Galipea officinalis, which has been adopted in the United States and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias. Galipea. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rutaceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla inferior, irregular, four or five cleft, hypocratenform. Stamens four; two sterile. Loudon's Encyc. , Galipea officinalis. Hancock, Trans. Lond. Medico-Bot. Soc. This is a small tree, irregularly branched, rising to the medium height of twelve or fifteen feet, with an erect stem from three to five inches in diameter, and covered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, and composed of three leaflets", which are oblong, pointed at each extremity, from six to ten inches in length, from two to four in breadth, and supported upon the common petiole by short leafstalks. They are very smooth and glossy, of a vivid green colour, marked occasionally with small, whitish round spots, and, when fresh, of a strong odour resembling that of tobacco. The flowers are numerous, white, arranged in axillary and terminal, pedun- cled racemes, and exhale a peculiar unpleasant odour. The fruit consists of five bivalve capsules, of which two or three are commonly abortive. The seeds, two of which are contained in each capsule, one often abortive, are round, black, and of the size of a pea. This tree grows abundantly on the mountains of Carony, between the 7th and 8th degrees of N. Latitude ; and is well known in the missions, near the Orinoco, upwards of two hundred miles from the Ocean. It flourishes at the height of from six hundred to one thousand feet above the level of the sea. Its elegant white blossoms, which appear in vast profusion in August and September, add greatly to the beauty of the scenery. The bark is generally brought from the West India ports packed in casks; but, according to Mr. Brande, the original package, formed in Angustura or its neighbourhood, consists of the leaves of a species of palm, surrounded by a network made of sticks. Properties. The pieces are of various lengths, for the most part slightly curved, rarely quilled, sometimes nearly flat, from half a line to a line or more in thickness, pared away towards the edges, covered externally with a light yellowish-gray or whitish wrinkled epidermis, easily scraped by the nail, and internally of a yellowish-fawn colour. They are very fragile, breaking with a short, resinous fracture, and yield, on being pul- verized, a pale yellow powder; but, when macerated for a short time in water, they become soft and tenacious, and may be cut into strips with scissors. The smell of Angustura bark is peculiar and disagreeable when fresh, but becomes fainter with age ; the taste is bitter and slightly aromatic, leaving a sense of pungency at the end of the tongue. According to Fischer, it contains volatile oil, bitter extractive, a hard and bitter resin, a soft resin, a substance analogous to caoutchouc, gum, lignin, and various salts. The volatile oil, which may be obtained by distillation with water, is of a pale yellowish colour, lighter than water, of an acrid taste, and of the odour of the bark. Cusparin is a name given by Saladin to a principle, deposited in tetrahedral crystals, when an infusion of the bark is treated with absolute alcohol, at common temperatures, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously. It is neutral, fusible at a gentle heat, by which it loses 23-09 per cent, of its PART I. Angustura. 101 weight, soluble in 200 parts of cold and 100 parts of boiling water, soluble in the concentrated acids and in the alkalies, and precipitated by the infu- sion of galls. (J. de Pharm. xxii. 662.) The virtues of the bark probably reside in the volatile oil, and bitter principles. They are extracted by water and alcohol. Dr. A. T. Thomson states that precipitates are produced with the infu- sion by the solutions of sulphate of iron, tartrate of antimony and potassa, sulphate of copper, acetate and subacetate of lead, bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, and pure potassa; by nitric and sulphuric acids; and by the infusions of galls and yellow cinchona; but how far these substances are medicinally incompatible with the bark, it would be difficult in the present state of our knowledge to determine. False Angustura. Under this title, the European writers on Materia Medica describe a bark which has been introduced on the continent mixed with the true Augustura bark, and which, possessing poisonous properties, has in some instances produced unpleasant effects when prescribed by mis- take for that medicine. It is distinguished by its greater thickness, hardness, weight, and compactness ; by its resinous fracture; by the appearance of its epidermis, which is sometimes covered with a ferruginous efflorescence, sometimes is yellowish-gray, and marked with prominent white spots; by the brownish colour and smoothness of its internal surface, which is not, like that of the genuine bark, separable into laminae; by the white slightly yellow powder which it yields; by its total want of odour, and its intense tenacious bitterness. When steeped in water, it does not become soft like the true Angustura. Analyzed by Pelletier and Caventou, it was found to contain a peculiar alkaline principle which they calledori/aa, and upon which its poisonous operation depends. (See Nux Vomica.) In consequence of its presence, a drop of nitric acid upon the internal surface of the bark produces a deep blood-red spot. The same acid, applied to the external surface, renders it emerald-green. In the true Angustura bark, a dull red colour is produced by the acid on both surfaces. The false Angustura was at first supposed to be derived from Brucea antidysenterica; and was afterwards referred to some unknown species of Strychnos, in consequence of containing brucia, which is a characteristic ingredient of that genus of plants. At present, it is generally believed to be derived from Strychnos Nux vomica, the bark of which, according to Dr. O'Shaughnessy, exactly corresponds with the description given by authors of the false Angustura, and like it contains bru- cia. Little if any of the false Angustura bark reaches the United States, un- less as an object of curiosity. Medical Properties and Uses. Angustura bark had been long used by the natives of the country where it grows, before it became known in Europe. From the continent its employment extended to the West Indies, where it acquired considerable reputation. It was first taken to Europe about fifty years since, and attracted particular attention among the English physicians. It is now ranked among the officinal remedies throughout Europe and Ame- rica; but has not sustained the estimation in which it was at first held; and in the United States is not much prescribed. Its operation is that of a stimu- lant tonic. In large doses it also evacuates the stomach and bowels, and is often employed for this purpose in South America. It was at one time considerably used as a febrifuge in the place of Peruvian bark; but has not been found generally successful in the intermittents of northern latitudes. It is said to be particularly efficacious in bilious diarrhoeas and dysenteries; and has been recommended in dyspepsia, and other diseases in which a tonic treatment is demanded. The testimony, however, of practitioners in Europe 10* 102 Angustura.—Anisum. part i. and the United States, is not strongly in its favour; and it is probably better adapted to tropical diseases, than to those of temperate climates. Han- cock employed it extensively in the malignant bilious intermittent levers, dysenteries, and dropsies of Angustura and Demerara; and speaks in strong terms of its efficacy in these complaints. He used it in the form of fermented infusion, as recommended by the native practitioners. It has the advantage over Peruvian bark, that it is less apt to oppress the stomach. It may be given in powder, infusion, tincture, or extract. The dose in substance is from ten to thirty grains. In larger quantities it is apt to pro- duce nausea. From five to fifteen grains is the dose of the extract, which, however, according to Dr. Hancock, is inferior to the powder or infusion. To obviate nausea, it is frequently combined with aromatics. Off.Prep. Infusum Angusturae, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Angusturae, Dub., Ed. w- ANISUM. U.S., Lond., Ed, Dub. Anise. "The fruit of Pimpinella Anisum." U. S„ Ed. "Pimpinella Anisum. Fructus." Lond. " Pimpinella Anisum. Semina." Dub. Graines d'anis, Fr.; Anissaine, Germ.; Semi d'aniso, Ital; Simiente de anis, Span.; Anison, Arab. Pimpinella. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae or Apiaceae. Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate-oblong. Petals inferior. Stigma nearly globular. Willd. Pimpinella Anisum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1473; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 135. t. 52. This is an annual plant, about a foot in height, with an erect, smooth, and branching stem. The leaves are petiolate, the lower roundish- cordate, lobed, incised-serrate, the middle pinnate-lobed with cuneate or lanceolate lobes, the upper trifid, undivided, linear. The flowers are white, and in terminal compound umbels, destitute of involucres. The anise plant is a native of Egypt and the Levant, but has been intro- duced into the South of Europe, and is cultivated in various parts of that continent. It is also cultivated occasionally in the gardens of this country. The fruit is abundantly produced in Malta and Spain. The Spanish is smaller than the German or French, and is usually preferred. Anise seeds (botanically fruit) are about a line in length, oval, striated, somewhat downy, attached to their footstalks, and of a greenish-brown colour, with a shade of yellow. Their odour is fragrant and increased by friction; their taste warm, sweet, and aromatic. These properties, which depend upon a peculiar volatile oil, are imparted sparingly to boiling water, freely to alcohol. The volatile oil exists in the envelope of the seeds, and is obtained separate by distillation. (See Oleum Anisi.) Their internal substance contains a bland fixed oil. By expression, a greenish oil is obtained, which is a mixture of the two. The seeds are sometimes adul- terated with small fragments of argillaceous earth; and their aromatic quali- ties are occasionally impaired, in consequence of a slight fermentation, which they are apt to undergo in the mass, when collected before maturity. A case of poisoning is on record from the accidental admixture of the fruits of Conium maculatum, which bear some resemblance to those of anise, but may be distinguished by their crenate or notched ridges. They are, moreover, broader in proportion to their length, and are generally separated into half-fruits, while those of anise are whole. PART I. Anisum.—Anthemis. 103 The Star aniseed, the badiane of the French writers, though analogous in sensible properties to the common aniseed, is derived from a different plant, being the fruit of the Illicium anisatum, an evergreen tree growing in China, Japan, and Tartary. The fruit consists of from five to ten brownish ligneous capsules, four or five lines long, united together in the form of a star, each containing a brown shining seed. It is much used in France to flavour liqours, and the volatile oil upon which its aromatic properties depend is imported into this country from the East Indies, and sold as common oil of anise, to which, however, it is much superior. (Togno and Durand.) Medical Properties and Uses. Anise is a grateful aromatic carminative; and, like several other fruits of a similar character, is supposed to have the property of increasing the secretion of milk. It has been in use from the earliest times. In Europe it is much employed in flatulent colic, and as a corrigent of griping or unpleasant medicines; but in this country fennel- seed is usually preferred. Anise may be given bruised, or in powder, in the dose of twenty or thirty grains or more. The infusion is less efficient. The volatile oil may be substituted for the seeds in substance. Much use is made of this aromatic for imparting flavour to liquors. Off. Prep. Oleum Anisi, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Anisi, Lond. W. ANTHEMIS. U S., Lond., Ed. Chamomile. "The flowers of Anthemis nobilis." U. S. "Anthemis nobilis. Flores simplices." Lond. "Simple flowers of Anthemis nobilis." Ed. Off. Syn. CHAMiEMELUM. ANTHEMIS NOBILIS. Flores. Dub. Camomille Romaine, Fr.; Romische Kamille, Germ.; Camomilla Romana, Ital; Man- zanilla Romana, Span. Anthemis. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Composite Senecionideae. De Cand. Asteraceae. Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed down none'or a membranaceous mar- gin. Calyx hemispherical, nearly equal. Florets of the ray more than five. Willd. Several species of Anthemis have been employed in medicine. A. no- bilis, which is the subject of the present article, is by far the most important. A. Cotula, or May-weed, is also recognised by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. (See Cofula.) A. Pyrethrum, which affords the pellitory root, is among the officinal plants. (See Pyrethrum.) A. arvensis, a native of this country and of Europe, bears flowers which have an acrid bitter taste, and possess medical properties analogous though much inferior to those of the common chamomile, for which they are said to be sometimes substituted in Germany. They may be distinguished by their want of smell. A. tinctoria is occa- sionally employed as a tonic and vermifuge in Europe. Anthemis nobilis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2180; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 47. t. 19. This is an herbaceous plant with a perennial root. The stems are from six inches to a foot long, round, slender, downy, trailing, and divided into branches, which turn upwards at their extremities. The leaves are bipinnate, the leaflets small, thread-like, somewhat pubescent, acute, and generally divided into three segments. The flowers are solitary, with a yel- low convex disk, and white rays. The calyx is common to all the florets, of a hemispherical form, and composed of several small imbricated hairy scales. The receptacle is convex, prominent, and furnished with rigid bristle-like paleae. The florets of the ray are numerous, narrow, and termi- 104 Anthemis. PART r. nated with three small teeth. The whole herb has a peculiar fragrant odour, and a bitter aromatic taste. The flowers only are officinal. This plant is a native of Europe, and grows wild in all the temperate parts of that continent. It is also largely cultivated for medicinal purposes. In France, Germany, and Italy, it is generally known by the name of Roman chamomile. The flowers become double by cultivation, and in this state are usually preferred; though,as the sensible properties are found in the greatest degree in the disk, which is not fully developed in the double flowers, the single are the most powerful and are exclusively directed by th*.j London and Edinburgh Colleges. It is rather, however, in aromatic flavour than in bitterness, that the radial florets are surpassed by those of the disk. If not well and quickly dried, the flowers lose their beautiful white colour, and are less efficient. Those which are whitest should be preferred. Though not a native of America, chamomile grows wild in some parts of this country, and is occasionally cultivated in our gardens for family use, the whole herb being employed. The medicine, as found in our shops, consists chiefly of the double flowers, and is imported from Germany and England. From the former country are also occasionally imported, under the name of chamomile, the flowers of Matricaria Chamomilla, a plant belonging to the same family with the Anthemis, and closely allied to it in sensible as well as medicinal properties. (See Matricaria.) Properties. Chamomile flowers, as usually found in the shops, are large, almost spherical, of a dull-white colour, a fragrant odour, and a warmish, bitter, aromatic taste. When fresh, their smell is much stronger, and was fancied by the ancients to resemble that of the apple. Hence the name cha maemelum (xauat on the ground, and p,rp\6v an apple); and it is somewhat singular that the Spanish name manzanilla (a little apple) has a similar sig- nification. The flowers impart their odour and taste to both water and alco- hol, the former of which, at the boiling temperature, extracts nearly one- fourth of their weight. They have not been accurately analyzed, but are known to contain a volatile oil, a bitter principle, resin, and a small quantity of tannin. The first two are probably their active ingredients. (See Oleum Anthemidis.) A volatile acid, in minute proportion, has been obtained from them by Schendler, said greatly to resemble, if it be not identical with valerianic acid. Medical Properties and Uses. Chamomile is a mild tonic, in small doses acceptable and corroborant to the stomach, in larger quantities capable of acting as an emetic. In cold infusion it is often advantageously used in cases of enfeebled digestion, whether occurring as an original affection, or conse- quent upon some acute disease. It is especially applicable to that condition of general debility with languid appetite, which often attends convalescence from idiopathic fevers. As a febrifuge, it has also acquired much reputation, being frequently prescribed in remittents, when the subsidence of action between the paroxysms is so considerable as to demand the use of tonics, but is not sufficiently complete to admit of a resort to Peruvian bark or its pre- parations. Chamomile in substance has, in some instances, proved effectual in the treatment of intermittents; but we have so many other remedies more efficient in these cases, that it is now seldom if ever employed. The tepid infusion is very often given to promote the operation of emetic medicines, or to assist the stomach in relieving itself when oppressed by its contents. The flowers are sometimes applied externally as fomentations in cases of irritation or inflammation of the abdominal viscera, and as gentle incitants in flabby, ill-conditioned ulcers. The dose of the powder as a tonic is from half a drachm to a drachm three or four times a day, or more frequently, according to the end proposed. The infusion is usually preferred. The PART I. Anthemis. —Antim onium. 105 decoction and extract cannot exert the full influence of the medicine; as the volatile oil, upon which its virtues partly depend, is driven off at the boiling temperature. Off. Prep. Decoctum Chamaemeli Comp., Dub.; Decoctum Malvae Comp., Lond.; Extractum Anthemidis, Ed., Dub.; Infusum Anthemidis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Anthemidis, Lond., Ed. W. ANTIMONIUM. Antimony. Stibium, Lat.; Antimoine, Fr.; Antimon, Spiessglanz, Germ.; Antimonio, Span., Ital Metallic antimony, sometimes called regulus of antimony, is not officinal in the British or United States Pharmacopoeias; but, as it enters into the composition of a number of important pharmaceutical preparations, we have thought it proper to notice it under a distinct head. Antimony exists in nature, 1. uncombined; 2. as an oxide; 3. as a tersul- phuret; and 4. as a sulphuretted oxide. It is found principally in France and Germany. Extraction. All the antimony of commerce is extracted from the native tersulphuret, which is by far the most abundant ore of this metal. The ore is first separated from its gangue by fusion. It is then reduced to powder, and placed on the floor of a reverberatory furnace; where it is subjected to a gentle heat, being constantly stirred about with an iron rake. The heat should not be sufficient to cause fusion. This process of roasting is known to be completed, when the matter is reduced to the state of a dull grayish- white powder, called antimony ash. By this treatment the antimony is partly teroxidized, and partly converted into antimonious acid; while nearly all the sulphur is dissipated in the form of sulphurous acid gas: a portion of tersulphuret, however, remains undecomposed. The matter is then mixed either with tartar, or with charcoal impregnated with a concentrated solution of carbonate of soda, and the mixture heated in crucibles, placed in a melting furnace. The charcoal reduces the teroxide of antimony, while the alkali unites with the undecomposed tersulphuret, and forms with it melted scoriae, which cover the reduced metal and diminish its loss by volatilization. The metal obtained is then purified by a second fusion. Antimony is imported into the United States principally from France, packed in casks. A portion is also shipped from Trieste, from Holland, and occasionally from Cadiz. The Spanish antimony is generally in the form of pigs; the French, in circular cakes of about ten inches in diameter, flat on one side and convex on the other; and the English, in cones. The French is most esteemed. Properties, fyc. The time of the discovery of antimony is not known; but Basil Valentine was the first to describe the method of obtaining it, in his work entitled Currus Triumphalis Antimonii, published towards the end of the fifteenth century. It is a brittle, brilliant metal, ordinarily of a lamellated texture, of a silver-white colour when pure, but bluish-white as it occurs in commerce. When rubbed between the fingers, it imparts a sensible odour. Its equivalent number is 129, symbol Sb., sp. gr. 6-7, and its fusing point 810°, or about a red heat. On cooling after fusion, it assumes a crystalline structure, and an appearance on the surface bearing some resemblance to a fern leaf. When strongly heated, it burns with the emission of white vapours, consisting of teroxide, formerly called argentine flowers of antimony. A small portion being fused, and then thrown from 106 Antimonii Sulphuretum. part i. a moderate height upon a flat surface, divides into numerous globules, which burn rapidly as they move along. It forms three combinations with oxygen, one oxide—teroxide of antimony, and two acids—antimonious and antimonic acids. The teroxide contains three, antimonious acid four, and antimonic acid five eqs. of oxygen, combined with one of the metal. In addition to these, a suboxide exists, which, according to Marchand, has a composition, represented by the formula, Sb 04. It may be obtained by ^composing a solution of tartar emetic by a Grove's battery. (Chem. Gaz., No. 72, 4^1.) The teroxide will be noticed under the head of Antimonii Oxidum. Jlnti- monic acid is a lemon-coloured powder, which may be prepared by oxidiz- ing the metal by digestion in nitric acid, and then driving off the excess oi nitric acid by a heat not exceeding 600°. When exposed to a red heat, it parts with oxygen, and is converted into antimonious acid. This is a white powder, and, though medicinally inert, frequently forms a large proportion of the preparation called antimoniai powder. (See Pulvis Antimomahs.) The following table exhibits a view of the different officinal preparations of antimony:— I. Sulphuretted:— 1. Antimonii Sulphuretum, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Antimonii Sesqui- sulphuretum, Lond. 2. Antimonii Sulphuretum Praeparatum, Dub. 3. Antimonii Sulphuretum Praecipitatum, U.S.; Antimonii Oxy- sulphuretum, Lond.; Antimonii Sulphuretum Aureum, Ed.; Sulphur Antimoniatum Fuscum, Dub. II. Oxidized:— 1. Teroxide. Antimonii Oxidum, Ed. 2. Teroxide, combined with terchloride of antimony. -Antimonii Oxydum Nitromuriaticum, Dub. 3. Teroxide, combined with tartaric acid and potassa. Antimonii et Potassse Tartras, U. S., Dub.; Antimonii Potassio-Tartras, Lond.; Antimonium Tartari^atum, Ed. Dissolved in wine. Vinum Antimonii, U. S.; Vinum Antimonii Potassio-Tartratis, Lond.; Vinum Antimoniale, Ed. Dissolved in diluted alcohol. Liquor Tartari Emetici, Dub. Mixed with lard. Unguentum Antimonii, U. S.; Unguentum Antimonii Potassio-Tartratis, Lond.; Unguentum Antimoniale, Ed.; Unguentum Tartari Emetici, Dub. 4. Teroxide and antimonious acid, mixed with phosphate of lime. Pulvis Antimonialis,.Z?y short footstalks to the stem, are in pairs of unequal size, oval, pointed, entire, of a dusky green colour on their upper surface, and paler beneath. The flowers are large, bell-shaped, pendent, of a dull reddish colour, and supported upon solitary peduncles, which rise from the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a roundish berry with a longitudinal fur- row on each side, at first green, afterwards red, ultimately of a deep purple colour, bearing considerable resemblance to a cherry, and containing, in two distinct cells, numerous seeds, and a sweetish violet-coloured juice. The calyx adheres to the base of the fruit. The plant is a native of Europe, where it grows in shady places, along walls, and amidst rubbish, flowering in June and July, and ripening its fruit in September. The leaves are the only part directed by the United States, London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias; the root also is ordered by the Dublin College. The former should be collected in June or July, the latter in the autumn or early in the spring, and from plants three years old or more. Properties. The dried leaves are of a dull greenish colour, with a very faint narcotic odour, and a sweetish, subacrid, slightly nauseous taste. The root is long, round, from one to several inches in thickness, branched and fibrous, externally when dried of a reddish-brown colour, internally whitish, of little odour, and a feeble sweetish taste. Both the leaves and root, as well as all other parts of the plant, impart their active properties to water and alcohol. By the researches of the German chemist Brandes, it was rendered 13* 138 Belladonna. PART I. probable that these properties resided in a peculiar alkaline principle, which he supposed to exist in the plant combined with an excess of malic acid, and appropriately named atropia. Besides the malate of atropia, Brandes found in the dried herb two azotized principles, a green resin (chlorophylle , wax, gum, starch, albumen, lignin, and various saline ingredients. 1 he alkaline principle was afterwards detected by M. Runge; and the fact of its existence was established beyond question by the experiments of Geiger and Hesse, who obtained it from an extract prepared from the stems and leaves ot the plant. It was first, however, procured in a state of purity by Mein, a Ger- man apothecary, who extracted it from the root.* Atropia crystallizes in white, silky prisms; is inodorous and of a bitter taste; dissolves easily in absolute alcohol and ether, but very slightly in water, and more freely in all these liquids hot than cold; melts at a temperature above 212°,and is vola- tilized unchanged; restores the colour of litmus paper reddened by acids; forms soluble salts with the sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and acetic acids; and, in a very dilute solution, produces, when applied to the eye, a speedy and durable dilatation of the pupil. Like the other vegetable alkalies, it consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—its formula being NC34 H^Og. Liibekind has described, under the name of belladonnin, a volatile alkaline principle, wholly distinct from atropia, which he obtained from bel- ladonna; but it yet remains to be seen whether this was not the product of the process. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 127.) Medical Properties and Uses. The action of belladonna is that of a powerful narcotic, possessing also diaphoretic and diuretic properties, and somewhat disposed to operate upon the bowels. According to Orfila, it has little intensity of local action, but is absorbed, and, entering the circulation, exercises its influence upon the nervous system, especially upon the brain. A#ong its first obvious effects, when taken in the usual dose, and continued for some time, are dryness and stricture of the fauces and neighbouring parts, with slight uneasiness or giddiness of the head, and more or less dimness of vision. In medicinal doses, it may also occasion dilatation of the pupil, decided * The following is the process employed by Mein. The roots of plants two or three years old were selected. Of these, reduced to an extremely fine powder, 24 parts were digested, for several days, with 60 parts of alcohol of 86 or 90 per cent. The liquid hav- ing been separated by strong expression, the residue was treated anew with an equal quantity of alcohol: and the tinctures, poured together and filtered, were mixed with one part of hydrate of lime, and frequently shaken for twenty-four hours. The copious pre- cipitate which now formed was separated by filtering; and diluted sulphuric acid was added drop by drop to the filtered liquor, till slightly in excess. The sulphate of lime having been separated by a new filtration, the alcoholic liquid -was distilled to one-half, then mixed with 6 or 8 parts of pure -water, and evaporated with a gentle heat till the whole of the alcohol was driven off. The residual liquid was filtered, cautiously evapo- rated to one-third, and allowed to cool. A concentrated aqueous solution of carbonate of potassa was then gradually added, so long as the liquid continued to be rendered turbid; and the mixture was afterwards suffered to rest some hours. A yellowish resinous sub- stance, which opposes the crystallization of the atropia, was thus precipitated. From this the liquid was carefully decanted, and a small additional quantity of the solution of the carbonate was dropped into it, till it no longer became turbid. A gelatinous mass now gradually formed, which, at the end of twelve or twenty-four hours, was agitated in order to separate the mother waters, then thrown upon a filter, and dried by folds of unsized paper. The substance thus obtained, which was atropia in an impure state, was dissolved in five times its weight of alcohol; and the solution, having been filtered, was mixed with six or eight times its bulk of water. The liquor soon became milky, or was rendered so by evaporating the excess of alcohol, and, in the course of twelve or twenty-four hours, deposited the atropia in the form of light yellow crystals, which were rendered entirely pure and colourless by washing with a few drops of water, drying on blotting paper, and again treating with alcohol as before. From twelve ounces of the root, Mein obtained by this process twenty grains of the pure alkali. {Journ. de Pharm., xx. 87.) PART I. Belladonna. 139 frontal headache, slight delirium, colicky pains and purging, and a scarlet efflorescence on the skin; but this last effect is very rare. The practitioner should watch for these symptoms as signs of the activity of the medicine, and should gradually increase the dose till some one of them is experienced in a slight degree, unless the object at which he aims should be previously at- tained ; but so soon as they occur, the dose should be diminished, or the use of the narcotic suspended for a time. In large quantities, belladonna is capable of producing the most deleterious effects. It is in fact a powerful poison, and many instances are recorded, in which it has been accidentally swallowed or purposely administered with fatal consequences. All parts of the plant are poisonous. It is not uncommon, in countries where the belladonna grows wild, for children to pick and eat the berries, allured by their fine colour and sweet taste. Soon after the poison has been swallowed, its peculiar influ- ence is experienced in dryness of the mouth and fauces, great thirst, difficult deglutition, nausea and ineffectual retching, vertigo, intoxication or delirium, attended with violent gestures, and sometimes with fits of laughter, and fol- lowed by a comatose state. The pupil is dilated and insensible to light, the face red and tumid, the mouth and jaws spasmodically affected, the stomach and bowels insusceptible of impressions, in fact the whole nervous system prostrate and paralyzed. A feeble pulse, cold extremities, subsultus tendi- num, deep coma or delirium, and sometimes convulsions, precede the fatal termination. Dissection discloses appearances of inflammation in the sto- mach and intestines; and it is said that the body soon begins to putrefy, swells, and becomes covered with livid spots, while dark blood flows from the mouth, nose, and ears. To obviate the poisonous effects of belladonna, the most effectual method is to evacuate the stomach as speedily as possible, either by means of emetics, or the stomach-pump, and afterwards to cleanse the bowels by purgatives and enemata. The infusion of galls may possibly be useful as an antidote, and, if the experiments of M. Runge can be relied on, lime-water or the alkaline solutions would render the poisonous matter which might remain in the stomach -inert. Notwithstanding the tremendous energy of this narcotic, it has been used as a medicine, even from very early times. The leaves were first employed externally to discuss scirrhous tumours, and heal cancerous and other ill-conditioned ulcers; and were afterwards administered internally for the same purpose. Much evidence of their beneficial influence in these affections is on record, and even Dr. Cullen has spoken in their favour; but this application of the remedy has fallen into disuse. It is at present more esteemed in nervous diseases. It has been highly recommended in hoop- ing-cough, in the advanced stages of which it is undoubtedly sometimes beneficial. In neuralgia it is one of the most effectual remedies in our possession; and we ourselves can bear testimony to its usefulness in this complaint. Hufeland recommends it in the convulsions dependent on scro- fulous irritation. It has been prescribed also in chorea, epilepsy, hydro- phobia, mania, paralysis, amaurosis, rheumatism, gout, dysmenorrhoea, obstinate, intermittents, dropsy, and jaundice; and in such of these affections as have their seat chiefly in the nervous system, it may sometimes do good. It is said to have been effectually employed in several -cases of strangulated hernia. It has within a few years acquired great credit as a preventive of scarlatina; an application of the remedy first suggested by the famous author of the homoeopathic doctrine, and founded upon the idea, that, as the symp- toms produced by scarlatina in the nervous system closely resemble those which result from large doses of belladonna, the former might be prevented, or at least moderated, by establishing the latter, as small-pox is prevented 140 Belladonna.—Benzoinum. part I. by vaccination, or rendered milder if the system has already come partially under its influence. . .. Applied to the eye, belladonna has the property of dilating the pupil exceedingly, and for this purpose is sometimes employed by European ocu- lists previously to the operation for cataract. In cases of partial opacity of the crystalline lens, confined to the centre of that body, vision is temporarily improved by a similar use of the remedy; and it may also perhaps be bene- ficially employed, when, from inflammation of the iris, there is danger of a permanent closure of the pupil. For these purposes, a strong infusion of the plant, or a solution of the extract, may be dropped into the eye, or a little of the extract itself rubbed upon the eyelids. The same application of the remedy has been recommended in cases of morbid sensibility of the eye. The decoction or extract of belladonna, applied to the neck of the uterus, is asserted to have hastened tedious labour dependent on rigidity of the os tincae; and spasmodic stricture of the urethra, neck of the bladder, and sphincter ani, and painful uterine affections have been relieved by the local use of the extract, either smeared upon bougies, or administered.by injec- tion. In the latter mode it has sometimes relieved strangulated hernia. It is asserted also to be very useful in the reliei" of paraphimosis. The inhalation of the vapour from a decoction of the leaves or extract has been highly recommended in spasmodic asthma. For this purpose, two drachms of the leaves, or fifteen grains of the aqueous extract are employed to the pint of water. Relief is said to have been obtained in phthisis by smoking the leaves, infused when fresh in a strong solution of opium, and then dried. Belladonna maybe given in substance, infusion, or extract. The dose of the powdered leaves is for children from the eighth to the fourth of a grain, for adults one or two grains, repeated daily, or twice a day, and gradually increased till the peculiar effects of the medicine are experienced. An infusion may be prepared by adding a scruple of the dried leaves to ten fluidounces of boiling water, of which from one to two fluidounces is the dose for an adult. The extract is more used in the United States than any other preparation. (See Extractum Belladonnas.) Off. Prep. Extractum Belladonnas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extract. Belladonnae Alcoholicum, U. S.; Tinctura Belladonnae, U. S. W. BENZOINUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Benzoin. "The concrete juice of Styrax Benzoin." U.S. " Styrax Benzoin. Bot- samum." Lond. " Concrete balsamic exudation of Styrax Benzoin." Ed. Off. Syn. STYRAX BENZOIN. Resina. Dub. Benjoin, Fr.; Benzoe, Germ.; Belzoino, Ital; Benjui, Span. The botanical source of benzoin was long uncertain. At one time it was generally supposed in Europe to be derived from the Laurus Benzoin of this country. This error was corrected by Linnaeus, who, however, com- mitted another, in ascribing the drug to the Croton Benzoe, a. shrub which he afterwards described under the name of Terminalia Benzoin. Mr. Dryander was the first who ascertained the true benzoin tree to be a Styrax; and his description, published in the 77th vol. of the English Philosophical Transactions, has been copied by most subsequent writers. The specimen by which Mr. Dryander decided the generic character, was obtained by Sir Joseph Banks from Mr. Marsden at Sumatra. Stvrax. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Styraceee. PART I. Benzoinum. 141 Gen. Ch. Calyx inferior. Corolla funnel-shaped. Drupe two-seeded. Willd. Styrax Benzoin. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 623; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 294. t. 102. This is a tall tree of quick growth, sending off many strong round branches, covered with a whitish downy bark. Its leaves are alternate, entire, oblong, pointed, smooth above, and downy beneath. The flowers are in compound, axillary clusters, nearly as long as the leaves, and usually hang all on the same side upon short slender pedicels. The benzoin, or benjamin tree, is a native of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Laos, and Siam. (Ainslie.) By wounding the bark near the origin of the lower branches, a juice exudes, which hardens upon exposure, and constitutes the benzoin of commerce. , A tree is thought of a proper age to be wounded at six years, when its trunk is about seven or eight inches in diameter. The operation is performed annually, and the product on each occasion from one tree never exceeds three pounds. The juice which first flows is the purest, and affords the whitest and most fragrant benzoin. It is exported chiefly from Acheen in Sumatra, and comes into the western markets in large masses packed in chests and casks, and presenting externally the impres- sion of the reed mats in which they were originally contained. Two kinds of benzoin are distinguishable in the market, one consisting chiefly of whitish tears united by a reddish-brown connecting medium, the other of brown or blackish masses, without tears. The first is the most valuable, and has been called benzo'e amygdaloides, from the resemblance of the white grains to fragments of blanched almonds; the second is some- times called benzo'e in sortis—benzoin in sorts—and usually contains numerous impurities. Between these two kinds there is every gradation. We have seen specimens of this balsam consisting exclusively of yellowish- white homogeneous fragments, which, when broken, presented a perfectly smooth, clear, white, shining surface. These were no doubt identical in constitution with the tears of the larger masses. Properties. Benzoin has a fragrant odour, with very little taste; but, when chewed for some time, leaves a sense of irritation in the mouth and fauces. It breaks with a resinous fracture, and presents a mottled surface of white and brown or reddish-brown; the white spots being smooth and shining, while the remainder, though sometimes shining and even translu- cent, is usually more or Jess rough and porous, and often exhibits impuri- ties. In the inferior kinds, the white spots are very few or entirely wanting. Benzoin is easily pulverized, and in the process of being powdered, is apt to excite sneezing. Its sp. gr. is from 1-063 to 1.092. When heated, it melts and emits thick, white, pungent fumes, which excite cough when inhaled, and consist chiefly of benzoic acid. It is wholly soluble, with the exception of impurities, in alcohol; and is precipitated by water from the solution, rendering the liquor milky. It imparts to boiling water a notable proportion of benzoic acid. Lime-water and the alkaline solutions partially dissolve it, forming benzoates, from which the acid may be precipitated by the addition of another, having stronger affinity for the base. Its chief constituents are resin and benzoic acid; and it therefore belongs to the bal- sams. The white tears, and the brownish connecting medium, are said by Stolze to contain very nearly the same proportion of acid, which, accord- ing to Bucholz, is 12-5 per cent., to Stolze 19-8 per cent. In a more recent examination by Kopp, the white tears were found to contain from 8 to 10 per cent, of acid, and the brown 15 per cent. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iv. 46.) The resin is of three different kinds, one extracted from the bal- sam along with the benzoic acid by a boiling solution of carbonate of potassa \a excess, another dissolved by ether from the residue, and the third affected 142 Benzoinum.—Bismuthum. PART I. by neither of these solvents. Besides benzoic acid and resin, the balsam contains a minute proportion of extractive, and traces of volatile oil. Medical Properties and Uses. Benzoin, like the other balsams, is stimu- lant and expectorant, and was formerly employed in pectoral affections; but, except as an ingredient of the compound tincture of benzoin, it has fallen into almost entire disuse. Trousseau and Pidoux recommended it strongly, in the way of fumigation, in chronic laryngitis. Either the air of the cham- ber may be impregnated with its vapour by placing a small portion upon some live coals, or the patient may inhale the vapour of boiling water to which the balsam has been added". It is employed in pharmacy for the preparation of benzoic acid (see Acidum Benzoicum); and the milky liquor resulting from the addition of water to its alcoholic solution, is sometimes used as a cosmetic, under the impression that it renders the skin soft. In the East Indies it is burnt by the Hindoos as a perfume in their temples. Off. Prep. Acidum Benzoicum, U. S„ Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Ben- zoini Composita, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. BISMUTHUM. U.S., Lond., Ed, Dub. Bismuth. Etain de glace, Bismuth, Fr.; Wissmuth, Germ.; Bismutte, Ital; Bismut, Span. Bismuth is a peculiar metal, occurring usually in the metallic state, occasionally as a sulphuret, and rarely as an oxide. It is found principally in Saxony. It occurs also in Cornwall, and has been found at Monroe, Connecticut, seventeen miles west of New Haven. It is obtained almost entirely from the native bismuth, which is heated by means of wood or charcoal, whereby the metal is fused and separated from its gangue. Almost all the bismuth of commerce comes from Saxony. Bismuth was first distinguished as a metal by Agricola in 1520. Before that period it was confounded with lead. It is a brittle, pulverizable, bril- liant metal, of a crystalline texture, and of a white colour with a slight red- dish tint. Its crystals are in the form of cubes. It undergoes but a slight tarnish in the air. Its sp. gr. is 9-8, melting point 476°, and symbol Bi. At a high temperature, in close vessels, it volatilizes, and may be distilled over. When heated in the open air to a full red heat, it takes fire, and burns with a faint blue flame, forming an oxide of a yellow colour. This is ihe protoxide, and consists of one eq. of bismuth 71, and one of oxygen 8=79. Besides this oxide, bismuth forms a sesquioxide of a brown colour, very like the deutoxide of lead, and consisting of two eqs. of metal 142, and three of oxygen 24=166. Arppe and Heintz allege the existence of other oxides of bismuth, and make its equivalent one-half larger than is here given. Bismuth is acted on feebly by muriatic acid, but violently by nitric acid, which dissolves it with a copious extrication of red fumes. Sul- phuric acid when cold has no action on it, but at a boiling heat effects its solution with the extrication of sulphurous acid. As it occurs in commerce, it is generally contaminated with a little arsenic, the presence of which may be detected by its not being completely soluble in an excess of nitric acid. It may be purified from all contaminating metals, by dissolving the bismuth of commerce in diluted nitric acid, precipitating the clear solution by adding it to water, and reducing the white powder thus obtained (subnitrate of bismuth) with black flux. The same precipitate is obtained by adding ammonia to the nitric solution; and, if the supernatant liquor should be blue, the presence of copper is indicated. If the precipitate be yellowish, iron is present. PART I. Bismuthum.—Brominum. 143 Pharmaceutical Uses, fyc. Bismuth, in an uncombined state, is not used in medicine, but is employed pharmaceutically to obtain the subnitrate of bismuth, the only medicinal preparation formed from this metal. In the arts, it is used to form a white paint for the complexion, called pearl white; and as an ingredient of the best pewter. Off. Prep. Bismuthi Subnitras, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. B. BROMINUM. U.S. Secondary. Bromine. Off. Syn. BROMINIUM. Lond. Brome, Fr.; Brom, Germ.; Bromo, Ital. Bromine is an elementary body, possessing many analogies to chlorine and iodine. It was discovered in 1826 by Balard, a chemist of Montpellier, in the bittern of sea-salt works, in which it exists as a bromide of magne- sium. Since then it has been discovered in the waters of the ocean, in cer- tain marine animals and vegetables, in numerous salt springs, and, in two instances, in the mineral kingdom—in an ore of zinc, and in the cadmium of Silesia. In the United States it was first discovered by Professor Silliman, who found it in the bittern of the salt works at Salina, in the state of New York, where it exists apparently in considerable quantities. It is found in the salt springs, near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, the bittern of which contains about nine drachms of bromine to the gallon. At present this bromine is successfully extracted by Dr. Edward Gillespie, who discovered it some years ago, while testing the water of these springs for iodine. It has been detected also in the waters of the Saratoga Springs, and was found by the late Professor Emmet, of the University of Virginia, in the Kenhawa water. Preparation. Bromine is prepared by passing a current of chlorine through bittern, and then agitating it strongly with a portion of ether. The chlorine decomposes the bromide of magnesium present in the bittern, form- ing a chloride of magnesium; and the disengaged bromine dissolves in the ether, to which it communicates a hyacinth-red colour. The ethereal solu- tion of bromine is next decanted, and treated with a concentrated solution of caustic potassa, whereby the bromine is converted into bromide of potas- sium, and bromate of potassa. In the mean time the ether loses its colour and becomes pure, and may be again employed for dissolving fresh portions of bromine. Having in this way obtained a sufficient quantity of the salts above mentioned, their solution is evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass calcined at a red heat, in order to convert the bromate of potassa into bro- mide of potassium. The bromide is next decomposed by distilling it, with sulphuric acid and deutoxide of manganese, from a retort furnished with a bent tube plunging into water contained in a bottle. The acid combines with potassium and oxygen, so as to form sulphate of potassa, and the libe- rated bromine distils over, and condenses under the water. Properties. Bromine is a volatile liquid, of a dark-red colour when viewed in mass, but hyacinth-red in thin layers. Its taste is very caustic, and its smell strong and disagreeable, having some resemblance to that of chlorine. Its density is very nearly 3. At 4° below zero it becomes a hard, brittle, crystalline solid, having a dark leaden colour, and a lustre nearly metallic. It boils at about 117°, forming a reddish vapour resembling that of nitrous acid, and of the sp. gr. 5-39. It evaporates readily, a single drop being suf- ficient to fill a large flask with its peculiar vapour. Bromine is sparingly soluble in water, to which it communicates an orange colour, more soluble in alcohol, and still more so in ether. The alcoholic 144 Brominum.— Calamus. PART I. and ethereal solutions lose their colour in a few days, and become acid from the generation of hydrobromic acid. It bleaches vegetable substances like chlorine, and decomposes organic matters. Its combination with starch has a yellow colour. It corrodes the skin and gives it a deep yellow stain. Bromine is intermediate in its affinities between chlorine and iodine; since its combinations are decomposed by chlorine, while, in its turn, it decom- poses those of iodine. Its eq. number is 78-4 and its symbol Br. It forms acids with both oxygen and hydrogen, called bromic and hydrobromic acids, which are analogous in properties and composition to the corresponding compounds of chlorine and iodine. In testing for bromine in mineral or saline waters, the water is evaporated in order to crystallize most of the salts. The solution, after having been filtered, is placed in a narrow tube, and a few drops of strong chlorine water are added. If this addition produces an orange colour, bromine-is pre- sent. The water examined, in order that the test may succeed, must be free from organic matter, and the chlorine not added in excess. For Heine's method of estimating the quantity of bromine in mineral waters, see Chem. Gaz. No. 81. p. 103. Bromine may be detected in marine vegetables by carbonizing them in a covered crucible, exhausting the charcoal, previously pulverized, with boiling distilled water, precipitating any alkaline sulphuret present in the solution with sulphate of zinc, and then adding successively a few drops of nitric acid and a portion of ether, shaking the whole together. If bromine be present, it will be set free and dissolved in the ether, to which it will communicate an orange colour. (Dupasquier.) Medical Properties. Bromine, from its analogy to iodine, was early tried as a remedy, and the result has demonstrated its value as a therapeutic agent. It acts like iodine, by stimulating the lymphatic system and pro- moting absorption. It has been employed in bronchocele, scrofulous tumours and ulcers, amenorrhoea, chronic diseases of the skin, and hypertrophy of the ventricles. For a list of the diseases in which bromine and its prepa- rations have been used, the reader is referred to the Essay of Dr. Clover in the Ed. Med. $• Surg. Journ. for Oct. 1842, an abstract of which is given in the Med. Exam. v. 712. Magendie recommends it in cases in which iodine does not operate with sufficient activity, or has lost its effect by habit. The form in which it is employed is aqueous solution, the dose of which, containing one part of bromine to forty of distilled water, is about six drops taken several times a day. When used as a wash for ulcers, from ten to forty minims of bromine may be added to a pint of water. Of its compounds the bromides of potassium, iron, and mercury have been chiefly tried as medicines. (See Potassii Bromidum, Lond.) The bromide of iron and the two bromides of mercury will be noticed in the Appendix. Bromine, in an overdose, acts as an irritant poison. The best antidote, according to Mr. Alfred Smee, is ammonia. B. Off. Prep. Potassii Bromidum, Lond. CALAMUS. U.S. Secondary. Sweet Flag. "The rhizoma of Acorus Calamus." U. S. Off. Syn. ACORUS. Acorus Calamus. Rhizoma. Lond.; CALAMUS AROMATICUS. Rhizoma of Acorus Calamus, var. o, vulgaris, Ed. Acorus vrai, Acorus odorant, Fr.; Kalmuswurzel, Germ.; Calamo aromatico, Ital, Span. Acorus. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Acoraceae. PART I. Calamus. 145 Gen. Ch. Spadix cylindrical, covered with florets. Corolla six-petalled, naked. Style none. Capsule three-celled. Willd. Acorus Calamus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 199; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 63. The sweet flag, or calamus, has a perennial, horizontal, jointed, somewhat compressed root (rhizome), from half an inch to an inch thick, sometimes several feet in length, sending off numerous round and yellowish or whitish radicles from its base, and bunches of brown fibres resembling coarse hair from its joints, internally white and spongy, externally whitish with a tinge of green, variegated with triangular shades of light brown and rose colour. The leaves are all radical, sheathing at the base, long, sword-shaped, smooth, green above, but, near their origin from the root, of a red colour, variegated with green and white. The scape or flower-stem resembles the leaves, but is longer, and from one side, near the middle of its length, sends out a cylindrical spadix, tapering at each end, about two inches in length, and crowded with greenish-yellow flowers. These are without calyx, and have six small, concave, membranous, truncated petals. The fruit is an oblong capsule, divided into three cells, and containing numerous oval seeds. This is an indigenous plant, growing abundantly throughout the United States, in low, wet, swampy places, and along the sides of ditches and streams, and flowering in May and June. It is also a native of Europe and Western Asia; and a variety of the same species is found in India. The European plant differs from the American in some unimportant particulars. The leaves as well as root have an aromatic odour; but the latter only is used in medicine. It should be collected late in the autumn, or in the spring. After removal from the ground, the roots are washed, freed from their nu- merous fibres, and dried with a moderate heat. By the process of drying they lose nearly one-half their diameter, but are improved in odour and taste. Properties. The roots, as found in the shops, are in pieces of various lengths, somewhat flattened, externally wrinkled and of a yellowish-brown colour, and presenting on their under surface numerous minute circular spots, indicating the points at which the radicles were inserted. Their texture is light and spongy, their colour internally whitish or yellowish-white, and their fracture short and rough. Sometimes pieces are brought into the market consisting exclusively of the interior portion of the root. They are usually long, slender, irregularly quadrangular, and of a grayish-white colour; and are prepared by paring off the outer coat with a knife. The odour of calamus is strong and fragrant; its taste warm, bitterish, pungent, and aromatic. Its active principles are taken up by boiling water. From one hundred parts of the fresh root of the European plant, Trommsdorff obtained 0-1 part of volatile oil, 2-3 of a soft resin, 3-3 of extractive with a little chloride of potassium, 5-5 of gum with some phosphate of potassa, 1-6 of starch, analogous to inulin, 21-5 of lignin, and 65-7 of water. Sixteen ounces of the dried root afforded to Neumann about two scruples of volatile oil. The oil is at first yellow, but ultimately becomes red, and has the smell and taste of calamus. The extractive matter has an acrid and sweetish taste. The root is sometimes attacked by worms, and deteriorates by keeping. The root of the Indian variety is said to be less thick than the European, and to have a stronger and more pleasant taste and smell. It is supposed by some to be the true calamus of the ancients, though the claims of either variety to this honour have not been certainly established. Medical Properties and Uses. Calamus is a stimulant tonic, possessing the ordinary virtues of the aromatics. It may be taken with advantage in pain or uneasiness of the stomach or bowels arising from flatulence, and forms a useful adjuvant to tonic or purgative medicines, in cases of torpor 14 146 Calamus.—Calcii Chloridum. part i. or debility of the alimentary canal. It was probably known to the ancients; but the calamus aromaticus of Dioscorides was a different product, having been derived, according to Dr. Royle, from a species of Andropogon. The medicine is at present much neglected, though well calculated to answer as a substitute for more costly aromatics. The dose in substance is from a scruple to a drachm. An infusion, made in the proportion of an ounce of the root to a pint of boiling water, is sometimes given in the dose of a wine- glassful or more. "• CALCII CHLORIDUM. U.S., Lond. Chloride of Calcium. Off. Syn. CALCIS MURIAS. Ed., Dub. Muriate of lime, Hydrochlorate of lime; Chlorure de calcium, Hydrochlorate dechaux, Fr.; Chlorcalcium, Salzsaurer Kalk, Germ. Chloride of calcium consists of chlorine, united with calcium, the metallic radical of lime. It is placed in the list of the Materia Medica in the United States Pharmacopoeia; but processes for preparing it are given by the Lon- don, Edinburgh, and Dublin Colleges. It may be readily formed by satu- rating muriatic acid with chalk or marble, evaporating to dryness, and heating to redness. The muriatic acid, by reacting with the lime, forms chloride of calcium and water, the latter of which is dissipated at a red heat. The London College forms the chloride from chalk in the following manner. "Take five ounces of chalk, and ten fluidounces, each, of hydro- chloric acid and distilled water. Having mixed the acid and water together, add the chalk gradually to the mixture to perfect saturation. After the effervescence shall have ceased, filter the liquor, and evaporate it to dryness. Put the dry salt in a crucible, and, having fused it, pour it out upon a clean stone slab. When it has cooled, break it into pieces, which must be kept in bottles well stopped." The Edinburgh process is substantially the same with the London. The only differences are that the Edinburgh College uses white marble in fragments, and obtains the chloride in crystals, by evaporating the solution resulting from the saturation to one-half, and setting it aside in a cold place. In making chloride of calcium, the Dublin College uses the residuum of its process for obtaining water of ammonia. The latter preparation being procured by the action of lime on muriate of ammonia, the residuum is a solution of chloride of calcium; but it generally contains adhering ammonia and an excess of lime. Any quantity of this residuum is taken, and, after "being filtered, is evaporated to dryness. The excess of lime may be satu- rated with muriatic acid, or converted into an insoluble carbonate by ex- posing the solution for some time to the air. Properties. Chloride of calcium, in the fused or anhydrous state, as it is directed or understood to be in the U.S., London, and Dublin Pharma- copoeias, is a colourless, slightly translucent solid, of an acrid, bitter, saline taste, extremely deliquescent, very soluble in water, and readily soluble in rectified spirit On account of its avidity for water, the fused salt is used for drying gases, and for bringing alcohol to its highest degree of concen- tration. It is employed for the latter purpose by the London and Dublin Colleges. The crystallized salt, as directed by the Edinburgh College, is also very deliquescent, and has the form of colourless, transparent, striated, six-sided prisms. The crystals, on exposure to heat, first dissolve in their water of crystallization, and, after this has evaporated, undergo the igneous fusion. With ice or snow they form a powerful frigorific mixture. So- PART I. Calcis Hydras.— Calx. 147 lution of chloride of calcium, when pure, yields no precipitate with am- monia, chloride of barium, or ferrocyanuret of potassium dissolved in a large quantity of water. The non-action of these tests severally shows the absence of magnesia, sulphuric acid, and iron. Chloride of calcium exists in solution in the water of the ocean and of many springs. It is usually associated with common salt and chloride of magnesium, from which it is separated with difficulty. Composition. Chloride of calcium consists of one eq. of chlorine 35-42, and one of calcium 20-5=55-92. When crystallized, it contains six eqs. of water =54. Chloride of calcium is used medicinally in solution only. In this state it has the officinal name of Liquor Calcii Chloridi, under which title its medicinal properties are given. It is employed in saturated solution by the Edinburgh College for purifying sulphuric ether. Off. Prep. Liquor Calcii Chloridi, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Morphiae Murias, Ed. B. CALCIS HYDRAS. Lond. Hydrate of Lime. "Calx recens usta aqua resoluta." Lond. Slaked lime; Hydrate de chaux, Chaux eteinte, Fr.; Geloschter Kalk. Germ. The London College introduced hydrate of lime as a new officinal in its revised Pharmacopoeia of 1836. It is readily prepared by adding water to quicklime by small quantities at a time, until the earth falls into powder. During the operation, which is called the slaking of lime, a great deal of heat is evolved, and the water forms with the earth a solid compound, called hydrate of lime. It is white, pulverulent, and much less caustic than lime. Exposed to the air it attracts carbonic acid, and, when subjected to a high temperature, loses the combined water, and returns to the state of lime. When perfectly formed, the hydrate contains nearly one-fourth of its weight of water, corresponding to one eq. of the earth and one of water. Its only officinal use is to form chlorinated lime, or bleaching powder. (See Calx Chlorinata.) The tests for hydrate of lime are the same as for lime. (See Calx.) Off. Prep. Calx Chlorinata, Lond. B. CALX. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Lime. "Lime recently prepared by calcination." U. S. "Calx recens usta." Lond. Quicklime; Chaux, Chaux vive, Fr.; Kalk, Germ.; Calce, Ital; Calviva, Span. Lime, which ranks among the alkaline earths, is a very important phar- maceutical agent, and forms the principal ingredient in several standard pre- parations. The London and Edinburgh Colleges give processes for its preparation; but in the United States and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, it is placed exclusively in the list of the Materia Medica. Lime is a very abundant natural production. It is never found pure, but mostly combined with acids, as with carbonic acid in chalk, marble, calca- reous spar, limestone, and shells; with sulphuric acid in the different kinds of gypsum; with phosphoric acid in the bones of animals; and with silica in a great variety of minerals. 148 Calx. PART I. Preparation. Lime is prepared by calcining, with a strong heat, some form of the native carbonate. The carbonic acid is thus expelled, and the lime remains behind. When the lime is intended for nice chemical opera- lions, it should be obtained from pure white marble, or from oyster shells. For the purposes of the arts it is procured from common limestone, by cal- cining it in kilns of peculiar construction. When obtained in this way, it is generally impure, being of a grayish colour, and containing alumina, silica, sesquioxide of iron, and occasionally a little magnesia and oxide of manganese. The officinal lime of the United States and Dublin Pharmacopoeias is the lime of commerce, and, therefore, impure. That obtained by the processes of the London and Edinburgh Colleges is purer. The London College takes a pound of chalk, and exposes it, broken into small pieces, to a very strong fire for an hour. The Edinburgh directions are to expose white mar- ble, broken into small fragments, in a covered crucible, to a full red heat for three hours; or till the residuum, when slaked and suspended in water, no longer effervesces on the addition of muriatic acid. Properties. Lime is a grayish-white solid, having a strong, caustic, alkaline taste, and the sp. gr. 2-3. It is very refractory in the fire, having been fused only by the compound blowpipe of Dr. Hare. Exposed to the air, it absorbs moisture and carbonic acid, and falls into a white powder. In this state, it is a mixture of carbonate and hydrate. On account of its lia- bility to change by being kept, lime, intended for pharmaceutical purposes, should be recently burnt. It acts upon vegetable colours as a strong alkaline base. Upon the addition of water, it cracks and falls into powder, with the evolution of heat. (See Calcis Hydras, Lond.) If it dissolve in muri- atic acid without effervescence, the fact shows the absence of carbonic acid, and that the lime has been well burnt. If any silica be present, it will be left undissolved by the muriatic acid. If the solution give no precipitate with ammonia, the absence of iron and alumina is shown. Lime is but sparingly soluble in water, requiring, at the temperature of 60°, about seven hundred times its weight of that liquid for complete solu- tion. Contrary to the general law, it is less soluble in hot than in cold water. The solution is called lime-water. When lime is mixed in excess with water, so as to form a thick liquid, the mixture is called milk of lime. Lime is the oxide of a peculiar metal, called calcium, and consists of one eq. of calcium 20-5, and one of oxygen 8 =28-5. It is distinguished from the other alkaline earths by forming a very deliquescent salt (chloride of calcium) by reaction with muriatic acid, and a sparingly soluble one with sulphuric acid. All acids, acidulous, ammoniacal, and metallic salts, borates, alkaline carbonates, and astringent vegetable infusions are incompatible with it. Medical Properties. Lime acts externally as an escharotic, and was formerly applied to ill-conditioned ulcers. Mixed with caustic potassa, it forms the Potassa cum Calce. As an internal remedy it'is always admin- istered in solution. (See Liquor Calcis.) Economical Uses. The uses of lime in the arts are numerous. It is employed in the fabrication of soap, to render the fixed alkalies caustic; as a manure for fertilizing fields; and, mixed with sand and water, as the ordi- nary cement of buildings. Lime is used to prepare ^Ether Sulphuricus, Ed.; Alcohol, Ed.; Liquor Ammoniae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Potassae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Q,uiniae Sulphas, U.S.; Spiritus Ammoniae, U.S., Ed.; Strychnia, U.S., Ed.; Sulphur Praecipitatum, U. S. Off. Prep. Liquor Calcis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassa cum Calce, Lond., Ed., Dub. B. PART I. Calx Chlorinata. 149 CALX CHLORINATA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Chlorinated Lime. " A compound resulting from the action of chlorine on hydrate of lime." Chloride of lime, Hypochlorite of lime, Oxymuriate of lime, Bleaching powder; Chlo- rure de chaux, Fr.; Chlorkalk, Germ.; Clorurp de calce, Ital. This compound was originally prepared, and brought into notice as a bleaching agent, in 1798, by Mr. Tennant of Glasgow. Subsequently it was found to have valuable properties as a medicine and disinfectant, and, accordingly, it has been successively introduced into the London, Edin- burgh, and United States Pharmacopoeias. The London College only has given a process for its preparation, which is as follows: "Take of Hydrate of Lime a pound; Chlorine as much as may be sufficient. Pass the chlo- rine over the lime, spread in a proper vessel, until it is saturated. Chlorine is very readily evolved from Hydrochloric [muriatic] Acid added to Bin- oxide [deutoxide] of Manganese, with a gentle heat." This process of the London College is unnecessary; as chlorinated lime is made in large quantities, and of excellent quality, by the manufacturing chemist, for the use of the bleacher, dyer, and paper-maker. The following is the process pursued on the large scale. An oblong square chamber is constructed, generally of siliceous sandstone, the joints being secured by a cement of pitch, rosin, and dry gypsum. At one end it is furnished with an air-tight door, and on each side with a glass window, to enable the operator to inspect the process during its progress. The slaked or hydrated lime is sifted and placed on wooden trays, eight or ten feet long, two broad, and one inch deep. These are piled within the chamber to a height of five or six feet on cross-bars, by which they are kept about an inch asunder, in order to favour the circulation of the gas over the lime. The chlorine is generated in a leaden vessel nearly spherical, the lower portion of which is surrounded with an iron case, leaving an interstice two inches wide, intended to receive steam for the purpose of producing the requisite heat. In the leaden vessel are five apertures. The first is in the centre of the top, and receives a tube which descends nearly to the bottom, and through which a vertical stirrer passes, intended to mix the materials, and furnished, at the lower end, with horizontal cross-bars of iron, or of wood sheathed with lead. The second is for the introduction of the common salt and manganese. The third admits a syphon-shaped funnel, through which the sulphuric acid is introduced. The fourth is connected with a pipe to lead off the gas. The fifth, which is near the bottom, receives a discharge pipe, passing through the iron case, and intended for drawing off the residuum of the operation. The pipe passing from the leaden vessel terminates under water contained in a leaden chest or cylinder, where the gas is washed from muriatic acid. From this intermediate vessel, the chlorine finally passes, by means of a pretty large leaden pipe, through the ceiling of the chamber containing the lime. The process of impregnation generally lasts four days, in order to form a good bleaching powder. If the process be hastened, heat will be generated, which will favour the production of chloride of calcium, attended with a proportional diminution of chloride of lime. The proportions of the materials employed for generating chlorinated lime vary in different manufactories. Those generally adopted are 10 cwt. of common salt, mixed with from 10 to 14 cwt. of deutoxide of manganese; to 14* 150 Calx Chlorinata. part I. which are added, in successive portions, from 12 to 14 cwt. of strong sul- phuric acid, diluted before being used until its sp. gr. is reduced to about 1-65, which will be accomplished by adding about one-third of its weight of water. In manufactories in which sulphuric acid is also made, the acid intended for this process is brought to the sp. gr. of 1-65 only, whereby the expense of further concentration is saved. Properties. Chlorinated lime is a dry or slightly moist, grayish-white, pulverulent substance, possessing an acrid, hot, bitter, astringent taste, and a feeble odour resembling that of chlorine. It possesses powerful bleaching properties. When perfectly saturated with chlorine, it dissolves almost en- tirely in water; but, as ordinarily prepared, a large proportion is insoluble, consisting of hydrate of lime. When exposed to heat, it gives off oxygen and some chlorine, and is converted into chloride of calcium. It is incom- patible with the mineral acids, with carbonic acid, and the alkaline car- bonates. The acids evolve chlorine copiously, and the alkaline carbonates cause a precipitate of carbonate of lime. (See Liquor Sodse Chlorinatae.) Composition. Although the bleaching powder has been studied by a number of able chemists, its composition is still involved in doubt. Dr. Ore believes that it consists of hydrate of lime and chlorine, united in variable proportions, not correspondent to equivalent quantities. According to Brande, Grouvelle, and Phillips, the compound obtained when chlorine ceases to be absorbed, consists of one eq. of chlorine and two of hydrate of lime, resolva- ble, by water, into one eq. of hydrated chloride of lime which dissolves, and one of hydrate of lime which is left. Dr. Thomson, however, asserts that the substance has been so much improved in quality of late years, that good samples consist of single equivalents of chlorine and lime, and are almost en- tirely soluble in water. It thus appears that the best authorities agree in considering the bleaching powder to contain lime and water, or their ele- ments, together with chlorine. From the statement of Dr. Thomson, it may be assumed as probable that the essential part of the compound is the portion soluble in water. On this view, its ultimate constituents, exclusive of the elements of water, are one eq. of chlorine, one of calcium, and one of oxygen; the excess of lime found by Phillips and others being a portion of the earth imperfectly hydrated, and, therefore, in an unfit state to be acted on by the chlorine. Three views are taken of the manner in which these elements are united to form the bleaching powder. The first makes it a chloride of lime, the second, hypochlorite of lime with chloride of calcium,and the third, oxychloride of calcium. By doubling the elements present, it is easily shown by symbols, that the several views taken do not change the ultimate com- position of the compound; for 2CaO+2Cl=CaO,C10 + CaCl or 2CaOCl. The simplest view of the nature of the bleaching powder is that which supposes it a compound of chlorine and lime. The view which makes it a hypochlorite is that of Balard and Berzelius, and is supported by the fact that the compound smells of hypochlorous acid. On the other hand, if it contain chloride of calcium, it ought to deliquesce; unless it can be shown that the metallic chloride is in such a state of combination as to prevent this result. The third view, that it is an oxychloride, which assimilates its natuTe to that of the deutoxide of calcium, is held by Millon. According to this chemist, the quantity of chlorine, taken up by a metallic protoxide, is regu- lated by the nature of its peroxide. The peroxide of calcium is a deutoxide (Ca03); and Millon contends that, in forming the bleaching powder, the lime takes up but one eq. of chlorine, corresponding to the second eq. of oxygen in the deutoxide, thus generating the compound CaOCl. Again, the peroxide of potassium is represented by KOs, and Millon states that the PART I. Calx Chlorinata. 151 bleaching compound which potassa (KO) forms with chlorine, is KOCl^ If further observation should show that the number of equivalents of chlo- rine, necessary to convert a protoxide into a bleaching compound, is always equal to the number of equivalents of oxygen required to convert it into a peroxide, it will go far to prove the correctness of Millon's views. On the supposition that the bleaching powder is a hypochlorite of lime, with chloride of calcium, the mode of its formation is thus explained. Two eqs. of chlorine, by uniting separately with the elements of one eq. of lime, form one eq. of chloride of calcium, and one of hypochlorous acid, the latter of which combines with an additional eq. of lime, to form hypochlorite of lime. Upon the whole, considering the uncertainty which exists as to the real nature of the compound under consideration, the name of chlorinated lime, adopted by the Pharmacopoeias, is a judicious one, as involving no decision of its exact composition. Impurities and Tests. Chlorinated lime may contain a great excess of lime, from imperfect impregnation with the gas. This defect will be shown by the large proportion insoluble in water. If it contain much chloride of calcium, it will be quite moist, which is always a sign of inferior quality. If long and insecurely kept, it deteriorates from the gradual formation of chlo- ride of calcium and carbonate of lime. Several methods have been proposed for determining its bleaching and disinfecting power, which depends solely on the proportion of loosely combined chlorine. Walter proposed to add a solution of the bleaching powder to a standard solution of sulphate of indigo, in order to ascertain its decolorizing power ; but the objection to this test is that the indigo of commerce is very variable in its amount of colouring matter. Dr. Ure has proposed muriatic acid to disengage the chlorine over mercury; but this test is liable to the fallacy that it will disengage carbonic acid as well as chlorine; and it has been shown by some unpublished experiments of Mr. Procter of this city, that .the amount of disengaged gaseous matter is not in proportion to the decolorizing power. The late Dr. Dalton proposed as a test, to add a solution of the bleaching powder to one of the sulphate of protoxide of iron, until the odour of chlorine is perceived. Chlorine is not disengaged until the iron is sesquioxidized, and the stronger the bleaching powder, the sooner this will be accomplished. Dr. Thomson and Professor Graham consider this test as the best yet proposed. The Pharmacopoeias have given no satisfactory test of the value of chlo- rinated lime. The character given in the London and United States Phar- macopoeias of entire solubility in dilute muriatic acid, with the evolution of chlorine, applies equally to good and bad samples. Assuming the chlo- rinated lime to be dry, and, therefore, free from chloride of calcium, it would follow that the quantity of oxalate of lime, thrown down by oxalic acid from the part of the powder soluble in water, would be proportional to the lime present, and, therefore, to the chlorine combined with it. This test is given by the Edinburgh College, with directions for measuring the bulk, after rest, of the precipitated oxalate of lime; but the plan is not prac- tically convenient. Medical Properties and Uses. Chlorinated lime, externally applied, is a desiccant and disinfectant, and has been used with advantage, in solution, as an application to ill-conditioned ulcers, burns, chilblains, and cutaneous eruptions, especially itch; as a gargle in putrid sorethroat; and as a wash for the mouth to disinfect the breath, and for ulcerated gums. Internally, it is a stimulant and astringent. It has been employed by Dr. Reid in the epi- demic typhoid fever of Ireland; by the same practitioner in dysentery, both by the mouth and injection, with the effect of correcting the fetor, and im- 152 Calx Chlorinata. PART I. proving the appearance of the stools ; by Cima, both internally and exter- nal^ in scrofula ; and by Dr. Varlez of Brussels in ophthalmia. Dr. fe> reifa has used a weak solution very successfully in the purulent ophthalmia of infants. In the febrile cases Dr. Reid found it to render the tongue cleaner and moister, to check diarrhoea, and induce sleep. The dose inter- nally is from three to six grains, dissolved in one of two fluidounces of water, filtered, and sweetened with syrup. It should never be given in pills. As it occurs of variable quality, and must be used in solution more or less dilute, according to the particular purpose to which it is to be applied,it is impossible to give any very precise directions for its strength as an external remedy. From one to four drachms of the powder added to a pint of water, and the solution filtered, will form a liquid within the limits of strength ordi* narily required. For the cure of itch, M. Derheims has recommended a much stronger solution—three ounces of the chloride to a pint of water, the solution being filtered, and applied several times a day as a lotion, or con- stantly by wet cloths. When applied to ulcers, their surface may be covered with lint dipped in the solution. When used as an ointment, to be rubbed upon scrofulous enlargements of the lymphatic glands, it may be made of a drachm of the chloride to an ounce of lard. Chlorinated lime acts by the loosely combined chlorine it contains ; but is not so eligible for some pur* poses as the solution of chlorinated soda. (See Liquor Sodae Chlorinata:.) In consequence of its powers as a disinfectant, chlorinated lime is a very important compound in its application to medical police. It possesses the property of preventing or arresting animal and vegetable putrefaction, and, perhaps, of destroying pestilential and infectious miasms. It may be used with advantage for preserving bodies from exhaling an unpleasant odour before interment in the summer season. In juridical exhumations its use is indispensable, as it effectually removes the disgusting and insupportable fetor of the Corpse. The mode in which it is applied in these cases, is to envelop the body with a sheet completely wet with a solution, made by add- ing about a pound of the chloride to a bucketful of water. It is employed also for disinfecting dissecting rooms, privies, common sewers, docks, and other places which exhale offensive effluvia. In destroying contagion and infection, it also appears to be highly useful. Hence hospitals, alms-houses, jails, ships, &c, may be purified by its means. In short, all places deemed infectious from having been the receptacle of cases of virulent disease, may be more of less disinfected by its use, after they have undergone the ordi- nary processes of cleansing. The way in which chlorinated lime acts, is exclusively by its chlorine, which, being loosely combined, is disengaged by the slightest affinities. All acids-, even the carbonic, disengage it; and as this acid is a product of animal and vegetable decomposition, noxious effluvia furnish the means, to a certain extent, of their own disinfection by this chloride. But the stronger acids disengage the Chlorine far more readily, and, among these, sulphuric acid is the cheapest and most convenient. Accordingly, the powder may be dissolved in a very dilute solution of sulphuric acid, or a small quantity* of this acid may be added to an aqueous solution ready formed, in case a more copious evolution of chlorine is desired than that which takes place from the mere action of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. Chlorinated lime may be advantageously applied to the purpose of purify- ing offensive water, a property which makes it invaluable on long voyages. When used for this purpose, from one to two ounces of the chloride may be mixed with about sixty-five gallons of the water. After the purification has been effected, the water must be exposed for some time to the air and allowed to settle, before it is fit to drink. PART I. Camphor a. 153 Chlorinated lime is used as a chemical agent in the U. S. formula for pre- paring acetate of zinc. Off. Prep. Liquor Sodae Chlorinatae, U. S. B. CAMPHORA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Camphor. " A peculiar concrete substance derived from Laurus Camphora, and puri- fied by sublimation." U.S. "Laurus Camphora. Concretum sui generis, sublimatione purificatum." Lond. "Camphor of Camphora officinarum." Ed. " Laurus Camphora. Dryobalanops Camphora. Camphora." Dub. Camphre, Fr.; Kampher, Germ.; Canfora, Ital; Alcanfor, Span. The name of camphor has been applied to various concrete, white, odor- ous, volatile products, found in different aromatic plants, and resulting pro- bably from some chemical change in their volatile oil. But commercial camphor is derived exclusively from two plants, the Camphora officinarum of Nees or Laurus Camphora of Linnaeus, and the Dryobalanops Cam- phora; the former of which yields our officinal camphor, the latter, a product much valued in the East, but unknown in the commerce of this country and of Europe. A considerable quantity of camphor, said to be identical with the officinal, has recently been obtained upon the Tenasserim coast, in fur- ther India, by subliming the tops of an annual plant, growing abundantly in that region, and thought to be a species of Blumia. This product, how- ever, has not yet been introduced into general commerce. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 56, from the Calcutta Journ. of Nat. Hist.) The following observations apply to the officinal camphor. Camphora. Sex. Syst. Enneandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lauraceae. Gen. Ch. Flowers hermaphrodite, panicled, naked. Calyx six-cleft, pa- pery, with a deciduous limb. Fertile stamens nine, in three rows; theinner with two stalked, compressed glands at the base ; anthers four-celled; the outer turned inwards, the inner outwards. Three sterile stamens shaped like the first, placed in a whorl alternating with the stamens of the second row; three others stalked, with an ovate glandular head. Fruit placed on the obconical base of the calyx. Leaves triple-nerved, glandular in the axils of the principal veins. Leaf buds scaly. (Lindley, Flora Medica, 332.) Among the species composing the genus Laurus of Linn., such striking differences have been observed in the structure of the flower and fruit, that botanists have been induced to arrange them in new genera. The camphor, cinnamon, and sassafras trees have been separated from the proper laurels by the German botanist Nees, and made the types of distinct genera, which have been adopted by Lindley and most other recent writers, and may be considered as well established. The United States Pharmacopoeia virtually recognises the newarrangementby adoptingthegenusCinnamomum, though it still attaches the two other plants to Laurus. Camphora officinarum. Nees, Laurin. 88.—Laurus Camphora. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 478; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 681. t. 236.—Persea Camphora. Sprcngei. The camphor tree is an evergreen of considerable size, having the aspect of the linden, with a trunk straight below, but divided above into many branches, which are covered with a smooth, greenish bark. Its leaves, which stand alternately upon long footstalks, are ovate lanceolate, entire, smooth and shining, ribbed, of a bright yellowish-green colour on their upper surface, paler on the under, and two or three inches in length. The flowers are small, white, pedicelled.and collected in clusters, which are supported 154 Camphora. PART I. by long axillary peduncles. The fruit is a red berry resembling that of the cinnamon. The tree is a native of the most eastern parts of Asia, and is found abundantly in China and Japan, It has been introduced into the bo- tanical gardens of Europe, and is occasionally met with in the conservatories of our own country. The leaves have when bruised the odour of camphor, which is diffused through all parts of the plant, and is obtained from the- root, trunk, and branches by sublimation. The process is not precisely the same in all places. The following is said to be the one pursued in Japan. The parts mentioned, particularly the roots and smaller branches, are cut into chips, which are placed, with a little water, in large iron vessels, surmounted by earthen capi- tals, furnished with a lining of rice-straw. A moderate heat is then applied, and the camphor, volatilized by the steam of the boiling water, rises into the capital, where it is Condensed upon the straw. In China, the comminuted plant is said to be first boiled with Water until the fcamphor adheres to the stick Used in stirring, when the strained liquor is allowed to cool; and the camphor which concretes, being alternated with layers of earth, is submitted to sublimation. Commercial History. Camphor, in the crude state, is brought to this country chiefly from Canton. It comes also from Batavia, Singapore, Cal- cutta, and Very frequently from London. All of it is probably derived origi- nally from Chitia and Japan. Two commercial varieties are found in the market. The cheapest and most abundant is the Chinese camphor, the greater part of which is produced in the island of Formosa, and thence taken to Canton. It comes in chests lined with lead, each containing about 130 pounds. It is in small grains or granular masses, of a dirty white colour, and frequently mixed with impurities. The other variety is variously called Japan, Dutch) Or tub camphor, the first name being derived from the place of its Origin, the second from the people through whom it is introduced into commerce, and the third from the recipient in which it is often contained. It comes usually from Batavia, to which port it is brought from Japan. Like the former variety, it is in grains or granular masses; but the grains are larger and of a pinkish colour, and there are fewer impurities, so that it yields a lafger product when refined. Crude camphor, as brought from the East, is never found in the shop of the apothecary. It must be refined before it can be used for medicinal pur- poses. The process for refining camphor was first practised in Europe by the Venetians, who probably derived it from the Chinese. It was afterwards transferred to the Dutch, who long enjoyed a monopoly of this business; and it is only within a few years that the process has been generally known. It is now practised largely in this country, and the camphor refined in out domestic establishments is equal to any that was formerly imported. Crude camphor is mixed with about one-fiftieth of quicklime, and exposed, in a glass or earthenware vessel placed in a sandbath, to a gradually increasing heat, by which it is melted, and ultimately converted into vapour, which con- denses in a suitable recipient. Refined in this manner.it is usually in the form of large circular cakes, one or two inches thick, convex on one side, concave on the other, and perforated in the centre. Properties. Camphor has a peculiar, strong, penetrating,fragrant odour; and a bitter, pungent taste, attended with a slight sense of coofness. It is beautifully white and pellucid, somewhat unctuous to the touch, friable, and yet possessed of a degree of tenacity which renders its reduction to a fine powder very difficult, unless the cohesion of its particles be overcome by the addition of a minute proportion of alcohol, or other volatile liquid for which PART I. Camphom. 155 it has an affinity. It may be obtained in powder also by precipitating its alcoholic solution with water, or by grating and afterwards sifting it. The fracture of camphor is shining, and its texture crystalline. Its sp. gr. varies from 0-9857 to 0-996. It therefore floats upon water, on the surface of which, if thrown in small fragments, it assumes very singular circulatory movements, which cease upon the addition of a drop of oil. Its volatility is so great, that even at ordinary temperatures it is wholly dissipated if left exposed to the air. When it is confined in bottles, the vapour condense? upon the inner surface, and, when allowed to stand for a long time in large bottles partially filled, sometimes forms large and beautiful crystals. It melts at 288° F. and boils at 400°. (Turner.) In close vessels it may be sublimed unchanged. When allowed to concrete slowly from the state of vapour, it assumes the form of hexagonal plates. It is not altered by air and light. It readily takes fire, and burns with a brilliant flame, giving out much smoke, and leaving no residue. Water triturated with camphor dis- solves a very minute proportion, not more, according to Berzelius, than a thousandth part; which, however, is sufficient to impart a decided odour and taste to the solvent. By the intervention of sugar or magnesia, par- ticularly of the latter, a much larger proportion is dissolved. (See Aqua Camphorae.) Carbonic acid also increases the solvent power of water. Or- dinary alcohol will take up seventy-five per cent, of its weight of camphor, which is precipitated upon the addition of water. Berzelius states that 100 parts of alcohol, of the sp. gr. 0-806, dissolve 120 parts at 50° F. It is soluble also without change in ether, the volatile and fixed oils, strong acetic acid, and the diluted mineral acids. By means of the spirit of nitric ether, it is rendered somewhat more soluble in water. By the action of strong sulphuric and nitric acids, it is decomposed, the former carbonizing and converting it into artificial tannin; the latter, by the aid of repeated distilla- tion, into a peculiar acid called the camphoric. The alkalies produce very little effect upon it. The resins unite with it, forming a soft tenacious mass, in which the odour of the camphor is sometimes almost extinguished and frequently diminished; and a similar softening effect results when it is tritu- rated with the concrete oils.* Exposed to a strong heat in close vessels, camphor is resolved into a volatile oil and charcoal. It is closely analogous in character to the essential oils. Berzelius considers it a stearoptene free from any mixture of eleoptene. (See Olea Volatilia.) According to M. Dumas, it consists of a radical called camphene united with oxygen. Camphene, which is represented by pure oil of turpentine, is composed of ten equiva- lents of carbon 60, and eight of hydrogen 8 ==68. With one equiv. of * As this property of camphor may have a strong bearing injuriously or otherwise on pharmaceutical processes, it is desirable that the operator, as well as prescriber, should be aware of the degree of effect produced by different resinous substances which may be mixed with camphor. M. Planche has found that mixtures, formed by triturating pow- dered camphor with powdered dragon's blood, guaiac, assafetida, or galbanum, assume and preserve indefinitely the pilular consistence; with benzoin, tolu, ammoniac, and mas- tic, though at first of a pilular consistence, afterwards become soft by exposure to the air; with sagapenum and anime, assume a permanently semi-liquid form; with olibanum, opopanax, gamboge, euphorbium, bdellium, myrrh, and amber, remain pulverulent though somewhat grumous; and with tacamahac, resin of jalap, sandarac, and resinoid matter of cinchona, preserve the form of powder indefinitely. The same experimenter observed, that camphor loses its odour entirely when mixed with assafetida, galbanum, sagapenum, anime, and tolu; retains a feeble odour with dragon's blood, olibanum, mastic, benzoin, opopanax, tacamahac, guaiac, and ammoniac; while, with the other resinous substances above mentioned, it either has its odour increased, or retains it without material change. {Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 226.) 156 Camphora. PART I. oxygen it forms camphor, with four equiv. of the same body, hydrated cam- phoric acid, and with half an equiv. of hydrochloric acid, artificial camphor.* Medical Properties and Uses. Camphor does not seem to have been known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Europe probably derived it from the Arabians, by whom it was employed as a refrigerant. Much dif- ference of opinion has prevailed as to its mode of action, some maintaining its immediate sedative influence, others considering it as a direct and de- cided stimulant. Its operation appears to be primarily and chiefly directed to the cerebral and nervous systems; and the circulation, though usually affected to a greater or less extent, is probably involved, for the most part, through the agency of the brain. It acts, also, to a certain extent as a direct irritant of the mucous membranes with which it is brought into contact, and may thus in some measure secondarily excite the pulse. The effects of the medicine vary with the quantity administered. In moderate doses it pro- duces, in a healthy individual, mental exhilaration, increased heat of skin, and occasional diaphoresis. The pulse is usually increased in fulness, but little, if at all, in force or frequency. According to the experiments of cer- * Sumatra Camphor. Borneo Camphor. Dryobalanops Camphor. It has long been known that an excellent variety of camphor is produced in the Islands of Sumatra and Borneo, by a forest tree, which, not having been seen by botanists, remained until a recent period undetermined. It was at length, however, described by Colebrooke, and is now- recognised in systematic works as Dryobalanops Camphora, or D. aromatica. It is a very large tree, sometimes attaining the height of one hundred feet, with a trunk six or seven feet in diameter, and ranking among the tallest and largest trees of the luxuriant regions where it grows. It is found both in Sumatra and Borneo, and is abundant on the N. W. coast of the former island. The camphor exists in concrete masses, which occupy longitudinal cavities or fissures in the heart of the tree, from a foot to a foot and a half long, at certain distances apart. The younger trees are generally less productive than the old. The only method of ascertaining whether a tree contains camphor is by incision. A party proceeds through the forest, wounding the trees till they find one which will answer their purpose, and hundreds may be examined before this object is attained. When discovered, the tree is felled and cut into logs, which are then split, and the cam- phor removed by means of sharp-pointed instruments. The masses are sometimes as thick as a man's arm; and the product of a middling sized tree is nearly eleven pounds; of a large one, double the quantity. The trees which have been wounded and left stand- ing, often produce camphor seven or eight years afterwards. The Dryobalanops yields also a fragrant liquid, called in the East Indies oil of camphor, and highly valued as an external application in rheumatism and other painful affections. It is said to be found in trees too young to produce camphor, and is supposed to constitute the first stage in the developement of this substance; as it occupies the cavities in the trunk, which are after- wards filled with the camphor. It holds, in fact, a large portion of this principle in solution, and may be made to yield an inferior variety by artificial concretion. The whole tree is pervaded more or less by the camphor or the oil; as the wood retains a fragrant smell, and, being on this account less liable to the attacks of insects, is highly esteemed for carpenter's work. The camphor-wood trunks, occasionally brought to this country from the East Indies, are probably made out of the wood of the Dryobalanops. It has been supposed that this variety of camphor is occasionally brought into the mar- kets of Europe and America. But this is a mistake; as the whole produce of the islands is engrossed by the Chinese, by whom it is so highly valued, that it commands at Canton, according to Mr. Crawford, seventy-eight times, according to Mr. Reeves, one hundred times the price of ordinary camphor. A specimen in our possession, which was sent to this country from Canton as a curiosity, and kindly presented to us by Dr. Joseph Carson, is in tabular plates of the size of a fingernail or smaller, of a foliaceous crystalline texture, white, somewhat translucent, of an odour analogous to that of common camphor, and yet decidedly distinct, and less agreeable. It has also a camphorous taste. It is more compact and brittle than ordinary camphor; but does not sink in water, and is easily pulverized without the addition of alcohol. It is, moreover, much less disposed to rise in vapour, and to condense on the inside of the bottle containing it. Like ordinary cam- phor, it is fusible, volatilizable, very slightly soluble in water, and freely soluble in alcohol and in ether. We have never met with it in the drug stores. PART I. Camphora. 157 tain Italian physicians, it has a tendency to the urinary and genital organs, producing a burning sensation along the urethra, and exciting voluptuous dreams.* Cullen, however, states that he has employed it fifty times, even in large doses, without having ever observed any effect upon the urinary passages. By many it is believed to allay irritations of the urinary and genital apparatus, and to possess antaphrodisiac properties. In its primary operation, it allays nervous irritation, quiets restlessness, and pro- duces a general placidity of feeling, which renders it highly useful in certain forms of disease attended with derangement of the nervous functions. In larger doses, it displays a more decided action on the brain, producing more or less giddiness and mental confusion, with a disposition to sleep; and, in morbid states of the system, relieving pain and allaying spasmodic action. In immoderate doses, it occasions nausea, vomiting, anxiety, faint- ness, vertigo, delirium, insensibility, coma, and convulsions, which may end in death. The pulse, under these circumstances, is at first reduced in frequency and force ;t but as the action advances, it sometimes happens that symptoms of strong sanguineous determination to the head become evident, in the flushed countenance, inflamed and fiery eyes, and highly excited pulse.± There can be no doubt that it is absorbed; as its odour is observed in the breath and perspiration, though, as is asserted, not in the urine. By its moderately stimulating powers, its diaphoretic tendency, and its influence over the nervous system, it is admirably adapted to the treatment of all diseases of a typhoid character, which combine with the enfeebled condition of the system, a frequent irritated pulse, a dry skin, and much nervous derangement, indicated by restlessness, watchfulness, tremors, sub- sultus, and low muttering delirium. Nor are its beneficial effects confined to typhoid diseases. With a view to its anodyne and narcotic influence, it is often used in those of an inflammatory character, as in our ordinary re- mittents, and the phlegmasiae, particularly rheumatism, when the increased vascular action is complicated with derangement of the nervous system. In such cases, however, it should never be used until after proper depletion, and even then should be combined with such medicines as may obviate the slight stimulation it produces, and give it a more decided tendency to the skin; as, for instance, tartarized antimony, ipecacuanha, or nitre. In a great number of spasmodic and nervous disorders, and complaints of irrita- tion, camphor has been very extensively employed. The cases of this nature to which experience has proved it to be best adapted, are dysmenor- rhoea*puerperal convulsions and other nervous affections of the puerperal state, and certain forms of mania, particularly nymphomania, and that arising from the abuse of spirituous liquors. In some of these cases, ad- vantage may be derived from combining it with opium. Camphor has also been employed internally to allay that irritation of the urinary organs which is apt to be produced by cantharides. It is much used locally as an anodyne, usually dissolved in alcohol, oil, or acetic acid, and frequently combined with laudanum. In rheumatic and gouty affections, and various internal spasmodic and inflammatory complaints, it often yields relief when applied in this way. The ardor urinas of gonorrhoea may be alleviated by injecting an oleaginous solution of camphor into the urethra; and the tenesmus from ascarides and dysen- tery, by administering the same solution in the form of enema. Twenty or thirty grains of camphor, added to a poultice, and applied to the perineum, * N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ., vol. ix. p. 442. f Alexander, Experimental Essays, p. 227.—Orfila. % Quarin, quoted by Woodville, Med. Bot., 2d ed., vol. iv. p. 687. 15 158 Camphora.— Canella. PART I. allays the chordee, which is a painful attendant upon gonorrhoea. The vapour of camphor has been inhaled into the lungs with benefit in cases of asthma and spasmodic cough; and a lump of it held to the nose is said to relieve that unpleasant fulness of the nostrils and coryza which attend a commencing catarrh. It has been employed for the same purpose, and for nervous headache, in the form of powder snuffed up the nostrils. Camphor may be given in substance in the form of bolus or pill, or dif- fused in water by trituration with various substances. The form of pill is objectionable; as in this state the camphor is with difficulty dissolved in the gastric liquors, and floating on the top is apt to excite nausea, or pain and uneasiness at the upper orifice of the stomach. Orfila states that, when given in the solid form, it is capable of producing ulceration in the gastric mucous membrane. The emulsion is almost always preferred. This is made by rubbing up the camphor with loaf sugar, gum Arabic, and water; and the suspension will be rendered more complete and permanent by the addition of a little myrrh. Milk is sometimes used as a vehicle, but is objectionable, as it is apt to become sour very speedily. The aqueous solu- tion is often employed where only a slight impression is desired. For this purpose, the Aqua Camphorae of the United States Pharmacopoeia is pre- ferable to the solution effected by simply pouring boiling water upon a lump of camphor, which is sometimes prescribed under the name of camphor tea. The medium dose of camphor is from five to ten grains; but to meet various indications, it may be diminished to a single grain or increased to a scruple. The injurious effects of an overdose are said to be best counteracted, after clearing out the stomach, by the use of opium. Off. Prep. Acidum Aceticum Camphoratum, Ed., Dub.; Aqua Cam- phorae, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Ceratum Hydrargyri Comp., Lond.; Ceratum Plumbi Subacetatis, U.S., Lond.; Linimentum Camphorae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Linimentum Camphorae Comp., Lond., Dub.; Liniment. Hy- drargyri Comp., Lond.; Liniment. Opii, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liniment. Saponis Camphoratum, U. S.; Liniment. Terebinthinae, Lond., Ed.; Mis- tura Camphorae, Ed.; Mist. Camphorae cum Magnesia, Ed., Dub.; Tinc- tura Camphorae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Opii Camphorata, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinct. Saponis Camphorata, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. CANELLA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Canella. "Thebark of Canella alba." U. S., Ed. "Canella alba. Cortex." Lond. Off. Syn. CANELLA ALBA. Cortex. Dub. Canelle blanche, Fr.; Weisser Zimmt, Canell, Germ.; Canella bianca, Ital; Canela blanca, Span. Canella. Sex. Syst. Dodecandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Meliacese. De Cand. Canelleae. Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-lobed. Petals five. Anthers sixteen, adhering to an urceolate nectary. Berry one-celled with two or four seeds. Willd. Canella alba. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 851; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 694. t. 237. This is the only species of the genus. It is an erect tree, rising sometimes to the height of fifty feet, branching only at the top, and covered with a whitish bark, by which it is easily distinguished from other trees in the woods where it grows. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, oblong, obtuse, entire, of a dark green colour, thick and shining like those of the laurel, and of a similar odour. The flowers are small, of a violet colour, and PART I. Canella.— Canna. 159 grow in clusters upon divided footstalks, at the extremities of the branches. The fruit is an oblong berry, containing one, two, or three black and shining seeds. The Canella alba is a native of Jamaica and other West India islands. The bark of the branches, which is the part employed in medicine, having been removed by an iron instrument, is deprived of its epidermis, and dried in the shade. It comes to us in pieces partially or completely quilled, occa- sionally somewhat twisted, of various sizes, from a few inches to two feet in length, from half a line to two or even three lines in thickness, and, in the quill, from half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter. Properties. Canella has a pale orange-yellow colour, usually much lighter on the inner surface, an aromatic odour somewhat resembling that of cloves, and a warm, bitterish, very pungent taste. It is brittle, breaking with a short fracture, and yielding, when pulverized, a yellowish-white powder. Boiling water extracts nearly one-fourth of its weight; but the infusion, though bitter, has comparatively little of the warmth and pungency of the bark. It yields all its virtues to alcohol, forming a bright yellow tincture, which is rendered milky by the addition of water. By distillation with water it affords a large proportion of a yellow or reddish, fragrant, and very acrid essential oil. It contains, moreover, according to the analysis of MM. Petroz and Robinet, mannite, a peculiar very bitter extractive, resin, gum, starch, albumen, and various saline substances. Meyers and Reiche obtained twelve drachms of the volatile oil from ten pounds of the bark. They found it to consist of two distinct oils, one lighter and the other heavier than water. According to the same chemists, the bark contains 8 per cent, of mannite, and yields 6 per cent, of ashes. (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm., and Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 75.) Canella has been sometimes confounded with Winter's bark, from which, however, it differs both in sensible properties and composition. It contains, for instance, no tannin or oxide of iron, both of which are ingre- dients in the latter. (See Wintera.) Medical Properties and Uses. Canella is possessed of the ordinary pro- perties of the aromatics, acting as a local stimulant and gentle tonic, and producing upon the stomach a warming cordial effect, which renders it useful as an addition to tonic or purgative medicines in debilitated states of the digestive organs. It is scarcely ever prescribed except in combination. In the West Indies it is employed by the negroes as a condiment, and has some reputation as an antiscorbutic. Off. Prep. Pulvis Aloes et Canellae, U. S., Dub.; Tinctura Gentianae Composita, Ed.; Vinum Aloes, Lond.,Dub.; Vinum Gentianae, Ed.; Vinum Rhei, U.S.,Ed. W. CANNA. Ed. Canna Starch. " Fecula of the root of an imperfectly determined species of Canna." Ed. Under the French name of tous les mois, a variety of fecula has recently been introduced into the markets of Europe and this country. It is said to be prepared in the West India island of St. Kitts, by a tedious and troublesome process, from the root or rhizome of the Canna coccinea, although this botanical origin is altogether uncertain. Canna starch is in the form of a light, beautifully white powder, of a shining appearance, very unlike the ordinary forms of fecula. Its granules are said to be larger than those of any other variety of starch in use, being 160 Canna.—Cantharis. V PART J' from the 300th to the 200th of an inch in length. Under the microscope they appear ovate or oblong, with numerous regular unequally distant rings; and the circular hylum, which is sometimes double, is usually situated at the smaller extremity. (Pereira.) This fecula has the ordinary chemical properties of starch, and forms, when prepared with boiling water, a nutri- tious and wholesome food for infants and invalids. It may be prepared in the same manner as arrow-root, and is said to form even a stiffer jelly with boiling water. (See Maranta.) **. CANTHARIS. U.S., Lond., Ed. Spanish Flies. " Cantharis vesicatoria." U. S., Lond., Ed. Off. Syn. CANTHARIS VESICATORIA. Dub. Cantharide, Fr.; Spanische Fliege, Kantharide, Germ.; Cantarelle, Ital; Cantharidas, Span. The term Cantharis was employed by the ancient Greek writers to desig- nate many coleopterous insects. Linnaeus conferred the title upon a genus in which the officinal blistering fly was not included, and placed this insect in the genus Meloe. This latter, however, has been divided by subsequent naturalists into several genera. Geoffroy made the Spanish fly the prototype of a new one which he called Cantharis, substituting Cicindela as the title of the Linnasan genus which he had thus deprived of its original designation.' Fabricius made some alteration in the arrangement of Geoffroy, and substi- tuted Lytta for Cantharis as the generic title. The former was adopted by the London College, and at one time, was in extensive use; but the latter, having been restored by Latreille, is now recognised in the European and American Pharmacopoeias, and is universally employed. By this naturalist the vesicating insects were grouped in a small tribe corresponding very nearly with the Linnaean genus Meloe, and distinguished by the title Cantharideas. This tribe he divided into eleven genera, among which is the Cantharis. Two others of these genera, the Meloe properly so called, and the Mylobris, have been employed as vesicatories. The Mylabris cichorii is thought to be one of the insects described by Pliny and Dioscorides under the name of cantharides; and is to this day employed in Italy, Greece, the Levant, and Egypt; and another species, the M. pustulata, is applied to the same pur- pose in China. The Meloe proscarabasus and M. majalis have been occa- sionally substituted for cantharides in Europe, and the M. trianthemae is used to a considerable extent in the upper provinces of Hindostan. Several species of Cantharis, closely analogous to each other in medical properties, are found in various parts of the world; but the C. vesicatoria is the only one recognised by the Pharmacopoeias of France and Great Britain. The C. vittata has been introduced into that of the United States, and will be noticed under a distinct head. At present we shall confine our observations to the C. vesicatoria, or common Spanish fly. Cantharis. Class Insecta. Order Coleoptera. Linn.—Family Trache- lides. Tribe Cantharideae. Latreille. Gen.Ch. Tarsi entire; nails bifid; head not produced into a rostrum; elytra flexible, covering the whole abdomen, linear semicylindric; wings perfect; maxillae with two membranaceous laciniae, the external one acute within, subuncinate; antennse longer than the head and thorax, rectilinear; first joint largest, the second transverse, very short; maxillary palpi larger at tip. Say. PART I. Cantharis. 161 Cantharis vesicatoria. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect., torn. ii. p. 220. This insect is from six to ten lines in length, by two or three in breadth, and of a beautiful shining golden-green colour. The head is large and heart-shaped, bearing two thread-like, black, jointed feelers; the thorax short and quadrilateral; the wing-sheaths long and flexible, covering brown- ish membranous wings. When alive, the Spanish flies have a strong, penetrating, fetid odour, compared to that of mice, by which swarms of them may be detected at a considerable distance. They attach themselves preferably to certain trees and shrubs, such as the white poplar, privet, ash, elder, and lilac, upon the leaves of which they feed. The countries in which they most abound are Spain, Italy, and the South of France; but they are found to a greater or less extent in all the temperate parts of Eu- rope, and in the West of Asia. In the state of larva, they live in the ground and gnaw the roots of plants. They usually make their appearance in swarms upon the trees in the months of May and June, at which period they are collected. The time preferred for the purpose is in the morning at sun-rise, when they are torpid from the cold of the night, and easily let go their hold. Persons with their faces protected by masks and their hands by gloves, shake the trees, or beat them with poles; and the insects are received as they fall upon linen cloths spread underneath. They are then plunged into vinegar diluted with water, or exposed in sieves to the vapour of boiling vinegar, and, having been thus deprived of life, are dried either in the sun, or in apartments heated by stoves. This mode of killing the flies by the steam of vinegar is as ancient as the times of Dioscorides and Pliny. In some places they are gathered by smoking the trees with burn- ing brimstone. When perfectly dry, they are introduced into casks or boxes, lined with paper and carefully closed, so as to exclude as much as possible the atmospheric moisture. Cantharides come chiefly from Spain, Italy, and other parts of the Medi- terranean. Considerable quantities are also brought from St. Petersburg, derived originally, in all probability, from the southern provinces of Russia, where the insect is very abundant. The Russian flies are more esteemed than those from other sources. They may be distinguished by their greater size, and their colour approaching to that of copper. Properties. Dried Spanish flies preserve the form and colour, and, to a certain extent, the disagreeable odour of the living insect. They have an acrid, burning, and urinous taste. Their powder is of a grayish-brown colour, interspersed with shining particles, wbich are the fragments of the feet, head, and wing-cases. If kept perfectly dry, in well-stopped glass bottles, they will retain their activity for a great length of time. A portion which had been preserved by Van Swieten for thirty years in a glass ves- sel, was found still to possess vesicating properties. But exposed to a damp air, they quickly undergo putrefaction; and this change takes place more speedily in the powder. Hence, the insects should either be kept whole, and powdered as they are wanted for use, or, if kept in powder, should be well dried immediately after pulverization, and preserved in air-tight vessels. They should never be purchased in powder, as, independently of the con- sideration just mentioned, they may in this state be more easily adulterated. But, however carefully managed, cantharides are apt to be attacked by mites, which feed on the interior soft parts of the body, reducing them to powder, while the harder exterior parts are not affected. An idea was at one time prevalent, that the vesicating property of the insect was not in- jured by the worm, which was supposed to devour only the inactive portion. But this has been proved to be a mistake. M. Farines, an apothecary of 15* 162 Cantharis. part i. Perpignan, has satisfactorily shown that, though the hard parts left by these mites possess some vesicating power, and the powder produced by them still more, yet the sound flies are much stronger than either. Camphor, which has been recommended as a preservative, does not prevent the de- structive agency of the worm.* It is also stated by M. Farines, that, when the flies are destroyed by the vapour of pyroligneous acid instead of com- mon vinegar, they acquire an odour which contributes to their preservation. Cantharides wilf bear a very considerable heat without losing the brilliant colour of their elytra; nor is this colour extracted by water, alcohol, ether, or the oils; so that the powder might be deprived of all its active principles, and yet retain the exterior characters unaltered. The wing cases resist putrefaction for a long time, and the shining particles have been detected in the human stomach months after interment. So early as 1778, Thouvenel attempted to analyze cantharides, and the attempt was repeated by Dr. Beaupoil in 1803; but no very interesting or valuable result was obtained till the year 1810, when Robiquet discovered in them a crystalline substance, which appears to be the vesicating prin- ciple of the insect, and to which Dr. Thomson gave the name of cantharidin. The constituents, according to Robiquet, are, 1. a green oil, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and inert as a vesicatory; 2. a black matter, soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, and inert; 3. a yellow viscid matter, soluble in water and alcohol, and without vesicating powers; 4. cantharidin; 5. a fatty matter insoluble in alcohol; 6. phosphates of lime and magnesia, acetic acid, and in the fresh insect a small quantity of uric acid. Orfila has since discovered a volatile principle, upon which the fetid odour of the fly de- pends. It is separable by distillation with water. Cantharidin is a white substance in the form of crystalline scales, of a shining micaceous appear- ance, insoluble iii water and cold alcohol, but soluble in ether, the oils, and in boiling alcohol, which deposits it upon cooling. It is fusible and volatil- izable by heat without decomposition, and its vapours condense in acicular crystals. It is obtained by macerating powdered flies in ether for several days; introducing the mixture into a percolation apparatus; adding, after the liquid has ceased to flow out, fresh portions of ether, till it comes away nearly colourless; displacing the whole of the menstruum still remaining in the mass by pouring water upon it; distilling the filtered liquor so as to recover the ether; then allowing the residue to cool; and, finally, purifying the cantharidin which is deposited, by treating it with boiling alcohol and animal charcoal. Alcohol of 34°, or a mixture of alcohol and ether, may be substituted for the ether itself; but the last-mentioned fluid is preferable, as it dissolves less of the green oil, the separation of which from the can- tharidin is the most difficult part of the process. By this plan, M. Thierry obtained from 1000 parts of powdered flies, 4 parts of pure cantharidin. Notwithstanding the insolubility of this principle in water and cold alcohol, the decoction and tincture of cantharides have the peculiar medicinal pro- perties of the insect; and Lewis ascertained that both the aqueous and * It appears from the experiments of M. Nivet, that, though camphor does not preserve the entire fly from the attacks of the larvse of the Anthrenus, it actually destroys the mites of the Cantharis so often found in the powder, and may, therefore, be introduced with ad' vantage, in small lumps, into bottles containing powdered cantharides. (Journ. de Pharm., xix. 604.) Pereira has found that a few drops of strong acetic acid added to the flies are the best preservative. Perhaps, however, a more effectual means of preserving them, whether whole or in powder, would be the application of the process of Apert, which con- sists in exposing them, for half an hour, confined in glass bottles, to the heat of boiling water, which destroys the eggs of the insect, without impairing the virtues of the flies. {Ibid. xxii. 246.) Of course, the access of water to the flies should be carefully avoided PART I. Cantharis. 163 alcoholic extracts acted as effectually in exciting vesication as the flies them- selves, while the residue was in each case inert. The cantharidin consequently exists in the insect, so combined with the yellow matter as to be rendered soluble in water and cold alcohol. It has been found also in the Cantharis vittata, and Mylabris cichorii, and in different species of Meloe. Adulterations. These are not common. Occasionally other insects are added, purposely, or through carelessness. These may be readily distin- guished by their different shape or colour. An account has been published of considerable quantities of variously coloured glass beads having been found in a parcel of flies; but this would be too coarse a fraud to be exten- sively practised. Pereira states that powdered flies are sometimes adulterated with euphorbium. Medical Properties and Uses. Internally administered, cantharides are a powerful stimulant, exercising a peculiar influence over the urinary and geni- tal organs. In moderate doses, this medicine sometimes acts as a diuretic, and generally excites some irritation in the urinary passages, which, if its use be persevered in, or the dose increased, often amounts to violent stran- gury, attended with excruciating pain, and the discharge of bloody urine. In still larger quantities, it produces, in addition to these effects, obstinate and painful priapism, vomiting, bloody stools, severe pains in the whole abdo- minal region, excessive salivation with a fetid cadaverous breath, hurried respiration, a hard and frequent pulse, burning thirst, exceeding difficulty of deglutition, sometimes a dread of liquids, frighful convulsions, tetanus, deli- rium, and death. Orfila has known twenty-four grains of the powder prove fatal. Dissection reveals inflammation and ulceration of the mucous coat of the whole intestinal canal. According to M. Poumet, if the intestines be in- flated, dried, cut into pieces, and examined in the sun between two pieces of glass, they will exhibit small shining yellow or green points, strongly con- trasting with the matter around them. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., iii. 167.) Notwithstanding their exceeding violence, cantharides have been long and beneficially used in medicine. Either these or other vesicating insects ap- pear to have been given by Hippocrates in cases of dropsy and amenorrhoea, in the latter of which complaints, when properly prescribed, they are a highly valuable remedy. In dropsy they sometimes prove beneficial, when the sys- tem is in an atonic condition, and the vessels of the kidneys feeble. Dr. Ferriar considers them peculiarly useful in the anasarcous swellings which occasionally succeed scarlet fever. They are also useful in obstinate gleet, leucorrhoea, and seminal weakness; and afford one of the most certain means of relief in incontinence of urine, arising from debility or partial paralysis of the sphincter of the bladder. A case of diabetes is recorded in the N. Am. Archives (vol. ii. p. 175), in which a cure was effected under the use of tincture of cantharides. They are used also in certain cutaneous erup- tions, especially those of a scaly character, and in chronic eczema. Dr. Irven has employed them in scurvy. (Ann. de Therap., 1845.) Their un- pleasant effects upon the urinary passages are best obviated by the free use of diluent drinks; and, when not consequent upon great abuse of the medi- cine, may almost always be relieved by an anodyne injection, composed of laudanum with a small quantity of mucilaginous fluid. The dose of Spanish flies is one or two grains of the powder, which may be given twice a day in the form of pill. The tincture, however, is more frequently employed. Externally applied, cantharides excite inflammation in the skin, which terminates in a copious secretion of serum under the cuticle. Even thus applied, they not unfrequently give rise to strangury or tenesmus; and this in fact is one of the most troublesome attendants upon their operation. It 164 Cantharis. PART J- probably results from the absorption of the active principle of the fly; and is not prevented by any of the various modes of combination in which the epispastic substance has been applied. Camphor given internally, or mixed with the flies previously to their application, was at one time in much repute as a preventive of strangury, but has lost its credit. The most certain method of obviating this unpleasant effect, is to allow the epispastic application to continue no longer than is necessary to its full rubefacient operation; and afterwards to favour vesication by the use of an emollient poultice. (See Ce- ratum Cantharidis.) The blistering fly may be employed either as a rubefacient, or with a view to the production of a blister. In the former capacity it is seldom used, except in low states of disease, where external stimulation is required to sup- port the system; but as an epispastic it is preferred to all other substances, ■and, in the extent of its employment, is surpassed by few articles of the Ma- teria Medica. Blisters are calculated to answer numerous indications. Their local effect is attended with a general excitement of the system, which renders them valuable auxiliaries to internal stimulants in low or typhoid conditions of disease; and they may sometimes be safely resorted to with this view when the latter remedies are inadmissible. The powerful impression they make on the system is sufficient, in many instances, to subvert morbid asso- ciations, and thus to allow the re-establishment of healthy action. Hence their application to the cure of remittent and intermittent fevers, in which they often prove effectual, when so employed as to be in full operation at the period for the recurrence of the paroxysm. On the principle of revul- sion, they prove useful in a vast variety of complaints. Drawing both the nervous energy and the circulating fluid to the seat of their own immediate action, they relieve irritations and inflammations of internal parts; and are employed for this purpose in every disease attended with these derange- ments. In such cases, however, arterial excitement should always be reduced by direct depletion before the remedy is resorted to. Blisters are also capable of substituting their action for one of a morbid nature existing in the part to which they are directly applied. Hence their use in tinea capitis, obstinate herpes, and various cutaneous eruptions. Their local stimulation renders them useful in some cases of threatened gangrene, and in partial paralysis. From the serous discharge they occasion, much good results in erysipelas and various other local inflammations, in the immediate vicinity of which their action can be established ; and the effects of an issue may be obtained by the continued application of irritants to the blistered surface. Perhaps the pain produced by blisters may be useful in some cases of nervous excitement or derangement, in which it is desirable to withdraw the attention of the patient from subjects of agitating reflection. On some constitutions they produce a poisonous impression, attended with frequent pulse, dryness of the mouth and fauces, heat of skin, subsultus tendinum, and even convulsions; and some physicians have been so much alarmed by the occasional occurrence of these symptoms as to induce them to employ the remedy with great hesitation. What is the precise condition of system in which these effects result, it is impossible to determine. They probably arise from the absorption of the active principle of cantharides; and depend on idiosyncrasies of constitution, by which the system of cer- tain individuals is susceptible of impressions different from those usually produced by the same cause. In this respect the Spanisffflies are analogous to mercury ; and any argument drawn from this source against the use of the one would equally apply to the other. The general good which results from PART I. Cantharis.—Cantharis Vittata. 165 their use far overbalances any partial and uncertain evil. For some rules relative to the application of blisters, the reader is referred to the article Ce- ratum Cantharidis. Off. Prep. Acetum Cantharidis, Lond., Ed.; Ceratum Cantharidis, U. S.; Cerat. Cantharidis, Lond.; Emplastrum Cantharidis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emplast. Cantharidis Comp., Ed.; Linimentum Cantharidis, U. S.; Tinc- tura Cantharidis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguent. Cantharidis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguent. Infusi Cantharidis, Ed. W. CANTHARIS VITTATA. U.S. Potato Flies. " Cantharis vittata." U. S. Within the limits of the United States are several species of Cantharis, which have been employed as substitutes for the C. vesicatoria, and found to be equally efficient. Of these, only the C. vittata has been adopted as officinal; but as others may be more abundant in particular districts, or in certain seasons, and are not inferior in vesicating powers, we shall briefly notice all which have been submitted to experiment. 1. Cantharis vittata. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect.; Durand, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., ii. 274. fig. 4. The potato fly is rather smaller than the C. vesicatoria, which it resembles in shape. Its length is about six lines. The head is of a light red colour, with dark spots upon the top; the feelers are black; the elytra or wing cases are black, with a yellow lon- gitudinal stripe in the centre, and with a yellow margin ; the thorax is also black, with three yellow lines; and the abdomen and legs, which have the same colour, are covered with a cinereous down. It inhabits chiefly the potato vine, and makes its appearance about the end of July or beginning of August, in some seasons in great abundance. It is found on the plant in the morning and evening, but during the heat of the day descends into the soil. The insects are collected by shaking them from the plant into hot water; and are afterwards carefully dried in the sun. They are natives of the Middle and Southern States. This species of Cantharis was first described by Fabricius in the year 1781; and was introduced to the notice of the profession by Dr. Isaac Chap- man of Bucks county, Pennsylvania, who found it equal if not superior to the Spanish fly as a vesicatory. The testimony of Dr. Chapman has been corroborated by that of many other practitioners, some of whom have even gone so far as to assert, that the potato fly is not attended in its action with the inconvenience of producing strangury. But this statement has been ascer- tained to be incorrect, and, as the vesicating property of all these insects pro- bably depends upon the same proximate principle, their operation may be considered as identical in other respects. If the potato fly has been found more speedy in its effects than the Cantharis of Spain, the result is perhaps attributable to the greater freshness of the former. It may be applied to the same purposes, treated in the same manner, and given in the same dose as the foreign insect. 2. Cantharis cinerea. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect.; Durand, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., i. 274. fig. 5. The ash-coloured cantharis closely resembles the preceding species in figure and size; but differs from it in colour. The elytra and body are black, without the yellow stripes that characterize the C. vittata, and are entirely covered with a short and dense ash-coloured down, which conceals the proper colour of the insect. The 166 Cantharis Vittata. PART I. feelers are black, and the first and second joints are very large in the male. This species also inhabits the potato vine, and is occasionally found on other plants, as the English bean and wild indigo. It is a native of the Northern and Middle States. All the remarks before made upon the potato fly, as to the mode of collection, properties, and medical use, apply equally well to that at present under consideration. Illigerin 1801 first discovered its vesi- cating properties ; but to Dr. Gorham is due the credit of calling public atten- tion particularly to the subject, in a communication addressed, in the year 1808, to the Medical Society of Massachusetts. This species is often con- founded with the C. vittata. 3. Cantharis marginata. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect.; Durand, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., ii. 274. fig. 6. This is somewhat larger than the C. vittata, and of a different shape. The elytra are black, with the suture and margin ash-coloured. The head, thorax, and abdomen are black, but nearly covered with an ash-coloured down ; and on the upper part of the abdomen, under the wings, are two longitudinal lines of a bright clay colour. This species is usually found, in the latter part of summer, upon the different plants belonging to the genus Clematis, and frequents especially the lower branches w4iich trail along the ground. Professor Woodhouse, of Phila- delphia, first ascertained the vesicating properties of this insect; but it had previously been described by Fabricius as a native of the Cape of Good Hope. Dr. Harris, of Massachusetts, found it equally efficient as a vesica- tory with any other species of this genus. 4. Cantharis atrata. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect.; Durand, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., ii. 274. fig. 7. The black cantharis is smaller than the indigenous species already described; but resembles the C. mar gi- nata in figure. Its length is only four or five lines. It is distinguished by its size, and by its uniform black colour. It frequents more especially the different species of Aster and Solidago, though it is found also on the Pru- nella vulgaris, Ambrosia trifida, and some other plants. Mr. Durand met with considerable numbers of this insect, in the neighbourhood of Philadel- phia, in the month of September, and they continued to appear till the middle of October. They are common in the Northern and Middle States, but are not confined exclusively to this country, being found also in Barbary. Drs. Oswood and Harris, of New England, have experimented with them, and satisfactorily ascertained their vesicating powers. They are probably identical with the insect noticed as vesicatory by Professor Woodhouse, under the name of Meloe niger. Several other species have been discovered in the United States, but not yet practically employed. Among these are the C. aeneas, a native of Penn- sylvania, discovered by Mr. Say ; the C.politus and C. aszelianus, which inhabit the Southern States; the C. Nuttalli, a large and beautiful insect of Missouri, first noticed by Mr. Nuttall, and said to surpass the Spanish fly in magnitude and splendour; and the C. albida, another large species, found by Mr. Say near the Rocky mountains. Of these the C. Nuttalli* bids fair, at some future period, to be an object of some importance in the western section of this country. The head is of a deep greenish colour, with a red spot in front; the thorax is of a golden green ; the elytra, red or golden pur- ple and somewhat rugose on their outer surface, green and polished beneath ; the feet black; the thighs, blue or purplish. The exploring party under Major Long ascertained the vesicating powers of this insect. It was found in the plains of the Missouri, feeding on a scanty grass, which it sometimes * Lytta Nuttalli, Say, Amer. Entomol., vol. i. fig. 3. part i. Cantharis Vittata.—Capsicum. 167 covered to a considerable extent. In one place it was so numerous and troublesome, as to be swept away by bushels, in order that a place might be cleared for encamping. W. CAPSICUM. U.S.,Lond. Cayenne Pepper. "The fruit of Capsicum annuum." U.S. "Capsicum annuum. Baccse." Lond. "Fruit of Capsicum annuum and other species." Ed. Off. Syn. CAPSICUM ANNUUM. Capsuke cum seminibus. Dub. Poivre de Guinee, Poivre d'Inde, Fr.; Spanischer Pfeffer. Germ.; Pepperone, Iial; Pimiento, Span. Capsicum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla wheel-shaped. Berry without juice. Willd. Numerous species of Capsicum, inhabiting the East Indies and tropical America, are enumerated by botanists, the fruit of which, differing simply in the degree of pungency, may be indiscriminately employed. The C. bac- caturii or bird pepper, and the C.frutescens are said to yield most of the Cayenne pepper brought from the West Indies and South America; and Ainslie informs us that the latter is chiefly employed in the East Indies. The species most extensively cultivated in Europe and this country, is that recognised as officinal by the Pharmacopoeias, namely, the C. annuum. The first two are shrubby plants, the last is annual and herbaceous. Capsicum annuum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1052; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 226. t. 80. The stem of the annual capsicum is thick, roundish, smooth, and branching; rises two or three feet in height; and supports ovate, pointed, smooth, entire leaves, which are placed without regular order on long foot- stalks. The flowers are solitary, white, and stand on long peduncles at the axils of the leaves. The calyx is persistent, tubular, and five-cleft; the corolla, monopetalous and wheel-shaped, with the limb divided into five spreading, pointed, and plaited segments; the filaments, short, tapering, and furnished with oblong anthers; thegermen, ovate, supporting a slender style which is longer than the filaments, and terminates in a blunt stigma. The fruit is a pendulous, pod-like berry, light, smooth and shining, of a bright, scarlet, orange, or sometimes yellow colour, with two or three cells, containing a dry, loose pulp, and numerous flat, kidney-shaped, whitish, seeds. The plant is a native of the warmer regions of Asia and America, and is cultivated in almost all parts of the world. It is abundantly produced in this country, both for culinary and medicinal purposes. The flowers appear in July and August, and the fruit ripens in October. Several varieties are cul- tivated in our gardens, differing in the shape of the fruit. The most abun- dant is probably that with a large irregularly ovate berry, depressed at the extremity, which is much used in the green state for pickling. The medi- cinal variety is that with long, conical, generally pointed, recurved fruit, usually not thicker than the finger. Sometimes we meet with small, spherical, slightly compressed berries, not greatly exceeding a large cherry in size. When perfectly ripe and dry, the fruit is ground into powder, and brought into market under the name of red or Cayenne pepper. Our markets are also partly supplied by importation from the WTest Indies. A variety of capsicum, consisting of very small, conical, exceedingly pungent berries, has recently been imported from Liberia. In England the fruit of the C. annuum is frequently called chillies. 168 Capsicum. part i. Powdered capsicum is usually of a more or less bright red colour, which fades upon exposure to light, and ultimately disappears. The odour-is pe- culiar and somewhat aromatic, stronger in the recent than in the dried fruit. The taste is bitterish, acrid, and burning, producing a fiery sensation in the mouth, which continues for a long time. The pungency appears to depend on a peculiar principle, which was obtained, though probably not in a per- fectly isolated state, by Braconnot, and named capsicin. The fruit, freed from the seeds, was submitted to the action of alcohol, and the resulting tincture evaporated. During the evaporation a red-coloured wax separated, and the residuary liquor by further evaporation afforded an extract, from which ether dissolved the capsicin. This was obtained by evaporating the ether. It resembles an oil or soft resin, is of a yellowish-brown or reddish- brown colour, and when tasted, though at first balsamic, soon produces an insupportably hot and pungent impression over the whole interior of the mouth. Exposed to heat it melts, and at a higher temperature emits fumes, which, even in very small quantity, excite coughing and sneezing. It is slightly soluble in water and vinegar, and very soluble in alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, and the caustic alkalies, which it renders reddish-brown. It constitutes, according to Braconnot, 1-9 per cent, of the fruit. The other ingredients, as ascertained by the same chemist, are colouring matter, an azotized substance, gum, pectic acid (probaby pectin), and saline matters. Red oxide of lead is sometimes added to the powdered capsicum sold in Europe. It may be detected by digesting the suspected powder in diluted nitric acid, filtering, and adding a solution of sulphate of soda, which will throw down a white precipitate if there be any oxide of lead present. Cap- sicum is said to be sometimes adulterated with coloured saw-dust. Medical Properties and Uses. Cayenne pepper is a powerful stimulant, producing when swallowed a sense of heat in the stomach, and a general glow over the body, without any narcotic effect. Its influence over the cir- culation, though considerable, is not in proportion to its local action. It is much employed as a condiment, and proves highly useful in correcting the flatulent tendency of certain vegetables, and bringing them within the diges- tive powers of the stomach. Hence the advantage derived from it by the natives of tropical climates who live chiefly on vegetable food. In the East Indies it has been used from time immemorial. From a passage in the works of Pliny, it appears to have been known to the Romans. As a medi- cine it is useful in cases of enfeebled and languid stomach,and is occasionally prescribed in dyspepsia and atonic gout, particularly when attended with much flatulence, or occurring in persons of intemperate habits. It has also been given as a stimulant in palsy and certain lethargic affections. To the sulphate of quinia it forms an excellent addition in some cases of intermit- tents, in which there is a great want of gastric susceptibility. It acts by exciting the stomach, and rendering it sensible to the influence of the tonic. Upon the same principle it may prove useful in low forms of fever as an adjuvant to tonic or stimulant medicines. Its most important application, however, is to the treatment of malignant sore-throat and scarlet fever, in which it is used both internally and as a gargle. No other remedy has obtained equal credit in these complaints. The following formula was em- ployed in malignant scarlatina, with great advantage, in the West Indies, where this application of the -remedy originated. Two tablespoon fuls of the powdered pepper, with a't#jisri|j6hful of common salt, are infused for an hour in a pint of a boiling liquid'composed of equal parts of water and vine- gar. This is strained when cool through a fine linen cloth, and'given in the dose of a tablespoonful every half hour. The same preparation is also used PART I. Capsicum.— Carbo. 169 as a gargle. It is, however, only to the worst cases that the remedy is applied so energetically. In milder cases of scarlatina, with inflamed or ulcerated throat, much relief and positive advantage often follow the employment of the pepper in a more diluted state. Capsicum has also been advantageously used in sea-sickness, in the dose of a teaspoonful, given in some convenient vehicle on the first occurrence of nausea. Applied externally, Cayenne pepper is a powerful rubefacient, very use- ful in local rheumatism, and in low forms of disease, where a stimulant impression upon the surface is demanded. It has the advantage, under these circumstances, of acting speedily without endangering vesication. It may be applied in the form of cataplasm, or more conveniently and effi- ciently as a lotion, mixed with heated spirit. The powder or tincture, brought into contact with a relaxed uvula, often acts very beneficially. The dose of the powder is from five to ten grains, which may be most conveniently given in the form of pill. Of an infusion prepared by adding two drachms to half a pint of boiling water, the dose is about half a fluid- ounce. A gargle may be prepared by infusing half a drachm of the pow- der in a pint of boiling water, or by adding half a fluidounce of the tincture to eight fluidounces of rose-water. Off. Prep. Tinctura Capsici, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. CARBO. Carbon. Pure charcoal; Carbone, Fr., Ital; Kohlenstoff, Germ.; Carbon, Span. Carbon is an elementary substance of great importance, and very exten- sively diffused in nature. It exists in large quantity in the mineral king- dom, and forms the most abundant constituent of animal and vegetable matter. In a state of perfect purity and crystallized, it constitutes the diamond, and, more or less pure, it forms the substances known under the names of plumbago or black lead, anthracite, bituminous coal, coke, animal charcoal, and vegetable charcoal. Combined with oxygen, it constitutes carbonic acid, which is a constituent of the atmosphere, and present in many natural waters, especially those which have an effervescing quality. United with oxygen and a base, it forms the carbonates, and of course car- bonate of lime, which is one of the most abundant combinations of the mineral kingdom. The diamond, or crystallized carbon, is found principally in India and Brazil. Within a few years, several diamonds have been found in the gold region of Georgia. This gem is perfectly transparent, and the hardest and most brilliant substance in nature. Its sp. gr. is about 3-5. It is perfectly- fixed and unalterable in the fire, provided air be excluded; but it is com- bustible in air or oxygen, the product being the same as when charcoal is burned, namely carbonic acid. Next to diamond, plumbago and anthracite are the purest natural forms of carbon. Plumbago is the substance of which black lead crucibles and pencils are made. It is found in greatest purity, perhaps, in the mine of Borrowdale, in England; but it also occurs very pure in this country, espe- cially near Bustleton, in Pennsylvania. It was formerly supposed to be a carburet of iron; but, in very pure specimens, it is nearly free from iron. which must, therefore, be deemed an accidental impurity. Anthracite occurs in different parts of the world, but particularly in the United States. Immense beds of it exist in Pennsylvania. Bituminous coal is a form of 16 170 Carbo. PART I. the carbonaceous principle, in which the carbon is associated with volatile matter of a bituminous nature. When this is driven off by the process of charring, as in the manufacture of coal gas, a kind of mineral charcoal, called coke, is obtained, very useful in the arts as a fuel. Carbon may be obtained artificially, in a state approaching to purity, by several processes. One method is to expose lampblack to a full red heat in a close vessel. It may also be obtained in a very pure state by passing the vapour of volatile oils through an ignited porcelain tube; whereby the hy- drogen and oxygen of the oil will be dissipated, and the charcoal left in the tube. A very pure charcoal is procured by exposing sugar, or other vegetable substances which leave no ashes when burnt, to ignition in close vessels. Properties. Carbon in its crystallized form has already been described as diamond. In its uncrystallized state it is an insoluble, infusible solid, generally of a black colour, and without taste or smell. It burns when suffi- ciently heated, uniting with the oxygen of the air, and generating a gaseous acid, called carbonic acid. Its sp. gr. in the solid state, apart from the pores which it contains when in mass, is 3-5; but with the pores included, it is only 0-44. In a state of vapour, its density is 0-4215, as obtained by cal- culation. It is a very unalterable and indestructible substance, and has great power in resisting and correcting putrefaction in other bodies. When in a state of extreme division, it possesses the remarkable power of destroy- ing the colouring and odorous principles of most liquids. The conditions, under which this property is most powerfully developed, are explained under the head of animal charcoal. (See Carbo Animalis.) Its other phy- sical properties differ according to its source and peculiar state of aggrega- tion. Its equivalent number is 6, and its symbol C. As a chemical element, it enjoys a very extensive range of combination. It combines in five pro- portions with oxygen, forming carbonic oxide, and carbonic, oxalic, mellitic, and croconic ^acids. (See Aqua Acidi Carbonici, and Oxalic Acid.) It unites also with chlorine, iodine, and bromine. With hydrogen it forms a number of compounds, called carbo-hydrogens, of which the most interest- ing, excluding hypothetical radicals, are light carburetted hydrogen, or fire damp, defiant gas, the light and concrete oils of wine, and certain purified volatile oils. With nitrogen it constitutes cyanogen, the compound radical of hydrocyanic or prussic acid; and united with iron in minute proportion it forms steel. It is thus perceived that as a chemical agent it performs an important part in the economy of nature. To notice all the forms of the carbonaceous principle would be out of place in this work. We shall, therefore, restrict ourselves to the considera- tion of those which are officinal, namely, animal charcoal and wood char- coal. These are described in the two following articles. B. PART I. Carbo Animalis. 171 CARBO ANIMALIS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Animal Charcoal. "Charcoal prepared from bones." U.S. "Carbo. Ex came et ossibus coctus." Lond.; " Impure animal charcoal obtained commonly from bones." Ed. Charbon animal, Fr.; Thierische Kohle, Germ.; Carbone animale, Ital; Carbon ani- mal, Span. The animal charcoal employed in pharmacy and the arts, is obtained from bones by subjecting them to a red heat in close vessels, and is chiefly em- ployed as a decolorizing agent. The residue of the ignition is a black matter, which, when reduced to powder, forms the substance properly called bone-black, but familiarly known under the incorrect name of ivory-black. Ivory by carbonization will furnish a black, which, on account of its fine- ness and intensely black colour, is more esteemed than the ordinary bone- black; but it is much more expensive. Animal charcoal, in the form of bone-black, is extensively manufactured for the use of sugar refiners and others; and an ammoniacal liquor, called bone spirit, is obtained as a secondary product, and sold to the makers of sal ammoniac. The bones are subjected to destructive distillation in iron retorts or cylinders, and, when the bone spirit ceases to come over, the residuum is charred bone, or bone-black. Bone consists of animal matter with phosphate and carbonate of lime. In consequence of a new arrange- ment of the elements of the animal matter, the nitrogen and hydrogen united as ammonia, and a part of the charcoal in the form of carbonic acid, distil over; while the remainder of the charcoal is left in the retort, intermingled with the calcareous salts. In this form, therefore, of animal charcoal, the carbon is mixed with phosphate and carbonate of lime; and the same is the case with the true ivory black. Properties. Animal charcoal, in the form of bone-black, called ivory- black in the shops, is a black powder, possessing a slightly alkaline and bitterish taste, and having a general resemblance to powdered vegetable charcoal. It is, however, more dense and less combustible than this char- coal; from which, moreover, it maybe distinguished by burning a small portion of it on a red-hot iron, when it will leave a residuum imperfectly acted on by sulphuric acid; whereas the ashes from vegetable charcoal will readily dissolve in this acid, forming a bitterish solution. Animal charcoal by no means necessarily possesses the decolorizing pro- perty ; as this depends upon its peculiar state of aggregation. If a piece of pure animal matter be carbonized, it usually enters into fusion, and, from the gaseous matter which is extricated, becomes porous and cellular. The charcoal formed has generally a metallic lustre, and a colour resembling that of black lead. It has, however, little or no decolorizing power, even though it may be finely pulverized. Rationale of the Effects of Charcoal as a Decolorizing Agent. The decolorizing power of charcoal was first noticed by Lowitz of St. Peters- burg; and the subject was subsequently ably investigated by Bussy,Payen, and Desfosses. It is generally communicated to charcoal by igniting it in close vessels, but not always. The kind of charcoal, for example, obtained from substances which undergo fusion during carbonization, does not pos- sess the property, even though it may be afterwards finely pulverized. The property in question is possessed to a certain extent by wood charcoal; but is developed in it in a much greater degree by burning it with some chemi- 172 Carbo Animalis. PART I. cal substance, which may have the effect of reducing it to an extreme degree of fineness. The most powerful of all the charcoals for discharging colours are those obtained from certain animal matters, such as dried blood, hair, horns, hoofs, &c, by first carbonizing them in connexion with carbonate of potassa, and then washing the product with water. Charcoal, thus prepared, seems to be reduced to its finest possible particles. The next most powerful decolorizing charcoal is ivory or bone-black, in which the separation of the carbonaceous particles is effected by the phosphate of lime present in the bone. Vegetable substances also may be made to yield a good charcoal for destroying colour, provided, before carbonization, they be well com- minuted, and mixed with pumice stone, chalk, flint, calcined bones, or other similar substance in a pulverized state. It results from the foregoing facts, that the decolorizing power of char- coal depends upon a peculiar mode of aggregation of its particles, the lead- ing character of which is that they are isolated from one another, and thus enabled to present a greater extent of surface. It is on this principle that certain chemical substances act in developing the property in question, when they are ignited, in a state of intimate mixture, with the substance to be charred. Thus it is perceived that there is no necessary connexion between animal charcoal and the decolorizing power; as this charcoal may or may not possess the peculiar aggregation of its particles on which the power depends. Bone-black, for instance, has this property, not because it is an animal charcoal; but because, in consequence of the phosphate of lime pre- sent in the bone, the favourable state of aggregation is induced. The following table, abridged from one drawn up by Bussy, denotes the relative decolorizing power of different charcoals. KINDS OF CHARCOAL. Bone-black, ----------- Bone charcoal treated by an acid, -------- Lampblack, not ignited,........ Charcoal from acetate of potassa, ------- Blood ignited with phosphate of lime, ------ Lampblack ignited with carbonate of potassa, - Blood ignited with chalk, -------- White of egg ignited with carbonate of potassa, .... Glue ignited -with carbonate of potassa, ------ Bone charcoal, formed by depriving the bone of phosphate of lime by an acid, and ignition with carbonate of potassa, - - - - Blood iirnited with carbonate of pota?sa, - Comparing the extremes of this table, it is perceived that blood ignited with carbonate of potassa is twenty times as powerful in discharging the colour of syrup, and fifty times as powerful in decolorizing indigo, as an equal weight of bone-black. Animal charcoal is capable of taking lime from water, and even from some of its salts; as also iodine from liquids which contain it in solutionis observed by Lassaigne. Its power, however, in acting on solutions and chemical com- pounds, is much more decided in its purified state, as shown by Mr. Waring- ton, and by M. Wapen. In this state, it takes a number of salts from their aqueous solutions, and even converts chromate of potassa into the carbonate. Bone-black consists, in the hundred parts, of eighty-eight parts of phos- Decolorizing rwcr relative Syrup. Decolorizing iwer relative Indigo. Zs &hS 1 1 1-6 1-8 3-3 4 4-4 5-6 10 12 10-6 12-2 11 18 15-5 34 15-5 36 20 45 20 50 part i. Carbo Animalis.—Carbo Ligni. 173 phate and carbonate of lime, ten of charcoal, and two of carburet or silicuret of iron. (Dumas.) The proportion of charcoal here given is small. Ac- cording to Dr. Christison, Scotch bone-black generally yields about twenty per cent, of charcoal, which is a large amount to be obtained by analysis, considering that thirty-three per cent, only of the bone is animal matter, and that part of the charcoal is lost in the process. Pharmaceutical Uses, <$-c. Animal charcoal is used in pharmacy for decolorizing vegetable principles, such as quinia, morphia, &c, and in the arts, principally for clarifying syrups in sugar refining, and for depriving spirits distilled from grain of the peculiar volatile oil, called grain oil, which imparts to them an unpleasant taste as first distilled. The manner in which it is used is to mix it with the substance to be decolorized, and to allow the mixture to stand for some time. The charcoal unites chemically with the colouring matter, and the solution by filtration is obtained white and trans- parent. For most pharmaceutical operations, and when used as an anti- dote, animal charcoal must be purified by muriatic acid from phosphate and carbonate of lime. (See Carbo Animalis Purificatus.) In the U. S. formula for sulphate of quinia, however, it is used without purification; as the carbonate of lime which it contains performs a useful part in the pro- cess. (See Quiniae Sulphas.) Off. Prep. Carbo Animalis Purificatus, U. S., Lond., Ed. B. CARBO LIGNI. U S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Charcoal. Vegetable charcoal; Charbon de bois, Fr.; Holzkohle, Germ.; Carbone di legno, Ital; Carbon de lena, Span. Preparation on the Large Scale. Billets of wood are piled in a conical form, and covered with earth and sod to prevent the free access of air; several holes being left at the bottom, and one at the top of the pile, in order to produce a draught to commence the combustion. The wood is then kindled from the bottom. In a little while, the hole at the top is closed, and after the ignition is found to pervade the whole pile, those at the bottom are stopped also. The combustion taking place with a smothered flame and limited access of air, the volatile portions of the wood, consisting of hydro- gen and oxygen, are dissipated ; while the carbon, in the form of charcoal, is left behind. In this process for the carbonization of wood, all the volatile products are lost; and a portion of the charcoal itself is dissipated by combustion. Wood, thus carbonized, yields not more than 17 or 18 per cent, of charcoal. A better method is to char the wood in iron cylinders, when it yields from 22 to 23 parts in the 100 of excellent charcoal; and at the same time, the means are afforded for collecting the volatile products, consisting of pyroligneous acid, empyreumatic oil, and tar. This process for obtaining charcoal has been described under another head. (See Acidum Pyroligneum.) Preparation for Medical Use. Common charcoal is not, perhaps, suffi- ciently pure for medical exhibition; as all the volatile portions of the wood are not completely expelled. Lowitz directs its purification to be conducted in the following manner. Fill a crucible with ordinary charcoal reduced to fine powder, and lute on a perforated cover. Then expose the whole to a strong red heat, and continue the ignition as long as a blue flame issues from the aperture in the cover. When this ceases, allow the charcoal to cool, and transfer it quickly to bottles, which must be well stopped. 16* 174 Carbo Ligni.—Cardamine. PART I. Properties. Charcoal is a black, shining, brittle, porous substance, taste- less, and inodorous, and insoluble in water. It is a good conductor of electri- city, but a bad one of heat. In masses, it floats in water; but, when reduced to a fine powder, whereby its porosity is destroyed, it sinks in that liquid. It possesses the remarkable property of absorbing many times its own bulk of certain gases, provided it be perfectly dry. When exposed to the air after ignition, it increases rapidly in weight, absorbing from twelve to fourteen per cent, of moisture. As ordinarily prepared, it contains the incombustible part of the wood, amounting to one or two per cent., which is left in the form of ashes when the charcoal is burnt. These may be removed by digesting the charcoal in diluted muriatic acid, and afterwards washing it thoroughly with boiling water. Medical Properties, SfC Powdered charcoal is antiseptic and absorbent. It is employed with advantage in certain forms of dyspepsia, attended with fetid breath and putrid eructations; and it has been exhibited in dysentery with the effect of correcting the fetor of the stools. As a remedy in obsti- nate constipation, Dr. Daniel, of Savannah, speaks of it in high terms, and reports fourteen or fifteen cases in which it proved successful. He also found it useful in the nausea and confined state of the bowels which usually attend pregnancy. Its use as an ingredient of poultices is noticed under the title of Cataplasma Carbonis Ligni. Several of its varieties constitute the best tooth powder that can be used. Those which are generally preferred are the charcoals of the cocoa-nut shell and of bread. The dose of charcoal varies from twenty grains to a drachm or more. Dr. Daniel gave it, in his cases, in doses of a tablespoonful repeated 'every half hour. In consequence of the absorbent and antiseptic properties of charcoal, it is invaluable in domestic economy. Meat embedded in it in close vessels is kept perfectly sweet for many months ; and water intended for long voy- ages is equally preserved by the addition of its powder. The power of some of its varieties in destroying colours and odours is very considerable; and it acts upon the principle which has been explained under the head of animal charcoal. (See Carbo Animalis.) Charcoal is used in preparing the Edinburgh Barytae Murias, when this salt is obtained from sulphate of baryta. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Carbonis Ligni, Dub. B. CARDAMINE. Lond. Cuckoo-flower. " Cardamine pratensis. Flores." Lond. Off. Syn. CARDAMINE PRATENSIS. Flores. Dub. Cresson des pres, Fr.; Wiesenkresse, Germ.; Kardamine, Ital. Cardamine. Sex. Syst. Tetradynamia Siliquosa.—Nat. Ord. Brassica- ceae or Cruciferae. Gen. Ch. Pods opening elastically, with revolute valves. Stigma entire. Calyx somewhat gaping. Willd. Cardamine pratensis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 487; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 398. t. 144. The Cuckoo-flower is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a simple, smooth, erect stem, about a foot in height. The leaves are pinnate; the radical, composed of roundish irregularly toothed leaflets, those of the stem alternate, with leaflets which become narrower, more entire, and pointed as they ascend. The flowers are purplish-white or rose-coloured, and terminate the stem in a raceme approaching the character of a corymb. PART I. Cardamine.—Cardamomum. 175 This species of Cardamine is a native of Europe, and is found in the northern parts of our continent, about Hudson's Bay. It is a very hand- some plant, abounding in moist meadows, which it adorns with its flowers in the months of April and May. The leaves are bitterish and slightly pungent, resembling in some measure those of water-cresses, and like them supposed to be possessed of antiscorbutic properties. In Europe they are sometimes added to salads. The flowers only are officinal. They have the same taste with the leaves, and, when fresh, a somewhat pungent odour. When dried, they become inodorous and nearly insipid. They formerly possessed the reputation of being diuretic, and, since the publication of a paper by Sir George Baker, somewhat more than half a cen- tury ago, have been occasionally used as an antispasmodic in various nervous diseases, such as chorea and spasmodic asthma, in which they were success- fully employed by that physician. They produce, however, little obvious effect upon the system, and are not employed in this country. W. CARDAMOMUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Cardamom. "The fruit of Alpinia Cardamomum." U. S. " Alpinia Cardamomum. Semina." Lond. "Fruit of Renealmia Cardamomum." Ed. Off. Syn. AMOMUM CARDAMOMUM. Semina. Dub. Petit cardamome, Fr.; Kleine Kardamomem, Germ.; Cardamomo minore, Ital.; Carda- morno menor, Span.; Ebil, Arab.; Kakelah seghar, Persian; Capalaga, Malay; Gujaratii elachi, Hindoost. The subject of cardamom has been involved in some confusion and un- certainty, both in its commercial and botanical relations. The name has been applied to the aromatic capsules of various Indian plants belonging to the family of the Scitamine33. Three varieties have long been designated by the several titles of the lesser, middle, and larger, the cardamomum minus, me- dium, and majus of older authors; but these terms have been used differ- ently by different writers, so that their precise signification remained doubtful. Pereira, whose position, in the midst of the greatest drug market in the world, has given him excellent opportunities, which he has not neglected, of investi- gating the commercial history of drugs, has enabled us in great measure to clear up this confusion. It is well known that the lesser cardamom of most writers is the variety recognised by the Pharmacopoeias, and generally kept in the shops. The other varieties, though circulating to a greater or less extent in European and Indian commerce, are little known in this country. A sketch of the non-officinal cardamoms, condensed from the account of Pereira, is given below in a note.* The following remarks have reference exclusively to the genuine Malabar or officinal cardamom. * 1. Ceylon Cardamom. This has been denominated variously by different authors, cardamomum medium, cardamomum majus, and cardamomum longum, and is sometimes termed in English commerce wild cardamom. It is the large cardamom of Guibourt. In the East it is sometimes called Grains of Paradise; but it is distinct from the product known with us by that name. It is derived from a plant cultivated in Candy, in the island of Ceylon, which belongs to the same genus as that producing the officinal cardamom, and is specifically designated by Sir James Edward Smith, Elettaria major. This plant has been described by Pereira in the Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions (vol. ii. p. 388). The fruit is a lanceolate-oblong, acutely triangular capsule, somewhat curved, about an inch and a half long and four lines broad, with flat and ribbed sides, tough and coriaceous, brownish or yellowish-ash coloured, having frequently at one end the long, cylindrical, three lobed calyx, and at the other the fruit stalk. It is three-celled, and contains angular, rugged, yellowish-red seeds, of a peculiar fragrant odour, and spicy taste. Its effects are 176 Cardamomum. PART I. Linnaeus confounded, under the name of Amomum Cardamomum, two different vegetables—the genuine plant of Malabar, and another growing in Java. These were separated by Willdenow, who conferred on the former Sonnerat's title of Amomum repens, while he retained the original name for the latter, though not the true cardamom plant. In the tenth vol. of the Linn. Transactions, A. D. 1811, Mr. White, a British Army Surgeon in India, published a very minute description of the Malabar plant, which he had enjoyed frequent opportunities of examining in its native state. From this description, Dr. Maton inferred that the plant, according to Roscoe's arrangement of the Scitamineae, could not be considered an Amomum; and, as he was unable to attach it to any other known genus, he proposed to construct a new one with the name of Elettaria, derived from elettari, or elatari, the Malabar name of this vegetable. Sir James Smith afterwards suggested the propriety of naming the new genus Matonia, in honour of Dr. Maton; and the latter title having been adopted by Roscoe, obtained a place in former editions of the London and United States Pharmacopoeias. After all, however, it is doubtful whether the new genus is well founded; and analogous to those of the officinal cardamom, which, however, commands three times its price. 2. Round Cardamom. This is probably the "Ay-u/xov of Dioscorides, and the Amomi uva of Pliny, and is believed to be the fruit of the Amomum Cardamomum (Willd.), growing in Sumatra, Java, and other East India islands. The capsules are usually smaller than a cherry, roundish or somewhat ovate, with three convex sides, more or less striated longitudinally, yellowish or brownish-white, and sometimes reddish, with brown, angular, cuneiform, shrivelled seeds, which have an aromatic camphorous flavour. They are sometimes, though very rarely, met with connected together in their native clusters, con- stituting the Amomum racemosum, or Amome en grappes of the French Codex. They are similar in medicinal properties to the officinal cardamom, but are seldom used except in the southern parts of Europe. 3. Java Cardamom. The plant producing this variety is supposed to be the Amomum maximum of Roxburgh, growing in Java and other Malay islands, and said to be culti- vated in the mountains of Nepaul. The product of the latter site is called Nepaul or Bengal cardamoms in the East. The capsules are oval, or oval-oblong, often somewhat ovate, from eight to fifteen lines long and from four to eight broad, usually flattened on one side and convex on the other, sometimes curved, three-valved, and occasionally imperfectly three-lobed, of a dirty grayish-brown colour, and coarse fibrous appearance. They are strongly ribbed, and, when soaked in water, exhibit from nine to thirteen ragged membranous wings, which distinguish them from all other varieties. The seeds have a feebly aromatic taste and smell. This variety of cardamom affords but a very small proportion of volatile oil, is altogether of inferior quality, and, when imported into London, is usually sent to the continent. 4. Madagascar Cardamom. This is the Cardamomum majus of Geiger and some other authors, and is thought to be the fruit of the Amomum angustifolium of Sonnerat, which grows in marshy grounds in Madagascar. The capsule is ovate, pointed, flattened on one side, striated, with a broad circular scar at the bottom, surrounded by an elevated notched, and corrugated margin. The seeds have an aromatic flavour analogous to that of the officinal cardamom. 5. Grains of Paradise. Grana Paradisi. Under this name, and that of Guinea grains are kept in the shops small seeds of a round or ovate form, often angular and somewhat cuneiform, minutely rough, brown externally, white within, of a feebly aromatic odour when rubbed between the fingers, and of a strongly hot and peppery taste. They are brought from Guinea, and are said to be produced by the Amomum Grana Paradisi of Sir J. E. Smith. Their effects on the system are analogous to those of pepper- but they are seldom used except in veterinary practice, and to give artificial strength to spirits, wine beer, and vinegar. In the Pharm. Journ. and Trans, (ii. 443), Dr. Pereira points out seven distinct scitamineous fruits, to which the name of grains of paradise has been applied by different authors. That above described is the only one now known by the name in commerce. Other products of different Scitamineae, which have received the name of cardamom are described by Pereira; but the above are all that are known in commerce, or likely to be brought into our drug markets. PART I. Cardamomum. Ill the celebrated Dr. Roxburgh describes the Malabar cardamom plant as an Alpinia, with the specific appellation of A. Cardamomum. He has been followed by Sprengel, and several other German authorities, and recently by the London College, and the framers of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. Lindley and Pereira, however, adhere to the genus Elettaria of Dr. Maton. Finally, Roscoe has arranged the plant with the abandoned genus Renealmia of Linnaeus which he has restored; and the Edinburgh College has recognised this arrangement. Alpinia. Sex. Syst. Monandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scitamineae. Brown. Zingiberaceae. Lindley. Gen. Ch. Corolla with interior border unilabiate. Anther double, naked, (uncrowned.) Capsule berried, three-celled. Seeds a few, or numerous, arilled. Roxburgh, Asiat. Research, vol. xi. p. 350. Alpinia Cardamomum. Roxburgh.—Elettaria Cardamomum. Maton.— Matonia Cardamomum. Roscoe.—Amomum Repens. Sonnerat; Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 9. Renealmia Cardamomum. Roscoe, Monandrous Plants. Figured in Linn. Trans., x. 248. The cardamom plant has a tuberous horizontal root or rhizoma, furnished with numerous fibres, and sending up from eight to twenty erect, simple, smooth, green and shining, perennial stems, which rise from six to twelve feet in height, and bear alternate sheathing leaves. These are from nine inches to two feet long, from one to five inches broad, elliptical-lanceolate, pointed, entire, smooth and dark- green on the upper surface, glossy and pale sea-green beneath, with strong midribs, and short footstalks. The scape or flower-stalk proceeds from the base of the stem, and lies upon the ground, with the flowers arranged in the form of a panicle. The calyx is monophyllous, tubular, and toothed at the margin; the corolla monophyllous and funnel-shaped, with the inferior border unilabiate, three-lobed, and spurred at the base. The fruit is a three- celled capsule, containing numerous seeds. This valuable plant is a native of the mountains of Malabar, where it springs up spontaneously in the forests after the removal of the undergrowth. From time immemorial, great numbers of the natives have derived a liveli- hood from its cultivation. It begins to yield fruit at the end of the fourth year, and continues to bear for several years afterwards. The capsules when ripe are picked from the fruit stems, dried over a gentle fire, and separated by rubbing with the hands from the footstalks and adhering calyx. Thus prepared, they are ovate-oblong, from three to ten lines long, from three to four thick, three-sided with rounded angles, obtusely pointed at both ends, longitudinally wrinkled, and of a yellowish-white colour. The seeds which they contain are small, angular, irregular, rough as if embossed upon their surface, of a brown colour, easily reduced to powder, and thus sepa- rable from the capsules, which, though slightly aromatic, are much less so than the seeds, and should be rejected when the medicine is given in sub- stance. The seeds constitute about 74 parts by weight in the hundred. According to Pereira, three varieties are distinguished in British commerce: —1. the shorts, from three to six lines long, from two to three broad, browner and more coarsely ribbed, and more highly esteemed than the other varie- ties; 2. the long-longs, from seven lines to an inch in length by two or three lines in breadth, elongated, and somewhat acuminate; and 3. short- longs, which differ from the second variety in being somewhat shorter and less pointed. The odour of cardamom is fragrant, the taste warm, slightly pungent, and highly aromatic. These properties are extracted by water and alcohol, but more readily by the latter. They depend on a volatile oil which rises with water in distillation. The seeds contain, according to Trommsdorff, 4-6 per cent, of volatile oil, 10-4 of fixed oil, 2-5 of a salt of 178 Cardamomum.— Carota. PART I. potassa mixed with a colouring principle, 3-0 of starch, 1-8 of azotized mucilage, 0-4 of yellow colouring matter, and 77-3 of ligneous fibre. The volatile oil is colourless, of an agreeable and very penetrating odour, and of a strong, aromatic, burning, camphorous, and slightly bitter taste. Its sp. gr. is 0-945. It cannot be kept long without undergoing change, and finally, even though excluded from the air, loses its peculiar odour and taste. (Trommsdorf, Annalen der Pharmacie, July, 1834.) The seeds should be powdered only when wanted for immediate use, as they retain their aromatic properties best while enclosed within the capsules. Medical Properties and Uses. Cardamom is a warm and grateful aro- matic, less heating and stimulating than some others belonging to the class, and very useful as an adjuvant or corrective of cordial, tonic, and purgative medicines. Throughout the East Indies it is largely consumed as a con- diment. It was known to the ancients, and derived its name from the Greek language. In this country it is employed chiefly as an ingredient in compound preparations. Off'. Prep. Confectio Aromatica, Lond., Dub.; Extract. Colocynthidis Comp., U. S., Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Aromaticus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cardamomi, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Cardam. Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Cinnam. Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinct. Conii, Lond., Dub.; Tinct. Gentian. Comp., U. S., Lond., Dub.; Tinct. Gluassiae Comp., Ed.; Tinct. Rhei, U. S., Ed.; Tinct. Rhei Comp., Dub.; Tinct. Rhei et Aloes, U. S., Ed.; Tinct. Sennae Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinct. Sennae et Jalapae, U. S.,Ed.; Vinum Aloes, U. S., Ed. W. CAROTA. U.S. Secondary. Carrot Seed. "The fruit of Daucus Carota." U. S. Off. Syn. DAUCI FRUCTUS. Daucus Carota. Fructus. Lond.; DAU- CUS CAROTA. Var. SYLVESTRIS. Semina. Dub. DAUCI RADIX. Lond., Ed. Garden Carrot Root. "Daucus Carota. Radix recens." Lond. "Root of Daucus Carota. var. Sativa." Ed. Off. Syn. DAUCUS CAROTA. Radix. Dub. Carrotte, Fr.; Gemeine Mohre, Gelbe Rube, Germ.: Carota, Ital; Lanahoria, Span. Daucus. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae, or Apiaceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla somewhat rayed. Florets of the disk abortive. Fruit hispid with hairs. Willd. Daucus Carota. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1389; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 130. t. 50. The wild carrot has a biennial spindle-shaped root, and an annual, round, furrowed, hairy stem, which divides into long, erect, flower-bearing branches, and rises two or three feet in height. The leaves are hairy, and stand on footstalks nerved on their under side. The lower are large and tripinnate, the upper, smaller and less compound; in both, the leaflets are divided into narrow pointed segments. The flowers are small, white, and disposed in many-rayed compound umbels, which are at first flat on the top and spreading, but, when the seeds are formed, contract so as to present a concave cup-like surface. A sterile flower of a deep purple colour is often PART I. Carota. 179 observable in the centre of the umbel. The general involucrumis composed of several leaves, divided into long narrow segments ; the partial is more simple. The petals are five, unequal, and cordate. The fruit consists of two plano-convex hispid portions, connected by their flat surface. Daucus Carota is exceedingly common in this country, growing along fences, and in neglected fields, which, in the months of June and July are sometimes white over their whole surface with its flowers. It grows wild also in Europe, from which it is supposed by some botanists to have been introduced into the United States. The well-known garden carrot is the same plant somewhat altered by cultivation. The officinal portions are the fruit of the wild, and the root of the cultivated variety. 1. Carrot Seeds. Strictly speaking, these should be called the fruit. They are very light, of a brownish colour, of an oval shape, flat on one side, convex on the other, and on their convex surface presenting four longitudinal ridges, to which stiff whitish hairs or bristles are attached. They have an aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent and bitterish taste. By distillation they yield a pale yellow volatile oil, upon which their virtues chiefly depend. Boiling water extracts their active properties. Medical Properties and Uses. Carrot seeds are moderately excitant and diuretic, and are considerably employed, both in domestic practice and by physicians, in chronic nephritic affections, and in dropsy. As they possess to a certain extent the cordial properties of the aromatics, they are especially adapted to cases in which the stomach is enfeebled. They are said to afford relief in the strangury from blisters. From thirty grains to a drachm of the bruised seeds may be given at a dose, or a pint of the infusion, containing the virtues of half an ounce or an ounce of the seeds, may be taken during the day. The whole umbel is often used instead of the seeds alone. 2. Carrot Root. The root of the wild carrot is whitish, hard, coriaceous, branched, of a strong smell, and an acrid disagreeable taste; that of the cul- tivated variety is reddish, fleshy, thick, conical, rarely branched, of a pleasant odour, and a peculiar, sweet, mucilaginous taste. The constituents of the root are crystallizable and uncrystallizable sugar, a little starch, extractive, gluten, albumen, volatile oil, vegetable jelly or pectin, malic acid, saline matters, lignin, and a peculiar crystallizable, ruby-red, neuter principle, without odour or taste, called carotin. In relation to the nature of vegetable jelly much uncertainty has existed. By some it has been considered a modification of gum or mucilage, combined with a vegetable acid. Bracon- not found it to be a peculiar principle, and gave it the name of pectin from the Greek (ftyxtis), expressive of the peculiar property of,gelatinizing, by which it is distinguished. It exists more or less in all vegetables, and is abundant in certain fruits and roots from which jellies are prepared. It may be separated from the juice of fruits by alcohol, which precipitates it in the form of a jelly. This being washed with weak alcohol and dried, yields a semi-transparent substance bearing some resemblance to fish-glue or isin- glass. Immersed in 100 parts of cold water, it swells like bassorin, and ultimately forms a homogeneous jelly. With a larger proportion it exhibits a mucilaginous consistence. It is less acted on by boiling than by cold water. When perfectly pure it is tasteless, and has no effect on vegetable blues. A striking peculiarity is that, by the agency of a fixed alkali or alkaline earthy base, it is instantly converted into pectic acid, which unites with the base to form a pectate. This may be decomposed by the addition of an acid, which unites with the alkali and separates the pectic acid. (Braconnot, Annates de Chimie, Juillet, 1831.) Pectic acid thus obtained is in the form of a colourless jelly, slightly acidulous, with the property of reddening litmus paper, scarcely soluble in cold water, more soluble in 180 Carota.—Carthamus. PART I. boiling water, and forming with the latter a solution, which, though it does not become solid on cooling, is coagulated by the addition of alcohol, lime- water, acids, or salts, and even of sugar if allowed to stand for some time. With the alkalies the acid forms salts, which are also capable of assuming the consistence of a jelly. With the earths and metallic oxides it forms insoluble salts. Braconnot thinks that pectic acid exists in many plants already formed, being produced by the reaction of alkalies present in the plant upon the pectin. M. Fremy found that pectin results, in fruits, from the reaction of acids upon a peculiar insoluble substance they contain when immature; and that pectin is changed into pectic acid not only by alkalies, but also by vegetable albumen. Medical Properties and Uses. The wild root possesses the same pro- perties with the seeds, and may be used for the same purposes. That of the garden plant has acquired much reputation as an external application to phagedenic, sloughing, and cancerous ulcers, the fetor of which it is sup- posed to correct, while it sometimes changes the character of the diseased action. It is brought to the proper consistence by scraping. In this state it retains a porfltin of the active principles of the plant, which render it some- what stimulant. Boiled and mashed, as usually recommended, the root is perfectly mild, and fit only to form emollient cataplasms. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Dauci, Dub. W. CARTHAMUS. U.S. Secondary. Dyers1 Saffron- "The flowers of Carthamus tinctorius." U. S. Fleurs de carthame, Safran batard, Fr.; Farber Saffbr, Germ.; Cartamo, Ital, Span. Carthamus. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia iEqualis.—Nat. Ord. Composita? CynareaB. De Cand. Cynaraceae. Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle paleaceous, setose. Calyx ovate, imbricated, with scales ovate, leafy at the end. Seed-down paleaceous, hairy, or none. Willd. Carthamus tinctorius. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1706. The dyers' saffron or safflower is an annual plant, with a smooth erect stem, somewhat branched at top, and a foot or two in height. The leaves are alternate, sessile, ovate, acute, entire, and furnished with spiny teeth. The flowers are compound, in large, terminal, solitary heads. The florets are of an orange-red colour, with a funnel-shaped corolla, of which the tube is Jong, slender, and cylin- drical, and the border divided into five equal, lanceolate, narrow segments. The plant is a native of the Levant and Egypt, but is cultivated in various parts of Europe and America. The florets are the part employed. They are brought to us chiefly from the ports of the Mediterranean. Considerable quantities are produced in this country, and sold as American saffron. Safflower in mass is of a red colour, diversified by the yellowness of the filaments contained within the floret. It has a peculiar slightly aromatic odour, and a scarcely perceptible bitterness. Among its ingredients are two colouring substances—one red, insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, very soluble in alkaline liquids, and called carthamine or carthamic acid by Dobereiner, who found it to possess acid properties; the other yellow, and soluble in water. It is the former which renders safflower useful as a dye-stuff. Carthamine mixed with finely powdered talc forms the cosmetic powder known by the name of rouge. For more detailed information in relation to these principles, the reader is referred to the Journal de Phar- macie et de Chimie (3e ser., vol. iii. p. 203). PART I. Carthamus.—Carum. 181 These flowers are sometimes fraudulently mixed with saffron, which they resemble in colour, but from which they may be distinguished by their tubular form, and by the yellowish style and filaments which they enclose. Medical Properties. In large doses carthamus is said to be laxative; and administered in the state of warm infusion it proves somewhat diaphoretic. It is used in domestic practice, as a substitute for saffron, in measles, scarla- tina, and other exanthematous diseases, in order to promote the eruption. An infusion made in the proportion of two drachms to a pint of boiling water is usually employed, and given without restriction as to quantity. W. CARUM. U.S. Caraway. "The fruit of Carum Carui." U. S. Off. Syn. CARUI. Lond., Ed.; CARUM CARUI. Semina. Dub. Carvi, Fr., Ital; Gemeiner Kummel, Germ.; Alcaravea, Span. Carum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae or Apiaceae. Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate-oblong, striated. Involucre one-leafed. Petals keeled, inflexed-emarginate. Willd. Carum Carui. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1470; Woodv. MU. Bot. p. 102. t. 41. This plant is biennial and umbelliferous, with a spinjRe-shaped, fleshy, whitish root, and an erect stem, about two feet in height, branching above, and furnished with doubly pinnate, deeply incised leaves, the segments of which are linear and pointed. The flowers are small and white, and termi- nate the branches of the stem in erect umbels, which are accompanied with an involucre, consisting sometimes of three or four leaflets, sometimes of one only, and are destitute of partial involucre. The caraway plant is a native of Europe, growing wild in meadows and pastures, and cultivated in many places. It has been introduced into this country. The flowers appear in May and June, and the seeds, which are not perfected till the second year, ripen in August. The root, when im- proved by culture, resembles the parsnip, and is used as food by the inhabit- ants of the North of Europe. The seeds are the part used in medicine. They are collected by cutting down the plant and threshing it on a cloth. Our markets are supplied partly from Europe, partly from our own gardens. The American seeds are usually rather smaller than the German. Caraway seeds (half-fruits) are about two lines in length, slightly curved, with five longitudinal ridges which are of a light yellowish colour, while the intervening spaces are dark brown. They have a pleasant aromatic smell, and a sweetish, warm, spicy taste. These properties depend on an essential oil, which they afford largely by distillation. The residue is insipid. They yield their virtues readily to alcohol, and more slowly to water. Medical Properties and Uses. Caraway is a pleasant stomachic and carminative, occasionally used in flatulent colic, and as an adjuvant or cor- rective of other medicines. The dose in substance is from a scruple to a drachm. An infusion may be prepared by adding two drachms of the seeds to a pint of boiling water. The volatile oil, however, is most employed. (See Oleum Cari.) The seeds are baked in cakes, to which they communi- cate an agreeable flavour, while they stimulate the digestive organs. Off. Prep. Aqua Carui, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Opii, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Rutae, Lond., Dub.; Oleum Cari, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Carui, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Juniperi Compositus, U. S., 17 182 Carum.—Caryophyllus. PART I. Lond., Dub.; Tinct. Cardamomi Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Sennae Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinct. Sennae et Jalapae, U. S., Ed. W. CARYOPHYLLUS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Cloves. "The unexpanded flowers of Caryophyllus aromaticus." U.S. "Cary- ophyllus aromaticus. Flores nondum explicati exsiccati." Lond. "Dried undeveloped flowers of Caryophyllus aromaticus." Ed. " Eugenia caryo- phyllata. Flores nondum expliciti." Dub. Girofie, Clous de Girofles, Fr.; Gewurznelken, Germ.; Garofani, Ital; Clavos de espicia, Span.; Cravo da India, Portuguese; Kruidnagel, Dutch; Kerunfel, Arab. Caryophyllus. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Monogynia—Nat. Ord. Myr- taceae. Gen. Ch. Tube of the calyx cylindrical; limb four-parted. Petals four, adhering by their ends in a sort of calyptra. Stamens distinct, arranged in four parcels in a quadrangular fleshy hollow, near the teeth of the calyx. Ovary two-celled, with about twenty ovules in each cell. Berry one or two- celled, one or two-seeded. Seeds cylindrical, or half-ovate. Cotyledons thick, fleshy, convex externally, sinuous in various ways internally. Lind- ley. De Cand. Caryophyllus aromaticus. Linn. Sp. 735. De Cand. Prodrom. iii. 262. Eugenia caryophyllata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 965; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 538. t. 193. This small tree is one of the most elegant of those which inhabit the sunny clime of India. It has a pyramidal form, is always green, and is adorned throughout the year with a succession of beautiful rosy flowers. The stem is of hard wood, and covered with a smooth, grayish bark. The leaves are about four inches in length by two in breadth, obo- vate-oblong, acuminate at both ends, entire, sinuated, with many parallel veins on each side of the midrib, supported upon long footstalks, and oppo- site to each other upon the branches. They have a firm consistence, a shin- ing green colour, and when bruised are highly fragrant. The flowers are disposed in terminal corymbose panicles, and exhale a strong, penetrating, and grateful odour. The natural geographical range of the clove-tree is extremely limited. It was formerly confined to the Molucca islands, in most of which it grew abundantly before their conquest by the Dutch. By the monopolizing policy of this commercial people, the trees were extirpated in nearly all the islands except Amboyna and Ternate, which were under their immediate inspection. Notwithstanding, however, the jealous vigilance of the Dutch, a French governor of the Isle of France and of Bourbon, named Poivre, succeeded, in the year 1770, in obtaining plants from the Moluccas, and introducing them into the colonies under his control. Five years afterwards, the clove-tree was introduced into Cayenne and the West Indies, in 1803 into the Island of Sumatra, and in 1818 into Zanzibar. It is now cultivated largely in these and other places; and commerce has ceased to depend on the Moluccas for supplies of this valuable spice. The unexpanded flower buds are the part of the plant employed under the ordinary name of cloves.* They are first gathered when the tree is about six years old. The fruit has similar aromatic properties, but much * The peduncles of the flowers have been sometimes employed. They possess the odour and taste of the cloves, though in a less degree, and furnish a considerable quantity of essential oil. The French call them griffes de girofles. * PART I. Caryophyllus. 183 weaker. The buds are picked by the hand, or separated from the tree by long reeds, and are then quickly dried. In the Moluccas they are said to be sometimes immersed in boiling water, and afterwards exposed to smoke and artificial heat, before being spread out in the sun. In Cayenne and the West Indies they are dried simply by solar heat. Cloves appear to have been unknown to the ancients. They were intro- duced into Europe by the Arabians, and were circulated through the medium of Venetian commerce. Afterthe discovery of the southern passage to India, the trade in this spice passed into the hands of the Portuguese; but it was subsequently wrested from them by the Dutch, by whom it was long monopolized. Within a few years, however, the extended culture of the plant has opened new sources of supply; and the commerce in cloves is no longer restricted to one nation. The United States derive their chief supplies from the West Indies and Guiana. Of the average annual import, according to the custom-house returns, from 1820 to 1828 inclusive, 43,240 pounds were brought from the West Indies or South America, and 12,828 from France; while from England, Holland, and the East Indies together, the amount imported was only 11,090 pounds : and as the cloves obtained from France were probably of American growth, it appears that we can receive but a very small proportion of those produced in the Moluccas. The latter are said to be thicker, darker, heavier, more oily, and more highly aromatic than those of the colonies to which the clove-tree has been trans- planted. They are known by the name of Amboyna cloves. Those of Bencoolen, from Sumatra, are deemed equal if not superior by the English druggists. Properties.—Cloves resemble a nail in shape, are usually rather more than half an inch long, and have a round head with four spreading points beneath it. Their colour is externally deep brown, internally reddish ; their odour strong and fragrant; their taste hot, pungent, aromatic, and very per- manent. The best cloves are large, heavy, brittle, and exude a small quantity of oil on being pressed or scraped with the nail. When light, soft, wrinkled, pale, and of feeble taste and smell, they are inferior. We are told that those from which the essential oil has been distilled are sometimes fraudulently mixed with the genuine. Trommsdorff obtained from 1000 parts of cloves 180 of volatile oil, 170 of a peculiar tannin, 130 of gum, 60 of resin, 280 of vegetable fibre, and 180 of water. M. Lodibert afterwards discovered a fixed oil, aromatic and of a green colour, and a white resinous substance which crystallizes in fasciculi composed of very fine diverging silky needles, without taste or smell, solu- ble in ether and boiling alcohol, and exhibiting no alkaline reaction. This substance, called by M. Bonastre caryophyllin, was found in the cloves of the Moluccas, of Bourbon, and of Barbadoes, but not in those of Cayenne. Ber- zelius considers it a stearoptene, and probably identical with that deposited by the oil of cloves when long kept. M. Dumas has discovered another crystalline principle, which forms in the water distilled from cloves, and is gradually deposited. Like caryophyllin, it is soluble in alcohol and ether, but differs from that substance in becoming red when touched with nitric acid. M. Bonastre proposes for it the name of eugenin. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 565.) Water extracts the odour of cloves with comparatively little of their taste. All their sensible properties are imparted to alcohol, and the tincture when evaporated leaves an excessively fiery extract, which becomes insipid when deprived of the oilby distillation with water, while the oil which comes over is mild. Hence it has been inferred that the pungency of this aromatic depends on a union of the essential oil with the resin. For an ac- 184 Caryophyllus.— Cascarilla. PART I. count of the oil.see Oleum Caryophylli. The infusion and oil of cloves are red- dened by nitric acid, and rendered blue by tincture of chloride of iron; facts of some interest, as morphia affords the same results with these reagents. Medical Properties and Uses. Cloves are among the most stimulant of the aromatics; but, like others of this class, act less upon the system at large than on the part to which they are immediately applied. They are some- times administered in substance or infusion to relieve nausea and vomiting, correct flatulence, and excite languid digestion; but their chief use is to assist or modify the action of other medicines. They enter into several officinal preparations. Their dose in substance is from five to ten grains. The French Codex directs a tincture of cloves to be prepared by digesting for six days, and afterwards filtering, a mixture of four ounces of powdered cloves and sixteen of alcohol of 31° Cartier. Three ounces to the pint of alcohol is a sufficiently near approximation. Off. Prep. Confectio Aromatica, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Scammonii, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Aurantii Compositum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Caryophylli, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub.; Oleum Caryophylli, Ed.; Spiritus Ammoniae Aromaticus, U. S., Lond.; Spiritus Lavandulae Compositus, U.S.,Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rhei Aromati- cus, U. S.; Vinum Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. CASCARILLA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Cascarilla. "The bark of Croton Eleutheria." U. S. "Crolon Cascarilla. (Don.) Cortex." Lond. " Bark probably of Croton Eleuteria, and possibly other species of the same genus." Ed. " Croton Cascarilla. Cortex." Dub., Cascarille, Fr.; Cascarillrinde, Germ.; Cascariglia, Ital; Chacarila, Span. Croton. Sex. Syst. Moncecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx cylindrical, five-toothed. Corolla five-petalled. Stamens ten to fifteen. Female. Calyx many-leaved. Corolla none. Styles three, bifid. Capsule three-celled. Seed one. Willd. Cascarilla has been ascribed by different authors to different species of Croton. The United States and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias indicate the C. Eleutheria, that of the Dublin College, the C. Cascarilla of Linnaeus. Both species grow in the West Indies, and it is not impossible that the bark of both has been sold as cascarilla; but there is reason to believe that the C. Eleutheria is at least the most abundant source of it. The London College is undoubtedly wrong in ascribing it to the C. Cascarilla of Don. This botanist mistook the Copalchi bark of Mexico, which is produced by the Croton Pseudo-China of Schiede, and bears some resemblance to cascarilla, for the genuine bark, and hence proposed to transfer the specific name of Cascarilla to the Mexican plant;—an unfortunate error, to which the London College has given authority by its sanction. No fact is better ascertained than that the proper cascarilla bark is a West India product, and is never brought from Mexico. The Copalchi bark has been mistaken also for a variety of cinchona, to which, however, it bears no great resemblance. Croton Eleutheria. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 545; Sloane's Jamaica, vol. ii. t. 174. This species of Croton is a small tree or shrub, said by Browne to be four or five feet in height, but as seen by Dr. Wright in Jamaica, rising to twenty feet, and branching thickly towards the summit. The leaves are entire, ovate or cordate lanceolate, and elongated towards the apex, which is blunt. They are of a bright green colour upon their upper surface, and stand alternately upon short footstalks. The flowers, which are of a whitish PART I. Cascarilla. 185 colour, are disposed in axillary and terminal racemes. This shrub grows wild in the West Indies, especially the Bahama islands, in one of which— the small island of Eleutheria—it is found so abundantly as to have received its name from that circumstance. It is called by Browne sea-side balsam. Croton Cascarilla. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 531 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 629. t. 222. This is still smaller than the preceding species, and is called by Browne the small sea-side balsam. The stem is branched and covered with brown bark, of which the external coat is rough and whitish. The leaves are long, very narrow, somewhat pointed, entire, of a bright green colour on the upper surface, downy and of a silvery whiteness on the under. They are placed alternately on short footstalks. The flowers are small, greenish, and disposed in long terminal spikes. This plant is a native of the Bahamas, has been found abundantly in Hayti, and is said also to grow in Peru and Paraguay. Browne describes it as hot and pungent to the taste. The Croton lineare of Jacquin, considered by Willdenow as a variety of the C. Cascarilla, is made a distinct species by Sprengel. It is the wild rosemary of Jamaica, and is said by Dr. Wright to have none of the sensible qualities of cascarilla. Cascarilla is brought to this market from the West Indies, and chiefly, as we have been informed, from the Bahamas. It comes in bags or casks. We have observed it in the shops in two forms so distinct as almost to deserve the title of varieties. In one, the bark is in rolled pieces of every size, from three or four inches in length and half an inch in diameter to the smallest fragments, covered externally with a dull whitish or grayish-white epidermis, which in many portions is partially, sometimes wholly removed, leaving a dark-brown surface, while the inner surface has a chocolate colour, and the fracture is reddish-brown. The small pieces are sometimes curled, but have a distinct abrupt edge as if broken from the branches. The second variety consists entirely of very small pieces not more than an inch or two in length, very thin, without the white epidermis, not regularly quilled, but curved more or less in the direction of their length, often having a small portion of woody fibre attached to their inner surface, and presenting an appearance precisely as if shaved by a knife from the stem or branches of the shrub. Whether these two varieties are derived from distinct species, or differ only from the mode of collection, or the part of the plant from which they are taken, it is difficult to determine. Properties. Cascarilla has an aromatic odour, rendered much more dis- tinct by friction, and a warm, spicy, bitter taste. It is brittle, breaking with a short fracture. When burnt it emits a pleasant odour very closely resem- bling that of musk, but weaker and more agreeable. This property serves to distinguish it from all other barks. It was analyzed by Trommsdorff, and more recently by M. Duval, of Liseux, in France. The constituents found by the latter were albumen, a peculiar kind of tannin, a bitter crystallizable principle called cascarillin, a red colouring matter, fatty matter of a nau- seous odour, wax, gum, a volatile oil, resin, starch, pectic acid, chloride of potassium, a salt of lime, and lignin. The oil, according to Trommsdorff, , constitutes 1-6 per cent., is of a greenish-yellow colour, a penetrating odour analogous to that of the plant, and of the sp. gr. 0-938. To obtain casca- rillin, M. Duval treated the powdered bark with water, added acetate of lead to the solution, separated the lead by sulphuretted hydrogen, filtered, evaporated with the addition of animal charcoal, filtered again, evaporated again at a low temperature to the consistence of a syrup, allowed this to harden by cooling, and purified the matter thus obtained by twice succes- sively treating it, first, with a little cold alcohol, to separate the colouring 186 Cascarilla.—Cassia Fistula. part i. and fatty matters, and afterwards with boiling alcohol and animal charcoal. The last alcoholic solution was allowed to evaporate spontaneously. Thus obtained, cascarillin is white, crystallized, inodorous, of a bitter taste, very slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, neuter in chemical relations, and without nitrogen, (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e sir., viii. 96.) Either alcohol or water will partially extract the active matters of cascarilla; but diluted alcohol is the proper menstruum. Medical Properties and Uses. This bark is aromatic and tonic. It was known in Germany so early as the year 1690, and was much used as a sub- stitute for Peruvian bark by those who were prejudiced against that febrifuge in the treatment of remittent and intermittent fevers. It has, however, lost much of its reputation, and is now employed only where a pleasant and gently stimulant tonic is desirable; as in dyspepsia, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, flatulent colic, and other cases of debility of the stomach or bowels. It is sometimes advantageously combined with the more powerful bitters. It may be given in powder or infusion. The dose of the former is from a scruple to half a drachm, which may be repeated several times a day. In consequence of its pleasant odour when burnt, some smokers mix it in small quantity with their tobacco; but it is said when thus employed to occasion vertigo and intoxication. Off. Prep. Extractum Cascarillae, Dub.; Infusum Cascarilla?, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cascarillae, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. CASSIA FISTULA. U.S. Purging Cassia. " The fruit of Cassia Fistula." U. S. Off. Syn. CASSIA. Cassia Fistula. Leguminum Pulpa. Lond.; CASSLE PULPA. Pulp of the pods of Cassia Fistula. Ed.; CASSIA FISTULA. Pulpa leguminis. Dub. Casse, Fr.; Rohrenkassie, Germ.; Polpi di Cassia, Ital; Cana Fistula, Span. Cassia. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Fabaceae or Leguminosae. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five. Anthers, three upper sterile, three lower beaked. Lomentum. Willd. The tree which yields the purging cassia is ranked by many botanists in a distinct genus, separated from the Cassia and denominated Catharto- carpus, of which the following is given as the essential generic character. " Calyx five-parted, deciduous. Corolla regular, of five petals. The lower filaments bowed. Poofs long, woody, many-celled. Cells filled with pulp." Lindley, in Loud. Encyc. of Plants. Cassia Fistula. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 518; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 445. t. 160.—Cathartocarpus Fistula. Persoon, Synops. i. 459. This is a large tree, rising to the height of forty or fifty feet, with a trunk of hard heavy wood, dividing towards the top into numerous spreading branches, and covered with a smooth ash-coloured bark. The leaves are commonly com-. posed of five or six pairs of opposite leaflets, which are ovate, pointed, undulated, smooth, of a pale green colour, from three to five inches long, and supported upon short petioles. The flowers are large, of a golden yellow colour, and arranged in long pendent axillary racemes. The fruit consists of long, cylindrical, woody, dark-brown, pendulous pods, which, when agitated by the wind, strike against each other, and produce a sound that may be heard at a considerable distance. PART I. Cassia Fistula. 187 This species of Cassia is a native of Upper Egypt and India, whence it is generally supposed to have been transplanted to other parts of the world. It is at present very extensively diffused through the tropical regions of the old and new continents, being found in Insular and Continental India, Cochin China, Egypt, Nubia, the West Indies, and the warmer parts of America. The fruit is the officinal portion of the plant. It is imported from the East and West Indies, chiefly the latter, and from South America. Properties. Cassia pods are a foot or more in length, straight or but slightly curved, cylindrical, less than an inch in diameter, with a woody shell, externally of a dark brown colour, and marked with three longitudinal shining bands, extending from one end to the other, two of which are in close proximity, appearing to constitute a single band, and the third is on the opposite side of the pod. These bands mark the place of junction of the valves of the legume, and are represented as sometimes excavated in the form of furrows. There are also circular depressions at unequal distances. Internally the pod is divided into numerous cells by thin transverse plates, which are covered with a soft, black pulp. Each cell contains a single, oval, shining seed. The pods brought from the East Indies are smaller, smoother, have a blacker pulp, and are more highly esteemed than those which come from the West Indies. We have seen a quantity of pods in this market sold as cassia pods, which were an inch and a half in diameter, flattened on the sides, exceedingly rough on the outer surface, and marked by three longitudinal very elevated ridges, corresponding to the bands or furrows of the common cassia. The pulp was rather nauseous, but answered all the purposes required of the medicine. They corresponded exactly with a specimen of the fruit of the Cassia Brasiliana brought from the West Indies, and were probably derived from that plant. The heaviest pods, and those which do not make a rattling noise when shaken, are to be preferred, as they contain a larger portion of the pulp, which is the part employed. This should be black and shining, and have a sweet taste. It is apt to become sour if long exposed to the air, or mouldy if kept in a damp place. The pulp is extracted from the pods by first bruising them, then boiling them in water, and afterwards evaporating the decoction; or, when the pods are fresh, by opening them at the sutures, and removing the pulp by a spatula. (See Cassias Fistulae Pulpa.) The pulp is the portion considered officinal by the British Colleges ; but as it is the pod that is usually kept in the shops, the United States Pharma- copoeia designates the latter. Cassia pulp has a slight rather sickly odour, and a sweet mucilaginous taste. From the analysis of M. Henry it appears to contain sugar, gum, a substance analogous to tannin, a colouring matter soluble in ether, traces of a principle resembling gluten, and a small quan- tity of water. Medical Properties and Uses. Cassia pulp is generally laxative, and may be advantageously given in small doses in cases of habitual costiveness. In quantities sufficient to purge, it occasions nausea, flatulence, and griping. In this country it is very rarely prescribed, except as an ingredient in the confection of senna, which is a highly pleasant and useful laxative prepara- tion. The dose of the pulp as a laxative is one or two drachms, as a purge one or two ounces. Off. Prep. Cassiae Fistula? Pulpa, U. S. W. 188 Cassia Marilandica. PART I. CASSIA MARILANDICA. U.S. American Senna. "The leaves of Cassia Marilandica." U. S. Cassia. See CASSIA FISTULA. Cassia Marilandica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 524; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 116; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 137. This is an indigenous perennial plant, of vigorous growth, sending up annually numerous round, erect, nearly smooth stems, which are usually simple, and rise from three to six feet in height. The leaves are alternate, and composed of from eight to ten pairs of oblong lanceolate, smooth, mucronate leaflets, green on their upper surface, pale beneath, and connected by short petioles with the common footstalk, which is compressed, channeled above, and furnished near its base with an ovate, stipitate gland. The flowers, which are of a beautiful golden yellow colour, grow in short axillary racemes at the upper part of the stem. The calyx is composed of five oval, obtuse, unequal, yellow leaves; the corolla of the same number of spatulate concave petals, of which three are ascend- ing, and two descending and larger than the others. The stamens are te^n, with yellow filaments and brown anthers, which open by a terminal pore. The three upper stamens bear short abortive anthers; the three lowermost are long, curved, and tapering into a beak. The germ, which descends with the latter, bears an erect style terminating in a hairy stigma. The fruit is a pendulous legume, from two to four inches long, linear, curved, swelling at the seeds, somewhat hairy, and of a blackish colour. The American senna, or wild senna as it is sometimes called, is very common in all parts of the United States south of New York, and grows naturally as far northward as the southern boundary of Massachusetts. It prefers a low, moist, rich soil, in the vicinity of water, and, though frequently found in dryer and more elevated places, grows most abundantly and luxu- riantly in the flat ground on the borders of rivers and ponds. It is some- times cultivated to the northward in gardens for medical use. In the months of July and August, when it is in full bloom, it exhibits a rich and beautiful appearance. The leaves should be collected in August or the beginning of September, and carefully dried. They are sometimes brought into the market, compressed into oblong cakes, such as those prepared by the Shakers from most herbaceous medi- cinal plants. The leaflets are from an inch and a half to two inches long, from one quarter to half an inch in breadth, thin, pliable, and of a pale green colour. They have a feeble odour, and a nauseous taste somewhat analogous to that of senna. Water and alcohol extract their virtues. They were analyzed by Mr. Martin, of Philadelphia, and found to contain a prin- ciple analogous to cathartin in chemical properties and effects on the sys- tem, albumen, mucilage, starch, chlorophylle, yellow colouring matter, volatile oil, fatty matter, resin, and lignin, besides salts of potassa and lime. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., i. 22.) Medical Properties and Uses. American senna is an efficient and safe cathartic, closely resembling the imported senna in its action, and capable of being substituted for it in all cases in which the latter is employed. It is, however,less active; and,to produce an equal effect,must be administered in a dose about one-third larger. It is habitually used by many practitioners in the country. Like senna it is most conveniently given in the form of infusion, and should be similarly combined in order to obviate its tendency to produce griping. W. PART I. Castanea.—Castoreum. 189 CASTANEA. U.S. Secondary. Chinquapin. " The bark of Castanea pumila." U. S. Castanea. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Cupuliferae. Gen. Ch. Male. Ament naked. Calyx none. Corolla five-petalled. Sta- mens ten to twenty. Female. Calyx five or six leaved, muricate. Corolla none. Germs three. Stigmas pencil-formed. Nuts three, included in the echinated calyx. Willd. Castanea pumila. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 461; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 15. The chinquapin is an indigenous shrub or small tree, which, in the Middle States, rarely much exceeds seven or eight feet in height; but,in Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, sometimes attains an elevation of thirty or forty feet, with a diameter of trunk equal to twelve or fifteen inches. The leaves are oblong, acute, mucronately serrate, and distinguished from those of the chestnut, which belongs to the same genus, by their whitish and downy under surface. The barren flowers are grouped upon axillary pe- duncles three or four inches long; the fertile aments are similarly disposed, but less conspicuous. The fruit is spherical, covered with short prickles, and encloses a brown nut which is sweet and edible, but differs from the chestnut in being much smaller, and convex on both sides. The tree extends from the banks of the Delaware, southward to the Gulf of Mexico, and south-westward to the Mississippi. It is most abundant in the southern portion of this tract of country. The bark is the part used. It is astringent and tonic, and has been employed in the cure of intermittents; but has no peculiar virtues to recommend it, and might well be spared even from the Secondary Catalogue of the Pharmacopoeia. W. CASTOREUM. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Castor. " A peculiar concrete substance obtained from Castor fiber." U. S. " Cas- tor fiber. Conoretum infolliculisprseputii repertum." Lond. "Apeculiar secretion in the preputial follicles of Castor fiber." Ed. Castoreum, Fr.; Bibergeil, Germ.; Castoro, Ital; Castoreo, Span. In the beaver, Castor fiber of naturalists, between the anus and external genitals of both sexes, are two pairs of membranous follicles, of which the lower and larger are pear-shaped, and contain an oily, viscid, highly odorous substance, secreted by glands which lie externally to the sac. This sub- stance is called castor. After the death of the animal, the follicles contain- ing it are removed, and dried either by smoke or in the sun ; and in this state are brought into the market. This drug is derived either from the northern and north-western parts of the American continent, or from the Russian dominions; and is distin- guished, according to its source, into the Canadian or American, and Rus- sian castor. Of the latter but a very small portion reaches this country. That which is brought to Philadelphia is derived chiefly from Missouri. Castor comes to us in the form of solid unctuous masses, contained in sacs about two inches in length, larger at one end than at the other, much flattened and wrinkled, of a brown or blackish colour externally, and united in pairs by the excretory ducts which connect them in the living animal. In each pair, one sac is generally larger than the other. They are divided I 190 Castoreum. *ART *• internally into numerous cells containing the castor, which, when the sacs are cut or torn open, is exhibited of a brown or reddish-brown colour^inter- mingled more or less with the whitish membrane forming the cells. Those brought from Russia are larger, fuller, heavier, and less tenacious than the American ; and their contents, which are of a rusty or liver-colour, have a stronger taste and smell, and are considered more valuable as a medicine. A variety of Russian castor, described by Pereira under the name of chalky Russian castor, is in smaller and rounder sacs than the American, has a peculiar empyreumatic odour very different from that of the other varieties, breaks like starch under the teeth, and is characterized by effervescing with dilute muriatic acid. In a specimen examined by Miiller, 40-646 per cent. of carbonate of lime was found. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 276.) In the castor from Missouri, the contents of the sac are sometimes almost white, and evidently of inferior quality. It is said by M. Kohli, that the Canadian castor, treated with distilled water and ammonia, affords an orange precipi- tate, while the matter thrown down from the Russian under similar treat- ment is white. Properties. Good castor has a strong, fetid, peculiar odour; a bitter, acrid, and nauseous taste; and a colour more or less tinged with red. It is of a softer or harder consistence according as it is more or less thoroughly dried. When perfectly desiccated, though still somewhat unctuous to the touch, it is hard, brittle, and of a resinous fracture. Its chemical constituents, accord- ing to Brandes, whose analysis is the most recent, are volatile oil; a resinous matter; albumen; a substance resembling osmazome; mucus; urate, carbo- nate, benzoate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime; acetate and muriate of soda; muriate, sulphate, and benzoate of potassa; carbonate of ammonia; membra- nous matter ; and a peculiar proximate principle previously discovered by M. Bizio, an Italian chemist, and called by him castorin. This principle crystallizes in long, diaphanous, fasciculated prisms, has the smell of castor, of which it is alleged to be the active constituent, and a taste like that of copper. It is insoluble in cold water and in cold alcohol; but is dissolved by one hundred parts of the latter liquid at the boiling temperature, and by the essential oils. It possesses neither alkaline nor acid properties. It may be obtained by treating castor minutely divided with six times its weight of boiling alcohol, filtering the liquor while hot, and allowing it to cool. The castorin is slowly deposited, and may be purified by the action of cold alcohol. Its claim to be considered the active principle of castor is very doubtful. Alcohol and sulphuric ether extract the virtues of castor. An infusion made with boiling water has its sensible properties in a slight degree; but the odorous principle of the drug is dissipated by decoction. The virtues of castor are impaired by age ; and the change is more rapid in proportion to the elevation of temperature. Moisture promotes its speedy decomposition. In a dry cool place it may be kept for a long time without material deterioration. When quite black, with little taste or smell, it is unfit for use. A factitious preparation is sometimes sold, consisting of a mixture of various drugs, scented with genuine castor, intermingled with membrane, and stuffed into the scrotum of a goat. The fraud may be de- tected by the comparatively feeble odour, the absence of other characteristic sensible properties, and the want of the smaller follicles containino- fatty matter, which are always attached to the real bags of castor. Medical Properties and Uses. Castor is moderately stimulant and anti- spasmodic. The experiments of Thouvenel prove that, in large doses, it quickens the pulse, increases the heat of the skin, and produces other symp- toms of general excitement; but its force is directed chiefly to the nervous PART I. Cataria. —Catechu. 191 system, and in small doses it scarcely disturbs the circulation. It has also enjoyed a high reputation as an emmenagogue. It was employed by the ancients. Pliny and Dioscorides speak of it as useful in hysteria and ame- norrhoea. In Europe, especially on the continent, it is still frequently pre- scribed in low forms of fever attended with nervous symptoms, in spasmodic diseases, such as hysteria and epilepsy, in many anomalous nervous affec- tions, and in diseases dependent on or connected with suppression or reten- tion of the menses. The practitioners of this country rarely resort to it. The dose in substance is from ten to twenty grains, which may be given in bolus or emulsion. The tincture is sometimes employed. Off. Prep. Tinctura Castorei, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cas- torei Ammoniata, Ed. W. CATARIA. U.S. Secondary. Catnep. "The leaves of Nepeta Cataria." U. S. Cataire, Fr.; Katzenmimze, Germ.; Cattara, Ital; Gatera, Span. Nepeta. Sex. Syst. DidynamiaGymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiacea? or Labiatae. Gen. Ch. Calyx dry, striate, five-toothed. Corolla with the upper lip undivided, the under lip three-parted, the middle division crenate. Stamens approximate. Nepeta Cataria. The catnep or catmint is a perennial, herbaceous plant, with a quadrangular, branching, somewhat hoary stem, from one to three feet high, and furnished with opposite, petiolate, cordate, dentate, pubescent leaves, which are green above and whitish on their under sur- face. The flowers are whitish or slightly purple, are arranged in whorled spikes, and appear in July and August. The plant is abundant in the United States, but is supposed to have been introduced from Europe. The whole herbaceous part of the plant is used; but the leaves only are recognised in the United States Pharmacopoeia. They have a strong pecu- liar, rather disagreeable odour, and a pungent, aromatic, bitterish, cam- phorous taste. They yield their virtues to water. The active constituents are volatile oil, and tannin of the variety which produces a greenish colour with the salts of iron. In its operation upon the system, catnep is tonic and excitant, bearing considerable resemblance to the mints and labiate plants. It has had the reputation also of being antispasmodic and emmenagogue. Cats are said to be very fond of it, and it has been asserted to act as an aphrodisiac in these animals. It is employed as a domestic remedy, in the form of infusion, in amenorrhoea, chlorosis, hysteria, the flatulent colic of infants, &c; but is scarcely known in regular practice. Some of the older writers speak favour- ably of its powers. The leaves are said to relieve toothache if chewed, or held for a few minutes in contact with the diseased tooth. Two drachms of the dried leaves or herb may be given as a dose in infusion. W. CATECHU. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Catechu. " The extract of the wood of Acacia Catechu." U. S. "Acacia Catechu. Ligni Extractum." Lond. "Extract of the wood of Acacia Catechu, of 192 Catechu. PART I. the kernels of Areca Catechu, and of the leaves of Uncaria Gambir, proba- bly too from other plants." Ed. "Acacia Catechu. Extractum ex hgno." Dub. Cachou, Fr.; Catechu, Germ.; Catecu, Catciu, Catto, Ital.; Catecu, Span.; Cutt, Hin- doostanee. Acacia. See ACACIA. Acacia Catechu. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1079; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 433. t. 157. According to Mr. Kerr, whose description has been followed by most subsequent writers, the Acacia Catechu is a small tree, seldom more than twelve feet in height, with a trunk one foot in diameter, dividing towards the top into many close branches, and covered with a thick, rough, brown bark. The leaves, which stand alternately upon the younger branches, are composed of from fifteen to thirty pairs of pinnae nearly two inches long, each of which is furnished with about forty pairs of linear leaflets, beset with short hairs. At the base of each pair of pinnae is a small gland upon the common foot-stalk. Two short recurved spines are attached to the stem at the base of each leaf. The flowers are in close spikes, which arise from the axils of the leaves, and are about four or five inches long. The fruit is a lanceolate, compressed, smooth, brown pod, with an undulated thin margin, and contains six or eight roundish flattened seeds, which when chewed emit a nauseous odour. This species of Acacia is a native of the East Indies, growing abundantly in various provinces of Hindostan, and in the Burman empire. Pereira says that it is now common in Jamaica. Like most others of the same genus, it abounds in astringent matter, which may be extracted by decoc- tion. Catechu is an extract from the wood of the tree. This drug had been long known in medicine before its true source was discovered. It was at first called terra Japonica, under the erroneous im- pression that it was an earthy substance derived from Japan. When ascer- tained by analysis to be of vegetable origin, it was generally considered by writers on the Materia Medica to be an extract obtained from the betel-nut, which is the fruit of a species of palm, denominated by Linnaeus Areca Catechu. The true origin of the drug was made known by Mr. Kerr, assistant-surgeon of the civil hospital in Bengal, who had an opportunity not only of examining the tree from which it was obtained, but also of wit- nessing the process of its extraction. According to Mr. Kerr, the manu- facturer, having carefully cut off the exterior white part of the wood, reduces the interior brown or reddish-coloured portion into chips, which he then boils in water in unglazed earthen vessels, till all the soluble matter is dis- solved. The decoction thus obtained is evaporated first by artificial heat, and afterwards in the sun, till it has assumed a thick consistence, when it is spread out to dry upon a mat or cloth, being, while yet soft, divided by means of a string into square or quadrangular pieces. The account more recently given by Dr. Royle, of the preparation of the extract in Northern India, is essentially the same. The process, as he observed it, was com- pleted by the pouring of the extract into quadrangular earthen moulds. Our own countryman, the Rev. Howard Malcolm, states, in his "Travels in South Eastern Asia," that catechu is largely prepared from the wood of the Acacia Catechu in the vicinity of Prome, in Burmah. Two kinds, he observes, are prepared from the same tree, one black, which is preferred in China, and the other red, which is most esteemed in Bengal. According to some authors, the unripe fruit and leaves are also submitted to decoction, and Mr. Kerr states that the areca nut may sometimes be added to the other ingredients in places where it is abundant. The name catechu in the native language signifies the juice of a tree, and PART I. Catechu. 193 appears to have been applied to astringent extracts obtained from various plants. Accordingto the United States, London,and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, however, the term is properly restricted to the extract of the Acacia Catechu; as it was not intended to recognise all the astringent products which are floating in Asiatic commerce; and those from other sources than the Acacia, though they may occasionally find their way into our shops, do so as an ex- ception to the general rule. A minute account of the diversified forms and exterior characters, which the officinal catechu presents as produced in different localities, would rather tend to perplex the reader than to serve any good practical purpose. These characters are, moreover, frequently chang- ing, as the drug is procured from new sources, or as slight variations may occur in the mode of its preparation. Commerce is chiefly supplied with catechu from Bahar, Northern India, and Nepaul through Calcutta, from Canara through Bombay, and from the Burman dominions. We derive it directly from Calcutta, or by orders from London, and it is sold in our mar- kets without reference to its origin. It is frequently called cutch by the English traders, a name derived, no doubt, from the Hindoostanee word cutt.* * In order not to embarrass the text unnecessarily, we have thrown together into the form of a note the following observations upon the varieties of catechu, those being first considered which are probably derived from the Acacia Catechu, and therefore entitled to an officinal rank. 1. Officinal Catechus. The following, so far as we have been able to distinguish them, are the varieties of officinal catechu to be found in the markets of Philadelphia. 1. Plano-convex Catechu. Cake Catechu. This is in the form of circular cakes, flat on one side, convex on the other, and usually somewhat rounded at the edge, as if the soft extract had been placed in saucers, or vessels of a similar shape, to harden. As found in the retail shops it is almost always in fragments, most of which, however, exhibit some evidences of the original form. The cakes are of various size, from two or three to six inches or more in diameter, and weighing from a few ounces to nearly two pounds. Their exterior is usually smooth and dark brown, but we have seen a specimen in which the flat surface exhibited impressions as if produced by coarse matting. The colour internally is always brown, sometimes of a light yellowish-brown or chocolate colour, but more frequently dark reddish-brown, and sometimes almost black. The cakes are almost always more or less cellular in their interior; but in this respect great diversity exists. Sometimes they are very porous, so as almost to present a spongy appearance, sometimes compact and nearly uniform; and this difference maybe observed even in the same piece. The fracture is sometimes rough and dull, but in the more compact parts is usually smooth and somewhat shining; and occasionally a piece split in one direction will exhibit a spongy fracture, while in another it will be shining and resinous, indicat- ing the consolidation of the extract in layers. This variety of catechu is often of good quality. It is common at present in our market; but we have been unable to trace its origin accurately. There can be little doubt, from its internal character, that it comes from the East Indies, and is the product of A. Catechu; but no accounts that we have seen Of the preparation of the drug, in particular geographical sites, indicate this particular shape; and it is not impossible that portions of it may be formed out of other varieties of catechu by a new solution and evaporation. 2. Pegu Catechu. This is the product derived from the Burman dominions, and named from that section of the country whence it is exported. It enters commerce, probably in general through Calcutta, in large masses, sometimes of a hundred weight, consisting of layers of flat cakes, each wrapped in leaves said to be those of the Nauclea Brunonis. In this form, however, we do not see it in the shops; but almost always in angular irregular fragments, in which portions of two layers sometimes cohere with leaves between them, indicating their origin. It is characterized by its compactness, its shining fracture, and its blackish-brown or dark Port-wine colour, so that when finely broken it bears no incon- siderable resemblance to kino. This is an excellent variety of catechu, and is not unfre- quent in the shops. 3. Catechu in Quadrangular Cakes. This is scarcely ever, found in the shops in its complete form, and the fragments are often such that it would be impossible to infer from them the original shape of the cake. This is usually between two and three inches in 18 194 Catechu. PART I. Properties. Catechu, as it comes to us, is in masses of different shapes, some in balls more or less flattened, some in circular cakes, some saucer- shaped, others cubical or oblong, or quite irregular, and of every grade in size, from small angular pieces, which are evidently fragments of the origi- length and breadth, and somewhat less in thickness, of a rusty-brown colour externally, and dark-brown or brownish-gray within, with a somewhat rough and dull fracture, but, when broken across the layers in which it is sometimes disposed, exhibiting a smoother and more shining surface. Guibourt speaks of the layers as being blackish externally and grayish within, and bearing some resemblance to the bark of a tree, a resemblance, however, which has not struck us in the specimens which have fallen under our notice. There is little doubt that this variety comes from the provinces of Bahar and Northern India, where the preparation of the drug was witnessed by Mr. Kerr and Dr. Royle, who both speak of it as being cut, when drying, into the quadrangular form. It has been called Bengal Catechu, because exported from that province. 4. Catechu in Balls. We have seen this in two forms—the one consisting'of globular balls about as large as an orange, very hard and heavy, of a ferruginous aspect externally, very rough when broken, and so full of sand as to be gritty under the teeth; the other in cakes, originally, in all probability, globular, and of about the same dimensions, but flattened and otherwise pressed out of shape before being perfectly dried, sometimes adhering two together, as happens with the lumps of Smyrna opium, and closely resembling in external and internal colour, and in the character of their fracture, the quadrangular variety last described. The former kind is rare, and the specimens we have seen had been twenty years in the shop, and had very much the appearance of a factitious product. The latter is in all probability the kind known formerly as the Bombay catechu; as Dr. Hamilton, and more recently Major Mackintosh, in describing the mode of preparing catechu on the Malabar coast, of which Bombay is the entrepot, says that while the extract is soft it is shaped into balls about the size of an orange. 2. Non-officinal Catechus. 1. Gambir. Terra Japonica. An astringent extract is abundantly prepared in certain parts of the East Indies, under the name of gambir or gambeer, and imported into Europe and America under that of terra Japonica. The plant from which it is obtained, called by Mr. Hunter, who first minutely described it, Nauclea Gambir, but by Roxburgh, De Candolle and others, Uncaria Gambir, is a climbing shrub, belonging to the class and order Pentandria Monogynia, and to the natural order Rubiaceee of Jussieu, Cinchonacea of Lindley. It is a native of Malacca, Sumatra, Cochin-china, and other parts of Eastern Asia, and is largely cultivated in the islands of Bintang, Singapore, and Prince of Wales. The gambir is prepared by boiling the leaves and young shoots in water, and evaporating the decoction either by artificial or solar heat. When of a proper consistence, it is spread out into flat cakes in moulds or otherwise, and then cut into small cubes, which are dried in the sun. Sometimes these cohere into a mass, in consequence of being packed together before they are perfectly dry. Gambir is in the form of cubes, with sides about an inch square, is light and porous so that it floats when thrown in water, is of a deep yellowish or reddish-brown colour ex- ternally, but much paler within, presents a dull earthy surface when broken, is inodorous, and has a strongly astringent, bitter, and subsequently sweetish taste. It softens and swells up when heated, and leaves but a minute proportion of ashes when burnt. It is partially soluble in cold water, and almost wholly soluble in boiling water, which deposits a portion upon cooling. Duhamel, Ecky, and Procter dissolved 87.5 per cent, of it in cold water by means of percolation. {Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 166.) Nees von Esenbeck found it to consist of from 36 to 40 per cent, of tannic acid, a peculiar matter, gum or gummy extractive^ deposit like the cinchonic red. and two and a half per cent, of lignin. (Pereira) The peculiar principle is called catechuin or catechuic acid. This, when per- fectly pure, is snow-white, of a silky appearance, crystallizable in fine needles, unalterable if dry in the air, fusible by heat, very slightly soluble in cold water with which it softens and swells up, soluble in boiling water which deposits it on cooling, and soluble also in alcohol and ether. It very slightly reddens litmus paper, and though it colours the solu- tion of chloride of iron beautifully green, and produces with it a grayish-green precipitate, it differs from tannic acid in not affecting a solution of gelatin. It bears considerable analogy to gallic acid in its relations to the metallic salts. To prepare it, the precipitate which falls upon the cooling of the decoction of gambir, should be well washed upon a filter with cold water, and again dissolved in boiling water with a little purified animal charcoal. The solution being filtered, and allowed to stand, gradually deposits the acid, of a snow-white colour. To obtain it perfectly white in the dry state, it must be dried under PART I. Catechu. 195 nal cakes, to lumps which weigh one or two pounds. The colour is ex- ternally of a rusty brown, more or less dark, internally varying from a pale reddish or yellowish-brown to a dark liver colour. In some specimens it is almost black, in others somewhat like the colour of Port-wine, and in others again, though rarely, dull red like annotta. The extract has been distin- guished into the pale and dark varieties; but there does not appear to be sufficient ground for retaining this distinction. Catechu is inodorous, with an astringent and bitter taste, which is followed by a sense of sweetness. It is brittle, and breaks with a fracture, which is rough in some specimens, in others uniform, resinous, and shining. That which is preferred in our market is of a dark colour, easily broken into small angular fragments, with a smooth glossy surface, bearing some resemblance to kino. Catechu is often mixed with sand, sticks, and other impurities. Its chief chemical constituents are tannin, extractive, and mucilage. Out of 200 parts of an exhausted receiver with sulphuric acid. {Wackenroder, Annal. der Pharm., xxxi. 72.) The sweet taste of gambir is thought to depend on thi6 constituent. Several varieties of gambir are described. Sometimes it is in oblong instead of cubical pieces, without differing in other respects from the ordinary kind; sometimes in small circular cakes or short cylindrical pieces, heavier than water, of a pale reddish-yellow colour, moderately astringent, gritty under the teeth, and quite impure; sometimes in very small cubes, distinguishable by the black colour they afford with tincture of iodine, indi- cating the admixture of sago or other amylaceous matter; and finally, in circular cakes of the size of a small lozenge, flat on one side, and somewhat convex on the other, of a pale pinkish yellowish-white colour, and a chalky feel. This is most highly esteemed by the natives in India. {Pereira.) None of these varieties occur to any extent in our commerce, and we have met with none of them in the shops. Gambir was probably the substance first brought from the East under the name of terra Japonica. It is largely consumed in the East by the betel-chewers. Great quantities are imported into Europe, where it is used for tanning, calico printing, dyeing, &c. In this country it is also largely consumed by the calico printer. Though a strong astringent, and applicable to the same purposes as the officinal catechu, it is seldom or never medi- cinally employed in the United States. 2. Areca Catechu. This is obtained from the areca nut or betel nut, which is the seed of the Areca Catechu, a palm cultivated in all parts of India. (See Appendix.) It is pre- pared by boiling the nuts in water, and evaporating the decoction. There are two varieties, one of a black colour, very astringent, mixed with paddy husks and other impurities, and obtained by evaporating the first decoction; the other, yellowish-brown, of an earthy frac- ture, and pure, resulting from the evaporation of a decoction of the nuts which had been submitted to the previous boiling. The first is called kassu, the other cowry. (Heyne, Tracts, SfC on India.) They are prepared in Mysore, and Ainslie states that both varie- ties are sold in the bazars of Lower India, and used for the same purposes as the officinal catechu by the native and European practitioners. They are also much used for chewing by the natives. But they are seldom exported, and it is uncertain whether they find then- way into European or American commerce. Pereira thinks he has identified the kassu with a variety of catechu derived from Ceylon, where he has been informed that an ex- tract of the areca nut is prepared. It is in circular flat cakes, from two to three inches in diameter, scarcely an inch thick, covered on one side with paddy husks, and internally blackish-brown and shining, like Pegu catechu. Guibourt and Pereira describe other varieties, which we have not met with, and which are probably rare. One of these is the Siam Catechu, in conical masses shaped like a betel nut, and weighing about a pound and a half. Its fracture is shining and liver-co- loured, like that of hepatic aloes; in other respects it resembles Pegu catechu. Another is the black mucilaginous catechu of Guibourt, in parallelopipeds an inch and a half in length, by an inch in breadth. Internally it is black and shining, and its taste is mucila- ginous and feebly astringent. A third is the dull reddish catechu of Guibourt, in some- what flattened balls, weighing three or four ounces, of a dull-reddish, wavy, and often mar- bled fracture. We saw something like this ten years since, which had been brought upon speculation by a merchant from Calcutta, but is not now in the market. Lastly, there is a pah or whitish catechu, in small roundish or oval lumps, with an irregular surface, dark or blackish-brown externally, very pale and dull internally, and of a bitter astringent and sweetish taste, with a smoky flavour. It is unknown in commerce. 196 Catechu.—Centaurea Benedicta. part i. Bombay catechu, SirH. Davy obtained 109 parts of tannin, 68 of extract- ive, 13 of mucilage, and 10 of insoluble residue. The same quantity of Bengal catechu yielded 97 of tannin, 73 of extractive, 16 of mucilage, and 14 of insoluble residue. The portion designated by Davy as extractive contains, if it do not chiefly consist of, a principle discovered by Buchner and now called catechuic acid. (See note, page 194.) The tannic acid is of the variety which precipitates iron of a greenish-black colour. It precipi- tates gelatin, but not tartar emetic. (Kane.) Catechu is almost entirely soluble in a large quantity of water, to which it imparts a brown colour. The late Dr. Duncan found that 18 ounces at 52° were required to 100 grains of the extract, of which about TLth of earthy matter was left undissolved. The extractive is much less soluble than the astringent principle, which may be almost entirely separated from it by the frequent application of small quantities of cold water. Boiling water dissolves the extractive matter much more readily than cold, and deposits it of a reddish-brown colour upon cool- ing. For the important reactions of catechu, see Acidum Tannicum. Medical Properties and Uses. Catechu is gently tonic, and powerfully astringent. The dark coloured has the latter property in a somewhat greater degree than the light, and is therefore usually preferred. The latter, being rather sweeter, is preferred by the Malays, Hindoos, and other Indians, who consume vast quantities of this extract by chewing it, mixed with a small proportion of lime and with aromatics, and wrapped in the leaf of the Piper Betel. Catechu may be advantageously used in most cases where astring- ents are indicated, and, though less employed in this country than kino, is not inferior to it in virtues. The complaints to which it is best adapted are diarrhoea dependent on debility or relaxation of the intestinal exhalents, and passive hemorrhages, particularly that from the uterus. A small piece, held in the mouth and allowed slowly to dissolve, is an excellent remedy in relaxa- tion of the uvula, and the irritation of the fauces and troublesome cough which depend upon it. Applied to spongy gums, in the state of powder, it sometimes proves useful; and it has been recommended as a dentifrice in combination with powdered charcoal, Peruvian bark, myrrh, &c. Sprinkled upon the surface of indolent ulcers, it is occasionally beneficial, and is much used in India for the same purpose mixed with other ingredients in the state of an ointment. An infusion of catechu may be used as an injection in obstinate gonorrhoea, gleet, and leucorrhoea; and we have found it highly beneficial, when thrown up the nostrils, in arresting epistaxis. The dose is from ten grains to half a drachm, which should be frequently repeated, and is best given with sugar, gum Arabic, and water. Off. Prep. Eiectuarium Catechu, Ed., Dub.; Infusum Catechu Com- positum, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Catechu, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. CENTAUREA BENEDICTA. Dub. Blessed Thistle. "Centaurea benedicta. Cnicus benedictus. Folia." Dub. Chardon benit, Fr.; Cardobenedikten, Germ.; Cardo santa, Ital; Cardo bendito, Span. Centaurea. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia Frustranea.—Nat. Ord. Compositae Cynareae. De Cand. Cynaracese. Lindley. Gen.Ch. Receptacle: bristly. Seed-down simple. Corollas of the ray funnel-shaped, longer, irregular. Willd. Centaurea benedicta. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2315. Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 34. t. 14.—Cnicus benedictus. De Cand. Prodrom. vi. 606. The blessed part i. Centaurea Benedicta.— Centaurium. 197 thistle {carduus benedictus) is an annual herbaceous plant, the stem of which is about two feet high, branching towards the top, and furnished with long, elliptical, rough leaves, irregularly toothed, barbed with sharp points at their edges, of a bright green colour on their upper surface, and whitish on the under. The lower leaves are deeply sinuated, and stand on foot- stalks, the upper are sessile, and in some measure decurrent. The flowers are yellow, and surrounded by an involucre of ten leaves, of which the five exterior are largest. The calyx is oval, woolly, and composed of several imbricated scales, terminated by rigid, pinnate, spinous points. This plant is a native of the South of Europe, and is cultivated in gardens in other parts of the world. It has become naturalized in the United States. The period of flowering is June, when its medicinal virtues are in greatest perfection. The leaves are the officinal portion. They should be gathered when the plant is in flower, quickly dried, and kept in a dry place. The herb has a feeble unpleasant odour, and an intensely bitter taste, more disagreeable in the fresh than the dried plant. Water and alcohol extract its virtues. The infusion with cold water is a grateful bitter; the decoction is nauseous, and offensive to the stomach. The bitterness remains in the ex- tract. The active constituents are volatile oil and a peculiar principle, for which the name of cnicin has been proposed. This is crystallizable, inodor- ous, very bitter, neither acid nor alkaline, scarcely soluble in cold water, more so in boiling water, and soluble in all proportions in alcohol. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and is analogous to salicin in composition. In the dose of 4 or 5 grains it is said often to vomit, and in that of 8 grains to be useful in intermittent fevers. (Ann. de The rap., 1813, p. 206.) Medical Properties and Uses. The blessed thistle may be so adminis- tered as to prove tonic, diaphoretic, or emetic. The cold infusion, made with half an ounce of the leaves to a pint of water, has been employed as a mild tonic in debilitated conditions of the stomach. A stronger infusion, taken warm while the patient is confined to bed, produces copious perspira- tion. A still stronger infusion, or the decoction taken in large draughts, provokes vomiting, and has been used to assist the operation of emetics. The herb, however, is at present little employed, as all its beneficial effects may be obtained from chamomile. The dose of the powder as a tonic is from a scruple to a drachm, that of the infusion two fluidounces. W. CENTAURIUM. Lond., Ed., Dub. Common European Centaury. "Erythraea Centaurium." Ijond. "The flowering heads of Erythraea Centaurium." Ed. "Erythraea Centaurium. Folia." Dub. Petite centaure, Fr.; Tauscngiildenkraut, Germ.; Centaurea minore, Ital; Centaura minor, Span. Erythrjea. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianaceae. Gen. Ch. Capsule linear. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla funnel-shaped, with a short limb withering. Anthers often bursting, spiral. Stigmas two. Loudon's Encyc. Erythraea Centaurium. Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 130.—Chironia Centaurium. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1068; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 275. t. 96. This is a small, annual, herbaceous plant, rising about a foot in height, with a branching stem, which divides above into a dichotomous panicle, and bears opposite, sessile, ovate lanceolate, smooth, and obtusely pointed leaves. The flowers are of a beautiful rose colour, standing without peduncles in the 18* 198 Cera Alba.—Cera Flava. PART I. axils of the stems, with their calyx about half as long as the tube of the cjorolla. The plant grows wild in most parts of Europe, adorning the woods and pastures, towards the close of summer, with its delicate flowers. The herb, though without odour, has a strong bitter taste, which it im- parts to water and alcohol. The flowering summits are generally pre- ferred, though the Dublin College directs the leaves. The name of centaurin has been proposed for its bitter principle. Medical Properties and Uses. The common centaury of Europe has ' tonic properties very closely resembling those of gentian, with which it is associated in the same natural family. It is employed on the. other side of the Atlantic in dyspeptic complaints, and formerly had considerable reputa- tion in the treatment of fever. It was one of the ingredients of the Portland powder. In the United States it has been superseded by the Sabbatia angularis, or American centaury. The dose of the powder isfrom thirty grains to a drachm. Another species of Erythraea (E. Chilensis) possesses similar properties, and is employed to a considerable extent in Chili as a mild tonic. w« CERA ALBA. U S., Lond., Eel, Dub. White Wax. "Bleached yellow wax." U.S. "Concretum ab ape paratum, dealba- tum." Lond. "Bleached Bees'wax." Ed. Cire blanche, Fr.; Weisses Wachs, Germ.; Cera bianca, Ital; Cere blanca, Span. CERA FLAVA. U.S., Ed., Dub. Yelloiv Wax. "A peculiar concrete substance prepared by Apis mellifica." U.S. " Waxy concretion of Apis mellifica." Ed. Off. Syn. CERA. Apis mellifica. Concretum ab ape paratum. Lond. Cire jaune, Fr.; Gelbes Wachs, Germ.; Cera gialla, Ital; Cera amarilla, Span. Wax is a product of the common bee, Apis mellifica of naturalists, which constructs with it the cells of the comb in which the honey and larvae are deposited. It was at one time doubted, whether the insect elaborated the wax by its own organs, or merely gathered it already formed from vegeta- bles. The question was set at rest by Huber, who fed a swarm of bees exclusively on honey and water, and found nevertheless that they formed a comb consisting of wax. This, therefore, is a proper secretion of the insect. It is produced in the form of scales under the rings of the belly. But wax also exists in plants, bearing in this, as in other respects, a close analogy to the fixed oils, which are found in both kingdoms. It is, however, the product of the bee only that is recognised by the Pharmacopoeias. This is directed in two forms: 1. that of yellow wax procured immediately from the comb; and 2. that of white wax prepared by bleaching the former. We shall con- sider these separately, and afterwards give an account of vegetable wax. 1. Cera Flava or Yellow Wax. This is obtained by slicing the comb taken from the hive, draining and afterwards expressing the honey, and melting the residue in boiling water, which is kept hot for some time in order to allow the impurities to separate, and either subside or be dissolved by the water. When the liquid cools the wax concretes, and, having been removed and again melted in boiling water, is strained and poured into pans or other suitable vessels. It is usually brought to market in round flat cakes of considerable thickness. The druggists of Philadelphia are sup- PART I. Cera Alba.—Cera Flava. 199 plied chiefly from the Western States and North Carolina, especially the latter, and from Cuba. Some of inferior quality is imported from Africa. In this state, wax has a yellowish colour, an agreeable somewhat aromatic odour, and a slight peculiar taste. To the touch it is rather soft and unctuous, though of a firm solid consistence and brittle. It has a granular fracture ; but when cut with a knife presents a smooth glossy surface, the lustre of which is so peculiar as, when met with in other bodies, to be called waxy. It does not adhere to the fingers, nor to the teeth when chewed, but is soft- ened and rendered tenacious by a moderate heat. Its point of fusion is 142° F.; its specific gravity from 0-960 to 0*965. The colour, odour, and taste of yellow wax depend on some principle associated with it, but not constituting one of its essential ingredients. Various adulterations have been practised, most of which may be readily detected. Meal, earth, and other insoluble substances are at the same time discovered and separated by melting and straining the wax. When the fracture is smooth and shining instead of being granular, the presence of resin may be suspected. This is dissolved by cold alcohol, while the wax is left untouched. Tallow and suet are detected by the softness they com- municate to the wax, and its unpleasant odour when melted. Yellow wax is used in medicine chiefly as an ingredient of plasters and cerates. 2. Cera Alba or White Wax. The colour of yellow wax is discharged by exposing it with an extended surface to the combined influence of air, light, and moisture. The process of bleaching is carried on to a consi- derable extent in the vicinity of Philadelphia. The wax, previously melted, is made to fall in streams upon a revolving cylinder, kept constantly wet, upon which it concretes, forming thin riband-like layers. These, having been removed, are spread upon linen cloths stretched on frames, and ex- posed to the air and light; care being taken to water and occasionally turn them. In a few days they are partially bleached ; but to deprive the wax completely of colour it is necessary to repeat the whole process once, if not oftener. When sufficiently white it is melted and cast into small circular cakes. The colour may also be discharged by chlorine ; but the wax is said to be somewhat altered. White wax sometimes contains one or more fatty acids, consequent probably upon the employment of alkalies in bleaching it, which render it an unfit ingredient in the unctuous preparations of certain salts. Of these acids it may be deprived by means of alcohol. (Journ. de Pharm. et Chim., 3e sir. iv. 205.) Perfectly pure wax is white, shining, diaphanous in thin layers, inodor- ous, insipid, harder, and less unctuous to the touch than the yellow, soft and ductile at 95° F., and fusible at about 155°, retaining its fluidity at a lower temperature. According to Saussure, its specific gravity in the solid state is 0-966, at 178° F. 0-834, and at 201° 0-8247. By a great heat it is partly- volatilized, partly decomposed; and, when flame is applied to its vapour, it takes fire and burns with a clear bright light. It is insoluble in water, and in cold alcohol or ether, but is slightly soluble in boiling alcohol and ether, which deposit it in a great measure upon cooling. The essential and fixed oils dissolve it with facility; resin readily unites with it by fusion; and soaps are formed by the action of soda and potassa in solution. It is not affected by the acids at ordinary temperatures, but is converted into a black mass when boiled with concentrated sulphuric acid. Its ultimate constituents are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Dr. John ascertained that it consists of two distinct proximate principles, one of which he called cerin, the other myri- cin. According to MM. Boudet and Boissenot, the former constitutes at least 70 per cent, of wax, melts at about 143°, dissolves in 16 parts of 200 Cera Alba.— Cera Flava. PART I. boiling alcohol, and is saponifiable with potassa, yielding; margaric acid, a little oleic acid, and a fatty matter insusceptible of saponification called cerain; the latter melts at 149°, is dissolved by 200 parts of boiling alcohol, and is not saponifiable by potassa. From the experiments of M. Lewy it would appear, that cerin and myricin are isomeric with each other and with wax; that by a boiling solution of potassa wax is wholly saponified, with- out the formation of glycerin ; that both wax and cerin are converted into stearic acid by saponification; and that this, by a further oxidation, is changed into margaric acid. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Seser. iii.315.) Messrs. Warrington and Francis, however, have found that the substance supposed to be stearic acid, though similar to that body in appearance, is wholly different from it in properties and composition, and is isomeric, if not identical with the cerain above referred to. (Philosoph. Mag., Jan. 1844, p. 20.) White wax has been adulterated with white lead and tallow. The former sinks to the bottom of the vessel when the wax is melted; the latter imparts to it a dull opaque appearance, and a disagreeable odour during fusion. Starch has been employed for the same purpose. It may be detected by dissolving the wax in oil of turpentine, in which starch is insoluble. Pereira says that pure wax is yellowish-white; and that the white wax in circular cakes always contains spermaceti, which is added to improve its colour. Medical Properties and Uses. Wax has little effect upon the system. Under the impression that it sheathes the inflamed mucous membrane of the bowels, it has been occasionally prescribe^ in diarrhoea and dysentery; and it is mentioned by Dioscorides as a remedy in the latter complaint. By Poerner it is highly recommended in excoriations of the bowels, attended with pain and obstinate diarrhoea. His mode of using it is to melt the wax with oil of almonds or olive oil, and, while the mixture is still hot, to incor- porate it by means of the yolk of an egg with some mucilaginous fluid. The dose is half a drachm three or four times a day. Another method is to form an emulsion by means of soap; but it is evident that this would be the most energetic ingredient. Wax is also used to fill cavities in carious teeth. Its chief employment, however, is in the formation of ointments, cerates, and plasters. It is an ingredient in almost all the officinal cerates, which owe their general title to the wax they contain. 3. Vegetable Wax. Many vegetable products contain wax. It exists in the pollen of numerous plants ; and forms the bloom or glaucous powder which covers certain fruits, and the coating of varnish with which leaves are sometimes supplied. In some plants it exists so abundantly as to be profit- ably extracted for use. Such is the Ceroxylon Andicola, a lofty palm grow- ing in the South American Andes. Upon the trunk of this tree, in the rings left by the fall of the leaves, is a coating of wax-like matter, about one-sixth of an inch thick, which is removed by the natives, and employed in the manufacture of tapers. It contains, according to Vauquelin, two- thirds of a resinous substance, and one-third of pure wax. (Fee.) Two kinds of wax are collected in Brazil, one called carnauba, from the leaves of a palm growing in the province of Ceara, the other ocuba, from the fruit of a shrub of the province of Para. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser. v. 154.) But the form of vegetable wax best known in this country is that derived from Myrica cerifera, and commonly called myrtle ivax. (See Bi- gelow's Am. Med. Bot., iii. 32.) The'wax myrtle is an aromatic shrub, from one to twelve feet high, found in almost all parts of the United States from New England to Louisiana. The fruit, which grows in clusters closely attached to the stems and branches, is small, globular, and covered with a whitish coat of wax, which may be separated for use. Other parts PART I. Cerevisice Fermentum. 201 of the plant are said to possess medical virtues. The bark of the root is acrid and astringent, and in large doses emetic, and has been popularly em- ployed as a remedy in jaundice. The process for collecting the wax is simple. The berries are boiled in water, and the wax, melting and floating on the surface, is either skimmed off and strained, or allowed to concrete as the liquor cools, and removed in the solid state. To render it pure, it is again melted and strained, and then cast into large cakes. It is collected in New Jersey, but more abundantly in New England, particularly Rhode Island. Myrtle wax is of a pale grayish-green colour, somewhat diaphanous, more brittle and more unctuous to the touch than beeswax, of a feeble odour, and a slightly bitterish taste. It is about as heavy as water, and melts at 109° F. It is insoluble in water, scarcely soluble in cold alcohol, soluble, with the exception of about thirteen per cent., in twenty parts of boiling alcohol, which deposits the greater portion upon cooling, soluble also in boiling ether, and slightly so in oil of turpentine. In chemical relations it resem- bles beeswax, and consists, like that product, of cerin and myricin, contain- ing 87 parts of the former and 13 of the latter in the 100. The green colour, and probably the bitter taste, depend upon a distinct principle, which may be separated by boiling the wax with ether and allowing the liquid to cool. The wax is deposited colourless, while the ether remains green. Medical Properties and Uses. This variety of wax has been popularly employed in the United States as a remedy for dysentery; and we are told by Dr. Fahnestock, that he found great advantage from its use in numerous cases during an epidemic prevalence of that complaint. He gave the pow- dered wax in doses of a teaspoonful frequently repeated, mixed with muci- lage or syrup. (Am. Journ. of Med. Scien., ii. 313.) It is occasionally substituted by apothecaries for beeswax in the formation of plasters, and is used in the preparation of tapers and candles. It is somewhat fragrant when burning, but emits a less brilliant light than common lamp-oil. W. CEREVISLE FERMENTUM. Lond., Dub. Yeast. Levure, Fr.; Bierhefen, Germ.; Fermento di cervogia, Ital; Espuma de cerveza, Span. This is the substance which rises, in the form of froth, to the surface of beer, and subsides to the bottom, during the process of fermentation. A similar substance is always produced during the vinous fermentation of saccharine liquids; but the principles of its formation are unknown. It is flocculent, frothy, somewhat viscid, semi-fluid, of a dirty yellowish colour, a sour vinous odour, and a bitter taste. At a temperature of 60° or 70°, in a close vessel or damp atmosphere, it soon undergoes putrefaction. Exposed to a moderate heat, it loses its liquid portion, becomes dry, hard, and brittle; and may in this state be preserved for a long time. In France it is brought to the solid state by introducing it into sacs, washing it with water, then submitting it to pressure, and ultimately drying it. Yeast is insoluble in alcohol or water. It was analyzed by Westrumb, and found to contain in 15142 parts, 13 of potassa, 15 of carbonic acid, 10 of acetic acid, 45 of malic acid, 69 of lime, 240 of alcohol, 120 of extractive, 240 of mucilage, 315 of saccharine matter, 480 of gluten, 13595 of water, besides traces of silica and phosphoric acid. Its bitterness is attributable to a principle derived from the hops. The property for which it is chiefly valued is that of exciting the vinous fermentation in saccharine liquids, and the panary fermentation in various farinaceous substances. This property 202 Cerevisice Fermentum.—Cetaceum. PART I. it owes to the azotized principle (gluten or albumen) which it contains; for if separated from this constituent, it loses its powers as a ferment, and re- acquires them upon the subsequent addition of the gluten. By boiling in water it is deprived of the property of exciting fermentation. At an elevated temperature it is decomposed, affording products similar to those which result from the decomposition of animal matters. Examined by a microscope, yeast is seen to abound in minute transpa- rent vesicles, which appear to contain one or more granules. These have been supposed to be living infusory plants or animalcules, which have the power of propagating themselves at the expense of organic proximate prin- ciples with which they may be brought into contact; and attempts have been made to solve the mysteries of fermentation by the conjecture, that the sugar or other fermenting substance, while contributing to the nourish- ment of these microscopic beings, undergoes a decomposition resulting in the formation of new products. The doctrine of Liebig, however, that fer- mentation is merely a chemical movement, excited by a movement of decom- position going on in the ferment, is more generally received. Professor Mulder considers the cells of yeast as a plant, the vesicular coating of the cell as composed of a substance analogous to cellulose, and its contents as a protein body, differing in some respects from gluten and albumen, and probably a superoxide of protein. During fermentation, this protein body makes its way through the vesicular coat, undergoes de- composition by the agency of heat, and, in the act of decomposition, sets on foot the changes in sugar which result in the formation of alcohol and carbonic acid. (Chem. Gazette, Feb. 15, 1845.) Medical Properties and Uses. Yeast has been highly extolled as a remedy in typhoid fevers, and is said to have been given with advantage in hectic. It is, however, little employed; as its somewhat tonic and stimulating effects, ascribable to the bitter principle of hops, the alcohol, and the carbonic acid which are among its constituents, may be obtained with.equal certainty from more convenient medicines. Dr. Hewson, of Philadelphia, informs us, that in a case of typhoid fever attended with great irritability of the stomach, the patient was benefited and sustained by taking a pint of yeast daily for five days, during which period no other remedy was employed. When largely taken, it generally proves laxative; and it may sometimes be necessary to obviate this effect by opium. Exterftally applied, it is very useful in foul and sloughing ulcers, the fetor of which it corrects, while it affords a gentle stimulus to the debilitated vessels. It is usually employed mixed with farinaceous substances in the form of a cataplasm. The dose is from half a fluidounce to two fluidounces every two or three hours. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Fermenti, Lond., Dub. W. CETACEUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Spermaceti. "A peculiar concrete substance obtained from Physeter macrocephalus." U.S. "Physeter Macrocephalus. Concretum in propriis capitis cellis reperlum." Lond. "Cetine of Physeter macrocephalus, nearly pure." Ed. Blanc de baleine, Spermaceti, Cetine, Fr.; Wallrath, Germ.; Spermaceti, Ital; Es- perma de bellena, Spa?i. The spermaceti whale is from sixty to eighty feet in length, with an enormous head, not less in its largest part than thirty feet in circumference, and constituting one-third of the whole length of the body. The upper part of the head is occupied by large cavities, separated from each other by PART I. Cetaceum.— Cetraria. 203 cartilaginous partitions, and containing an oily liquid, which, after the death of the animal, concretes into a white unctuous spongy mass, consisting of spermaceti mixed with oil. This mass is removed from the cavities, and the oil allowed to separate by draining. The quantity of crude spermaceti ob- tained from a whale of the ordinary size is more than sufficient to fill twelve large barrels. It still, however, contains much oily matter and other impuri- ties, from which it is freed by expression, washing with hot water, melting, straining, and lastly by repeated washing with a weak boiling ley of potash. The common whale oil, and the oil of other cetaceous animals, contain small quantities of spermaceti, which they slowly deposit on long standing. Spermaceti is in white, pearly, semitransparent masses, of a crystalline foliaceous texture; friable, soft, and somewhat unctuous to the touch; slightly odorous ; insipid ; of the sp. gr. 0-943; fusible at 112° F. (Bostock); vola- tiiizable at a higher temperature without change in vacuo, but partially decomposed if the air is admitted; inflammable; insoluble in water; soluble in small proportion in boiling alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine, but de- posited as the liquids cool; readily soluble in the fixed oils; not affected by the mineral acids, except the sulphuric, which decomposes and dissolves it; rendered yellowish and rancid by long exposure to hot air, but capable of being again purified by washing with a warm ley of potash. By the agency of the alkalies, it is with difficulty saponified, being converted into an acid, called by MM. Dumas and Stass ethalic acid, and a peculiar principle named ethal by Chevreul. Spermaceti, when quite pure, may be considered either as a compound of ethalic acid and ethal, or as a distinct substance, which is resolved into these two by reaction with alkaline solutions. (Annal. der Chem. und Pharm., xlii. 241.) The name of cetin was proposed for it in this state by Chevreul. As found in the shops it is not entirely pure, containing a fixed oil, and often a peculiar colouring principle. From these it is separated by boiling in alcohol, which on cooling deposits the cetin in crystalline scales. 1%us purified, it does not melt under 120° F., is solu- ble in 40 parts of boiling alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-821 (Thenard), and is harder, more shining, and less unctuous than ordinary spermaceti. The ultimate constituents of spermaceti are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and its formula, according to Dumas, C32H330. Medical Properties and Uses. Like the fixed oils, spermaceti has been given as a demulcent in irritations of the pulmonary and intestinal mucous membranes; but it possesses no peculiar virtues, and its internal use has been generally abandoned. It may be reduced to powder by the addition of a little alcohol or almond oil, or suspended in water, by means of mucilage, or the yolk of eggs and sugar. Externally it is much employed as an in- gredient of ointments and cerates. Off. Prep. Ceratum Cetacei, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Unguentum Aquae Rosae, U. S.; Unguentum Cetacei, Lond. W. CETRARIA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Iceland Moss. " Cetraria Islandica." U. S., Lond., Ed. Off. Syn. LICHEN ISLANDICUS. CETRARIA ISLANDICA. Planta. Dub. Lichen d'Islande, Fr.; Islandiches Moos, Germ.; Lichene Islandico, Ital.; Liquen Islandico, Span. Cetraria. Sex. Syst. CryptogamiaLichenes.—Nat. Ord. Lichenaceae. Gen. Ch. Plant cartilagino-membranous, ascending or spreading, lobed, 204 Cetraria. PART I. smooth, and naked on both sides. Apothecia shield-like, obliquely adnate with the margin, the disk coloured, plano-concave ; border inflexed, derived from the frond. (Loudon's Encyc.) The genus Lichen of Linnaeus has been divided by subsequent botanists into numerous genera, which have been raised to the dignity of a distinct order, both in the natural and artificial systems of arrangement. The name Cetraria has been conferred on the genus to which the Iceland moss belongs. Cetraria Islandica. Acharius, Lichenog. Univ. 512.—Lichen Islandicus. Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 803. t. 271. Iceland moss is foliaceous, erect, from two to four inches high, with a dry, coriaceous, smooth, shining, laciniated frond or leaf, the lobes of which are irregularly subdivided, channeled, and fringed at their edges with rigid hairs. Those divisions upon which the fruit is borne are dilated. The colour is olive-brown or greenish-gray above, reddish at the base, and lighter on the under than the upper surface. The fructification is in flat, shield-like, reddish-brown receptacles, with elevated entire edges, placed upon the surface of the frond near its border. The plant is found in the northern latitudes of the old and new continents, and on the elevated mountains further south. It received its name from the abundance in which it prevails in Iceland. It is also abundant on the moun- tains and in the sandy plains of New England. The dried moss is of diversified colour, grayish-white, brown, and red, in different parts, with less of the green tint than in the recent state. It is inodorous, and has a mucilaginous, bitter taste. Macerated in water it absorbs rather more than its own weight of the fluid, and, if the water be warm, renders it bitter. Boiling water extracts all its soluble principles. The decoction thickens upon cooling, and acquires a gelatinous consistence, resembling that of starch in appearance, but without its viscidity. After some time the dissolved matter separates, and when dried forms semitrans- parent masses, insoluble in cold water, alcohol, or ether, but soluble in boil- ing water, and in solution forming a blue compot^d with iodine. This principle resembles starch in its general characters, but differs from it in some respects, and has received the distinctive name of lichenin. Berzelius found in 100 parts of Iceland moss 1 -6 of chlorophylle, 3*0 of a peculiar bitter principle, 3-6 of uncrystallizable sugar, 3*7 of gum, 7*0 of the apotheme of extractive, 44-6 of the peculiar starch-like principle, 1*9 of the biiichenates of potassa and lime mixed with phosphate of lime, and 36-2 of amylaceous fibrin—the excess being 1-6 parts. (Traite de Chim., vi. 251.) The name of cetrarin has been conferred on the bitter principle of Iceland moss. The following process for obtaining it is that of Dr. Herberger, who is said to have been the first to procure it in a pure state. The moss, coarsely powdered, is boiled for half an hour in four times its weight of alcohol, of 0-883. The liquid, when cool, is expressed and filtered, and treated with diluted muriatic acid, in the proportion of three drachms to every pound of moss employed. Water is then added in the quantity of about four times the bulk of the liquid, and the mixture left for a night in a closed matrass. The deposit which forms is collected on a filter, allowed to drain as much as possible, and submitted to the press. To purify it, the mass, while still moist, is broken into small pieces, washed with alcohol or ether, and treated with two hundred times its weight of boiling alcohol, which dissolves the cetrarin, leaving the other organic principles by which it has been hitherto ac- companied. The greater part is deposited as the liquor cools,and the remain- der may be obtained by evaporation. By this process one pound of moss yielded to Dr. Herberger 133 grains of cetrarin. This principle is white, not crystalline, light, unalterable in the air, inodorous, and exceedingly bitter, especially in alcoholic solution. Its best solvent in absolute alcohol, PART I. Cetraria. 205 of which 100 parts dissolve 1-7 of cetrarin at the boiling temperature. Ether also dissolves it, and it is slightly soluble in water. Its solutions are quite neutral to test paper. It is precipitated by the acids, and rendered much more soluble by the alkalies. Concentrated muriatic acid changes its colour to a bright blue. It precipitates the salts of iron, copper, lead, and silver. In the dose of two grains repeated every two hours it has been used successfully in intermittent fever. (Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 505.) Drs. Schnedermann and Knop have ascertained, that the cetrarin above referred to consists of three distinct substances, 1, cetraric acid, which is the true bitter principle, is crystallizable, and of an intensely bitter taste, 2, a sub- stance resembling the fatty acids, which they call lichstearic acid, and 3, a green colouring substance, for which they propose the name of thallo- chlor. These principles are obtained perfectly pure with great difficulty. (Chem. Gazette, Jan. and Feb. 1846, from Ann. der Pharm., Iv. 144.) The gum and starch contained in the moss render it sufficiently nutritive to serve as food for the inhabitants of Iceland and Lapland, who employ it powdered and made into bread, or boiled with milk, having first partially freed it from the bitter principle by repeated maceration in water. The bit- terness may be entirely extracted by macerating the powdered moss, for twenty-four hours, in twenty-four times its weight of a solution formed with 1 part of an alkaline carbonate and 375 parts of water, decanting the liquid at the end of this time, and repeating the process with an equal quantity of the solution. The powder being now dried is perfectly sweet and highly nutritious. This process was suggested by Berzelius. Medical Properties and Uses.—Iceland moss is at the same time demul- cent, nutritious, and tonic, and well calculated for affections of the mucous membrane of the lungs and bowels, in which the local disease is associated with debility of the digestive organs, or of the system generally. Hence it has been found useful in chronic catarrhs, and other pulmonary affections attended with copious expectoration, especially when the matter discharged was of a purulent character; as also in dyspepsia, chronic dysentery, and diarrhoea. It has, moreover, been given in the debility succeeding acute disease, or dependent on copious purulent discharge from external ulcers. But the complaint in the treatment of which it has acquired most reputation is pulmonary consumption. It had long been employed in this disease, and in haemoptysis, by the Danish physicians, before it became known to the profession at large. In the latter half of the last century it was introduced into extensive use; and numerous cures supposed to have been effected by it are on record. But now that the pathology of phthisis is understood, physicians have ceased to expect material advantage from it in that disease; and there is reason to believe that the cases which have recovered under its use, were nothing more than chronic bronchitis. It can act only as a mild, nutritious, demulcent tonic; and certainly exercises no specific influence over the tuberculous affection. It is usually employed in the form of decoction. (See Decoctum Cetra- riae.) By some writers it is recommended to deprive it of the bitter principle by maceration in water, or a weak alkaline solution, before preparing the decoction; but we thus reduce it to the state of a simple demulcent, or mild article of diet, in which respect it is not superior to the ordinary farinaceous or gummy substances used in medicine. The powder is sometimes given in the dose of thirty grains or a drachm; and a preparation at one time ob- tained some repute, in which the ground moss was incorporated with cho- colate, and used at the morning and evening meal as an ordinary beverage. Off. Prep. Decoctum Cetrariae, U. S., Lond., Dub. W. 19 206 Chenopodium. PART I. CHENOPODIUM. U.S. Wormseed. "The fruit of Chenopodium anthelminticum." U.S. Chenopodium. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Chenopo- diaceae. , Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved, five-cornered. Corolla none. Seed one, len- ticular, superior. Willd. Chenopodium anthelminticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1304; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 183. This is an indigenous perennial plant, with an herbaceous, erect, branching, furrowed stem, which rises from two to five feet in height. The leaves are alternate or scattered, sessile, oblong lanceolate, attenuated at bot^ji ends, sinuated and toothed on the margin, conspicuously veined, of a yellowish-green colour, and dotted on their under surface. The flowers are very numerous, small, of the same colour with the leaves, and arranged in long, leafless, terminal panicles, which are composed of slender, dense, glo- merate, alternating spikes. This species of Chenopodium, known commonly by the names of worm- seed and Jerusalem oak, grows in almost all parts of the United States, but most vigorously and abundantly in the southern section. It is usually found in the vicinity of rubbish, along fences, in the streets of villages, and in the commons about the larger towns. It flowers from July to September, and ripens its seeds successively through the autumn. The whole herb has a strong, peculiar, offensive, yet somewhat aromatic odour, which it retains when dried. All parts of the plant are occasionally employed; but the fruit only is strictly officinal. This should be collected in October. Wormseed, as found in the shops, is in small grains, not larger than the head of a pin, irregularly spherical, very light, of a dull, greenish-yellow or brownish colour, a bitterish, somewhat aromatic, pungent taste, and pos- sessed in a high degree of the peculiar smell of the plant. These grains, when deprived, by rubbing them in the hand, of a capsular covering which invests the proper seed, exhibit a shining surface of a very dark colour. They abound in a volatile oil, upon which their sensible properties and medical virtues depend, and which is obtained separate by distillation. (See Oleum Chenopodii.) The same oil impregnates to a greater or less extent the whole plant. The fruit of the Chenopodium ambrosioides, which is also an indigenous plant, and very prevalent in the Middle states, is said to be used indiscrimi- nately with that of the C. anthelminticum. It may be distinguished by its odour, which is weaker and less offensive, and to some persons agreeable. The plant itself is often confounded with the true wormseed, from which it differs in having its flowers in leafy racemes. This species of Chenopodium has been employed in Europe as a remedy in nervous affections, particularly chorea. Five or six cases of this disease, reported by Plenk, yielded, after having resisted the ordinary means, to the daily use of an infusion of two drachms of the plant in ten ounces of water, taken in the dose of a cupful morning and evening, and associated with the employment of peppermint. (Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med.) The C. Botrys, which is also known by the vulgar name of Jerusalem oak, is another indigenous species, possessing anthelmintic virtues. The plant is said to have been used in France with advantage as a pectoral in catarrh and humoral asthma. part i. Chenopodium.—Chimaphila. 207 Medical Properties and Uses. Wormseed is one of our most efficient indigenous anthelmintics, and is thought to be particularly adapted to the expulsion of lumbrici in children. A dose of it is usually given before breakfast in the morning, and at bed time in the evening, for three or four days successively, and then followed by calomel or some other brisk cathartic. If the worms are not expelled, the same plan is repeated. The medicine is most conveniently administered in powder, mixed with syrup in the form of an electuary. The dose for a child two or three years old, is from one to two scruples. The volatile oil is perhaps more frequently given than the fruit in substance, though its offensive odour and taste sometimes render it of difficult administration. The dose for a child is from five to ten drops, mixed with sugar, or in the form of emulsion. A tablespoonful of the expressed juice of the leaves, or a wineglassful of a decoction prepared by boiling an ounce of the fresh plant in a pint of milk, with the addition of orange-peel or other aromatic, is sometimes substituted in domestic practice for the ordinary dose of the fruit and oil. Off. Prep. Oleum Chenopodii, U. S. W. CHIMAPHILA. U.S., Lond. Pipsissewa. "The leaves of Chimaphila umbellata." U.S. "Chimaphila corymbosa. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. PYROLA. Herb of Chimaphila umbellata. Ed.; PYROLA UMBELLATA. Herba. Dub. Chimaphila. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. PyroIace33. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Petals five. Style very short, immersed in the germ. Stigma annular, orbicular, with a five-lobed disk. Filaments stipitate; stipe discoid, ciliate. Capsules five-celled, opening from the sum- mits, margins unconnected. Nuttall. This genus was separated from Pyrola by Pursh, and is now admitted by most botanical writers. It embraces two species, C. umbellata and C. maculata, which are both indigenous, and known throughout the country by the common title of winter green. The generic title was founded upon the vulgar name of the plants. It is formed of two Greek words, x^po. winter, and $>aoj a friend. The C. umbellata only is officinal. Chimaphila umbellata. Barton, Med. Bot. i. 17.—-Pyrola umbellata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 622; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 15. The pipsissewa is a small evergreen plant, with a perennial, creeping, yellowish root (rhi- zoma), which gives rise to several simple, erect or semi-procumbent stems, from four to eight inches in height, and ligneous at their base. The leaves are wedge-shaped, somewhat lanceolate, serrate, coriaceous, smooth, of a shining sap-green colour on the upper surface, paler beneath, and supported upon short footstalks, in irregular whorls, of which there are usually two on the same stem. The flowers are disposed in a small terminal corymb, and stand upon nodding peduncles. The calyx is small, and divided at its border into five teeth or segments. The corolla is composed of five roundish, concave, spreading petals, which are of a white colour tinged with red, and exhale an agreeable odour. The stamens are ten, with filaments shorter than the petals, and with large, nodding, bifurcated, purple anthers. The germ is globular and depressed, supporting a thick and apparently sessile stigma, the style being short and immersed in the germ. The seeds are numerous, linear, chaffy, and enclosed in a roundish, depressed, five-celled, five-valved calyx, having the persistent calyx at the base. 208 Chimaphila. PART I. This humble but beautiful evergreen is a native of the northern latitudes of America, Europe, and Asia. It is found in all parts of the United States, and extends even to the Pacific ocean. It grows under the shade of woods, and prefers a loose sandy soil, enriched by decaying leaves. The flowers appear in June and July. All parts of the plant are endowed with active properties. The leaves and stems are kept in the shops. The C. maculata, or spotted winter green, probably possesses similar virtues with the C. umbellata. The character of the leaves of the two plants will serve to distinguish them. Those of the C. maculata are lanceolate, rounded at the base, where they are broader than near the summit, and of a deep olive green colour, veined with greenish white; those of the officinal species are broadest near the summit, gradually narrowing to the base, and of a uniform shining green. In drying, with exposure to light, the colour fades very much, though it still retains a greenish hue. Pipsissewa, when fresh and bruised, exhales a peculiar odour. The taste of the leaves is pleasantly bitter, astringent, and sweetish; that of the stems and root unites with these qualities a considerable degree of pungency. Boiling water extracts the active properties of the plant, which are also imparted to alcohol. The constituents, so far as ascertained, are bitter extractive, tannin, resin, gum, lignin, and saline matters. The peculiar active principle has not yet been isolated, though it probably exists in the substance called bitter extractive. Medical Properties and Uses. This plant is diuretic, tonic, and astrin- gent. It was employed by the aborigines in various complaints, especially scrofula, rheumatism, and nephritic affections. From their hands it passed into those of the European settlers, and was long a popular remedy in cer- tain parts of the country, before it was adopted by the profession. The first regular treatise in relation to it that has come to our knowledge, was the thesis of Dr. Mitchell, published in the year 1803; but little was thought of it till the appearance of the paper of Dr. Sommerville, in the 5th vol. of the London Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. By this writer it was highly recommended as a remedy in dropsy; and his favourable report has been sustained by the subsequent statements of many respectable practitioners. It is particularly useful in cases attended with disordered digestion and gene- ral debility, in which its tonic properties and usual acceptability to the stomach prove highly useful auxiliaries to its diuretic powers. Nevertheless, it cannot be relied on exclusively in the treatment of the complaint; for, though it generally produces an increased flow of urine, it has seldom effected cures. Other disorders, in which it is said to have proved useful, are calculous and nephritic affections, and in general all those complaints of the urinary passages for which uva ursi is prescribed. It is very highly esteemed by some practitioners as a remedy in scrofula, both before and after the occurrence of ulceration; and it has certainly proved highly advan- tageous in certain obstinate ill-conditioned ulcers and cutaneous eruptions, supposed to be connected with a strumous diathesis. In these cases it is used both internally, and locally as a wash. The decoction is the preparation usually preferred, and may be taken to the amount of a pint in twenty-four hours. The watery extract may be given in the dose of twenty or thirty grains four times a day. Mr. Procter prepares a syrup by macerating four ounces of the leaves, finely bruised, in eight fluidounces of water for thirty-six hours, and then subjecting it to percolation till a pint of fluid is obtained, which is reduced one-half by evaporation, and incorporated with twelve ounces of sugar. One or two tablespoonfuls may be given for a dose. Off. Prep. Decoctum Chimaphilae, U. S., Lond., Dub. W. PART I. Chiretta. 209 CHIRETTA. Ed. Chiretta. " Herb and root of Agathotes Chirayta." Ed. Agathotes. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentian- aceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla withering, rotate, in aestivation twisted to the right; with glandular hollows protected by a fringed scale upon the segments. Anthers not changing. Stigmas sessile. Capsules conical, one-celled, with spongy placentae upon the sutures. Seeds indefinite, minute. (Lind- ley.) Agathotes Chirayta. Don, Lond. Phil. Mag. 1836, p. 76.—Gentiana Chirayta. Fleming, Asiat. Research, xi. 167. The chirayta or chiretta is an annual plant, about three feet high, with an erect, smooth, round stem, branching into an elegant leafy panicle, and furnished with opposite, em- bracing, lanceolate, very acute, entire, smooth, three or five-nerved leaves. The flowers are numerous, peduncled, yellow, with a four-clfeft calyx having linear acute divisions, the limb of the corolla spreading and four-parted, four stamens, a single style, and a two-lobed stigma. The capsules are shorter than the permanent calyx and corolla. The plant is a native of Nepaul, and other parts of Northern India. The whole of it is officinal. It is gathered about the time when the flowers begin to decay. The dried plant is imported into Europe in bundles. The root is fibrous, and the stems contain a yellowish pith. In other respects it corresponds with the description above given. All parts of it have a very bitter taste, which is strongest in the root. It is without odour. Water and alcohol extract its virtues, which are also retained in the extract. According to Lassaigne and Boissel, the stems contain resin, a yellow bitter substance, brown colouring matter, gum, and various salts. Medical Properties and Uses. Chiretta has long been used in India, where it is a favourite remedy with both the native and European practition- ers. It has recently been introduced into Europe, and appears to be highly esteemed; but has not been employed to any considerable extent in this country. Its properties are those of the pure bitters, and probably do not differ from those of the other members of the natural family of Gentianaceae. (See. Gentiana.) Like these, in overdoses it nauseates and oppresses the stomach. Some have supposed that, in addition to its tonic properties, it exerts a peculiar influence over the liver, promoting the secretion of bile and correcting it when deranged, and restoring healthy evacuations in cases of habitual costiveness. But it may well be doubted whether it produces any other effects of this kind than such as are incident to its tonic power, and might be expected from the other pure bitters. It has been used in dyspep- sia, in the debility of convalescence, and generally in cases in which corro- borant measures are indicated. In India it has been successfully employed in intermittents and remittents, combined with the seeds of the Guilandina Bonduc. It may be administered in powder, infusion, tincture, or extract. The dose in substance is twenty grains. The infusion is officinal. Off. Prep. Infusum Chirettae, Ed. W, 19* 210 Chondrus. part *■ CHONDRUS. U.S., Secondary. Irish Moss. "Chondrus crispus. (Greville, Alg. Brit.)" U. S. Chondrus. Sex. Syst. Cryptogamia Algae.—Nat. Ord. Algaceae. Gen.Ch. Frond cartilaginous, dilating upwards into a flat, nerveless, dichotomously divided frond, of a purplish or livid-red colour. Fructifica- tion, subspherical capsules'in the substance of the frond, rarely supported on little stalks, and containing a mass of minute free seeds. (Greville, from Lindley''s Flor. Med.) Chondrus crispus. Greville, Alg. Brit. 129. t. 15.—Sphaerococcus crispus Agardh.—Fucus crispus. Linn. The Irish moss, or carrageen, as it is frequently called, consists of a flat, slender, cartilaginous frond, from two to twelve inches in length, dilated as it ascends until it becomes two or three lines in width, then repeatedly and dichotomously divided, with linear, wedge-shaped segments, and more or less curled up so as to diminish the apparent length. The capsules are somewhat hemispherical, and are im- bedded in the disk of the frond. The plant grows upon rocks and stones on the coasts of Europe, and is especially abundant on the southern and western coasts of Ireland, where it is collected for use. It is said also to be a native of the United States. When collected, it is washed and dried. In the recent state it is of a purplish colour, but, as found in the shops, is yellowish or yellowish-white, with occasionally purplish portions. It is translucent, of a feeble odour, and nearly tasteless. It swells up in cold water, but does not dissolve. Boiling water dissolves a large proportion of it, and, if the solution be sufficiently concentrated, gelatinizes on cooling. According to Feuchtwanger, it contains starch, and a large proportion of pectin, with compounds of sulphur, chlorine, and bromine, and some oxalate of lime. Herberger found 79-1 per cent, of vegetable jelly, and 9-5 of mucus, with fatty matter, free acids, chlorides, &c, but neither iodine nor bromine. M. Dupasquier discovered in it both of these principles, which had escaped attention previously in consequence of their reaction, as soon as liberated, upon the sulphuret of sodium resulting from the decomposition of the sulphate of soda of the moss when charred. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e. ser., iii. 113.) The pectin or vegetable jelly, Pereira thinks entitled to the rank of a distinct proximate principle, and proposes to call carrageenin. It is distinguished from gum by affording when dissolved in water no precipitate with alcohol, from starch by not becoming blue with tincture of iodine, from pectin by yielding no precipitate with acetate of lead, and no mucic acid by the action of nitric acid. Carrageen is nutritive and demulcent, and, being easy of digestion and not unpleasant to the taste, forms a useful article of diet in cases in which the farinaceous preparations, such as tapioca, sago, barley, &c, are usually em- ployed. It has been particularly recommended in chronic pectoral affections, scrofulous complaints, dysentery, diarrhoea, and disorders of the kidneys and bladder. It may be used in the form of decoction, made by boiling a pint and a half of water with half an ounce of the moss down to a pint. Sugar and lemon juice may usually be added to improve the flavour. Milk may be substituted for water, when a more nutritious preparation is required. It is recommended to macerate the moss for about ten minutes in cold water before submitting it to decoction. Any unpleasant flavour that it may have acquired from the contact of foreign substances, is thus removed. W. PART I. Cimicifuga. 211 CIMICIFUGA. U.S., Secondary. Black Snakcroot. "The root of Cimicifuga racemosa." U. S. Cimicifuga. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Di-Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranun- culaceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx four or five-leaved. Petals four to eight, deformed, thickish, sometimes wanting. Capsules one to five, oblong, many-seeded. Seeds squamose. Nuttall. Cimicifuga racemosa. Torrey, Flor. 219.—C. Serpentaria. Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. p. 372.—Actaea racemosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1139.— Macrotys racemosa. Eaton's Manual, p. 288. This is a tall stately plant, having a perennial root, and a simple herbaceous stem, which rises from four to eight feet in height. The leaves are large, and ternately de- composed, having oblong ovate leaflets, incised and toothed at their edges. The flowers are small, white, and disposed in a long, terminal, wand-like raceme, with occasionally one or two shorter racemes near its base. The calyx is white, four-leaved, and deciduous; the petals are minute, and shorter than the stamens; the pistil consists of an oval germ and a sessile stigma. The fruit is an ovate capsule containing numerous flat seeds. The black snakeroot, or cohosh, as this plant is sometimes called, is a native of the United States, growing in shady and rocky woods, from Ca- nada to Florida, and flowering in June and July. The root is the part employed. This, as found in the shops, consists of a thick, irregularly bent or con- torted body or caudex, from one-third of an inch to an inch in thickness, often several inches in length, furnished with many slender radicles, and rendered exceedingly rough and jagged in appearance by the remains of the stems of successive years, which to the length of an inch or more are frequently attached to the root. The colour is externally dark brown, almost black, internally whitish; the odour, though not strong, is very peculiar and rather disagreeable; the taste is bitter, herbaceous, and some- what astringent, leaving a slight sense of acrimony. The root yields its virtues to boiling water. It was found by Mr. Tilghman, of Philadelphia, to contain gum, starch, sugar, resin, wax, fatty matter, tannin and gallic acid, a black colouring matter, a green colouring matter, lignin, and salts of po- tassa, lime, magnesia, and iron. (Journ. of Phil. Col. of Pharm., vi. 20.) Medical Properties and Uses. The effects of cimicifuga in health have not been very accurately investigated. It has been usually considered a mild tonic, with the property of stimulating the secretions, particularly those of the skin, kidneys, and bronchial mucous membrane; and has been thought by some to have an especial affinity for the uterus. It undoubtedly exer- cises considerable influence over the nervous system, probably of a sedative character; but this influence, so far as our observation has gone, is shown rather in morbid states of that system than in health. Dr. Hildreth, of Ohio, has found it, in large doses, to produce some vertigo, impaired vision, nausea and vomiting, and a reduction of the circulation; but from very large quan- tities has seen no alarming narcotic effects. Its common name was probably derived from its supposed power of curing the diseases arising from the bite of the rattlesnake. Till recently, it has been employed chiefly in domestic practice as a remedy in rheumatism, dropsy, hysteria, and various affections of the lungs, particularly those resembling consumption. Several cases of 212 Cimicifuga.— Cinchona. PART I. chorea are recorded by Dr. Jesse Young, in which it is said to have effected cures; and the editor of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences states that he was informed by Dr. Physick that he had known it, in the dose of ten grains every two hours, prove successful in the cure of this complaint in several instances. In the cases recorded by Dr. Young, the powdered root was given in the quantity of a teaspoonful three times a day. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences, ix. 310.) We have administered this medicine in chorea with complete success, after the failure of purgatives and metallic tonics; and have also derived the happiest effects from it in a case of con- vulsions, occurring periodically, and connected with uterine disorder. Dr. Hildreth has found it, in combination with iodine, very advantageous in the early stages of phthisis. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., N. S., iv. 281.) It is usually administered in the form of decoction. An ounce of the bruised root may be boiled for a short time in a pint of water, and one or two fluid- ounces given for a dose. From half a pint to a pint of the decoction may be taken without inconvenience during the day. Dr. Hildreth recommends a saturated tincture in the dose of one to two fluidrachms. W. CINCHONA. U.S. Peruvian Bark. "The bark of different species of Cinchona from the western coast of South America." U. S. Varieties. CINCHONA FLAVA. Yellow Bark. The variety called in commerce Calisaya Bark.— CINCHONA PALLIDA. Pale Bark. The variety called in commerce Loxa Bark. — CINCHONA RUBRA. Red Bark. The variety called in commerce Red Bark. U. S. Off. Syn. CINCHONA CORDIFOLIA. Cinchona cordifolia. Cortex.— CINCHONA LANCIFOLIA. Cinchona lancifolia. Cortex. — CINCHO- NA OBLONGIFOLIA. Cinchona oblongifolia. Cortex. Lond. CINCHONA CORONiE. Bark of Cinchona Condaminea. Crown Bark.— CINCHONA CINEREA. Bark of Cinchona micrantha. Gray Bark. Silver Bark. — CINCHONA FLAVA. Bark of an unascertained species of Cinchona. Yellow Bark. — CINCHONA RUBRA. Bark of an undetermined species of Cinchona. Red Bark. Ed. CINCHONA CORDIFOLIA. Cortex. Cinchona flava.—CINCHONA LANCIFOLIA. Cortex. Cinchona officinalis.—CINCHONA OBLONGI- FOLIA. Cortex. Cinchona rubra. Dub. Quinquina, Fr.; China, Peruvianisehe Rinde, Germ.; China, Ital; Quina, Span. When this work was originally written, various points in relation to the botanical and pharmacological history of Peruvian Bark were unsettled, and appeared to require discussion. Since that period, the botanical part of the subject has been laboriously investigated by Professor Lindley, of London, whose conclusions are as satisfactory as the existing state of in- formation will permit; and certain opinions in relation to the sources and character of different varieties of the drug, which were held by us in com- mon with eminent pharmacologists of the continent of Europe, but, being wholly different from those of the highest British authorities, were thought to require whatever support we could give them, have now been adopted by the best writers of Great Britain, and may be considered as fully esta- blished. In the present edition, therefore, discussion upon these points may be spared as no longer necessary; and we shall content ourselves with stating the facts as now generally admitted. PART I. Cinchona. 213 Botanical History. Though the use of Peruvian bark was introduced into Europe so early as 1640, it was not till the year 1737 that the plant which produced it was known to naturalists. In that year, La Condamine, one of the French Aca- demicians who were sent to South America to make observations relative to the figure of the earth, on his journey to Lima, through the province of Loxa, had an opportunity of examining the tree, of which, upon his return, he published a description in the Memoirs of the Academy. Soon afterwards Linnaeus gave it the name of Cinchona officinalis, in honour of the Countess of Cinchon, who is said to have first taken the bark to Europe; but, in his description of the plant, he is stated by Humboldt to have united the species discovered by La Condamine with the C. pubescens, a specimen of which had been sent him from Santa Fe de Bogota. For a long time botanists were ignorant that more than one species of this genus existed ; and the C. officinalis continued, till a comparatively recent date, to be recognised by the Pharmacopoeias as the only source of the Peruvian bark of commerce. But numerous plants supposed to belong to the genus were afterwards discovered in various parts of the world ; and the number of distinct species for which the honour has been claimed, is not less than forty-six, exclusive of the varieties which have been mistaken for species. But the propriety of as- sociating all these plants in one genus has always been considered doubtful; and, according to De Candolle, there exist sufficient grounds for distributing them into at least eight genera; viz., Cinchona, Buena, Remijia, Exo- stemma, Pinckneya, Hymenodyction, Luculia, and Danais. The Cinchona is confined exclusively to the region of country now occupied by the re- publics of New Granada, Equador, Peru, and Bolivia. The Buena in- cludes two Peruvian and one Brazilian species, the former of which, before their change of name, were designated as the Cinchona acuminata, and C. obtusifolia. The genus Remijia was established by De Candolle, and em- braces three shrubs of Brazil, which were ascribed by Aug. de St. Hilaire to the Cinchona, and the bark of which is used as a febrifuge by the natives of the country. To the Exostemma belong the West India species, of which there are not less than nine, formerly known as the Cinchona Caribaea, C.floribunda, &c. To the same genus belong the former Cin- chona Philippica of the Philippine islands, the C. corymbifera of Tonga- taboo, four species indigenous to Peru, and two discovered by M. de St. Hilaire in Brazil. The Pinckneya consists of a single species, inhabiting Georgia and South Carolina, discovered by Michaux the elder, and described in some botanical works by the name of Cinchona Caroliniana. The Hymenodyction is an East India genus, including the Cinchona excelsa of Roxburgh, found on the Coromandel coast. The Luculia, of which there is but one species—the Cinchona gratissima of Roxburgh's Flora Indica— inhabits the mountains of Nepaul. The Danais embraces the Cinchona Afro-lnda of Willem., growing in the Isle of France. Of these various genera, the Cinchona, Buena or Cosmibuena of Ruiz and Pavon, and the Exostemma, have been most generally confounded. The last, however, is decidedly distinguished by the projection of the stamens beyond the corolla, a character expressed in the name of the genus. Of the two former Buena was originally suggested as a distinct genus by Ruiz and Pavon, has been recognised by De Candolle and some other authors, and appears to be sufficiently characterized. Its chief peculiarities are the shape of the corolla, the separation of the calyx from the fruit at maturity, and the opening of the capsule from above downwards. We have briefly noticed the genera which 214 Cinchona. PART I. have been confounded with the true Cinchona, because the barks of some of them have been occasionally substituted in pharmacy; for the genuine febri- fuge of Peru. We shall now proceed to consider the true Cinchonas. It may be proper, however, first to say, that the botanists who have personally observed these plants, besides La Condamine, of whom we have before spoken, are chiefly Joseph de Jussieu, who in the year 1739 explored the country about Loxa, and gathered specimens still existing in the cabinets of Europe; Mutis, who in the year 1772 discovered Cinchona trees in New Granada, and afterwards, aided by his pupil Zea, made further investigations and discoveries in the same region ; Ruiz and Pavon, who in the year 1777 began a course of botanical inquiries in the central portions of Lower Peru, and discovered several new species ; Humboldt and Bonpland, who visited several of the Peruvian bark districts, and published the results of their observations after 1792; and finally Po'ppig, who travelled in Peru as late as 1832, and published an account of his journey about the year 1835. Cinchona. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Cinchonaceae. Gen.Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla hypocrateriform,witha five-parted limb, valvate in aestivation. Anthers linear, inserted within the tube, and not projecting, unless in a very slight degree. Capsule splitting through the dissepiment into two cocci open at the commissure, and crowned by the calyx. Seeds girted by a membranous lacerated wing. (Lindley.) The plants composing this genus are trees or shrubs. The leaves are opposite upon short petioles, with flat margins, and are attended with ovate or oblong, foliaceous, free, deciduous stipules. The flowers are terminal, in corymbose panicles, and of a white or purplish-rose colour. (De Candolle'.) It has been stated that the genuine cinchona trees are confined exclusively to South America. In that continent, however, they are widely diffused, extending from La Paz, in the former vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, to the mountains of Santa Martha on the northern coast. Those which yield the bark of commerce grow at various elevations upon the Andes, seldom less than 4000 feet above the level of the sea; and require a temperature con- siderably lower than that which usually prevails in tropical countries. There has been much difficulty in properly arranging the species of Cin- chona; and botanists have not only differed on this point, but have in some instances exhibited a degree of excitement unbecoming the dignity of science. Ruiz and Pavon, in the Flora Peruviana, describe thirteen new species, while Mutis reduced the number to seven, and Professor Zea attempted to prove, that almost all the efficacious species of Ruiz and Pavon are redu- cible to the four described by Mutis in the year 1793, in the Literary News of Santa Fe de Bogota. It appears from the best testimony, that the num- ber of the species has been unnecessarily augmented by certain botanists; mere fugitive differences, depending on peculiarities of situation or growth, having been exaggerated into permanent characteristics. One source of the difficulty of a proper discrimination is stated by Humboldt to be the varying shape of the leaves of the same species, according to the degree of elevation upon the mountainous declivities, to the severity or mildness of the climate, the greater or less humidity of the soil, and to various circumstances in the growth of individual plants. Even the same tree often produces foliage of a diversified character; and a person not aware of this fact, might be led to imagine that he had discovered different species from an examination of the leaves which have grown upon one and the same branch. The fructifica- tion partakes, to a certain extent, of the same varying character. Lambert, in his "Illustration of the genus Cinchona," published in the year 1821, after admitting with Humboldt the identity of several varieties which had received specific names from other botanists, describes nineteen PART I. Cinchona. 215 species, exclusive of the two Peruvian Buense. De Candolle enumerates only sixteen well ascertained species. In the present state of our knowledge, it rs impossible to decide from which species of Cinchona the several varieties of bark are respectively de- rived. The former references of the yellow bark to the C. cordifolia, of the pale to the C. lancifolia, and of the red to the C. oblongifolia, have been very properly abandoned in the United States and Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeias, though still retained in those of the London and Dublin Colleges. It is now almost universally admitted that the valuable barks, known in the market by these titles, are not the product of the species to which they have been ascribed. It is stated by Humboldt, that the property of curing agues belongs to the barks of all the cinchonas with hairy and woolly blossoms, and to those alone. In Lindley's catalogue this division includes fifteen species. We shall notice the most prominent, mentioning also the syno- nymes employed by different authors. 1. Cinchona Condaminea. Humb. and Bonpl. Plant. Equin. i. p. 33. t. 10; Lindley, Flor. Med. 414. This tree, when full grown, has a stem about eighteen feet high and a foot in thickness, with opposite branches, of which the lower are horizontal, and the higher rise upwards at their extremi- ties. The bark of the trunk is ash-gray with clefts or fissures, and yields when wounded a bitter astringent juice; that of the small branches is green- ish, smooth, and glossy, and easily separable from the wood. The leaves are of variable shape, but generally ovate-lanceolate, about four inches in length by less than two in breadth, smooth, and scrobiculate at the axils of the veins beneath. The flowers are in axillary, downy, corymbose panicles. The tree grows on the declivities of the mountains, at an elevation of from about a mile to a mile and a half, and in a mean temperature of 67° F. It was seen by Humboldt and Bonpland in the neighbourhood of Loxa, and is said also to grow near Guancabamba and Ayavaca in Peru. It is now generally admitted to be the source of the crown bark of Loxa. 2. C. micrantha. Ruiz and Pavon. Ft. Peruv. ii. 52. t. 194; Lindley, Flor. Med. 412.—C. scrobiculata. Humb. and Bonpl. Plant. Equin. i. p. 165. t. 47. Lindley has no hesitation in uniting the C. scrobiculata of Humboldt and Bonpland with the C. micrantha of Ruiz and Pavon. It is a large tree, attaining the height of forty feet, with oblong leaves, from four to twelve inches in length and from two to six in breadth, scarcely acute, smooth, shining on the upper surface, and scrobiculate at the axils of the veins beneath. The flowers are in terminal, loose, leafless panicles, and are smaller than those of any other species except the C. lancifolia. (Lindley.) The tree was seen by Humboldt and Bonpland froming large forests in the mountains near the city of Jaen de Bracomoros. It grows also, according to Ruiz and Pavon, in the mountains near Chicoplaya, Monzon, and Puebla de San Antonio, and, according to Poppig, at Cuchero. Large quantities of the bark are collected by the people of Jaen, and sent to the coast to be shipped to Lima; and Ruiz states that it is always mixed with that sent into the market from the provinces of Panatahuas, Huamilies, and Huanuco. The Edinburgh College ascribes to this species their cinchona cinerea, the gray or silver bark of British commerce, frequently called also Huanuco bark. It undoubtedly contributes to furnish the officinal pale bark. 3. C. lancifolia. Mutis, Period, de Santa Fe, p. 465; Lindley, Flor. Med. 415.—C. angustifotia. Pavon, Quinolog. Suppl. p. 14. This species has been shorn of much of its honours by Lindley, who has separated from it the C. nitida and C. lanceolata of Ruiz and Pavon, the union of which with it by other botanists had given it an unmerited importance. As seen by 216 Cinchona. PART I. Mutis, it is a very handsome tree, from thirty to forty-five feet in height, with a trunk from one to four feet in diameter. Its leaves are oblong-lanceo- late, very acute at each end, revolute at the edge, smooth above, and not scrobiculate. The flowers, which are the smallest in the genus, are in five- flowered axillary cymes. (Lindley.) This species is a native of New Gra- nada. The London and Dublin Colleges ascribe to it one of the officinal varieties of bark, under the impression, probably, that the species is identical with the C. Condaminea, and therefore affords the most esteemed pale bark of the shops. This, however, has been ascertained to be a mistake. The product of the C. lancifolia is one of the Carthagena barks, and is of inferior quality. It was named orange bark—quina naranjanda—by Mutis, and a specimen deposited by Humboldt, under this name, in the Museum of Natural History of Paris, was found by Guibourt to be identical with his spongy Carthagena bark. That the tree cannot produce one of the valu- able varieties is proved by the fact, that none of these come from Carthagena, through which the bark of the C. lancifolia must be exported. 4. C. cordifolia. Mutis, in Humb. Magaz. Berlin, 1807, p. 117; Lind- ley, Flor. Med. 839. This is a spreading tree, fifteen or twenty feet high, rising on a single, erect, round stem, which is covered with a smooth bark, of a brownish-gray colour. The bark of the smaller branches is lighter coloured. The leaves vary much in form, but some of a heart-shape are to be found on almost every branch. They are usually roundish-ovate, about nine inches long, smooth and shining on the upper surface, ribbed and pubescent on the under. The flowers are in thyrsoid, brachiate, tomen- tose panicles. This species was first discovered by Mutis in the mountains about Santa Fe de Bogota in New Granada, and grows at elevations varying from 5800 to 9500 feet. It is considered by the London and Dublin Col- leges as the source of the yellow bark. It has been ascertained, beyond the possibility of doubt, not to produce the valuable or officinal yellow bark, which never comes from the region where it is known to grow. Guibourt found that the quina amarilla, or yellow bark of Santa Fe, which is pro- bably produced by C. cordifolia, is identical with hard Carthagena bark. 5. C. magnifolia. Ruiz and Pavon, Fl. Peruv. ii. 53. t. 196.—C. ob- longifolia. Mutis.—There has been some confusion in relation to the species designated by these two names. The London and Dublin Colleges, in re- cognising the C. oblongifolia as the source of the officinal red bark, undoubt- edly have in view the plant discovered by Mutis in New Granada; while the former college gives the authority of Lambert for the name. Now Lind- ley has ascertained that the C. oblongifolia of Lambert is a different plant from that of Mutis of the same name, and believes, with the authors of the Flora Peruviana, that the latter is identical with their C. magnifolia. We shall, therefore, take it for granted, that this is the plant intended by the London College, the bark of the C. oblongifolia of Lambert being wholly unknown. The C. oblongifolia of Mutis is a stately tree with very large leaves, which are oblong, strongly ribbed, smooth and shining on both surfaces, and often a foot in length exclusive of the footstalk. The flowers are in large, terminal, leafless thyrses, and have a fragrant odour, not unlike that of orange-blossoms. This species grows in New Granada, and, accord- ing to Ruiz and Pavon, is abundant also on the mountains of Panatahuas, about Cuchero, Chincao, Chacahuassi, &c. Some years since, it was con- sidered as indisputably the source of the best red bark of commerce, ascribed to it by the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. A little reflection might have convinced those acquainted with the commerce in bark, that this re- ference was incorrect; for who ever hears of the officinal red bark as coming PART I. Cinchona. 217 from Carthagena? and yet this is the port from which the product of the C. oblongifolia, growing in New Granada, is shipped. The tree does, un- doubtedly, as asserted by Mutis, produce a red bark; but it is the red Car- thagena bark, the quina roxa de Santa Fe of Ruiz, a comparatively value- less variety, wholly distinct from the efficient and highly esteemed red bark from the Pacific. Ruiz speaks of it as of inferior quality and little esteem- ed; and Bergen and Guibourt have proved it to be identical with the worthless quina nova or new bark of European commerce. The foregoing species have been particularly noticed, because recognised in some of the Pharmacopoeias as the sources of officinal varieties of bark. The following, for a description of which we refer to Lindley's Flora Medica, yield barks possessing febrifuge properties.—6. C. nitida of the Flora Peruviana, incorrectly confounded, according to Lindley, with C. lan- ceolata by De Candolle, and C. Condaminea by Lambert, grows in groves, in cold situations upon the Andes, in the Peruvian provinces of Huanuco, Tarma, Huamilies, and Xauxa, and affords a bark which is very highly es- teemed in those places, though unknown as a distinct variety in commerce.— 7. C. lucumaefolia of Pavon, confounded by Lambert with C. Condaminea, grows near Loxa, and probably contributes to the Loxa or pale barks.-— 8. C. lanceolata of the Flora Peruviana, is found at Cuchero, and various other places fifteen or twenty leagues distant from Huanuco, where it forms groves in lofty cold situations upon the Andes. Its bark is said by Ruiz and Pavon to be called yellow bark, from the colour of its inner surface, and to resemble Calisaya bark in flavour. Ruiz, indeed, conjectures that it is the source of that highly valued variety of bark, in which case, the tree must also grow in Bolivia at a great distance from its known locality.—9. C. ovalifolia of Humboldt and Bonpland, the C. Humboldtiana of Romer and Schultes, and of De Cand., is a shrub from six to nine feet high, inhabiting the province of Cuenca, where it forms considerable forests. It probably contributes to the Loxa barks, although its product is said to be of inferior quality.—10. C. ovata of the Fl. Peruv., grows in close groves, in warm situations at the foot of the Andes, near Pozuzo and Panao, about ten leagues from Huanuco. Lindley considers it quite distinct from the C. pubescens of Vahl, and C. cor- difolia of Mutis, with both of which it has been confounded. Ruiz calls its bark cascarillo pallido or pale bark, and states that it was not to be found in commerce, though employed at Panao in the preparation of an extract. Von Bergen, however, upon comparing a specimen of the cascarillo pallido in the collection of Ruiz with the Jaen bark, found them identical.—--11. C. pubescens of Vahl, considered by Lindley as identical with the C. purpurea of the Fl. Peruv., is a tree of considerable magnitude, distinguished by the violet tint of its large leaves, and the purple colour of its flowers. It occurs in groves on the lower mountain ridges in the provinces of Loxa, Jaen, Panatahuas, &c, was seen by Poppig at Cuchuo, and is said to grow also in New Granada. The bark is inferior, and is said to be employed for adulterating the better kinds. A specimen taken to Europe by Poppig was found by Reichel to be identical with the Huamilies bark.—12. C. hirsuta of the Fl. Peruv. grows on wooded mountains in the province of Panatahuas near Huanuco, and is said to yield a good bark, called formerly quina delga- dilla or delgada, but now scarcely collected.—13. C. glandulifera of the Fl. Peruv. is a shrub of about twelve feet, flourishing on the high mountains N. W. of Huanuco, and yielding an excellent bark, unknown in commerce, called by the inhabitants cascarillo negrillo from its blackish epidermis. In its flowering season, it perfumes the forest by the strong scent of its blossoms. —14. C. acutifolia of the Fl. Peruv., discovered by Tafalla in the Peruvian 20 218 Cinchona. PART I. Andes, north of Huanuco, yields a very inferior bark, said by Ruiz and Pavon sometimes to occur in parcels of the better kinds.—15. C. macro- carpa of Vahl, identical, according to Ruiz and Pavon, with the C. ovalifolia of Mutis, is a shrub about eight feet high, forming considerable forests in the provinces of Loxa and Cuenca, found by Mutis in New Granada, and said to grow as far north as Santa Martha. Its bark is called quina blanca or white bark, from the colour of the epidermis, and is not highly esteemed. May not this species be the source of the commercial variety brought from Maracaybo and Santa Martha? Besides the above species, Lindley enumerates, 16. C. rotundifolia of Ruiz and Pavon, growing in the province of Loxa; 17. C. villosa of Pavon, the C. Humboldtiana of Lambert, growing at Jaen of Loxa; 18. C. oblongi- folia of Lambert, in the same locality; 19. C. caducifiora of Bonpland, growing near Jaen de Bracomoros; 20. C stenocarpa of Lambert, inhabit- ing the mountains of Loxa; and 21. C. cava of Pavon, the C. Pavonii of Lambert, which is found in Quito. None of these are known to yield bark to commerce. The C. dichotoma of the Flora Peruviana, C. macrocalyx of De Candolle, C. crassifolia of Pavon in De Candolle's Prodromus, C. Pclalba of the same authority, and C. Muzonensis of Goudot in De Can- dolle's Prodromus, are considered by Lindley as uncertain species. Commercial History. For more than a century after Peruvian bark came into use, it was pro- cured almost exclusively from Loxa and the neighbouring provinces. In a memoir published A.D. 1738, La Condamine speaks of the bark of Rhio- bambo, Cuenca, Ayavaca, and Jaen de Bracomoros. Of these places, the first two, together with Loxa, lie within the ancient kingdom of Quito, at its southern extremity; the others are in the same vicinity, within the borders of Peru. The drug was shipped chiefly at the port of Payta, from which it was carried to Spain, and thence spread over Europe. Beyond the limits above mentioned, the Cinchona was not supposed to exist, till, in the year 1753, a gentleman of Loxa, familiar with the aspect of the tree, discovered it while on a journey to Santa Fe de Bogota, in numerous situations along his route, wherever, in fact, the elevation of the country was equal to that of Loxa, or about 6,500 feet above the level of the sea. This discovery extended quite through Quito into the kingdom of New Granada, as far as two de- grees and a half north of the equator. But no practical advantage was de- rived from it; and the information lay buried in the archives of the vice- royalty, till subsequent events brought it to light. To Mutis belongs the credit of making known the existence of the Cinchona in New Granada. He first discovered it in the neighbourhood of Bogota, in the year 1772. A botani- cal expedition was afterwards organized by the Spanish government, with the view of exploring this part of their dominions, and the direction of it was given to Mutis. The researches of the expedition eventuated in the dis- covery of several species of Cinchona in New Granada; and a commerce in the bark soon commenced, which was afterwards carried on with great vigour through the ports of Carthagena and Santa Martha. The English and North Americans, opening a contraband trade with these ports, were enabled to undersell the Spanish merchant, who received his supplies by the circuitous route of Cape Horn; and the barks of New Granada were soon as abundant as those of Loxa in the markets of Europe. To these sources another was added about the same time, A. D. 1776, by the discovery of the Cinchona in the centre of Peru, in the mountainous re- PART I. Cinchona. 219 gion about the city of Huanuco, which lies on the eastern declivity of the Andes, north-east of Lima, at least six degrees south of the province of Loxa. To explore this new locality, another botanical expedition was set on foot, at the head of which were Ruiz and Pavon, the distinguished authors of the Flora Peruviana. These botanists spent several years in this region, during which time they discovered numerous species that were afterwards described in their Flora. Lima became the entrepot for the barks collected around Huanuco; and hence probably originated the name of Lima bark, so often conferred, in common language, not only upon the varieties received through that city, but also upon the medicine generally. Soon after the last-mentioned discovery, two additional localities of the Cinchona were found, one at the northern extremity of the continent near Santa Martha, the other very far to the south, in the provinces of La Paz and Cochabamba, then within the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, now in the republic of Bolivia. These latter places became the source of an abundant supply of excellent bark, which received the name of Calisaya. It was sent partly to the ports on the Pacific, partly to Buenos Ayres. The consequence of these discoveries, following each other in such rapid succession, was a vast increase in the supply of bark, which was now shipped from the ports of Guayaquil, Payta, Lima, Arica, Buenos Ayres, Carthagena, and Santa Martha. At the same time, the average quality was probably deteriorated; for, though many of the new varieties were possessed of excellent properties, yet equal care in superintending the collection and assorting of the article could not be exercised now that the field was so ex- tended, as when it was confined to a small portion of the South of Quito and North of Peru. The varieties which were poured into the market soon became so numerous as to burthen the memory, if not to defy the discrimi- nation of the druggist; and the best pharmaceutists found themselves at a loss to discover any permanent peculiarities, which might serve as the basis of a proper and useful classification. This perplexity has continued more or less to the present time; though the discovery of the alkaline principles has pre- sented a ground of distinction before unknown. The restrictions upon the commerce with South America, by directing the trade into irregular chan- nels, had also a tendency to deteriorate the character of the drug. In the complexity of contrivance to which it was necessary to resort, to deceive the vigilance of the government, little attention could be paid to a proper assort- ment of the several varieties; and not only were the best barks mixed with those of inferior species and less careful preparation, but the products of other trees, bearing no resemblance to the Cinchona, were sometimes added, having been artificially prepared so as to deceive a careless observer. The markets of this country were peculiarly ill furnished. The supplies being derived chiefly, by means of a contraband trade, from Carthagena and other ports on the Spanish Main, or indirectly through the Havana, were neces- sarily of an inferior character; and the little good bark which reached us was imported by our druggists from London, whither it was sent from Cadiz. A great change, however, in this respect, has taken place since the ports on the Pacific have been opened to our commerce. The best kinds of bark have thus been rendered directly accessible to us: and the trash with which our markets were formerly glutted is now in great measure excluded. Our ships trading to the Pacific, run along the American coast from Valparaiso to Guayaquil, stopping at the intermediate ports of Coquimbo, Copiapo, Arica, Callao, Truxillo, &c, from all which they probably receive supplies of bark in exchange for the mercury, piece-goods, flour, &c, constituting their outward cargo. 220 Cinchona. PART I. The persons who collect the bark are called in South America Cascanl- leros. Considerable experience and judgment are requisite to render an individual well qualified for this business. He must not only be able to dis- tinguish the trees which produce good bark from those less esteemed, but must also know the proper season and the age at which a branch should be decorticated, and the marks by which the efficiency or inefficiency of any particular product is indicated. The bark gatherers begin their operations with the setting in of the dry season in May. Sometimes they first cut down the tree, and afterwards strip off the bark from the branches; in other instances, they decorticate the tree while standing. The former plan is said to be the most economical; as, when the tree is cut down, the stump pushes up shoots which in the course of time become fit for decortication, while, if de- prived of its bark, the whole plant perishes. The operator separates the bark by making a longitudinal incision with a sharp knife through its whole thickness, and then forcing it off from the branch with the back of the instru- ment. Other means are resorted to when the trunk or larger limbs are decorticated. According to Poppig, the bark is not separated until three or four days after the tree is felled. It must then be speedily dried, as other- wise it becomes deteriorated. For this purpose it is taken out of the woods into the vicinity of some inhabited place, where it is exposed to the sun. In the drying process it rolls itself up, or in technical language, becomes quilled; and the degree to which this effect takes place, is proportionate directly to the thinness of the bark, and inversely to the age of the branch from which it was derived. In packing the bark for exportation, it often happens that several different kinds are introduced into the same case. The packages are, in commercial language, called seroons. As found in this market they are usually covered with a case of thick and stiff ox-hide, which is lined within by a very coarse cloth, apparently woven out of some kind of grass. The Cinchona forests, being in very thinly inhabited districts, do not, for the most part, belong to individuals, and are open to the enterprise of all who choose to engage in the collection of the bark. The consequence is, that the operations are carried on without reference to the future condition of this important interest, and the most wasteful modes of proceeding are adopted if they save present trouble, or contribute to immediate profit. Nevertheless, the great extent to which the Cinchona forests prevail, spread- ing, as they do, with some interruptions, over more than thirty degrees of latitude, and occupying regions which can never be applied to agricultural purposes, almost precludes the idea of their even remote extinction. Classification. To form a correct and lucid system of classification is the most difficult part of the subject of bark. An arrangement founded on the botanical species, though the most scientific and satisfactory when attainable, is in the present instance quite out of the question. There are few varieties, of the precise origin of which we can be said to have any certain knowledge; by far the greater number being either derived from an unknown source, or but obscurely traceable to the species producing them. The Spanish merchants adopted a classification, dependent partly on the place of growth or shipment, and partly on the inherent properties, or sup- posed relative value of the bark. So long as the sources of the drug were very confined, and the number of varieties small, this plan answered the purposes of trade; but at present it is altogether inadequate; and, though some of the names originally conferred upon this principle are still retained, PART I. Cinchona. 221 they have ceased to be expressive of the truth, and are often erroneously, almost always confusedly applied. The Loxa barks embrace, among us, not only those which come from that province, but those also from the neighbourhood of Huanuco; while others, which have received different names, are brought from the same place. It is said that, by the traders in South America, the young slender gray barks are called by the name of Loxa, from whatever source they may be derived; while those somewhat larger and older receive their appellation from Lima. Perhaps the best arrangement for pharmaceutical and medicinal purposes is that adopted in the United States Pharmacopoeia, founded upon difference of colour. It is true that dependence cannot be placed upon this property alone; as barks of a similar colour have been found to possess very different virtues; and, between the various colours considered characteristic, there is an insensible gradation of shade, so that it is not always possible to decide where one ends and the other begins. Still it has been found that the most valuable barks, which are brought almost exclusively from the western or Pacific coast of South America, and are recognised only as coming from this source by our Pharmacopoeia, may be arranged, according to their colour, in three divisions, which, though mingling at their extremes, are very dis- tinctly characterized, in certain specimens, by peculiarity not only in colour, but also in other sensible properties, and even in chemical constitution. The three divisions alluded to are the pale, the yellow, and the red. These may be considered as exclusively the officinal barks; while the inferior varieties which approach one or other of these classes in colour, but differ in other properties, may be treated as extra-officinal, and considered under a separate head. As these inferior kinds come chiefly if not exclusively from the northern ports of New Granada and Venezuela, they are known in com- merce by the name of Carthagena barks, and by this name will be described in the present work. Parcels of little value may be occasionally imported from the Pacific coast of South America; but the quantity is small, as the profit they would yield would not pay the expense of so long a voyage. In describing, therefore, the different kinds of bark, we shall treat first of the officinal varieties under the three heads of pale, yellow, and red, and secondly of the extra-officinal under the title of Carthagena barks. The commercial name will at the same time be given in all instances in which a knowledge of it can be useful in this country. It is proper here to state, that the dif- ferent barks frequently come to us mingled in the same package, and that, in deciding upon the character of a seroon, the druggist is guided rather by the predominance than the exclusive existence of certain distinctive properties. There is a remarkable difference in the epidermis or outer covering of the strictly officinal barks from the western coast of South America, and that of the extra-officinal or Carthagena barks, from the ports of the Caribbean sea. In the former, the epidermis is cracked, rugose, and of a brownish colour, and, when apparently whitish, is so in consequence of adhering lichens, upon the removal of which by scraping the normal colour appears; in the latter it is comparatively destitute of fissures, smooth, whitish or yellowish- white, and micaceous. 1. Pale Bark. The epithet pale applied to these barks is derived from the colour of the powder. The French call them quinquinas gris, or gray barks, from the colour of the epidermis. They come into the market in cylindrical pieces of variable length, from a few inches to a foot and a half, sometimes singly, sometimes doubly quilled, from two lines to an inch in diameter, and from 20* 222 Cinchona. PART I. half a line to two or three lines in thickness. The finest kinds are about the size of a goosequill. Their exterior surface is usually more or less rough, marked with circular and sometimes with longitudinal fissures, and of a grayish colour, owing to adhering lichens. The shade is different in different samples. Sometimes it is a light gray, approaching to white, sometimes dull and brown, sometimes a grayish-fawn, and frequently diver- sified by the intermixture of the proper colour of the epidermis with that of the patches of lichens. The interior surface, in the finer kinds, is smooth; in the coarser, occasionally rough and somewhat ligneous. Its colour is a brownish-orange, sometimes inclining to red, sometimes to yellow, and in some inferior specimens, of a dusky hue. The fracture is usually smooth, with some short filaments on the internal part only. In the coarser barks it is more fibrous. The colour of the powder is a pale fawn, which is of a deeper hue in the inferior kinds. The taste is moderately bitter and some- what astringent, without being disagreeable or nauseous. Authors speak also of an acidulous and aromatic flavour, which is less evident. The better kinds have a feeble odour, which is distinct and agreeably aromatic in the powder and decoction. The pale barks are chemically characterized by containing a much larger proportion of cinchonia than of quinia; and their infusion does not yield a precipitate with solution of sulphate of soda. Their appearance indicates that they were derived from the smaller branches. They are collected in the provinces about Loxa, or in the country which surrounds the city of Huanuco, north-east of Lima, and are probably derived chiefly from C. Condaminea and C. micrantha. There are several commercial varieties of pale bark, obtained from dif- ferent sources, and differing more or less in their properties. The most highly esteemed of these is the Loxa bark, the finest specimens of which are sometimes called crown bark of Loxa, from the impression that they have the same origin and character with the bark formerly selected with great care for the use of the King of Spain and the royal family. The pale bark collected about Huanuco is either named Lima bark, because taken to that city for commercial distribution, or Huanuco bark, from its place of col- lection. The former name has been more common in this country, where, indeed, this commercial variety has not unfrequently been confounded with the Loxa bark. Other pale barks are the Jaen and Huamilies barks, which are scarcely known as distinct varieties in the United States.* * Since the publication of the first edition of this Dispensatory, we have had an oppor- tunity of examining Von Bergen's splendid work upon bark, entitled Versuch einer Mono- graphic der China, published in Hamburgh in the year 1826. His descriptions are among the most precise and accurate which have been published, and we have availed ourselves of them in preparing the following sketch of the varieties which may be arranged under the head of pale bark. We have also consulted, in relation to this subject, the works of the French pharmaceutical writers, particularly that of Guibourt, the elaborate German work of Geiger, entitled Handbuch der Pharmacie, fyc, and, more recently, the English trea- tise on Materia Medica by Pereira. We have placed our remarks in a note; as the in- formation in relation to these different varieties can be of little use to the student, though it may possibly serve to aid the discrimination of the druggist. 1. Loxa Bark. Crown Bark.—Quinquina de Loxa, Fr.—Loxa China, Kron-China, Germ.—This is in cylindrical tubes, strongly rolled, from six to fifteen inches long, from two lines td an inch in diameter, and from half a line to two lines thick. The outer sur- face is more or less rough, seldom much wrinkled longitudinally, but marked with numerous transverse fissures, which usually run' round the bark, and divide it into rings, the edges of which are somewhat elevated. In the smallest quills these fissures are not very obvious; in the larger, they are distant and apt to be interrupted. In the largest the surface is sometimes very rough and even warty. The proper colour of the epider- mis is dark-gray, sometimes almost black, sometimes ash-coloured, and occasionally part i. Cinchona. 223 In this country, the pale bark has fallen into disuse. As it yields little quinia, it is not employed in the manufacture of the sulphate of that alkali, which has almost superseded the bark as a remedy in intermittents; and the red bark is preferred by physicians, when it is necessary to resort to inclining to fawn; but frequently diversified by whitish lichens, which are in some instances so numerous as to cover almost the whole exterior of the bark, and give it a light-gray appearance. The inner surface is smooth and uniform, and of the colour of cinnamon, with occasionally a reddish tinge. The fracture in the smaller quills is quite smooth, in the larger somewhat fibrous. The bark is of a rather firm consistence, and when cut transversely exhibits a resinous character. Its odour is compared by Guibourt to that perceived in damp woods, by Von Bergen to that of tan. Its taste is acidulous, astringent, and bitterish. The powder is of a dull cinnamon colour. This variety of bark appears to contain, on an average of several results stated by Geiger, about 0-48 per cent, of cinchonia, and O06 of quinia. In the thicker pieces, which appear to be richest in the organic alkalies, Thiel found 1-0 per cent, of cinchonia, and 0-03 of quinia. According to Soubeiran, one pound of Loxa bark yields from a drachm and a half to two drachms of sulphate of cinchonia. The strong reaction of a solution of gelatin indicates the presence of much tannin. Guibourt, in the edition of his Histoire des Drogues, printed in 1836, describes several varieties of Loxa bark; one answering to the above, under the name of Quinquina gris brun de Loxa, a second, under that of quinquina de Loxa cendre, which he considers identical with the Jaen bark of Von Bergen, and two others both of which he calls quinquina de Loxa fibreux. Of these two, one is probably not found in commerce, and the other is the variety described in his former edition as the Quinquina gris de Loxa. This is characterized by its light-gray colour externally, and by its extreme thinness, which is observable even in the pieces taken from the larger branches, the bark being almost as thin and as much rolled as Ceylon cinnamon. It is very rare. In the seroons of Loxa bark, other kinds are sometimes mixed with the genuine. Among them are quills of a bark supposed to be identical with the Huamilies, and a variety which has been called white Loxa bark, of unknown origin, resembling the genuine except in the character of its epidermis, which is whitish and micaceous, like that of the Carthagena barks. English druggists distinguish Loxa bark into 1. the picked crown bark, -which consists of the finest, thinnest, and longest quills; 2. the silvery crown bark, somewhat larger in size, and characterized by a whitish silvery appearance of the epidermis derived from adhering lichens; and 3. the leopard crown bark, named from its speckled appearance, depending on whitish lichens alternating with the dark-brown epidermis. Loxa bark is thought to be derived chiefly from C. Condaminea, and to have been the variety first imported into Europe. 2. Lima or Huanuco Bark. Cinchona Cinerea, Gray Bark, Silver Bark, Ed.—Quinquina de Lima, Fr.—China Huanuco, Graue China, Germ.—The Lima or Huanuco bark was introduced into notice about the year 1779, after the discovery of Cinchona trees in the central regions of Peru; but Poppig says that the trade in it began in 1785. The first name originated from the circumstance that the bark entered into commerce through the city of Lima, the second was derived from the name of the city (Huanuco or Guanuco), in the more immediate neighbourhood of which the trees were found. The dimensions of this variety of bark do not materially differ from those of the preceding, although in the largest pieces the diameter is somewhat greater. Many of the smaller quills have a more or less spiral form. At the edge of most of the complete quills, a sharp oblique slit made with a knife is observable. The epidermis is usually adherent. The exterior surface is marked with longitudinal wrinkles, which in the thick pieces are often so deep as to amount to furrows, penetrating quite through the outer coating of the bark. Transverse fissures are also generally observable, but they never run wholly round the quill, often not more than a quarter or half round, and do not exhibit elevated borders. In some pieces the outer layer of the epidermis is rubbed off either wholly or in spots, and in a few the entire thickness of the external layers, which we usually denominate the epidermis, is here and there removed, exhibiting the proper bark in patches. The colour externally is very light gray, almost milk-white, with occasionally bluish-gray and darkish spots intermingled. Where the outer crust which imparts this whitish colour is wanting, the surface is grayish-fawn or reddish-gray, and in the thicker pieces of a dark cinnamon colour. The inner surface, though in the smaller quills sometimes tolerably uniform, is generally more or less uneven, fibrous, or splintery, especially in the larger pieces, hi which may often be observed adhering yellowish-white splinters of wood. The colour is usually a rusty-brown inclining somewhat to red, with occasionally a pur- plish tinge. The transverse fracture is smooth in the exterior part, fibrous or splintery 224 Cinchona. part i. the medicine in substance. There is little doubt, however, that cinchonia possesses febrifuge properties little if at all inferior to those of quinia; and should the source of the latter begin to fail, the pale bark would come into more extensive use for the preparation of the former. in the interior. The longitudinal fracture is usually somewhat uneven, without being splintery, and exhibits here and there minute shining spots. The inner layers of the bark are usually soft and friable. The colour of the powder is a full cinnamon-brown. The odour of the bark is like that of clay, and in this respect different from that of all other varieties. The taste is at first acidulous, astringent, and slightly aromatic, and ultimately bitter and adhesive. The proportion of cinchonia contained in Huanuco bark, by an average of several results stated by Geiger, is 1-72 per cent., of quinia 029 per cent. Von Santen got from the best specimens, as the maximum, 2-73 per cent, of cinchonia and no quinia. The most productive pieces are those of middling size. Guibourt makes two varieties of this bark, the quinquina gris fin de Lima, including the smaller quills, and the quinquina gros Lima, or Lima blanc, including the larger. It has been raised to the rank of a distinct officinal variety by the Edinburgh College. Little, if any of it, is brought to this country; and, according to Poppig, the trade in it ceased in South America in 1815. This variety of bark is now confidently ascribed to the C. micrantha. 3. Jaen Bark. Ash-bark. — China Jaen, Blasse Ten-China, Germ.— Quinquina de Loxa cendre of Guibourt. This variety probably derives its name from the province of Jaen de Bracomoros, in the vicinity of Loxa, where large quantities of bark have been collected. The Jaen bark is always in quills, which do not differ much in size from those of the Loxa bark, but are distinguishable by being frequently curved longitudinally, or bent in different directions, and somewhat spiral. The outer coat is often partially or entirely rubbed off, leaving the surface smooth and soft to the touch. When the epidermis is perfect, it exhibits small irregular transverse fissures, with occasionally faint longitudinal fissures and wavy wrinkles, and here and there a few warts, but no deep furrows. The colour varies from light or ash-gray to light yellow, diversified with blackish and brownish spots. When the outer coat is rubbed off, it inclines still more to yellow. Considered in mass, the bark always appears somewhat yellowish or straw-coloured. The . exterior layers are soft and rather spongy, and may be readily scraped by the nail. The inner surface is exceedingly diversified, sometimes smooth, sometimes uneven and splin- tery. It is usually of a dull cinnamon colour. The bark is very brittle, and the fracture is smooth in the smaller quills, more or less uneven, and sometimes splintery in the larger, and in neither exhibits a resinous appearance. The odour is sweetish, and is compared to that of tan. The taste is acidulous, slightly astringent, and bitter without being dis- agreeable. The colour of the powder is cinnamon-brown. The bark is very deficient in alkalies. Some experimenters have found none, or only traces, while the highest pro- duct obtained was 80 grains of quinia and 13 grains of cinchonia from a pound. M. Man- zini, of Paris, extracted from it an alkaline principle which he believed to be peculiar, and named cinchovatin; but which has been ascertained to be identical with the aricina, of Pelletier. This variety of bark is thought to be of little value. Von Bergen believes it to be the product of the C. ovata of the Fl. Peruv. It is exported chiefly in chests. Von Bergen describes a variety of pale bark, under the name of dark Jaen bark, {dunhle Ten-China), or pseudo Loxa, which resembles the Loxa, but may be distinguished by the oblique or bent shape of the quills, and the uneven, fibrous, or splintery appearance of the inner surface. It seldom comes in large pieces. It contains very little of the active principles. Von Santen discovered neither quinia nor cinchonia in two specimens which he examined. Its appearance, and strong reaction with a solution of gelatin, associate it with the Loxa bark; and Geiger's conjecture is not improbable, that it is the product of the same tree growing in unfavourable situations, or altered by disease. Brown Jaen Bark.—Winckle'r has recently described a new variety of bark, which he found to contain the same peculiar alkaloid as the Jaen bark, and has, therefore, classed with that variety under the name of brown Jaen bark. It was originally sent from Para to London. It was in pieces partially or completely quilled, from three to twelve inches long, and of variable thickness. In mass", the colour was a deep yellowish-brown. The sur- face exhibited longitudinal furrows; and in the greater number of pieces there were also transverse fissures, rather irregular and deep, resembling those of Huanuco bark, while the colour resembled that of the Huamilies. The epidermis was rather thin. It was covered, in many pieces, almost completely, or in spots, by lichens, of a silvery-white, brownish, or yellowish-gray colour; and when they were absent, the surface was of a dirty yellowish-white, or a deep yellowish-brown. The internal surface was very smooth, and of a deeper colour than the exterior. The bark was brittle transversely, with very part i. Cinchona. 225 2. Yellow Bark. The officinal term yellow bark should be considered as applicable only to the valuable variety of the drug having this colour. This is known in commerce under the name of Calisaya, which has been said, though erro- neously, to be derived from a district of country in Bolivia, near the city of La Paz, where the bark is collected.* Among the druggists, the Calisaya bark is arranged in two divisions, the quilled and the flat, which sometimes come mixed together in the same seroon, sometimes separate. The appear- ance of both indicates that they were taken from larger and older branches than those which yield the pale varieties. They are sometimes called by the French quinquina jaune royal, from their resemblance to a variety of bark formerly collected for the Spanish king. The quilled Calisaya (Calisaya arrolada of the Spanish Americans) is in pieces from three or four inches to a foot and a half long, from a quarter of short shining fibres on the inner portion of the fracture, and an unequal surface on the exterior part. The longitudinal fracture was unequal. In the external part of the frac- tured surface layers of a deep colour Were observed. The fibrous structure and the colour of the powder were not unlike those of the Calisaya bark. The taste was feebly astringent, and disagreeably bitter. The bark contained no cinchonia or quinia, and no kinovic acid: but was found by Winckler to afford a small quantity of the alkaline prin- ciple denominated cinchovatin (aricina) found previously in the Jaen bark. {Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser., ix. 427.) 4. Huamilies Bark.—China Huamilies, Germ. This bark is not generally known as a distinct variety, though probably identical with the quinquina ferrugineux, or ferruginous bark of the French writers. Its commercial name was undoubtedly derived from the province of Huamilies, which lies in the interior of Peru, to the northward of Huanuco, and is a part of the country explored by the botanical expedition under Ruiz and Pavon. It came into notice in Germany about the beginning of the present century, when a parcel of it was imported directly from Lima into Hamburg. It is in quills and flat pieces. The quills are from three lines to an inch and a half in diameter, from five to sixteen inches long, and from half a line to three lines thick. The flat pieces, which are usually only fragments of the largest quills, are from one to two inches broad, and six to twelve inches long. In general all the layers of the bark are present, but sometimes the outer coat, and even the whole of that part usually called the epidermis in our descriptions of bark, (including those outer layers which in the tree are destitute of vitality, having been thrown outward by the annually renewed layers beneath them,) are wanting in spots, though very seldom entirely absent. The epidermis is comparatively thin, very brittle, soft, and spongy. The outer surface, in the small and middling quills, is sometimes nearly smooth, but usually marked with wavy longitudinal wrinkles, and beset here and there with warts. These warts are abundant upon the thick pieces, which they sometimes almost entirely cover. Transverse fissures are seldom found, and only in the thick pieces. The colour of the epidermis is usually grayish-fawn, here and there passing into a rusty brown; but in the thicker pieces, in which the warts are abundant, it is between a liver and chestnut colour, often mixed with a tinge of purple. When the epidermis is wanting, the colour is often a full ochre-yellow. The inner surface is sometimes uniform and almost smooth, sometimes slightly fibrous, rarely splintery. The colour of the surface is rusty brown, occasionally reddish, and in the fibrous or splintery pieces of an ochre-yellow. The fracture in the smaller quills is rather even, in the larger presents short fibres, and is sometimes even splintery. The odour of the bark is feeble but agreeable, the taste somewhat aromatic, bitterish, and slightly astringent. The powder is of a full cinnamon colour. The average product of cinchonia and quinia, as stated by Geiger, is 0-67 per cent, of the former, and 025 of the latter; so that the bark, though dissimilar in appear- ance from the other varieties of pale bark, agrees with them in containing more cinchonia than quinia. Von Santen obtained, as the maximum, 1-2 per cent, of cinchonia, and little or no quinia. Huamilies bark is now believed to be the product of the C. purpurea of the Flor. Peruv. (See C. pubescens.) It is scarcely known in the United States. {Note to the second edition, altered in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh.) * No such province exists in Bolivia. According to M. Laubert, the name is a cor- ruption of colisalla, said to be derived from colla, a remedy, and salla, a rocky country. {Journ de Pharm., xxii. 614.) 226 Cinchona. part i. an inch to two or three inches in diameter, and of equally variable thickness. The epidermis is of a brownish colour, diversified or concealed by whitish or yellowish lichens, is marked by longitudinal wrinkles and transverse fissures, and is often partially separated, and generally easily separable from the proper bark. In the larger kinds it is thick, rough, deeply indented by the transverse fissures which often surround the quills, and is composed of several layers, separated from each other by a reddish-brown membrane like velvet. The epidermis yields a dark-red powder, is tasteless, and possesses none of the virtues of the bark. It is desirable, therefore, to get rid of it before the bark is powdered, as the medicine is thus procured of greater strength. The bark itself, without the epidermis, is from one to two lines in thickness, of a fibrous texture, and when broken presents shining points, apparently the termination of small fibres running longitudinally, which, examined by the microscope, are found, when freed from a salmon-coloured powder that surrounds them, to be yellow and transparent. They readily separate when the bark is powdered, in the form of spicuke, which, like those of cowhage, insinuate themselves into the skin, and produce a dis- agreeable itching and irritation. The colour of the bark is brownish-yellow with a tinge of orange, the taste less astringent than that of the pale bark, but much more bitter; and the bitterness is somewhat peculiar. The external part of the proper bark is more bitter and astringent, and consequently stronger in medicinal power, than the internal; probably from the longer exposure of the latter to the action of air and moisture. The odour is faint, but when the bark is boiled resembles that of the pale varieties. The small quills closely resemble some of the pale varieties in appearance, but may be distinguished by their very bitter taste. The flat Calisaya (Calisaya plancha of the Spaniards) which appears to have been derived from the large branches and trunk, is in pieces of various lengths, either quite flat, or but slightly curved, generally destitute of the epidermis, and therefore presenting the yellowish colour of the bark both within and without. It is usually thicker than the quilled, more fibrous in its texture, less compact, less bitter, and possessed of less medicinal power. Though weaker than the proper bark of the quills, it is usually, in equal weight, more valuable than that variety, because free from the use- less epidermis. The valuable yellow bark is characterized by its strongly bitter taste, with comparatively little astringency; by its fine brownish-yellow some- what orange colour, which is still brighter in the powder; and by containing a large proportion of quinia with very little cinchonia. The salts of quinia and lime are so abundant in its composition, that a strong infusion of it instantly precipitates a solution of sulphate of soda. (Guibourt.)* * The Calisaya bark is the third variety of Von Bergen, who describes it under the name of China Regia or Konig's China. We give a brief abstract of his description, omitting the form and dimensions, which are given with sufficient minuteness in the text. The epidermis,-]" which in many of the small quills is partly wanting, in the flat pieces usually altogether absent, is very thick and brittle, constituting from a third to one- half of the bark, and in some of the largest quills or partially quilled pieces, even two- thirds. In the latter case, it may often be seen to consist of six or eight different layers. The quills are generally marked with longitudinal wrinkles and furrows, as well as with transverse fissures, the last of which are never absent. The fissures, which often form t By the epidermis is here understood the whole of the external layers which are accumulated upon the outer surface of the bark by the annual renewal of the cortical layers, and the consequent separation of those of former years, which remain, but without life, attached to the external surface. A different meaning is attached to the term by Von Bergen ; but as we have taken pains to make the description in every instance correspond with our definition, we do not misrepresent his meaning. PART I. Cinchona. 227 Nothing is known with certainty as to the particular species which yields Calisaya bark. Some writers, influenced simply by its officinal title of yel- low bark, have attributed it to the C. cordifolia; because Mutis gave the same name to the product of that species. The British Colleges fell into this error, without, however, being aware, that the yellow bark which they adopted as officinal was really the Calisaya. That it is an error has been fully demon- strated ; as no Calisaya bark is brought from those regions where the C. cor- complete circles round the quills, have usually an elevated border, and sink so deeply in many of the larger pieces, that they are even observable upon the proper bark. In the smaller pieces they are often faint, but usually crowded. The colour of the epidermis varies from whitish-gray to bluish-gray, but is very much diversified by lichens, so as to present yellowish-white, ash-gray, and blackish spots. When the outer layer of the epi- dermis is wanting, as is not unfrequently the case to a greater or less extent, the colour is somewhat sooty-brown or almost liver-brown. The outer surface of the pieces without epidermis, is of a colour between cinnamon-brown and dark rusty-brown. The inner surface, in the pieces of all dimensions, is uniform and almost smooth, but exhibits fine longitudinal fibres closely compressed. Splinters of wood are never found adhering to the inner surface, as in some other varieties. The prevailing colour of this surface is mostly a rather dark or full cinnamon-brown, passing sometimes into a rusty-brown, but seldom of a reddish hue. This bark breaks more easily in the longitudinal direction than any other variety, exhibiting a chestnut-brown colour in the part answering to the epidermis, a more or less dark cinnamon-brown in that answering to the proper bark. The transverse fracture of the epidermis is rather even, that of the inner part sometimes fibrous, some- times splintery. A resinous layer may be observed beneath the epidermis, which usually remains when the latter is removed, and communicates to the flat pieces the dark colour by which their external surface is distinguished. Small sharp splinters, which in the lon- gitudinal fracture appear like shining points, are apt to insinuate themselves into the skin when the bark is broken or much handled. The odour is feebly tan-like, the taste slightly acidulous, strongly but not disagreeably bitter, somewhat aromatic, feebly astrin- gent, and rather durable. The powder is of a fine cinnamon hue. Thiel obtained from the flat Calisaya bark 2-3 per cent, of quinia, and 0-08 o,f cinchonia; Michaelis from the flat 3-7 per cent., and from the quill 2-0 per cent, of quinia, but no cin- chonia from either; Von Santen from the flat, an average of 2-0 per cent, of quinia, and little or no cinchonia; Wittstock, on an average, 3-0 per cent, of sulphate of quinia, and 0*12 of cinchonia. {Geiger.) Under the name of light Calisaya, Guibourt, in the last edition of his work, describes a variety of bark which he says is brought from the same region of country that pro- duces the genuine. It is identical with that named in previous editions orange-yellow bark {quinquina jaune orange'), and is of comparatively little value, at least lor the prepa- ration of sulphate of quinia, though the best specimens, as they contain much cinchonia, are not without medicinal activity. Like the Calisaya, it is in quills or flat pieces, some- times with and sometimes without the epidermis; but it may be distinguished by its want of thickness, its finer and more compact texture, and by a character which is most striking in die fresh specimens, viz., that of presenting a rose colour in the part which is near the epidermis, while the inner portion is of a pure yellow, so that the whole bark has an orange colour. The epidermis, moreover, when present, is thin, smoother than that of the genuine Calisaya, and without the numerous transverse fissures which mark the latter bark. Another bark, derived from the same region of country as the preceding, and some- times sold as Calisaya bark, though wholly without quinia, is described by Guibourt under the name of Cusco bark,-And has recently attracted some attention as the source of a new alkali discovered by MM. Pelletier and Coriol, and named aricina from the port of Arica, whence the bark is said to be sent. The smaller pieces may be distinguished from the genuine Calisaya by their white, uniform epidermis, without fissures; but when the epidermis is wanting, as frequently happens in the larger pieces, the two barks might easily be confounded. The test of sulphate of soda may here be found useful; as this salt, which so strikingly precipitates the infusion of Calisaya, does not disturb that of the Cusco bark. It is proper to state, that Guibourt could obtain from this bark no other alkali than cinchonia, and is disposed to consider aricina as the result of the modi- fying influence of the process employed in its preparation. {Note to the second and fourth editions.') 228 Cinchona. PART I. difolia most abounds. In the last edition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, the error has been corrected. Many writers ascribe this variety to the C. lancifolia, on the authority of Mutis himself, who asserts that it is indispu- tably derived from that species. But Mutis was mistaken ; for it is now well known that the bark of the C. lancifolia is wholly different from the Calisaya. (See C. lancifolia.) Ruiz was disposed to ascribe it to his C. Ian- ceolata; but Von Bergen found a specimen of the bark of that species in Ruiz's collection to be different from the officinal yellow bark. According to M. Auguste Delondre, who received specimens of the plants producing Calisaya bark from his correspondents in South America, no less than three distinct trees contribute to furnish the bark thrown into commerce under that title. One of these specimens appeared to Guibourt to belong to the Cinchona micrantha, and another to the C. Condaminea. The third re- sembled the latter of these two species, but differed somewhat both in its leaves and fruit. A fourth specimen had fruit like that of the Condaminea, but smaller leaves, and was considered by Guibourt as probably the C. an- gustifolia of Ruiz, now thought to be merely a variety of the C. lancifolia. But this information is quite too vague to lead to any satisfactory conclusion. It may, however, serve to explain the fact, that barks are sometimes im- ported under the name of Calisaya, and derived from the same district of country, which differ from the genuine bark both in appearance and qualities, and will not serve for the preparation of sulphate of quinia.* The genuine Calisaya bark is produced most abundantly, if not exclusive- ly, in Bolivia, formerly Upper Peru, in the province of La Paz, and in the country about Apolobamba on the Rio Paro; and, before the disturbances in these countries, was shipped as well from the port of Buenos Ayres as from those on the Pacific. It is at present, however, procured exclusively from the latter. A very fine parcel was exhibited to us, imported directly from Coquimbo in Chili. We have been informed by gentlemen who have been long personally engaged in commercial transactions upon the Pacific coast of South America, that the Calisaya bark of commerce is originally obtained chiefly, if not exclusively, at the port of Arica, whither it is brought from the interior provinces of Bolivia. From that town it is sent to various other ports on the Pacific. It is generally supposed to have been first intro- duced into commerce towards the end of the last century, and it was pro- bably not known by its present name till that period; but La Condamine states that the Jesuits of La Paz, at a period anterior to the discovery of the febrifuge of Loxa, sent to Rome a very bitter bark by the name of quina- quina, which, though supposed by that traveller to have been derived from the Peruvian balsam tree, was very probably, as conjectured by Guibourt, the true cinchona. Besides, Pomet, in his* History of Drugs, published in 1694, speaks of a bark more bitter than that of Loxa, obtained from the province of Potosi, which borders upon that of La Paz; and Chomel also states that the cinchona tree inhabited the mountains of Potosi, and pro- duced a bark more esteemed than that which grew in the province of Quito. (Guibourt, Journ. de Pharm., xvi. 235.) It is possible that, though known at this early period, it may have gone out of use; and its re-introduction into notice, towards the end of the last century, may have been mistaken for an original discovery. Whether it is found in the other localities of bark in Peru and Quito, it is difficult to determine; but we may infer from the * See Guibourfs Histoire des Drogues, 1836, and an interesting article upon the sub- ject of the origin and collection of the Calisaya bark, in the Journal de Pharmacie, xxi. 505, and in the American Journ. of Pharm., vii. 325. PART I. Cinchona. 229 existence of a commercial variety known to the Spaniards by the name of Calisaya de Quito, that either the identical bark, or a variety closely analo- gous to it, has been found in that province. 3. Red Bark. The name of this variety is very appropriately applied; as the colour is usually distinct both in the bark and the powder. In South America it is called cascarilla roxa and colorada. Some writers have divided it into several sub-varieties ; but there does not seem to be ground for such division in any essential difference of properties. Like the Calisaya, it comes in quills and flat pieces, which are probably derived from different parts of the same tree. It is imported in chests. Some of the pieces are entirely rolled, some partially so, as if they had been taken from half the circumference of the branch ; others are nearly or quite flat. They vary very greatly in size, the quill being sometimes less than half an inch in diameter,sometimes so much as two inches; while the flat pieces are occasionally very large and thick, as if derived from the trunk of a tree. They are covered with a reddish-brown or gray, sometimes whitish epidermis, which is rugged, wrinkled longitudinally, and in the thicker pieces marked with furrows, which in some places penetrate to the surface of the proper bark. In many specimens, numerous small roundish or oblong eminences, called warts, may be observed upon the outer surface. Beneath the epidermis is a layer, dark red, brittle, and compact, which pos- sesses some bitterness and astringency, but much less than the interior parts. These are woody and fibrous, of a more or less lively brownish-red colour, which is usually very distinct, but in some specimens passes into the orange and even yellowish-brown; so that it is not always possible to distinguish the variety by this property alone. The taste is bitter and astringent, and the odour similar to that of other good barks. Red bark is chemically dis- tinguished by containing considerable quantities both of quinia and of cin- chonia.* It yields a turbid salmon-coloured decoction with water. * The red bark is given as a distinct variety by Von Bergen, and stands first on his list, under the name of China rubra, or rothe China. The following is an abstract of his description. The quills are from two lines to an inch and a quarter in diameter, from one-third of a line to two lines thick, and from two to twelve inches or more in length. The smaller quills are often spiral. The flat pieces are from one to two inches broad, from three- eighths to a quarter of an inch thick, and of the same length as the quills. In the smaller and middling-sized quills, the external surface exhibits longitudinal wavy wrinkles. In the thicker pieces, these wrinkles, between which are here and there longitudinal furrows, often elevate themselves into roundish or oblong warts, which are of a somewhat friable and granular consistence. The longitudinal furrows sometimes penetrate to the bark. Transverse fissures seldom occur. The colour in the smaller quills varies from a fawn- gray to a dull reddish-brown, in the larger is reddish-brown or chestnut-brown with a tinge of purple. When the wrinkles and warts are rubbed off, the peculiar brownish-red colour of the bark appears. The pieces are often in part or almost wholly covered with a whitish-gray or yellowish-white coat, either belonging to the epidermis or consisting of lichens. In some of the quills the epidermis is wanting in spots, which exhibit a dirty reddish cinnamon-colour. The inner surface is delicately fibrous and almost uniform in the small quills, but becomes more fibrous and uneven in the larger, and in the flat pieces is splintery and very irregular. Its colour varies with the size of the pieces, being a reddish-rusty brown in the least, redder in the larger, and. a full brownish-red in the largest. The inner surface is also sometimes yellowish, or brownish, or of a dirty appear- ance. It becomes darker when scraped with the nail or other hard body. The fracture exhibits the different colours of the epidermis and inner bark, as also of a resinous layer which lies between the two. It is usually smooth in the smaller quills, fibrous in the larger, and at the same time fibrous and splintery in the largest and flat pieces. The fracture of 21 230 Cinchona. PART I. The species of Cinchona which produces red bark is unknown—the notion derived from Mutis, and formerly generally prevalent, that it was ob- tained from the C. oblongifolia of that botanist, having been demonstrated to be incorrect. For the proofs upon this point, which have now ceased to have any practical importance, the reader is referred to the article Cinchona, section Red Bark, in early editions of this work. It has been supposed that red bark may be derived from the same species with one or more of the pale barks, but taken from the larger branches or the trunk. This opinion receives some support from a statement made by La Condamine, in his memoir upon cinchona. We are told by this author that three kinds of bark were known at Loxa—the white, the yellow, and the red. The white, so named from the colour of the epidermis, scarcely possessed any medi- cinal virtue, and was obtained from a tree entirely distinct from that which yielded the two other varieties. The red was superior to the yellow ; but he was assured, on the very best authority, that the trees producing them grew together, and were not distinguishable by the eye. Of the three varieties mentioned by La Condamine, the white, which was probably one of the inferior barks with micaceous epidermis, does not reach us; and that which he calls yellow is probably identical with the pale variety of the Pharmacopoeia, as this grows abundantly about Loxa. Should it be ad- mitted that the red bark is furnished by the same tree which yields the pale, we have a ready explanation of the difference in size of the two varieties. Carthagena Barks. Under this head may be classed all the Cinchona barks brought from the northern Atlantic ports of South America. In commerce, they are variously called Carthagena, Maracaybo, and Santa Martha barks, according to the particular port at which they may be shipped. They are all characterized by a soft, whitish or yellowish-white, micaceous epidermis, which may be easily scraped by the nail, and which, though often more or less com- pletely removed, almost always leaves behind traces sufficient to indicate its character. They contain cinchonia and quinia, though in smaller proportion than the best barks from the Pacific. Similar barks are found on the Western coast of South America; but they never reach us unless accidentally; as they would not bear the expense of carriage. Such are the white barks of the Spanish writers. The Carthagena barks are not recognised by the Phar- the epidermis, however, is in all either smooth, or only here and there somewhat granular. The odour is like that of tan and earthy, the taste strongly but not disagreeably bitter, somewhat aromatic, and not lasting. The powder is of a dull brownish-red colour. Experiments upon many different specimens of red bark, as stated by Pfaff, give as an average result 1-7 per cent, of pure cinchonia, and 0-44 of sulphate of quinia. The highest product obtained was 3-17 per cent, of cinchonia, and 0-15 of sulphate of quinia. Another specimen yielded 1-21 per cent, of the former, and 1-33 of the latter. Pelletier and Caventou obtained 0-8 per cent, of cinchonia, and 1-7 of quinia. {Geiger.) It appears, therefore, that the proportion of the alkalies is exceedingly different in different specimens. The degree of bitterness is, perhaps, the best criterion of their efficacy. Guibourt divides the red bark into two varieties, which he distinguishes by the names of quinquina rouge verruqueux, and quinquina rouge non verruqueux, from the presence or absence of the warts upon the outer surface. He describes also a variety of bark, under the name of quinquina rouge de Lima, resembling the proper red bark in appear- ance, but without bitterness; and two others, distinguished severally by the names of quinquina rouge orange, and quinquina rouge pale, which, however, merit little attention. (Note to second and fourth editions.) A specimen of bark in our possession, brought by Dr. Dillard, of the TJ. S. Navy, from the Pacific, and labelled red bark of Cuenca, has a thick epidermis like that of the ordi- nary red barks, is of a very deep dark-red colour, and possesses little bitterness. PART I. Cinchona. 231 macopoeias. In the state of powder, however, they are generally kept in the shops, and sold for tooth powder, &c, under the name of common bark. They are not unfrequently substituted, either fraudulently or by mistake, for the better kinds. Like the proper officinal barks they may be arranged into several subdivisions, according to their diversities in colour. 1. Yellow Carthagena Bark. This is by far the most abundant of the non-officinal barks, and the only one uniformly found in the market. It occurs in quills or flat pieces, but most commonly in the latter form, and is distinguished, independently of the peculiar epidermis already described, by the brownish-yellow colour of the proper bark. There are two varieties of it very well characterized by their appearance and other properties, but not distinguished in commerce.* * Von Bergen considers the Carthagena barks under the two divisions of 1. China flava dura, or harte gelbe China, and 2. China flava fibrosa, or holzige gelbe China. As these, with the varieties before noticed as described by him, complete the nine divisions under which he ranks the barks of commerce, we shall give a brief abstract of his account of them. 1. China flava dura, or hard yellow bark.—This is in quills and flat pieces. The quills are from three to eight lines in diameter, from half a line to a line and a half thick, and from five to nine inches, and sometimes, though rarely, even fifteen inches long. The flat pieces are considerably thicker, from half an inch to two inches broad, and from four to eight in length. They are often somewhat twisted, and so curved in the drying that the upper surface is rather concave. The epidermis is in many pieces partially or almost wholly wanting. The outer surface is on the whole rather smooth, though it usually ex- hibits a few faint longitudinal furrows and transverse fissures, and pieces are occasionally found with hard warts or protuberances. In the flat pieces, the epidermis, when present, has somewhat of the consistence of cork, and consists of several layers. The colour of the epidermis varies from yellowish-white to ash-gray, and is sometimes diversified by bluish-gray or blackish lichens. When it is wanting, the colour is between a dark cinnamon and brownish-yellow. These shades, however, are seldom clear, and the flat pieces have usually a somewhat dusty aspect. The inner surface of the quills is tolerably uniform, that of the flat pieces uneven or faintly furrowed and even splintery, the points of the splinters often projecting. Its colour, which is almost always dull, as if the surface were dusty, varies between a light cinnamon and a dull ochre-yellow, and in some pieces is rusty-brown, or fawn-gray, or even whitish-yellow. The bark does not readily break in the longitudinal direction. The transverse fracture presents short splinters, and is sometimes fibrous. When cut transversely, the bark obscurely exhibits a very small darker-coloured resinous layer beneath the epidermis. The odour is feeble, the taste slightly astringent and bitter, but not strongly so. The powder is of the colour of cinna- mon. Von Bergen attributes this variety to C. cordifolia. 2. China flava fibrosa, or fibrous yellow bark.—In shape and dimensions, this variety does not materially differ from the preceding; but the flatter pieces are almost always a little rolled, or curved laterally. The epidermis is seldom entire, being in general either in part or wholly rubbed off. When present, it resembles in consistence that of the former variety. Its outer surface is nearly smooth, only marked here and there with faint irre- gular transverse fissures and longitudinal furrows. Its colour varies from a dirty whitish- gray to yellowish, but is sometimes more or less dark. When the outer surface is rubbed off, as is the case here and there in the quills, and almost always in the flat pieces, the colour is a nearly pure ochre-yellow. Where the whole thickness of the epidermis is wanting, as happens here and there in spots, it is dark cinnamon, or dark ochre-yellow, and commonly dull or powdery. The inner surface is usually even, but is sometimes irregular and splintery, and always feels harsh to the fingers, leaving small splinters sticking in the skin when drawn over it. The colour is a nearly pure ochre-yellow, like that of the external surface when the outer layer is rubbed off, though somewhat duller and very powdery. The fracture distinguishes this variety from the preceding and from all others. The longitudinal fracture is strikingly fibrous, and in the flat pieces the fragments still hang together by connecting fibres. The bark, moreover, breaks obliquely, and the fracture even of the epidermis, which in other varieties is almost always smooth, is here uneven or rough-grained. The transverse fracture exhibits very long and thin splinters or fibres, which are very flexible and may almost be said to be soft. No traces of a resinous appearance are observable in the fracture. The odour is feeble, the taste at first woody and flat, afterwards slightly bitter and astringent, and weaker in this than in 232 Cinchona. part i. Hard yellow Carthagena Bark (China flava dura of Von Bergen) is in pieces of various size and form, sometimes wholly or partially quilled, and sometimes flat; and the flat pieces present the appearance of having been warped in drying, being frequently curved longitudinally backward, and sometimes also in the transverse direction or spirally. The dimen- sions are sometimes those given by Von Bergen (see note); but, as found in this market, the bark is more commonly in small, irregularly square or oblong, flattish, and variously warped pieces, from one to three or four inches long, and from one to three lines in thickness, mixed with small quills or fragments of quills; the former appearing as if chipped from the trunk or large branches, the latter evidently derived from the small branches. In this shape it was treated of, in former editions of this work, as a distinct variety, under the name of Santa Martha bark, which it at one time held in the market; but a closer examination has convinced us that it is the same bark as the hard yellow bark of Von Bergen, though collected in a different manner. The quills are generally more covered with the mica- ceous epidermis than the flat pieces, in which it is often nearly or quite removed. The inner surface of the latter, though sometimes smooth, is often rough and splintery, as if forcibly separated from the wood to which it adhered. The colour of the proper bark is a pale, dull, brownish-yellow, darker in parcels which have been long kept; and the surface often appears as if rubbed over with powdered bark. The texture is rather firm and compact, and the fracture abrupt without being smooth or presenting long splinters. The taste is bitter and nauseous. This variety of bark is thought to be obtained from the C. cordifolia; as Guibourt found that a specimen of the bark of that tree, which came originally from Mutis, resembled it pre- cisely in all its sensible properties. Fibrous yellow Carthagena Bark (China flava fibrosa of Von Bergen) is said by Von Bergen and Pereira sometimes to occur in quills, but we have seen it only in flat or slightly rolled pieces, which are from half an inch to two inches broad, and from four to six or even nine inches long. It differs from the former variety chiefly in a somewhat brighter colour, and in its less compact and very fibrous texture, which causes it to exhibit long splinters when broken transversely, and often to hang together by connect- ing fibres when broken longitudinally, (See Note.) We have seen specimens of a bark, of which large quantities were brought in a cargo from Maracaybo, presenting the general aspect, and in a striking degree the fibrous texture of this variety, but in rather larger pieces, and differing also somewhat in the colour, which, instead of being a nearly pure ochre-yellow, has an orange tint, especially in the exterior portion, where it is decidedly reddish in some of the pieces. It closely resembles the offici- nal yellow or Calisaya, for which it might be mistaken by an inexperienced person, and, if regarded only upon its inner surface, even by the most ex- perienced. But it is rather thicker, less hard, compact, and heavy, and much more fibrous than the Calisaya, and, though in general deprived of the epidermis, yet occasionally exhibits remains of it, having the characters any other variety of bark, The colour of the powder is intermediate between that of cinnamon and yellow ochre. The tree from which this variety is obtained is unknown. Of these two varieties of Carthagena bark, the first yielded, on an average of two ex- periments, 0-57 per cent, of pure cinchonia, and 0-33 percent, of sulphate of quinia; the second yielded, on an average of five trials with different specimens, 0-4 per cent, of pure cinchonia, and 0-36 of sulphate of quinia. The highest product of the woody bark was about 0-5y per cent, of cinchonia, and 0-52 of sulphate of quinia. From this statement, it appears that, so far as regards the relative proportion of their two active ingredients, they should rank with the red bark, though greatly inferior to it in strength. PART I. Cinchona. 23a of that of the Carthagena barks, and, where it is quite absent, appears as though it had been removed by scraping or cutting with a knife, and not spontaneously separated at the natural juncture, as in the Calisaya. Besides, the bark is spongy under the teeth, and wants the strong peculiar bitterness of the officinal yellow. Still it has a decidedly bitter taste, and its infusion, though not precipitated by solution of sulphate of soda, affords a copious precipitate with infusion of galls, indicating the presence of no inconsiderable proportion of the active alkaline principles. A specimen of bark labelled yellow bark of Loxa, brought from South America by Dr. Dillard, of the U. States Navy, and said to be employed in Loxa for making extract of bark, presents characters closely analogous to those of the fibrous Carthagena bark, and sufficient to justify the supposition that it was derived from the same species of Cinchona. The powder of yellow Carthagena bark has a yellowish cinnamon-colour, with less of the reddish tint than the Calisaya, for which, however, it may be readily mistaken, and, there is reason to believe, is not unfrequently sold. It may be distinguished by its comparatively feeble bitterness; but much more certainly by the test of sulphate of soda, which throws down no pre- cipitate with its infusion. 2. Red Carthagena Bark. This name prorierly belongs to a bark known to the French pharmaceutists by the name of quinquina nova or new bark, and ascertained to be Mutis's red bark of Santa Fe, produced by his Cin- chona oblongifolia—the C. magnifolia of the Flora Peruviana. It is never found in our markets, unless sometimes, possibly, as an adulteration of the officinal red bark.* A red bark, with whitish and micaceous epidermis, thick, spongy, and of little taste, is sometimes mixed with the packages of the officinal red bark from the Pacific. May it not be the product of the same species of Cinchona, which grows in Peru as well as in New Granada? 3. Orange Carthagena Bark. This is the orange cinchona of Santa Fe,so highly lauded by Mutis, and the spongy Carthagena bark of Guibourt. It has occurred in commerce in large, flat, somewhat curved, or semi-cylin- drical pieces, sometimes as much as three or four inches broad, a foot long, and nine lines in thickness, covered with a yellowish-white, micaceous epi- dermis, marked with longitudinal and sometimes transverse fissures. The bark itself is of an orange colour, externally fibrous, light, spongy under the teeth, without taste or very feebly bitter, and destitute of virtues. It yields a beautiful orange powder. It scarcely occurs in commerce. The destruc- tion at Cadiz by the Spanish authorities, of a large quantity of this bark, collected by Mutis at the expense of the government, which was ascribed by Humboldt to mercantile cunning, is now considered as an indication of a just appreciation of its virtues. The bark is the product of C. lancifolia. * As described by Guibourt, this bark is in pieces a foot or more long, rolled when small, open, or nearly flat when larger, in general of a perfectly cylindrical form ; with a whitish, thin, uniform epidermis, showing scarcely any cryptogamia, and but a few trans- verse fissures answering to those of the liber, and sometimes entirely wanting; one to three lines thick without the epidermis; of a pale carnation colour, becoming deeper in the air, especially upon the outer surface, which, when destitute of epidermis, is always reddish-brown; of a fracture which is foliaceous in the outer part, and short-fibrous in the inner; and exhibiting, under the microscope, between its fibres, and especially between the lamin;e,a great abundance of two granular matters, of which one is red and the other whitish. In some pieces the fracture exhibits, nearer the external than the internal sur- face, a yellow, transparent, resinous or gummy exudation. The taste is flat and astringent like that of tan, the odour feeble, between that of tan and the pale barks. The powder is fibrous and decidedly red. Examined by Pelletier and Caventou it afforded neither quinia nor cinchonia. 21* 234 Cinchona. PART I. 4. Brown Carthagena Bark. Under this name Guibourt has described a bark of a white and smooth epidermis, rough, hard, compact, very heavy, sometimes as much as half an inch in thickness, of an orange-brown colour when freshly cut, and a chocolate colour upon its inner surface, and of a bitter astringent taste analogous to that of the pale barks, but more disagree- able. Some of the pieces from the smaller branches are completely quilled, and others somewhat larger appear as if warped or contorted by desiccation. Pereira thinks this may be a variety of the hard yellow Carthagena bark. We have not met in this market with specimens answering the description of Guibourt. False Barks. Before dismissing the subject of the varieties of cinchona, it is proper to observe that numerous barks have at various times been introduced into the market, and sold as closely resembling or identical with the febrifuge of Peru, which experience has proved to differ from it materially, both in chemi- cal composition and medicinal virtues. These barks are generally procured from trees which were formerly ranked among the Cinchonas, but are now arranged in other genera. They are distinguished from the true Peruvian bark by the absence of quinia and cinchonia. Among them are 1. the Cari- baean bark, from the Exostemma Caribaea; 2. the St. Lucia bark, or quin- quina piton of the French, derived from the Exostemma floribunda; and 3. the Pitaya bark, from the mountain of Pitaya in Columbia, of uncertain botanical origin, known in France by the name of quinquina bicolore, and in Italy by that of china bicolorala. Of these the last only is known in this country. A considerable quantity of it was some time since imported into New Orleans, whence a portion reached this city. The specimen in our possession is in quills, for the most part singly, but in some instances doubly rolled, from eight to ten inches to more than two feet in length, and from a quarter of an inch to an inch or more in diameter. The outer sur- face is of a dull grayish-olive colour, with numerous large oval or irregular spots much lighter coloured, sometimes even whitish, and slightly depressed beneath the general surface, as if a layer of the epidermis had fallen off within their limits. It is to this appearance that the bark owes its name of bicolorata. The colour of the internal surface is deep brown or almost blackish; that of the fresh fracture, brownish-red or orange. The bark is hard, compact, and thin, seldom as much as a line in thickness, and breaks with a short but not smooth fracture. Its taste is very bitter, and of a flavour not unlike that of some of the inferior kinds of cinchona. It is without odour. Folchi and Peretti found in it a new crystallizable alkaline prin- ciple, which they named pitaina. It has been considerably employed by the Italian physicians, and Brera found it to cure intermittents in the quan- tity of half an ounce. Chemical History. In the analysis of Peruvian bark, the attention of chemists was at first directed exclusively to the action of water and alcohol upon it, and to the de- termination of the relative proportions of its gummy or extractive and resin- ous matter. The presence of tannin and of various alkaline or earthy salts in minute quantities was afterwards demonstrated. Fourcroy made an ela- borate analysis, which proved the existence of other principles in the bark besides those previously ascertained. Dr. Westring was the first who at- tempted the discovery of an active principle in the bark, on which its febri- fuge virtues might depend; but he was unable to carry out his conception PART I. Cinchona. 235 to a successful result. Seguin afterwards pursued the same track, and endeavoured, by observing the effects of various reagents, to discover the relative value of different varieties of the drug. The conclusions, however, at which he arrived, have not been supported by subsequent experiment. M. Deschamps, an apothecary of Lyons, obtained from bark a crystallizable salt of lime, the acid of which Vauquelin afterwards separated, and called kinic acid. The latter chemist also pushed to a much further extent the researches of Seguin, as to the influence of reagents. He examined seven- teen different kinds of bark, which he arranged in three classes, according to their chemical relation with certain reagents—the first class including those which afforded precipitates with tannin and not with gelatin; the second, those which precipitated gelatin and not tannin; the third, those which precipitated at the same time tannin, gelatin, and tartar emetic. He supposed those to be the most efficientwhich gave precipitates with tannin or the infusion of galls. Reuss, of Moscow, succeeded in isolating a peculiar colouring matter from red bark, which he designated by the name of cin- chonic red, and obtained a bitter substance, which probably consisted in part of the peculiar alkaline principles subsequently discovered. The first step, however, towards the discovery of cinchonia and quinia appears to have been taken by the late Dr. Duncan, of Edinburgh. He believed the precipitate afforded by the infusion of cinchona with that of galls, to be a peculiar vegetable principle, and accordingly denominated it cinchonine. Dr. Gomez, a Portuguese physician, convinced that the active principle of bark resided in this cinchonine, but mixed with impurities, instituted experi- ments upon some pale bark, which resulted in the separation of a white crys- talline substance, considered by him to be the pure cinchonine of Dr. Duncan. It was obtained by the action of potassa upon an aqueous infusion of the alcoholic extract of the bark, and was undoubtedly the principle now uni- versally known by the name of cinchonine or cinchonia. But Dr. Gomez was ignorant of its precise nature, considering it to be analogous to resin. M. Laubert afterwards obtained the same principle by a different process, and described it under the name of white matter, or pure while resin. To Pelletier and Caventou was reserved the honour of crowning all these expe- riments, and applying the results which they obtained to important practical purposes. They demonstrated the alkaline character of the principle dis- covered by Gomez and Laubert, and gave it definitively the name of cincho- nine. They discovered in the yellow or Calisaya bark another alkaline principle which they denominated quinine. Both these bases they proved to exist in the barks, combined with the kinic acid in the state of kinate of cinchonine and of quinine. It has moreover been established by their labours, that the febrifuge property of bark depends upon the presence of these two principles. It was in the year 1820 that these chemists an- nounced their discovery. Dr. Duncan's suggestion was made so early as 1803. Among English and American chemists, the names of these alkaline bodies have been changed to cinchonia and quinia, for the sake of uniformity of nomenclature; and by these names we shall always call them.* * In a previous note it has been stated, that Pelletier and Coriol had discovered an alkali called aricina in the Arica or Cusco bark. It was obtained by the same process as that employed in the extraction of quinia from yellow bark. It is white, crystalliza- ble, and distinguishable, from cinchonia, which it in many respects resembles, by exhibit- ing a green colour under the action of nitric acid, and by the property, possessed by its sulphate, of forming a tremulous jelly, when a saturated boiling solution of the salt is allowed to cool. Manzini obtained from Jaen bark an alkaline substance which he sup- posed to be peculiar, and named cinchovatin; but the same had been obtained by Bou- chardat, and considered by him, as well as by Pelletier, to be identical with aricina; and 236 Cinchona. PART I. It has before been stated, on more than one occasion, that the three offici- nal varieties of bark are distinguished by peculiarities of composition. We give the result of the analysis of each variety, as obtained by Pelletier and Caventou. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 70. 89. 92.) Pale bark of Loxa contains, 1. a fatty matter; 2. a red colouring matter, very slightly soluble, identical with the cinchonic red of Reuss ; 3. a yellow colouring matter, soluble in water and alcohol, and capable of being precipi- tated by the subacetate of lead; 4. tannin; 5. gum; 6. starch; 7. lignin; 8. kinate of lime; 9. kinate of cinchonia, with a very minute proportion of kinate of quinia. Yellow Calisaya bark contains the fatty matter, the cinchonic red, the yellow colouring matter, tannin, starch, lignin, kinate of lime, and kinate of quinia, with a comparatively, small proportion of kinate of cinchonia.* Red bark contains the fatty matter, a large quantity of the cinchonic red, the yellow colouring matter, tannin, starch, lignin, kinate of lime, and a large proportion both of kinate of quinia, and of kinate of cinchonia. Carthagena bark contains the same ingredients with the red bark, but in different proportions. It has less of the alkaline matter, which it also yields with much greater difficulty to water, in consequence of the abundance of insoluble cinchonic red which it contains, and which either involves the salts of quinia and cinchonia so as to prevent the full contact of water, or retains these alkalies in combination. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 105.) By the experiments of Henry, jun., and Plisson, it may be considered as established, that the alkalies of the different varieties of bark are combined at the same time with kinic acid, and with one or more of the colouring matters, which, in relation to these substances, appear to act the part of acids. This idea was originally suggested by Robiquet. (Journ. de Pharm., xii. 282. 369.) It is stated that the compounds of quinia and cinchonia with the cinchonic red are scarcely soluble in water, while the kinates of these bases are very soluble. (Ibid., xvii. 201.) From the statements above made, it appears that the three officinal varie- ties of bark differ little except in the proportion of their constituents. All contain both quinia and cinchonia; the yellow bark abounding in the first, the pale in the second, and the red in both. Gum is the only constituent found in one and not in the others. It is an ingredient in the pale bark, but is wanting in the red and yellow. The odour of bark appears to depend on a volatile oil which Fabroni and Trommsdorff obtained by distillation with water. The oil floated on the surface of the water, was of a thick consistence, and had a bitterish acrid taste, with the odour of bark. Winkler, having extracted a portion from the bark, and examined it with great care, coincides in this conclusion. {Journ. de Pharm., et de Chim., 3e ser., ii. 95 et 313; Pharm. Central Blatt, A. D. 1844, p. 126.) Aricina, in the present state of our knowledge respecting it, is of no practical importance. * Winkler is said to have discovered in Calisaya bark a peculiar bitter principle, which he found also in greater proportion in the new bark {kina nova), and for which he proposes the name of kinovic bitter. It is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, without alkaline or acid properties, and without nitrogen in its composition. Winkler ob- tained it from the new bark by treating this in fine powder with ether, evaporating the ether, treating the residue with alcohol, then decolorizing the solution by means of animal charcoal, and precipitating the bitter principle by ammonia. It exists in the new bark along with a peculiar acid discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, and denominated by them kvnomc acid. This acid is somewhat analogous to the stearic, being white, shining, light, slightly soluble in water, and readily soluble in alcohol and ether. Schnederman thinks that he has proved this acid and the kinovic bitter to be identical, but, as it has acid properties, it should retain the name of kinovic acid. {Journ. fur vrakt Ch xxviii. p. 327.) J r "' PART I. Cinchona. 237 The fatty matter, which was first obtained pure by M. Laubert, is of a greenish colour as obtained from the pale bark, orange-yellow from the yel- low. It is insoluble in water, soluble in boiling alcohol, which deposits a part of it on cooling, very soluble in sulphuric ether even cold, and capable of forming soaps with the alkalies. The colour is probably owing to extra- neous matter connected with it. The cinchonic red of Reuss, the insoluble red colouring matter of Pelle- tier and Caventou, is reddish-brown, insipid, inodorous, largely soluble in alcohol, especially when hot, and almost insoluble in ether or water, though the latter dissolves a little at the boiling temperature. The acids promote its solubility in water. It precipitates tartar emetic, but not gelatin ; but, if treated with a cold solution of potassa or soda, or by ammonia, lime, or baryta with heat, and precipitated by an acid from the solution thus formed, it acquires the property of forming an insoluble compound with gelatin, and seems to be converted into a species of tannin. It is precipitated by sub- acetate of lead. It is most abundant in the red bark, and least so in the pale. Berzelius supposes it to consist of tannin and apotheme, and to be formed from tannin by the action of the air. The yellow colouring matter has little taste, is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, precipitates neither gelatin nor tartar emetic, and is itself pre- cipitated by subacetate of lead. The tannic acid, tannin, or soluble red colouring matter of Pelletier and Caventou, has been considered as possessing all the properties which charac- terize the proximate vegetable principles associated together under the name of tannic acid. It has a brownish-red colour and austere taste, is soluble in water and alcohol, combines with metallic oxides, and. produces precipitates with the salts of iron, which vary in colour according to the variety of bark; being deep green with the pale bark, blackish-brown with the yellow, and reddish-brown with the red. It also forms white precipitates with tartar emetic and gelatin, and readily combines with atmospheric oxygen, becom- ing insoluble. It must, however, differ materially from the tannin or tannic acid of galls, which could not exist in aqueous solutions containing cincho- nia without forming an insoluble compound with that base. But the most interesting and important constituents of Peruvian bark are the cinchonia and quinia, and the acid with which they are combined. In relation to these, therefore, we shall be more minute in our details. Cinchonia when pure is a white crystalline substance, soluble in 2500 parts of boiling water, almost insoluble in cold water, very soluble in boiling alcohol, which deposits a portion in the crystalline state upon cooling, and slightly soluble in ether and the fixed and volatile oils. Its bitter taste, at first not very obvious in consequence of its difficult solubility, is developed after a short time by the solution of a minute portion in the saliva. Its alcoholic, ethereal, and oleaginous solutions are very bitter. By heat it is at the same time melted and decomposed. Its alkaline character is very decided, as it neutralizes the strongest acids, forming with them saline compounds. Of the salts of cinchonia, the sulphate, nitrate, muriate, phos- phate, and acetate are soluble in water. The neutral, tartrate, oxalate, and gallate are insoluble in cold water, but may be dissolved in hot water, in alcohol, or in an excess of acid. Several processes have been employed for the preparation of cinchonia. One of the simplest is the following. Powdered pale bark is submitted to the action of sulphuric or muriatic acid very much diluted, and the solution thus obtained is precipitated by an ex- cess of lime. The precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with water, and treated with boiling alcohol. The alcoholic solution is filtered while hot, and deposits the cinchonia when it cools. A further quantity is ob- 238 Cinchona. PART I. tained by evaporation. If not perfectly white, it may be freed from colour by first converting it into a sulphate with dilute sulphuric acid, then treat- ing the solution with animal charcoal, filtering, precipitating by an alkali, and redissolving by alcohol in the manner already mentioned. It may also be obtained from the mother waters of sulphate of quinia, by diluting them with water, precipitating with ammonia, collecting the precipitate on a filter, washing and drying it, and then dissolving it in boiling alcohol, which deposits the cinchonia in a crystalline form upon cooling. It may be still further purified by a second solution and crystallization. Cinchonia con- sists of 1 equivalent of nitrogen, 20 of carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 1 of oxygen (NCJEL^O); and its combining number may be stated at 154, hydro- gen being considered as unity. Exposed to the air, it does not suffer decom- position, but very slowly absorbs carbonic acid, and acquires the property of effervescing slightly with acids. It may be distinguished, when dissolved in the saline state in water, from any other vegetable alkali, by a reddish somewhat orange colour, produced by the addition first of liquid chlorine and then of ammonia to the solution.* It is precipitated of a sulphur-yellow by the perchloride of gold. (Journ. de Chim. Med., Oct., 1842.) Sulphate of cinchonia, or more strictly disulphate of cinchonia, the only salt of this base which has been employed to any extent in a separate state, may be prepared by heating cinchonia with a little water, adding dilute sulphuric acid gradually till the alkali is dissolved, then boiling with animal charcoal previously washed with muriatic acid, filtering the solution while hot, and setting it aside to crystallize. By alternate evaporation and crys- tallization, the whole of the sulphate may be obtained from the solution. It is a white, very bitter salt, crystallizing in flexible, somewhat shining, four- sided, flattened prisms, terminated by an inclined face, and generally col- lected in fasciculi. It is soluble in fifty-four parts of water at common tem- peratures, and in a smaller quantity of boiling water. Chemists consider it as a disulphate. By the addition of the necessary quantity of acid, it passes into the neutral sulphate, which is soluble in less than half its weight of water at 58°. It consists, according to Pelletier and Caventou, of 100 parts of cinchonia, and 13*021 of sulphuric acid. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 57.) Quinia (Quina, Lond.) is whitish, and, as usually prepared, is rather flocculent in its appearance, not crystalline like cinchonia. It may, how- ever, be crystallized, by cautious management, from its alcoholic solution, in pearly silky needles. (Journ. de Pharm., xi. 249.) It is fusible without chemical change at about 300° F., and becomes brittle on cooling. It is more bitter than cinchonia, is almost insoluble in water, but is very soluble in alcohol, and soluble also in ether, and in the fixed and volatile oils. Its alcoholic solution is intensely bitter. It unites with the acids to form salts, which crystallize Avith facility. The gallate, tartrate, and oxalate are said * Cinchonia, quinia, and strychnia, when heated with caustic potassa, yield acrid va- pours, which condense into an oily liquid having alkaline properties, for which the name of quinolein was proposed by its discoverer M. Gerhardt, and which is also called cincholin. It has a peculiar odour, not unlike that of the bean of Saint Ignatius, and an extremely acrid and bitter taste, is slightly soluble in water, and freely so in alcohol, ether, and the volatile oils; produces crystallizable salts with the acids; and is characterized by producing a yel- low crystalline precipitate with chromic acid. It results also from the dry distillation of quinia. {Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3eser., ii. 341.) Dr. A. W. Hoffmann has found that a substance called kucol, existing in coal-gas naphtha, is identical with cincholin. {Chem. Gazette, June, 1845, p. 251.) Mr. Stenhouse proposes as a test of the presence of alkaline principles in bark, to macerate with dilute sulphuric acid, precipitate with an excess of carbonate of potassa or soda, and distil the precipitate with a great excess of caustic potassa or soda. Cincholin will distil over in oily drops, recognizable by their peculiar odour and strong alkaline properties. {Philos. ilfag.,xxvi. 199.) PART I. Cinchona. 239 to be insoluble, or nearly so, in cold water, but are dissolved by an excess of acid. It is unalterable in the air, not even absorbing carbonic acid. Its salts may be distinguished from those of the other vegetable alkalies by the beautiful emerald green colour which results, when their solution is treated first with solution of chlorine and then with ammonia, and which changes to a white or violet upon saturation with a dilute acid. They are precipitated of a buff colour by perchloride of gold. (Journ. de Chim. Med., Oct., 1842.) Quinia consists of 1 equivalent of nitrogen, 20 of carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 2 of oxygen (NC2,Hia02); and its combining number is 162. This number, however, is founded on the opinion, that of the two salts which quinia forms with sulphuric acid, the one originally considered neutral, and denominated simply sulphate of quinia, is in fact basic, consisting of two equivalents of the base, and one of the acid, while the other, at first supposed to be a supersalt, is strictly neutral, consisting of one equivalent of each of its. ingredients. The same remark is applicable to the combining number of cinchonia. Quinia is obtained by treating its sulphate with the solution of an alkali, collecting the precipitate which forms, washing it till the water comes away tasteless, then drying it, dissolving it in alcohol, and slowly evaporating the solution. The only important artificial salt of quinia is the sulphate, the process for procuring which, as well as its properties, will be hereafter described. (See Quiniae Sulphas, among the Preparations.) The muriate, phosphate, acetate, citrate, valerianate, lactate, ferrocyanate, and tannate have also been em- ployed and recommended; but none of them has yet gained a reputation which entitles it to rank among standard remedies. The first six may be prepared by saturating a solution of the acids respectively with quinia, and evaporating the solutions. M. Devay prepares the valerianate by adding a slight excess of the acid to a concentrated alcoholic solution of quinia, then diluting the solution with twice its volume of water, and evaporating at a temperature not exceeding 122° F. After the evaporation of the alco- hol, the valerianate appears in fine crystals. (Ann. de Therap., A. D. 1845, p. 136.) The ferrocyanate is made by boiling together two parts of sulphate of quinia and three of ferrocyanuret of potassium in a very little water, pouring off the liquor from a greenish-yellow substance of an oily consistence which is precipitated, washing the latter with distilled water, then dissolving it in strong alcohol at 100° F., filtering immediately, and afterwards evaporating the solution. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xii. 351.) M. Pelouze, however, found this preparation to be pure quinia, mixed with a little Prussian blue. (Archives Gen., 3e ser., xv. 236.) The tannate may be prepared by precipitating the infusion of bark, or solution of sulphate of quinia, by the infusion of galls or solution of tannic acid, and then washing and drying the precipitate. Either of these salts may be given in the same dose as the sulphate. Kinic Acid (called also Cinchonic, or Quinic Acid), and the Kinates of Cinchonia and Quinia. It may be desirable to procure the alkaline princi- ples in that state of saline combination in which they exist in the bark; as it is possible that they may exert an influence over the system in this state, somewhat different from that produced by their combinations with the sul- phuric or other mineral acid. As it is impossible to procure the kinates immediately from the bark in a pure state, it becomes necessary first to obtain the kinic acid separately, which may thus become of some practical import- ance. We shall, therefore, briefly describe the mode of procuring it, and its characteristic properties. By evaporating the infusion of bark to a solid consistence, and treating the extract thus obtained with alcohol, we have in the residue a viscid matter consisting chiefly of mucilage with kinate of 240 Cinchona. PART I. lime, which is insoluble in alcohol. If an aqueous solution of this substance be formed, and allowed to evaporate at a gentle heat, crystals of the kinate are deposited, which may be purified by a second crystallization. The salt thus obtained, being dissolved in water, is decomposed by means of oxalic acid, which precipitates the lime and leaves the kinic acid in solution. This may be procured in the crystalline state by spontaneous evaporation, though as usually prepared, it is in the form of a thick syrupy liquid. The crystals are transparent and colourless, sour to the taste, and readily soluble in alcohol and in water.* The kinates of cinchonia and quinia may be obtained either by a direct combination of their constituents, or by the mutual decomposition of the sulphates of those alkalies and the kinate of lime. The kinate of cinchonia has a bitter and astringent taste, is very soluble in water, is soluble also in alcohol, and is crystallized with difficulty. The kinate of quinia is also very soluble in water, but less so in rectified alcohol. Its taste is very bitter, resembling exactly that of yellow bark. It crystallizes in crusts of a mammillated form, and opaque or semitransparent. The salt is with difficulty obtained free from colour, and only by employing the ingredients in a state of extreme purity. (Ann. de. Chim. et de Phys., Juillet, 1829.) Of the relations of bark with the several solvents employed in pharmacy we shall speak hereafter, under the heads of its infusion, decoction, and tincture; where we shall also have an opportunity of mentioning some of the more prominent substances which afford precipitates with its liquid pre- parations. It is sufficient at present to state, that all the substances which precipitate the infusion of bark do not by any means necessarily affect its virtues; as it contains several inert ingredients which form insoluble com- pounds with bodies which do not disturb its active principles. As tannic acid forms with quinia and cinchonia compounds insoluble in water, it is desirable that substances containing this acid, in a free state, should not be prescribed in connexion with the infusion or decoction of bark; for, though this insoluble tannate might be found efficacious if administered, yet, being precipitated from the liquid, it would be apt to be thrown away as dregs, or at any rate would communicate, if agitated, an unpleasant turbidness. It is evident from what has been said, that an infusion of bark, on account of the tannin-like principle which it contains, may precipitate gelatin, tartar emetic, and the salts of iron, without having a particle of cinchonia or quinia in its composition; and that consequently any inference as to its value drawn from these chemical properties, would be fallacious: but, as the active princi- ples are thrown down by the tannic acid of galls, no bark can be considered good which does not afford a precipitate with the infusion of this substance. It is impossible to determine, with accuracy, the relative proportion of the active ingredients in the different varieties of cinchona; as the quantity is by no means uniform in different specimens of the same variety. Pelletier and Caventou state, in their first memoir, that they had been able to obtain only 2 parts of cinchonia from 1000 of pale bark; while from an equal quantity of the yellow they had succeeded in extracting 9 parts of quinia, and from * When kinic acid is mixed with sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, and distilled, a neutral substance is obtained, called kinoile or kinone, in crystalhne needles, of a beautiful golden yellow colour and high lustre, fusible and volatilizable without change, and having a peculiar odour. The production of this substance, when a concentrated decoction of a bark is distilled with half its weight of sulphuric acid and peroxide of manga- nese, has been proposed as a test of the presence of kinic acid in the bark, and conse- quently of its belonging to the cinchonas. If there is the least quantity of that acid, the first portion of liquid distilled will have a yellow colour and the odour of kinone, and will become bright green on the addition of chlorine water. {Philos. Mag., xxvi. 198.) PART I. Cinchona. 241 the red, 8 parts of cinchonia and 17 parts of quinia. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 92.) But either they employed inferior specimens of the first two varieties, or did not completely exhaust those upon which they experimented. Ac- cording to a statement subsequently made by them to the French institute, they obtained from the best Calisaya bark 2-9 per Cent, of sulphate of quinia, from inferior kinds 1*5 percent.; and the average result was 2-33 percent. (North Am. Med. and Surg. Journ., v. 475.) Accounts generally agree in giving less alkaline matter to the pale barks than to the yellow, and more to the red than to either. Mr. Viltmann, of Osnabruck, obtained from the Huanuco bark 3*5 per cent, of cinchonia, from the Calisaya or royal yellow, 5 per cent, of quinia, from the red, 6 per cent, of quinia and cinchonia, and from the Carthagena, 3*3 per cent, of alkaline matter. (Journ. de Chim. Medicate, Nov., 1830.) We cannot, however, avoid suspecting some inac- curacy in the steps by which he obtained results so far exceeding those of the experienced French chemists before quoted. The following mode of estimating the value of bark by the quantity of alkaline matter it contains, we copy from a communication of M. Tilloy, of Dijon, published in the 13th vol. of the Journ. de Pharmacie, p.330. "Take an ounce of the bark coarsely powdered, introduce it into about 12 ounces of alcohol of 30° B. (sp. gr. 0*8748), expose the mixture half an hour to a temperature of from 105° to 120° F., draw off the alcohol, add a fresh portion, and act as before; unite the liquors, and throw into them a sufficient quantity of acetate or subacetate of lead to precipitate the colouring matter and kinic acid, then allow the insoluble matter to subside, and filter. Add to the filtered liquor a few drops of sulphuric acid to separate the excess of acetate of lead, filter and distil off the alcohol. There remains an acetate or sulphate of quinia, according to the quantity of sulphuric acid employed, together with a fatty matter which will adhere to the vessel. Decant the liquor, and add ammonia, which will instantaneously precipitate the quinia. Too much ammonia will retain it in solution, but in this case a few drops of sulphuric acid will cause it to precipitate. The quinia washed with warm water, and then treated with sulphuric acid, water, and a little animal char- coal, yields very white sulphate of quinia. I have thus obtained in six hours nine grains of the sulphate from an ounce of bark [576 grains French], which is a large proportion when allowances are made for the loss during the process." The Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia gives the fol- lowing mode of testing the value of yellow bark. "A filtered decoction of 100 grains in two fluidounces of distilled water gives, with a fluidounce of concentrated solution of carbonate of soda, a precipitate, which, when heated in the fluid, becomes a fused mass, weighing when cold two grains or more, and easily soluble in solution of oxalic acid." Medical Properties and Uses. This valuable remedy was unknown to the civilized world till about the middle of the seventeenth century; though the natives of Peru are generally supposed to have been long previously acquainted with its febrifuge powers. Humboldt, however, is of a different opinion. In his Memoir on the Cin- chona forests, he states that it is entirely unknown as a remedy to the Indians inhabiting the country where it grows; and as these people adhere with pertinacity to the practices of their ancestors, he concludes that it never was employed by them. They have generally the most violent prejudices against it, considering it absolutely poisonous; and in the treatment of fever prefer the milder indigenous remedies. Humboldt is disposed to ascribe the dis- 22 242 Cinchona. PART I. covery of the febrifuge powers of the bark to the Jesuits, who were sent to Peru as missionaries. As bitters had been chiefly relied on in the treatment of intermittent fevers, and as bitterness was observed to be a predominant property in the bark of certain trees which were felled in clearing the forests, the missionaries were naturally led to give it a trial in the same complaint. They accordingly administered an infusion of the bark in the tertian ague, then a prevalent disorder in Peru, and soon ascertained its extraordinary powers. A tradition to this effect is said by Humboldt to be current at Loxa. Ruiz and Pavon, however, ascribe the discovery to the Indians. The Countess of Cinchon, wife of the Viceroy of Peru, having in her own person experienced the beneficial effects of the bark, is said, on her return to Spain in the year 1640, to have first introduced the remedy into Europe. Hence the name of pulvis Commitissx, by which it was first known. After its introduction, it was distributed and sold by the Jesuits, who are said to have obtained for it the enormous sum of its weight in silver. From this circumstance it was called Jesuits' powder, a title which it long retained. It had acquired some reputation in England so early as the year 1658, but from its extravagant price, and from the prejudice excited against it, was at first little used. At this early period, however, its origin and nature do not seem to have been generally known; for we are told that Sir John Talbot, an Englishman, having employed it with great success in France, in the treatment of intermittents, under the name of the English powder, at length, in the year 1679, sold the secret of its origin and preparation to Louis XIV., by whom it was divulged. When taken into the stomach, bark usually excites in a short time a sense of warmth in the epigastrium, which often diffuses itself over the abdomen and even the breast, and is sometimes attended with considerable gastric and intestinal irritation. Nausea and even vomiting are sometimes produced, especially if the stomach was previously in an inflamed or irritated state. Purging, moreover, is not an unfrequent attendant upon its action. After some time has elapsed, the circulation often experiences its influence, as exhibited in the somewhat increased frequency of pulse : and, if the dose be repeated, the whole system becomes more or less affected, and all the func- tions undergo a moderate degree of excitement. Its action upon the nervous system is often evinced by a sense of tension or fulness or slight pain in the head, singing in the ears, and partial deafness, Which are always expe- rienced by many individuals when brought completely under its influence. The effects above mentioned entitle bark to a place among the tonics, and it is usually ranked at the very head of this class of medicines. But, besides the mere excitation of the ordinary functions of health, it produces other effects upon the system, which must be considered peculiar, and independent of its mere tonic operation. The power by which, when administered in the intervals between the paroxysms of intermittent disorders, it interrupts the progress of the disease, is something more than what is usually under- stood by the tonic property; for no other substance belonging to the class, however powerful or permanent may be the excitement which it produces, exercises a control over intermittents at all comparable to that of the medi- cine under consideration. As in these complaints it is probable that, in the intervals, a train of morbid actions is going on out of our sight, within the recesses of the nervous system; so it is also probable that bark produces, in the same system, an action equally mysterious, which supersedes that of the malady, and thus accomplishes the restoration of the patient. From the possession both of the tonic, and of the anti-intermittent property, if we may be allowed so to designate it, bark is capable of being usefully applied in the treatment of numerous diseases. PART I. Cinchona. 243 It may usually be employed with benefit in all morbid conditions of the system, whatever may be the peculiar modifications, in which a permanent corroborant effect is desirable, provided the stomach be in a proper state for its reception. In low or typhoid forms of disease, in which either no in- flammation exists, or that which does exist has been moderated by proper measures, or has passed into the suppurative or the gangrenous stage, this remedy is often of the greatest advantage in supporting the system till the morbid action ceases. Hence its use in the latter stages of typhus gravior; in malignant scarlatina,measles,and small pox; in carbuncle, and gangrenous erysipelas; and in all cases in which the system is exhausted under large purulent discharges, and the tendency of the affection is towards recovery. As a tonic, bark is also advantageously employed in chronic diseases con- nected with debility; as, for example, in scrofula, dropsy, passive hemor- rhages, certain forms of dyspepsia, obstinate cutaneous affections, amenor- rhoea, chorea, hysteria; in fact, whenever a corroborant influence is desired, and no contra-indicating symptoms exist. But in all these cases it greatly behooves the physician to examine well the condition of the system, and, before resorting to the tonic, to ascertain the real existence of an enfeebled condition of the functions, and the absence of such local irritations or inflammations, especially of the stomach or bowels, as would be likely to be aggravated by its use. In doubtful cases, we have been in the habit of considering the occurrence of profuse sweating during sleep as affording an indication for its use, and, under these circumstances, have prescribed it very advantageously, in the form of sulphate of quinia, in acute rheumatism, and in the advanced stages of protracted fevers. But it is in the cure of intermittent diseases that bark displays its most extraordinary powers. It was originally introduced into notice as a remedy in fever and ague, and the reputation which it acquired at an early period it has ever since retained. Very few cases of this disease will be found to resist the judicious use of bark, or some one of its preparations. This is not the place to speak of the precise circumstances under which it is best administered. It will be sufficient to say, that physicians generally concur in recommending its early employment, in divided doses, to the extent of one or two ounces, during the intermission, and the repetition of this plan till the disease is subdued, or the remedy is found insufficient for its cure. Other intermittent diseases have been found to yield with almost equal cer- tainty to the remedy, particularly those of a neuralgic character. Hemicrania and violent pains in the eye, face, and other parts of the body, occurring periodically, are often almost immediately relieved by the use of bark. Some cases of epilepsy, in which the convulsions recurred at regular intervals, have also been cured by it; and even the hectic intermittent is frequently arrested, though, as the cause still generally continues to operate, the relief is too often only temporary. Diarrhoea and dysentery sometimes put on the intermittent form, especially in miasmatic districts; and under these circumstances may often be cured by bark. Nor is it necessary that, in the various diseases which have been mentioned, the intermission should always be complete, in order to justify a resort to the remedy. Remittent fevers, in which the remission is very decided, not unfrequently yield to the use of bark, if preceded by proper depleting measures. But, as a general rule, the less of the diseased action there is in the interval, the better is the chance of success. Some observations are requisite as to the choice of the bark, and the forms of administration. In the treatment of intermittents, either the red or the yellow bark is decidedly preferable to the pale, and of the first two, the red 244 Cinchona. PART I. is usually considered the most powerful. With regard to the red, experi- ence had pronounced in its favour long before analysis proved its superiority. Iv-not only contains more of the active principles of the bark than the other varieties, but has also the advantage of uniting them both in nearly equal proportion. The pale bark may possibly, in its finest forms, be superior for the purposes of a general tonic; as it is less liable to offend the stomach, and perhaps to irritate the bowels. Where the object is to obtain the full influence of bark, it is most effec- tually administered in substance. We can by no means be absolutely cer- tain .that quinia and cinchonia are its only active ingredients; and, even supposing them to be so, we are equally uncertain whether they may not be somewhat modified in their properties, even by the therapeutically inert principles with which they are associated. In fact, bark in substance has been repeatedly known to cure intermittents when sulphate of quinia has failed. It is best administered diffused in water or some aromatic infusion. Experience has proved that its efficacy in intermittents is often greatly pro- moted by admixture with other substances. A mixture of powdered bark, Virginia snakeroot, and carbonate of soda, was at one time highly esteemed in this city; and another, consisting of bark, confection of opium, lemon-juice, and port wine, has in our own experience, and that of some of our friends, proved highly efficacious in some obstinate cases of fever and ague.* But, notwithstanding the superior efficacy of the bark in substance, it is in the great majority of instances sufficient to resort to some one of its prepa- rations; and in many cases we are compelled to this resort by the inability of the stomach to support the powder, or the unwillingness of the patient to encounter its disagreeable taste. The best substitute, in intermittent dis- eases, is sulphate of quinia, or sulphate of cinchonia, the former of which is used almost to the exclusion of the latter, though not perhaps upon suf- ficient grounds. The advantage of these preparations is their facility of admi nistration, and the possibility, by their employment, of introducing a large quantity of the active matter, with less risk of offending the stomach. Sul- phate of quinia is now almost universally employed in the treatment of inter- mittents, and bark resorted to only after this has failed. (See Quinix Sulphas. ■) Though quinia possesses the anti-intermittent power of bark, it is by no means satisfactorily ascertained that it is capable of exerting all the peculiar influence of that medicine as a tonic; but, as bark in powder can seldom be supported, by a delicate stomach, for a sufficient period to insure the neces- sary influence of the medicine in chronic disease, it is customary to resort, in this case, to some one of its preparations in which the quinia is extracted in connexion with the other principles; as the infusion, decoction, tincture, and extract. Each of these will be particularly treated of among the prepa- rations, it is here only necessary to say, that their use is mostly confined to chronic cases; or to those of a malignant character, as typhus gravior,&c, in which the whole virtues of the bark are desired, but the stomach is unable to bear the powder. Should bark or its preparations produce purging, as they occasionally do, they should be combined with a small portion of laudanum. It is sometimes desirable to introduce bark into the system by other sur- faces than that of the stomach; and it has been found to exercise its peculiar influence to whatever part it has been applied. Injected into the rectum, * The following are the formulae for these mixtures: 1. R. Cinchon. pulv. Sss; Ser- pentaria3 pulv. Jj; Sods Carbonat. ^ss. Misce et in pulveres quatuor divide, una tertia vel quarta quaque hora sumenda. 2. R. Cinchon. Rub. pulv. ?ss; Confect Opii X\ ■ Sue Limon. recentis fgij; Vin. Oporto f§iv. Misce. Tertia pars, tertia quaque hora su- menda. PART I. Cinchona.— Cinnamomum. 245 in connexion with opium to prevent purging, it has been employed suc- cessfully in the cure of intermittents; and the use of bark jackets, made by quilting the powder between two pieces of flannel or muslin, and worn next the skin, and of bark baths made by infusing the medicine in water, has proved serviceable in cases of children. But the best preparation of bark for external application is decidedly sulphate of quinia, which, sprinkled upon a blistered surface denuded of the cuticle, is speedily absorbed, and produces on the system effects not less decided than those which result from its internal administration. The medium dose of bark, as administered in intermittents, is a drachm, to be repeated more or less frequently according to circumstances. When given as a tonic in chronic complaints, the dose is usually smaller; from ten to thirty grains being sufficient to commence with. Off. Prep. Decoctum Cinchonas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Cinchonas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Cinchonas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Cinchonas Comp., U. S.; Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub.; Quinias Sulphas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinchonas, U. S„ Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinchonas Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Vinum Gentianas, Ed. W. CINNAMOMUM. U.S., Lond. Cinnamon. , "The bark of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum (Nees), and of Cinnamomum aromaticum (Nees)." U. S. "Laurus Cinnamomum. Cortex." Lond. Off. Syn. CINNAMOMUM. Bark of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum; Cin- namon. — CASSIiE CORTEX. Bark of Cinnamomum Cassia; Cassia bark. Ed.; CINNAMOMUM. LAURUS CINNAMOMUM. Cortex.— CASSIA. LAURUS CASSIA. Cortex. Dub. Cixnamox.—Candle, Fr.; Brainier Canel, Zimmt, Germ.; Canella, Ital; Canela, Span.; Kurundu, Cingalese; Kama puttay, Tamul. Cassia.—Cassia lignea; Cassc, Fr.; Cassienzimmt, Germ.; Cannellina, Ital; Casin, Span. The U.S. Pharmacopoeia embraces, under the title of cinnamon, not only the bark of that name obtained from the island of Ceylon, but also the commercial cassia, which is imported from China; and as the two products, though very different in price, and somewhat in flavour, possess identical medical properties, and are used for the same purposes, there seems to be no necessity for giving them distinct officinal designations. Indeed, the barks of all the species of the genus Cinnamomum, possessing analogous properties, are as much entitled to the common name of cinnamon, as those of the Cinchonas have to the name of cinchona, and the juice of different species of Aloe, to that of aloes. Varieties may be sufficiently distinguished by an appropriate epithet. Both cinnamomum. and cassia were terms em- ployed by the ancients, but whether exactly as now understood, it is impos- sible to determine. The term cassia, or cassia lignea, has been generally used in modern times to designate the coarser barks analogous to cinnamon. It was probably first applied to the barks from Malabar, and afterwards extended to those of China and other parts of Eastern Asia. It has been customary to ascribe cassia lignea to the Laurus Cassia of Linnasus; but the specific character given by that botanist was so indefinite, and based on such imperfect information, that the species has been almost unanimously abandoned by botanists. The fact appears to be, that the barks sold as 22* 246 Cinnamomum. PART I. cinnamon and cassia in different parts of the world are derived from various species of Cinnamomum. Dr. Wight, who was commissioned by the British Indian Government to inquire into the botanical source of "the common cassia bark of the markets of the world," expresses his belief, that the list of plants yielding this product extends to nearly every species of the genus, including not less than six plants on the Malabar coast and in Cey- lon, and nearly twice as many more in the Eastern part of Asia, and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. (Madras Journ. of Literal, and Sci., 1839, No. 22.) We shall describe only the two species recognised in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Cinnamomum. Sex. »%s£. EnneandriaMonogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lauraceas. Gen. Ch. Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous, panicled or fascicled, naked. Calyx six-cleft, with the limb deciduous. Fertile stamens nine, in three rows; the inner three with two sessile glands at the base; anthers four-celled, the three inner turned outwards. Three capitate abortive sta- mens next the centre. Fruit seated in a cup-like calyx. Leaves ribbed. Leaf buds not scaly. (Lindley.) 1. Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. Nees, Laurineae, 52; Lindley, Med. Flor. 329; Hayne, Darstel. und Beschreib. &c. xii. 263.—Laurus Cin- namomum. Linn. This is a tree about twenty or thirty feet high, with a trunk from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter, and covered with a thick, scabrous bark. The branches are numerous, strong, horizontal and declin- ing; and the young shoots are beautifully speckled with dark green and bVht orange colours. The leaves are opposite for the most part, coriaceous, entire, ovate or ovate-oblong, obtusely pointed, and three-nerved, with the lateral nerves vanishing as they approach the point. There are also two Jess obvious nerves, one on each side, arising from the base, proceeding towards the border of the leaf, and then quickly vanishing. The footstalks are short and slightly channeled, and, together with the extreme twigs, are smooth and without the least appearance of down. In one variety, the leaves are very broad, and somewhat cordate. When mature they are of a shining green upon their upper surface, and lighter-coloured beneath. The flowers are small, white, and arranged in axillary and terminal panicles. The fruit is an oval berry, which adheres like the acorn to the receptacle, is larger than the black currant, and when ripe has a bluish-brown surface diversified with numerous white spots. The tree emits no smell perceptible at any distance. The bark of the root has the odour of cinnamon with the pungency of camphor, and yields this principle upon distillation. The leaves have a spicy odour when rubbed, and a hot taste.* The petiole has the flavour of cinnamon. It is a singular fact, that the odour of the flowers is to people in general disagreeable, being compared by some to the scent exhaled from newly sawn bones. The fruit when opened has a terebinthinate odour, and a taste in some degree like that of Juniper berries* It is the prepared bark that constitutes the spice so well known, and so highly valued, under the name of cinnamon. This species of Cinnamomum is a native of Ceylon, where it has long been cultivated for the sake of its bark. It is said also to be a native of the Malabar coast, and has at various periods been introduced into Java, the Isle of France, Bourbon, the Cape de Verds, Brazil, Cayenne, several of the West India Islands, and Egypt; and in some of these places is at this time * Dr. Ruschenberger states that the leaves have a strong odour of cloves when broken and rubbed, and a "clove" oil is obtained from them by distillation, which yields con- siderable profit. {Voyage round the World, p. 207.) PART I. Cinnamomum. 247 highly productive. This is particularly the case in Cayenne, where the plant was flourishing so early as the year 1755. It is exceedingly influ* enced, as regards the aromatic character of its bark, by the circumstances of soil, climate, and mode of culture. Thus, we are told by Marshall that in Ceylon, beyond the limits of Negombo and Matura, in the western and southern aspect of the island, the bark is never of good quality, beino- greatly deficient in the spicy, aromatic flavour of the cinnamon; and that even within these limits it is of unequal value, from the various influence of exposure, soil, shade, and other circumstances. 2. C. aromaticum.Nees,Laurineae,52; Lindley, Flor. Med. 330.— C. Cassia. Blume; Ed. Ph.; Hayne, Darstel. und Beschreib. eye. xii. 23^— Laurus Cassia. Aiton, Hort. Kew. ii. 427.—Not Laurus Cassia of Linn. This is a tree of about the same magnitude as the former species, and like it has nearly opposite, shortly petiolate, coriaceous, entire leaves, of a shin- ing green upon the upper surface, lighter coloured beneath, and furnished with three nerves, of which the two lateral vanish towards the point. The leaves, however, differ in being oblong-lanceolate and pointed, and in ex- hibiting, under the microscope, a very fine down upon the under surface. The footstalks and extreme twigs are also downy. The flowers are in narrow, silky panicles. The plant grows in China, Sumatra, and probably in other parts of Eastern Asia, and is said to be cultivated in Java. It is believed to be the species which furnishes, wholly or in part, the Chinese cinnamon or cassia brought from Canton, and is supposed also to be the source of the cassia buds of commerce. Besides the two species above described, others have been thought to contribute to the cinnamon and cassia found in commerce. The opinion of Dr. Wight has been already stated. The C. Loureirii of Nees, growing in the mountains of Cochin-china towards Laos, and in Japan, affords, a£ cordingHo Loureiro, a cinnamon, of which the finest kind is superior to that of Ceylon. The C. nitidum, growing in Ceylon, Java, and upon the con- tinent of India, is said to have been the chief source of the drug, known formerly by the name of Folia Malabathri, and consisting of the leaves of different species of Cinnamomum mixed together. The leaves of the C. Tamala of Hindostan have been sold under the same name. The C. Cu- lilawan of the Moluccas yields the aromatic bark called Culilawan, noticed in the Appendix; and similar barks are obtained from another species of the same region, denominated C. rubrum, and from the C. Sintoc of Java. Culture, Collection, Commerce, fyc. Our remarks under this head will first be directed to the cinnamon of Ceylon, in relation to which we have more precise information than concerning the aromatic obtained from other sources. The bark was originally collected exclusively from the tree in a wild state; but under the government of the Dutch the practice of cultivating it was introduced, and it has been continued since the British have come into possession of the island. The principal cinnamon gardens are in the vicinity of Columbo. The seeds are planted in a prepared soil at certain distances; and, as four or five are placed in a spot, the plants usually grow in clusters like the hazel bush. In favourable situations they attain the height of five or six feet in six or seven years, and a healthy bush will then afford two or three shoots fit for pealing; and every second year afterwards will afford from four to seven shoots in a good soil. The cinnamon harvest commences in May and continues till late in October. The first object is to select shoots proper for decortication, and those are seldom cut which are less than half an inch, or more than two or three inches in diameter. The bark is divided by longitudinal incisions, of which two are made opposite 248 Cinnamomum. PART I. to each other in the smaller shoots, several in the larger, and is then re- moved in strips by means of a suitable instrument. The pieces are next collected in bundles, and allowed to remain in this state for a short time, so as to undergo a degree of fermentation, which facilitates the separation of the cuticle. The epidermis and the green matter beneath it are removed by placing the strip of bark upon a convex piece of wood, and scraping its external surface with a curved knife. The bark now dries and contracts, assuming the appearance of a quill. The peeler introduces the smaller tubes into the larger, thus forming a congeries of quills into a cylindrical pipe which is about forty inches long. When sufficiently dry, these cylinders are collected into bundles weighing about thirty pounds, and bound together by pieces of split bamboo. The commerce in Ceylon cinnamon was formerly monopolized by the East India Company ; but the cultivation is now unre- stricted, and the bark may be freely exported upon the payment of a duty of three shillings sterling a pound. (Ruschenberger.) It is assorted in the island into three qualities, distinguished by the designations of first, second, and third. The inferior kinds, which are of insufficient value to pay the duty, are used for the preparation of oil of cinnamon. Formerly, according to Marshall, they were exported to the continent of India, whence a portion was said to reach Europe under the name of cassia. Immense quantities of cinnamon are exported from China, the finest of which is little inferior to that of Ceylon, though the mass of it is much coarser. It passes in commerce under the name of cassia; and is said by Mr. Reeves to be brought to Canton from the province of Kvvangse, where the tree producing it grows very abundantly. (Trans. Med. Bot. Soc, 1828, p. 2(>.) It has already been stated that this tree is supposed to be the Cin- namomum aromaticum; but we have no positive proof of the fact. Tra- vellers inform us that cinnamon is also collected in Cochin-china; but that the best of it is monopolized by the sovereign of the country. It is supposed to be obtained from the Cinnamomum Loureirii of Nees, the Laurus Cin- namomum of Loureiro. According to Siebold, the bark of the large branches is of inferior quality and is rejected, as it will not bear the expense of car- riage ; that from the smallest branches resembles the Ceylon cinnamon in thickness, but has a very pungent taste and smell, and is little esteemed; while the intermediate branches yield an excellent bark, about a line in thickness, which is even more highly valued than the cinnamon of Ceylon, and yields on distillation a sweeter and less pungent oil. (Annul, der Pharm., xx. 280.) It is highly probable that a portion of the cassia exported from Canton is derived from Cochin-china, and the islands of the Indian Archi- pelago. Cinnamon of good quality is said to be collected in Java, and consider- able quantities of inferior qualtity have been thrown into commerce, as cassia lignea, from the Malabar coast. Manilla and the Isle of France are also mentioned as sources whence this drug is supplied. Little, however, reaches the United States from these places. Cayenne, and several of the West India Islands, yield to commerce considerable quantities of cinnamon of various qualities. That of Cayenne is of two kinds, one of which closely resembles, though it does not quite equal, the aromatic of Ceylon ; the other resembles the Chinese. The former is supposed to be derived from plants propagated from a Ceylonese stock, the latter from those which have sprung from a tree introduced from Sumatra. By far the greater proportion of cinnamon brought to this country is im- ported from China. It is entered as cassia at the custom house, while the PART I. Cinnamomum. 249 same article brought from other sources is almost uniformly entered as cin- namon. By an examination of the treasury returns from the year 1820 to 1829, we found that the average annual import of this spice was, in round numbers, 652,000 pounds"from China, 12,000 pounds from England, 9,000 pounds from the British East Indies, 3,000 pounds from the West Indies, and an insignificant quantity from all other places, with the excep- tion of 12,758 pounds brought in one year from the Philippines. There is no doubt that much of the amount brought from China is exported ; but we have not been able to ascertain the proportion. From what source the ancients derived their cinnamon and cassia cannot now be ascertained with certainty. Neither the plants nor their localities, as described by Dioscorides, Pliny, and Theophrastus, correspond precisely with our present knowledge ; but in this respect much allowance must be made for the inaccurate geography of the ancients. It is not improbable that the Arabian or other Eastern navigators, at a very early period, con- veyed this spice within the limits of Phoenician and Grecian, and subse- quently of Roman commerce. Properties. Ceylon cinnamon is in long cylindrical fasciculi, composed of numerous quills, the larger enclosing the smaller. The finest is of a light brownish-yellow colour, almost as thin as paper, smooth, often some- what shining, pliable to a considerable extent, with a splintery fracture when broken. It has a pleasant fragrant odour, and a warm, aromatic, pungent, sweetish, slightly astringent, and highly agreeable taste. When distilled it affords but a small quantity of essential oil, which, however, has an ex- ceedingly grateful flavour. It is brought to this country from England; but is very costly, and is not generally kept in the shops. The inferior sorts are browner, thicker, less splintery, and of a less agreeable flavour, and are little if at all superior to the best Chinese. The finer variety of Cayenne cinnamon approaches in character to that above described, but is paler and in thicker pieces, being usually collected from older branches. That which is gathered very young, is scarcely distinguishable from the cinnamon of Ceylon. It is not recognized in our markets as a distinct variety. The Chinese cinnamon, called cassia in commercial language, is usually in single tubes of various sizes, from an eighth of an inch to half an inch or even an inch in diameter. Sometimes the tubes are double, but very rarely more than double. In some instances the bark is rolled very much upon itself, in others is not even completely quilled, forming segments more or less extensive of a hollow cylinder. It is of a redder or darker colour than the finest Ceylon cinnamon, thicker, rougher, denser, and breaks with a shorter fracture. It has a stronger, more pungent and astringent, but less sweet and grateful taste; and, though of a similar odour, is less agreeably fragrant. It is the kind almost universally kept in our shops, and, while it is much cheaper than the former variety, is perhaps not inferior to it for the preparation of the various tinctures, &c, into which cinnamon enters as an ingredient. Of a similar character is the cinnamon imported directly from various parts of the East Indies. But under the name of cassia are also brought to us very inferior kinds of cinnamon, collected from the trunks or large branches of the trees, or injured by want of care in keeping, and per- haps some derived from inferior species. It is said that cinnamon from which the oil has been distilled, is sometimes fraudulently mingled with the genuine. These inferior kinds are detected, independently of their greater thickness, and coarseness of fracture, by their deficiency in the peculiar sensible properties of the spice. From an analysis made by Vauquelin, it appears that cinnamon contains 250 Cinnamomum. PART I. a peculiar essential oil, tannin, mucilage, a colouring matter, an acid, and lignin. The oil obtained from the Cayenne cinnamon, he found to be more biting than that from the Ceylonese, and at the same time to be somewhat peppery. Bucholz found in 100 parts of cassia lignea, 0-8 of volatile oil, 4-0 of resin, 14-6 of gummy extractive (probably including tannin), 64.3 of lignin and bassorin, and 16-3 of water including loss. This aromatic yields its virtues wholly to alcohol, and less readily to water. At the temperature of boiling alcohol very little of the oil rises, and an extract prepared from the tincture retains, therefore, the aromatic properties. For an account of the essential oil, see Oleum Cinnamomi. Medical Properties and Uses. Cinnamon is among the most grateful and efficient of the aromatics. It is warm and cordial to the stomach, car- minative, astringent, and, like most other substances of this class, more powerful as a local than general stimulant. It is seldom, however, pre- scribed alone, though sometimes capable, when given in powder or infusion, of allaying nausea, checking vomiting, and relieving flatulence. It is chiefly used as an adjuvant to other less pleasant medicines, and enters into a great number of officinal preparations. It is peculiarly adapted to diarrhoea, and is often employed in that complaint with chalk and astringents. The dose of the powder is from ten grains to a scruple. Cassia Buds. This spice was formerly recognised as officinal by the Edinburgh College, under the name of Flores Lauri Cassise, but has been omitted in their last Pharmacopoeia. It consists of the calyx of one or more species of Cinnamomum, surrounding the young germ, and, as stated by Dr. Martius on the authority of the elder Nees, about one quarter of the normal size. It is produced in China; and Mr. Reeves states that great quantities of it are brought to Canton from the province which affords" the cassia. The species which yields it is in all probability the same with that which yields the bark, though it has been ascribed by Nees to the Cinna- momum Loureirii. In favour of the former opinion is the statement of Dr. Christison, that the C. aromaticum, cultivated in the hot-houses of Europe, bears a flower-bud which closely resembles the cassia-bud when at the same period of advancement. Cassia-buds have some resemblance to cloves, and are compared to small nails with round heads. The enclosed germen is sometimes removed, and they are then cup-shaped at top. They have a brown colour, with the flavour of cinnamon, and yield an essential oil upon distillation. Though little known in this country, they may be used for the same purposes as the bark. Off. Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Aqua Cassias, Ed.; Aqua Cinnamomi, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Confectio Aromatica, Lond., Dub.; Decoctum Hasmatoxyli, Ed., Dub.; Electuarium Catechu, Ed., Dub.; Emplastrum Aromaticum, Dub.; Infusum Catechu Comp., U. A., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Aromaticus, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Cinnamomi Comp., Lond.; Pulvis Cretas Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pul- vis Kmo Comp., Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Ammonias Aromaticus, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Cassias, Ed.; Spiritus Cinnamomi, Dub., Ed.; Spiritus Lavandulae Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rhei Aro- maticus, U. S.; Tinctura Cardamomi Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Casssias, Ed.; Tinctura Catechu, U. S., Land., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cin- namomi,, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinnamomi Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Gluassias Comp., Ed.; Vinum Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. r yj PART I. Cocculus. 251 COCCULUS. Ed. Cocculus Indicus. "Fruit of Anamirta Cocculus." Ed. Off. Syn. COCCULUS SUBEROSUS. Fructus. Dub. Coque du Levant, Fr.; Kokkelskorner, Fischkorner, Germ.; Galla di Levante, Ital. The plant which produces cocculus Indicus was embraced by Linnasus, with several others, under the title of Menispermum Cocculus. These were referred by De Candolle to a new genus, denominated Cocculus. From this the particular species under consideration has been separated by Wight and Arnott, and erected into a distinct genus with the name of Anamirta, which has been adopted by Lindley and other botanists. Anamirta. Sex. Syst. DioeciaDodecandria.—Nat. Ord. Menispermaceas. Gen. Ch. Flowers dioecious. Calyx of six sepals in a double series, with two close-pressed bractioles. Corolla none. Male. Stamens united intoa cen- tral column dilated at the apex. Anthers numerous, covering the whole glo- bose apex of the column. Female. Flowers unknown. Drupes one to three, one-celled, one-seeded. Seed globose, deeply excavated at the hilum. Albumen fleshy. Cotyledons very thin, diverging. (Wight and Arnott.) Anamirta Cocculus. Wight and Arnott, Flor. Penins. Ind. Orient, i. 446; Lindley, Flor. Med. 371.—Menispermum Cocculus. Linn.—Cocculus suberosus. De Cand. Podrom. i. 97. This is the only species. It is a climbing shrub, with a suberose or corky bark; thick, coriaceous, smooth, shining, roundish or cordate leaves, sometimes truncate, at the base; and the female flowers in lateral compound racemes. It is a native of the Malabar coast, and of Eastern Insular and Continental India. The fruit is the officinal portion. This plant was proved to be the source of cocculus Indicus by Roxburgh, who raised it from genuine seeds which he had received from Malabar. It is believed that other allied plants, bearing similar fruit, contribute to furnish the drug; and the Cocculus Plukenetii of Malabar, and C. lacunosus of Celebes and the Moluccas, are particularly designated by authors. It was known to the Arabian physicians, and for a long time was imported into Europe from the Levant, from which circumstance it was called cocculus Ijevanticus. It is now brought exclusively from the East Indies. Properties, Src. Cocculus Indicus, as found in the shops, is roundish, somewhat kidney-shaped, about as large as a pea; having a thin, dry, black- ish, wrinkled exterior coat, within which is a ligneous bivalvular shell, enclosing a whitish, oily, very bitter kernel. It is without smell, but has an intensely and permanently bitter taste. It bears some resemblance to the bay berry, but is not quite so large, and may be distinguished by the fact that in the cocculus Indicus the kernel never wholly fills the shell. When the fruit is kept Jong, the shell is sometimes almost empty. The Edinburgh College directs that "the kernels should fill at least two-thirds of the fruit." M. Boullay discovered in the seeds a peculiar bitter principle which he de- nominated picrotoxin. This is white, crystallizable in quadrangular prisms, soluble in twenty-five parts of boiling and fifty of cold water, very soluble in alcohol and ether, but insoluble in the oils. It is poisonous, and, given to strong dogs, in the quantity of from five to ten grains, produces death pre- ceded by convulsions. To procure it, the watery extract of the seeds is triturated with pure magnesia, and then treated with hot alcohol, which dissolves the picrotoxin, and yields it upon evaporation. In this state, how- ever, it is impure. To obtain it colourless it must be again dissolved in 252 Cocculus— Coccus. PART I. alcohol, and treated with animal charcoal. After filtration and due evapo- ration, it is deposited in the crystalline form. Besides picrotoxin, cocculus Indicus contains a large proportion of fixed oil, and other substances of less interest. The active principle above described is said to reside exclusively in the kernel. In the shell, MM. Pelletier and Couerbe discovered two distinct principles, one alkaline and named menispermin (menispermia), the other identical with it in composition, but distinguishable by its want of alkalinity, its volatility, and its solubility and crystalline form, and de- nominated paramenispermin. They also found, in the same part, a new acid, which they called hypopicrotoxic. The picrotoxin of M. Boullay they believed to possess acid properties, and proposed for it the name of picrotoxic acid. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 122.) Medical Properties, fyc. Cocculus Indicus acts upon the system in the manner of the acrid narcotic poisons, but is never given internally. In India it is used to stupefy fishes in order that they may be caught; and it has been applied to the same purpose in Europe and this country. It is asserted that the fish thus taken are not poisonous. In Europe, it is said to be added to malt liquors in order to give them bitterness and intoxicating properties, although the practice is forbidden by the law, in England, under heavy penalties. The powdered fruit, mixed with oil, is employed in the East Indies as a local application in obstinate cutaneous affections. An ointment made with the powder has been used in tinea capitis, and to de- stroy vermin in the hair. Picrotoxin has been successfully substituted by Dr. Jaeger for the drug itself. Rubbed up with lard in the proportion of ten grains to the ounce, it usually effected cures of tinea capitis in less than a month. Off'. Prep. Unguentum Cocculi, Ed. W. COCCUS. U.S. Cochineal. "Coccus Cacti." U.S. Off. Syn. COCCI. Coccus Cacti. Lond., Ed.; COCCUS CACTI. Dub. Cochenille, Fr., Germ.; Cocciniglia, Ital; Cochinilla, Span. The Coccus is a genus of hemipterous insects, having the snout or rostrum in the breast, the antennas filiform, and the posterior part of the abdomen furnished with bristles. The male has two erect wings, the female is wing- less. The C. Cacti is characterized by its depressed, downy, transversely wrinkled body, its purplish abdomen, its short and black legs, and its subu- late antennas, which are about one-third of the length of the body. (Rees's Cyclopaedia.) This insect is found wild in Mexico and the adjoining countries, inhabit- ing different species of Cactus and allied genera of plants; and is said to have been discovered also in some of the West India islands, and the southern parts of the United States. In Mexico, particularly in the pro- vinces of Oaxaca and Guaxaca, it is an important object of culture. The Indians form plantations of the nopal (Opuntia cochinillefera), upon which the insect feeds and propagates. During the rainy season, a number of the females are preserved under cover upon the branches of the plant, and are distributed, after the cessation of the rains, upon the plants without. They perish very speedily after having deposited their eggs. These, hatched by the heat of the sun, give origin to innumerable minute insects, which spread themselves over the plant. The males, of which, according PART I. Coccus. 253 to Mr. Ellis, the proportion is not greater than one to one hundred or two hundred females, being provided with wings and very active, approach and fecundate the latter. After this period, the females, which before moved about, attach themselves to the leaves, and increase rapidly in size; so that, in the end, their legs, antennas, and proboscis are scarcely discoverable, and they appear more like excrescences on the plant than distinct animated beings. They are now gathered for use, by detaching them from the plant by means of a blunt knife, a few being left to continue the race. They are destroyed either by dipping them enclosed in a bag into boiling water, or by the heat of a stove. In the former case they are subsequently- dried in the sun. The males, which are much smaller than the full grown females, are not collected. It is said that of the wild insect there are six generations every year, furnishing an equal number of crops ; but the do- mestic is collected only three times annually, the propagation being sus- pended during the rainy season, in consequence of its inability to support the inclemency of the weather. The insect has been taken from Mexico to the Canary Islands, where it has been successfully propagated ; and considerable quantities of cochineal have been delivered to commerce from the island of Teneriffe. Attempts have also been made to introduce the culture into Spain, Corsica, and Algiers. As kept in the shops, the finer cochineal, grana fina of Spanish com- merce, is in irregularly circular or oval, somewhat angular grains, about one- eighth of an inch in diameter, convex on one side, concave or flat on the other, and marked with several transverse wrinkles. Two varieties of this kind of cochineal are known to the druggist, distinguished by their external appearance. One is of a reddish-gray colour, formed by an intermixture of the dark colour of the insect with the whiteness of a powder by which it is almost covered, and with patches of a rosy tinge irregularly interspersed. From its diversified appearance, it is called by the Spaniards cochinilla jaspcada. It is the variety commonly kept in our shops. The other, cochi- nilla renegrida, or grana nigra, is dark coloured, almost black, with only a minute quantity of the whitish powder between the wrinkles. The two are distinguished in our markets by the names of silver grains and black grains. Guibourt supposes the difference to depend upon culture, or, perhaps, on original varieties in the insect. Others think that it arises from the mode of preparation ; the gray cochineal consisting of the insects destroyed by a dry heat; the black, of those destroyed by hot water, which removes the external whitish powder. According to Mr. Faber, who de- rived his information from a merchant resident in the neighbourhood where the cochineal is collected, the silver grains consist of the impregnated fe- male just before she has laid her eggs, the black of the female after the eggs have been laid and hatched. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 47.) There is little or no difference in their quality. Another and much inferior variety is the grana sylvestra or wild cochi- neal, consisting partly of very small separate insects, partly of roundish or oval masses, which exhibit, under the microscope, minute and apparently new born insects, enclosed in a white or reddish cotton-like substance. It is scarcely known in our drug market. Cochineal has a faint heavy odour, and a bitter slightly acidulous taste. Its powder is of a purplish carmine colour, tinging the saliva intensely red. According to Pelletier and Caventou, it consists of a peculiar colouring principle which they call carmine, a peculiar animal matter constituting the skeleton of the insect, stearin, olein, an odorous fatty acid, and various salts. It was also analyzed by John, who called the colouring principle cochinilin. 23 254 Coccus.—Cochlearia Officinalis. PART I. Carmine is of a brilliant purple-red colour, unalterable in dry air, fusible at 122° F., very soluble in water, soluble in cold, and more so in boiling alco- hol, insoluble in ether, and without nitrogen among its constituents. It is obtained by macerating cochineal in ether, and treating the residue with suc- cessive portions of boiling alcohol, which on cooling deposits a part of the carmine, and yields the remainder by spontaneous evaporation. It may be freed from a small proportion of adhering fatty matter, by dissolving it in alcohol of 40° Baume, and then adding an equal quantity of sulphuric ether. Pure carmine is deposited in the course of a few days. The watery infusion of cochineal is of a violet-crimson colour, which is brightened by the acids, and deepened by the alkalies. The colouring matter is readily precipitated. The salts of zinc, bismuth, and nickel produce a lilac precipitate, and those of iron a dark purple approaching to black. The salts of tin, especially the nitrate and chloride, precipitate the colouring matter of a brilliant scarlet, and form the basis of those splendid scarlet and crimson dyes, which have ren- dered cochineal so valuable in the arts. With alumina the colouring matter forms the pigment called lake. The finest lakes are obtained by mixing the decoction of cochineal with freshly prepared gelatinous alumina. The pig- ment called carmine is the colouring matter of cochineal precipitated from the decoction by acids, the salts of tin, &c, or animal gelatin, and when pro- perly made is of the most intense and brilliant scarlet. Cochineal has been adulterated by causing certain heavy substances, such as powdered talc and carbonate of lead, by shaking in a bag or other- wise, to adhere to the surface of the insects, and thus increase their weight. The fraud may be detected by the absence, under the microscope, of a woolly appearance which characterizes the white powder upon the surface of the unadulterated insect. Metallic lead, which is said frequently to exist in fine particles in the artificial coating, may be discovered by powdering the cochineal, and suspending it in water, when the metal remains behind. Grains of a substance artificially prepared to imitate the dried insect has been mixed with the genuine in France. A close inspection will serve to detect the difference. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., ix. 110.) Medical Properties, 8fC. Cochineal is supposed by some to possess ano- dyne properties, and has been highly recommended in hooping-cough and neuralgic affections. It is frequently associated, in prescription, with car- bonate-of potassa, especially in the treatment of hooping-cough. In phar- macy it is employed to colour tinctures and ointments. To infants with hooping-cough, cochineal in substance is given in the dose of about one- third of a grain three times a day. The dose of a tincture, prepared by macerating one part of the medicine in eight parts of diluted alcohol, is for an adult from twenty to thirty drops twice a day. In neuralgic paroxysms, Sauter gave half a tablespoonful, with the asserted effect of curing the disease. Off. Prep. Tinctura Cardamomi Composita, Lond., Ed.; Tinct. Cinchonae Comp., Lond., Ed.,Dub.; Tinct. Gentianas Comp., Ed.; Tinct. Gtuassiffi Comp., Ed.; Tinct. Serpentarias, Ed. W. COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS. Herba. Dub. Common Scurvy-grass. Cranson, Herbe aux cuillers, Fr.; Loffelkraut, Germ.; Coclearia, Ital, Span. Cochlearia. See ARMORACIA. Cochlearia officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 448; WToodv. Med. Bot. p. 393.1.112. Common scurvy-grass is an annual or biennial plant, sending part i. Cochlearia Officinalis.—Colchici Radix. 255 up early in the spring a tuft of radical leaves, which are heart-shaped, round- ish, of a deep shining green colour, and supported on long footstalks. The leaves of the stem are alternate, oblong, somewhat sinuate, the lower petio- late, the upper sessile. The stem is erect, branched, angular, six or eight inches high, and bears, at the extremity of the branches, numerous white cruciform peduncled flowers, in thick clusters. The fruit is a roundish two- celled pod, containing numerous seeds. The whole plant is smooth and succulent. It is a native of the northern countries of Europe, where, as well as in the United States, it is occasionally cultivated in gardens. The whole herb is officinal. It has, when fresh, a pungent unpleasant odour if bruised, and a warm, acrid, bitter taste. These properties are lost by drying. They are imparted to water and alcohol by maceration, are retained by the ex- pressed juice, and probably depend on a peculiar volatile oil which is separable in very small quantity by distillation with water. Medical Properties and Uses. Common scurvy-grass is gently stimu- lant, aperient, and diuretic. It is highly celebrated as a remedy in sea- scurvy; and has been recommended in chronic obstructions of the viscera, and certain forms of chronic rheumatism. The fresh plant may be eaten as a salad, or used in the form of infusion in water or wine, or of the ex- pressed juice. Alcohol and water are impregnated with its virtues by distillation; and the distilled spirit has been found useful in paralysis, in the dose of thirty drops several times a day. The expressed juice may be used as a local application-in scorbutic affections of the gums. W. COLCHICI RADIX. US. Colchicum Root. "The cormus of Colchicum autumnale." U. S. Off. Syn. COLCHICI CORMUS. Colchicum autumnale. Cormus. Lond.; COLCHICI CORMUS. The cormus of Colchicum autumnale. Ed.; COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE. Bulbus. Dub. COLCHICI SEMEN. U.S. Colchicum Seed. "The seeds of Colchicum autumnale." U.S. Off. Syn. COLCHICI SEMINA. Colchicum autumnale. Semina. Lond.; 'COLCHICI SEMINA. Seeds of Colchicum autumnale. Ed.; COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE. Semina. Dub. Colchique, Fr.; Zeitlose, Herbst-Zeitlose, Germ.; Colchico, Ital., Span. Colchicum. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Melanthaceas. Gen. Ch. A spathe. Corolla six-parted, with a tube proceeding directly from the root. Capsules three, connected, inflated. Willd. Colchicum autumnale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 272; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 759, t. 258. This species of Colchicum, often called meadow-saffron, is a perennial bulbous plant, the leaves of which appear in spring, and the flowers in autumn. Its manner of growth is peculiar, and deserves notice in this place, as connected in some measure with its medicinal efficacy. In the latter part of summer, a new bulb, or cormus as botanists now call the part, begins to form at the lateral inferior portion of the old one, which re- ceives the young offshoot in its bosom, and embraces it half round. The 256 Colchici Radix. PART I. new plant sends out fibres from its base, and is furnished with a radical spathe, which is cylindrical, tubular, cloven at top on one side, and half under ground. In September, from two to six flowers, of a lilac or pale purple colour, emerge from the spathe, unaccompanied with leaves. The corolla consists of a tube five inches Jong, concealed for two-thirds of its length in the ground, and of a limb divided into six segments. The flowers perish by the end of October, and the rudiments of the fruit remain under ground till the following spring, when they rise upon a stem above the sur- face in the form of a three-lobed, three-celled capsule. The leaves of the new plant appear at the same time ; so that in fact they follow the flower in- stead of preceding it, as might be inferred from the order of the seasons in which they respectively show themselves. The leaves are radical, spear- shaped, erect, numerous, about five inches long, and one inch broad at the base. In the mean time, the new bulb has been increasing at the expense of the old one, which having performed its appointed office perishes, while the former, after attaining its full growth, sends forth new shoots from itself, and in its turn decays. Each parent bulb has two offsets. The C. autumnale is a native of the temperate parts of Europe, where it grows wild in moist meadows. Attempts have been made to introduce its culture into this country, but with no great success; though small quantities of the bulb of apparently good quality have been brought into the market. The officinal portions are the bulb or cormus, and the, seeds. The root, botanically speaking, consists of the fibres attached to the base of the bulb. The flowers possess similar virtues with the bulb and seeds. 1. Colchici Radix. The medicinal virtue of the bulb depends much upon the season at which it is collected. Early in the spring it is too young to have fully developed its peculiar properties; and late in the fall it has become exhausted by the nourishment which it has afforded to the new plant. The proper period for its collection is from the early part of June, when it has usually attained perfection, to the middle of August, when the offset appears. It is probably owing, in great measure, to this inequality in the colchicum at different seasons, that entirely opposite reports have been given by different authors of its powers. Krapf ate whole bulbs without experiencing inconvenience; Haller found it entirely void of taste and acrimony; and we are told that in Carniola the peasants use it as food with impunity in the autumn. On the contrary, abundant testimony might be adduced of its highly irritating and poisonous nature, of which in fact there at present exists no doubt. Per- haps soil and climate may have some influence in modifying its character. The bulbis often used in the fresh state in the countries where it grows; as it is apt to be injured in drying, unless the process is very carefully con- ducted. The usual plan is to cut the bulb, as soon after it has been dug up as possible, into thin transverse slices, which are spread out separately upon paper or perforated trays, and dried with a moderate heat. The reason for drying it quickly after removal from the ground, is that it otherwise begins to vegetate, and a change in its chemical nature takes place; and such is its retentiveness of life, that, if not cut in slices, it is liable to undergo a partial vegetation even during the drying process. Dr. Houlton recom- mends that the bulb should be stripped of its dry coating, carefully deprived of the bud or young bulb, and then dried whole. It is owing to the high vitality of the bud that the bulb is so apt to vegetate. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iv. 18.) Much loss of weight is sustained by exsiccation. Mr. Bainbridge obtained only two pounds fifteen ounces of dried bulb from eight pounds of the fresh. PART I. Colchici Radix. 257 Properties. The recent bulb or cormus of the C. autumnale resembles that of the tulip in shape and size, and is covered with a brown membranous coat. Internally it is solid, white, and fleshy; and, when cut transversely, yields, if mature, an acrid milky juice. Dr. J. R. Coxe lays much stress on a small lateral projection from its base, which serves in his opinion to distinguish it from all other bulbs; but which appears to be merely a con- necting process between it and the new plant, and is not always present. When dried, and deprived of its external membranous covering, the bulb is of an ash-brown colour, convex on one side, and somewhat flattened on the other, where it is marked by a deep groove extending from the base to the summit. As found in our shops it is always in the dried state, sometimes in segments made by vertical sections of the bulb, but generally in trans- verse circular slices, about the eighth or tenth of an inch in thickness, with a notch at one part of their circumference. The cut surface is white, and of an amylaceous aspect. The odour of the recent bulb is said to be hircine; the dried is inodorous. The taste is bitter, hot, and acrid. Its constituents, according to Pelletier and Caventou, are a peculiar vegetable alkali denomi- nated veratria,* combined with an excess of gallic acid; a fatty matter com- posed of olein, stearin, and a peculiar volatile acid analogous to the cevadic; a yellow colouring matter; gum; starch; inulin in large quantity; and lignin. The active properties are ascribed to the veratria, for an account of which see Veratrum album. Wine and vinegar extract all the virtues of the bulb. Dr. A T. Thomson states that the milky juice of fresh colchicum produces a beautiful cerulean blue colour, if rubbed with the alcoholic solution of guaiac; and that the same effect is obtained by substituting for the juice an acetic solution of the dried bulb. He considers the appearance of this colour, when the slices are rubbed with a little distilled vinegar and tinc- ture of guaiac, as a proof that the drug is good and has been well dried. A very deep or large notch in the circumference of the slices is considered by the same author an unfavourable sign, as it indicates that the bulb has been somewhat exhausted in the nourishment of the offset. The decoction yields a deep blue precipitate with solution of iodine, white precipitates with the acetate and subacetate of lead, nitrate of protoxide of mercury, and nitrate of silver, and a slight precipitate with tincture of galls. Medical Propei lies and Uses.—Meadow-saffron is believed to act upon the nervous system, allaying pain and producing other sedative effects, even when it exerts no obvious influence over the secretions. Generally speak- * According to Geiger and Hesse, the organic alkali of the meadow-saffron is peculiar, and entirely distinct from veratria, with which it has been confounded. They propose for it the name of colchicine, which, in accordance with our nomenclature, should be changed to colchicia. It is crystallizable, and has a very bitter and sharp taste, but is destitute of the extreme acrimony of veratria, and does not, like that principle, excite violent sneezing when applied to the nostrils. It differs also in being more soluble in water, and less poisonous in its influence on the animal system. To a kitten eight weeks old, ono-tenth of a grain was given dissolved in a little dilute alcohol. Violent purging and vomiting were produced, with apparently severe pain and convulsions, and the ani- mal died at the end of twelve hours. The stomach and bowels were found violently inflamed, with effusion of blood throughout their whole extent. A kitten somewhat younger was destroyed in ten minutes by only the twentieth of a grain of veratria; and, on examination after death, marks of inflammation were found only in the upper part of the oasophagus. We do not know that the conclusions of Geiger and Hesse have yet been confirmed by other experimentalists. The process for obtaining colchicia is similar to that employed in the preparation of hyoscyamia from hyoscyamus. {See the article Hyoscyamus.) A simpler process is to digest the seeds of meadow-saffron in boiling alcohol, precipitate the tincture with magnesia, treat the precipitated matter with boiling alcohol, and finally filter and evaporate. 23* 258 Colchici Radix.—Colchici Semen. part i. ing, when taken in doses sufficiently large to affect the system, it gives rise to more or less disorder of the stomach or bowels, and sometimes occasions active vomiting and purging, with the most distressing nausea. When not carried off by the bowels, it often produces copious diaphoresis, and occa- sionally acts as a diuretic and expectorant; and a case is on record of a vio- lent salivation supposed to have resulted from its use. (N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ., x. 204.) It appears in fact to have the property of stimulating all the secretions, while it rather diminishes than otherwise the action of the heart. In an overdose, it is capable of producing dangerous and even fatal effects. Excessive nausea and vomiting, abdominal pains, purging and tenesmus, great thirst, sinking of the pulse, coldness of the extremities, and general prostration, with occasional symptoms of nervous derangement, are among the results of its poisonous action. It was well known to the ancients as a poison, and is said to have been employed by them as a remedy in gout and other diseases. Storck revived its use among the moderns. He gave it as a diuretic and expectorant in dropsy and humoral asthma; and on the con- tinent of Europe it acquired considerable reputation in these complaints; but the uncertainty of its operation led to its general abandonment, and it had fallen into almost entire neglect, when Dr. Want, of London, again brought it into notice by attempting to prove its identity with the active ingredient ' of the eau medicinale d'Husson, so highly celebrated as a cure for gout. In James's Dispensatory, printed in 1747, it is said to be used in gout as an external application. The chief employment of the meadow-saffron is at present in the treatment of gout and rheumatism, in which experience has abundantly proved it to be a highly valuable remedy. We have, within our own observation, found it especially useful in these affections, when of a shifting or neuralgic character. It sometimes produces relief without obvious- ly affecting the system; but is more efficient when it evinces its influence upon the skin or alimentary canal. Professor Chelius states that it changes the chemical constitution of the urine in arthritic patients, producing an evi- dent increase of the uric acid. (N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ., xi. 234.) This effect, however, is by no means uniform. Dr. Elliotson successfully treated a case of prurigo with the wine of colchicum, given in the dose of half a drachm three times a day, and continued for three weeks. (Medico- Chirurg. Rev., Oct., 1827.) Dr. Smith, of Port au Prince, employed it ad- vantageously in tetanus both traumatic and idiopathic. He gave it in full doses repeated every half hour till it produced an emetic or cathartic effect. (Am. Journ. of the Med. Sci., xvii. 66.) Mr. Ritton found the powdered bulb an effectual remedy in numerous cases of leucorrhoea. (Ibid., vi. 527.) Colchicum has also been recommended in inflammatory and febrile diseases as an adjuvant to the lancet, in diseases of the heart with excessive action, in various nervous complaints, as chorea, hysteria, and hypochondriasis, and in chronic bronchial affections. The medicine is generally given in the state of vinous tincture. (See Vinum Colchici Radicis.) In this form it has been used externally in rheumatism. The dose of the dried bulb is from two to eight grains, which may be repeated every four or six hours till the effects of the medicine are obtained. Off. Prep. Acetum Colchici, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Extractum Colchici Aceticum, Lond., Ed.; Extractum Colchici Cormi, Lond.; Oxymel Col- chici, Dub.; Vinum Colchici Radicis, U. S., Lond., Ed. 2. Colchici Semen. The seeds of the meadow-saffron ripen in summer, and should be col- lected about the end of July or beginning of August. They never arrive at maturity in plants cultivated in a dry soil, or in confined gardens. (Wil- part i. Colchici Semen.—Colocynthis. 259 Hams.) They arenearly spherical, about the eighth of an inch in diameter, of a reddish-brown colour externally, white within, and of a bitter acrid taste. Their active properties reside in the testa or husk, and they should not, therefore, be bruised in the preparation of the wine or tincture.* Dr. Williams, of Ipswich in England, who first brought them into notice, recom- mends them in the warmest terms in chronic rheumatism, and considers them superior to the bulb, both in the certainty of their effects and the mildness of their operation. There is no doubt that they possess virtues analogous to those of the bulb, and have this advantage, that they are not liable to become injured by drying—an advantage of peculiar value in a country where the plant is not cultivated, and where the bulb cannot be readily procured in the fresh state. A wine of the seeds is directed in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Their dose is about the same with that of the bulb. Off. Prep. Tinctura Colchici Composita, Lond.; Tinct. Colchici Semi- nis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Vinum Colchici Seminis, U. S. W. COLOCYNTHIS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Colocynth. "The fruit of Cucumis Colocynthis deprived of its rind." U. S. "Cu- cumis Colocynthis. Peponum Pulpa exsiccata." Lond. "Pulp of the fruit of Cucumis Colocynthis." Ed. Off. Syn. CUCUMIS COLOCYNTHIS. Fructus pulpa. Dub. Coloquintida; Coloquinte, Fr.; Coloquinte, Coloquintenapfel, Germ.; Coloquintida, Ital, Span. Cucumis. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaceas. Gen.Ch. Male. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-parted. Filaments three. Female. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-parted. Pistil three-cleft. Seeds of the gourd with a sharp edge. Willd. Cucumis Colocynthis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 611; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 189. t. 71. The bitter cucumber is an annual plant, bearing considerable resemblance to the common watermelon. The stems, which are herbaceous and beset with rough hairs, trail upon the ground, or rise upon neighbouring bodies to which they attach themselves by their numerous tendrils. The leaves are of a triangular shape, many-cleft, variously sinuated, obtuse, hairy, of a fine green colour on the upper surface, rough and pale on the under; and stand alternately upon long petioles. The flowers are yellow, and appear singly at the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a globular pepo, of the size of a small orange, yellow and smooth when ripe; and contains, within a hard, coriaceous rind, a white spongy medullary matter, enclosing numerous ovate, compressed, white or brownish seeds. The plant is a native of Turkey, and abounds in the islands of the Archi- pelago. It grows also in various parts of Africa and Asia. Burkhardt, in his travels across Nubia, found the country covered with it; Thunberg met with it at the Cape of Good Hope; and Ainslie says that it grows in many * The following description of the seeds is given by Mr. Gray in the Lond. Med. Re- pository for April, 1821. " Seeds, ovate, globose, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. Integuments, simple, soft, spongy, membranaceous, thin, reddish-brown, closely adherent to the perisperm. Perisperm or albumen, hard, rather cartilaginous, pellucid, pale, not in the least divided, of the same shape as the seed. Corculum or embryo, very small, ovate globose, not in the least divided, whitish, placed nearly opposite to the hylum, or that part where the seed is affixed to the parent plant, but out of the axis of the seed. Base pointing to the hylum, slender. Apex very obtuse." An acquaintance with the real characters of the seeds is the more necessary, as the seeds of other plants have been sold for them. 260 Colocynthis. PART I. parts of Lower India, particularly in sandy situations near the sea. It is said to be cultivated in Spain. The fruit is gathered in autumn, when it begins to assume a yellow colour, and, having been peeled, is dried quickly, either in a stove or by the sun. Thus prepared it is imported from the Levant. Pereira states that very small quantities are imported into England from Mogador unpeeled.* Properties. As kept in the shops, colocynth is in the shape of whitish balls about the size of a small orange, very light and spongy, and abound- ing in seeds which constitute three-fourths of their weight. The seeds are somewhat bitter; but possess little activity, and, according to Captain Lyon, are even used as food in Northern Africa. When the medicine is prepared for use, they are separated and rejected, the pulpy or medullary matter only being employed. This has a very feeble odour, but a nauseous and intensely bitter taste. Water and alcohol extract its virtues. Vauquelin obtained the bitter principle in a separate state and called it colocynthin. According to Meissner, 100 parts of the dry pulp of colocynth contain 14-4 parts of colocynthin, 10-0 of extractive, 4-2 of fixed oil, 13-2 of a resinous substance insoluble in ether, 9-5 of gum, 3-0 of pectic acid (pectin), 17-6 of gummy extract derived from the lignin by means of potassa, 2*7 of phosphate of lime, 3-0 of phosphate of magnesia, and 19-0 of lignin, besides water. (Berzelius, Trait, de Chim.) Colocynthin is obtained by boiling the pulp in water, evaporating the decoction, treating the extract thus procured with alcohol, evaporating the alcoholic solution, and submitting the residue, which consists of the bitter principle and acetate of potassa, to the action of a little cold water, which dissolves the latter and leaves the greater part of the former untouched. It is yellowish-brown, somewhat translucent, brittle and friable, inflammable, more soluble in alcohol than in water, but capable of imparting to the latter an intense bitterness. The aqueous solution gives with infusion of galls an abundant white precipitate. An infusion of colocynth, made with boiling water, has a golden-yellow colour, and gelatinizes upon cooling. Neumann obtained from 768 parts of the pulp, treated first with alco- hol and then with water, 168 parts of alcoholic and 216 of aqueous extract. Medical Properties and Uses. The pulp of colocynth is a powerful drastic, hydragogue cathartic, producing, when given in large doses, violent griping, and sometimes bloody discharges, with dangerous inflammation of the bowels. Death has resulted from a teaspoonful and a half of the pow- der. (Christison.) Even in moderate doses it sometimes acts with much harshness, and is, therefore, seldom prescribed alone. By some writers it is stated to be diuretic. It was frequently employed by the ancient Greeks and the Arabians, though its drastic nature was not unknown to them. Among the moderns it is occasionally used, especially by the German prac- titioners, in obstinate cases of dropsy, and various affections depending on disordered action in the brain. In combination with other cathartics it loses much of its violence, but retains its purgative energy; and in this state is very extensively employed. The compound extract of colocynth is a * In a letter from Mr. R. W. Pelham, of the Shakers' Village, near New Lebanon, Ohio, the author was informed that a hybrid plant between the colocynth and watermelon had been successfully cultivated in that place, and yielded a bitter fruit having the me- dicinal virtues of colocynth. With the letter came also some seeds of the plant, and a por- tion of extract prepared from the pulp of the fruit. This was found, upon trial, to be actively cathartic. The seeds, planted in the garden of the author, produced vigorous plants, which perfected their fruit. The plant appeared intermediate between the colo- cynth and watermelon. The fruit was globular, about four inches in diameter, green like the watermelon externally, having the same odour when cut, but of an extremely bitter taste. A portion of the pulp was dried; and an extract prepared from it was found to have the properties of the extract of colocynth. PART I. Colocynthis.— Colomba. 261 favourite preparation with many practitioners; and, combined with calomel, extract of jalap, and gamboge, it forms a highly efficient and safe cathartic, especially applicable in congestion of the portal circle and torpidity of the liver. (See Pilulae Catharticae Compositae.) The dose of colocynth is from five to ten grains. It is best administered in a state of minute division, effected by trituration with gum or farinaceous matter. Thunberg states that the fruit of the C. Colocynthis, at the Cape of Good Hope, is rendered so mild by being properly pickled, that it is eaten both by the natives and colonists; but, as it is thus employed before attaining perfect maturity, it is possible that the drastic principle may not have been de- veloped. Off. Prep. Extractum Colocynthidis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extract. Colo- cynth. Comp., U. S., Lond., Dub.; Pilulas Colocynth. Comp., Dub., Ed. W. COLOMBA. U.S. Columbo. " The root of Cocculus palmatus." U. S. Off. Syn. CALUMBA. Cocculus palmatus. Radix. Lond.; CALUM- BA. Root of Cocculus palmatus. Ed.; COLOMBA. Radix. Dub. Colombo, Fr.; Columbowurzel, Germ.; Columba, Ital; Raiz de Columbo, Span.; Ka- lumbo, Port.; Calumb, Mozambique. The columbo plant was imperfectly known till within a recent period. Flowering specimens of a plant gathered by Commerson, about the year 1770, in the garden of M. Poivre in the Isle of France, and sent to Europe with that botanist's collection, were examined by Lamarck, and described under the name of Menispermum palmatum. But its original locality was unknown, and it was only conjectured to be the source of columbo. In the year 1805, M. Fortin, while engaged in purchasing the root as an article of trade in Mozambique, obtained possession of a living offset, which he took to Madras, and which, being planted in the garden of Dr. Anderson, produced a male plant. This was figured and described by Dr. Berry, without any knowledge of the previous description of Lamarck. From the drawing thus made, the plant was referred to the natural family of the Menispermeas; but, as the female flowers were wanting,some difficulty was experienced in fixing its precise botanical position. De Candolle, who probably had the opportu- nity of examining Commerson's specimens, did indeed give its generic and specific character ; but confessed that he was not acquainted with the struc- ture of the female flower and fruit. The desideratum, however, has been supplied by ample drawings sent to England by Mr. Telfair, of Mauritius, made from plants which were propagated from roots, obtained by Captain Owen in 1825, while prosecuting his survey of the Eastern coast of Africa. (Curtis's Botan. Mag., vol. 4, pi. 2970.) The genus Cocculus, in which the plant is now placed, was separated by De Candolle from Menispermum., and includes those species which have six stamens, while the Menispermum is limited to those with twelve or more. Cocculus. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Hexandria.—Nat. Ord. Menispermaceas. Gen. Ch. Sepals and Petals ternate, usually in two, rarely in three rows. Stamens six, distinct, opposite the petals. Drupes berried, 1-6, generally oblique, reniform, somewhat compressed, one-seeded. Cotyledons distant. De Cand. Cocculus palmatus. De Cand. Syst. Veg. i. 523; Wood v. Med. Bot., Sd ed. vol. 5, p. 21. This is a climbing plant, with a perennial root, con- sisting of several fasciculated, fusiform, somewhat curved, and descending 262 Colomba. PART I. tubers, of the thickness of an infant's arm. The stems, of which one or two proceed from the same root, are twining, simple in the male plant, branched in the female, round, hairy, and about as thick as the little finger. The leaves, which stand on rounded, glandular-hairy footstalks, are alternate, distant, cordate, with three, five, or seven entire, acuminate, wavy, some- what hairy lobes, and as many nerves, each of which runs into one of the lobes. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, and are arranged in soli- tary axillary racemes, which, in the male plant, are compound, in the female, simple, and in both shorter than the leaves. This species of Cocculus is a native of Mozambique, on the south-eastern coast of Africa, where it grows wild in great abundance in the thick forests which extend from the sea many miles into the interior. It is never culti- vated. The root is dug up in March, when dry weather prevails. From the base of the root numerous fusiform offsets proceed, less fibrous and woody than the parent stock. These offsets are separated and cut into transverse slices, which are dried in the shade. The old root is rejected. Columbo is a staple export of the Portuguese from their dominions in the South East of Africa. It is taken to India, and thence distributed to various parts of the world. It was formerly supposed to be a product of Ceylon, and to have derived its name from Colombo, a city of that Island, from which it was thought to be exported. It is possible that, when the Portuguese were in possession of Ceylon, Colombo may have been the entrepot for the drug brought from Africa, and thus have given origin to its name. Some, how- ever, consider a more probable derivation to be from the word calumb, which is said to be the Mozambique name for the root. Properties. The root, as it reaches us, is in flat circular or oval pieces, from the eighth of an inch to near an inch in thickness, and from one to two inches in diameter. Along with these are sometimes a few cylindrical pieces an inch or two in length. The cortical portion is thick, of a bright yellow, slightly greenish colour internally, but covered with a brownish-wrinkled epidermis. The interior or medullary portion, which is readily distinguisha- ble from the cortical, is light, spongy, yellowish, usually more or less shrunk, so that the pieces are thinnest in the centre; and is frequently marked with concentric circles and radiating lines. Those pieces are to be preferred which have the brightest colour, are most compact and uniform in their tex- ture, and least worm-eaten. The odour of columbo is slightly aromatic. The taste is very bitter, that of the cortical much more so than that of the central portion, which is somewhat mucilaginous. The root is brittle, and easily pulverized. The powder has a greenish tinge, which becomes browner with age, and deepens when it is moistened. As it attracts moisture from the air, and is apt to undergo decomposition, it should be prepared in small quantities at a time. M. Planche analyzed columbo in 1811,and found it to contain an azotized substance, probably albumen, in large quantity, a bitter yellow substance not precipitated by metallic salts, and one-third of its weight of starch. He obtained also a small proportion of essential oil, salts of lime and potassa, oxide of iron, and silica. Wittstock, of Berlin, afterwards isolated a peculiar crystallizable principle, in which the bitterness resides, and for which he proposed the name of colombin. (Journ. de Pharm., Fevrier, 1831.) It appears to be the bitter yellow substance of Planche, deprived of a portion of colouring matter. Colombin crystallizes in beautiful transparent quadri- lateral prisms, is without smell, and is extremely bitter. It is but very slightly soluble in water, alcohol, or ether, at ordinary temperatures, and yet imparts to these fluids a strongly bitter taste. It is more soluble in boiling alcohol, which deposits it upon cooling. The best solvent is diluted acetic PART I. Colomba. 263 acid. It is taken up by alkaline solutions, from which it is precipitated by acids. It has neither acid nor alkaline properties, and its alcoholic and acetic solutions are not affected by the metallic salts, or the infusion of galls. It is obtained by exhausting columbo by means of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-835, distilling off three-quarters of the alcohol, allowing the residue to stand for some days till crystals are deposited, and lastly treating these crystals with alcohol and animal, charcoal. The mother waters still contain a considerable quantity of colombin, which may be separated by evaporating with coarsely powdered glass to dryness, exhausting the residue with ether, distilling off the ether, treating the residue with boiling acetic acid, and evaporating the solution so that crystals may form. Colombin is thought to be the active principle of columbo. The virtues of the root are extracted by boiling water and by alcohol. Precipitates are produced with the infusion and tincture by the infusion of galls, the acetate and subacetate of lead, corrosive chloride of mercury, and lime-water; but the bitter principle is not affected by these reagents. Adulterations. In France, a spurious columbo was some years since extensively substituted for the genuine root, which, according to Guibourt, had become rare in the commerce of that country. As it may possibly be introduced into our market, it is desirable that our druggists should be put in possession of the characters by which it may be distinguished. Though similar to columbo in appearance, it is different in properties, and is there- fore truly a sophistication. It is said to be taken to France from Barbary; but the plant which yields it is not known. Though in round slices like the genuine root, it has an epidermis of a gray-fawn colour, marked with close and parallel circular strias; its transverse surfaces are irregularly de^ pressed; the medullary portion is of a yellowish-orange, with a deeper- coloured circle; the smell is weak like that of gentian, the taste feebly bitter and rather saccharine; the powder is of a yellow-fawn instead of a greenish colour; but the most striking difference is the total absence of starch, which constitutes one-third of columbo. Iodine therefore is an excellent test. If the true columbo be moistened with hot water, and touched with iodine, it immediately assumes a blackish colour; while the spurious root, treated in the same way, undergoes no change. The latter differs also in communi- cating- a fine yellow colour to ether, in evolving ammonia when treated with caustic potassa, and in reddening in infusion the tincture of litmus. It is said that the root of white bryony, tinged yellow with the tincture of columbo, has sometimes been fraudulently substituted; but the adulteration is too gross to deceive those acquainted with the characters of either of these drugs. American columbo, which is the root of the Frasera Walteri, is said to be sold in some parts of Europe for the genuine. Independently of the sensi- ble differences between the two roots, (See Frasera,) M. Stolze of Halle states, that while the tincture of columbo remains unaffected by the sulphate or sesquichloride of iron, and gives a dirty gray precipitate with tincture of galls, the tincture of frasera acquires a dark green with the former reagent, and is not affected by the latter. (Duncan.) Medical Properties and Uses. Columbo is among the most useful of the mild tonics. Without astringency, with very little stimulating power, and generally acceptable to the stomach, it answers admirably as a remedy in simple dyspepsia, and in those states of debility which are apt to attend convalescence from acute disorders, especially when the alimentary canal is left in an enfeebled condition. Hence it is often prescribed in the declining stages of remittent fever, dysentery, diarrhoea, cholera morbus, and cholera infantum. The absence of irritating properties renders it also an appro- priate tonic in the hectic fever of phthisis, and its kindred affections. It 264 Colomba.— Conii Folia. part r. has been highly recommended in vomiting, unconnected with inflammation of the stomach, as in the sickness of pregnant women. It is frequently administered in combination with other tonics, with aromatics, with mild cathartics, and with antacids. The remedy which we have found most effectual in the permanent cure of a disposition to the accumulation of flatus in the bowels, is an infusion made with half an ounce of columbo, half an ounce of ginger, a drachm of senna, and a pint of boiling water, and given in the dose of a wineglassful three times a day. Columbo is much used by the natives of Mozambique, and the neighbouring parts of Africa, in dysen- tery and otheT diseases. (Berry.) It was first introduced to the notice of the profession in Europe by Francois Redi, in the year 1685. It is most commonly prescribed in the state of infusion. (See Infusum Colombx.) The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains, and may be repeated three or four times a day. It is frequently combined with powdered ginger, carbonate of iron, and rhubarb. Off. Prep. Infusum Colombas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub.; Tinctura Colombas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. CONII FOLIA. U.S., Lond. Hemlock Leaves. "The leaves of Conium maculatum." U. S. "Conium maculatum. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. CONIUM. Leaves of Conium maculatum. Ed.; CONIUM MACULATUM. Folia. Dub. CONII SEMEN. U.S. Hemlock Seed. "The seeds of Conium maculatum." U. S. Off. Syn. CONII FRUCTUS. Conium maculatum. Fructus. Lond. Cigue ordinaire, Grande eigne, Fr.; Gefleckter Schierling, Germ.; Cicuta, Ital, Spun. Conium. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Apiaceas or Um- belliferas. Gen. Ch. Partial Involucre halved, usually three-leaved. Fruit nearly globular, five-streaked, notched on both sides. Willd. Conium maculatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1395; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 113; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 104. t. 42. This is an umbelliferous plant, having a biennial spindle-shaped whitish root, and an herbaceous branching stem, from three to six feet high, round, hollow, smooth, shining, slightly striated, and marked with brownish-purple spots. The lower leaves are tripinnate, more than a foot in length, shining, and attached to the joints of the stem by sheathing petioles; the upper are smaller, bipinnate, and in- serted at the divisions of the branches; both have channeled foot-stalks, arid incised leaflets, which are deep green on their upper surface and paler be- neath. The flowers are very small, white, and disposed in compound ter- minal umbels. The general involucre consists of from three to seven lanceo- late, reflected leaflets, whitish at their edges; the partial involucre, of three or four, oval, pointed, spreading, and on one side only. The petals are cordate, with their points inflected, five in number, and nearly equal. The stamens afe spreading,and about as long as the corolla; the styles diverging. The fruit is roundish ovate, a line and a half or rather less in length by a line in breadth, striated, and composed of two plano-convex, easily separa- ble parts, which have on their outer surface five crenated ribs. PART I. Conii Folia.— Conii Semen. 265 The hemlock is a native of Europe, and has been introduced into the United States, where it is now naturalized. It grows usually in bunches along the road sides, or in waste grounds, and is found most abundantly in the neighbourhood of old settlements. Its flowers appear in June and July. The whole plant, especially at this period, exhales a fetid odour, compared by some to that of mice, by others to that of the urine of cats; and narcotic effects are experienced by those who breathe for a long time air impreg- nated with the effluvia. The plant varies in narcotic power according to the climate and character of the weather, being most active in hot and dry seasons, and in warm countries. The hemlock of Greece, Italy, and Spain is said to be much more energetic than that of the North of Europe. As a general rule, those plants are most active which grow in a sunny exposure. The term cicuta, which till recently was very often applied to this plant, belongs to a different genus. Both the leaves and fruit are officinal. The proper season for gathering the leaves is when the plant is in flower; and Dr. Fothergill asserts, from experimental knowledge, that they are most active about the time when the flowers begin to fade. The footstalks should be rejected, and the leaflets quickly dried, either in the hot sun, on tin plates before a fire, or by a stove heat not exceeding 120° F. They should be kept in boxes or tin cases, excluded as much as possible from the air and light, by exposure to which they lose their fine green colour, and become deteriorated in medical virtues. The same end is answered by pulverizing them, and preserving the powder in opaque and well stopped bottles. But little reliance can be placed on the dried leaves ; as, even when possessed of a strong odour and a fine green colour, they are sometimes destitute of the peculiar narcotic principle. When rubbed with caustic potassa they should exhale the odour of conia. The fruit, commonly called seeds, retains its activity much longer than the leaves. Dr. Christison found it to have sus- tained no diminution of power, after having been kept eight years, (Ed. New Phil. Journ, April, 1845.) Properties. The dried leaves of the hemlock have a strong, heavy, narcotic odour, less disagreeable than that of the recent plant. Their taste is bitterish and nauseous; their colour a dark green, which is retained in the powder. A slight degree of acrimony possessed by the fresh leaves is said to be dissipated by drying. The seeds have a yellowish-gray colour, a feeble odour, and a somewhat bitterish taste. Their form has already been de- scribed. Water distilled from the fresh leaves has the odour of hemlock, and a very nauseous taste, but does not produce narcotic effects. The de- coction has little taste, and the extract resulting from its evaporation is nearly inert. From these facts it is inferrible, that the active principle, as it exists in the plant, is not volatile at 212°, and, if soluble in water, is in- jured by a boiling heat. Alcohol and ether take up the narcotic properties of the leaves ; and the ethereal extract, which is of a rich dark green colour, is stated by Dr. A. T. Thomson to have the smell and taste of the plant in perfection, and in the dose of half a grain to produce headache andvertigo. Upon destructive distillation, the leaves yield a very poisonous empyreu- matic oil. We have no satisfactory analysis of hemlock. Schrader found in the juice of the leaves, resin, extractive, gum, albumen, a green fecula, and various saline substances. Brandes obtained from the plant a very odor- ous oil, albumen, resin, colouring matter, and salts, and believed that he had discovered a peculiar alkaline principle; but there is reason to think that he was mistaken; as the principle which he described is essentially different from that which subsequent experiment has proved to exist in the plant. So long ago as 1827, Giseke obtained an alkaline liquid by distilling 24 266 Conii Folia.— Conii Semen. PART I. hemlock leaves with water and caustic lime; but he did not succeed in iso- lating the substance in which this alkalinity resided. Geiger was the first who obtained the active principle in a separate state, and proved it to pos- sess alkaline properties. It appears that there are two volatile substances in hemlock, one of them an oil, which comes over by simple distillation, and upon which the odour of the plant depends, and the other an alkaline principle, which, as it exists in the plant, is so combined as not to be vola- tilizable, but which, when separated by one of the mineral alkalies from its native combination, rises readily in distillation, and may thus be procured separate. This latter substance is the active principle, and merits the name of conia which has been conferred upon it. Coneine, conine, conicine, and cicutine are synonymes, which have been adopted by different writers; but the name first mentioned accords best with the nomenclature of the vege- table alkalies generally recognised in England and this country. In what state of combination it exists in the plant is not certainly known; but it is probably united with an acid, as it is separated by the alkalies. This acid Peschier believed to be peculiar, and named coniic acid. Geiger obtained conia by the following process. He distilled fresh hemlock with caustic potassa and water, neutralized with sulphuric acid the alkaline liquid which came over, evaporated this liquid to the consistence of syrup, added anhy- drous alcohol so long as a precipitate of sulphate of ammonia was afforded, separated this salt by filtration, distilled off the alcohol, mixed the residue with a strong solution of caustic potassa, and distilled anew. The conia passed over with the water, from which it separated, floating on the surface in the form of a yellowish oil. Caustic soda or lime might be substituted for potassa in the first distillation. According to Dr. Christisoriyan easier process is to distil cautiously a mixture of strong solution of potassa and the alcoholic extract of the unripe fruit. The alkaloid is obtained floating like an oil upon the surface of the water in the receiver. As obtained by the above processes, conia is in the state of a hydrate, containing one-fourth of its weight of water and a little ammonia. From the former, it may be freed by chloride of calcium, from the latter, by exposing it under an ex- hausted receiver till it ceases to emit bubbles of gas. The fresh leaves or seeds should be employed in the preparation of conia; as the alkali appears to undergo decomposition by time and exposure. The seeds contain most of this principle; but even in these it exists in very small proportion. From six pounds of the fresh and nine pounds of the dried seeds, Geiger obtained about an ounce of conia ; while from one hundred pounds of the fresh herb he got only a drachm, and from the dried leaves could obtain none of the alkali. Christison recommends the full grown fruit while yet green; and states that eight pounds will yield half an ounce of hydrate of conia, and contains much more. (Dispensatory.) Some doubts were at one time thrown upon the accuracy of Geiger's conclusions as to the nature of conia, which was supposed to owe its alkalinity to the pre- sence of ammonia; but the experiments of MM. Boutron and Henry have satisfactorily settled the question in favour of its claims to be considered as a peculiar organic alkali. Conia is in the form of a yellowish, oily liquid, lighter than water, of a strong and penetrating odour, recalling that of fresh hemlock, yet not iden- tical with it, and of a very acrid taste. In volatility it resembles the essen- tial oils, readily rising with the vapour of boiling water, but when unmixed, requiring for ebullition, according to Christison, a temperature of 370°. It is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, the fixed and volatile oils, and slightly so in water. It unites with about one-fourth of water to form a hydrate. It PART I. Conii Folia.— Conii Semen. 267 reddens turmeric, and neutralizes the acids, forming with them soluble salts, some of which are crystallizable. With tannic acid it forms an insoluble compound. Like ammonia it emits a white cloud, when approached by a rod moistened with muriatic acid. When exposed to the air, it speedily becomes of a deep brown colour, and is ultimately converted into a resinous matter, and into ammonia which escapes. Under the influence of heat this change takes place with much greater rapidity. Its presence may be de- tected in an extract or other preparation of hemlock by rubbing it with potassa, which instantly develops its peculiar odour. In ultimate com- position it is analogous to the other organic alkalies, containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In its effects on the system it closely resembles hemlock itself. Dr. Christison found it, contrary to the expe- rience of Geiger, even more active in the saline state, than when uncom- bined. It is a most energetic poison, one drop of it injected into the eye of a rabbit killing the animal in nine minutes, and three drops killing a stout cat in a minute and a half when similarly applied. Dr. Christison, from whose paper these facts are derived (Trans. Roy. Soc, Ed., 1836), is of the opinion that it acts upon the spinal marrow, directly prostrating the nerv- ous power, and thus producing paralysis of the voluntary muscles, which, invading the organs of respiration, destroys life by arresting this process. The brain does not seem to be especially attacked; as the animal, when it dies slowly, preserves its senses unimpaired so long as it breathes. In cases of sudden death from the poison, the heart does not cease to act till after apparent death; and its action may be sustained after the animal has ceased to breathe by keeping up artificial respiration. Experiments made upon animals with a recently prepared extract of hemlock produced pre- cisely the same phenomena as those which followed the use of conia. Locally the alkali appears to act as an irritant. Medical Properties and Uses. Hemlock is narcotic, without being decidedly stimulant or sedative to the circulation. Mr. Judd, however, has inferred from his experiments, that it directly diminishes the action of the heart, and, when it produces death, contrary to the results obtained by Christison, exhausts the contractility of that organ. (Medico-Bot. Trans., vol. i. pt. 4.) These conclusions require confirmation. When given so as fully to affect the system, it produces more or less vertigo, dimness of vision, nausea, faintness, sensations of numbness, and general muscular debility. In larger doses it occasions dilated pupils, difficulty of speech, delirium or stu- por, tremors and paralysis, and ultimately convulsions and even death. Its operation usually commences in less than half an hour, and, if moderate, seldom continues longer than twenty-four hours. It is supposed to be the narcotic used by the Athenians to destroy the life of condemned individuals, and by which Socrates and Phocion died. It was also used by the ancients as a medicine, but fell into entire neglect, and was not again brought into notice till the time of Storck, by whom it was much employed and extrava- gantly praised. Since that period it has been submitted to ample trial, and, though its original reputation has not been fully sustained, it still retains a place in the catalogue of useful medicines. Anodyne, soporific, antispas- modic, antiphrodisiac,deobstruent, and diuretic properties have been ascribed to it; though its claims to the possession of so many virtues have not been well established. It was highly recommended by Storck as a remedy in scirrhus and cancerous ulcers, but at present is only considered a useful palliative in this complaint. In mammary tumours and chronic enlarge- ments of the liver and other abdominal viscera; in painful scrofulous tu- mours and ulcers; in various diseases of the skin, as leprosy and elephan- 268 Conii Folia.—Contrayerva. PART I. tiasis; in the complicated derangements of health attendant upon secondary syphilis; in chronic rheumatism and neuralgic affections; in excessive secretion of milk; in pertussis, asthma, chronic catarrh, and consumption ; and in various other disorders connected with nervous derangement, or a general depraved state of the health, it is occasionally employed with the effect of relieving or palliating the symptoms, or favourably modifying the action of remedies with which it is combined. Dr. Gibson, Professor of Surgery in the University of Pennsylvania, speaks highly of its efficacy in the cure of goitre. (See Phil. Journ. of the Med. and Phys. Sci., i. 67.) The powdered leaves, and the inspissated juice (the extract of the Phar- macopoeias), are the forms in which it is usually administered. Either of these may be given in the dose of three or four grains twice a day, gradually increased till the occurrence of slight vertigo or nausea indicates that it has taken effect. To maintain a given impression, it is necessary to increase the dose even more rapidly than is customary with most other narcotics; as the system becomes very speedily habituated to its influence. In some in- stances, the quantity administered in one day has been augmented to more than two ounces. The strength of the preparations of hemlock is exceed- ingly unequal; and caution is therefore necessary, when the medicine is given in very large quantities, to employ the same parcel, or, if a change be made, to commence with the new parcel in small doses, so as to obviate any danger which might result from its greater power. Unpleasant conse- quences have followed a neglect of this precaution. There is also an officinal tincture and an alcoholic extract, both of which, when properly made, are efficient preparations. The fresh juice of the plant has been recommended by Hufeland in the dose of from twelve to forty drops. The powdered seeds may be employed in a dose somewhat smaller than that of the leaves. Cullen states that an extract prepared from them is stronger than that of the plant. The fresh leaves are sometimes used externally as an anodyne cataplasm; and the extract, and an ointment prepared from the leaves, are applied to the same purpose. Though fatal to some animals, hemlock is eaten with impunity by others, as horses, goats, and sheep. The best method of relieving its poisonous effects, is the speedy evacuation of the stomach. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Conii, Lond., Dub.; Extractum Conii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extract. Conii Alcoholicum, U. S.; Tinctura Conii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Conii, Dub. W. CONTRAYERVA. U.S. Secondary. Contrayerva. " The root of Dorstenia Contrayerva." U. S. Off. Syn. CONTRAJERVA. Dorstenia Contrajerva. Radix. Lond. Contrayerva. Fr.; Giftwurzel, Germ.; Contrajerva, Ital; Contrayerba, Span. Dorstenia. Sex. Syst. Tetrandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Urticaceas. Gen. Ch. Receptacle common, one-leafed, fleshy, in which solitary seeds are nestled. Willd. The root known by the name of contrayerva is believed to be derived from several species of Dorstenia, among which, besides the D. Contra- yerva, two others are mentioned by Dr. Houston, the D. Houstonia, and D. Drakena, the former growing near Campeachy, the latter near Vera Cruz. It is referred by Dr. Martius also to the D. Brasiliensis, growing in Jamaica, part i. Contrayerva.— Convolvulus Panduratus. 269 Trinidad, and Brazil. The D. Contrayerva is the only one recognised in the Pharmacopasias. Dorstenia Contrayerva. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 682; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 705. t. 240. This plant has a perennial, fusiform, branching, rough, com- pact root or rhizoma, which sends up several leaves of an irregular shape, about four inches in length, lobed, serrated, pointed, and placed upon long radical footstalks, which are winged towards the leaves. The scapes or flower-stems are also radical, rise several inches in height, and support irregular quadrangular receptacles, which contain male and female flowers, the former having two stamens, the latter a single style. The capsule, when ripe, possesses an elastic power, by which the seeds are thrown out with considerable force. The plant grows in Mexico, the West Indies, and Peru. The root (rhizoma) is the officinal portion. According to Pereira, however, the con- trayerva of the shops is not the product of the species above described, but of the D. Brasiliensis, and is brought from Brazil. The term contrayerba, in the language of the Spanish Americans, signifies counterpoison or anti- dote, and was applied to this root under the impression that it has the pro- perty of counteracting all kinds of poison. Properties. The root, as found in our shops, is oblong, an inch or two in length, of varying thickness, very hard, rough, and solid, of a reddish- brown colour externally, and pale within; and has numerous long, slender, yellowish fibres attached to its inferior part. The odour is aromatic; the taste warm, slightly bitterish, and pungent. The fibres have less taste and smell than the tuberous portion. The sensible properties are extracted by alcohol and boiling water. The decoction is of a dark brownish-red colour, and highly mucilaginous. The tincture reddens infusion of litmus, and lets fall a precipitate on the addition of water. The root has not yet been analyzed, but is known to contain starch and a volatile oil. Medical Properties and Uses. Contrayerva is a stimulant tonic and diaphoretic, and has been given in low states of fever, malignant eruptive diseases, some forms of dysentery and diarrhoea, and other diseases requir- ing gentle stimulation. It is very seldom used in this country. The dose of the powdered root is about half a drachm. W. CONVOLVULUS PANDURATUS. U.S. Secondary. Wild Potato. "The root of Convolvulus panduratus." U.S. Convolvulus. See SCAMMONIUM. Convolvulus panduratus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 850; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 249. The wild potato has a perennial root, and a round, purplish, procum- bent or climbing stem, which twines around neighbouring objects, and grows sometimes twelve feet in length. The leaves, which stand alternately on long petioles, are broad, heart-shaped at the base, entire, or lobed on the sides like a guitar or violin, somewhat acuminate, deep green on the upper surface and paler beneath. The flowers are in fascicles, upon long axillary peduncles. The calyx is smooth and awnless; the corolla, tubular campa- nulate, very large, white at the border, but purplish-red at the base. The plant is indigenous, growing throughout the United States in sandy •fields and along fences, and flowering from June to August. A variety with double flowers is cultivated in the gardens for the sake of ornament. 24* 270 Convolvulus Panduratus.—Copaiba. parti. The root, which is the officinal part, is very large, two or three feet in length, about three inches thick, branched at the bottom, externally of a brownish-yellow colour, and full of longitudinal fissures, internally whitish and milky, and of a somewhat acrid taste. Pursh says that he has seen a root as thick as a man's thigh. Medical Properties. The wild potato is feebly cathartic, and has been proposed as a substitute for jalap, but is scarcely used. It is thought also to be somewhat diuretic, and has been employed, with supposed advantage, in strangury and calculous complaints. Forty grains of the dried root are said to purge gently. Perhaps an extract might be found more effectual. W. COPAIBA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Copaiba. " The juice of Copaifera officinalis and other species of Copaifera." U. S. "Copaifera Langsdorffii. Resina liquida." Lond. " Fluid resinous exuda- tion of various species of Copaifera. Copaiva." Ed. Off. Syn. COPAIFERA OFFICINALIS. Resina liquida. Dub. Balsam of Copaiva; Baume de copahu, Fr.; Copaiva-Balsam, Germ.; Balsamo di copaiba, Ital; Balsamo de copayva, Span. Copaifera. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Legumi- nosas, Jussieu. Amyridaceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals four. Legume ovate. Seed one, with an ovate arillus. Willd. The first notice to be found of the copaiba plant is that by Marcgravand Piso in the year 1648. Jacquin in 1763 described a species of Copaifera, which grew in the Island of Martinique, and which he named C. officinalis, from the fact that it afforded this resinous juice. As this was believed to be the same plant with that observed by Marcgrav in Brazil, it was adopted without hesitation in the Pharmacopoeias; but their identity is now denied; and Desfontaines has proposed for the officinal species the title of C. Jac- quini, in honour of the botanist wrho originally described it. From recent observation and discoveries it appears, that numerous species of Copaifera exist in Brazil and other parts of South America, all of which, according to Martius, yield copaiba. Besides the C. officinalis or C. Jacquini, the following are described by Hayne;—C. Guianensis, C. Langsdorffii, C. coriacea, C. Beyrichii, C. Martii, C. bijuga, C. niticla, C. laxa, C. cordi- folia, C. Jussieui, C. Sellowii, C. oblongifolia, and C. multijuga. Hayne believes that the C. bijuga is the plant seen by Marcgrav and Piso. Copaifera officinalis. Willd. ii. 630; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 609. t. 216. C. Jacquini. Desfont.* Mem. du Mus. vii. 376; Hayne, Darstel. und Bes- chreib. Sec. x. 14. This is an elegant tree, with a lofty stem, much branched at the top, and crowned by a thick canopy of foliage. The leaves are alter- nate, large, and pinnate, composed of from two to five pairs of ovate, entire, obtusely acuminate leaflets, two or three inches in length, rather narrower on one side than the other, smooth, pellucidly punctate, somewhat shining, and supported on short footstalks. The flowers are whitish, and disposed in terminal branched spikes. The fruit is an oval, two-valved pod, con- taining a single seed. This species of Copaifera is a native of Venezuela, and grows in the pro- vince of Carthagena, mingled with the trees which afford the balsam of Tolu. It grows also in some of the West India islands, particularly Trinidad and PART I. Copaiba. 271 Martinique, where it is said to be naturalized. Though recognised in the United States Pharmacopoeia as one of the sources of the officinal copaiba, it probably yields little of that now in use. According to Hayne, the species from which most of the Copaiba of commerce is derived, is the C. multijuga, growing in the province of Para. It is probable that the C. Guianensis, which inhabits the neighbouring province of Guiana, espe- cially in the vicinity of the Rio Negro, affords also considerable quantities; and the C. Langsdorffii and C. coriacea, which are natives of Santo Paulo, are thought to yield most of the juice collected in the last-mentioned pro- vince. But the London College is certainly in error in ascribing copaiba exclusively to the C. Langsdorffii; as little of that found in commerce is derived from the region of country where that species is known to flourish. The juice is obtained by making deep incisions into the stems of the trees; and the operation is said to be repeated several times in the same season. As it flows from the wound, it is clear, colourless, and very thin, but soon acquires a thicker consistence, and a yellowish tinge. It is most largely collected in the provinces of Para and Maranham, in Brazil, and until recently was brought to this country chiefly from the port of Para, in small casks or barrels. But large quantities of it are now brought from Maracaibo, in Venezuela, and from other ports on the Caribbean sea, whence it comes in casks, demijohns, cans, jugs, &c. Copaiba is also ex- ported from the French South American province of Cayenne, from Rio Janeiro, and from some of the West India islands; but little reaches the United States from these sources. Properties. Copaiba is a clear, transparent liquid, usually of the con- sistence of olive oil, of a pale yellow colour, a peculiar not unpleasant odour, and a bitterish, hot, nauseous taste. Its specific gravity varies from 0-950 to P000. It is insoluble in water, but entirely soluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and the fixed and volatile oils. Strong alkaline solutions dissolve it perfectly; but the resulting solution becomes turbid when largely diluted with water. With the alkalies and alkaline earths, it forms saponaceous compounds, in which the resin of the copaiba appears to act the part of an acid. It dissolves magnesia, especially with the aid of heat, and even dis- engages carbonic acid from the carbonate of that earth. If triturated with a sixteenth of its weight of magnesia and set aside, it gradually assumes a solid consistence: and a similar change is produced with hydrate of lime. (See Pilulae Copaibas.) Its essential constituents are volatile oil and resin, with a minute proportion of an acid which appears to be the acetic. (Du- rand, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., i. 3.) As it contains no benzoic acid, it cannot with propriety retain its former title of balsam of copaiva. The substances which it most closely resembles, both in composition and properties, are the turpentines. The volatile oil, which has been adopted as officinal by the Edinburgh College under the name of Copaiba oleum, constitutes from a third to one- half or more of the copaiba. It may be separated by distillation, and is best obtained by distillation with water. As it first comes over it is colour- less, but the later product is of a fine greenish hue. By re-distillation it may be rendered wholly colourless. It has the odour and taste of copaiba, is lighter than water, boils at about 470° (Christison), is soluble in ether and alcohol, absorbs muriatic acid gas and forms with it crystals of artificial camphor, and when pure contains no oxygen, being isomeric with pure oil of turpentine. It answers even better than naphtha for preserving potas- sium, a fact first observed by Mr. Durand, of Philadelphia. The resinous mass which remains is hard, brittle, translucent, of a green- 272 Copaiba. PART I. ish-brown colour, and nearly destitute of smell and taste. By mixing it with the oil in proper proportion, we may obtain a liquid identical or nearly so with the original juice. When treated with the oil of petroleum, it is separated into two distinct resins, one of which is dissolved, and may be obtained separate by evaporation, the other is left behind. The first is yel- lowish, hard, and brittle, and constitutes by far the largest proportion of the residuum of the distillation. It appears to possess acid properties; as its alcoholic solution reddens litmus, and it forms definite compounds with the alkalies. It has therefore received the name of copaivic acid. The second resin is yellowish-brown, soft, unctuous, and without acid reaction; and is supposed by Berzelius to result from the resinification of the volatile oil, as it is more abundant in the old than in the recent juice. Recent copaiba examined by Gerber yielded 41 per cent, of volatile oil, 51*38 of the hard and brittle resin, 2-18 of the soft resin, and 5-44 of water; while an older specimen gave 31-07 per cent, of oil, 53-68 of hard resin, 11-15 of soft resin, and 4-10 of water. Copaiba, upon exposure to the air, assumes a deeper colour, a thicker consistence, and greater density, and, if spread out upon an extended sur- face, ultimately becomes dry and brittle. This change is owing partly to the volatilization, partly to the oxidation of the essential oil. Considerable diversities must, therefore, exist in the drug, both in physical properties and the proportion of its ingredients, according to its age and degree of exposure. Similar differences also exist in the copaiba procured from dif- ferent sources. Thus, that of the West Indies, when compared with the Brazilian, which is the variety above described and in common use, is of a thicker consistence, of a deeper or darker yellow colour, less transparent, and of a less agreeable, more terebinthinate odour; specimens obtained from the ports of Venezuela or New Grenada were found upon examina- tion by M. Vigne, to differ from each other not only in physical properties, but also in their chemical relations (Journ. de Pharm., N. S., i. 52.); and it is not impossible that differences may exist in the juice according to the circumstances of its collection. It is said that a volatile oil flows abund- antly from a tree near Bogota, without distillation, which is employed to adulterate the copaiba collected in that neighbourhood, and shipped from Maracaibo and other neighbouring ports. (Am. J. of Pharm., xviii. 240.) Adulterations. Copaiba is said to be frequently adulterated; but the remark is applicable rather to the markets of Europe than to those of the United States.- The fixed oils are the most frequent addition, especially castor oil, which, in consequence of its solubility in alcohol, cannot, like the others, be detected by the agency of that fluid. Various plans have been proposed for ascertaining the presence of castor oil. The simplest is to boil one drachm of the copaiba in a pint of water, till the liquid is wholly evaporated. If the copaiba contain oil, the residue will be more or less soft, according to the quantity present; otherwise it will be hard. Another mode, proposed by M. Planche, consists in shaking together in a bottle one part of solution of ammonia of the sp. gr. 0-9212 (22° Baume) with two and a half parts of copaiba, at a temperature of from 50° to 60° F. The mixture, at first cloudy, quickly becomes transparent if the copaiba is pure, but remains more or less opaque if it is adulterated with castor oil. According to J. E. Simon, however, a variety of genuine copaiba some- times occurs in commerce, in which this test fails. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 236.) Carbonate of magnesia, caustic potassa, and sulphuric acid have also been proposed as tests. In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, it is stated that copaiba "dissolves a fourth part of its weight of carbonate PART I. Copaiba. 273 of magnesia, with the aid of a gentle heat, and continues translucent." The presence of a small proportion of any fixed oil renders the mixture opaque. Turpentine, which is said to be sometimes added to copaiba, may be detected by its smell, especially if the copaiba be heated. Medical Properties and Uses. Copaiba is gently stimulant, diuretic, laxative, and in very large doses often actively purgative. It produces, when swallowed, a sense of heat in the throat and stomach, and extends an irri- tant action, not only throughout the alimentary canal, but also to the urinary passages, and in fact, in a greater or less degree, to all the mucous mem- branes, for which it appears to have a strong affinity. The urine acquires a peculiar odour during its use, and its smell may be detected in the breath. It sometimes occasions an eruption upon the skin, resembling that of measles, and attended with a disagreeable itching and tingling sensation. Nausea and vomiting, painful purgation, strangury and bloody urine, and a general state of fever are among the morbid results of its excessive action. As a remedy it has been found most efficient in the diseases of the mucous membranes, particularly such as are of a chronic character. Thus it is given with occa- sional advantage in leucorrhoea, gleet, chronic dysentery, painful hemor- rhoidal affections, and in chronic bronchial inflammation. By Dr. La Roche, of Philadelphia, it is highly recommended in catarrh of the bladder, and in chronic irritation of the same organ. (Am. Journ. of Med. Scien.,xiv. 13.) It has been given with some success in dropsy; and is said to be used as a vermifuge in Brazil. The complaint, however, in which it is most em- ployed is gonorrhoea. It is given in all stages of the disorder; but caution is requisite when the inflammatory symptoms are high. Even in health, if taken largely, it sometimes produces very unpleasant irritation of the urinary passages, and, by sympathy, of the testicles. It was formerly highly esteemed as a vulnerary, and as an application to ulcers; but is now seldom used externally. Dr. Ruschenberger strongly recommends it as a local application in chilblains. (Med. Examiner, i. 77.) The dose of copaiba is from twenty drops to a fluidrachm three times a day, or a smaller quantity repeated more frequently. It may be given dropped on sugar; but in this form is often so exceedingly offensive, as to render some concealment of its nauseous qualities necessary. It is some- limes given floating on the surface of some aromatic water, or mixed with an equal measure of spirit of nitric ether. A less disagreeable form is that of emulsion, prepared by rubbing the copaiba first with mucilage or the yolk of an egg, and sugar, and afterwards with water impregnated with some aromatic essential oil, as that of mint or cinnamon. The volatile oil may be used in the dose of ten or fifteen drops, and probably with the same ef- fects as the copaiba, of which it is the active ingredient. It may be admin- istered dropped on sugar, or in the form of emulsion. The resin, which has been proposed as a substitute, is nearly inert. The pills made by means of magnesia may sometimes be resorted to with advantage; and it has recently become customary to administer copaiba enclosed in capsules of gelatin, which completely cover the taste, while they are readily dissolved in the liquors of the stomach. (See Glue, in the Appendix.) Velpeau has found the best effects from copaiba in the form of enema. He gives two drachms made into an emulsion with the yolk of an egg, twenty or thirty drops of laudanum, and eight fluidounces of water. Off. Prep. Pilulas Copaibas, U. S.; Oleum Copaibas, Ed. W. 274 Coptis. PART I. COPTIS. U.S. Secondary. Goldthread. "The root of Coptis trifolia." U. S. Coptis. Sex. Syst. PolyandriaPolygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceas. Gen.Ch. Calyx none. Petals five or six, caducous. Nectaries five or six, cucullate. Capsules five to eight, stipitate, stellately diverging, and rostrate, many-seeded. Nuttall. Coptis trifolia. Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 60; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 97. This little evergreen bears considerable resemblance to the strawberry in size and general aspect. It has a perennial creeping root, the slenderness and bright yellow colour of which have given rise to the name of gold- thread, by which the plant is commonly known. The caudex, from which the petioles and flower-stems proceed, is invested with ovate, acuminate, yellowish, imbricated scales. The leaves, which stand on long slender foot- stalks, are ternate, with firm, rounded or obovate, sessile leaflets, having an acute base, a lobed and acuminately crenate margin, and a smooth veined surface. The scape or flower stem is slender, round, rather longer than the leaves, and surmounted by one small white flower, with a minute mucronate bracte beneath it. The petals are oblong, concave, and of a white colour; the nectaries inversely conical, hollow, and yellow at the top. The stamens have capillary filaments and globose anthers. The germs are from five to eight, stipitate, oblong, compressed, and surmounted by short recurved styles, with acute stigmas. The capsules, which diverge in a star-like form are pedicelled, compressed, beaked, and contain numerous black seeds attached to the inner side. The goldthread inhabits the northern regions of this continent and of Asia, and is found in Greenland and Iceland. It delights in the dark shady swamps and cold morasses of northern latitudes and Alpine regions, and abounds in Canada, and in the hilly districts of New England. Its blos- soms appear in May. All parts of the plant possess more or less bitterness; but this property is most intense in the root, which is the only portion directed by the Pharmacopoeia. Dried goldthread, as brought into the market, is in loosely matted masses, consisting of the long, thread-like, orange-yellow roots, frequently interlaced, and mingled with the leaves and stems of the plant. It is without smell, and has a purely bitter taste, unattended with aroma or astringency. It im- parts its bitterness and yellow colour to water and alcohol, but most perfectly to the latter, with which it forms a bright yellow tincture. Its virtues appear to depend on a bitter extractive matter, which is precipitated by nitrate of silver and acetate of lead. (Bigeloiv.) It affords no evidence of containing either resin, gum, or tannin. Medical Properties and Uses. It is a simple tonic bitter, bearing a close resemblance to quassia in its mode of action, and applicable to all cases in which that medicine is prescribed; though, from its higher price, not likely to come into general use as a substitute. In New England it is much em- ployed as a local application in aphthous ulcerations of the mouth; but it probably has no other virtues in this complaint than such as are common to all the simple bitters. It may be given internally in substance, infusion, or tincture. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains, of a tincture prepared by macerating an ounce of the root in a pint of diluted alcohol, one fluidrachm. PART I. Coptis.— Coriandrum. 275 Another species of Coptis has been described by Dr. Wallich, under the name of Coptis Teeta, which grows in the mountainous regions bordering on Assam, and is much used as a tonic by the people of that country and by the Chinese. It appears to be closely analogous in properties to the C. trifolia. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., ix. 196.) W. CORIANDRUM. U.S., Lond,Ed. Coriander. "The fruit of Coriandrum sativum." U. S., Ed. "Coriandrum sativum. Fructus." Lond. Off. Syn. CORIANDRUM SATIVUM. Semina. Dub. Coriandre, Pr.; Koriander, Germ.; Coriandro, Ital; Cilantro, Span. Coriandrum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Apiaceas or Umbelliferas. Gen. Ch. Corolla radiate. Petals inflex-emarginate. Universal involucre one-leafed. Partial involucres halved. Fruit spherical. Willd. Coriandrum sativum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1448; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 137. t. 53. This is an annual plant, with an erect, round, smooth, branch- ing stem, which rises about two feet in height, and is furnished with com- pound leaves, of which the upper are thrice ternate, with linear pointed leaflets, the lower pinnate, with the pinnas cut into irregular serrated lobes, resembling those of common parsley. The flowers are white or rose-coloured, and disposed in compound terminal umbels. The fruit is globular, and con- sists of two concave hemispherical portions. The C. sativum is a native of Italy, but at present grows wild in most parts of Europe, having become naturalized in consequence of its extensive cultivation. The flowers appear in June, and the fruit ripens in August. It is a singular fact, that all parts of the fresh plant are extremely fetid when bruised, while the fruit becomes fragrant by drying. This is the officinal portion. It is brought to us from Europe. The fruit of the coriander, as found in the shops, is globular, about the eighth of an inch in diameter, obscurely ribbed, of a grayish or brownish- yellow colour, and separable into the two portions (half-fruits) of which it consists. It has the persistent calyx at its base, and is sometimes sur- mounted by the adhering style. The smell and taste are gratefully aromatic, and depend on a volatile oil, which may be obtained separate by distillation. They are imparted to alcohol by maceration, and less readily to water. Medical Properties and Uses. Coriander has, in a moderate degree, the ordinary medical virtues of the aromatics. It is almost exclusively employed in combination with other medicines, either to cover their taste, to render them acceptable to the stomach, or to correct their griping qualities. It was well known to the ancients. The dose is from a scruple to a drachm. Off.Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Confectio Sennas, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Infusum Gentianas Compositum, U. S., Ed.; Infusum Sennas, U. S.; Infusum Sennas Compositum, Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennas] U. S.; Tinctura Sennas et Jalapas, U. S., Ed. W. 276 Cornu.—Cornus Circinata. PART I. CORNU. Lond., Ed. Hartshorn. "Cervus Elaphus. Cornu." Lond. "Horn of Cervus Elaphus." Ed. Off. Syn. CORNUA CERVINA. Ramenta. Dub. Corne de cerf, Fr.; Hirschhorn, Germ..; Corno di cervo, Ital; Cuerno de ciervo, Span. The stag or hart—Cervus Elaphus—the horns of which are directed by the British Colleges, inhabits Europe, Asia, and the North of Africa. Those of our own common deer—Cervus Virginianus—though employed in the arts, are not officinal. Hartshorn is usually imported into this country from Germany, in the state of shavings, but is very little employed. Hartshorn shavings are without smell and taste, pliable, and of an ivory yellow colour. According to M. Merat-Guillot, they contain in 100 parts, 27 of gelatin, 57-5 of phosphate of lime, 1 of carbonate of lime, and 14-5 of water including the loss. Boiling water extracts their gelatin, forming a transparent, colourless jelly, which may be rendered palatable by the addi- tion of sugar, lemon or orange juice, and a little wine. In its preparation, two pints of water are boiled with four ounces of the shavings to a pint, and the residue strained while hot. The clear liquid gelatinizes upon cool- ing. By destructive distillation, the shavings yield an impure solution of carbonate of ammonia, which formerly received the name of spirit of harts- horn; and the same name has been subsequently applied to similar ammo- niacal solutions procured from other sources. When burnt, they leave an incombustible residue consisting almost exclusively of phosphate of lime. Medical Properties, fyc. The jelly prepared from the shavings of harts- horn has been thought to possess medical virtues ; but it is only nutritive and demulcent, and is probably not superior to calfsfoot jelly. The shavings themselves are used in the preparation of the Pulvis Antimonialis. Off.Prep. CornuUstum, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Antimonialis, Ed.,Lond., Dub. W. CORNUS CIRCINATA. U S. Secondary. Round-leaved Dogwood. "The bark of Cornus circinata." U. S. Cornus. Sex. Syst. Tetrandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Cornaceas. Gen. Ch. Involucre usually four-leaved. Petals superior, four. Drupe with a two-celled nut. Willd. We have ten indigenous species of Cornus, all of which are supposed to possess similar medical properties; and three—the C. Florida, C. circinata, and C. sericea—are noticed in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. The last two are placed in the secondary list, not because they are esteemed less efficient than the first; but because they have hitherto less attracted the attention of the profession. , Cornus circinata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 663. This is a shrub from six to ten feet high, with warty branches, large, roundish, pointed leaves, waved on their edges and downy beneath, and white flowers disposed in depressed cymes. The fruit is blue. The plant is a native of the United States, ex- tending from Canada to Virginia, and growing on hill-sides and the banks of rivers. It flowers in June and July. The bark, when dried, is in quills of a whitish or ash colour, and affords part i. Cornus Circinata.—Cornus Florida. 211 a powder resembling that of ipecacuanha. Its taste is bitter, astringent, and aromatic. In chemical composition, so far as this has been ascertained, it is analogous to the Cornus Florida. It possesses also similar medical virtues, and may be employed in the same doses. It has been much used as a tonic and astringent in Connecticut, and was highly extolled by the late Dr. Ives, of New York, who recommended, as the most eligible preparation, an infu- sion made by pouring a pint of boiling water on an ounce of the coarsely pow- dered bark. The dose of this is from one to two fluidounces. W. CORNUS FLORIDA. U.S. Dogwood. « The bark of Cornus Florida." U. S. Cornus. See CORNUS CIRCINATA. Cornus Florida. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 661; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 73 ; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 44. This is a small indigenous tree, usually about fifteen or twenty feet in height, though sometimes not less than thirty or thirty-five feet. It is of slow growth; and the stem, which generally attains a diameter of four or five inches, is compact, and covered with a brownish bark, the epidermis of which is minutely divided by numerous superficial cracks or fissures. The branches are spreading, and regularly disposed, sometimes opposite, sometimes in fours nearly in the form of crosses. The leaves are opposite, oval, about three inches long, pointed, dark green and sulcated on the upper surface, glaucous or whitish beneath, and marked with strong parallel veins. Towards the close of summer they are speckled with black spots, and on the approach of cold weather assume a red colour. The proper flowers are small, yellowish, and collected in heads, which are surrounded by a very large conspicuous involucre, consisting of four white obcordate leaves, having the notch at their summit tinged with red or purple. It is this involucre that constitutes the chief beauty of the tree at the period of flowering. The calyx is four-toothed, and the corolla composed of four obtuse reflexed petals. The fruit is an oval drupe of a vivid glossy red colour, containing a two-celled and two-seeded nucleus. The drupes are usually associated together to the number of three or four, and remain on the tree till after the early frosts. They ripen in September. The dogwood is found in all parts of the United States, from Massachu- setts to the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico; but is most abundant in the Middle States. In the month of May, it is clothed with a profusion of large white blossoms, which render it one of the most conspicuous ornaments of the American forests. The bark is the officinal portion, and is derived for use both from the stem and branches, and from the root. The bark of the root is preferred. It is brought into market in pieces of various sizes, usually more or less rolled, sometimes invested with a fawn-coloured epider- mis, sometimes partially or wholly deprived of it, of a reddish-gray colour, very brittle, and affording, when pulverized, a grayish powder tinged with red. The odour of dogwood is feeble, its taste bitter, astringent, and slightly aromatic. Water and alcohol extract its virtues. It has not been accurately analyzed; but, from the experiments of Dr. Walker and others, appears to contain extractive matter, gum, resin, tannin, and gallic acid. A peculiar bitter principle, for which the name of cornine has been proposed, has been announced as an ingredient by Mr. Carpenter; but we need more definite information on the subject. The flowers of the C. Florida have the same 25 278 Cornus Sericea.—Cotula. PART I. bitter taste as the bark, and, though not officinal, are sometimes employed for the same purposes. Medical Properties and Uses. Cornus Florida is tonic and astringent. By Dr. Walker it was found, when taken internally, to augment the force and frequency of the pulse, and increase the heat of the body. It is thought to possess remedial properties closely analogous to those of Peruvian bark, for which it has occasionally been successfully substituted in the treatment of intermittent fevers; but the introduction of sulphate of quinia into use has nearly banished this, as well as many other substitutes for cinchona, from regular practice. The dogwood has also been employed with supposed benefit in typhoid fevers, and other complaints for which the Peruvian tonic is usually prescribed. It may be given in powder, decoction, or extract. The dose of the powder is from a scruple to a drachm, repeated, in cases of intermittent fever, so that from one to two ounces may be taken in the interval between the paroxysms. The decoction is officinal. (See Decoctum Cornus Floridse.) The dried bark is said to be preferable to the fresh; as it possesses all the activity of the latter, without being equally liable to offend the stomach and bowels. An extract might probably be used with advantage in intermittents in large doses. Off. Prep. Decoctum Cornus Floridas. U. S. W. CORNUS SERICEA. U.S. Secondary. Swamp Dogwood. "The bark of Cornus sericea." U.S. Cornus. See CORNUS CIRCINATA. Cornus sericea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 663; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 115. This species of Cornus is usually six or eight feet in height, with numerous erect stems, which are covered with a shining reddish bark, and send out oppo- site spreading branches. The young shoots are more or less pubescent. The leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate, pointed, entire, and on the under surface covered with soft brownish hairs. The flowers are small, white, and disposed in terminal cymes, which are depressed and woolly. The fruit consists of globular, berry-formed drupes, of a cerulean blue colour, and collected in bunches. The swamp dogwood inhabits the United States from Canada to Carolina, and is found in moist woods, in swamps, and on the borders of streams. It flowers in June and July. The bark was ascertained by Dr. Walker to have the same medical properties as that of Cornus Florida. It may be given in the same doses, and administered in a similar manner. W. COTULA. U.S. Secondary. May-weed. " The herb of Anthemis Cotula." U. S. Camomille puante, Maroute, Fr.; Hunds-Kamille, Stinkende-Kamille, Germ.; Camo- milla fotida, Cotula, Ital: Manzanilla loca, Span. Anthemis. See ANTHEMIS. Anthemis Cotula. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2181; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 161. The may-weed is an annual plant, with a fibrous root, and an erect striated stem, very much branched even to the bottom, from one to two feet in height, and supporting alternate, sessile, flat, doubly pinnated, somewhat part i. Cotula.— Creasotum. 279 hairy leaves, with pointed linear leaflets. The flowers stand singly upon the summits of the branches, and consist of a central, convex, golden- yellow disk, with white radial florets, which spread horizontally during the day, but are reflexed or bent towards the stem at night. The calyx, which is common to all the florets, is hemispherical, and composed of imbricated hairy scales. The receptacle is conical or nearly cylindrical, and sur- mounted by rigid, bristle-shaped paleas, shorter than the florets. The seeds are naked. This plant grows abundantly both in the United States and in Europe. In this country it is found in the vicinity of inhabited places, growing among rubbish, along the sides of roads, and in waste grounds. Notwith- standing its extensive diffusion, it is generally believed to be a naturalized, not an indigenous plant. It is frequently called wild chamomile. It flowers from the middle of summer till late in autumn. The whole plant has a strong, disagreeable smell, and a warm, bitter taste, and imparts these properties to water. We are not aware that its analysis has been attempted. The medical properties of this species of Anthemis are essentially the same as those of chamomile, for which it may be employed as a substitute; but its disagreeable odour is an obstacle to its general use. On the conti- nent of Europe it has been given in nervous diseases, especially hysteria, under the impression, probably derived from its peculiar smell, that it pos- sesses antispasmodic powers. It has also been thought to be emmenagogue. In this country it is scarcely employed, except as a domestic remedy. The whole plant is active; but the flowers, being less disagreeable than the leaves, are preferred for internal use. The remedy is best administered in the state of infusion. W. CREASOTUM. U.S., Ed. Creasote. " A peculiar substance obtained from tar." U. S. Off. Syn. CREASOTON. Oxy-hydro-carburetum, ex oleo pyroxylico paratum. Lond. This is a substance of the nature of the volatile oils, discovered in 1830 by Dr. Reichenbach in the products of the distillation of wood. M. Deville conceives that it is a volatile oil, derived by heat from the resin of wood, and isomeric with the original volatile oil, from which the resin is supposed to be formed by a slow alteration occurring in the vegetable. It may, there- fore, be classed with the volatile oils which are regenerated by distillation. In the products of the distillation of organic substances generally, whether vegetable or animal, Reichenbach also discovered five other principles, called paraffine, eupione, picamar, capnomor, and pittacal, which, as being asso- ciated with creasote, will be here noticed. Paraffine is a white, crystalline, soft solid, devoid of taste and smell, and characterized by its feeble affinity for other bodies, as is indicated by its name, from parum affinis. Eupione is an inodorous, insipid, limpid, and colourless liquid, of the sp. gr. 0-740, obtained most abundantly from animal tar and Dippel's animal oil. Both these substances are composed exclusively of carbon and hydrogen. Pica- mar is a colourless oily liquid, heavier than water, of a peculiar odour and very bitter taste. It is present in the heaviest portion of the rectified oil of tar, and constitutes the bitter principle of that substance. Capnomor, so called from its being one of the ingredients of smoke, is a colourless liquid, lighter than water, having a pleasant odour and a pungent taste, and occur- 280 Creasotum. part i. ring in the heavy oil of tar. It has the property of dissolving caoutchouc, and is an ingredient in coal naphtha, which derives from its presence the property of dissolving the same substance. Pittacal, also obtained from the heavy oil of tar, is a solid of a beautiful blue colour, and differing from the other substances above noticed, in containing nitrogen as one of its elements. Preparation. Creasote is obtained either from tar or from crude pyro- ligneous acid. When tar is used, it is distilled until it has attained the con- sistence of pitch. The distilled liquid divides itself into three layers, an aqueous between two oily layers. The inferior oily layer, which alone contains the creasote, is separated, and saturated with carbonate of potassa, to remove acetic acid. The liquid is allowed to rest, and the new oil which separates is decanted from it. This oil is distilled, and yields products lighter than water, and a liquid heavier. The latter alone is preserved, and, having been agitated repeatedly with weak phosphoric acid to neutralize ammonia, is allowed to remain at rest for some time. It is next washed as long as acidity is removed, and then distilled with a fresh portion of weak phosphoric acid, care being taken to cohobate from time to time. The oily liquid thus rectified is colourless, and contains much creasote, but also a portion of eupione. To separate the latter, the liquid is mixed with a solu- tion of caustic potassa of the density of 1-12, which dissolves the creasote, but not the eupione. The eupione, which swims above from its levity, being separated, the alkaline solution of the creasote is exposed to the air, until it becomes brown in consequence of the decomposition of a foreign matter, and is then saturated with sulphuric acid. This sets free the crea- sote, which is decanted and again distilled. The treatment by solution of potassa, sulphuric acid, &c, is to be repeated until the creasote no longer becomes brown by exposure to the air, but only slightly reddish. It is then dissolved in a stronger solution of potassa and distilled again, and finally redistilled for the last time, rejecting the first portion which comes over on account of its containing much water, collecting the next portion, and avoiding to push the distillation too far. The product collected in this dis- tillation is pure creasote. When creasote is extracted from pyroligneous acid, the first step is to dis- solve sulphate of soda in it to saturation. The oil which separates and swims above is decanted, and, having been allowed to remain at rest for a few days, is saturated by carbonate of potassa with the assistance of heat, and distilled with water. The oleaginous liquid obtained is of a pale yellow colour, and is to be treated with phosphoric acid, &c. &c, as above detailed with respect to the treatment of the corresponding oil obtained from tar. According to M. Koene, the tar of the pine furnishes but little pure crea- sote; while coal tar, by his mode of treatment, yields nearly five drachms to the pint. We have not space for the insertion of his process, but the details may be consulted in the Journal de Pharmacie, 22e Annee, p. 89. M. Cozzi has also given a process which is stated to be economical. (Amer. Journ. of Pharm., x. 339, from the Journ. de Chim. Med.) Properties. Creasote, when pure, is a colourless oleaginous liquid, of the consistence of oil of almonds, slightly greasy to the touch, volatilizable by heat, and having a caustic and burning taste, and a penetrating, disagreeable odour like that of smoked meat. As met with in the shops, it has frequently a brownish tinge. It burns with a sooty flame. Applied to the skin in a concentrated state, it corrugates and then destroys the cuticle. On paper it leaves a greasy stain, which disappears in a few hours, or in ten minutes when exposed to a heat of about 212°. Its sp. gr. is 1-037 (1-066 accord- ing to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia). In favour of the latter number, Dr. Christison adduces experimental results of his own, which are entirely satis- PART I. Creasotum. 281 factory. It boils at 397°, and retains its fluidity at—17°, and not probably at so low a temperature as—50°, as stated in the London Pharmacopoeia.* It is a non-conductor of electricity, and refracts light powerfully. It is de- void of acid or alkaline reaction. Mixed with water, it forms two solutions ■—one consisting of 1 part of creasote in about 80 of water, the other, of 1 part of water in 10 of creasote. It unites in all proportions with alcohol, ether, and naphtha. It is capable of dissolving a large quantity of iodine and phosphorus, and a considerable amount of sulphur, especially when assisted by heat. Creasote forms two combinations with potassa; one anhydrous, of an oleaginous consistence, the other, hydrated, and in the form of small, white pearly scales. It possesses similar habitudes with soda. It instantly dis- solves ammonia, and retains it with great force. Strong nitric and sul- phuric acids decompose creasote; the former giving rise to reddish vapours, the latter to a red colour, which becomes black on the addition of more of the acid. Dilute nitric acid converts it into a brown resin, which, treated with ammonia, and then dissolved in boiling alcohol, gives, by evaporation, certain salts of ammonia, two of which contain new acids, discovered by Laurent. Acetic acid dissolves it in all proportions without decomposing it. Creasote dissolves a large number of metallic salts; and it reduces a few to the metallic state, as, for example, nitrate and acetate of silver. It acts powerfully in coagulating albumen. Of all the properties of creasote, the most remarkable is its power of pre- serving meat. It is this property which has suggested its name, derived from xgeds flesh, and a^a I save. Reichenbach states that fresh meat dip- ped for a quarter of an hour in a solution of creasote, is preserved from putrefaction, and concludes that smoked meats owe their power to resist change to the presence of this substance. Composition. According to Ettling, creasote consists of 76-2 carbon, 7-8 hydrogen, and 16 oxygen, proportions which coincide most nearly with thirteen eqs. of carbon, eight of hydrogen, and two of oxygen. Impurities and Adulterations. Creasote is apt to contain eupione, pica- mar, and capnomor, and is sometimes adulterated with rectified oil of tar, and the fixed and volatile oils. All these substances are detected by strong acetic acid, which dissolves the creasote, and leaves them behind, floating above the creasote solution. Fixed oils are also discovered by a stain on paper, not discharged by heat. Any trace of the matter which produces the brownish tinge, is detected by the liquid becoming discoloured by ex- posure to sunshine. Specific gravity is not a good criterion of the purity of creasote; because it is liable to be adulterated by liquids both heavier and lighter than itself, and hence may have the proper density without being pure. If it be very light, the presence of alcohol may be suspected. This adulteration may be separated by distillation, and will first come over, dis- tinguishable by burning with a clear instead of a smoky flame. Medical Properties, 4*c Creasote is irritant, narcotic, styptic, antiseptic, and moderately escharotic. Internally it has been employed in a number of diseases; externally, for the most part as an application to eruptions, * The French authorities state that creasote remains fluid at 27° below zero, (Cent.) This is equivalent to 48-6° below freezing of Fahr. It is probable that the London Col- lege has inadvertently considered this number as indicating the number of degrees below zero of Fahr., instead of below freezing, and has taken the round number, 50° below zero, as a sufficiently near approximation. Mr. Phillips has not adopted the number of the London Pharmacopoeia; but has committed the error of giving the temperature at 17° instead of 17° below zero. (See his Trans. Lond. Pharm., Fourth Ed., 392.J 25* 282 Creasotum. PART I. wounds, and ulcers, and as an injection and gargle. The principal diseases in which it has been given are diabetes mellitus, epilepsy, hysteria, neu- ralgia, chronic catarrh, hasmoptysis, and pulmonary consumption. Over the latter disease it has no curative influence; but it is stated to facilitate expectoration and to give the sputa a more favourable character. In this disease, and in bronchorrhoea without inflammation, it has been recom- mended to be inhaled in the state of vapour, by means of the ordinary inhaling bottle. Dr. R. Dick, of Glasgow, recommends it as an internal remedy in chronic gonorrhoea and gleet. Dr. Elliotson, of London, con- siders it an important remedy in arresting nausea and vomiting, when not dependent on inflammation or structural disease of the stomach, as in hys- teria and pregnancy. He also recommends it, as well as Mr. A. B. Mad- dock, of London, as a preventive of sea-sickness. The eruptions to the treatment of which creasote has been supposed to be best suited, are those of a scaly character. In burns its efficacy has been insisted on, especially in those attended with excessive suppuration and fungous granulations. In recent burns, where the cuticle is not broken, Dr. John Sutherland found it useful, applied in an undiluted state. In chilblains also it is stated to be a useful application. When applied to wounds it acts as a styptic, stopping the capillary hemorrhage, but pos- sesses no power to arrest the bleeding from large vessels. Accordingly, creasote water has been applied locally to arrest uterine hemorrhage, and the bleeding from leech-bites. The ulcers, in the treatment of which it has been found most useful, are those of an indolent and gangrenous cha- racter, in which its several properties of escharotic, stimulant, and anti- septic are usefully brought into play. It is also praised as an application to syphilitic, scrofulous, and cancerous ulcers. In all these cases, the remedy must be used of appropriate strength, and continued with judg- ment; and in case it should irritate, its use must be suspended, or alter- nated with that of emollient and soothing applications. Injected into fistulous ulcers, it proves a useful resource, by exciting the callous sur- faces and disposing them to unite. Dr. Hildreth, of Zanesville, Ohio, found it efficacious, mixed with mercurial ointment, in the proportion of ten to thirty drops to the ounce, in scrofulous ophthalmia, and scrofulous ulcera- tion of the cornea. A small portion of the ointment is introduced under the upper eyelid, morning and evening, and rubbed over the whole globe. The application should be strong enough to produce a smarting pain for about five minutes. The local must of course be combined with constitu- tional treatment. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., Oct., 1842, p. 362.) In cases of putrid sorethroat, in which the use of a stimulant and antiseptic is re- quired, a gargle of creasote acts beneficially; and in chronic suppuration of the external meatus of the ear, the same properties make it valuable as an injection. In deafness arising from deficient cerumen, Mr. Curtis has found it useful. The meatus is first well cleansed, and afterwards brushed over, night and morning, with a mixture of a drachm of creasote to four drachms of oil of almonds, by means of a camel's hair brush. Dr. Partridge, of this city, has found the same treatment advantageous in several cases of deafness. The meatus may be cleansed by dropping into the ear at night a few drops of olive oil, and syringing it out the next morning with a weak and warm solution of castile soap, to which a sixth of Cologne water has been added. This may be repeated five or six days, until the ear is thoroughly cleansed. (Med. Exam., iii. 347.) In toothache, depending on destruction of the tooth and exposure of tne nerve, creasote often acts promptly and radically in the removal of the pain. One or two drops of the pure substance must be carefully introduced into the hollow of the PART I. Creasotum.— Creta. 283 tooth, on a little cotton, avoiding contact with the tongue or cheek. To render the remedy effectual, the hollow of the tooth must be well cleaned out before it is applied. Creasote is employed in the pure state, in mixture or solution, and in the form of ointment. (See Mistura Creasoti and Unguentum Creasoti.) In the pure state, it may be brushed over indolent or ill conditioned ulcers, or applied to them by means of lint, to arouse their sensibility, or to create a new action. Internally it is given in the dose of one or two drops, or more, repeated several times a day, diluted with weak mucilage, in the proportion of half a fluidounce to the drop. When used as a lotion for eruptions, ulcers, or burns, or as a gargle or injection, it is employed in solution, con- taining two, four, or six drops to the fluidounce of distilled water; the strength being determined by the circumstances of each particular case. In some cases the solution of creasote is used externally, mixed with poultices. Creasote, in an overdose, acts as a poison. It produces giddiness, obscu- rity of vision, depressed action of the heart, convulsions, and coma. No antidote is known to its poisonous effects. The medical treatment consists in the administration of ammonia and other stimulants. The addition of three or four drops of creasote to a pint of ink is said effectually to prevent its becoming mouldy. Dr. Christison finds from experi- ment, that creasote water is as good a preservative of some anatomical pre- parations as spirit, with the advantage of not hardening the parts. It is to creasote that the antiseptic properties of wood-smoke, and of pyroligneous acid are probably due. Off. Prep. Mistura Creasoti, Ed.; Unguentum Creasoti, U. S., Lond., Ed. B. CRETA. U.S., Lond., Ed, Chalk. "Native friable carbonate of lime." U. S. "Calcis Carbonas (friabilis)." Lond. "Friable carbonate of lime." Ed. Off. Syn. CALCIS CARBONAS. CRETA ALBA. Dub. Craje, Fr.; Kreide, Germ.; Creta, Ital; Greda, Span., Port. Carbonate of lime, in the extended meaning of the term, is the most abundant of simple minerals, constituting, according to its state of aggrega- tion and other peculiarities, the different varieties of calcareous spar, com- mon and shell limestone, marble, marl, and chalk. It occurs also in the animal kingdom, forming the principal part of shells, and a small proportion of the bones of the higher orders of animals. Though insoluble in pure water, yet it is present in minute quantity in most natural waters, being dissolved by means of the carbonic acid which they contain. In the waters of limestone districts, it is a very common impregnation, and causes purging in those not accustomed to their use. In all such cases, boiling the water, by expelling the carbonic acid, causes the carbonate to be deposited. Besides being officinal in the state of chalk, carbonate of lime is also ordered as it exists in marble and oyster-shell, and as obtained by precipitation. (See Marmor, Testa, and Calcis Carbonas Praecipitatum.) In the present article we shall confine our observations to chalk. Localities. Chalk occurs abundantly in the South of England and North of France. It has not been found in the United States. It occurs massive in beds, and very frequently contains nodules of flint, and fossil remains of land and marine animals. 284 Creta.—Crocus. PART I. Properties. Chalk is an insipid, inodorous, insoluble, opaque, soft solid, generally white, but grayish-white when impure. It is rough to the touch, easily pulverized, and breaks with an earthy fracture. It soils the fingers, yields a white trace when drawn across an unyielding surface, and when applied to the tongue adheres slightly. Its sp. gr. varies from 2-3 to 2-6. It is seldom a perfectly pure carbonate of lime, but contains, besides gritty siliceous particles, small portions of alumina and of oxide of iron. If pure it is entirely soluble in muriatic acid; but usually a little silica is left. If the muriatic solution is not precipitated by ammonia, it is free from alumina and oxide of iron. Like all carbonates it effervesces with acids. Though insoluble in water, it dissolves in an excess of carbonic acid. It consists, like the other varieties of carbonate of lime, of one eq. of carbonic acid 22, and one of lime 28-5=50-5. Pharmaceutical Uses. Chalk, on account of the gritty particles which it contains, is unfit for medical use, until it has undergone levigation, when it is called prepared chalk. (See Creta Praeparata.) It is sometimes used in the preparation of the alkaline bicarbonates, to furnish a stream of carbonic acid, when decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid; as in the London process for bicarbonate of potassa. Off. Prep. Ammonias Carbonas, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Calcii Chloridum, Lond.; Calx, Lond.; Creta Prasparata, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassas Bicarbonas, Lond. B. CROCUS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Saffron. "The stigmas of Crocus sativus." U. S., Ed. "Crocus sativus. Stig- mata exsiccata." Lond. Off. Syn. CROCUS SATIVUS. Stigmata. Dub. Safran, Fr., Germ.; Zafferano, Ital; Azafran, Span. Crocus. Sex. Syst. Triandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Iridaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla six parted, equal. Stigmas convoluted. Willd. Crocus sativus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 194; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 763. t. 259. The common cultivated saffron is a perennial plant, with a rounded and depressed bulb or cormus, from which the flower rises a little above the ground upon a long, slender, white, and succulent tube. The flower is large, of a beautiful lilac or bluish-purple colour, and makes its appearance in September or October. The leaves are radical, linear, slightly revolute, dark green upon their upper surface with a white longitudinal furrow in the centre, paler underneath with a prominent flattened midrib, and enclosed at their base, together with the tube of the corolla, in a membranous sheath, from which they emerge soon after the appearance of the flower. The style hangs out on one side between two segments of the corolla, and terminates in three long convoluted stigmas, which are of a rich orange colour, highly odorous, rolled in at the edges, and notched at the summit. These stigmas are the officinal part of the plant. The C. sativus, or autumnal crocus, is a native of Greece and Asia Minor, where it has been cultivated from the earliest ages of antiquity. It is also cultivated for medicinal use in Sicily, Spain, France, England, and other temperate countries of Europe. In Great Britain it has been found growing wild, but is not thought to be indigenous. Large quantities of saffron are raised in Egypt, Persia, and Cashmere, whence it is sent to India. We cultivate the plant in this country chiefly, if not solely, as a garden flower. PART I. Crocus. 285 In England the flowers appear in October, and the leaves continue green through the winter; but the plant does not ripen its seed, and is propagated by offsets from the bulb. These are planted in grounds prepared for the purpose, and are arranged either in rows, or in small patches at certain dis- tances. The flowers are gathered soon after they show themselves, as the period of flowering is very short. (Fee.) The stigmas, or summits of the pistils, together with a portion of the style, are separated from the remainder of the flower, and carefully dried by artificial heat, or in the sun. During this process, they are sometimes made to assume the form of a cake by pressure; but the finest saffron is that which has been dried loosely. The two forms are distinguished by the names of hay-saffron and cake-saffron. Five pounds of the fresh stigmas yield one pound of the dried. (Duncan.) The English saffron, formerly most highly esteemed in this country, has disappeared from our market. What may be sold under that name is pro- bably derived from other sources. Much of the drug is imported from Gibraltar, packed in canisters. Parcels of it are also brought from Trieste and other ports of the Mediterranean. The Spanish saffron is generally considered best. Genuine cake saffron is at present seldom found in com- merce. Properties. Saffron has a peculiar, sweetish, aromatic odour, a warm, pungent bitter taste, and a rich deep orange colour, which it imparts to the saliva when chewed. The stigmas of which it consists are an inch or more in length, expanded and notched at the upper extremity, and narrowing towards the lower, where they terminate in a slender, capillary, yellowish portion, forming a part of the style. Analyzed by Vogel and Bouillon- Lagrange, it afforded 6-5 per cent, of a peculiar extractive matter, and 7-5 of an odorous volatile oil, together with wax, gum, albumen, saline matter, water, and lignin. The extractive was named by them polychro'ite, from the changes of colour which it undergoes by the action of reagents. It is prepared by evaporating the watery infusion to the consistence of honey, digesting the residue in alcohol, filtering the tincture, and evaporating it to dryness. Thus obtained, it is in the form of a reddish-yellow mass, of an agreeable smell, slightly bitter, soluble in water and alcohol, and somewhat deliquescent. Its solution becomes grass-green by the action of nitric acid, blue and then violet by that of sulphuric acid, and loses its colour altogether on exposure to light, and by chlorine. According to M. Henry, sen., it contains about 20 per cent, of volatile oil, which can be separated only by the agency of an alkali. When quite pure, it is of a brilliant red colour, soluble with difficulty in water which it renders yellow, and readily soluble in alcohol, and the fixed and volatile oils. M. Henry states that this colour- ing matter constitutes 42 per cent, of saffron, and the essential oil 10 per cent. It is to the latter that the medicine owes its activity. It may be partially separated by distillation. It is yellow, of a hot, acrid, bitterish taste, and heavier than water, in which it is slightly soluble. Adulterations. The high price of this medicine gives rise to frequent adulterations. Water is said to be very often added in order to increase its weight. Oil is also added for the same purpose, or to improve the appear- ance. Sometimes the flowers of other plants, particularly of Carthamus tinctorius or safflower, and of Calendula officinalis or officinal marygold, are fraudently mixed with the genuine stigmas. They may be known by their shape, which is rendered obvious by throwing a portion of the sus- pected mass into hot water, which causes them to expand. (See Cartha- mus.) Other adulterations are the fibres of dried beef, the stamens of the Crocus distinguishable by their yellow colour, the stigmas previously ex- 286 Crocus.— Cubeba. PART I. hausted in the preparation of the infusion or tincture, and various mineral substances easily detected upon close examination. J. Miiller recommends concentrated sulphuric acid as the most certain test of saffron. It instantly changes the colour of pure saffron to indigo blue. (Chem. Gazette, May, 1845, p. 197.) Choice of Saffron. Saffron should not be very moist, nor very dry, nor easily pulverized, nor should it emit an offensive smell when thrown upon live coals. The freshest is the best, and that which is less than a year old should, if possible, be selected. It should possess in a high degree the characteristic properties of colour, taste, and smell. If it does not colour the fingers when rubbed between them, or has an oily feel, or a musty flavour, or a black, yellow, or whitish colour, it should be rejected. In the purchase of this medicine in cakes, those should be selected which are close, tough, and firm in tearing; and care should be taken to avoid cakes of saf- flower, which are frequent in the market. As its activity depends, partly at least, on a volatile ingredient, it should be kept in well-stopped vessels. Some recommend that it should be en- closed in a bladder, and introduced into a tin case. Medical Properties and Uses. Saffron was formerly considered highly stimulant and antispasmodic. It has been alleged that, in small doses, it moderately excites the different functions, exhilarates the spirits, relieves pain, and produces sleep; in large doses, gives rise to headache, intoxication, delirium, stupor, and other alarming symptoms; and Shroder asserts that, in the quantity of two or three drachms, it proves fatal. It was thought also to act powerfully on the uterine system, promoting menstruation. The ancients employed it extensively, both as a medicine and condiment, under the name of crocus. It was also highly esteemed by the Arabians, and en- joyed considerable reputation among the physicians of modern Europe till within a comparatively recent period. On the continent it is still much used as a stimulant and emmenagogue. But the experiments of Dr. Alexander have proved it to possess little activity; and in Great Britain and the United States it is seldom prescribed. By old women and nurses saffron tea is fre- quently used in exanthematous diseases, to promote the eruption; a practice introduced by the humoral pathologists, but afterwards abandoned by the profession, and not greatly injurious only from the inactivity of the medicine. The chief use of saffron at present is to impart colour and flavour to officinal tinctures. From ten to thirty grains may be given for a dose. Off'. Prep. Acetum Opii, U.S.; Confectio Aromatica, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Decoctum Aloes Compositum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulas Aloes et Myrrhas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulas Styracis Compositas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Croci, Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Aloes et Myrrhas, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinct. Cinchonas Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinct. Croci, Ed.; Tinct. Opii Ammoniata, Ed.; Tinct. Rhei Comp., Lond*., Dub.; Tinct. Rhei et Sennas, U. S. W. CUBEBA. U.S., Dub. Cubebs. " The berries of Piper Cubeba." U.S. "Piper Cubeba Fructus." Dub. Off. Syn. PIPER CUBEBA. Piper Cubeba. Baccae. Lond.; CUBE- BA. Fruit of Piper Cubeba. Ed. Cubebe, Fr.; Kubeben, Germ.: Cubebe, Lai; Cubebas, Span.; Kebabeh, Arab. Piper. Sex. Syst. Diandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Piperaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla none. Berry one-seeded. Willd. PART I. Cubeba. 287 Piper Cubeba. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 159; Woodv. Med. Bot. 3d. ed. v. 95. This is a climbing perennial plant, with a smooth, flexuous, jointed stem, and entire, petiolate, oblong or ovate oblong, acuminate leaves, rounded or obliquely cordate at the base, strongly nerved, coriaceous, and very smooth. The flowers are dioecious and in spikes, with peduncles about as long as the petiole. The fruit is a globose, pedicelled berry. This species of Piper is a native of Java, Penang, and probably other parts of the East Indies. It grows wild in the woods, and does not appear to be cultivated. The dried unripe fruit is the officinal portion. Dr. Blume thinks it probable that the drug is derived chiefly from another species—the P. caninum inhabiting the same countries; but Dr. Lindley could discover no difference between the fruit of the P. cubeba and ordinary cubebs. Properties. Cubebs are round, about the size of a small pea, of a blackish or grayish-brown colour, and furnished with a short stalk, which appears to be continuous with raised veins that run over the surface of the berry, and embrace it like a network. The shell is hard, almost ligneous, and contains within it a single loose seed, covered with a blackish coat, and internally white and oleaginous. The odour of the berry is agreeably aromatic; the taste warm, bitterish, and camphorous, leaving in the mouth a peculiar sen- sation of coolness, like that produced by the oil of peppermint. The powder is dark coloured and of an oily aspect. From 1000 parts of cubebs, M. Monheim obtained 30 parts of a ceruminous substance, 25 of a green volatile oil, 10 of a yellow volatile oil, 45 of cubebin, 15 of a balsamic resin, 10 of chloride of sodium, 60 of extractive, and 650 of lignin, with 155 parts lost. According to MM. Capitaine and Soubeiran, cubebin is best obtained by expressing cubebs from which the oil has been distilled, preparing with it an alcoholic extract, treating this with a solution of potassa, washing the residue with water, and purifying it by repeated crystallizations in alcohol. Thus prepared, it is white, inodorous, and insipid, not volatilizable by heat, almost insoluble in water, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, freely so in that liquid when hot, and soluble also in ether, acetic acid, and the fixed and volatile oils. It bears a close resemblance to piperin, but differs from it in composition. (Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 355.) The volatile oil is officinal. (See Oleum Cubebae.) Cubebs gradually deteriorate by age; and in powder become rapidly weaker, in consequence of the escape of their volatile oil. They should be kept whole, and pulverized when dispensed. The powder is said to be sometimes adulterated with that of pimento. Medical Properties and Uses. Cubebs are gently stimulant, with a spe- cial direction to the urinary organs. In considerable quantities they excite the circulation, increase the heat of the body, and sometimes occasion head- ache and giddiness. At the same time they frequently produce an aug- mented flow of the urine, to which they impart a peculiar odour. Nausea and moderate purging are also occasional results of their action ; and they are said to give rise to a sense of coolness in the rectum during the passage of the feces. We have no evidence that they were known to the ancients. They were probably first brought into Europe by the Arabians; and were formerly employed for similar purposes with the black pepper; but they were found much less powerful and fell into disuse. Some years since they were again brought into notice in England as a remedy in gonorrhoea. This application of cubebs was derived from India, where they have long been used in gonorrhoea and gleet, and as a grateful stomachic and carmi- native in disorders of the digestive organs. They are said to have occasion- ally produced swelled testicle, when given in the-first mentioned complaint; and, though recommended in all its stages, will probably be found most safe 288 Cubeba.—Cuprum. PART I. and effectual in cases where the inflammation is confined to the mucous membrane of the urethra. If not speedily useful, they should be discon- tinued. They have been given also in leucorrhoea, cystirrhoea, abscess of the prostate gland, piles, and chronic bronchial inflammation. They are best administered in powder, of which the dose in gonorrhoea is from one to three drachms, three or four times a day. For other affections the dose is sometimes reduced to ten grains. The volatile oil may be substituted, in the dose often or twelve drops, suspended in water by the intervention of sugar. An infusion, made in the proportion of an ounce of powdered cubebs to a pint of water, has been employed as an injection in discharges from the vagina, with asserted advantage. Mr. Wm. Procter, jun., proposes an ethereal extract, or oleo-resin of cubebs, made by treating one part of the powder with from two and a half to three parts of sulphuric ether, in a displacement apparatus, submitting the result- ing tincture to evaporation until five-sixths of the ether are recovered, and then completing the evaporation at a temperature below 120° F. The residue should amount to one-eighth of the cubebs employed, and the dose of it bears the same relation to that of the powder. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 168.) Off. Prep. Oleum Cubebas, Ed.; Tinctura Cubebas, U. S., Lond. CUPRUM. Copper. Cuivre, Fr.; Kupfer, Germ.; Rame, Ital; Cobre, Span. This metal is not officinal in the metallic state, but furnishes several im- portant preparations. It is very generally diffused in nature, and exists principally in four states; as native copper, as an oxide, as a sulphuret, and as a salt. Its principal native salts are the sulphate, carbonate, arseniate, and phosphate. In the United States it has been found in various localities. The principal copper mines in the world are those of the Pyrenees in France, Cornwall in England, and Fahlun in Sweden. Properties. Copper is a brilliant, sonorous metal, of a reddish colour, and very ductile, malleable, and tenacious. It has a slightly nauseous taste, and emits a disagreeable smell when rubbed. Its texture is granular, and its fracture hackly. Its sp. gr. is 8-89, and its fusing point, 1996 F. according to Daniell; being intermediate in fusibility between silver and gold. Its equivalent number is 31-6. Exposed to the air it undergoes a slight tarnish. Its combinations are numerous and important. With oxygen it forms two well characterized oxides, a red suboxide or dioxide, consisting of two eqs. of copper and one of oxygen; and a black protoxide formed of one eq. of metal and one of oxygen. The latter oxide, which alone is salifiable, forms with acids several salts, important in medicine and the arts. With metals copper forms numerous alloys, of which that with zinc, called brass, is the most useful. Characteristics. Copper is recognised by its colour and the effect of tests on its nitric solution. This solution, with potassa, soda, and ammonia, yields a blue precipitate, soluble in excess of the latter alkali, with which it forms a deep blue liquid. Ferrocyanuret of potassium occasions a brown precipitate of ferrocyanuret of copper; and a bright plate of iron, immersed in the solution, immediately becomes covered with a film of metallic copper. The ferrocyanuret of potassium is an exceedingly delicate test for detecting minute portions of copper in solution. Another test, proposed by M. Ver- PART I. Cuprum. 289 guin, is to precipitate the copper in the metallic state on platinum by electro- chemical action. For this purpose a drop of the liquid to be examined is placed on a slip of platinum foil, and a slip of bright iron is brought in con- tact with the platinum and the liquid. If copper be present, it will be instantly precipitated on the surface of the platinum. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvii. 367.) Action on the Animal Economy. Copper, in its pure state, is perfectly inert, but in combination is highly deleterious. Nevertheless, a very minute portion of the metal, so far as researches have extended, is always present in the healthy body. Its combinations, when taken in poisonous doses, produce a coppery taste in the mouth; nausea and vomiting; violent pain of the stomach and bowels; frequent black and bloody stools; small, irre- gular, sharp, and frequent pulse; faintings; burning thirst; difficulty of breathing; cold sweats; paucity of urine; violent headache ; cramps, con- vulsions, and finally death. The best treatment in cases of poisoning by copper, is to administer white of eggs, diffused in water, in large and re- peated doses. If this remedy be not at hand, the patient must in the mean time be gorged with warm water, or with milk, and the throat irritated by the finger or a feather, in order to excite vomiting. Should vomiting not take place by these means, the stomach-pump may be employed. The efficacy of the new antidote, bicarbonate of soda, proposed by W. Benoist, requires confirmation; and his objections to the white of eggs are probably unfounded. In medico-legal examinations, where cupreous poisoning is suspected, Orfila recommends that the viscera be boiled in distilled water for an hour, and that the matter obtained by evaporating the filtered decoction to dryness, be carbonized by nitric acid. The matter thus treated will contain the copper. By proceeding in this way, there is no risk of obtaining the copper naturally existing in the animal tissues. This method of proceeding is preferable to examining the contents of the stomach and intestines, from which copper may be absent, while yet it may have penetrated the different organs by absorption, especially the abdominal viscera. Vessels of copper should be discontinued in all operations connected with pharmacy and domestic economy; for, although the metal uncombined is inert, yet the risk is great that the vessel may be acted on; in which event, whatever may be contained in it would be rendered deleterious. Pharm. Prep. The following is a list of all the preparations containing copper, in the U. S. and British Pharmacopoeias, arranged so as to exhibit the synonymes. Cupri Acetas. Crystalli, Dub. Cupri Subacetas, U. S., Dub.; iErugo, Lond., Ed.; Anglice, Verdi- gris. Cupri Subacetas Prasparatum, Dub.; Anglice, Prepared verdigris. Unguentum Cupri Subacetatis, U. S.,Dub.; Unguentum iEruginis, Ed. Oxymel Cupri Subacetatis, Dub.; Linimentum iEruginis, Lond. Emplastrum Cantharidis Compositum, Ed. Cupri Sulphas, U.S.,Lond.,Ed., Dub. Cuprum Ammoniatum, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Cupri Ammonio-Sulphas, Lond. Cupri Ammoniati Aqua, Dub.; Cupri Ammoniati Solutio, Ed.; Liquor Cupri Ammonio-Sulphatis, Lond. Pilulas Cupri Ammoniati, Ed. B. 26 290 Cupri Subacetas. PART I. CUPRI SUBACETAS. U.S.,Dub. Subacetate of Copper. " Impure subacetate of copper." U. S. Off. Syn. jERUGO, Lond., Ed. Verdigris; Acetate de cuivre brut, Vert-de-gris, Fr.; Gmnspan, Germ.; Verde rame, Ital; Cardenillo, Span. Preparation. Verdigris is prepared in large quantities in the South of France, more particularly in the neighbourhood of Montpellier. It is also manufactured in Great Britain and Sweden. In France the process is con- ducted in the following manner. Sheets of copper are stratified with the refuse of the grape which remains after the expression of the juice in making wine, and allowed to remain in this state for a month or six weeks. At the end of this time, the plates are found coated with a considerable quantity of verdigris. This is scraped off, and the plates are then replaced as at first, to be further acted on. The scrapings thus obtained form a paste, which is afterwards well beaten with wooden mallets, and packed in oblong leathern bags, about ten inches in length by eight in breadth, in which it is dried in the sun, until the loaf of verdigris, as it is called, attains the proper degree of hardness. The rationale of the process is easily understood. The grape- refuse contains a considerable quantity of juice, which, by contact with the air, undergoes the acetous fermentation. The copper becomes oxidized, and, by subsequent combination with the acetic acid generated during the fermentation, forms the subacetate of copper or verdigris. In England, a purer verdigris is prepared by alternating copper plates with pieces of woollen cloth steeped in pyroligneous acid. Verdigris comes to this country exclusively from France, being imported principally from Bordeaux and Marseilles. The leathern packages in which it is put up, called sacks of verdigris, weigh generally from twenty-five to thirty pounds, and arrive in casks, each containing from thirty to forty sacks. Properties. Verdigris is in masses of a pale green colour, and composed of a multitude of minute silky crystals. Sometimes, however, it occurs of a bright blue colour. Its taste is coppery. It is insoluble in alcohol, and, by the action of water, a portion of it is resolved into the neutral acetate which dissolves, and a trisacetate which remains behind in the form of a dark green powder, gradually becoming black. It is hence evident that when verdigris is prepared by levigation with water, it is altered in its nature. The neu- tral acetate is the crystallized acetate of copper of the Dublin College (see Cupri Acetas. Crystalli); while the trisacetate may be viewed as identical with the prepared verdigris of the same College (see Cupri Subacetas Prse- paratum). When acted on by sulphuric acid it is decomposed, vapours of acetic acid being evolved, easily recognisable by their vinegar odour. It is soluble almost entirely in ammonia, and dissolves in muriatic acid with the exception of impurities, which should not exceed five per cent. When of good quality, it has a lively green colour, is free from black or white spots, and is dry and difficult to break. The green rust, called in popular language verdigris, which copper vessels are apt to contract when not kept clean, is a carbonate of copper, and must not be confounded with real verdigris. Composition. Verdigris, apart from its impurities, is a variable mixture of the subacetates of copper; the subsesquiacetate predominating in the green variety, the diacetate in the blue. The London College defines it to be an impure diacetate of copper; the Edinburgh, the commercial diacetate. part i. Cupri Acetas.—Cupri Sulphas. 291 When acted on by water, two eqs. of the portion consistingof diacetate are con- verted into one eq. of soluble neutral acetate, and one of insoluble trisacetate. Medical Properties and Uses. Verdigris is used externally as a detergent and escharotic, and is occasionally applied to chronic eruptions, foul and indolent ulcers, and venereal warts. The special applications of it will be mentioned under its preparations. For its effects as a poison, see Cuprum. Off. Prep. Cupri Subacetas Prasparatum, Dub.; Emplastrum Canthari- dis Compositum, Ed.; Linimentum iEruginis, Lond.; Unguentum Cupri Subacetatis, U. S., Ed. B. CUPRI ACETAS. Crystalli. Dub. Crystals of Acetate of Copper. Distilled verdigris, Crystals of Venus, Neutral acetate of copper; Cristaux de Venus, Verdet crystallise, Fr.; Destillirter Griinspan, Kupferkrystallen, Germ. Crystallized acetate of copper is prepared principally at Montpellier, in France. The verdigris which is made in private houses is collected and carried to the manufactory. It is there dissolved in vinegar by the assist- ance of heat, and the solution, after having been sufficiently concentrated, is transferred to suitable vessels, where it crystallizes on cooling. The crystallization is facilitated by inserting sticks in the liquid, split in four longitudinally, the several portions being kept apart by small wedges of wood. On these the crystals are deposited. This salt has a deep blue colour and strong styptic taste, crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms, and effloresces slightly in the air. It dissolves in water without residue, a character which serves to distinguish it from verdigris. It consists of one eq. of acetic acid, one of protoxide of copper, and one of water. Its popular name of distilled verdigris is incorrect; as no distilla- tion is practised in its preparation. Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses. It is not very obvious for what reason the Dublin College has included this among its officinal preparations. It is sometimes employed in pharmacy for the purpose of obtaining acetic acid, which may be disengaged from it by the action of sulphuric acid; and the larger proportional quantity of acetic acid which it contains makes it more eligible for this purpose than verdigris. B. CUPRI SULPHAS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Sulphate of Copper. Blue vitriol, Roman vitriol, Blue stone; Sulfate de cuivre, Vitriol bleu, Couperose bleu, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Kupfer, Kupfervitriol, Blauervitriol, Blauer Galitzenstein, Germ.; Rame solfato, Vitriolo di rame, Ital; Sulfato de cobre, Vitriolo azul, Span. Preparation, $-c. Sulphate of copper occasionally exists in nature, in solution in the water which flows through copper mines. In this case the salt is obtained by merely evaporating the waters which naturally contain it. Another method for obtaining it, is to roast the native sulphuret in a reverberatory furnace, whereby it is made to pass, by absorbing oxygen, into the state of sulphate. The roasted mass is lixiviated, and the solution obtained is evaporated that crystals may form. The salt procured by either of these methods, contains a little sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron, from which it may be freed by adding an excess of protoxide of copper, which has the effect of precipitating the sesquioxide of iron. A third method con- sists in wetting, and then sprinkling with sulphur, sheets of copper, which 292 Cupri Sulphas. PART I. are next heated to redness, and afterwards plunged into water while yet hot. The same operation is repeated until the sheets are entirely corroded. At first a sulphuret is formed, which, by the action of heat and air, gradu- ally passes into the state of sulphate. This is dissolved in the water, and obtained in crystals by evaporation. Sometimes sulphate of copper is obtained in pursuing one of the methods for separating silver from gold. The silver is separated by boiling the alloy in sulphuric acid. The sulphate of silver formed is then decomposed by the immersion of copper plates, with the effect of forming sulphate of copper, and precipitating the silver. Properties. Sulphate of copper has a rich deep-blue colour and strong metallic styptic taste. It reddens vegetable blues, and crystallizes in large, transparent, rhomboidal prisms, which effloresce slightly in the air, and are soluble in four parts of cold, and two of boiling water, but insoluble in alco- hol. When heated it first melts in its water of crystallization, and then dries and becomes white. If the heat be increased, it next undergoes the igneous fusion; and finally, at a high temperature, loses its acid, protoxide of copper being left. Potassa, soda, and ammonia throw down from it a bluish-white precipitate of hydrated protoxide of copper, which is imme- diately dissolved by an excess of the last-mentioned alkali, forming a rich deep-blue solution, called aqua sapphirina. It is also decomposed by the alkaline carbonates, and by borax, acetate and subacetate of lead, acetate of iron, nitrate of silver, corrosive chloride of mercury, tartrate of potassa, and chloride of calcium; and it is precipitated by all astringent vegetable in- fusions. If it become very green on the surface by the action of the air, it shows the presence of sesquioxide of iron. This oxide may also be detected by ammonia, which will throw it down along with the oxide of copper, with- out taking it up when added in excess. When sulphate of copper is ob- tained from the dipping liquid of manufacturers of brass or German silver ware, it is always contaminated with sulphate of zinc, as pointed out by Mr. S. Piesse. This liquid is originally a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids, but becomes, at last, nearly saturated with copper. The metallic articles are dipped into it, in order to give the surface the proper clean state for the reception of varnish or other finishing. Sulphate of copper consists of one eq. of sulphuric acid, one of protoxide of copper, and five of water. Medical Properties. Sulphate of copper, in small doses, is astringent and tonic; in large ones a prompt emetic. With a view to its tonic effect it has been given in intermittent fever, as well as in epilepsy and other spasmodic diseases; and as an emetic, for discharging poisons from the stomach, espe- cially opium. In croup it has been employed as an emetic with encouragino- success. It has also been highly recommended in chronic diarrhoea. Externally it is employed in solution as a stimulant to ill-conditioned ulcers, as an escharotic for destroying warts, fungous granulations, and callous edges, and as a styptic to bleeding surfaces. It is found, in not a few in- stances, to promote the cicatrization of ulcers; and it is not unfrequently employed, with that view, as a wash for chancres. In weak solution, either alone or associated with other substances, it forms a useful collyrium in the chronic stages of some forms of ophthalmia. Eight grains of it, mixed with an equal weight of Armenian bole and two grains of camphor, and added to half a pint of boiling water, forms, after becoming limpid by rest, a col- lyrium strongly recommended by Mr. Ware, in the purulent ophthalmia of infants. The dose, as an astringent or tonic, is a quarter or half a grain, gradually increased; as an emetic, from two to five grains. Asa stimulant wash, the solution may be made of the strength of two, four, or eight grains PART I. Cupri Sulphas.—Curcuma. 293 to the fluidounce of water. Orfila cautions against giving large doses of this salt as an emetic in cases of poisoning; as it is apt, from its poisonous effects, to increase the mischief, where it happens not to be expelled by vomiting. Upon the whole, such is the activity of the sulphate of copper, that it should be exhibited with caution. For its effects as a poison, see Cuprum. Off. Prep. Cuprum Ammoniatum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. B. CURCUMA. U. S. Secondary, Lond., Ed. Turmeric. "The rhizoma of Curcuma longa." U. S., Ed. "Curcuma longa. Rhi- zoma." Lond. Off. Syn. CURCUMA LONGA. Radix. Dub. Safran des Indes, Fr.; Kurkuma, Gelbwurz, Germ.; Curcuma, Ital, Span.; Zirsood, Arab.; Huldie, Hindoo. Curcuma. Sex. Syst. Monandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberaceas. Gen. Ch. Both limbs of the corolla three-partite. Anther with two spurs at the base. Seeds with an arillus. Loudon's Encyc. Curcuma longa. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 14; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 737. t. 252. The root of this plant is perennial, tuberous, palmate, and internally of a deep yellow or orange colour. The leaves are radical, large, lanceo- late, obliquely nerved, sheathing at their base, and closely embrace each other. The scape or flower-stem, which rises from the midst of the leaves, is short, thick, smooth, and constitutes a spike of numerous imbricated brac- teal scales, between which the flowers successively make their appearance. The plant is a native of the East Indies and Cochin-china, and is cultivated in various parts of Southern Asia, particularly in China, Bengal, and Java, whence the root is exported. The best is said to come from China. The dried root is in cylindrical or oblong pieces, about as thick but not as long as the finger, tuberculated, somewhat contorted, externally yellowish- brown, internally deep orange-yellow, hard, compact, and breaking with a fracture like that of wax. Another variety, comparatively rare, is round or oval, about the size of a pigeon's egg, and marked externally with nume- rous annular wrinkles. It is distinguished by the name of curcuma rotunda, the former being called curcuma longa. The two varieties have a close resemblance in sensible properties, and are thought to be derived from the same plant, though formerly ascribed to different species of Curcuma. The odour of turmeric is peculiar; the taste warm, bitterish, and feebly aromatic. It tinges the saliva yellow, and affords an orange-yellow powder. Analyzed by Pelletier and Vogel, it was found to contain lignin, starch, a peculiar yel- low colouring matter called curcumin, a brown colouring matter, gum, an odorous and very acrid volatile oil, and a small quantity of chloride of calcium. Curcumin is obtained, mixed with a little volatile oil, by digesting the alco- holic extract of turmeric in ether, and evaporating the ethereal tincture. It may be procured perfectly pure by separating it from its combination with oxide of lead. It is brown in mass, but yellow in the state of powder, without odour or taste, scarcely soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol, ether, and the oils. The alkalies rapidly change its colour to a reddish- brown; and paper tinged with tincture of turmeric is employed as a test of their presence. Berzelius, however, states that its colour is changed to red or brownish-red by the concentrated mineral acids, by pure boracic acid, especially when dissolved in alcohol, and by numerous metallic salts; so that 26* 294 Curcuma.— Cydonia. PART I. its indications cannot be certainly relied on. Its alcoholic solution produces coloured precipitates with acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and other salts. Turmeric is used for dyeing yellow; but the colour is not permanent. Medical Properties, 8fC. This root is a stimulant aromatic, bearing some resemblance to ginger in its operation, and is much used in India as a con- diment. It is a constant ingredient in the curries so generally employed in the East. In former times it had some reputation in Europe as a remedy in jaundice and other visceral diseases; but at present it is employed only to impart colour to ointments, and other pharmaceutic preparations. Turmeric paper, used as a test, is prepared by tinging white unsized paper with a tincture or decoction of turmeric. The tincture maybe made with one part of turmeric to six parts of proof spirit; the decoction, with one part of the root to ten or twelve parts of water. The access of acid or alkaline vapours should be carefully avoided. W. CYDONIA. Lond. Quince Seeds. "Cydonia vulgaris. Semina." Lond. Semences de coings, Fr.; Quittenkerne, Germ.; Semi di cotogno, Ital; Simiente de membrillo, Span. The quince tree has been separated from the genus Pyrus, and erected into a new one with the title Cydonia, which is now generally admitted by botanists. It differs from Pyrus in the circumstance that the cells of its fruit contain many seeds, instead of two only as in the latter. Cydonia. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Pomeas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, with leafy divisions. Apple closed, many- seeded. Testa mucilaginous. Loudon's Encyc. Cydonia vulgaris. Pers. Enchir. ii. 40.—Pyrus Cydonia. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1020; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 505, t. 182. The common quince tree is characterized as a species by its downy deciduous leaves. It is sup- posed to be a native of Crete, but grows wild in Austria, on the banks of the Danube. It is abundantly cultivated in this country. The fruit is about the size of a pear, yellow, downy, of an agreeable odour, and a rough, astringent, acidulous taste; and in each of its five cells contains from eight to fourteen seeds. Though not eaten raw, it forms a very pleasant confec- tion; and a syrup prepared from it may be used as a grateful addition to drinks in sickness, especially in looseness of the bowels, which it is supposed to restrain by its astringency. The seeds are the officinal portion. They are ovate, angled, reddish-brown externally, white within, inodor- ous and nearly insipid, being slightly bitter when long chewed. Their coriaceous envelope abounds in mucilage, which is extracted by boiling water. Two drachms of the seeds will render a pint of water thick and ropy. It has been proposed to evaporate the decoction to dryness, and pow- der the residue. Three grains of this powder form a sufficiently consistent mucilage with an ounce of water. According to M. Garot, one part com- municates to a thousand parts of water a semi-syrupy consistence. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e sir., iii. 298.) Dr. Pereira considers the muci- lage of quince seeds as a peculiar substance, and proposes to call it cydonin. It differs from arabin in not yielding a precipitate with silicate of potassa, and from bassorin and cerasin, in being soluble in water both hot and cold. Medical Properties, 8fc. The mucilage of quince seeds may be used for the same purposes as other mucilaginous liquids. It is preferred by some PART I. Cyminum.—Delphinium. 295 practitioners as a local application in conjunctival ophthalmia, but in this country is less used for that purpose than the infusion of sassafras pith. Off. Prep. Decoctum Cydonias, Lond. W. CYMINUM. Lond. Cumin Seed. " Cuminum Cyminum. Fructus." Lond. Off. Syn. CUMINUM. Fruit of Cuminum Cyminum. Ed. Cumin, Fr.; Romischer Kummel, Germ.; Comino, Ital, Span. Cuminum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Apiaceas or Ura- belliferas. Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate, striated. Partial umbels four. Involucres four- cleft. Cuminum Cyminum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1440; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 142. t. 56. This is an annual plant, about six or eight inches high, having a round, slender, branching stem, with numerous narrow, linear, pointed, smooth, grass-like leaves, of a deep green colour. The flowers are white or purple, and disposed in numerous terminal umbels, which have very few rays, and are attended with general and partial involucres, consisting of three or four linear leaflets. The fruit consists of two oblong plano-convex half- fruits, commonly called seeds, united by their flat sides. The plant is a native of Egypt, but is cultivated for its fruit in Sicily, Malta, and other parts of Europe. The cumin seeds of the shops are elliptical, flat on one side, convex, fur- rowed, and rough on the other, about one-sixth of an inch in length, and of a light-brown colour. Each has seven longitudinal ridges. Two seeds are sometimes united together as upon the plant. Their odour is peculiar, strong, and heavy ; their taste warm, bitterish, aromatic, and disagreeable. They contain much essential oil, which is lighter than water, of a yellowish colour, and has the sensible properties of the seeds. Medical Properties and Uses. In medical properties they resemble the other aromatic fruits of umbelliferous plants, but are more stimulating. They are seldom used in the United States, and appear to 'have been re- tained by the London College merely as an ingredient in a stimulant and discutient plaster, which, however, has been discarded in the last edition of their Pharmacopoeia. Their dose is from fifteen grains to half a drachm. W. DELPHINIUM. U.S. Secondary. Larkspur. "The root of Delphinium Consolida." U. S. Pied d'allouette, Fr.; Feld-Rittersporn, Germ. Delphinium. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranuncu- laceas.. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five. Nectary bifid, horned behind. Pods three or one. Willd. Delphinium Consolida. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1226; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 473. 7832. The larkspur is a showy annual plant, with an erect, branched, slightly pubescent stem. Its leaves are divided into linear seg- ments, widely separated, and forked at the summit. The flowers are usually of a beautiful azure-blue colour, and disposed in loose terminal racemes, with 296 Delphinium.—Dianthus Caryophyllus. part i. peduncles longer than the bractes. The nectary is one-leaved, with an ascending horn nearly equalling the corolla. The seeds are contained in smooth, solitary capsules. This species of larkspur has been introduced from Europe into the United States, where it has become naturalized, growing in the woods and fields, and flowering in June and July. Various parts of the larkspur have been employed in medicine; and the plant is said to have properties closely analogous to those of Delphinium Staphisagria. (See Staphisagriae Semina.) The flowers are bitter and acrid, and, having formerly been supposed to possess the power of healing wounds, gave the name of consolida to the species. They were considered diuretic, emmenagogue, and vermifuge ; but are not now used. The seeds are very acrid, are esteemed diuretic, and in large doses produce vomiting and purging. They were analyzed by Mr. Thomas C. Hopkins of Phila- delphia, and found to contain delphinia, volatile oil, fixed oil, gum, resin, chlorophylie,"gallic acid, and salts of potassa, lime, and iron. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xi. 8.) A tincture, prepared by macerating an ounce of the seeds in a pint of diluted alcohol, has been found useful in spasmodic asthma and dropsy. The dose is ten drops, to be gradually increased till some effects upon the system are evinced. The remedy has been employed both in Ame- rica and England; and the seeds of an indigenous species, the jD. exaltatum, have been applied to a similar purpose. The root probably possesses the same properties as other parts of the plant; but, though designated in the Pharmacopoeia, is little if at all used. W. DIANTHUS CARYOPHYLLUS. Flores. Dub. Flowers of the Clove Pink. Dianthus. Sex. Syst. Decandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Caryophyllaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx cylindrical, one-leafed, with four scales at the base. Petals five, with claws. Capsule cylindrical, one-celled. Willd. Dianthus Caryophyllus. Willd. Sp.Plant, ii. 674; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 579. t. 205. The clove-pink or carnation is too well known to require minute description. It is a perennial, herbaceous plant, characterized as a species by its branching stem, its solitary flowers, the short ovate scales of its calyx, its very broad beardless petals, and its linear, subulate, channeled, glaucous leaves. Indigenous in Italy, it is everywhere cultivated in gar- dens for the beauty of its flowers, of which numerous varieties have been produced by horticulturists. Those are selected for medicinal use which have the deepest red colour, and the most aromatic odour. The petals should not be collected till the flower is fully blown, and should be employed in the recent state. They have a fragrant odour, said to resemble that of the clove. Their taste is sweetish, slightly bitter, and somewhat astringent. Both water and alcohol extract their sensible properties, and they yield a fragrant essential oil by distillation. In Europe they are employed to impart colour and flavour to a syrup, which serves as a vehicle for other less pleasant medicines. According to the directions of the former Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, this was prepared by macerating one part of the flowers, without their claws, with four parts of boiling water for twelve hours, then filtering, and adding seven parts of sugar. W. part i. Dianthus Caryophyllus.—Digitalis. 297 DIGITALIS. U.S., Ed. Foxglove. " The leaves of Digitalis purpurea." U. S., Ed. Off. Syn. DIGITALIS FOLIA. DIGITALIS SEMINA. Digitalis pur- purea. Folia. Semina. Lond. DIGITALIS PURPUREA. Folia. Dub. Digitale pourpree, Doightier, Fr.; Purpurrother Fingerhut, Germ.; Digitale purpurea, Ital; Dedalera, Span. Digitalis. Sex. Syst. Didynamia Angiospermia.—Nat. Ord. Scrophu- lariaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla bell-shaped, five-cleft, ventricose. Capsule ovate, two-celled. Willd. Digitalis purpurea. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 283; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 218. t. 78. Foxglove is a beautiful plant, with a biennial or perennial, fibrous root, which, in the first year, sends forth large tufted leaves, and in the following summer, a single, erect, downy, and leafy stem, rising from two to five feet in height, and terminating in an elegant spike of purple flowers. The lower leaves are ovate, pointed, about eight inches in length and three in breadth, and stand upon short, winged footstalks; the upper are alternate, sparse, and lanceolate; both are obtusely serrated at their edges, and have wrinkled velvety surfaces, of which the upper is of a fine deep- green colour, the under paler and more downy. The flowers are numerous, and attached to the upper part of the stem by short peduncles, in such a manner as generally to hang down upon one side. At the base of each peduncle is a floral leaf, which is sessile, ovate, and pointed. The calyx is divided into five segments, of which the uppermost is narrower than the others. The corolla is monopetalous, bell-form, swelling on the lower side, irregularJy divided at the margin into short obtuse lobes, and in shape and size bearing some resemblance to the end of the finger of a glove, a circum- stance which has suggested most of the names by which the plant is desig- nated in different languages. Its mouth is guarded by long soft hairs. Externally, it is in general of a bright purple colour; internally, is sprinkled with black spots upon a white ground. There is a variety of the plant in which the flowers are white. The filaments are white, curved, and sur- mounted by large yellow anthers. The style, which is simple, supports a bifid stigma. The seeds are very small, numerous, of a grayish-brown colour, and contained in a pyramidal, two-celled capsule. The foxglove grows wild in most of the temperate countries of Europe, where it flowers in the middle of summer. In this country it is cultivated both as an ornamental garden plant, and for medicinal purposes. The leaves are the part usually employed, although the London College recognises also the seeds. Much care is requisite in selecting, preparing, and preserving foxglove in order to insure its activity. The leaves should be gathered in the second year, immediately before or during the period of inflorescence, and those only should be chosen which are full-grown and perfectly fresh. (Geiger.) It is said that those plants are preferable which grow sponta- neously in elevated places, exposed to the sun. (Duncan.) As the leaf-stalk and midrib are comparatively inactive, they may be rejected. Withering recommends that the leaves should be dried either in the sunshine, or by a gentle heat before the fire; and care should be taken to keep them separate while drying. Pereira states that a more common, and, in his opinion, a preferable mode, is to dry them in a basket, in a dark place, in a drying stove. It is probably owing, in part, to the want of proper attention in pre- 298 Digitalis. PART I. paring digitalis for the market, that it is so often inefficient. Much of the medicine kept in our shops is obtained from the settlement of the Shakers in New York, and is in the state of oblong compact masses, into which the leaves are compressed. In some of these cakes the digitalis is of good quality; but we have seen others in which it was quite the reverse, and some which were mouldy in the interior; and, upon the whole, cannot but consider this mode of preparing the drug as objectionable. The dried leaves should be kept in tin canisters, well closed so as to exclude light and moisture, or they may be pulverized, and the powder preserved in well- stopped and opaque phials. As foxglove deteriorates by time, it should be frequently renewed, as often, if possible, as once a year. Its quality must be judged of by the degree in which it possesses the characteristic proper- ties of colour, smell, and especially of taste. Properties. Foxglove is without smell in the recent state, but acquires a faint narcotic odour when dried. Its taste is bitter and nauseous. The colour of the dried leaf is a dull pale green, modified by the whitish down upon the under surface; that of the powder is a fine deep green. Digitalis yields its virtues both to water and alcohol. These virtues reside in a pe- culiar bitter principle, which, after many unsuccessful attempts by other chemists, was first isolated by M. Homolle, whose memoir upon the sub- ject of digitalis received the prize proposed by the Society of Pharmacy of Paris. In the extraction of this principle, called digitalin, M. Homolle employed the agency of tannic acid, as originally proposed by M. O. Henry. The latter chemist has somewhat simplified the process of M. Homolle. An alcoholic extract is first prepared. This is treated with distilled water acidulated with acetic acid, and heated to about 110° F., a little animal char- coal being added. To the liquor filtered, and partially neutralized by am- monia, a fresh concentrated infusion of galls is gradually added, so long as a precipitate is produced. This precipitate, which is tannate of digitalin, is obtained separate by decanting the liquid, is washed with pure water, mixed with a little alcohol, and then rubbed in a mortar with one-third of its weight of very finely powdered litharge. The mixture is heated gently, and submitted to the action of twice its volume of alcohol at about 90°. The alcoholic solution is treated with a little animal charcoal, filtered, and eva- porated at a very gentle heat. The residue is acted on twice or three times with cold sulphuric ether, which removes impurities, and leaves the digi- talin. This may be powdered, or obtained in small scales by dissolving it in the least quantity of alcohol, and allowing the concentrated solution to evaporate in a stove upon plates of glass. From one kilogramme of leaves, M. Henry obtained between nine and ten grammes of digitalin, or between 9 and 10 parts from 1000. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., vii. 462.) This substance is white, inodorous, crystallizable with difficulty, of an intense bitterness, sternutatory when powdered, slightly decomposed at a boiling heat, soluble in about 2000 parts of cold water, more soluble in boiling water which retains one part in 1000 when it cools, very soluble in alcohol cold or hot, but very slightly soluble in ether, incapable of precipitating salts, without alkaline or acid reaction, and without nitrogen in its composition. It forms an insoluble compound with tannic acid. It has the characteristic property of giving a fine emerald-green colour to concentrated muriatic acid. In the plant, it is rendered soluble in water by means of the saline or ex- tractive matters with which it is united. It has the peculiar effects of digitalis on the system. In the dose of about one-thirteenth of a grain, three times a day, continued for three days, it lessened the frequency of the pulse to 50 in the minute, produced headache and other unpleasant effects on the brain, and sensibly increased the urine. The effect continued for two PART I. Digitalis. 299 days after the suspension of its use. (lbid.,\'\\. 65-) The dose for practical purposes should not exceed the fortieth or fiftieth of a grain to begin with. Besides the bitter principle, digitalis contains a volatile oil, a fatty matter, a red colouring substance analogous to extractive, chlorophylle, albumen, starch, sugar, gum, lignin, and salts of potassa and lime, among which, according to Rein and Haase, is superoxalate of potassa. M. Morin, of Geneva, has also discovered in the leaves two acids ; one fixed, which he calls digitalic acid, the other volatile and resembling valerianic acid, for which he proposes the name of antirrhinic acid. (Ibid., vii. 294.) Dr. Morries obtained a narcotic empyreumatic oil by the destructive distillation of the leaves. Medical Properties and Uses. Digitalis is narcotic, sedative, and diuretic. When administered in quantities sufficient to bring the system decidedly under its influence, it is apt to produce a sense of tightness or weight with dull pain in the head, vertigo, dimness or other disorder of vision, and more or less confusion of thought. At the same time, it occasionally gives rise to irritation in the pharynx and oesophagus, which extends to the larynx and trachea, producing hoarseness; and, in more than one instance, ptyalism has been observed to result. It sometimes also disturbs the bowels, and excites nausea, or even vomiting. Another effect, which, in a practical point of view, is highly important, is an augmented flow of urine. This has been ascribed by some to the increased absorption which digitalis is supposed to produce; and in support of this opinion it is stated, that its diuretic opera- tion is observable only when dropsical effusion exists; but the fact seems to be, that it is capable of augmenting the quantity of urine in health, and it probably exerts a directly stimulating influence upon the secretory function of the kidneys. This influence is said sometimes to extend to the genital organs. Besides the various effects above detailed, digitalis exerts a remarkably sedative operation upon the heart. This is exhibited in the re- duction both of the force and frequency of the pulse, which sometimes sinks from the ordinary standard to 50,40, or even 30 strokes in the minute. In some instances, however, it undergoes little change; in others only becomes irregular; and we are told that it is even occasionally increased in frequency. It was observed by Dr. Baildon, that the effects of digitalis upon the circu- lation were very much influenced by posture. Thus, in his own case, the pulse which had been reduced from 110 to 40 in the recumbent position, was increased to 72 when he sat, and to 100 when he stood. We do not discover anything remarkable in this circumstance. It is well known that the pulse is always more frequent in the erect than in the horizontal posture, and the difference is greater in a state of debility than in health. Digitalis diminishes the frequency of the pulsations of the heart by a directly debili- tating power; and this very debility, when any exertion is made which calls for increased action in that organ, causes it to attempt, by an increase in the number of its contractions, to meet the demand which it is unable to supply by an increase in their force. The effects above detailed may result from digitalis given in doses calcu- lated to produce its immediate influence. In larger quantities its operation is more violent. Nausea and vomiting, stupor or delirium, cold sweats, ex- treme prostration of strength, hiccough, convulsions, and syncope, are among the alarming symptoms which indicate the poisonous character of the medi- cine. These effects are best counteracted by stimulants, such as brandy, the volatile alkali, and opium. When there is reason to believe that any of the poison remains, it is obviously proper, before employing other measures, to evacuate the stomach by the free use of warm liquids. From the experi- ments of M. Bonjean it appears that powdered digitalis may be given to. 300 Digitalis. PART I. fowls, in large quantities", with entire impunity. (Journ. de Pharm., Se ser., iv. 21.) A peculiarity of digitalis is that, after having been given in moderate doses for several days, without apparent effect, it sometimes acts suddenly with an accumulated influence, endangering even life. It is, moreover, very permanent in its operation, which, having once commenced, is maintained like that of mercury, for a considerable period, without any fresh accessions of the medicine. The practical inferences deducible from these properties of digi- talis are, first, that after it has been administered for some time without effect, great care should be taken not to increase the dose, nor to urge the medicine too vigorously; and secondly, that after its effects have begun to appear, it should be suspended for a time, or exhibited in smaller doses, lest a dangerous accumulation of its influence should be experienced. In numerous instances death has resulted from its incautious employment. Digitalis has been long known to possess medicinal powers; but it was never generally used, nor regarded as a standard remedy, till after its appli- cation by Withering to the treatment of dropsy, about the year 1775. It is at present employed very extensively, both for its diuretic power, and for its sedative influence over the circulation. The former renders it highly useful in dropsical diseases, though like all other remedies it very frequently fails; the latter adapts it to the treatment of cases in which the action of the heart requires to be controlled. The idea was at one period entertained, that it might serve as a substitute for the lancet in febrile and inflammatory complaints; and it has been much employed for this purpose by the Italian physicians, who practised in accordance with the contra-stimulant doctrine; but experience has proved that it is a very frail support in any case in which the symptoms of inflammation are such as to call for the loss of blood. As an adjuvant to the lancet, and in cases in which circumstances forbid the employment of this remedy, it is often very useful. Though it cer- tainly has not the power, at one time ascribed to it by some practitioners, of curing phthisis, it acts beneficially as a palliative in that complaint by depressing the excited movements of the heart. In the same way it proves advantageous in aneurism, hypertrophy and dilatation of the heart, palpi- tations from rheumatic or gouty irritation, and in various forms of hemor- rhage, after action has been sufficiently reduced by the lancet. It has also been prescribed in mania, epilepsy, pertussis, and spasmodic asthma; and highly respectable testimony can be adduced in favour of its occasional effi- cacy in these complaints. In delirium tremens it has been recommended as a specific, given in the form of infusion, in the full dose, repeated every two hours till symptoms of narcotism are induced; but the practice is some- what hazardous unless the patient be carefully watched. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xvii. 501.) The medicine, externally applied, is said to act speedily and powerfully as a diuretic, and to have been useful in dropsy. For this purpose the fresh leaves bruised, or the tincture may be rubbed over the abdomen, and on the inside of the thighs. (Revue Medicate, May, 1834.) Digitalis is administered in substance. The dose of the powder is one grain, repeated twice or three times a day, and gradually increased till some effect is produced upon the head, stomach, pulse, or kidneys, when it should be omitted or reduced. The infusion and tincture are officinal preparations often resorted to. (See Infusum Digitalis, and Tinctura Digitalis.) The extract has also been employed; and Orfila found it, whether prepared with water or alcohol, more powerful than the powder. Enormous doses of this medicine have sometimes been given with asserted impunity; and when they occasion full vomiting, it is possible that they may sometimes prove harmless; but when the alarming consequences PART I. Digit a lis.—Diosma. 301 which sometimes result from comparatively moderate doses are considered, the practice must be condemned as exceedingly hazardous. Off. Prep. Extractum Digitalis, Lond., Ed.; Infusum Digitalis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulas Digitalis et Scillas, Ed.; Tinctura Digitalis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. DIOSMA. U.S., Lond. Buchu. "The leaves of Diosma crenata." U.S. " Diosma crenata. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. BUCKU. Leaves of various species of Barosma. Ed.; DI- OSMA CRENATA. Folia. BUCHU. Dub. This medicine consists of the leaves of different plants growing at the Cape of Good Hope, formerly ranked in the genus Diosma, but transferred by botanists to the genus Barosma, so named from the strong odour of the leaves (j3a£uj and oourj). The B. crenata, B. crenulata, and B. serrati- folia are described by Lindley as medicinal species. The leaves of these and other Barosmas, and of some Agathosmas, are collected by the Hotten- tots, who value them on account of their odour, and, under the name of bookoo or buchu, rub them, in the state of powder, upon their greasy bodies. Barosma. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rutaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft or five-parted. Disk lining the bottom of the calyx generally with a short scarcely prominent rim. Petals five, with short claws. Filaments ten; the five opposite the petals sterile, petaloid ; the other five longer, subulate. Style as long as the petals. Stigma minute, five-lobed. Fruit composed of five cocci, covered with glandular dots at the back. (Condensedfrom Lindley.) These plants are all small shrubs, with opposite leaves, and peduncled flowers. Barosma crenata. Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 213. — Diosma crenata. De Cand. Prodrom. i. 714; Woodv. Med. Bot., 3d ed. v. 52. This is a slender shrub, with smooth, somewhat angular branches, of a purplish colour. The leaves are opposite, ovate or obovate, acute, serrated and glandular at the edge, coriaceous, and full of small pellucid dots on the under surface. The flowers are white or of a reddish tint, and stand solitarily at the end of short, lateral, leafy shoots. Properties. The buchu leaves of the shops are from three-quarters of an inch to an inch long, from three to five lines broad, elliptical, lanceolate ovate or obovate, sometimes slightly pointed, sometimes blunt at the apex, very finely notched and glandular at the edges, smooth and of a green colour on the upper surface, dotted and paler beneath, and of a firm consistence. Their odour is strong, diffusive, and somewhat aromatic; their taste bitter- ish, and analogous to that of mint. These properties will distinguish them from senna, with which they might be confounded upon a careless inspection. They are sometimes mixed with portions of the stalks and fruit. Analyzed by Cadet de Gassicourt, they were found to contain in 1000 parts, 6-65 parts of a light, brownish-yellow, and highly odorous volatile oil, 211-7 of gum, 51-7 of extractive, 11 of chlorophylle, and 21-51 of resin. Water and alcohol extract their virtues, which probably depend on the volatile oil and extractive. The latter is precipitated by infusion of galls. Medical Properties and Uses. Buchu leaves are gently stimulant, with a peculiar tendency to the urinary organs, producing diuresis, and, like all other similar medicines, exciting diaphoresis when circumstances favour this mode of action. The Hottentots at the Cape of Good Hope have long used 27 302 Diosma.—Diospyros. PART I. them in a variety of diseases. From these rude practitioners they were borrowed by the resident English and Dutch physicians, by whose recom- mendation they were employed in Europe, and have come into general use. They are given chiefly in complaints of the urinary organs, such as gravel, chronic catarrh of the bladder, morbid irritation of the bladder and urethra, disease of the prostate, and retention or incontinence of urine from a loss of tone in the parts concerned in its evacuation. The remedy has also been recommended in dyspepsia, chronic rheumatism, and cutaneous affections. From twenty to thirty grains of the powder may be given two or three times a day. The leaves are also used in infusion, in the proportion of an ounce to a pint of boiling water, of which the dose is one or two fluidounces. A tincture has been employed as a stimulant embrocation in local pains. Off. Prep. Infusum Diosmas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Buchu, Dub., Ed. W. DIOSPYROS. U.S. Secondary. Persimmon. " The bark of Diospyros Virginiana." U. S. Diospvros. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Octandria.—Nat. Ord. Ebenaceas. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx four to six-cleft. Corolla urceolate, four to six- cleft. Stamens eight to sixteen ; filaments often producing two anthers. Female. Flower as the male. Stigmas four to five. Berry eight to twelve- seeded. Nut tall. Diospyros Virginiana. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1107; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 219. The persimmon is an indigenous tree, rising sometimes in the Southern States to the height of sixty feet, with a trunk twenty inches in diameter ; but seldom attaining more than half that size near its northern limits, and often not higher than fifteen or twenty feet. The stem is straight, and in the old trees covered with a furrowed blackish bark. The branches are spreading; the leaves ovate oblong, acuminate, entire, smooth, reticu- lately veined, alternate, and supported on pubescent footstalks. The buds are smooth. The male and female flowers are on different trees. They are lateral, axillary, solitary, nearly sessile, of a pale orange colour, and not conspicuous. The fruit is a globular berry, dark-yellow when perfectly ripe, and containing numerous seeds embedded in a soft yellow pulp. This tree is very common in the Middle and Southern States; but, accord- ing to Michaux, does not flourish beyond the forty-second degree of north latitude. The flowers appear in May or June; but the fruit is not ripe till the middle of autumn. While green, the fruit is excessively astringent; but when perfectly mature, and after having been touched by the frost, it is sweet and palatable. Michaux states that, in the Southern and Western States, it is made into cakes with bran, and used for preparing beer with the addition of water, hops, and yeast. A spirituous liquor may be obtained by the distillation of the fermented infusion. The unripe fruit has been used by Dr. Mettauer, of Virginia, in diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, and ute- rine hemorrhage. He gave it in infusion, syrup, and vinous tincture, pre- pared in the proportion of about an ounce of the bruised fresh fruit, to two fluidounces of the vehicle, and administered in the dose of a fluidrachm or more for infants, and half a fluidounce or more for adults. The bark is the only part of the tree directed by the Pharmacopoeia. It is astringent and very bitter; and is said to have been used advantageously in intermittents, and in the form of a gargle in ulcerated sorethroat. W. PART I. Dracontium. 303 DRACONTIUM. U.S. Secondary. Skunk Cabbage. "The root of Dracontium foetidum—Ictodes foetidus (Bigelow)—Sym- plocarpus foetidus (Barton, Med. Bot.)." U. S. Botanists have had some difficulty in properly arranging this plant. It is attached by Willdenow to the genus Dracontium, by Michaux and Pursh is considered a Pothos, and by American botanists has been erected into a new genus, which Nuttall calls Symplocarpus after Salisbury, and for which Dr. Bigelow has proposed the name Ictodes, expressive of the odour of the plant. The term Symplocarpus, though erroneous in its origin, was first proposed for the new genus, and, having been adopted by several botanists, should be retained. Svmplocarpus. Sex. Syst. Tetrandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Araceas. Gen. Ch. Spathe hooded. Spadix covered with perfect flowers. Calyx with four segments. Petals none. Style pyramidal. Seeds immersed in the spadix. Bigelow. Symplocarpus foetidus. Barton, Med. Bol.i. 123.—Ictodes foetidus. Bige- low, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 41. The skunk cabbage is a very curious plant, the only one of the genus to which it belongs. The root is perennial, large, abrupt, and furnished with numerous fleshy fibres, which penetrate to the depth of two feet or more. The spathe, which appears before the leaves, is ovate, acuminate, obliquely depressed at the apex, auriculated at the base, folded inwards at the edges, and of a brownish-purple colour, varied with spots of red, yellow, and green. Within the spathe, the flowers, which re- semble it in colour, are placed in great numbers upon a globose, peduncled spadix, for which they form a compact covering. After the spathe has decayed, the spadix continues to grow, and, when the fruit is mature, has attained a size exceeding by several fold its original dimensions. The dif- ferent parts of the flower, with the exception of the anthers, augment in like proportion. At the base of each style is a roundish seed, immersed in the spadix, about the size of a pea, and speckled with purple and yellow. The leaves, which rise from the ground after the flowers, are numerous and crowded, oblong, cordate, acute, smooth, strongly veined, and attached to the root by long petioles, which are hollowed in front, and furnished with coloured sheathing stipules. At the beginning of May, when the leaves are fully developed, they are very large, being from one to two feet in length, and from nine inches to a foot in breadth. This plant is indigenous, growing abundantly in meadows, swamps, and other wet places throughout the whole northern and middle sections of the Union. Its flowers appear in March and April, and in the lower latitudes often so early as February. The fruit is usually quite ripe, and the leaves are decayed before the end of August. The plant is very conspicuous from its abundance, and from the magnitude of its leaves. All parts of it have a disagreeable fetid odour, thought to resemble that of the offensive animal after which it is named. This odour resides in an extremely volatile prin- ciple, which is rapidly dissipated by heat, and diminished by desiccation. The root is the part usually employed in medicine. It should be collected in autumn, or early in spring, and dried with care. The root, as found in the shops, consists of two portions; the body or caudex, either whole or in transverse slices, and the separated radicles. The former, when whole, is cylindrical, or in the shape of a truncated cone, two or three inches long by about an inch in thickness, externally dark 304 Dracontium.—Dulcamara. PART I. brown and very rough from the insertion of the radicles, internally white and amylaceous. The latter are of various lengths, about as thick as a hen's quill, very much flattened and wrinkled, white within, and covered by a yellowish reddish-brown epidermis, considerably lighter coloured than the body of the root. More or less of the fetid odour remains for a con- siderable period, after the completion of the drying process. The taste, though less decided than in the fresh state, is still acrid, manifesting itself, after the root has been chewed for a short time, by a pricking and smarting sensation in the mouth and throat. The acrimony, however, is dissipated by heat, and is entirely lost in decoction. It is also diminished by time and exposure; and the root should not be kept longer than a single season. According to Mr. Turner (Am. Journ. of Pharm., viii. 2.), the radicles, even in the recent plant, have less acrimony than the caudex. The seeds are said by Mr. Turner to have an exceedingly acrid taste, and, though in- odorous when whole, to give out strongly, when bruised, the peculiar odour of the plant. Medical Properties and Uses. This root is stimulant, antispasmodic, and narcotic. In large doses it occasions nausea and vomiting, with head- ache, vertigo,and dimness of vision. Dr. Bigelow has witnessed these effects from thirty grains of the recently dried root. The medicine was introduced into notice by the Rev. Dr. Cutler, who recommended it highly as an anti- spasmodic in asthma; and it has been subsequently employed with apparent advantage in chronic catarrh, chronic rheumatism, and hysteria. Cures are also said to have been effected by its use in dropsy. It is best given in powder, of which the dose is from ten to twenty grains, to be repeated three or four times a day, and gradually increased till some evidence of its action is afforded. A strong infusion is sometimes employed, and the people in the country prepare a syrup from the fresh root; but the latter preparation is very unequal. The root itself, as kept in the shops, is of uncertain strength, in consequence of its deterioration by age. W. DULCAMARA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Bittersweet. "The stalks of Solanum Dulcamara." U.S. "Solanum Dulcamara. Caulis." Lond., Dub. "Twigs of Solanum Dulcamara." Ed. Douce-amere, Fr.; Bittersiiss, Alpranken, Germ.; Dulcamara, Ital, Span. Solanum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla wheel-shaped. Anthers somewhat coalescing, opening by two pores at the apex. Berry two-celled. Willd. This genus includes numerous species, of which several have been used in medicine. Besides the S. Dulcamara, which is the only officinal spe- cies, two others merit a brief notice. 1. The Solanum nigrum, the common garden or black nightshade, is an annual plant from one to two feet high, with an unarmed herbaceous stem, ovate, angular-dentate leaves, and white or pale violet flowers, arranged in peduncled nodding umbel-like racemes, and followed by clusters of spherical black berries, about the size of peas. There are numerous varieties of this species, one of which is a native of the United States. The leaves are the part employed. They are said to produce diaphoresis, sometimes diuresis and moderate purging, and in large (loses nausea and giddiness. As a medicine they have been used in can- cerous, scrofulous, and scorbutic diseases, and other painful ulcerous affec- tions, being given internally, and applied at the same time in the form of poultice, ointment, or decoction to the tumours or ulcers themselves. A PART I. Dulcamara. 305 grain of the dried leaves may be given every night, and gradually increased to ten or twelve grains, or till some sensible effect is experienced. The me'dicine, however, is scarcely used at present. By some persons the poi- sonous properties ascribed to the common nightshade are doubted. M. Dunal, of Montpellier, states as the result of numerous experiments, that the berries are not poisonous to man or the inferior animals; and the leaves are said to be consumed in large quantities in the Isles of France and Bour- bon as food, having been previously boiled in water. In the latter case, the active principle of the plant must have been extracted by decoction. 2. The leaves, stalks, and unripe berries of the Solanum tuberosum, or common potato, are asserted to have narcotic properties, and an extract prepared from the leaves has been employed as a remedy in cough and spasmodic affections, in which it is said to act like opium. (Geiger.) From half a grain to two grains may be given as a dose. Dr. Latham, of London, found the extract to produce very favourable effects in protracted cough, chronic rheumatism, angina pectoris, cancer of the uterus, &c. Its influence upon the nervous system was strongly marked, and, in many instances, the dose could not be increased above a few grains without giving rise to threatening symptoms. It appeared to Dr. Latham to be very analogous in its operation to digitalis. His experiments were repeated in Philadelphia by Dr. Worsham with different results. The extract was found, in the quantity of nearly one hundred grains, to produce no sensible effect on the system. (Philad. Journ. of Med. and Phys. Sciences, vi. 22.) We can reconcile these opposite state- ments only upon the supposition, that the properties of the plant vary with the season, or with the place and circumstances of culture. An excellent form of starch, called potato arrow-root, is prepared from potatoes for medical use; and an imitation of sago is also made from them in Germany. Dr. Julius Otto found solania in the germs of the potato. He was induced to make the investigation by observing that cattle were destroyed by feeding on the residue of germinated potatoes, used for the manufacture of brandy. Solanum Dulcamara. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1028; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 237. t. 84; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 169. The bittersweet or woody nightshade is a climbing shrub, with a slender, roundish, branching, woody stem, which, in favourable situations, rises six or eight feet in height. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, ovate, pointed, veined, soft, smooth, and of a dull green colour. Many near the top of the stem are furnished with lateral projections at their base, giving them a hastate form. Most of them are quite entire, some cordate at the base. The flowers are disposed in elegant clusters, somewhat analogous to cymes, and standing opposite to the leaves. The calyx is very small, purplish, and divided into five blunt persistent segments. The corolla is wheel-shaped, with five-pointed reflected seg- ments which are of a violet-blue colour, with a darker purple vein running longitudinally through their centre, and two shining greenish spots at the base of each. The filaments are very short, and support large erect lemon- yellow anthers, which cohere in the form of a cone around the style. The berries are of an oval shape and a bright scarlet colour, and continue to hang in beautiful bunches after the leaves have fallen. This plant is common to Europe and North America. It flourishes most luxuriantly in damp and sheltered places, as on the banks of rivulets, and among the thickets which border our natural meadows. It is also found in higher and more exposed situations, and is frequently cultivated in gardens. In the United States it extends from New England to Ohio, and is in bloom from June to August. The root and stalk have medicinal properties, though the latter only is officinal. The berries, which were formerly esteemed 27* 306 Dulcamara. PART I. poisonous, and thought to act with great severity on the stomach and bowels, are now said to be innoxious. Bittersweet should be gathered in autumn, after the fall of the leaf; and the extreme twigs should be selected. That grown in high and dry situations is said to be the best. The dried twigs, as brought to the shops, are of various lengths, cylindri- cal, about as thick as a goose-quill, externally wrinkled and of a grayish-ash colour, consisting of a thin bark, an interior ligneous portion, and a central pith. They are inodorous, though the stalk in the recent state emits, when bruised, a peculiar, rather nauseous smell. Their taste, which is at first bitter, and afterwards sweetish, has given origin to the name of the plant. Boiling water extracts all their virtues. These are supposed to depend, at least in part, upon a peculiar alkaline principle called solanin or solania, which was originally discovered by M. Desfosses, of Besancon, in the ber- ries of the Solanum nigrum, and has subsequently been found in the stalks, leaves, and berries of the S. Dulcamara and S. tuberosum. It is supposed to exist in the bittersweet combined with malic acid.* Solania is in the form of a white opaque powder, or of delicate acicular crystals, somewhat like those of sulphate of quinia, though finer and shorter. It is inodorous, of a bitter taste, fusible at a little above 212°, scarcely soluble in water, solu- ble in alcohol and ether, and capable of neutralizing the acids. It is distin- guished by the deep-brown, or brownish-yellow colour which iodine imparts to its solution, and by its reaction with sulphuric acid, which becomes first reddish-yellow, then purplish-violet, then brown, and lastly again colourless, with the deposition of a brown powder. (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, A. D. 1843, p. 177.) Given to a cat, it was found by M. Desfosses to operate at first as an emetic,and afterwards as a narcotic. Dr. J. Otto observed, among its most striking effects, a paralytic condition of the posterior limbs of the animals to which it was administered. One grain of the sulphate of solania was suffi- cient in his hands to destroy a rabbit in six hours. Besides solania, the stalks of S. Dulcamara contain, according to Pfaff, a peculiar principle to which he gave the name of picroglycion, indicative of the taste at once bitter and sweet, which it is said to possess. This has been obtained in a crystalline state by Blitz, by the following process. The watery extract is treated with alcohol, the tincture evaporated, the residue dissolved in water, the solution precipitated with subacetate of lead, the excess of this salt decom- posed by sulphuretted hydrogen, the liquor then evaporated to dryness, and the residue treated with acetic ether, which yields the principle in the form of small isolated crystals by spontaneous evaporation. Pfaff found also in dulcamara a vegeto-animal substance, gummy extractive, gluten, green wax, resin, benzoic acid, starch, lignin, and various salts of lime. Medical Properties and Uses. Dulcamara possesses feeble narcotic pro- perties, with the power of increasing the secretions, particularly that of the * Solania is most conveniently obtained from the sprouts of the common potato. The following is Wackenroder's process for extracting it. The sprouts, collected in the begin- ning of June, and pressed down in a suitable vessel, by means of pebbles, are macerated for twelve or eighteen hours in water enough to cover them, previously acidulated with sulphuric acid, so as to have a strongly acid reaction during the maceration. They are then expressed by the hand, and the liquor, with the addition of fresh portions of sulphuric acid, is added twice successively, as at first, to fresh portions of sprouts, and in like man- ner separated by expression. After standing for some days it is filtered, and treated with powdered hydrate of lime in slight excess. The precipitate which forms is separated by straining, dried in a warm air, and boiled several times with alcohol. The alcoholic solu- tion, having been filtered while hot, will, upon cooling, deposit the solania in flocculent crystals. An additional quantity of the alkali may be obtained by evaporating the mother liquor to one-quarter of its volume, and then allowing it to cool. The whole residuary liquor will assume a gelatinous consistence, and, upon being dried, will leave the solania in the form of a translucent, horny, amorphous mass. {Pharm. Central Blatt, 1843, p. 174.) PART I. Dulcamara.—Elaterium. 307 kidneys and skin. We have observed, in several instances, when the system was under its influence, a dark purplish colour of the face and hands, and at the same time considerable languor of the circulation. Its narcotic effects do not become obvious, unless when it is taken in large quantities. In over- doses it produces nausea, vomiting, faintness, vertigo, and convulsive mus- cular movements. It has been recommended in various diseases, but is now nearly confined to the treatment of cutaneous eruptions, particularly those of a scaly character, as lepra, psoriasis, and pityriasis. In these complaints it is often decidedly beneficial, especially in combination with minute doses of the antimonials. Its influence upon the secretions is insufficient to account for its favourable effects, and we must be content with ascribing them to an alterative action. It is said to have been beneficially employed in chronic rheumatism and chronic catarrh. Antaphrodisiac properties are ascribed to it by some physicians. We have seen it apparently useful in mania connected with strong venereal propensities. The usual form of administra- tion is that of decoction, of which two fluidounces may be taken four times a day, and gradually increased till some slight disorder of the head indi- cates the activity of the medicine. (See Decoctum Dulcamarae.) An ex- tract may also be prepared, of which the dose is from five to ten grains. That of the powder would be from thirty grains to a drachm. In cutane- ous affections a strong decoction is often applied to the skin, at the same time that the medicine is taken internally. Off. Prep. Decoctum Dulcamaras, U. S., Lond.; Extractum Dulcamaras, U. S. W. ELATERIUM. U.S., Ed. Elaterium. "A substance deposited by the juice of the fruit of Momordica Elate- rium." U.S. "Feculence of the juice of the fruit of Momordica Elate- rium." Ed. Off. Syn. ELATERIUM. Momordica Elaterium. Pepones recentes.— EXTRACTUM ELATERII. Lond.; MOMORDICA ELATERIUM. Fructus. Fascula. Folia.—ELATERIUM.—EXTRACTUM ELATERII. Dub. Elaterion, Fr.; Elaterium, Germ.; Elaterio, Ital, Span. Momordica. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbita- ceas. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-parted. Filaments three. Female. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-parted. Style trifid. Gourd bursting elastically. Willd. Momordica Elaterium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 605; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 192. t. 72.—Ecbalium Elaterium. French Codex, A. D. 1837. The wild or squirting cucumber is a perennial plant, with a large fleshy root, from which proceed several round, thick, rough stems, branching and trailing like the common cucumber, but without tendrils. The leaves are petiolate, large, rough, irregularly cordate, and of a grayish-green colour. The flowers are yellow, and proceed from the axils of the leaves. The fruit has the shape of a small oval cucumber, about an inch and a half long, an inch thick, of a greenish or grayish colour, and covered with stiff hairs or prickles. When fully ripe, it separates from the peduncle, and throws out its juice and seed with considerable force through an opening at the base, where it was attached to the footstalk. The name of squirting cucumber was de- rived from this circumstance; and the scientific and officinal title is supposed 308 Elaterium. PART I. to have had a similar origin; though some authors maintain that the term elaterium was applied to the medicine, rather from the mode of its operation upon the bowels, than from the projectile property of the fruit.* This species of Momordica is a native of the South of Europe; and is cul- tivated in Great Britain, where, however, it perishes in the winter. Elate- rium is the substance spontaneously deposited by the juice of the fruit, when separated, and allowed to stand. Dr. Clutterbuck, of London, proved that it is contained only in the free juice which surrounds the seeds, and which is obtained without expression. The body of the fruit itself, the seeds, as well as other parts of the plant, are nearly or quite inert. When the fruit is sliced and placed upon a sieve, a perfectly limpid and colourless juice flows out, which after a short time becomes turbid, and in the course of a few hours begins to deposit a sediment. This, when collected and carefully dried, is very light and pulverulent, of a yellowish-white colour, slightly tinged with green. It is the genuine elaterium, and was found by Clutter- buck to purge violently in the dose of one-eighth of a grain. But the quan- tity contained in the fruit is exceedingly small. Clutterbuck obtained only six grains from forty cucumbers. Commercial elaterium is a weaker medi- cine, owing in part, perhaps, to adulteration, but much more to the mode in which it is prepared. In order to increase the product, the juice of the fruit is often expressed; and there is reason to believe that it is sometimes evaporated so as to form an extract, instead of being allowed to deposit the active matter. The French elaterium is prepared by expressing the juice, clarifying it by rest and filtration, and then evaporating it to a suitable con- sistence. As the liquid which remains after the deposition of the sediment is comparatively inert, it will be readily perceived that the preparation of the French Codex must be very feeble. The following are the directions of the London College, with which those of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges essentially correspond. "Slice ripe wild cucumbers, express the juice very gently, and pass it through a very fine hair sieve; then set it aside for some hours until the thicker part has subsided. Reject the thin- ner supernatant part, and dry the thicker part with a gentle heat." As the process is executed at Apothecaries' Hall, the juice, after expression, is allowed to stand for about two hours, when the supernatant liquor is poured off, and the matter deposited is carefully dried, constituting the finest elate- rium. Another portion, of a paler colour, is deposited by the decanted liquor. (Pereira.) The slight pressure directed is necessary for the ex- traction of the juice from the somewhat immature fruit employed; and the perfectly ripe fruit cannot be used; as, in consequence of its disposition to part with its contents, it cannot be carried to market. The medicine is incorrectly denominated by the London and Dublin Colleges Extractum Elaterii; being neither an extract, strictly speaking, nor an inspissated juice. The Edinburgh College calls it Elaterium in the Materia Medica list, but inconsistently admits the name of Extractum Elaterii in the preparations. In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, it is named simply Elaterium. As the plant is not cultivated in this country for medicinal purposes, our Pharmacopoeia very properly adopts, as officinal, the medicine as it is found in commerce. It is brought chiefly from England,but it is probable that a portion of the elaterium, of which Dr. Pereira speaks as coming from Malta, reaches our market also. Properties. The best elaterium is in thin flat or slightly curled cakes or fragments, often bearing the impression of the muslin upon which it was dried, of a greenish-gray colour becoming yellowish by exposure, of a * From the Greek e\avvv I drive, or eXartie driver. The word elaterium was used by Hippocrates to signify any active purge, Dioscorides applied it to the medicine of which we are treating. PART I. Elaterium. 309 feeble odour, and a bitter somewhat acrid taste. It is pulverulent and in- flammable, and so light that it swims when thrown upon water. When of inferior quality, it is sometimes dark-coloured, much curled, and rather hard, either breaking with difficulty or presenting a resinous fracture. The Maltese elaterium is in larger pieces, of a pale colour sometimes without the least tinge of green, destitute of odour, soft, and friable; and not unfre- quently presents evidences of having been mixed with chalk or starch. It sinks in water. Dr. Clutterbuck first observed that the activity of elaterium resided in that portion of it which was soluble in alcohol and not in water. This fact was afterwards confirmed by Dr. Paris, who found that the alcoholic extract, treated with boiling distilled water, and afterwards dried, had the property of purging in very minute doses, while the remaining portion of the elate- rium was inactive. The subsequent experiments of the late Mr. Hennel, of London, and Mr. Morries,of Edinburgh, which appear to have been nearly simultaneous, demonstrated the existence of a crystallizable matter in elate- rium, which is probably the active principle of the medicine, and for which Mr. Morries proposed the appropriate name of elaterin. According to Mr.* Hennel, 100 parts of elaterium contains 44 of elaterin, 17 of a green resin (chlorophylle), 6 of starch, 27 of lignin, and 6 of saline matters. The alcoholic extract, which Dr. Paris called elatin, is probably a mixture of elaterin and the green resin or chlorophylle.* Elaterin, according to Mr. Morries, crystallizes when pure in colourless microscopic rhombic prisms, which have a silky appearance when in mass. It is extremely bitter and somewhat acrid to the taste, insoluble in water and alkaline solutions, soluble in alcohol, ether, and hot olive oil, and sparingly soluble in dilute acids. At a temperature between 300° and 400° it melts, and at a higher temperature is dissipated in thick, whitish, pungent vapour, having an ammoniacal odour. It has no alkaline reaction. It may be easily procured by evaporating an alcoholic tincture of elaterium to the consist- ence of thin oil, and throwing the residue while yet warm into a weak boil- ing solution of potassa. The potassa holds the green resin of chlorophylle in solution, and the elaterin crystallizes as the liquor cools. Mr. Hennel obtained it by treating with ether the alcoholic extract procured by the spontaneous evaporation of the tincture. This consists of elaterin and the green resin, the latter of which being much more soluble in ether than the former, is completely extracted by this fluid, leaving the elaterin pure. But as elaterin is also slightly soluble in ether, a portion of this principle is wasted by Mr. Hennel's method. By evaporating the ethereal solution, the green resin is obtained in a separate state. Mr. Hennel states that this was found to possess the purgative property of the elaterium in a concentrated state, as it acted powerfully in a dose less than one-third of a grain. But this effect was probably owing to the presence of a portion of elaterin which had been dissolved by the ether. The late Dr. Duncan, of Edinburgh, ascertained that the crystalline principle or elaterin produced, in the quan- tity of T'7th or T'g th of a grain, all the effects of a dose of elaterium. The proportion of elaterin varies exceedingly in different parcels of the drug. Mr. Morries obtained 26 per cent, from the best British elaterium, 15 per cent. from the worst, and only 5 or 6 per cent, from the French; while a portion procured according to the directions of the London College, yielded to Mr. Hennel upwards of 40 per cent. Choice of Elaterium. The inequality of elaterium depends probably more * The substance to which Pelletier gave the name of chlorophylle, under the impression that it was a peculiar proximate principle, has been ascertained by that chemist to be a mixture of wax, and a green fixed oil. {Journ. de Pharm., xix. 109.) 310 Elaterium.—Elemi. PART I. on diversities in the mode of preparation than on adulteration. It should possess the sensible properties above indicated as characterizing good ela- terium, should not effervesce with acids, and should yield, as directed by the Edinburgh College, from one-seventh to one-fourth of elaterin, when treated in the mode above recommended for procuring that principle. Medical Properties and Uses. Elaterium is a powerful hydragogue cathartic, and in a large dose generally excites nausea and vomiting. If too freely administered, it operates with great violence both upon the stomach and bowels, producing inflammation of these organs, which has in some instances eventuated fatally. It also increases the flow of urine. The fruit was employed by the ancients, and is recommended in the writings of Dioscorides as a remedy in mania and melancholy. Sydenham and his cotempbraries considered elaterium highly useful in dropsy; but, in conse- quence of some fatal results from its incautious employment, it fell into dis- repute, and was generally neglected, till again brought into notice by Dr. Ferriar. It is now considered one of the most efficient hydragogue cathar- tics in the treatment of dropsical diseases, in which it has sometimes proved •successful after all other remedies have failed. The full dose of ordinary commercial elaterium is from one to two grains; but as in this quantity it generally vomits, if of good quality, the best mode of administering it is in the dose of a quarter or half a grain, repeated every hour till it operates. The dose of Clutterbuck's elaterium is the eighth of a grain. That of elaterin is from the sixteenth to the twelfth of a grain, and is best given in solution. One grain may be dissolved in a fluidounce of alcohol with four drops of nitric acid, and from 30 to 40 minims may be given diluted with water. W. ELEMI. Lond., Ed., Dub. Elemi. "Amyris elemifera. Resina." Lond., Dub.; "Concrete resinous exuda- tion from one or more unascertained plants." Ed. Resine elemi, Fr.; Oelbaumharz, Elemi, Germ.; Elemi, Ital; Goma de limon, Span. Amyris. Sex. Syst. Octandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Terebintaceas, Juss.; Amyrideas, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx four-toothed. Petals four, oblong. Stigma four-cornered. Berry drupaceous. Willd. Some botanists separate from this genus the species which have their fruit in the form of a capsule instead of a nut, and associate them together in a distinct genus with the name of Idea. This is recognised by De Candolle. Most of the trees belonging to these two genera yield, when wounded, a resinous juice analogous to the turpentines, and differing little as procured from the different species. It is not improbable that the drug usually known by the name of elemi, though referred by the Colleges to one tree, is in fact derived from several. That known to the ancients is said to have been ob- tained from Ethiopia, and all the elemi of commerce was originally brought from the Levant. The tree which afforded it was not accurately known, but was supposed to be a species of Amyris. Geiger states that it was derived from the A. Zeilanica, growing in Ceylon. At present the drug is said to be derived from three sources, namely, Brazil, Mexico, and Manilla. The Brazilian is believed to be the product of a plant mentioned by Marcgrav under the name of icicariba, and considered by Linnasus as the Amyris elemifera. It appears, however, to be properly an Icica, and De Candolle denominates it /. Icicariba. It is a lofty tree, with pinnate leaves, con- sisting of three or five pointed, perforated leaflets, which are smooth on their PART I. Elemi.—Ergota. 311 upper surface, and woolly beneath. It is erroneously stated in some works to be a native of Carolina. The elemi is obtained by incisions into the tree, through which the juice flows and concretes upon the bark. The Mexican is said by Dr. Royle to be obtained from a species of Elaphrium, which that author has described from dried specimens, and proposes to name E. elemiferum. (Materia Medica, Am. ed., p. 339.) The Manilla elemi is conjecturally referred to Canarium commune. (Ibid., p. 340.) Elemi is in masses of various consistence, sometimes solid and heavy like wax, sometimes light and porous; unctuous to the touch; diaphanous; of diversified colours, generally greenish with intermingled points of white or yellow, sometimes greenish-white with brown stains, sometimes yellow like sulphur; fragile and friable when cold; softening by the heat of the hand; of a terebinthinate somewhat aromatic odour, diminishing with age, and said, in some varieties, to resemble that of fennel; of a warm, slightly bitter, disagreeable taste; entirely soluble, with the exception of impurities, in boil- ing alcohol; and affording a volatile oil by distillation. A variety examined by M. Bonastre, was found to consist of 60 parts of resin, 24 of a resinous matter soluble in boiling alcohol, but deposited when the liquid cools, 12*5 of volatile oil, 2 of extractive, and 1*5 of acid and impurities. Elemi is sometimes adulterated with colophony and turpentine. The Manilla elemi is said to be in masses of a light-yellowish colour, internally soft, and of a strong odour of fennel. (Royle.) Medical Properties and Uses. Elemi has properties analogous to those of the turpentines; but is exclusively applied to external use. In the United States it is rarely employed even in this way. In the pharmacy of Europe it enters into the composition of numerous plasters and ointments. We are told that it is occasionally brought to this country in small fragments, mixed with the coarser kinds of gum Arabic from the Levant and India. Off. Prep. Unguentum Elemi, Lond., Dub. W. ERGOTA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Ergot. "The diseased seeds of Secale cereale." U. S. "Acinula clavus." Lond. "An undetermined fungus, with degenerated seed of Secale cereale." Ed. Spurred rye; Secale cornutum; Seigle ergote, Fr.; Mutterkorn, Germ. In all the Graminaceae or grass tribe, and in some of the Cyperaceae, the place of the seeds is sometimes occupied by a morbid growth, which, from its resemblance to the spur of a cock, has received the name of ergot, adopted from the French. This product is most frequent in the rye, Secale cereale of botanists, and having been found, as occurring in that plant, to possess valuable medicinal properties, was adopted in the first edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia under the name of Secale cornutum or spurred rye. In the last edition, this name was changed for Ergota, in conformity with the nomenclature of the London and Edinburgh Colleges, by whom the medicine was recognised for the first time at the last revision of their catalogues. Considerable difference of opinion has existed in relation to the nature of this singular substance. It was at one time generally thought to be merely the seed altered by disease—the morbid condition being ascribed by some to the agency of an insect, by others to excess of heat and moisture. A second opinion considered it a parasitic fungus, occupying the place of the seed. This was entertained by De Candolle, who called the fungus Scle- rotium Clavus. According to a third and intermediate opinion, the ergot is the seed, diseased and entirely perverted in its nature by the influence of 312 Ergota. PART I. a parasitic fungus, attached to it from the very beginning of its develope- ment. This view was put forth by M. Leveille, in a memoir published in the Annals of the Linn. Society of Paris for the year 1826. According to this writer, a soft viscid tubercle may be seen, at the earliest stage of the flower, surmounting the germ, the character of which it changes, without preventing its growth. The germ becomes of a dark colour, and, increasing in size, pushes the tubercle before it, which also expands, and exudes a viscid matter, which spreads over the germ, and drying upon its surface, gives it a thin yellowish coating. The tubercle was considered by M. Le- veille a fungus, and named Sphacelia segetum. The more recent observa- tions of Mr. Gluekett, of London, confirm this general view of the nature of ergot; but lead to a different conclusion as to the character of the parasitic plant. According to Mr. Ouekett, the beginning of the growth of the ergot is marked by the appearance, about the young grain and its appendages, of multitudes of minute filaments like cobwebs, which run over all its parts, cementing anthers and stigmas together, and of a white coating upon the surface of the grain, from which, upon immersion in water, innumerable minute particles separate, and after a time sink in the fluid. These parti- cles, when examined by the microscope, prove to be the reproductive agents, germs, or sporidia of a species of fungus, and may be observed to sprout and propagate in various ways under favourable circumstances. Their length, upon the average, is about the four-thousandth of an inch. The filaments are the results of the growth of these singular germs. The spo- ridia and filaments do not increase with the increase of the ergot; and when this has projected beyond the paleas and become visible, it has lost a portion of its white coating and presents a dark violet colour. It now increases with great rapidity, and attains its full size in a few days. When com- pletely developed, it exhibits very few of the filaments or sporidia upon its surface. But Ouekett believes that the germs of the fungus emit their filaments through the tissue of the ergot when young and tender, and that, as this increases, it is made up partly of the diseased structure of the grain, and partly of the fungous matter. The fungus was named by Q,uekett£r- gotaetia abortifaciens. This view of the nature and cause of ergot is strongly supported by the asserted facts, that the microscopic fungus has an exist- ence independent of the morbid grain, being found in various other parts of the plant, and growing even when entirely separated from it; and that the sporidia or white dust upon the surface of ergot, if applied to the seeds of certain Graminaceas before germination, or sprinkled in the soil at the roots of the plants after they have begun to grow, will give rise to ergotized fruit. That the ergot is not itself a peculiar fungus, but the perverted grain, is evinced by the frequent remains of the stigma upon its summit, by the scales at its base, and by the circumstance that in some instances only a portion of the seed is ergotized. How far its peculiar medical properties may depend upon the morbid substance of the grain, and how far on the fungous matter associated with it, has not been determined. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xi. 116 and 237—and Med. Exam., N. S., i. 62.) The ergot usually projects out of the glume or husk beyond the ordinary outline of the spike or ear. In some spikes the place of the seeds is wholly occupied by the ergot, in others only two or three spurs are observed. It is stated that this substance is much more energetic when collected before than after harvest. Rye has generally been thought to be most subject to the disease in poor and wet soils, and in rainy seasons ; and intense heat succeeding continued rains is said'to favour its developement, especially if these circumstances occur at the time the flower is forming. It is now, how- PART I. Ergota. 313 ever, asserted that moisture has little or nothing to do with its production.* It should not be collected until some days after it has begun to form ; as, according to M. Bonjean, if gathered on the first day of its formation, it does not possess the poisonous properties which it exhibits when taken on the sixth day. (Pharmaceutical Transactions, Jan., 1842, from Journ. de Chim. Med.) Properties. Ergot is in solid, brittle yet somewhat flexible grains, from a third of an inch to an inch and a half long, from half a line to three lines in thickness, cylindrical or obscurely triangular, tapering towards each end, obtuse at the extremities, usually curved like the spur of a cock, marked with one or two longitudinal furrows, often irregularly cracked or fissured, of a violet-brown colour and often somewhat glaucous externally, yellowish- white, or violet-white within, of an unpleasant smell when in mass resem- bling that of putrid fish, and of a taste which is at first scarcely perceptible, but ultimately disagreeable and slightly acrid. Under the microscope, the surface appears more or less covered with sporidia, which occasion its glau- cous aspect; and the interior structure is found to be composed of minute roundish cells, containing, according to Gluekett, particles of oil. Ergot yields its virtues to water and alcohol. The aqueous infusion or decoction is claret-coloured, and has an acid reaction. It is precipitated by acetate and subacetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and tincture of galls ; but affords with iodine no evidence of the presence of starch. Ergot has been analyzed by Vauquelin, Winkler, a German chemist named Wiggers, Wright, Legrip, and several others. The analysis by M. Legrip is the most recent and complete. That chemist obtained from 100 parts of ergot 34-50 parts of a thick, very fluid, fixed oil, of a fine yellow colour; 2*75 of starch; POO of albumen; 2-25 of inulin; 2-50 of gum; 1*25 of uncrystallizable sugar; 2*75 of a brown resin; 3*50 of fungin; 13-50 of vegeto-animal matter; 0-75 of osmazome; 0-50 of a fatty acid; 24-50 of lignin ; 0-50 of colouring principles ; an odorous principle not isolated; 2-25 of fungate of potassa; 0-50 of chloride of sodium; 0-50 of sulphate of lime and magnesia; 1-25 of subphosphate of lime; 0-25 of oxide of iron; 0-15 of silica; and 2-50 of water, with 2-35 loss. (Ann. de Therap., A. D. 1845, p. 44.) Wiggers obtained a peculiar principle, which he denomi- nated ergotin, under the impression that it was the active ingredient. It was reddish-brown, of a peculiar nauseous odour and a bitter slightly acrid taste, soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water or ether. It was obtained by digesting ergot in ether and afterwards in alcohol, evaporating the alcoholic solution, and treating the extract thus obtained with water, which left the ergotin undissolved. It was given with fatal effects to a hen; but much ampler observation is necessary to establish its claim to be considered as the active principle. Dr. Christison, though following the process of Wiggers, was unable to obtain ergotin, and Dr. Wright was equally unsuccessful. The latter chemist, after careful investigation, came to the conclusion that the ac- tivity of the medicine resided in its fixed oil, which was accordingly intro- duced into practice as a substitute for ergot. The oil of ergot, when obtained from grains recently collected, is, according to Dr. Wright, often quite free from colour; but, as usually prepared, is reddish-brown. It has a dis- agreeable, somewhat acrid taste, is lighter than water, and is soluble in alcohol and alkaline solutions. It is prepared by forming an ethereal tinc- * Mr. J. Price Wetherill informed the author that, in two seasons, he had found rye, sown very late, so as scarcely to come up before spring, to be almost universally ergotted; while neighbouring rye, sown at the proper season, in the same kind of soil precisely, had nothing of the disease, though the seed was the same in both cases. {Note to the sixth edition.) 28 314 Ergota. PART I. ture of ergot by the process of displacement, and evaporating the ether with a gentle heat. (Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. for 1839-40.) The conclu- sions of Dr. Wright in relation to the action of this oil upon the system have been confirmed by the experiments and observations of others; and there can scarcely be a doubt that its effects are identical with those of ergot. It may however be said rather to contain the active principle of ergot, than itself to constitute that principle; for the oil obtained by simple expression produces on animals none of the effects which constantly result from that obtained by means of ether. (Journ. de Pharm., N. S., i. 183.) The opin- ion of M. Bonjean, that there are two active principles in ergot, the oil which is poisonous, and another resident in the watery extract, and possess- ing anti-hemorrhagic properties without being in the least degree poisonous, requires confirmation. That writer is certainly not warranted in giving to his extract, however purified, the name of ergotin, until he can show that it is a characteristic proximate principle. The active principle of ergot re- mains yet to be isolated. Ergot, when perfectly dry and kept in well-stopped bottles, will retain its virtues for a considerable time; but exposed to air and moisture it speedily un- dergoes chemical changes and deteriorates. It is, moreover, apt to be attacked by a minute worm, which consumes the interior of the grain, leaving merely the exterior shell and an excrementitious powder. This insect is sometimes found in the ergot before removal from the plant. (Muller, Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 269.) In the state of powder, the medicine still more readily deteriorates. It is best, as a general rule, to renew it every year or two. Medical Properties and Uses. Given in small doses* ergot produces, in the system of the male, no obvious effects; but in the female, exhibits a strong tendency to the uterus, upon the contractile property of which it operates with great energy. It is perhaps the only medicine which specifically pro- motes contraction in this organ. In the quantity of half a drachm or a drachm it often occasions nausea or vomiting, and in still larger doses produces a sense of weight and pain in the head, giddiness, dilatation of the pupils, deli- rium, and even stupor, proving that it possesses narcotic properties. It is said also to excite febrile symptoms; but our own observation coincides with that of authors who ascribe to it the power of reducing the frequency of the pulse. We have seen this effect produced by it in a remarkable degree, even with- out nausea. Its long-continued and copious use is highly dangerous, ev^n when no immediate effects are perceptible. Terrible and devastating epi- demics in differents parts of the continent of Europe, particularly in certain provinces of France, have long been ascribed to the use of bread" made from rye contaminated with this degenerate grain. Dry gangrene, typhus fever, and disorder of the nervous system attended with convulsions, are the forms of disease which have been observed to follow the use of this unwholesome food. It is true that ergot has been denied to be the cause; but accurate investigations made by competent men upon the spot where the epidemics have prevailed, together with the result of experiments made upon inferior animals, leave no room for reasonable doubt upon the subject. Very large quantities are required for immediate poisonous effects. From two to eight drachms have been given at one dose to a man without very serious results, and three ounces, according to Dr. Wright, were requjred to kill a small dog. Death from single doses, in inferior animals, is preceded by symptoms indi- cating irritation of the stomach and bowels, great muscular prostration, loss of sensation, and sometimes slight spasms. The most important remedial application of ergot is founded on its power of promoting the contraction of the uterus. On the continent of Europe, in various parts of Germany, France, and Italy, it has long been empiri- PART I. Ergota. 315 cally employed by midwives for this purpose; and its German name of mutterkorn implies a popular acquaintance with its peculiar powers. But the attention of the medical profession was first called to it by a letter from Dr. Stearns, of Saratoga county, in the state of New York, addressed to Dr. Ackerly, A.D. 1807, and published in the eleventh volume of the New York Medical Repository. Since that period, the journals have teemed with communications attesting its efficacy in facilitating parturition; and, though it has failed in the hands of some physicians, the general opinion of the pro- fession is so decidedly in its favour, that it may now be considered among the established articles of the materia medica. When it has proved wholly inefficient, the result is ascribable to peculiarity of constitution in the indi- vidual, or to the inferior character of the particular parcel employed. In its operation upon the pregnant uterus it produces a constant unremitting con- traction and rigidity, rather than that alternation of spasmodic effort and relaxation which is observable in the natural process of labour. Hence, unless the os uteri and external parts are sufficiently relaxed, the medicine would be likely to produce injury to the child by the incessant pressure which it maintains. Such in fact has been the observation of numerous practitioners, and the death of the infant is thought not unfrequently to result from the injudicious employment of the medicine. The cases to which it is thought to be especially adapted are those of lingering labour, when the os uteri is sufficiently dilated, and the external passages sufficiently relaxed, when no mechanical impediment is offered to the passage of the child, and the delay is ascribable solely to want of energy in the uterus. Other cases are those in which the death of the foetus has been ascertained, and when great exhaustion or dangerous constitutional irritation imperiously calls for speedy delivery. The remedy may also be given to promote the expulsion of the placenta, to restrain inordinate hemorrhage after delivery, and to hasten the discharge of the foetus in protracted cases of abortion. In women subject to dangerous flooding, a dose of ergot given immediately before delivery is said to have the happiest effects. It has also been recommended for the expulsion of coagula of blood, polypi, and hydatids from the uterine cavity. It has been accused of producing puerperal convulsions, hour-glass contraction of the uterus, and hydrocephalus in the new-born infant. (Dr. Catiett, Ed. Med. <$• Surg. Journ., Jan., 1842.) In menorrhagia and uterine hemorrhage, unconnected with pregnancy, the medicine has long been em- pirically employed, and is now found highly useful in the hands of regular practitioners. Its use has even been extended to hemorrhages from other organs, and with reputed good effect. Cases of hemorrhage from the lungs are recorded in which ergot has proved highly beneficial. We have seen it promptly effectual after all the usual means had failed. May it not have the power of producing contraction in the capillaries in general, or of interfering in some other way with the circulation of the blood in these vessels, as by the exertion of a direct sedative or paralysing influence upon them? We might in this way account for the dry gangrene which results from its abuse, as well as for its influence in restraining hemorrhage. It has also been employed in amenorrhoea, but not with encouraging success. Gonorrhoea, gleet, leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, chronic dysentery and diarrhoea, paraple- gia, paralysis or debility of the bladder and of the rectum, spermatorrhoea, hysteria, and intermittent fever, are among the complaints in which it has been recommended. Ergot is usually given in substance, infusion, or decoction. The dose of the powder to a woman in labour is fifteen or twenty grains, to be repeated every twenty minutes till its peculiar effects are experienced, or till the amount of a drachm has been taken. Of an infusion made in the propor- 316 Ergota.—Erigeron Canadense. part i. tion of a drachm of ergot to four fluidounces of water, one-third may be given for a dose, and repeated with the same interval. For other purposes the dose of the medicine is ten or fifteen grains, repeated three times a day, and gradually increased, but not continued for a great length of time. In urgent cases of hemorrhage, the dose may be repeated every two hours, or oftener if necessary. A wine of ergot is directed by the United States Pharmacopoeia, and should supersede the tinctures formerly used, which are of uncertain strength. (See Vinum Ergotae.) The oil of ergot, pre- pared by means of ether, as already described, was given by Dr. Wright in the dose of from twenty to fifty drops, diffused in cold water, warm tea, or weak spirit and water. He employed it not only as an aid to parturition and in uterine affections, but also, with marked advantage, in diarrhoea, in the dose of ten drops every three hours, and in gastric irritability and spasm. It may be kept for a long time unimpaired in a well-stopped bottle, in a cool, dark place. Its strength is diminished by an elevated temperature, or prolonged exposure to the sun. The magnitude of the dose is sufficient proof that the oil is not the active principle of ergot, but only holds that principle in solution. Ergot has been employed externally. Dr. Muller found it to check the bleeding from large divided arteries; and Dr. Wright states that either in powder or infusion it has a prompt effect in arresting hemorrhage. It is re- commended by the latter practitioner as an injection in uterine hemorrhage. It should be used, however, with some caution; as the powder applied to abraded surfaces has produced sloughing in the lower animals. Ergot should be powdered only when wanted for use. Off. Prep. Vinum Ergotas, U. S. W. ERIGERON CANADENSE. U.S. Secondary, Canada Fleabane. "The herb of Erigeron Canadense." U. S. Erigeron. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Compositas- Asteroideas, De Cand. Asteraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx imbricated, sub-hemispherical, in fruit often reflected. Florets of the ray linear, very narrow, numerous. Receptacle naked. Pap- pus double, exterior minute, interior pilose, of few rays. Nuttall. Erigeron Canadense. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1954. This is an indigenous annual plant, with a stem from two to six feet high, covered with stiff'hairs, and divided into numerous branches. The leaves are linear, lanceolate, and edged with hairs; those at the root are dentate. The flowers are very small, numerous, white, and arranged in terminal panicles. They differ from those of the other species of Erigeron in having an oblong calyx, the rays very minute and more numerous than the florets of the disk, and the seed down simple. Hence by some botanists the plant is placed in a sub-genus with the title Caenotus. Another variety of the E. Canadense, which Mr. Nuttall makes a distinct species, with the title E. pusilum, is not more than from four to six inches high, and has an erect smooth stem, less branched than the preceding, with all its leaves entire, and scabrous on the margin. The panicle is simple, and the peduncles filiform, nearly naked, divaricate, each bearing two or three flowers. Canada fleabane is very common throughout the northern and middle sec- tions of the United States, and has become naturalized in many parts of Europe. It abounds in neglected fields, and blooms in July and August. The plant, all parts of which are medicinal, should be collected while in part i. Erigeron Heterophyllum.—E. Philadelphicum. 317 flower. The leaves and flowers are said to possess its peculiar virtues in greatest perfection. This species of Erigeron has an agreeable odour, and a bitterish, acrid, somewhat astringent taste. Among its constituents, according to Dr. De Puy, are bitter extractive, tannin, gallic acid, and volatile oil. Both alcohol and water extract its virtues. Its acrimony is diminished by decoction, probably, in consequence of the escape of the oil. Medical Properties and Uses. From the observations of Dr. De Puy, it appears to be diuretic, tonic, and astringent; and has been found useful in dropsical complaints and diarrhoea. It may be given in substance, infusion, tincture, or extract. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm; of an infusion prepared in the proportion of an ounce of the plant to a pint of boiling water, from two to four fluidounces; of the aqueous extract from five to ten grains. In each case the dose should be repeated every two or three hours. W. ERIGERON HETEROPHYLLUM. U.S. Secondary. Various-leaved Fleabane. "The herb of Erigeron heterophyllum." U. S. ERIGERON PHILADELPHICUM. U.S. Secondary. Philadelphia Fleabane. "The herb of Erigeron Philadelphicum." U. S. Erigeron. See ERIGERON CANADENSE. 1. Erigeron heterophyllum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1956; Barton, Am. Med. Bot. i. 231. This is a biennial herbaceous plant, belonging both to North America and Europe. It has a branching root, from which proceed several erect, roundish, striated, pubescent stems, much divided near the top, and rising two or three feet in height. The lower leaves are ovate, acute, deeply toothed, and supported upon long-winged footstalks; the upper are lanceolate, acute, deeply serrate in the middle, and sessile; the floral leaves are lanceolate and entire; all, except those from the root, are ciliate at the base. The flowers are in terminal corymbs. The florets of the disk are yellow; those of the ray numerous, very slender, and of a white, pale blue, or pale purple colour. The flowering period is from June to October. Erigeron Philadelphicum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1957; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 227. The Philadelphia fleabane is perennial and herbaceous, with a branching yellowish root, and from one to five erect stems, which rise two or three feet in height, and are much branched at top. The whole plant is pubescent. The lower leaves are ovate lanceolate, nearly obtuse, ciliate on the margin, entire or marked with a few serratures, and supported on very long footstalks; the upper are narrow, oblong, somewhat wedge-shaped, obtuse, entire, sessile, and slightly embrace the stem; the floral leaves are small and lanceolate. The flowers are numerous, radiate, and disposed in a panicled corymb, with long peduncles bearing from one to three flowers. They resemble those of the preceding species in colour, and make their appearance about the same period. We include these two species under one head, because they grow toge- ther, possess identical medical properties, and are indiscriminately employed. They are found in various parts of the United States, and abound in the 28* 318 Eryngium.—Erythronium. part i. fields about Philadelphia, where they are known and used under the common though inaccurate name of scabious. The whole herb is used, and should be collected while the plants are in flower. It has an aromatic odour, and a slightly bitterish taste, and imparts its properties to boiling water. Medical Properties and Uses. Fleabane is diuretic, without being offensive to the stomach. It has been a favourite remedy with some highly respectable practitioners of Philadelphia in gravel and other nephritic diseases, and has been employed with advantage in dropsy. By the late Dr. Wistar it was recommended in hydrothorax complicated with gout. When the obstinate character and long continuance of certain dropsical affections are considered, the advantage must appear obvious, of having numerous remedies calculated to mitigate the symptoms without exhausting the strength of the patient; so that when one has lost its power from repetition, we may appeal to another with some prospect of benefit. On this account it is that fleabane is worthy of the notice of the profession. It cannot be relied on for the cure of dropsy. It is most conveniently administered in infusion or decoction, of which a pint, containing the virtues of an ounce of the herb, may be given in twenty- four hours. " W. ERYNGIUM. U. S. Secondary. Button Snakeroot. "The root of Eryngium aquaticum." U. S. Eryngium. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Apiaceas or Um- belliferas. Gen. Ch. Flowers capitate. Involucrum many-leaved. Proper Calyx five-parted, superior, persistent. Corolla of five petaJs. Receptacle folia- ceous, segments acute or cuspidate. Fruit bipartile. Nuttall. Eryngium aquaticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1357. The button snakeroot or water eryngo, is an indigenous herbaceous plant, with a perennial tuber- ous root, and a stem two or three feet high, sometimes, according to Pursh, six feet, generally branching by forks, but trichotomous above. The leaves are very long, linear-lanceolate on the upper part of the stem, sword-shaped below, with bristly spines at distant intervals upon their margin. The floral leaves are lanceolate and dentate. The flowers are white or pale, and dis- posed in globose heads, with the leaflets of the involucrum shorter than the head, and, like the scales of the receptacle, entire. This plant is found in low wet places, from Virginia to Carolina. Its period of flowering is August. The root, which is the medicinal portion, has a bitter, pungent, aromatic taste, provoking, when chewed, a flow of saliva. It is diaphoretic, expecto- rant, in large doses occasionally emetic; and is used by some physicians in decoction as a substitute for seneka. (Bigelow.) We are told in Barton's "Collections,", that it is nearly allied to the contrayerva of the shops. W. ERYTHRONIUM. U.S. Secondary. Erythronium. "The root and herb of Erythronium Americanum." U. SS Erythronium. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Liliaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla inferior, six-petalled; the three inner petals with a callous prominence on each edge near the base. Bigelow. part i. Erythronium.—Eupatorium. 319 Erythronium Americanum. Muhl. Catalogue, 84; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 151.—E. lanceolatum. Pursh, p. 230. This is an indigenous per- ennial bulbous plant, sometimes called, after the European species, dog's tooth violet. The bulb (cormus), which is brown externally, white and solid within, sends up a single naked slender flower-stem, and two smooth lanceo- late nearly equal leaves, sheathing at their base, with an obtuse callous point, and of a brownish-green colour diversified by numerous irregular spots. The flower is solitary, nodding, yellow, with oblong lanceolate petals obtuse at the point, a club-shaped undivided style, and a three-lobed stigma. The Erythronium grows in woods and other shady places throughout the Northern and Middle States. It flowers in the latter part of April or early in May. All parts of it are active. In the dose of twenty or thirty grains, the recent bulb acts as an emetic. The leaves are said to be more powerful. The activity of the plant is di- minished by drying. So far as we are at present acquainted with its virtues, it may be considered a useless addition to the Materia Medica. Having, however, been adopted in the original edition of the Pharmacopoeia, it was deemed best, upon the revision of that work, not to expunge it from the catalogue till it had undergone a longer period of trial. W. EUPATORIUM. U.S. Thoroughwort. " The tops and leaves of Eupatorium perfoliatum." U. S. Eupatorium. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia iEqualis.—Nat. Ord. Compositas- Eupatoriaceas, De Cand. Asteraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx simple or imbricate, oblong. Style long and semi-bifid. Receptacle naked. Pappus pilose, or more commonly scabrous. Seed smooth and glandular, quinquestriate. Nuttall. Of this numerous genus, comprising not less than thirty species within the limits of the United States, most of which probably possess analogous medical properties, the E. perfoliatum alone now holds a place in our national Pharmacopoeia. The E. purpureum and E. teucrifolium were originally in the Secondary List, but were discarded at the last revision of the work. They merit, however, a brief notice here, if only from their former officinal rank. Eupatorium purpureum, or gravel root, is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a purple stem, five or six feet in height, and furnished with ovate lan- ceolate, serrate, rugosely veined, slightly scabrous, petiolate leaves, placed four or five together in the form of whorls. The flowers are purple, and consist of numerous florets contained in an eight-leaved calyx. It grows in swamps and other low grounds, from Canada to Virginia, and flowers in August and September. The root, which is the part used, has, according to Dr. Bigelow, a bitter, aromatic, and astringent taste, and is said to ope- rate as a diuretic. Its vulgar name of gravel root indicates the popular esti- mation of its virtues. Eupatorium teucrifolium (Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1753), E. pilosum (Walt. Flor. Car. 199), E. verbensefolium (Mich. Flor. Am. ii. 98), com- monly called wild horehound, is also an indigenous perennial, with an herbaceous stem, which is about two feet high, and supports sessile, dis- tinct, ovate, acute, scabrous leaves, of which the lower are coarsely ser- rate at the base, the uppermost entire. The flowers are small, white, composed of five florets within each calyx, and arranged in the form of a 320 Eupatorium. PART I. corymb. The plant grows in low wet places from New England to Georgia, and is very abundant in the Southern States. It is in flower from August to November. The whole herb is employed. In sensible proper- ties it corresponds with the E. perfoliatum, though less bitter and disagree- able. It is said to be tonic, diaphoretic, diuretic, and aperient; and in the South has been much employed as a domestic remedy in intermittent and remittent fevers. Dr. Jones, formerly president of the Georgia Medical Society, was the first to make its properties known to the profession. It is usually administered infused in water. One quart of the infusion, con- taing the virtues of an ounce of the plant, may be given in separate por- tions during the day. The E. Cannabinum of Europe, the root of which was formerly used as a purgative ; and the E. Aya-pana, of Brazil, the leaves of which at one time enjoyed a very high reputation as a remedy in numerous diseases, have fallen into entire neglect. The Aya-pana is an aromatic bitter, with the medical properties of E. perfoliatum in an inferior degree. Eupatorium perfoliatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1761 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 33; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 125. The thoroughwort, or, as it is perhaps more frequently called, boneset, is an indigenous perennial plant, with numerous herbaceous stems, which are erect, round, hairy, from two to five feet high, simple below, and trichotomously branched near the sum- mit. The character of the leaves is peculiar, and serves to distinguish the species at the first glance. They may be considered either as perforated by the stem, perfoliate, or as consisting each of two leaves joined at the base, connate. Considered in the latter point of view, they are opposite and in pairs, which decussate each other at regular distances upon the stem; in other words, the direction of each pair is at right angles with that of the pair immediately above or beneath it. They are narrow in proportion to their length, broadest at the base where they coalesce, gradually tapering to a point, serrate, much wrinkled, paler on the under than the upper surface, and beset with whitish hairs which give them a grayish-green colour. The uppermost pairs are sessile, not joined at the base. The flowers are white, numerous, supported on hairy peduncles, in dense corymbs, which form a flattened summit to the plant. The calyx, which is cylindrical and com- posed of imbricated, lanceolate, hairy scales, encloses from twelve to fifteen tubular florets, having their border divided into five spreading segments. The anthers are five in number, black, and united into a tube, through which the bifid filiform style projects above the flower. This species of Eupatorium inhabits meadows, the banks of streams, and other moist places, growing generally in bunches, and abounding in almost all parts of the United States. It flowers from the middle of summer to the latter end of October. All parts of it are active ; but the herb only is officinal. It has a faint odour, and a strongly bitter somewhat peculiar taste. The bitterness and probably the medical virtues of the plant reside in an extract- ive matter, which is readily taken up by water or alcohol. No accurate analysis of thoroughwort has been made since the recent improvements in vegetable chemistry. Medical Properties and Uses. Thoroughwort is tonic, diaphoretic, and in large doses emetic and aperient. It is said to have been employed by the Indians in intermittent fever, and has proved successful in the hands of several regular practitioners. The general experience, however, is not in its favour, in that complaint. We have seen it effectual in arrest- ing intermittents when given freely in warm decoction, immediately be- part i. Eupatorium.—Euphorbia Corollata. 321 fore the expected recurrence of the paroxysm; but it operated in this instance by its emetic rather than its tonic power. The medicine has also been used as a tonic and diaphoretic in remittent and typhoid fevers, and is said to have been productive of advantage in yellow fever. Given in warm infusion, so as to produce vomiting or copious perspiration at the commence- ment of catarrh, it will frequently arrest that complaint. It has even been recommended as a diaphoretic in inflammatory rheumatism ; and may prove serviceable, if administered in the absence of general arterial excite- ment. As a tonic it has been given with advantage in dyspepsia, general debility, and other cases in which the simple bitters are employed. With a view to its tonic effects, it is best administered in substance, or in cold infusion. The dose of the powder is twenty or thirty grains, that of the infusion a fluidounce, frequently repeated. (See Infusum Eupatorii.) When the diaphoretic operation is required in addition to the tonic, the infusion should be administered warm, and the patient remain covered in bed. As an emetic and cathartic, a strong decoction, prepared by boiling an ounce with three half pints of water to a pint, may be given in doses of one or two gills, or more. Off. Prep. Infusum Eupatorii, U. S. W. EUFHORBIA COROLLATA. U.S. Secondary. Large-flowering Spurge. "The root of Euphorbia corollata." U. S. Euphorbia. Sex. Syst. Dodecandria Trigynia, Linn.; Monoecia Mona- delphia, Michaux.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceas. Gen. Ch. Involucrum caliciform, eight to ten toothed, exterior alternate dentures glanduloid or petaloid. Stamina indefinite, twelve or more, rarely less; filaments articulated. Receptacle squamose. Female flower solitary, stipitate, naked. Capsule three-grained. Nuttall. In the flower of the Euphorbias, the stamina are arranged two or more together, in distinct parcels, which correspond in number with the inner seg- ments of the calyx. These parcels were considered by Michaux as distinct male florets; while the central stipitate germ, with its three bifid styles, was considered as a distinct female floret, and the calyx took the name of an involucre. He accordingly placed the genus in the class and order Monoecia Monadelphia, and in this respect has been followed by most American botanists. The genus Euphorbia contains very numerous species, which have the common property of yielding a milky juice. They are herbaceous or shrubby, with or without leaves; and the leafless species, which are chiefly confined to the African deserts, have fleshy, naked, or spiny stems, resembling the genus Cactus. They nearly all afford products which act powerfully as emetics and cathartics, and in over-doses give rise to dan- gerous if not fatal prostration, with symptoms of inflamed gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. Their milky juice, which concretes on exposure to the air, usually possesses these properties in a high degree, and, in addition, that of powerfully irritating the skin when externally applied. Two species only are acknowledged in our national Pharmacopoeia, the E. corollata and E. Ipecacuanha, which are both indigenous. The E. hypericifolia, which is also indigenous, has been very highly commended as a remedy in dysen- tery after due depletion, diarrhoea, menorrhagia, and leucorrhoea, by Dr. W. Zollickoffer, of Maryland. He infuses half an ounce of the dried leaves in 322 Euphorbia Corollata. part i. a pint of boiling water, and gives half a fluidounce every hour in dysentery till the symptoms begin to yield, the same quantity after every evacuation in diarrhoea, and two fluidounces morning, noon, and night in menorrhagia and fluor albus. The herb, according to Dr. Zollickoffer, is at first sweetish, afterwards harsh and astringent to the taste, and from his experiments appears to contain tannin. Its effects upon the system are those of an astringent and feeble narcotic. It differs, therefore, considerably, both in sensible and medicinal properties, from most of the other species of Euphor- bia. (Am. Journ. of the Med. Sciences, xi. 22.) In a subsequent commu- nication by the same author, it is stated that the E. maculata possesses similar properties with the E. hypericifolia. (Ibid., N. S., iii. 125.) Euphorbia corollata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 916; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 119. The blooming or large-flowering spurge, in common language frequently called milk-weed, is a tall erect plant, with a large, perennial, branching, yellowish root, which sends up several stems from two to five feet in height, round and generally simple. The leaves, which stand irregularly upon the stem, and without footstalks, are oblong, obovate, wedge-form, or linear, flat or revolute at the margin, smooth in some plants, and hairy in others. The flowers are disposed upon a large terminal umbel, with a five- leaved involucrum, and five trifid and dichotomous rays, at each fork of which are two oblong bractes. The calyx is large, rotate, white, with five obtuse segments closely resembling a corolla, from which the species has been named. At the base of these divisions are five interior smaller seg- ments, which are described as nectaries by many systematic writers, while the larger are considered as belonging to a real corolla. The stamens are twelve, evolving gradually, with double anthers. Many flowers have only stamens. The pistil, when existing, is stipitate, nodding, rounded, with three bifid styles. The fruit is a smooth, three-celled, three-seeded capsule. The plant grows in various parts of the United States, from Canada to Florida, and abounds in Maryland and Virginia. It prefers a dry, barren, and sandy soil, seldom growing in woods or on the borders of streams. Its flowers appear in July and August. The root is the only part used. This, when full grown, is sometimes an inch in thickness, and two feet in length. It is without unpleasant taste, producing only a sense of heat a short time after it has been taken. The medical virtues are said to reside in the cortical portion, which is thick, and constitutes two-thirds of the whole root. They are taken up by water and alcohol, and remain in the extract formed by the evaporation of the decoction or tincture. Medical Properties and Uses. In a full dose, the root of E. corollata operates actively and with sufficient certainty as an emetic, producing ordi- narily several discharges from the stomach, and not unfrequently acting with considerable energy upon the bowels. In quantities insufficient to vomit, it excites nausea, almost always followed by brisk purging. In still smaller doses it is diaphoretic and expectorant. It cannot, however, like ipecacuanha, be given largely in cases of insensibility of stomach, without endangering hypercatharsis with inflammation of the mucous coat of the stomach and bowels. It is in fact greatly inferior to this emetic in mildness, while it is no less inferior to the tartarized antimony in certainty. It is objectionable as a purge, in consequence of the nausea which it occasions, when given in cathartic doses. Dr. Zollickoffer, of Maryland, was the first to introduce it to the particular notice of the medical profession. It is little prescribed, and seldom kept in the shops. The dose of the dried root as an emetic is from ten to twenty grains, as a cathartic from three to ten grains. The recent root, bruised and applied to the skin, produces vesication. W. PART I. Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 323 EUPHORBIA IPECACUANHA. U. S. Secondary. Ipecacuanha Spurge. " The root of Euphorbia Ipecacuanha." U. S. Euphorbia. See EUPHORBIA COROLLATA. Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 900; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 211; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 108. The ipecacuanha spurge, or, as it is sometimes called, American ipecacuanha, is a singular plant, vary- ing so much in the shape and colour of its leaves, and in its whole aspect, that mere individual peculiarities might without care be attributed to a real specific difference. The root is perennial, of a yellowish colour, irregular and very large, penetrating sometimes to the depth of six or seven feet in the sand, and in its thickest part measuring, when full grown, from three-quar- ters of an inch to one inch and a half in diameter. The stems are numerous, herbaceous, erect or procumbent, smooth, dichotomous, jointed at the forks, white under the ground, red, pale-green, or yellow above, sometimes almost buried in the sand, usually forming thick low bunches upon its surface. The leaves are opposite, sessile, entire, smooth, generally oval, but sometimes round, obovate, or even lanceolate, or linear. They are small early in the spring, and increase in size with the age of the plant. Their colour varies from green to crimson. The flowers are solitary, and stand on long axillary peduncles. The calyx is spreading, with five exterior obtuse segments, and the same number of inner, smaller segments or nectaries. The fertile flowers have a roundish, drooping, pedicelled germ, crowned with six revolute stig- mas. The capsule is three-celled, and contains three seeds. E. Ipecacuanha is indigenous, growing in pine barrens and other sandy places in the Middle and Southern States, especially along the sea- board, and abundant in New Jersey on the bank of the Delaware. It blooms from May to August. The root, which is the officinal portion, is, according to Dr. Barton, equally efficacious at whatever period collected. The dried root is light and brittle, of a grayish colour externally, white within, inodorous, and of a sweetish not unpleasant taste. Its active prin- ciple has not been isolated. Dr. Bigelow inferred from his experiments that it contained caoutchouc, resin, gum, and probably starch. Medical Properties and Uses. Ipecacuanha spurge is an energetic, tole- rably certain emetic, rather milder than the E. Corollata, but like it, dis- posed to act upon the bowels, and liable, if given in over-doses, to produce excessive nausea and vomiting, general prostration, and alarming hyper- catharsis. It is, therefore, wholly unfit to supersede ipecacuanha. In small doses it is diaphoretic. The specific name of the plant indicates that the emetic property of the root has been long known. The late Professor Bar- ton alludes to it in his "Collections;" but it did not come into general notice till after the publication of Dr. W. P. C. Barton's Medical Botany. Dr. Hewson, of Philadelphia, informed us, that this emetic was the subject of an inaugural essay by Dr. Royal, and that experiments, conducted with it among the convicts in the Penitentiary, proved it to be advantageously available for all the purposes of an emetic; while, in consequence of its want of nauseous taste, it seemed to answer even better than ipecacuanha as an expectorant and diaphoretic. The dose of the powdered root is from ten to fifteen grains. 324 Euphorbium. PART I. EUPHORBIUM. Lond., Ed. Euphorbium. "Euphorbia officinarum. Gummi-resina." Lond. "Concrete resinous juice of undetermined species of Euphorbia." Ed. Off. Syn. EUPHORBIA CANARIENSIS. Gummi-resina. Dub. Euphorbe, Fr.; Euphorbium, Germ.; Euforbio, Ital, Span. Euphorbia. See EUPHORBIA COROLLATA. Euphorbium is obtained from one or more species of Euphorbia; but its precise source is somewhat uncertain. It has been ascribed to the E. offi- cinarum, which grows in the North of Africa and at the Cape of Good Hope, the E. Canariensis, a native of the Canary Islands and Western Africa, and the E. antiquorum, inhabiting Egypt, Arabia, and the East Indies, and supposed to be the plant from which the ancients derived this resinous product. These species of Euphorbia bear a considerable resem- blance in their general form to the Cactus, having leafless, jointed, angular stems, divided into branches of a similar structure, and furnished with double prickles at the angles. When wounded, they give out an acrid milky juice, which concretes upon the surface of the plant, and, being removed, constitutes the euphorbium of commerce. This occurs in the shape of tears, or in oblong or roundish masses, about the size of a pea or larger, often forked, and perforated with one or two small conical holes, produced by the prickles of the plant, around which the juice has concreted, and which sometimes remain in the holes. The masses are occasionally large and mixed with impurities. The surface is dull and smooth, bearing some resemblance to that of tragacanth; the consistence somewhat friable; the colour light yellowish or reddish ; the odour scarcely perceptible; the taste at first slight, but afterwards excessively acrid and burn- ing. The colour of the powder is yellowish. The sp. gr. of euphorbium is 1-124. Triturated with water it renders the liquid milky, and is partially dissolved. Alcohol dissolves a larger portion, forming a yellowish tincture, which becomes milky on the addition of water. Its constituents, according to Pelletier, are resin, wax, malate of lime, malate of potassa, lignin, bas- sorin, volatile oil, and water. Brandes found caoutchouc. Euphorbium contains no soluble gum, and is, therefore, incorrectly called a gum-resin. The proportions of the ingredients are variously stated by different chemists, and probably vary in different specimens. The most abundant is resin, and the remainder consists chiefly of wax and malate of lime. The resin is ex- cessively acrid, is soluble in alcohol, and, when exposed to heat, melts, in- flames, and burns with a brilliant flame, diffusing an agreeable odour. It is upon this principle that the acrimony of euphorbium chiefly depends. Medical Properties and Uses. Euphorbium taken internally is emetic and cathartic, often acting with great violence, and in large doses producing severe gastric pain, excessive heat in the throat, and symptoms of great prostration. In consequence of the severity of its action, its internal use has been entirely abandoned. Applied to the mucous membrane of the nostrils, it excites violent irritation attended with incessant sneezing, and sometimes bloody discharges. They who powder it are under the neces- sity of guarding their eyes, nostrils, and mouth against the fine dust which rises. Largely diluted with wheat flour or starch, it may be used as an errhine in amaurosis, deafness, and other obstinate affections of the head. Externally applied, it inflames the skin, often producing vesication ; and on part i. Euphorbium.—Extractum Glycyrrhiza. 325 the continent of Europe is sometimes used as an ingredient of epispastic pre- parations. It is employed in veterinary practice, with a view to its vesicating power. As an article of the materia medica, however, it may well be dis- pensed with, and it has been very properly omitted in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. Off. Prep. Acetum Cartharidis, Ed. W. EXTRACTUM GLYCYURmZM.U.S.,Lond.,Ed.,Dub. Liquorice. «* The extract of the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra." U. S. Extrait de reglisse, Fr.; Siissholzsaft, Germ.; Sugo di liquirizia, Ital; Regaliza en bollos, Span. For an account of the Glycyrrhiza glabra, see article GLYCYRRHIZA. The British Colleges direct this extract to be made in the same manner as extract of gentian; but, as it is never prepared in this country, it very properly occupies, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, a place in the cata- logue of the Materia Medica. Liquorice is an article of export from the North of Spain, particularly Catalonia, where it is obtained in the following manner. The roots of the G. glabra having been dug up, thoroughly cleansed, and half dried by expo- sure to the air, are cut into small pieces, and boiled in water till the liquid is saturated. The decoction is then allowed to rest, and, after the dregs have subsided, is decanted, and evaporated to the proper consistence* The extract thus prepared is formed into rolls from five to six inches long by an inch in diameter, which are dried in the air, and wrapped in laurel leaves. Much liquorice is also prepared in Calabria, according to M. Fee, from the G. echinata which abounds in that country. The process is essentially the same as that just described, but conducted with greater care; and the Italian liquorice is purer and more valuable than the Spanish. We have been informed that most of the extract brought to this country comes from the ports of Leghorn and Messina. Crude liquorice is in cylindrical rolls, somewhat flattened, and often covered with bay leaves. When good, it is very black, dry, brittle, breaking with a shining fracture, of a very sweet, peculiar, slightly acrid or bitterish taste, and almost entirely soluble in water. It is frequently, however, very impure, either from adulteration or improper preparation. Starch, sand, the juice of prunes,&c,are sometimes added; and carbonaceous matter,and even parti- cles of copper are found in it, the latter arising from the boilers in which the decoction is evaporated. Four pounds of the extract have yielded two drachms and a half of metallic copper. (Fee.) It is rarely quite soluble in water. Neumann obtained 460 parts of watery extract from 480 of Spanish liquorice. A bitter and empyreumatic taste are signs of inferior quality. Before being used internally it generally requires to be purified. The refined liquorice, kept in the shops in small cylindrical pieces not thicker than a pipe stem, is prepared by dissolving the impure extract in water without boiling, straining the solution, and evaporating. The object of this process is to separate not only the insoluble impurities, but also the acrid oily substance, which is extracted by long boiling from the liquorice root, and is necessarily mixed with the unrefined extract. It is customary to add during the process a portion of sugar, and sometimes perhaps muci- lage or glue; and flour or starch is a frequent adulteration. Excellent liquorice is prepared, in some parts of England, from the root cultivated in 29 326 Extractum Glycyrrhizce.—Ferrum. part i. that country. The Pontefract cakes are small lozenges of liquorice of a very superior quality, made in the vicinity of Pomfret. Medical Properties and Uses. Liquorice is a useful demulcent, much employed as an addition to cough mixtures, and frequently added to infu- sions or decoctions, in order to cover the taste or obtund the acrimony of the principal medicine. A piece of it held in the mouth and allowed slowly to dissolve, is often found to allay cough by sheathing the irritated membrane of the fauces. It is used in pharmacy to impart consistence to pills and troches, and to modify the taste of other medicines. Off. Prep. Decoctum Aloes Compositum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Aloes, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennas, U. S.; Trochisci Glycyrrhizas, Ed.; Trochisci GJycyrrhizas et Opii, U. S., Ed. W. FERRUM. Iron. Fer, Fr.; Eisen, Germ.; Ferro, Ital; Hierro, Span. Iron is the most abundant and useful of the metals, and so interwoven with the wants of mankind, that the extent of its consumption by a nation may be taken as an index of its progress in civilization. It is universally diffused throughout nature, not only in the mineral kingdom, but also in vegetables and animals. There are very few minerals in which traces of it may not be found, and it is an essential constituent in many parts of animals, but particularly in the blood. It is one of the few metals which are devoid of deleterious action on the animal economy. Iron occurs, 1. native; 2. sulphuretted, forming magnetic and cubic pyrites; 3. oxidized, embracing the magnetic, specular, red, brown, and argillaceous oxides of iron; 4. in saline combination, forming the carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, arseniate, and chromate of iron. Those minerals of iron which admit of being worked to advantage are called iron ores. These include the different native oxides, and the carbonate (sparry iron). The best iron is obtained from those varieties of the native oxide, usually called magnetic iron ore and specular iron ore. These occur very abundantly in Sweden, and furnish the superior iron of that country. As a general rule, those ores yield the best iron which occur in primitive formations. Extraction. The mode of extracting iron from its ores varies somewhat with the nature of the ore; but the general principles of the operation are the same for all. The ore, previously broken into small pieces and roasted, is exposed to the action of an intense heat in contact with carbonaceous matter, such as charcoal, coke, or anthracite, and in connexion with some flux, capable of fusing with the impurities of the ore. The flux varies with the nature of the ore, and is generally either limestone or clay; limestone being employed when the ore is argillaceous, clay when it is calcareous. The flux, whatever it may be, enters into fusion with the impurities, and forms what is called the slag; while the carbonaceous matter, acting on the oxide of iron, reduces it to the metallic state. The reduced metal, from its density, occupies the lower part of the furnace, and is protected from the action of the air by the melted slag which floats on its surface. When the reduction is completed, the slag is allowed to run out by a hole in the side of the furnace, and the melted metal, by an aperture at its bottom; the lat- ter being received into oblong triangular moulds, where it solidifies in masses, known in commerce by the name of pig or cast iron. In this state the metal is brittle and far from being pure; as it contains carbon, silicon, PART I. Ferrum. 327 phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese. It is purified, and thus brought to the state of malleable iron, by being fused, and subjected, while stirred, to the action of a current of air on its surface. By these means the carbon is nearly burnt out, and the other impurities are oxidized and made to rise to the surface as a slag. As the metal approaches to purity, it be- comes tough and less liquid, and its particles agglutinate, so as to form semi- fused lumps, though the temperature of the furnace continues the same. These are then taken out of the furnace, and their particles, by means of ponderous hammers, moved by steam or water power, are beaten together so as to form one tenacious mass. The metal is finally rolled out into bars of a convenient size, when it constitutes the malleable iron of commerce. Iron mines occur in most countries, but more particularly in northern ones. In Spain the principal mines furnish sparry iron, and the red and brown oxides. The chief iron ores of France are the sparry iron, and the specular, brown, and argillaceous oxides; of Germany, the sparry iron and brown oxide. The island of Elba is celebrated for its rich and abundant specular iron ore. The ores which furnish the celebrated Swedish iron have already been indicated. In the United States iron is abundant. The principal ores that are worked are the magnetic, brown, and argillaceous oxides. They occur in the great- est abundance in the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The ores of the three last-mentioned states rival the best Swedish in quality. Properties. Iron is a hard, malleable, very ductile and tenacious metal, of a grayish-white colour and fibrous texture, and having a slight styptic taste, and a sensible odour when rubbed. Its sp. gr. is about 7-7, and its fusing point very high. It possesses the magnetic and welding properties. It is combustible, and, when heated to whiteness, burns in atmospheric air, and with brilliant scintillations in oxygen gas. At a red heat, its surface is converted into black oxide, and at common temperatures, by the combined agency of air and moisture, it becomes covered with a reddish matter, called rust, which consists of the hydrated sesquioxide. It combines with all the non-metallic bodies, except hydrogen and nitrogen, and with most of the metals, its equivalent being 28. It forms three principal combinations with oxygen, a protoxide and sesquioxide, which, by their union, form the native black oxide, and a teroxide, possessing acid properties, called ferric acid. The protoxide is of a dark-blue colour, attracted by the magnet, and sponta- neously combustible in the air, being converted into sesquioxide. It is the base of green vitriol, and of the green salts of iron generally. It is very prone to absorb oxygen, and hence the salts which contain it are soon par- tially converted, when in solution, into salts of the sesquioxide. It consists of one eq. of iron 28, and one of oxygen 8=36. The sesquioxide is rea- dily obtained pure by dissolving iron in nitromuriatic acid, precipitating by ammonia, and igniting the precipitate. It is of a red colour, not attracted by the magnet, and forms salts, which for the most part have a reddish colour. It is composed of two eqs. of iron 56, and three of oxygen 24=80. The native black oxide, the magnetic oxide of mineralogists, consists of one eq. of protoxide 36, and one of sesquioxide 80=116. The medicinal black oxides have a different composition. (See Ferrum. Oxydi Squamae, and Ferri Oxidum Nigrum.) The teroxide or ferric acid, discovered by Fremy, may be formed, in union with potassa, by passing chlorine through a very concentrated solution of the alkali, holding hydrated sesquioxide of iron in suspension. It has also been obtained by Poggendorff by a galvanic combination of platinum in nitric acid, with cast iron in a solution of po- 328 Ferrum. PART I. tassa. It forms as a ferrate of potassa, of a fine wine-red colour, becoming darker, around the cast iron. This acid consists of one eq. of iron 28, and three of oxygen 24=52. Iron, combined with minute portions of carbon, and, perhaps, of the radicals of silica and alumina, forms steel, a modifica- tion of iron formerly used in medicine, but now very properly laid aside. It also forms a number of important salts, several of which, as the sesqui- chloride, iodide, carbonate, subcarbonate, sulphate, phosphate, ferrocyanu- ret, tartrate, and acetate, are officinal. Iron is readily detected, even in minute quantities, by bringing it to the state of sesquioxide in solution, and adding ferrocyanuret of potassium or tincture of galls; the former of which will strike a deep blue, the latter a black colour. The object of bringing it to the state of sesquioxide is readily effected by boiling the solution containing it with a little nitric acid. Medical Properties. The preparations of iron are powerfully tonic, rais- ing the pulse, promoting the secretions, and increasing the colouring matter of the blood. They are useful in diseases characterized by debility and a lan- guid circulation, more especially when the consequence of inordinate dis- charges. The diseases in which they are usually employed are anasmia or chlorosis, hysteria, fluor albus, gleet, scrofula, rickets, chorea, and all passive hemorrhages. Chalybeates are also proper in palsy after the inflammatory excitement has subsided, in dyspepsia dependent upon deficient energy of the digestive functions, and in neuralgia. They are contra-indicated in all inflammatory diseases, producing, when injudiciously prescribed, heat, thirst, headache, difficulty of breathing, and other symptoms of an excited circulation. The medicinal effects of iron, as modified in its different com- binations, will be noticed under the head of each preparation. The following table embraces all the preparations of iron to be found in the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, together with the synonymes. Iron is officinal— I. In the metallic state. Ferri Filum, U. S., Ed.; Ferrum. Fila, Dub. Ferri Ramenta, U. S.; Ferrum. Ramenta, Lond.; Ferri Lima- tura, Ed.; Ferrum. Scobs, Dub. Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub. II. Oxidized. Ferrum. Oxydi Squamas, Dub. Ferri Oxydum Nigrum, Dub. Ferri Oxidum Nigrum, Ed. Ferri Rubigo, Duo. Ferri Oxydum Rubrum, Dub. Emplastrum Thuris, Dub. Ferri Oxidum Hydratum, U. S.; Ferrugo, Ed. III. Sulphuretted. Ferri Sulphuretum, Ed., Dub. IV. In saline combination. Ferri Iodidum, U. S., Lond., Ed. Ferri Iodidi Syrupus, Ed. Liquor Ferri Iodidi, U. S: Ferri Ferrocyanuretum, U.S.; Ferri Percyanidum, Lond.; Ferri Cyanuretum, Dub.; Anglice, Prussian blue. Ferri Acetas, Dub. Ferri Acetatis Tinctura, Dub. Tinctura Acetatis Ferri cum Alcohol, Dub. part i. Ferrum.—Ferri Filum.—Ferri Ramenta. 329 Ferri Carbonas Saccharatum, Ed. Pilulas Ferri Carbonatis, U. S., Ed.; Anglice, ValleVs ferru- ginous pills. Mistura Ferri Composita, U. S., Ijond., Ed., Dub. Pilulas Ferri Composite, U. S., Lond.,Dub. Ferri Subcarbonas, U. S.; Ferri Sesquioxydum, Lond.; Ferri Oxidum Rubrum, Ed.; Ferri Carbonas, Dub.; Ano-lice, Precipitated subcarbonate of iron. Emplastrum Ferri, U. S., Ed. Ferrum Ammoniatum, U. S.; Ferri Ammonio-Chloridum, Lond. Tinctura Ferri Ammonio-Chloridi, Lond. Ferri et Potassas Tartras, U. S.; Ferri Potassio-Tartras, Lond.; Ferrum Tartarizatum, Ed.; Ferri Tartarum, Dub. Ferri* Phosphas, U. S. Ferri Sulphas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Pilulas Aloes et Ferri, Ed. Ferri Sulphas Exsiccatum, Ed. Pilulas Ferri Sulphatis, Ed. Pilulas Rhei et Ferri, Ed. Tinctura Ferri Chloridi, U. S.; Tinctura Ferri Sesquichloridi, Lond.; Ferri Muriatis Tinctura, Ed.; Muriatis Ferri Liquor, Dub. B. FERRI FILUM. U.S., Ed. Iron Wire. FERRI RAMENTA. U.S. Iron Filings. Off. Syn. FERRUM. Ferrum. Ramenta. Lond.; FERRI LIMATURA. Iron filings. Ed.; FERRUM. Fila. Scobs. Dub. Fil de fer, Fr.; Eisendraht, Germ.; Fil di ferro, Ital; Hilo de hierro, Span. Limailles de fer, Fr.; Eisenfeilicht, Germ.; Limatura di ferro, Ital; Limadura de hierro, Span. Iron, when employed in pharmaceutical operations, should be of the purest kind; and hence the different Pharmacopoeias direct it, when wanted in small masses, to be in the form of iron wire, which is necessarily made from the softest and most malleable iron, and is readily cut into pieces of convenient size. The filings are for the most part used internally. Medical Properties of Iron Filings. Iron, in its uncombined state, has no action on the animal economy; and hence iron filings would prove inert, were it not that they meet with acid in the stomach, or some other agent, whereby they become oxidized and dissolved. During the solution of iron in the stomach, the oxygen furnished to the metal is derived from water, the hydrogen of which, by being disengaged, gives rise to unpleasant eruc- tations. Iron filings are generally obtained from the workshops of the blacksmith; but, as furnished from this source, they are generally very im- pure, and unfit for medicinal use. Neither can they be purified by the magnet, as they often have attached to them certain impurities, which are carried up with them. The only way to obtain pure iron filings, is to file a piece of pure iron with a clean file. The French Codex directs iron in an impalpable powder, prepared by porphyrizing bright and clean iron 29* 330 Ferri Filum.—Ferri Ramenta. part i. filings without water. A dull black powder is formed, which must be care- fully preserved from moisture. An impalpable powder of the metal, obtained by reducing the sesquioxide by hydrogen, has been prepared by MM. Gluevenne and Miquelard, and foupd very useful by M. Raciborski in anas- mia, and other diseases in which the ferruginous preparations are usually given. It is made by passing a stream of hydrogen over the oxide, con- tained in an iron tube heated to low redness. MM. Soubeiran and Dublanc have given a paper on the mode of preparation, suited to the production of eleven or twelve ounces of the pulverulent iron at one operation, with full directions for washing and drying the gas, constructing the furnace, regu- lating the heat, and avoiding explosions. The oxide employed by them is the ignited subcarbonate of iron, the astringent saffron of Mars of the French Codex. (See their paper in the Journ. de Pharm., viii. 187, copied into the Amer. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 303.) Prof. Procter, of this city, has made some improvements on the process of Soubeiran and Dublanc, which he has given in a paper, embracing many useful details, in the Amer. Journ. of Pharm., xix. 11. He finds that the subcarbonate of iron of the U. S. Pharm., without ignition, answers very well for reduction. Metallic iron, thus prepared, is in pulverulent, slightly cohering, tasteless masses, of an iron-gray colour. If black, the product is to be rejected, as not fully deoxidized. On account of its great liability to oxidation, it must be kept in a dry bottle, well stopped. It may be given in lozenges, made with chocolate, sugar, and gum, and each containing five grains. Of these from six to twelve may be given in the course of the day. The dose of iron filings is from five to twenty grains, given in molasses or honey, or made up into pills with some bitter extract. Off. Prep. Ferri Iodidi Syrupus, Ed.; Ferri Iodidum, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Ferri Rubigo, Dub.; Ferri Sulphas, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Ferri Sulphure- tum, Ed., Dub.; Ferri Tartarum, Dub.; Liquor Ferri Iodidi, U. S.; Mis- tura Ferri Aromatica, Dub. • B. FERRUM. Oxydi Squama. Dub. Scales of the Oxide of Iron. Batitures de fer, Fr.; Eisenschlag, Germ.; Scaglia di ferro, Ital; Escamas de hierro, Span. This form of oxidized iron is obtained when iron is heated to redness and subjected to the blows of a hammer on an anvil. The heat causes the iron to be covered with a thin crust of oxide, which is detached in scales during the hammering. Scales of iron consist of small, black, brittle masses, attracted by the mag- net, and without taste or smell. When reduced to powder, they have a dull grayish-white colour. Their precise composition is not well settled; but it is certain that they are not identical with the native black oxide. (See Fer- rum.) The results of Mosander seem to show that they consist of two distinct layers; the inner, of uniform composition, consisting of six eqs. of protoxide to one of sesquioxide, and the outer, of a variable mixture of these two oxides, the sesquioxide predominating on the surface, and diminishing gradually inwards. Medical Properties. These scales have the general medical properties of the ferruginous preparations, but are not fit for medicinal use until they have been reduced to fine powder, when they take the name of Ferri Oxydum Nigrum, to which title the reader is referred. B. PART I. Ficus. 331 FICUS. U.S. Figs. " The dried fruit of Ficus Carica." U. S. Off. Syn. FICI. Ficus Carica. Fructus siccus. Lond.; FICI. Dried fruit of Ficus Carica, Ed.; FICUS CARICA. Fructus siccatus. Dub. Figues, Fr.; Feigenj Germ.; Fichi, Ital; Higos, Span. Ficus. Sex. Syst. Polygamia Dioecia.—Nat. Ord. Urticaceas. Gen. Ch. Common receptacle turbinate, fleshy, converging, concealing the florets either in the same or distinct individuals. Male. Calyx three- parted. Corolla none. Stamens three. Female. Calyx five-parted. Corolla none. Pistil one. Seed one, covered with the closed, persistent, somewhat fleshy calyx. Willd. Ficus Carica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1131; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 714. t. 244. The fig-tree, though usually not more than twelve feet in height, sometimes rises in warm climates to twenty-five or even thirty feet. Its trunk, which seldom exceeds seven inches in diameter, is divided into numerous spreading branches, covered with a brown or ash-coloured bark. Its large, palmate leaves, usually divided into five obtuse lobes, are deep green and shining upon their upper surface, pale green and downy beneath, and stand alternately on strong round footstalks. The flowers are situated within a common receptacle, placed solitarily upon a short peduncle in the axils of the upper leaves. This receptacle, the walls of which become thick and fleshy, constitutes what is commonly called the fruit; though this term is, strictly speaking, applicable to the small seeds found in great numbers on the internal surface of the receptacle, to which they are attached by fleshy pedicels. Cultivation, has produced in the fig, as in the apple and peach, an almost infinite diversity in shape, size, colour, and taste. It is usually, however, turbinate or top-shaped, umbilicate at the large extremity, of the size of a small pear, of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish colour, and of a mild, mucilaginous, saccharine flavour. The fig-tree is supposed to have come originally from the Levant. It was introduced at a very early period into various parts of the South of Europe, and is now very common throughout the whole basin of the Mediterranean, particularly in Italy and France. To hasten the maturation of the fruit, it is customary to puncture it with a sharp-pointed instrument covered with olive oil. The ancient process of capriflcation is still practised in the Levant. It consists in attaching branches of the wild fig-tree to the cultivated plant. The fruit of the former contains great numbers of the eggs of an insect of the genus Cynips, the larvas of which, as soon as they are hatched, spread themselves over the cultivated fruit, and, by conveying the pollen of the male organs over which they pass to the female florets, hasten the impregnation of the latter, and cause the fig to come quickly to perfection, which might other- wise ripen very slowly, or wither and drop off before maturity. Some authors attribute the effect to the piercing of the fruit by the young insects. The figs, when perfectly ripe, are dried by the heat of the sun or in ovens. Those brought to the United States come chiefly from Smyrna, packed in drums or boxes. They are more or less compressed, and are usually covered in cold weather with a whitish saccharine efflorescence, which melts in the middle of summer, and renders them moist. The best are yellowish or brownish, somewhat translucent when held to the light, and filled with a sweet viscid pulp, in which are lodged numerous small yellow 332 Ficus.—Filix Mas. PART I. seeds. They are much more saccharine than the fresh fruit. Their chief constituents are sugar and mucilage. Medical Properties and Uses. Figs are nutritious, laxative, and demul- cent. In the fresh state they are considered in the countries where they grow a wholesome and agreeable aliment, and have been employed from time immemorial. As we obtain them, they are apt, when eaten freely, to produce flatulence, pain in the bowels, and diarrhoea'. Their chief medical use is as a laxative article of diet in cases of constipation. They occasion- ally enter into demulcent decoctions; and when roasted or boiled, and split open, may be applied as a suppurative cataplasm to parts upon which an ordinary poultice cannot be conveniently retained. Off. Prep. Confectio Sennas, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Decoctum Hordei Com- positum, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. FILIX MAS. U. S. Secondary. Male Fern. " The rhizoma of Aspidium Filix mas." U. S. Off. Syn. ASPIDIUM. Aspidium Filix mas. Radix. Lond.; FILIX. Rhizoma o£ Nephrodium Filix mas. (Richard.) Male Shield Fern. Ed.; FILIX MAS. ASPIDIUM FILIX MAS. Radix. Dub. Fougere male, Fr.; Johanniswurzel, Germ.; Felce maschio, Ital; Helecho, Span. Aspidium. Sex. Syst. Cryptogamia Filices.—Nat. Ord. Filices, Jussieu. Filicales, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Fructification in roundish points, scattered, not marginal. In- volucre umbilicated, open almost on every side. Smith. Aspidium Filix mas. Willd. Sp. Plant, v. 259; Smith, Flor. Britan.— Nephrodium Filix mas. Lindley, Flor. Med. 619.—Polypodium Filix mas. Linn.; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 795. t. 267. The male fern has a pe- rennial, horizontal root or rhizoma, from which numerous annual fronds or leaves arise, forming tufts from a foot to four feet in height. The stipe or footstalk, and midrib, are thickly beset with, brown, tough, transparent scales; the frond itself is oval lanceolate, acute, pinnate, and of a bright green colour. The pinnas or leaflets are remote below, approach more nearly as they ascend, and run together at the summit of the leaf. They are deeply divided into lobes, which are of an oval shape, crenate at the edges, and gradually diminish from the base of the pinna to the apex. The fructification is in small dots on the back of each lobe, placed in two rows near the base, and distant from the edges. The male fern is indigenous, growing in shady pine forests from New Jersey to Virginia. (Pursh.) It is a native also of Europe, Asia, and the North of Africa. In the American plant, the leaflets are said by Pursh to be more obtuse, and oftener doubly serrated than in the European. The proper period for collecting the root is during the summer, when, according to M. Peschier, of Geneva, it abounds more in the active principle than at any other season. The same writer informs us that it deteriorates rapidly when kept, and in about two years becomes entirely inert. The roots of other species of fern are frequently substituted for the officinal; and in the dried state it is difficult to distinguish them. Properties, SfC. As taken from the ground, the root consists of a long cylindrical caudex, around which are closely arranged, overlapping each other like the shingles of a roof, the remains of the leafstalks or stipes, which are an inch or two in length, from two to four lines thick, somewhat PART I. Filix Mas. 333 curved and directed upwards, angular, brown, shining, and surrounded near their origin from the root with thin silky scales, of a light brown colour. From between these remains of the footstalks emerge numerous small radi- cal fibres. The whole root, thus constituted, presents a somewhat flexible, cylindrical mass, one or two inches thick, and a foot or more in length. In this form, however, it is not usually found in our shops. The whole is ordinarily broken up into fragments, consisting of the separated remains of the leafstalks before described, with a small portion of the substance of the root attached to their base, where they are surrounded by the silky scales. These fragments ordinarily present the appearance of having been long kept, and are probably, as a general rule, much deteriorated by time. The male fern root is brought to us from Europe, but might perhaps be more advantageously collected in this country. The following observations are made by Geiger in relation to its collection and preservation. The inner parts of the fresh root and of the portions of stalk attached to it, are fleshy and of a light yellowish-green colour. In collecting them, all the black discoloured portions should be cut away, the fibres and scales separated, and only the sound green parts preserved. These should be immediately but carefully dried, and then reduced to powder; and the powder should be kept in small well stopped glass bottles. The powder thus prepared has a pale yellowish colour with a greenish tinge. Dried fern root is externally of a brown colour, internally yellowish-white or reddish, with a peculiar but feeble odour, which is most obvious in the powder and decoction, and a sweetish, bitter, astringent, nauseous taste. From the analysis of M. Morin, an apothecary of Rouen, it appears to con- tain a volatile oil, a fixed oil, gallic and acetic acids, uncrystallizable sugar, tannin, starch, a gelatinous matter insoluble in water and alcohol, lignin, and various earthy and saline substances. Geiger found also resin and gum. Peschier ascertained that its active properties reside in the ethereal extract, which is the fixed oil in an impure state, containing volatile oil, resin, colour- ing matter, &c. It is a thick dark liquid, having the odour of the fern» and a nauseous, bitterish, somewhat acrid taste. Medical Properties and Uses. Male fern is slightly tonic and astringent; but produces, when taken internally, no very obvious effects upon the sys- tem. It was used by the ancients as a vermifuge; and is mentioned in the works of Dioscorides, Theophrastus, Galen, and Pliny. Its anthelmintic powers were also noticed by some of the earlier modern writers, among whom was Hoffmann. But it does not appear to have been generally known to the profession, till attention was attracted to it, about the year 1775, by the publication of the mode of treating tasnia, employed by Madame Nouffer. This lady, who was the widow of a surgeon in Switzerland, had acquired great celebrity in the cure of tape-worm by a secret remedy. Her success was such as to attract the attention of the medical profession at Paris; and some of the most eminent physicians of that city, who were deputed to examine into the subject, having reported favourably of the remedy, the secret was purchased by the King of France, and published by his order. The outlines of her plan were to give a dose of the powdered root of the male fern, and two hours afterwards a powerful cathartic, to be followed, if it should not operate in due time, by some purging salt; and this process was to be repeated with proper intervals, till the worm should be evacuated. A German physician, of the name of Herrenschwand, had used the male fern in a manner somewhat similar, before Madame Nouffer's secret was known. The remedy became very popular for a time, and was found successful in numerous instances; but the profession has now generally settled down in 334 Filix Mas.—Fceniculum. PART I. the opinion that the good which resulted was owing more to the purgatives than to the fern. Instances, however, are recorded, in which cures were effected by the root, without the use of cathartics; and, amid the general scep- ticism on the subject, physicians are still found who warmly advocate the anthelmintic powers of the medicine. Dr. Peschier assures us, that, in the course of nine months, one hundred and fifty tape-worms had been expelled by the ethereal extract of the male fern root. Dr. Ebers has found the same preparation completely successful in curing eight cases of tasnia. (Journ. de Chimie Medicate, Fev., 1829.) He states that the medicine acts specifically against the worm, which it speedily destroys, and thus favours its expulsion from the body, without producing any severe or unpleasant symptoms. The testimony of Brera is also strongly in favour of the remedy, which he has found effectual even against the armed tasnia. M. Ronzel has cured with it more than a hundred cases of tasnia, and never found it to fail. (Journ. de Phafm., 3e sir., iv. 474.) Perhaps the different results obtained by different practitioners may in part be ascribed to the variable strength and character of the root, dependent upon the season at which it may have been collected, and the length of time it may have been kept. It is also said that the remedy proves more effectual against the tape-worm of the Swiss (Bothriocephalus latus) than against the Taenia solium, which is more frequent in France and England. (Bremser.) The medicine may be given in powder, or, as recommended by Dr. Peschier, in ethereal extract. The dose of the powder is from one to three drachms, to be given in the form of electuary or emulsion, and repeated morning and evening for one or two days successively. M. Ronzel gives half an ounce to adults, made into boluses, and swallowed within the space of fifteen minutes, in the morning, on an empty stomach. The dose of the ethereal extract (oil of fern) is from twelve to twenty-four grains. The decoction has also been employed, in the proportion of an ounce of the root to a pint of water. It is customary to follow the medicine by some brisk cathartic, though Dr. Peschier does not consider this essential. Dr. Mayor, of Geneva, recommends the oil of fern, in the dose of from thirty to fifty drops, one half to be taken at night, the other half in the morning, and followed at the interval of an hour, by an ounce and a half of castor oil. W. FCENICULUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Fennel-seed. "The fruit of Fceniculum vulgare." U. S. "Fceniculum vulgare. Fruc- tus." Lond. " Fruit of Fceniculum officinale." Ed. "Anethum Fcenicu- lum. Semina." Dub. Fenouil, Fr.; Fenchel, Germ.; Finnocchio, Ital; Hinojo, Span. The plant producing fennel-seed was attached by Linnasus to the genus Anethum, but was separated from it by De Candolle, and placed, with three or four others, in a new genus styled Fceniculum, which has been generally adopted by botanists. The Anethum Fceniculum of Linnasus embraced two varieties, the common or wild fennel, and the sweet fennel, the latter being the plant usually cultivated in the gardens of Europe. These are considered by De Candolle as distinct species, and named respectively Fceni- culum vulgare and Fceniculum dulce. In the U. S. and London Pharmaco- poeias, the former of these is recognised as the source of the medicine; the Edinburgh College adopts the F. officinale of Allioni. The last mentioned PART I. Fceniculum. 335 plant De Candolle considers as belonging to his F. vulgare (see Prodromus, iv. 142); while Merat treats of it as a distinct species, differing both from the F. vulgare and F. dulce of De Candolle (Diet. de. Mat. Med.); and Dr. Christison, in his Dispensatory, is disposed to unite it with the last-men- tioned plant. In this confusion, it is impossible to arrive at any definite and satisfactory conclusion as to the botanical history of the drug under con- sideration. One thing, however, is certain, that there are two kinds of fen- nel-seed found in the shops; and it is highly probable that these are derived, if not from distinct species of fennel, at least from marked varieties of the plant. One of them corresponds closely with the description given of the fruit of the F. vulgare, while the other is undoubtedly produced by the plant cultivated under the name of sweet fennel, whether that be the F. dulce of De Candolle, or F. officinale of Allioni and Merat. Fo3niculum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—iVa/. Ord. Umbelliferas or Apiaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx a tumid obsolete rim. Petals roundish, entire, involute, with a squarish blunt lobe. Fruit nearly taper. Half-fruits with five pro- minent bluntly keeled ridges, of which the lateral are on the edge, and rather broadest. Vittae single in the channels, two on the commissure. Involucre none. (Lindley.) Fceniculum vulgare. De Cand. Prodrom. iv. 142.—Anethum Fcenicu- lum. Linn.; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 127. t. 49. Common fennel has a bien- nial or perennial tapering root, and an annual, erect, round, striated, smooth, green, and copiously branching stem, which usually rises three or four feet in height. The leaves, which stand alternately at the joints of the stem, upon membranous striated sheaths, are many times pinnate, with long, linear, pointed, smooth, deep green leaflets. The flowers are in large, flat, terminal umbels, with from thirteen to twenty rays, and destitute both of general and partial involucres. The corolla consists of five petals, which, as well as the stamens, are of a golden yellow colour. The fruit is ovate, rather less than two lines in length by about a line in breadth, and of a dark colour, especially in the channels. The plant is a native of Europe, growing wild upon sandy and chalky ground throughout the continent. F. officinale. Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med., iii. 270; Ed. Pharm.; Allioni. This, which is sometimes called sweet fennel, is also perennial, with shorter leaves and less elongated leaflets than the common fennel, but resembling it very closely except in the character of the fruit. This is twice as long as that of the former plant, a little curved, of a less dark colour, with prominent ridges, and a persistent peduncle. It is more aromatic and sweeter than common fennel-seed. The plant is a native of the South of Europe; but is cultivated elsewhere in gardens, and is proba- bly the source of much of the fennel-seed of the shops. Whether it is a distinct species, or a mere variety of the F. vulgare, is not determined. Some confound it with the following. F. dulce. De Cand. Prodrom., iv. 142. This plant is eminently enti- tled to the name of sweet fennel. It bears a general resemblance to the /'. vulgare, but differs in having its stem somewhat compressed at the base, its radical leaves somewhat distichous and the number of rays in the umbel only from six to eight. It is also a much smaller plant, being only about a foot in height, its flowers appear earlier, and its young shoots or turiones are sweeter and edible. It is a native of Portugal, Italy, and perhaps other parts of Southern Europe ; and is cultivated largely in Italy and Sicily for the sake of the shoots, which are eaten raw, or in salad, or boiled as pot herbs. The fruit is described by Merat and De Lens as " being globular- 336 Fceniculum.—Frasera. PART I. ovate, twice the size of that of common fennel, and with prominent ridges." This description does not answer to the character of any of the fennel-seed we have seen in the shops. In all these species or varieties, the whole plant has an aromatic odour and taste, dependent on a volatile oil by which it is pervaded. The roots were formerly employed in medicine, but are greatly inferior in virtues to the fruit, which is now the only officinal portion. Our shops are partly supplied from our own gardens, but much the larger portion of the medicine is imported from Europe, and chiefly, as we have been informed, from Ger- many. The fennel-seed cultivated here is sweeter and more aromatic than that from abroad, probably in consequence of its greater freshness. Fennel seeds (half-fruits) are oblong oval, from one to three or four lines in length, flat on one side, convex on the other, not unfrequently connected by their flat surfaces, straight or slightly curved, of a dark grayish-green colour, with longitudinal yellowish ridges on the convex surface. There are two varieties, one of them from one to two lines long, dark-coloured, rather flat, almost always separate, and without footstalks; the other three or four lines, sometimes even five lines in length, lighter-coloured, with much more prominent ridges, often conjoined by their flat surface, and very fre- quently provided with a footstalk. They do not differ essentially in aromatic properties. The odour of fennel-seed is fragrant, its taste warm, sweet, and agreeably aromatic. It imparts its virtues to hot water, but more abundantly to alcohol. The essential oil may be separated by distillation with water. (See Oleum Fceniculi.) The seeds contain also fixed oil. From 960 parts of them, Neumann obtained 20 parts of the former, and 120 of the latter. Medical Properties and Uses. Fennel-seed was used by the ancients, is among our most grateful aromatics, and in this country is much employed as a carminative, and as a corrigent of other less pleasant medicines, par- ticularly senna and rhubarb. It is recommended for these purposes by the absence of any very highly excitant property. The infusion, prepared by introducing two or three drachms of the seeds into a pint of boiling water, is the form usually preferred. The dose of the bruised or powdered seeds is from a scruple to half a drachm. In infantile cases, the infusion is fre- quently employed as an enema to produce the expulsion of flatus. Off. Prep. Aqua Foeniculi, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Confectio Piperis Nigri, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Chamasmeli Comp.,.Dw&.; Oleum Foeniculi, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Juniperi Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Sy- rupus Sennas, U. S., Lond.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennas, U. S. W. FRASERA. U.S. Secondary. American Columbo. " The root of Frasera Walteri." U. S. Frasera. Sex. Syst. Tetrandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianaceas. Gen.Ch. Calyx deeply four-parted. Corolla four-parted, spreading; seg- ments oval, with a bearded, orbicular gland in the middle of each. Capsule compressed, partly marginated, one-celled. Seeds few, imbricated, large, elliptical, with a membranaceous margin. Nuttall. Frasera Walteri. Michaux, Flor. Bor. Americ. i. 96; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 103.—F. Carolinensis. Walter. This is one of our most elegant indi- genous plants, and the only one of its genus hitherto discovered. From the root, which is triennial, long, spindle-shaped, horizontal, fleshy, and of a yel- low colour, a strong, succulent, solid, smooth stem rises, from five to ten feet in PART I. Frasera. 337 height. The leaves are sessile, entire, glabrous, of a deep-green colour, and disposed in whorls, which commence at the root, and ascend to the summit with successively diminishing intervals. The radical leaves, from five to twelve in number, are elliptical, obtuse, a foot or more in length by about four inches in breadth, and he upon the ground in the form of a star. Those constituting the whorls upon the stem are successively smaller as they ascend—the lowest oblong lanceolate, the upper lanceolate and pointed. The flowers are numerous, large, of a yellowish-white colour, and disposed in a beautiful terminal pyramidal panicle, from one to five feet long, the branches of which spring from the axils of the upper leaves. The segments of the calyx are lanceolate, acute, and somewhat shorter than those of the corolla. The filaments are inserted into the base of the corolla, between its segments, which they do not equal in length. The anthers are oblong and notched at the base. The germ is oblong ovate, compressed, and gradually tapers into the style, which terminates in a bifid stigma. The fruit is an oval, acuminate, compressed, two-valved, one-celled, yellow capsule, con- taining from eight to twelve flat, elliptical seeds. The Frasera flourishes in the southern and western portions of the United States, and in many situations is very abundant, especially in Arkansas and Missouri. It prefers rich woodlands and moist meadows. The period of flowering is from May to July ; but the stem and flowers are produced only in the third year, the radical leaves being the only part of the plant which previously appear above ground. From this manner of growth it is in- ferred that the root should be collected in the autumn of the second, or the spring of the third year. Before being dried, it should be cut into transverse slices. As formerly found in the market, frasera was in pieces irregularly cir- cular, an eighth of an inch or more in thickness, about an inch in diameter, somewhat shrunk in the middle, consisting of a central medullary matter and an exterior cortical portion, of a yellowish colour on the cut surfaces, with a light reddish-brown epidermis. In appearance these pieces bore some resemblance to columbo, but were easily distinguishable by the greater uniformity of their internal structure, the absence of concentric and radiating lines, and their purer yellow colour without a greenish tinge. We have recently met with a parcel of the root sliced longitudinally, so as somewhat to resemble gentian, though not likely to be confounded with it by an expe- rienced person. It was called American gentian. The taste of frasera is bitter and sweetish. Water and diluted alcohol extract its virtues, and the tincture throws down a precipitate upon the addition of water, but is not disturbed by tincture of galls ; thus affording additional means of distin- guishing the root from columbo. Medical Properties and Uses. Frasera is a mild tonic, calculated to meet the same indications with the other simple bitters. It has been thought to resemble columbo in medical properties as well as in appearance, and hence has received the popular name of American columbo; but experience has not confirmed the high estimate which was at one time formed of its virtues ; and though, perhaps, still occasionally employed in some parts of the coun- try, it has failed to supplant the tonic of Mozambique. It may be given in powder or infusion. The dose of the former is from thirty grains to a drachm, that of an infusion, made in the proportion of an ounce of the bruised root to a pint of boiling water, is one or two fluidounces, to be repeated several times a day. The fresh root is said to operate as an emetic and cathartic, and has sometimes been given with a view to the latter effect. W, 30 338 Galbanum. PART I. GALBANUM. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Galbanum. " The concrete juice of an unknown plant." U. S. "Galbanum offici- nale. Gummi-resina." Lond. "Concrete gummy-resinous juice of an im- perfectly ascertained umbelliferous plant, probably a species of Opoidia." Ed. " Bubon Galbanum. Gummi-resina." Dub. Galbanum, Fr.; Mutterharz, Genn.; Galbano, Ital, Span. It is not certainly known from what plant galbanum is derived. At one time it was supposed to be the product of the Bubon Galbanum, an umbel- liferous plant growing on the eastern coast of Africa, from Nubia to the Cape of Good Hope ; and this is still recognised as the source of it by the Dublin College. It has also been referred to the Ferula ferulago of Linnasus, the Ferula galbanifera of Lobel, which inhabits the coasts of the Mediterranean, and is found also in Transylvania and the Caucasus. But no part of either of these plants possesses the odour of galbanum; and it is, therefore, scarcely probable that they yield the drug. Mr. Don, having found the seeds taken from a parcel of galbanum to belong to an undescribed genus of umbelliferous plants, and concluding that they came from the same source as the gum-resin itself, gave the title of Galbanum to the new genus, and named the species Galbanum officinale. This has been rather hastily adopted by the London College ; as it is by no means certain, however probable it may be, that the same plant produced the seeds and the gum-resin. Specimens of a plant were recently sent to England by Sir John M'Neill, collected in 1838 near Durrood, in the Persian province of Chorassan. The plant was supposed to yield a variety of ammoniac, and portions of a pale yellow gum-resin were adhering to the specimens received. Dr. Lindley ascertained that the plant belonged to an undescribed genus, which he named Opoidia, and under the impression that the adhering concrete juice was identical with galbanum, designated the particular species O. galbanifera. Dr. Pereira, however, found the substance to be unlike galbanum or any other product of the Um- belliferas. This supposed origin of the drug, therefore, though admitted as probable by the Edinburgh College, must be considered as more than doubtful. In this state of uncertainty, it is scarcely necessary to describe particularly any one of the plants referred to. Galbanum is said to be obtained from the plant by making incisions into the stem, or cutting it off a short distance above the root. A cream-coloured juice exudes, which concretes upon exposure to the air. A small portion of juice also exudes spontaneously from the joints, and hardens in the shape of tears. The drug is brought from the Levant, and, according to Lindley, also from India. Properties. The form in which galbanum usually appears is that of masses, composed of whitish, reddish, or yellowish tears, irregularly agglu- tinated by a darker coloured yellowish-brown, or greenish substance, more or less translucent, and generally mixed with pieces of stalk, seeds, or other foreign matters. It is also found, though very rarely, if at all, in our mar- kets, in the state of distinct roundish tears, about as large as a pea, of a yellowish-white or pale brownish-yellow colour, shining externally as if varnished, and often adhering together. Galbanum has in cool weather the consistence of firm wax; but softens in summer, and by the heat of the hand is rendered ductile and adhesive. At the temperature of boiling water it is sufficiently liquid to admit of being strained ; and it generally requires PART I. Galbanum. 339 to be strained before it can be used. A dark-brown or blackish colour, a consistence always soft, the absence of whitish grains, and the intermix- ture of earthy impurities, are signs of inferiority. The odour of galbanum is peculiar and disagreeable, but not alliaceous like that of sagapenum. Its taste is bitterish, warm, and acrid. Its specific gravity is 1*212. When triturated with water it forms an imperfect milky solution, which upon standing deposits the greater portion of what was taken up. Wine and vinegar act upon it in a similar manner. Alcohol dissolves a considerable proportion, forming a yellow tincture, which has the smell and taste of galbanum, and becomes milky by the addition of water, but affords no precipitate. In dilute alcohol it is wholly soluble, with the exception of impurities. One hundred parts of it yielded to Pelletier 66-86 parts of resin, 19-28 of gum, 6-34 of volatile oil including the loss, 7-52 of wood and im- purities, with traces of the supermalate of lime. A small proportion of bas- sorin was found byMeissner. The medicine is, therefore, entitled to rank with the gum-resins. By distillation at the temperature of about 250 F., the essential oil is obtained of a fine indigo blue colour, which it imparts to alcohol. Procured by distillation with water, it is colourless, and becomes yellowish by age. It is lighter than water. According to Ludewig, a gum-resin, designated as Persian galbanum, is received in Russia by the way of Astracan or Orenburg, and is the kind used in that country. It comes enclosed in skins, and is in masses of a reddish-brown colour with whitish streaks, of a disagreeable odour some- what like that of assafetida, and of an unpleasant, bitter, resinous taste. It is so soft as to melt with a slight elevation of temperature. It differs from common galbanum in its odour, in its colour which is never greenish, and in the absence of tears, and is probably derived from a different plant. It abounds in impurities. (Journ. de Pharm., N. S., i. 117.) Medical Properties and Uses. Galbanum is stimulant, expectorant, and antispasmodic; and may be considered as intermediate in power between ammoniac and assafetida. It is, however, much less employed than either of these gum-resins, and in the United States is seldom or never prescribed internally. The complaints to which it was formerly thought applicable, were chiefly chronic affections of the bronchial mucous membrane, amenor- rhoea, and chronic rheumatism. It is occasionally applied externally in the shape of plaster to indolent swellings, with the view of promoting resolution or suppuration. Galbanum was known to the ancients. The dose is from ten to twenty grains, and may be given in pill, or triturated with gum Arabic, sugar, and water, so as to form an emulsion. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Assafoetidas, U. S.,Ed.; Emplastrum Galbani, Dub.; Emplastrum Galbani Compositum, U. S., Lond.; Emplastrum Gummosum, Ed.; Pilulas Galbani Composite, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Galbani, Dub. W. 340 Galla. PART I. GALLA. U.S. Galls. "Morbid excrescences upon Quercus infectoria." U. S. Off. Syn. GALLSE. Quercus infectoria. Gemmae morbidae. Lond. GALLiE. Excrescences of auercus infectoria, formed by Diplolepis gallse tinctorum. Ed.; GALL.E. QUERCUS INFECTORIA. Dub. Noix de galle, Fr.; Gallapfel, Germ.; Galla, Ital; Agallas de Levante, Span. Many vegetables, when pierced by certain insects, particularly those of the genus Cynips, are affected at the points of puncture with a morbid action, resulting in the production of excrescences, which, as they are de- rived from the proper juices of the plant, partake more or less of its predo- minant chemical character. Most species of oak are susceptible of this kind of action; and the resulting excrescences, having in a high degree the astring- ency of the plant on which they grow, have been employed for various practical purposes. They are known by the name of galls, a term which, as well as their employment in medicine, has been handed down to us from the ancients. The Quercus infectoria, Q. Mgilops, Q. excelsa, Q. Ilex,Q. Cerris, and Q. Robur, have all been particularized as occasionally affording this product; but it is now generally admitted, upon the authority of Olivier, that the officinal galls are derived chiefly, if not exclusively, from the Q. infectoria; and this is recognised as their source in the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and Great Britain. Quercus. See QUERCUS ALBA. Quercus infectoria. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 436; Olivier, Voy. Or. 1.14 et 15. The dyers1 oak is a small tree or shrub, with a crooked stem, seldom exceeding six feet in height. The leaves are obtusely toothed, smooth, of a bright green colour on both sides, and stand on short footstalks. The acorn is elongated, smooth, two or three times longer than the cup, which is sessile, somewhat downy, and scaly. This species of Quercus. grows, according to Olivier, throughout Asia Minor, from the Archipelago to the confines of Persia. Captain'M. Kinneir found it also in Armenia and Kurdistan; Gene- ral Hardwicke observed it growing in the neighbourhood of Adwanie; and it probably pervades the middle latitudes of Asia. The gall originates from the puncture of the Cynips quercusfolii of Lin- nasus, the Diplolepis gallae tinctoriae of Geoffroy, a hymenopterous insect or fly, with a fawn-coloured body, dark antennas, and the upper part of its abdomen shining brown. The insect pierces the shoots and young boughs, and deposits its egg in the wound. This irritates the vessels of the part, and a small tumour very speedily rises, which appears to be the result of a morbid secretion, and upon examination by the microscope exhibits no signs of proper vegetable fibre. The egg grows with the gall, and is soon con- verted into a larva, which feeds upon the vegetable matter by which it is surrounded, and thus forms a cavity in the centre of the tumour. The insect at length assumes the form of a fly, and escapes by eating its way out of the excrescence. The galls are in perfection when they have* attained their full size, and before the egg has been hatched, or the fly has escaped. Collected at this period, they are called, from their dark colour, blue, green, or black galls, and are most highly esteemed. Those which are gathered later, and which have been injured by the insect, are called white galls. They are usually larger, less heavy and compact, and of a lighter colour than the former; and are considered much inferior. • PART I. Gal la. 341 The galls collected in Syria and Asia Minor are brought to this country chiefly from the ports of Smyrna and Trieste. As they are produced abundantly in the vicinity of Aleppo, it has been customary to designate them by the name of that city; though the designation, however correct it may formerly have been, is now wholly inapplicable, as they are obtained from many other places, and the produce of different parts of Asiatic Turkey is not capable of being discriminated, at least in our markets. Great quan- tities of galls, very closely resembling those from the Mediterranean, have been brought to the United States from Calcutta. Ainslie is inclined to think that most of the galls found in the markets of India are imported from Persia by the Arab merchants. Dr. Royle states that they are taken to Bombay from Bussorah through the Persian Gulf. We are, neverthe- less, informed that they are among the products of Moultan. The galls of France and other southern countries of Europe have a smooth, shining, reddish surface, are little esteemed, and are seldom or never brought to the United States. Properties. Galls are nearly round, from the size of a pea to that of a very large cherry, with a surface usually studded with small tuberosities, in the intervals of which it is smooth. The best are externally of a dark bluish or lead colour, sometimes with a greenish tinge, internally whitish or brownish, hard, solid, brittle, with a flinty fracture, a striated texture, and a small spot or cavity in the centre, indicating the presence of the un- developed or decayed insect. Their powder is bf a light yellowish-gray. Those of an inferior quality are of a lighter colour, sometimes reddish or nearly white, of a loose texture, with a large cavity in the centre, commu- nicating externally by a small hole through which the fly has escaped. Galls are inodorous, and have a bitter, very astringent taste. From 500 parts Sir H. Davy obtained 185 parts of matter soluble in water, of which, according to his analysis, 130 were tannin, 31 gallic acid with a little ex- tractive, 12 mucilage and matter rendered insoluble by evaporation, and 12 saline matter and calcareous earth. Other chemists have found a larger proportion of tannin and gallic acid. Braconnot discovered the presence of a small quantity of another acid, to which he gave the name ellagic, de- rived from galle, the French name for galls, by reversing the order of the letters. According to M. Pelouse, however, neither gallic nor ellagic acid pre-exists in galls, being formed by the reaction of atmospheric oxygen upon their tannin. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 359.) Galls also yielded to Professor Branchi, by distillation with water, a concrete volatile oil. All their soluble matter is taken up by forty times their weight of boiling water, and the residue is tasteless; alcohol dissolves seven parts in ten, ether five parts. (Thomson's Dispensatory.) A saturated decoction of galls deposits upon cooling a copious pale-yellow precipitate. The infusion or tincture affords precipitates with sulphuric and muriatic acids, lime-water, carbonate of ammonia, and carbonate of potassa; with solutions of acetate and sub- acetate of lead, the sulphates of copper and iron, the nitrates of silver and mercury, and tartrate of antimony and potassa; with the infusions of Pe- ruvian bark, columbo, opium, and many other vegetables, especially those containing proximate alkaline principles, with most of which tannin forms insoluble compounds. The solution of gelatin also produces a precipitate. The infusion of galls reddens litmus paper, is rendered orange by nitric acid, milky by the corrosive chloride of mercury, and has its own colour deepened by ammonia; but throws down no precipitate with either of these reagents. Sulphate of zinc is said by Dr. A. T. Thomson to occasion a slow precipitate, but this result was not obtained by Dr. Duncan. 30* 342 Galla.— Gambogia. PART I. Medical Properties and Uses. As might be inferred from the quantity of tannin they contain, galls are powerfully astringent. They are little em- ployed as an internal remedy, though occasionally prescribed in chronic diarrhoea. They have been recommended as an antidote to tartar emetic, and those vegetable poisons which depend for their activity upon organic alkalies; but, though the insoluble compounds which these principles form with galls are probably less active than their soluble native compounds, they cannot be considered as inert. In the form of infusion or decoction, galls may be advantageously used as an astringent gargle, lotion, or injection; and, mixed with simple ointment, in the proportion of one part of galls, in very fine powder, to eight parts of the unguent, they are frequently applied to the anus and rectum in hemorrhoidal affections. The dose of powdered galls is from ten to twenty grains, to be repeated several times a day. Off. Prep. Acidum Tannicum, U.S.; Tinctura Gallas, U S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Gallas, U. S., Dub.; Unguentum Gallas Compositum, Lond., Ed. W. GAMBOGIA. U.S. Gamboge. "The concrete juice of an uncertain tree." U. S. Off. Syn. CAMBOGIA. Stalagmitis Cambogioides. Gummi-resina. Lond.; CAMBOGIA (Siamensis). Gum-resin from an unascertained plant inhabiting Siam, probably a species of Hebradendron. CAMBOGIA (Zey- lanica). Gummy-resinous exudation of Hebradendron cambogioides. Ed.; GAMBOGIA. STALAGMITIS CAMBOGIA.' Dub. Gomme gutte, Fr.; Gummigutt, Germ.; Gomma-gotta, Ital; Gutta gamba, Span. Several plants belonging to the natural family of the Guttiferas, growing in the equatorial regions, yield on incision a yellow opaque juice, which hardens on exposure to the air, and bears a close resemblance to gamboge; but it is not certainly known from which of these plants the officinal gum- resin is procured. Until recently the United States and all the British Pharmacopoeias ascribed it to the Stalagmitis Cambogioides. This genus and species were established by Murray, of Gottingen, in 1788, from dried specimens belonging to Konig, procured in the island of Ceylon; and from information derived from the same source, it was conjectured by Murray that the tree yielded not only the gamboge of Ceylon, but that also collected in Siam. It was on this authority that the British Colleges made the reference alluded to. But it has been ascertained by Dr. Graham, of Edin- burgh, that there is no such plant as the Stalagmitis Cambogioides; the description of Murray having been drawn up from accidentally conjoined specimens of two distinct trees belonging to different genera. By several botanists the gum-resin has been ascribed to the Garcinia Cambogia, also a tree of Ceylon belonging to the family of Guttiferas, and yielding a yel- lowish concrete juice; but a specimen of the product of this tree sent to Edinburgh was found by Dr. Christison to be different from gamboge both in composition and appearance, being of a pale lemon-yellow colour. Thus it appears that neither of these references-is correct; and, besides, the im- portant fact seems to have been overlooked, that commercial gamboge is never obtained frorri CeyJon, but exclusively from Siam and Cochin-china. It is true that a gum-resin from Ceylon has recently been examined, and found similar in composition to the gamboge of commerce; that the tree which produced it, having been ascertained by Dr. Graham to belong to a PART I. Gambogia. 343 new genus, has been named by him Hebradendron Cambogioides, and is one of the two confounded by Murray in his Stalagmitis; and that the Edinburgh College, in the last edition of their Pharmacopoeia, have adopted this Ceylon gamboge as officinal. But, as this variety is never found in western commerce, and exists only in the cabinets of the curious, or the bazaars of India, it scarcely seems worthy of a place in an officinal cata- logue; and though, from its resemblance to the Siam gum-resin, the two may possibly be derived from the same or closely analogous plants, yet the fact is not proved; and it would be altogether premature at present to ascribe the latter to this or any other species of Hebradendron. On the whole, therefore, it must be admitted that we are uncertain, not only as to the precise tree which affords the officinal gamboge, but also whether it is derived from any one tree exclusively, or from several. In this uncertainty, it seems hardly necessary to crowd our pages with botani- cal descriptions, which may possibly have no relation to the subject. Gamboge is collected in Siam and Cochin-china. Similar products are obtained in Ceylon; but they do not appear to be sent out of the island. Milburn does not mention gamboge among the exports. The tree from which it is obtained in Siam has not been examined by any botanist. It is said to be procured by breaking off the leaves and young shoots, from which the juice issues in drops, and being received in suitable vessels gradually thickens, and at length becomes solid. When it has attained the requisite consistence, it is rolled into cylinders, and wrapped in leaves. The juice is sometimes received into the hollow joints of the bamboo, which give it a cylindrical form; and, as it contracts during the process of solidification, the cylinder is often hollow in the centre. The name gummi gutta,hy which it is generally known on the continent of Europe, probably originated from the circumstance that the juice escapes from the plant by drops. The offi- cinal title was undoubtedly derived from the province of Cambodia, in which the gum-resin is collected. It was first brought to Europe by the Dutch about the middle of the seventeenth century. We import gamboge from Canton and Calcutta, whither it is carried by the native or resident merchants. There is no difference in the appearance or character of the drug as brought from these two ports—an evidence that it is originally derived from the same place. Varieties. The best gamboge is in cylindrical rolls, from one to three inches in diameter, sometimes hollow in the centre, sometimes flattened, often folded double, or agglutinated in masses in which the original form is not always readily distinguishable. The pieces sometimes appear as if rolled, but are in general striated longitudinally from the impression made by the inner surface of the bamboo. They are externally of a dull orange colour, which is occasionally displaced by greenish stains, or concealed by the bright yellow powder of the drug, which slightly adheres to the surface. In this form the drug is sometimes called pipe gamboge. Another variety is im- ported under the name of cake or lump gamboge. It is in irregular masses weighing two or three pounds or more, often mixed with sticks and other impurities, containing many air-cells, less dense, less uniform in texture, and less brittle than the former variety, and breaking with a dull and splintery, instead of a shining and conchoidal fracture. The worst specimens of this variety, as well as of the cylindrical, are sometimes called by the London druggists coarse gamboge. They differ, however, from the preceding, only in containing a greater amount of impurities. Indeed, it would appear, from the experiments of Christison, that all the commercial varieties of this drug have a common origin, and that cake or lump gamboge differs from 344 Gambogia. PART I. that which comes in the cylindrical form, only from the circumstance that the latter is the pure concrete juice of the plant, while, in the former, fari- naceous matter and other impurities have been mixed with the pure juice for the purpose of adulteration. The inferior kinds of gamboge may be known by their greater hardness and coarser fracture; by the brownish or grayish colour of their broken surface, which is often marked with black spots; by their obvious impurities; and by the green colour which their decoction, after having been cooled, gives with tincture of iodine. When pure, the gum-resin is completely dissolved by the successive action of ether and water.* Properties. Gamboge, in its pure form, is brittle, with a smooth con- choidal, shining fracture; and the fragments are slightly translucent at their edges. The colour of the mass when broken is a uniform reddish-orange, which becomes a beautiful bright yellow in the powder, or when the surface is rubbed with water. From the brilliancy of its colour, gamboge is highly esteemed as a pigment. It has no smell, and little taste; but after remaining a short time in the mouth, produces an acrid sensation in the fauces. Its sp. gr. is 1-221. Exposed to heat it burns with a white flame, emitting much smoke, and leaving a light spongy charcoal. It is a gum-resin, and, unlike most other substances of the same class, contains no essential oil. In 100 parts of it Braconnot found 19-5 parts of gum, 0-5 of impurities, and 80 of a red, insipid, transparent resinous substance, becoming yellow by pulveri- zation, and supposed to consist of resin united with a yellow colouring principle. John obtained 10-5 per cent, of gum, 89 of resin, and 0-5 of impurities. Christison has shown that the proportion of gum and resin varies in different specimens even of the purest drug. His results approach nearly to those of Braconnot. In one experiment, out of 100.8 parts he obtained 74-2 of resin, 21-8 of gum, and 4-8 of water. The gum is quite soluble in water and of the variety denominated arabin. In a specimen of cake gamboge he found 11-2 per cent, of fecula and lignin, and in a very bad saniple of coarse gamboge, no less than 41 per cent, of the same impu- rities. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., ix. 133.) In addition to gum and resin, Ph. Buchner has found a small and variable proportion of a peculiar reddish- yellow colouring matter, soluble both in alcohol and water. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iii. 303.) Gamboge is readily and entirely diffusible in water, forming a yellow opaque emulsion, from which the resinous matter is very slowly deposited. It is dissolved by alcohol, with the exception of about 8 or 10 per cent, of gum; and a golden yellow tincture results, which is rendered opaque and bright yellow by the addition of water. Its solution in ammoniated alcohol is not disturbed by water. Sulphuric ether dissolves about four-fifths of it, taking up only the resin, which is obtained by the evaporation of the ethereal solution. It is wholly taken up by alkaline solutions, from which it is partially precipitated by the acids. The strong acids dissolve it; but the solution when diluted with water deposits a yellow precipitate. The colour, as well as the acrimony and medicinal power of gamboge, resides in the resinous portion; but, as pure resins are usually * Ceylon gamboge, derived from the Hebradendron Cambogioides of Graham {Cambo- gia gutta, Lir!n., Garcinia Morella, De Cand.), is procured by incisions, or by cutting away a portion of the bark, and scraping off the juice which exudes. The specimens sent to Dr. Christison are in flattish or round masses, eight or nine inches in diameter, apparently composed of aggregated irregular tears, with cavities which are lined with a grayish and brownish powdery incrustation. Its general aspect is that of coarse gamboge; but the individual tears have the characters of the best kind, and its chemical composition is identical. It is used as a pigment and purgative in Ceylon, but is not an article of commerce. (Christison's Dispensatory.) PART I. Gambogia.— Gaultheria. 345 destitute of these properties, it is not improbable that they may belong to a distinct principle not yet separated from the resin. So intense is the colour of the resin that one part of it communicates a perceptible yellowness to ten thousand parts of water or spirit. It has the property of combining with salifiable bases, and belongs, according to Ph. Buchner, to the class of fatty acids. It has been called gambogic acid. Medical Properties and Uses. Gamboge is a powerful, drastic, hydra- gogue cathartic, very apt to produce nausea and vomiting when given in the full dose. In large quantities it is capable of producing fatal effects, and death has resulted from a drachm. It is much employed in the treatment of dropsy attended with torpid bowels, generally in combination with bitar- trate of potassa or jalap. It is also prescribed in cases of obstinate con- stipation, and has frequently been found effectual in the expulsion of the tapeworm. It is often combined with other and milder cathartics, the action of which it promotes and accelerates, while its own is moderated. The full dose is from two to six grains, which in cases of tasnia has been raised to ten or fifteen grains. As it is apt to occasion much sickness and griping, the best plan, under ordinary circumstances, is to give it in small doses, repeated at short intervals till it operates. It may be given in pill or emulsion, or dissolved in an alkaline solution. The last method of administration has been recommended in dropsical complaints. Off. Prep. Pilulas Catharticas Compositas, U. S.; Pilulas Gambogias Com- posite, Dub., Lond., Ed. W. GAULTHERIA. U. S. Partridge-berry. " The leaves of Gaultheria procumbens." U. S. Gaultheria. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.-—Nat. Ord. Ericaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, bibracteate at the base. Corolla ovate. Cap- sule five celled, invested with the berried calyx. Pursh. Gaultheria procumbens. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 616; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 27; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 171. This is a small, indigenous, shrub- by, evergreen plant, with a long, creeping horizontal root, which sends up at intervals one and sometimes two erect, slender, round, reddish stems. These are naked below, leafy at the summit, and usually less than a span in height. The leaves are ovate or obovate, acute, revolute at the edges with a few mucronate serratures, coriaceous, shining, bright green upon the upper surface, paler beneath, of unequal size, and supported irregularly on short red petioles. The flowers, of which not more than from three to five are usually found upon each stem, stand on curved, drooping, axillary pe- duncles. The calyx is white, five-toothed, and furnished at its base with two concave cordate bractes, which are by some authors described as an outer calyx. The corolla is white, ovate or urceolate, contracted at its mouth, and divided at its border into five small acute segments. The sta- mens consist of curved, plumose filaments, and oblong orange-coloured anthers opening on the outside. The germ, which rests upon a ring having ten teeth alternating with the ten stamens, is roundish, depressed, and sur- mounted by an erect filiform style, terminating in an obtuse stigma. The fruit is a small, five-celled, many-seeded capsule, enclosed in a fleshy cover- ing, formed by the enlarged calyx, and presenting the appearance of a bright scarlet berry. The plant extends from Canada to Georgia, growing in large beds in 346 Gaultheria.—Gentiana. part i. mountainous tracts, or in dry barrens and sandy plains, beneath the shade of shrubs and trees, particularly of other evergreens, as the Kalmias and Rho- dodendra. It is abundant in the pine barrens of New Jersey. In different parts of the country, it is known by the various names of partridge-berry, deer-berry, tea-berry, winter-green, and mountain-tea. The flowers appear from May to September, and the fruit ripens at corresponding periods. Though the leaves only are officinal, all parts of the plant are endowed with the peculiar flavour for which these are employed, and which is found in several other plants, particularly in the bark of the Betula lenta, or sweet birch. The fruit possesses it in a high degree, and, being at the same time sweetish, is much relished by some persons, and forms a favourite article of food with partridges, deer, and other wild animals. To the very peculiar and agreeably aromatic odour and taste which be- long to the whole plant, the leaves add a marked astringency, dependent on the presence of tannin. The aromatic properties reside in a volatile oil which may be separated by distillation. (See Oleum Gaultheriae.) Medical Properties and Uses. Gaultheria has the usual stimulant ope- ration of the aromatics, united with astringency; and may, therefore, be used with advantage in some forms of chronic diarrhoea. Like other sub- stances of the same class, it has been employed as an emmenagogue, and with the view of increasing the secretion of milk; but its chief use is to impart an agreeable flavour to mixtures and other preparations. It may be conveniently administered in the form of infusion, which in some parts of the country is not unfrequently used at the tables as a substitute for com- mon tea. The oil, however, is more used in regular practice than the leaves. Instances of death are on record, resulting from the use of the oil, by mistake, in the quantity of about a fluidounce. On examination after death, strong marks of inflammation of the stomach were discovered. (Journ. of Phil. Col. of Pharm., vi. 290.) Off. Prep. Oleum Gaultherias. U. S. W. GENTIANA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Gentian. "The root of Gentiana lutea." U. S., Ed. " Gentiana lutea. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. GENTIANA LUTEA. Radix. Dub. Gentiane jaune, Fr.; Rother Enzian, Germ.; Genziana, Ital; Genciana, Span. Gentiana. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla one-petalled. Capsule two-valved, one-celled, with two longitudinal receptacles. Willd. Gentiana lutea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1331; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 273. t. 95. Yellow gentian is among the most remarkable of the species which compose this genus, both for its beauty and great comparative size. From its thick, long, branching, perennial root, an erect, round stem rises to the height of three or four feet, bearing opposite, sessile, oval, acute, five-nerved leaves, of a bright green colour, and somewhat glaucous. The lower leaves, which spring from the root, are narrowed at their base into the form of a petiole. The flowers are large and beautiful, of a yellow colour, peduncled, and placed in whorls at the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is mono- phyllous, membranous, yellowish, and semi-transparent, splitting when the flower opens, and reflected when it is fully expanded; the corolla is rotate, and deeply divided into five or six lanceolate, acute segments ; the stamens PART I. Gentiana. 347 are five or six and shorter than the corolla. This plant grows among the Apennines, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and in other mountainous or elevated regions of Europe. Its root is the only part used in medicine. Several other species of the genus possess analogous medicinal properties, and are used for similar purposes. The roots of G. purpurea and G. punctata, growing in the same regions as the G. lutea, and of G. Pan- nonica, growing in the Austrian dominions, are said to be frequently min- gled with the officinal gentian, from which they are scarcely distinguishable. The G. macrophylla of Pallas is used in Siberia; and one .indigenous spe- cies, the G. Catesbaei, has found a place in the secondary catalogue of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. Gentian is imported from Germany. Properties. As found in the shops, it is in pieces of various dimensions and shape, usually of considerable length, consisting sometimes of longitu- dinal slices, sometimes of the root cut transversely, twisted, wrinkled exter- nally, sometimes marked with close transverse rings, of a grayish-brown colour on the outside, yellowish or reddish within, and of a soft spongy texture. The odour is feeble,but decided and peculiar. The taste is slightly sweetish, and intensely bitter, without being nauseous. The powder is of a yellowish colour. Water and alcohol extract the taste and medical virtues of the root. Examined by MM. Henry and Caventou, it was found to con- tain, 1. a peculiar crystallizable principle which they supposed to be the chief active ingredient of the root, and, therefore, named gentionin, 2. a volatile odorous principle, 3. a substance identical with birdlime (glu), 4. a greenish fixed oil, 5. a free organic acid, 6. uncrystallizable sugar, 7. gum, 8. yellow colouring matter, and 9. lignin. Mr. Denis has since detected in the root the existence of pectic acid; and the gentianin of Henry and Caventou has been proved by Trommsdorff and by M. Leconte to be, when quite pure, wholly destitute both of bitterness and of medicinal power; so that it would appear no longer to merit the name which it bears. M. Leconte proposes, accordingly, to call it gentisin; and, as it possesses the property of neutralizing the alkalies, it has received also the name of gentisic acid. It is obtained by treating the alcoholic extract of gentian, previously ex- hausted by water, with sulphuric ether, filtering the ethereal solution, and allowing it to evaporate spontaneously. It is in needle-shaped crystals, pale yellow, insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol. The same chemist believes that he has ascertained the birdlime or glu of Henry and Caventou to be a mixture of wax, oil, and caoutchouc. When distilled with water, gentian yields a minute proportion of a concrete oil, which has a strong odour of the root. Professor Dulk of Konigsberg gives the following pro- cess for isolating the bitter principle. The alcoholic extract is macerated in water, and the solution, having been subjected to the vinous fermentation in order to separate the sugar, is treated first with acetate of lead, and then, after filtration, with subacetate of lead and a very little ammonia, in order to precipitate the combination of the vegetable principle with oxide of lead; care being taken not to use too much ammonia, lest by its stronger basic powers it should separate the vegetable principle from the oxide. The precipitate thus obtained is washed with a little water, then mixed with a large propor- tion of the same fluid, and decomposed by hydrosulphuric acid. The liquid having been filtered, is evaporated with a gentle heat to dryness, and the residue treated with alcohol of 0-820. The alcoholic solution being evapo- rated yields the bitter principle, which ought to receive the name of gentianin. It is a brownish-yellow, uncrystallizable substance, having in a high degree the bitter taste of the root. It is almost insoluble in absolute 348 Gentiana.—Gentiana Catesbcei. PART I. alcohol, but soluble in ordinary alcohol, and very soluble in water. It red- dens litmus, and appears to possess acid properties. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 638.) When gentian is macerated in cold water, it undergoes the vinous fermentation, in consequence, probably, of the presence of its sac- charine principle. From the fermented infusion a spirituous liquor is ob- tained by distillation, which, though bitter and unpleasant to the smell, is much relished by the/Swiss and Tyrolese. Medical Properties- and Uses. Gentian possesses, in a high degree, the tonic powers wiich characterize the simple bitters. It excites the appetite, • .invigoratee'lhe powers of digestion, moderately increases the temperature ' of the body^and. the force of the circulation, and acts in fact as a general /corroborant of the system. In wery large doses, however, it is apt to load /'. and oppress the stomach, to irritate the bowels, and even to occasion nausea and vomiting. It has been known as a medicine from the highest antiquity, .,'and is sai&to have derived its name from Gentius, a king of Illyria. Many of the complex preparations handed down from the Greeks and Arabians contain it among-their ingredients; and it enters into most of the stomachic combinations employed-in modern practice. It may be used in all cases of ► djsease dependent on pure debility of the digestive organs, or requiring a ./general tonic impression. Dyspepsia, gout, amenorrhoea, hysteria, scrofula, intermittent fever, diarrhoea, and worms, are among the many forms of dis- ease in which it has proved useful; but it is the condition of the stomach and 4)f the system generally, not the name of the disease, which must be taken „... int-o' consideration in prescribing it; and there is scarcely a single complaint ~Jp\ which it can be advantageously administered under all circumstances. Its powder has been applied externally to malignant and sloughing ulcers. It is usually gijren in the form of infusion or tincture. A syrup may be pre- r Spared by forming a saturated infusion by means of percolation, and incor- porating this at a boiling'temperature with simple syrup. The dose of the p*owdef,is from ten to forty grains. Off. Prep. Extractum Gentianas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Gen- _, tianas Compositum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Gentianae Comp., ' / U.S., Lond.,Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei et Gentianas, U. S., Ed.; Vinum Gentianae Compositum, Ed. W. GENTIANA CATESB.EI. U.S. Secondary. Blue Gentian. "TheYoot of Gentiana Catesbasi." U. S. Gentiana. See GENTIANA. Several/indigenous species of gentian approach more or less nearly to the Gentiana lutea-Jn the bitterness and medicinal virtues of their roots; but the G. Catesbasi, which resembles it most closely in these respects, is the only one which has attracted J>ie particular attention of the medical profession. Gentiana Catesbasi. Walter, Flor. Car. 109; Bigelow, Am.. Med. Bot. ii. 137; Nuttall, Gen. of Am. Plants, i. 172. The blue gentian has a peren- nial, branching, somewhat fleshy root, and a simple, erect, rough stem, rising eight 'ox ten inches in height, and tearing opposite leaves, which are ovate lanceolate, acute, and rough on their margin. The flowers, which are of a palish-blue colour, are crowded, nearly sessile, axillary and terminal. The divisions of the calyx are linear lanceolate, and longer than the tube. The corolla is large, ventricose, plaited, and divided at ifs border into ten segments, of which the five outer are more or less acute, the five inner bifid part I. Gentiana Catesbcei.— Geoffroya Inermis. 349 and fringed. The number of stamens is five, and the two stigmas are seated on the germ. The capsule is oblong, acuminate, with two valves, and a single cell. G. Catesbaei grows in the grassy swamps of North and South Caro- lina, where it flowers from September to December. It was named by Walter and Elliott in honour of Catesby, by whom it was imperfectly delineated upwards of seventy years ago. Pursh confounds it with G. Saponaria, to which it is nearly allied. Properties. By Dr. Bigelow we are told that the dried ropt of this plant has at first a mucilaginous and sweetish taste, which is soon succeeded by- an intense bitterness, approaching nearly to that of the officinal gentian. Alcohol and boiling water extract its virtues, and the tincture and decoction are even more bitter than the root in substance. Blue gentian has not been satisfactorily analyzed. Medical Properties. As a medicine it is little inferior to the European gentian, and may be employed for similar purposes. In the Northern and Middle States it is not used; but it is said to be occasionally prescribed by the practitioners of the South in dyspepsia, and other cases of stomachic and general debility. It may be given in powder in the dose of fifteen or thirt}*- grains, and may be substituted for the foreign gentian in the preparation of the officinal extract, infusion, wine, and tincture. W. GEOFFROYA INERMIS. Cortex. Dub. Cabbage-tree Bark. Geoffroya de Jamaique, Fr.; Jamaicanische Wurmrinde, Germ.; Geoffrcea, Ital. The tree producing this bark was formerly placed in the genus Geoffroya, from which, however, it has been separated, and with a few others erected into a distinct genus entitled Andira, which is now generally admitted by botanists. Andira. Sex. Syst. Diadelphia Decandria.—Nat. Ord. "Legu'minosas or Fabaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx turbinate-campanulate, five-toothed; teeth nearly equal. acute, erect. Corolla papilionaceous; the vexillum roundish, emarginate, longer than the keel. Stamens diadelphous. Ovary with three ovules. Legume stipitate, roundish, rather hard, one-celled, one-seeded, when ripe divisible into two valves. (De Cand.) Andira inermis. De Cand. Prodrom. ii. Alb.'—Geoffroya inermis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1130; Woodv. Med. Bot.,p. 416. t. 151. The stem of this tree, which rises to a considerable height, is branched towards the top. and covered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are pinnate, consisting of six or seven pairs of ovate lanceolate, pointed, veined, smooth, petiolate leaflets, with an odd one at the end. The flowers are rose-coloured, and arranged in terminal panicles, with very short pedicels. The cabbage-tree is a native of Jamaica and other West India Islands. The bark is the part used. On the continent of Europe the bark of the Andira retusa (Geoffroya Surinamensis), which grows in Surinam, has also been employed. It is considered more powerfully vermifuge, without being equally liable to pro- duce injurious effects. Cabbage-tree bark is in long pieces, thick, fibrous, externally of a brownish- ash colour, scaly and covered with lichens, internally yellowish, of a resin- ous fracture, a disagreeable smell, a sweetish, mucilaginous, bitterish taste, 31 350 Geoffroya Inermis.—Geranium. part i. and affording a powder resembling that of jalap. Huttenschmidt obtained from it a crystallizable, very bitter substance, having the composition and neutralizing properties of the vegetable alkaloids, and named very inappro- priately jamaicina. Two grains of it produced violent purging in pigeons. The bark of the A. retusa has a grayish epidermis, beneath which it is reddish-brown, laminated, compact, very tenacious, and when cut trans- versely, exhibits a shining and variegated surface. In the dried state it is inodorous, but has an austere bitter taste. The powder is of a pale cinnamon colour. Medical Properties and Uses. Cabbage-tree bark is cathartic, and in large doses is apt to occasion vomiting, fever, and delirium. It is said that these effects are more liable to result if cold water is drunk during its operation, and are relieved by the use of warm water, castor oil, or a vegetable acid. In the West Indies the bark is esteemed a powerful vermifuge, and is much employed for expelling Iumbrici; but it is dangerous if incautiously adminis- tered, and instances of death from its use have occurred. It is almost un- known in this country, and does not enter into our officinal catalogues. The usual form of administration is that of decoction, though the medicine is also given in powder, syrup, and extract. The dose of the powder is from a scruple to half a drachm, of the extract three grains, of the decoction two fluidounces.. Off. Prep. Decoctum Geoffroyas, Dub. W. GERANIUM. U.S. Cranesbill. " The root of Geranium maculatum." U. S. Geranium. Sex. Syst. Monadelphia Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Gerani- aceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Corolla five petalled, regular. Nectary five melliferous glands, united to the base of the longer filaments. Arilli five, one-seeded, awned, at the base of a beaked receptacle; awns simple, naked, neither spiral nor bearded. Willd. Geranium maculatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 705 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 84; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 149. This plant has a perennial, horizon- tal, fleshy root, which is furnished with short fibres, and sends up annually an herbaceous stem, with several radical leaves: The stem is erect, round, dichotomously branched, from one to two feet high, of a grayish-green colour, and thickly covered, in common with the petioles and peduncles, with reflexed hairs. The leaves are deeply divided into three, five, or seven lobes, which are variously incised at their extremities, hairy, and of a pale green colour, mottled with still paler spots. Those which rise immediately from the root are supported on footstalks eight or ten inches long; those of the stem are opposite, the lower petiolate, the upper nearly sessile, with lan- ceolate or linear stipules. The flowers are large, and usually of a purple colour. The peduncles spring from the forks of the stem, and severally support two flowers upon short pedicels. The calyx is composed of five oblong, ribbed, cuspidate leaves; the petals are five, obovate, and entire; the stamens ten, with oblong, deciduous anthers, the five alternate filaments being longer than the others, and having glands at their base; the germ is ovate, supporting a straight style as long as the stamens, and surmounted by five stigmas. The fruit consists of five aggregate, one-seeded capsules, attached by a beak to the persistent style, curling up and scattering the seeds when ripe. PART I. Geranium.— Geum. 351 The cranesbill is indigenous, growing throughout the United States, in moist woods, thickets and hedges, and generally in low grounds. It flowers from May to July. The root should be collected in autumn. This, when dried, is in pieces from one to three inches long, from a quar- ter to half an inch in thickness, somewhat flattened, contorted, wrinkled, tuberculated, and beset with slender fibres. It is externally of an umber- brown colour, internally reddish-gray, compact, inodorous, and of an astring- ent taste, without bitterness or other unpleasant flavour. Water and alcohol extract its virtues. Tannin is an abundant constituent. Medical Properties and Uses. Geranium is one of our most powerful indigenous astringents, and may be employed for all the purposes to which these medicines are applicable. The absence of unpleasant taste, and of all other offensive qualities, renders it peculiarly serviceable in the cases of infants, and of persons with very delicate stomachs. Diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, cholera infantum in the latter stages,and the various hemorrhages, are the forms of disease in which it is most commonly used and with greatest advantage; but care should be taken, before it is administered, that the condition of the system and of the part affected is such as not to contra- indicate the use of astringents. As an application to indolent ulcers, an in- jection in gleet and leucorrhoea, a gargle in relaxation of the uvula and aphthous ulcerations of the throat, it answers the same purpose as kino, catechu, and other foreign remedies of similar character. It is a popular domestic remedy in various parts of the United States, and is said to be employed by the Indians in numerous disorders. It may be given in sub- stance, decoction, tincture, or extract. The dose of the powder is twenty or thirty grains, that of a decoction, made by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint and a half of water to a pint, from one to two fluidounces. The medicine is sometimes given to children boiled in milk. W. GEUM. US. Secondary. Water Avens. " The root of Geum rivale." U. S. Benoite aquatique, Fr.; Wiesen-Benediktenwurzel, Germ. Geum. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx ten-cleft. Petals five. Seeds with a bent awn. Willd. Several species belonging to this genus have been medicinally employed; but two only are deserving of particular notice—the Geum rivale, which has a place in the secondary list of the United States Pharmacopoeia, and the G. urbanum, recognised by the Dublin College. Geum rivale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1115; Engl. Bot. 106. The water avens has a perennial, horizontal, jointed, scaly, tapering root, about six inches long, of a reddish-brown colour externally, white internally, and fur- nished with numerous descending yellowish fibres. Sometimes one, some- times several stems rise from the same root, which also sends up numerous leaves. The stems are about a foot and a half high, simple, erect, pubescent, and of a purplish colour. The radical leaves are interruptedly pinnate, with large terminal leaflets, and stand on long, hairy footstalks; those of the stem are petiolate, and divided into three serrate, pointed segments. The flowers are few, solitary, nodding, yellowish-purple, and supported on axillary and terminal peduncles. The colour of the stems and flowers has given rise to the name of purple avens, by which the plant is sometimes called. The calyx is inferior, with ten lanceolate pointed segments, of which the five alternate are smaller than the others. The petals are five, and of the same 352 Geum.—Geum Urbanum. PART I. length as the calyx. The seeds are oval, and furnished with plumose awns, minutely uncinate, and nearly naked at the summit. This species of Geum is common to Europe and the United States; though the plant of this country has smaller flowers, with petals more rounded on the top, and leaves more deeply incised than the European. It delights in wet boggy meadows, and extends from Canada into New Eng- land, New York, and Pennsylvania. Its flowers appear in June and July. The dried root is hard, brittle, easily pulverized, of a reddish or purplish colour, without smell, and of an astringent, bitterish taste. Boiling water extracts its virtues. Medical Properties and Uses. Water avens is tonic and powerfully astringent. It may be used with advantage in chronic or passive hemor- rhages, leucorrhoea, and diarrhoea; and is said to be beneficially employed, in the Eastern States, as a popular remedy in the debility of phthisis pulmo- nalis, in simple dyspepsia, and in visceral diseases consequent on disorder of the stomach. In Europe it is sometimes substituted for the root of the common avens, or Geum urbanum, but is less esteemed. The dose of the powdered root is from a scruple to a drachm, to be repeated three times a day. The decoction, which is usually preferred, may be made by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint of water, and given in the quantity of one or two fluidounces. A weak decoction is sometimes used by invalids in New England as a substitute for tea and coffee. W. GEUM URBANUM. Radix. Dub. Root of Avens. Benoite, Fr.; Benediktenwurzel, Germ.; Cariofillata, Ital.; Gariofilata, Span. Geum. See GEUM. Geum urbanum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1113; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 502. t. 181. Avens is an herbaceous perennial plant, with slender, erect, branch- ing, hairy stems, about two feet in height. The leaves are petiolate, serrate, hairy; those on the upper part of the stem, simple, trifid, and pointed; those nearest the root, pinnate and lyrate, with two pairs of unequal leaflets, and a larger terminal leaflet which is usually three-lobed. The flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, and solitary upon erect terminal peduncles. The seeds, which are hairy and collected in a roundish head, have at their summit a naked awn, bent like a hook at the apex. This species of Geum is a native of Europe, where it grows in woods and shady uncultivated places. The flowers appear in June and July. The root, which is the part employed, should be dug up in March, when its sen- sible properties are in greatest perfection, and should be dried by a moderate heat. The large roots are preferred to those which are very small, and the cultivated to the wild. The avens root consists of a short oblong body or caudex, from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, externally brown, internally white towards the circumference and reddish at the centre, and sending forth numerous long brown descending fibres. When quite dry it is nearly inodorous, but in the recent state it has a smell resembling that of cloves, whence it is some- times called radix caryophyllatae. Its taste is bitterish and astringent. It imparts its medicinal virtues to water and alcohol, which it tinges red. Dis- tilled with water it yields a thick, greenish-yellow volatile oil, and gives a pleasant flavour to the liquid. Tannin is an abundant constituent. It con- tains, moreover, according to Trommsdorff, an insipid resin, gum, bassorin, and lignin. PART I. Geum Urbanum.—Gillenia. 353 Medical Properties and Uses. This root has been largely used on the continent of Europe as a tonic and astringent in numerous diseases. Among these are chronic and passive hemorrhages, chronic dysentery and diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, congestions of the abdominal viscera, and intermittent fever. The dose of the powdered root is from thirty grains to a drachm three or four times a day, and the same quantity may be given at a dose in the form of decoction. The medicine is scarcely used in the United States. W. GILLENIA. U.S. Gillenia. " The root of Gillenia trifoliata." U. S. Indian physic, American ipecacuanha. Gillenia. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx tubular campanulate, border five-toothed. Corolla partly unequal. Petals five, lanceolate, attenuated at the base. Stamens few, in- cluded. Styles five. Capsules five, connate at the base, opening on the in- ner side, each two-seeded. Torrey. This genus was separated by Moench from Spiraea, but was not gene- rally acknowledged till after the publication of Barton's Medical Botany. It is exclusively North American, and includes only two discovered species —G. trifoliata and G. stipulacea—of which the former only is recognised in our Pharmacopoeia, though the two are identical in properties. 1. Gillenia trifoliata. Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot., iii. 10; Barton, Med. Bot., i. 65. This is an herbaceous plant with a perennial root, consisting of numerous long, slender, brown branches, proceeding from a thick tuber-like head or caudex. The stems, several of which usually rise from the same root, are two or three feet in height, erect, slender, smooth, flexuose, branched, and commonly of a reddish colour. The leaves are ternate, with very short petioles, and small linear lanceolate stipules. The leaflets are ovate lanceolate, sharply serrate, and acuminate. The flowers grow in a loose terminal nodding panicle, with long peduncles. The calyx is tubular campanulate, ventricose, and terminates in five pointed segments. The corolla is composed of five linear lanceolate, recurved petals, the two upper separated from the three lower, white, with a reddish tinge on their border, and of three times the length of the calyx. The stamens are twenty, the filaments short, the anthers small and yellow. Each flower is succeeded by five capsules, connate at their base, oblong, acuminate, gibbous without, acute within, two-valved, one-celled, opening inward, and containing each one or two oblong seeds. This species of Gillenia grows throughout the United States, east of the Alleghany ridge, and in Pennsylvania may also be found abundantly west of these mountains. Pursh found it in Florida, and it extends as far north as Canada. It frequents light soils, in shady and moist situations, and flowers in June and July.' The root should be gathered in September. 2. G. stipulacea. Barton, Med. Bot. i. 71. This species is also herba- ceous and perennial, though much taller,and more bushy than the preceding. The stems are brownish and branched. The upper leaves are ternate, lanceolate, serrate; the lower more deeply incised, becoming towards the root pinnatifid, and of a reddish-brown colour at the margin. The stipules are ovate, acuminate, deeply serrate, resembling leaves, and marking the species at the first glance. The flowers are smaller than those of G. tri- foliata, and grow on long slender peduncles in a lax corymb. 354 Gillenia.— Glycyrrhiza. PART I. In the valley of the Mississippi, this plant occupies the place of the G. trifoliata, which is not found beyond the Muskingum. It grows as far north as the state of New York, extends through Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Mis- souri, and probably into the states south of the Ohio, as it has been found in Western Virginia. Its root is precisely similar to that of the eastern species, and is reputed to possess the same properties. The dried root of Gillenia is not thicker than a quill, wrinkled longitu- dinally, with occasional transverse fissures, and in the thicker pieces pre- senting in some places an irregular undulated somewhat knotty appearance, arising from indentations on one side corresponding with prominences on the other. It is externally of a light brown colour, and consists of a thick, somewhat reddish, brittle, cortical portion, with an interior slender, tougher, whitish ligneous cord. The bark, which is easily separable, has a bitter, not disagreeable taste ; the wood is nearly insipid and comparatively inert, and should be rejected. The powder is of a light brownish colour, and possesses a feeble odour, which is scarcely perceptible in the root. The bitterness is extracted by boiling water, which acquires the red colour of wine. The root has not been accurately analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses. Gillenia is a mild and efficient emetic, and, like most other substances belonging to the same class, occasionally acts upon the bowels. In very small doses it has been thought to exert a tonic influence. It is much used by some practitioners in the country as a sub- stitute for ipecacuanha, which it is said to resemble in its mode of operation. It was employed by the Indians, and became known as an emetic to the colonists at an early period. Linnasus was aware of its reputed virtues. The dose of the powdered root is from twenty to thirty grains, repeated at intervals of twenty minutes till it vomits. W. GLYCYRRHIZA. U.S., Lond. Liquorice Root. " The root of Glycyrrhiza glabra." U. S. " Glycyrrhiza glabra. Radix recens." Lond. Off. Syn. GLYCYRRHIZiE RADIX. Root of Glycyrrhiza glabra. Ed.; GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA. Radix. Dub. Bois de reglisse, Fr.; Sussholzwurzel, Gprm.; Liquirizia, Ital; Regaliza, Span. Glycyrrhiza. Sex. Syst. Diadelphia Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Legumi- nosas or Fabaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx bilabiate; upper lip three-cleft, lower undivided. Le- gume ovate, compressed. Willd. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1144; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 420. t. 152. The liquorice plant has a perennial root, which is round, suc- culent, tough, and pliable, furnished with sparse fibres, rapid in its growth, and in a sandy soil penetrates deeply into the ground. The stems are herb- aceous, erect, and usually four or five feet in height; have few branches; and are garnished with alternate, pinnate leaves, consisting of several pairs of ovate, blunt, petiolate leaflets, with a single leaflet at the end, of a pale green colour, and clammy on their under surface. The flowers are violet or purple, formed like those of the pea, and arranged in axillary spikes supported on long peduncles. The calyx is tubular and persistent. The fruit is a com- pressed, smooth, acute, one-celled legume, containing from one to four small kidney-shaped seeds. The plant is a native of the South of Europe, Barbary, Syria, and Persia; and is cultivated in England, the North of France, and Germany. Much PART I. Glycyrrhiza. 355 of the root imported into this country comes from the ports of Messina and Palermo in Sicily. It is also largely produced in the northern provinces of Spain, where it forms an important article of commerce. It is not improbable that a portion of the liquorice root from Italy and Sicily is the product of the G. echinata, which grows wild in Apulia. This species is also abundantly produced in the South of Russia, where, according to Hayne, sufficient ex- tract is prepared from it to supply the whole Russian empire. A species of Glycyrrhiza, the G. lepidota, grows abundantly about St. Louis, in the state of Missouri, and flourishes along the banks of the Mis- souri river to its source in the mountains. It is probably the same with the liquorice plant mentioned by Mackenzie as growing on the northern coast of this continent. Mr. Nuttall states that its root possesses in no in- considerable degree the taste of liquorice. Properties. The liquorice root of the shops is in long pieces, varying in thickness from a few lines to more than an inch, fibrous, externally grayish-brown, and wrinkled by desiccation, internally yellowish, without smell, and of a sweet mucilaginous taste, which is sometimes mingled with a slight degree of acrimony. It is often worm-eaten and more or less de- cayed. The best pieces are those which have the brightest yellow colour internally, and of which the layers are distinct. The powder is of a gray- ish-yellow colour, when the root is pulverized without being deprived of its epidermis, of a pale sulphur-yellow, when the epidermis has been re- moved. Robiquet found the following ingredients in liquorice root:—1. a peculiar transparent yellow substance, called glycyrrhizin or glycion, of a sweet saccharine taste, scarcely soluble in cold water, very soluble in boil- ing water with which it gelatinizes on cooling, thrown down from its aqueous solution by acids, readily soluble in cold alcohol, insusceptible of the vinous fermentation, yielding no oxalic acid by the action of the nitric, and therefore wholly distinct from sugar; 2. a crystallizable principle, named agedo'ite by Robiquet, but subsequently proved to be identical with asparagin; 3. starch; 4. albumen; 5. a brown acrid resin; 6. a brown azotized extractive matter; 7. lignin; 8. salts of lime and magnesia, with phosphoric, sulphuric, and malic acids. Robiquet prepared glycyrrhizin by subjecting a strong cold infusion of the root to ebullition, in order to separate the albumen; then filtering, precipitating with acetic acid, and washing the precipitate with cold water to remove any adhering acid. It may be still further purified by solution in absolute alcohol, and evaporation at a very gentle heat. According to Dr. T. Lade, glycyrrhizin, as it exists in the root, is rendered soluble in water by combination with inorganic bases, such as lime and ammonia, from which it is separated by the ad- dition of an acid. Berzelius appears to have been mistaken in considering the precipitate, obtained by adding acetic acid to the infusion of the root, as a compound of the acid and glycyrrhizin. From the observations of Dr. Lade it is to be inferred, that this principle has no affinity for the acids, but combines with salifiable bases, forming salts of various degrees of solu- bility. Its sweetness is retained in the compounds which it forms with the alkalies. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. (Chem. Gaz., No. 100, from Liebig's Annalen, Aug. 1846.) An extract of liquorice root is brought from Spain and Italy, and much used under the name of liquorice. (See Extractum Glycyrrhizae.) Medical Properties and Uses. Liquorice root is an excellent demulcent, well adapted to catarrhal affections, and to irritations of the mucous mem- brane of the bowels and urinary passages. It is best given in the form of decoction, either alone, or combined with other demulcents. It is frequently employed as an addition to the decoctions of acrid or irritating vegetable 356 Glycyrrhiza.— Gossypium. PART I. substances, such, for example, as seneka and mezereon, the acrimony of which it covers and conceals, while it renders them more acceptable to the stomach. Before being used, it should be deprived of its cortical part, which is somewhat acrid, without possessing the peculiar virtues of the root. The decoction may be prepared by boiling an ounce of the bruised root, for a few minutes, in a pint of water. By Jong boiling, the acrid principle is extracted. The powder is used in the preparation of pills, either to give them due con- sistence, or to cover their surface and prevent them from adhering together. Off. Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Confectio Sennas, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Decoctum Glycyrrhizas, Dub.; Decoctum Guaiaci Comp., Dub., Ed.; Decoctum Hordei Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Me- zerei, Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Sarsaparillas Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Electuarium Piperis, Ed.', Extractum Glycyrrhizas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Lini, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulas Ferri Sulphatis, Ed.; Pil. Hydrargyri, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillas Comp., U. S.; Tinctura Rhei Comp., Lond., Dub. W. GOSSYPIUM. Ed. Raw Cotton. "Hairs attached to the seeds of Gossypium herbaceum, and other species of the genus." Ed. Coton, Fr.; Baumwolle, Germ.; Cotone, Ital; Algodon, Span. Gossypium. Sex. Syst. Monadelphia Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Malvaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx cup-shaped, obtusely five-toothed, surrounded by a three-parted involucel, with dentate-incised, cordate leaflets, cohering at the base. Stigmas three to Ave. Capsule three to five-celled, many- seeded. Seeds surrounded by a tomentose wool. De Cand. in consequence of changes produced in the plants of this genus by culti- vation, botanists have found great difficulty in determining which are dis- tinct species, and which merely varieties. De Candolle describes thirteen species in his Prodromus, and mentions six others; but considers them all uncertain. Royle describes eight and admits others. Swartz thinks they may all be referred to one original species. The plants inhabit different parts of tropical Asia and Africa, and many of them are cultivated for their cotton in climates adapted to their growth. The species from which most of the cotton of commerce is thought to be obtained, is the one indicated by the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Gossypium herbaceum. Linn. a^o. 975; De Cand. Prodrom. i. 456. This is a biennial or triennial plant, with a branching stem from two to six feet high, and palmate hoary leaves, the lobes of which are somewhat lan- ceolate and acute. The flowers are pretty, with yellow petals, having a purple spot near the claw. The leaves of the involucel or outer calyx are serrate. The capsule opens when ripe, and displays a loose white tuft of long clender filaments, which surround the seeds, and adhere firmly to the outer coating. The plant is a native of Asia, but is cultivated in most tropical countries both of the old and hew continents. It requires a certain duration of warm weather to perfect its seeds, and in the United States cannot be cultivated for practical purposes north of Virginia. The herbaceous part of the plant contains much mucilage, and has been used as a demulcent. The seeds yield by expression a fixed oil of the drying kind, which has been occasionally employed. The root has been supposed to possess medical virtues. But the only officinal portion, and part i. Gossypium.— Granati Fructus Cortex. 357 that for which the plant is cultivated, is the filamentous matter surrounding the seeds. This when separated constitutes the cotton of commerce. Cotton consists of filaments, which, under the microscope, appear to be flattened tubes, with occasional joints indicated by transverse lines. It is without smell or taste, insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, the oils, and vegetable acids, soluble in strong alkaline solutions, and decomposed by the concentrated mineral acids. It has not been analyzed, but bears a close analogy to lignin. For medical use it should be carded into thin sheets; or the wadding of the milliners may be employed, consisting of sheets some- what stiffened and glazed on the surface by starch. In the latter case, the sheets should be split open when applied. Uses. Cotton has been used from time immemorial for the fabrication of cloth; but it is only recently that it has entered the catalogue of medicines. It is chiefly employed in the treatment of recent burns and scalds; an appli- cation of it which was adopted by surgeons from popular practice. It is said to relieve the pain, diminish the inflammation, prevent vesication, and very much to hasten the cure. Whatever advantages result from it are pro- bably ascribable to the absorption of effused liquids, and the protection of the part affected from the air. It is applied in thin and successive layers; and benefit is said to result from the application of a bandage when the skin is not loo much inflamed. We have, however, seen cotton do much harm in burns, by becoming consolidated over a vesicated surface, and acting as a mechanical irritant. It is also recommended in erysipelas, and as a dressing for blisters; and we have found it useful, applied in a large batch over parts affected with rheumatism, especially in lumbago. The root of the cotton plant has been employed by Dr. Bouchelle, of Mis- sissippi, who believes it to be an excellent emmenagogue, and not inferior to ergot in promoting uterine contraction. He states that it is habitually and effectually resorted to by the slaves of the South for producing abortion; and thinks that it acts in this way, without affecting the general health injurious- ly. To assist labour, he employs a decoction made by boiling four ounces of the inner bark of the root in a quart of water to a pint, and gives a wine- glassful every twenty or thirty minutes. (West. Journ. of Med. and Surg., Aug., 1840.) These statements need confirmation. W. GRANATI FRUCTUS CORTEX. U.S. Pomegranate Rind. "The rind of the fruit of Punica Granatum." U. S. GRANATI RADICIS CORTEX. U. S. Bark of Pomegranate Root. "The bark of the root of Punica Granatum." U. S. Off. Syn. GRANATUM. Punica Granatum. Fructus Cortex. Lond.; GRANATI RADIX. Root-bark of Punica Granatum. Ed.; PUNICA GRANATUM. Baccas tunica exterior. Radicis cortex. Flores. Dub. Ecorce de granade, Fr.; Granatiipfel-Echalin, Germ.; Malicorio, Scorza del melogra- nati, Ital; Corteza de granada, Span. Punica. Sex Syst. Icosandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Myrtaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, superior. Petals five. Pome many-celled, many-seeded. Willd. Punica Granatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 981; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 531. t. 190. The pomegranate is a small shrubby tree, attaining in favourable 358 Granati Fructus Cortex.— Granati Radicis Cortex. paRt i. situations the height of twenty feet, with a very unequal trunk, and numerous branches, which sometimes bear thorns. The leaves are opposite, entire, oblong or lance-shaped, pointed at each end, smooth, shining, of a bright green colour, and placed on short footstalks. The flowers are large, of a rich scarlet colour, and stand at the end of the young branches. The petals are roundish and wrinkled, and are inserted into the upper part of the tube of the calyx, which is red, thick, and fleshy. The fruit is a globular berry, about the size of an orange, crowned with the calyx, covered with a reddish- yellow, thick, coriaceous rind, and divided internally into many cells, which contain an acidulous pulp, and numerous oblong, angular seeds. This tree grows wild upon both shores of the Mediterranean, in Arabia, Persia, Bengal, China, and Japan, has been introduced into the East and West Indies, and is cultivated in all civilized countries, where the climate is sufficiently warm to allow the fruit to ripen. In higher latitudes, where it does not bear fruit, it is raised in gardens and hot-houses for the beauty of its flowers, which become double, and acquire increased splendour of colour- ing by cultivation. Doubts have been entertained as to its original country. The name of "Punicum malum," applied by the ancients to its fruit, implies that it was abundant at an early age in the neighbourhood of Carthage. The fruit of the pomegranate, for which the plant is cultivated in tropical climates, varies much in size and flavour. It is said to attain greater perfection, in both these respects, in the West Indies than in its native country. The pulp is red, succulent, pleasantly acid, and sweetish, and is used for the same purpose as the orange. The rind of the fruit, and the bark of the root are the parts indicated in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The flowers also are recognised by the Dublin College, and the seeds are officinal in France. Rind of the Fruit. This is presented in commerce under the form of irregular fragments, hard, dry, brittle, of a yellowish or reddish-brown colour externally, paler within, without smell, and of an astringent slightly bitter taste. It contains a large proportion of tannin, and in countries where the tree abounds has been employed for tanning leather. Flowers. The flowers which are sometimes called balaustines, are ino- dorous, have a bitterish strongly astringent taste, and impart a violet-red colour to the saliva. They contain tannin and gallic acid, and were used by the ancients in dyeing. Bark of the Root. The roots of the pomegranate are hard, heavy, knotty, ligneous, and covered with a bark which is yellowish-gray, or ash-gray on the outer surface, and yellow on the inner. As found in the shops, the bark is in quills or fragments, breaks with a short fracture, has little or no smell, when chewed colours the saliva yellow, and leaves in the mouth an astring- ent taste, without any disagreeable bitterness. It contains, according to M. Latour de Trie, fatty matter, tannin, gallic acid, a saccharine substance having the properties of mannite, resin, wax, and chlorophylle, besides insoluble matters. The name of punicin has been given by Giovanni Righini to a peculiar principle which he extracted from the bark. It has the aspect of an oleo-resin, affects the nostrils somewhat like medicinal veratria, and is of an acrid taste. It may be obtained by rubbing a hydro-alcoholic extract of the bark with one-eighth of hydrate of potassa, heating the mixture with eight parts of pure water gradually added, and then dropping in dilute sulphuric acid to saturate the potassa. The punicin subsides, and may be separated by filtration. (Journ. de Chim. et de Pharm., 3e ser., v. 298.) The infusion of the bark yields a deep blue precipitate with the salts of iron, and a yel- lowish-white precipitate with a solution of gelatin. These properties serve to distinguish this bark from those of the box root and barberry, with which parti. Granati Fructus Cortex.— Guaiaci Lignum. 359 it is said to be sometimes adulterated. When used it should be entirely separated from the ligneous portion of the root, as the latter is inert. Medical Properties and Uses. The rind of the fruit is astringent, and in the form of decoction may be given in diarrhoea from weakness of the secreting vessels, and in the colliquative sweats of hectic fever or simple debility. But the decoction is more frequently used as an injection in leu- corrhoea, and as a gargle in sorethroat in the earliest stages, or after the inflammatory action has in some measure subsided. The powdered rind has also been recommended in intermittent fever. The flowers have the same medical properties, and are used for the same purposes as the rind. The bark of the root was used by the ancients as a vermifuge, and is recom- mended in the writings of Avicenna; but was unknown in modern practice till brought into notice by Dr. F. Buchanan, who learned its powers in India. The Mahometan physicians of Hindostan consider it a specific against tape- worm. One of these practitioners, having relieved an English gentleman in 1804, was induced to disclose his secret, which was then made public. Numerous cures were subsequently effected in Europe; and there can be no doubt of the occasional efficacy of the remedy. The French writers prefer the product of the wild pomegranate, growing on the borders of the Mediter- ranean, to that of the plant cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes. The bark may be administered in powder or decoction; but the latter form is usually preferred. The decoction is prepared by macerating two ounces of the bruised bark in two pints of water for twenty-four hours, and then boiling to a pint. Of this a wineglassful may be given every half hour, hour, or two hours, until the whole is taken. It often occasions nausea and vomiting,and usually purges. Portions of the worm often come away a short time after the last dose. It is recommended to give a dose of castor oil, and to diet the patient strictly on the day preceding the administration of the remedy; and if it should not operate on the bowels, to follow it by an enema, or a dose of castor oil. If it should not succeed on the first trial, it should be repeated every day for three or four days, until the worm is discharged. It appears to have been used by the negroes of St. Domingo before it was introduced into Europe. Tasnia is comparatively rare in this country; and the pome- granate root has been little used. The dose of the rind and flowers in powder is from twenty to thirty grains. A decoction may be prepared in the proportion of an ounce of the medicine to a pint of water, and given in the dose of a fluidounce. The seeds are demulcent. Off. Prep. Decoctum Granati, Lond. W. GUAIACI LIGNUM. U. S., Lond., Ed. Guaiacum Wood. "The wood of Guaiacum officinale." U. S.,Ed. " Guaiacum officinale. Lignum." Lond. Off. Syn. GUAIACUM OFFICINALE. Lignum. Dub. Bois de gayac, Fr.; Pockenholz, Germ..; Legno guaiaco, Ital; Guayaco, Span. Guaiacum. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Zygophylla ceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, unequal. Petals five, inserted into the calyx Capsule angular, three or five-celled. Willd. Guaiacum officinale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 538; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 557. t. 200. This is a large tree of very slow growth. When of full size it is from forty to sixty feet high, with a trunk four or five feet in circumference 360 Guaiaci Lignum. part i. The branches are knotted, and covered with an ash-coloured striated bark. That of the stem is of a dark-gray colour, variegated with greenish or pur- plish spots. The leaves are opposite, and abruptly pinnate, consisting of two, three, and sometimes four pairs of leaflets, which are obovate, veined, smooth, shining, dark green, from an inch to an inch and a half long, and almost sessile. The flowers are of a rich blue colour, stand on long pedun- cles, and grow to the number of eight or ten at the axils of the upper leaves. The seeds are solitary, hard, and of an oblong shape. The G. officinale grows in the West Indies, particularly in Hayti and Jamaica, and is found also in the warmer parts of the neighbouring conti- nent. All parts of the tree are possessed of medicinal properties, but the wood and the concrete juice only are officinal. The bark, though much more efficacious than the wood, is not kept in the shops. It is said that other species of Guaiacum contribute to the supplies brought into the mar- ket. The G. sanctum of Linnasus, and the G. arboreum of De Candolle, are particularly specified. The former, however, is said by Woodville not to be sufficiently characterized as a distinct species from the G. officinale. Fee states that the wood of the G. sanctum is paler, and less heavy and hard than the officinal. Guaiacum wood is imported from Hayti and other West India islands, in the shape of logs or billets, covered with a thick gray bark, which presents' on its inner surface, and upon its edges when broken, numerous shining crystalline points. These are supposed by M. Guibourt to be benzoic acid, by others a resinous exudation from the vessels of the plant. The billets are used by the turners for the fabrication of various instruments and utensils, for which the wood is well adapted by its extreme hardness and density. It is kept by the druggists and apothecaries only in the state of shavings or raspings, which they obtain from the turners. It is commonly called lignum vitae, a name which obviously originated from the supposition that the wood was possessed of extraordinary remedial powers. Properties. The colour of the sap-wood is yellow, that of the older and central layers greenish-brown, that of the shavings a mixture of the two. It is said that when the wood is brought into a state of minute division, its colour is rendered green by exposure to the air (Richard), and bluish-green by the action of nitric acid fumes; and the latter change may be considered as a test of its genuineness. (Duncan.) An easier test is a solution of cor- rosive sublimate, which, added to the shavings, and slightly heated, deve- lopes a bluish-green colour in the genuine wood. (Chem. Gaz., No. 80, Feb., 1846.) Guaiacum wood is almost without smell unless rubbed or heated, when it becomes odorous. When burnt it emits an agreeable odour. It is bitterish and slightly pungent; but requires to be chewed for some time before the taste is developed. It contains, according to Trommsdorff, 26 per cent, of resin, and 0-8 of a bitter pungent extractive, upon both of which, probably, though chiefly on the former, its medical virtues depend. (See Guaiaci Resina.) It yields its virtues but partially to water. One pound of the wood afforded to Geiger two ounces of extract. In this ex- tract M. Thierry discovered a volatilizable acid, which he supposed to be peculiar, and named guaiacic acid (acide gayacique). He obtained it by treating the extract with ether, evaporating the ethereal tincture, and care- fully subliming the residue. The acid condenses in small, brilliant needles. If the heat be pushed too far, an oil is also produced which colours the crystals. He procured the same acid from the guaiac of the shops. (See Journ. de Pharm., xxvii. 381.) According to Jahn, however, this sub- stance is nothing more than benzoic acid, rendered impure by obstinately adhering volatile oil and resin. (Pharm. Central Blatt, 1843, p. 309.) part i. Guaiaci Lignum.— Guaiaci Resina. 361 Medical Properties and Uses. Guaiacum wood ranks among the stimu- lant diaphoretics. It is said to have been introduced to the notice of Euro- pean practitioners by the natives of Hispaniola, soon after the discovery of America. It was used in Europe so early as 1508, and attained great celebrity as a remedy for lues venerea, in which it was long considered a specific. More extended experience, however, has proved it to be wholly inadequate to the cure of that disease ; and it is now employed simply to palliate the secondary symptoms, to assist the operation of other and more efficient remedies, or to obviate the unpleasant effects sometimes resulting from a mercurial course in syphilitic cases. It is thought to be useful also in chronic rheumatism and gout, scrofulous affections, certain cutaneous eruptions, ozasna, and other protracted diseases dependent on a depraved or vitiated condition of the system. It is always exhibited in decoction, and generally in combination with other medicines, as in the compound decoc- tion of sarsaparilla. As but a small proportion of the guaiac which it con- tains is soluble in water, the probability is that its virtues have been greatly overrated; and that the good which has in many instances followed its em- ployment resulted rather from the more active medicines with which it was associated, or from the attendant regimen, than from the wood itself. The simple decoction may be prepared by boiling an ounce in a pint and a half of water down to a pint, the whole of which may be administered in divided doses during the twenty-four hours. An aqueous extract of guaiacum wood is directed by the French Codex. Off. Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Decoctum Guaiaci Compo- situm, Dub., Ed.; Decoctum Sarsaparillas Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillas Comp., U. S. W. GUAIACI RESINA. U S., Lond. Guaiac. " The concrete juice of Guaiacum officinale." U. S. "Guaiacum offici- nale. Resina." Lond. Off. Syn. GUAIACUM. Resin obtained by heat from the wood of Guaiacum officinale. Ed.; GUAIACUM OFFICINALE. Resina. Dub. Resine de gayac, Fi.; Guajakharz, Germ.; Resina de guajaco, Ital; Resina de guayaco' Span. For a description of the Guaiacum officinale, see GUAIACI LIGNUM. Guaiac is the concrete juice of this tree, obtained either by spontaneous exudation, or by incisions made into the trunk. It is also procured by saw- ing the wood into billets about three feet long, boring them longitudinally with an auger, then placing one end of the billet on the fire, and receivino- in a calabash the melted guaiac, which flows out through the hole at the opposite extremity. Another mode occasionally practised, is to boil the wood in the state of chips or saw-dust, in a solution of common salt, and skim off the matter which rises to the surface. Guaiac is brought to this market from the West Indies. It is usually in large irregular pieces of various size, in which small fragments of bark, sand, and other earthy impurities are mixed with the genuine guaiac, so as to give to the mass a diversified appearance. Sometimes we find it in small roundish portions separate or agglutinated together, and evidently the result of exudation; sometimes in homogeneous masses, prepared by melting and straining the 32 362 Guaiaci Resina. PART I. drug in its impure state. It is probable that the guaiac, obtained from the billets of wood in the manner above described, is also of uniform consistence. Properties. The pieces are of a deep greenish-brown or dark-olive colour on their external surface, and internally wherever the air has been able to penetrate. The predominant hue of those parts not exposed to the air is reddish-brown or hyacinthine, diversified, however, with shades of various colours. The odour is feeble but fragrant, and is rendered stronger by heat. The taste, which is at first scarcely perceptible, becomes acrid after a short period, and a permanent sense of heat and pungency is left in the mouth and fauces. Guaiac is brittle, and when broken presents a shining glass- like surface, conchoidal or splintery, with the smaller fragments more or less translucent. It is readily pulverized ; and the powder, which is at first of a light-gray colour, becomes green on exposure to the light. Its specific gravity varies from 1-2 to 1-23. It softens in the mouth, and melts with a moderate heat. It is commonly, though erroneously, called gum guaiac, as it does not essentially contain gum. According to the analysis of Mr. Brande, it consists of 91 per cent, of a peculiar substance analogous to the resins, and 9 per cent, of extractive. Buchner found 79-8 parts of pure resin, and 20-1 of bark consisting of 16-5 of lignin, 1-5 of gum, and 2-1 of extractive; but he must have operated on the unstrained guaiac. The acid discovered by M. Thierry in guaiac is asserted by Jahn to be benzoic acid. Water dissolves a small proportion of guaiac, not exceeding 9 parts in 100, forming an infusion of a greenish-brown colour and sweetish taste, which, upon evaporation, yields a brown substance soluble in hot water and alcohol, but scarcely so in ether. Alcohol takes up the whole with the exception of impurities. The tincture is of a deep-brown colour, is decomposed by water, and affords blue, green, and brown precipitates with the mineral acids. Guaiac is soluble also in ether, in alkaline solutions, and in sulphuric acid. The solution in sulphuric acid is of a rich claret colour, deposits, when diluted with water, a lilac precipitate, and, when heated, evolves charcoal. Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid. Exposed to air and light it absorbs oxygen and becomes green, and the change of colour takes place rapidly in the sun- shine. Either in substance or tincture, it imparts a blue colour to gluten and substances containing it, to mucilage of gum Arabic, to milk, and to various freshly cut roots, as the potato, carrot, and horseradish. The tincture is usually coloured blue by spirit of nitric ether, and a similar change of colour takes place when it is treated successively by dilute hydrocyanic acid, and solution of sulphate of copper. Guaiacin is a name which has been given to the pure resinoid princi- ple of guaiac. It is insoluble in water, but is dissolved readily by alcohol, and less readily by ether. It has the acid property of combining with the alkalies, forming soluble.compounds, which are decomposed by the mine- ral acids and by several salts. Hence it has been called guaiacic acid. It differs from most of the resins in being converted by nitric acid into oxalic acid instead of artificial tannin. It is also peculiar in the changes of colour which it undergoes under the influence of various reagents, and which have been already mentioned. By nitric acid and chlorine it is made to assume successively a green, blue, and brown colour. These changes are ascribed by Mr. Brande to the absorption of oxygen, which forms variously coloured compounds according to the quantity absorbed. According to Jahn, the resin of guaiac consists of three distinct bodies, viz : 1, a soft resin soluble in ether and ammonia, and constituting 18-7 per cent, of the guaiac; 2, another soft resin, soluble in ether, but with difficulty dissolved by ammonia, amounting to 58-3 per cent., and 3, a hard resin insoluble in ether, but soluble in ammonia in the quantity of 11-3 per cent. The same chemist part I. Guaiaci Resina.—Hcematoxylon. 363 found in guaiac traces of benzoic acid, and 11-7 per cent, of impurities. (Arch, der Pharm., xxxiii. 269; from Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1843, p. 317.) It will be inferred from what has been said, that the mineral acids are incompatible with the solutions of guaiac. This drug is sometimes adulterated with the resin of the pine. The fraud may be detected by the terebinthinate odour exhaled when the sophisticated guaiac is thrown upon burning coals, as well as by its partial solubility in hot oil of turpentine. This liquid dissolves resin, but leaves pure guaiac untouched. Amber is said to be another adulteration. Nitric acid affords an excellent test of guaiac. If paper moistened with the tincture be exposed to the fumes of this acid, it speedily becomes blue. Medical Properties and Uses. Guaiac is stimulant and alterative, pro- ducing, when swallowed, a sense of warmth in the stomach, with dryness of the mouth and thirst, and promoting various secretions. If given to a patient when covered warm in bed, especially if accompanied with opium and ipecacuanha or the antimonials, and assisted by warm drinks, it often excites profuse perspiration; and hence has been usually ranked among the diapho- retics. If the patient be kept cool during its administration, it is sometimes directed to the kidneys, the action of which it promotes. In large doses it purges; and it is thought by some practitioners to be possessed of emmena- gogue powers. The complaint in which it has been found most beneficial is rheumatism. In the declining stages of the acute form of this disease, after due depletion, it is very often given in combination with opium, ipecacuanha, nitre, and the antimonials; and in the chronic form is frequently useful with- out accompaniment. It is also advantageously prescribed in gouty affections, and is occasionally used in secondary syphilis, scrofulous diseases, and cuta- neous eruptions, though the guaiacum wood is more frequently resorted to in these latter complaints. It was much relied upon by the late Dr. Dewees in the cure of amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea. The medicine is given in substance or tincture. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains, which may be exhibited in pill or bolus, or in the shape of arv emulsion formed with gum Arabic, sugar, and water. An objection to the form of powder is that it quickly aggregates. Guaiac is sometimes administered in combination with alkalies, with which it readily unites. Several of the European Pharmacopoeias direct a soap of guaiac, under the name of sapo guaiacinus, to be prepared by diluting the Liquor Potassas with twice its weight of water, boiling lightly, then adding guaiac gradually, with continued agitation, so long as it continues to be dissolved, and finally filtering, and evaporating to the pilular consistence. Of this pre- paration one scruple may be taken daily in divided doses. Off. Prep. Mistura Guaiaci, Lond., Ed.; Pilulas Hydrargyri Chloridi Compositas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Aloes Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinc- tura Guaiaci, U. S., Lond.,Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Guaiaci Ammoniata, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. HCEMATOXYLON. U.S., Ed. Logwood. "The wood of Hasmatoxylon Campechianum." U. S., Ed. Off. Syn. HiEMATOXYLUM. Hasmatoxylon campechianum. Lignum. Lond.; H^EMATOXYLUM CAMPECHIANUM. Lignum. Dub. Bois de Campeche, Fr.; Blutholz, Kampeschenholz, Germ.; Legno di Campeggio, Ital; Palo de Campeche, Span. Hcematoxylon. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Fabaceae or Leguminosas. 364 Hcematoxylon. part i. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Petals five. Capsule lanceolate, one-celled, two-valved, with the valves boat-form. Willd. Hsematoxylon Campechianum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 547; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 455. t. 163. This is a tree of middle size, usually not more than twenty-four feet high, though under favourable circumstances, it sometimes attains an elevation of forty or fifty feet. The trunk, which seldom exceeds twenty inches in diameter, is often very croofted, and is covered with a dark rough bark. The branches are also crooked, with numerous smaller rami- fications, which are beset with sharp spines. The sap-wood is yellowish, but the interior layers are of a deep red colour. The leaves are alternate, abruptly pinnate, and composed of three or four pairs of sessile, nearly ob- cordate, obliquely nerved leaflets. The flowers, which are in axillary spikes or racemes near the ends of the branches, have a brownish-purple calyx, and lemon-yellow petals. They exhale an agreeable odour, said to resemble that of the jonquil. The tree is a native of Campeachy, the shores of Honduras Bay, and other parts of tropical America; and has been introduced into Jamaica, where it has become naturalized. The wood, which is the part used in medicine, is a valuable article of commerce, and largely employed in dyeing. It comes to us in logs, deprived of the sapwood, and having a blackish- brown colour externally. For medical use it is cut into chips, or rasped into coarse powder, and in these states is kept in the shops. Properties. Logwood is hard, compact, heavy, of a deep-red colour, be- coming dark by exposure, of a slight peculiar odour, and a sweet, somewhat astringent taste. It imparts its colour to water and to alcohol. The infusion made with cold water, though red, is less so than that with boiling water. It affords precipitates with sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and acetic acids, with alum, sulphate of copper, acetate of lead, and sulphate of iron, striking a bluish-black colour with the last-mentioned salt. (Thomson's Dispensatory.) Precipitates are also produced with it by lime-water and gelatin. Among the constituents of logwood, according to Chevreul, are a volatile oil, an oleaginous or resinous matter, a brown substance the solution of which is precipitated by gelatin (tannin), another brown substance soluble in alcohol but insoluble in water or ether, an azotized substance resembling gluten, free acetic acid, various saline matters, and a peculiar principle, called hema- toxylin or hematin, on which the colouring properties of the wood depend. This is obtained by digesting the aqueous extract in alcohol, evaporating the tincture till it becomes thick, then adding a little water, and submitting the liquid to a new but gentle evaporation. Upon allowing it to rest, hematoxylin is deposited in the state of crystals, which may be purified by washing with alcohol and drying. Thus procured, the crystals are shining, of a yellowish rose colour, bitterish, acrid, and slightly astringent to the taste, readily solu- ble in boiling water, forming an orange-red solution which becomes yellow on cooling, and soluble also in alcohol and ether. According to Erdman, who obtained hematoxylin by the process of Chevreul, substituting ether for alcohol, its crystals, when quite pure, are yellow without a tinge of redness; its taste is sweet like that of liquorice, without either bitterness or astringency; and of itself it is not a colouring substance, but affords beautiful red, blue, and purple colours, by the joint action of an alkaline base and the oxygen of the air. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. (Journ. de Chim. et de Pharm., 3e ser., ii. 293.) It is sometimes found in distinct crystals in the crevices of the wood. Medical Properties and Uses. Logwood is a mild astringent, devoid of irritating properties, and well adapted to the treatment of that relaxed condi- tion of bowels which is apt to succeed cholera infantum. It is much used in PART I. Hedeoma.—Helleborus. 365 the United States in that disease, and is occasionally employed with advan- tage in ordinary chronic diarrhoea, and in chronic dysentery. It may be given in decoction or extract, both of which are officinal. Off. Prep. Decoctum Hasmatoxyli, U. S., Ed.; Extractum Hasmatoxyli, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. HEDEOMA. U.S. Pennyroyal. " Hedeoma pulegioides." U. S. This herb, first attached to the genus Melissa, and afterwards to Cunifa, is at present universally considered by botanists as belonging to the He- deoma of Persoon. It has been very erroneously confounded by some with Mentha Pulegium, or European pennyroyal. Hedeoma. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiaceas or Labiatas. Gen. Ch. Calyx bilabiate, gibbous at the base, upper lip three toothed, lower two; dentures all subulate. Corolla ringent. Stamens two, sterile; the two fertile stamens about the length of the corolla. Nuttall. Hedeoma pulegioides. Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 165.—Cunila pulegioides. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 122. This is an indigenous annual plant, from nine to fifteen inches high, with a small, branching, fibrous, yellowish root, and a pubescent stem, which sends off numerous slender erect branches. The leaves are opposite, oblong lanceolate or oval, nearly acute, attenuated at the base, remotely serrate, rough or pubescent, and prominently veined on the under surface. The flowers are very small, of a pale blue colour, sup- ported on short peduncles, and arranged in axillary whorls, along the whole length of the branches. The plant is common in all parts of the United States, preferring dry grounds and pastures, and, where it is abundant, scenting the air for a con- siderable distance with its grateful odour. Both in the recent and dried state it has a pleasant aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent, mint-like taste. It readily imparts its virtues to boiling water. The volatile oil upon which they depend may be separated by distillation, and employed instead of the herb itself. Medical Properties and Uses. Pennyroyal is a gently stimulant aro- matic, and may be given in flatulent colic and sick stomach, or to qualify the action of other medicines. Like most of the aromatic herbs, it pos- sesses the property, when administered in warm infusion, of promoting perspiration, and of exciting the menstrual flux when the system is pre- disposed to the effort. Hence it is much used as an emmenagogue in popular practice, and frequently with success. A large draught of the warm tea is given at bed-time, in recent cases of suppression of the menses, the feet having been previously bathed in warm water. Off. Prep. Oleum Hedeomas, U. S. W. HELLEBORUS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Black Hellebore. "The root of Helleborus niger." U.S., Ed. "Helleborus officinalis. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. HELLEBORUS NIGER. Radix. Dub. Ellebore noire, Fr.; Schwarze Niesswurzel, Germ.; Elleboiro nem^fUU.; Heleboro negro, Span. 32* 366 Helleborus. part i. Helleborus. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranun- culaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five or more. Nectaries bilabiate, tubular. Capsules many-seeded, nearly erect. Willd. Helleborus niger. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1336; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 473. t. 169. The root or rhizoma of the black hellebore is perennial, knotted, blackish on the outside, white within, and sends off numerous long, simple, depending fibres, which are brownish-yellow when fresh, but become dark brown upon drying. The leaves are pedate, of a deep green colour, and stand on long footstalks which spring immediately from the root. Each leaf is composed of five or more leaflets, one terminal, and two, three, or four on each side supported on a single partial petiole. The leaflets are ovate lanceolate, smooth, shining, coriaceous, and serrated in their upper portion. The flower-stem, which also rises from the root, is six or eight inches high, round, tapering, reddish towards the base, and bears one or two large, pendent, rose-like flowers, accompanied with floral leaves, which supply the place of the calyx. The petals, five in number, are large, roundish, concave, spreading, and of a white or pale rose colour, with oc- casionally a greenish tinge. There are two varieties of the plant—Hel- leborus niger humilifolius, and Helleborus niger altifolius—in the former of which the leaves are shorter than the flower stem, in the latter longer. This plant is a native of the mountainous regions of southern and tem- perate Europe. It is found in Greece, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, France, and Spain. It is cultivated in gardens for the beauty of its flowers, which expand in the middle of winter, and have, from this circumstance, given rise to the name of Christmas rose, by which the black hellebore is some- times called. Till the publication of Tournefort's travels in the Levant, this species of hellebore was regarded as identical with that so well known, under the same title, to the ancient Greeks and Romans. But in the island of Anticyra, and various parts of continental Greece, in which it appears from the testi- mony of ancient writers that the hellebore abounded, this traveller discovered a species entirely distinct from those before described, and particularly from the H. niger. He called it H. orientalis, and reasonably inferred that it was the true hellebore of the ancients; and botanists at present generally coincide in this opinion. But as the H. niger is also found in some parts of Greece, it is not impossible that the two species were indiscriminately employed. It is, indeed, highly probable that they possess similar pro- perties ; and a third'—H. viridis—which grows in the west of Europe, is said to be frequently substituted for the H. niger, whichv it closely re- sembles, if it does not equal in medicinal power. The London College has adopted H. orientalis, under Salisbury's name of H. officinalis. The roots of various other plants not belonging to the same genus are said to be fre- quently substituted for the black hellebore. They may usually be readily distinguished by attending to the characters of the genuine root.* * The following minute description of the root, which we translate from Geiger's Hand- buch der Pharmacie, may, perhaps, be useful in enabling the druggist to distinguish this from other analogous roots mingled with or substituted for it in commerce. " It is usually a many-headed root, with a caudex or body half an inch thick or less, seldom thicker, and several inches long, horizontal, sometimes variously contorted, uneven, knotty, with trans- verse ridges, slightly striated longitudinally, presenting on its upper surface the short remains of the leaf and flower-stalks, and thickly beset upon the sides and under surface with fibres of the thickness of a straw, and from six to twelve inches long. These are undivided above, but at the distance of from two to six inches from their origin, are furnished with small, slender branches. The colour of the root is dark-brown, sometimes rather light-brown, dull, and for the most part exhibiting a gray, earthy tinge. Internally PART I. Helleborus.—Hepatica. 367 The medicine of which we are treating is sometimes called metampodium, in honour of Melampus, an ancient shepherd or physician, who is said to have cured the daughters of King Prastus by giving them the milk of goats which had been fed on hellebore. Properties. Though the whole root is kept in the shops, the fibres are the portion usually recommended. They are about as thick as a straw, when not broken from four inches to a foot in length, smooth, brittle, exter- nally black or deep brown, internally white or yellowish-white, with little smell, and a bitterish, nauseous, acrid taste. In their recent state they are extremely acrimonious, producing on the tongue a burning and benumbing impression, like that which results from taking hot liquids into the mouth. This acrimony is diminished by drying, and still further impaired by age. MM. Feneulle and Capron obtained from black hellebore a volatile oil, an acrid fixed oil, a resinous substance, wax, a volatile acid, bitter extractive, gum, albumen, gallate of potassa, supergallate of lime, a salt of ammonia, and woody fibre. Water and alcohol extract its virtues, which are impaired by long boiling. Medical Properties and Uses. Black hellebore is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, possessed also of emmenagogue powers, which by some are ascribed to a specific tendency to the uterus, by others are supposed to depend solely on the purgative property. In overdoses it produces inflam- mation of the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane, with violent vomit- ing, hypercatharsis, vertigo, cramp, and convulsions, which sometimes end in death. The fresh root applied to the skin produces inflammation and even vesication. The medicine was very highly esteemed by the ancients, who employed it in mania, melancholy, amenorrhoea, dropsy, epilepsy, various cutaneous affections, and verminose diseases. By the earlier modern physicians it was also much used. Backer's pills, celebrated for the Cure of dropsy, consisted chiefly of black hellebore. It is at present little employed, except as an emmenagogue, in which capacity it is very highly esteemed by some practitioners. Dr. Mead considered it superior to all other medicines belonging to this class. It may be given in substance, extract, decoction, or tincture. The dose of the powdered root is from ten to twenty grains as a drastic purge, two or three grains as an alterative. The decoction is pre- pared by boiling two drachms in a pint of water, of which a fluidounce may be given every four hours till it operates. The extract and tincture are offi- cinal. Off. Prep. Extractum Hellebori, U. S., Dub.; Tinctura Hellebori, U. S., Lond., Dub. W. HEPATICA. U. S. Secondary. Liverwort. "The leaves of Hepatica Americana." U. S. Hepatica. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranuncu- laceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals six to nine. Seeds naked. Nuttall. Hepatica Americana. De Cand.; Eaton, Manual of Botany, p. 241.— it is whitish, with a somewhat darker pith, which, when cut transversely, shows lighter converging rays. Sometimes it is porous. It has a medullary or fleshy, not a hgneous consistence. The fibres, when dried, are wrinkled, very brittle, sometimes grayish in- ternally, horny, with a white point in the centre. The odour of the dried root is feeble, somewhat like that of seneka, but more nauseous, especially when the root is rubbed with water. The taste is at first sweetish, then nauseously acrid and biting, but not very durable, and slightly bitterish." Hand. ii. s. 1181. 368 Hepatica.—Heracleum. PART I. H. triloba. Willd. Enum.; Figured in Rafinesque's Med. Flor. i.238. Bota- nists generally admit but one species of Hepatica, the H. triloba, and consider as accidental the difference' of structure and colour observable in the plant. Pursh speaks of two varieties, one with the lobes of the leaf oval and acute, the other with the lobes rounded and obtuse. These are considered as dis- tinct species by De Candolle, and the latter is the one which has been adopted by the Pharmacopoeia, and is popularly employed as a medicine in this country, under the name of liverwort. Both have a perennial fibrous root, with three-lobed leaves, cordate at their base, coriaceous, nearly smooth, glaucous and purplish beneath, and supported upon hairy footstalks from four to eight inches long, which spring directly from the root. The scapes or flower-stems are several in number, of the same length with the petioles, round, hairy, and terminating in a single white, bluish, or purplish flower. The calyx is at a little distance below the corolla, and is considered by some an involucre, while the corolla takes the name of the calyx. In the H. acuti- loba the leaves are cordate, with from three to five entire, acute lobes; and the leaflets of the calyx are acute. In the H. Americana the leaves are cordate-reniform, with three entire, roundish, obtuse lobes; and the leaflets of the calyx are obtuse. Both are indigenous, growing in woods upon the sides of hills and mountains; the former, according to Eaton, preferring the northern, the latter the southern exposure. The leaves resist the cold of the winter, and the flowers make their appearance early in spring. The whole plant is used. It is without smell, and has a mucilaginous, somewhat astringent, slightly bitterish taste. Water extracts all its active properties. Medical Properties and Uses. Liverwort is a very mild, demulcent tonic and astringent, supposed by some to possess diuretic and deobstruent virtues. It was formerly used to some extent in Europe in various complaints, espe- cially in chronic hepatic affections; but has fallen into entire neglect. In this country, some years since, it attracted much attention as a remedy in hasmoptysis and chronic coughs, and acquired for a time great popular con- fidence. Its credit, however, has declined. It may be used in infusion and taken ad libitum. The term liverwort properly belongs to the cryptogamous genus Marchantia. W. HERACLEUM. U.S. Secondary. Masterwort. "The root of Heracleum lanatum." U. S. Heracleum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Apiaceas or Umbelliferas. Gen. Ch. Fruit elliptical, emarginate, compressed, striated, margined. Corolla difform, inflexed, emarginate. Involucre caducous. Willd. Heracleum lanatum. Michaux, Flor. Boreal. Am. i. 166. This is one of our largest indigenous umbelliferous plants. The root is perennial, send- ing up annually a hollow pubescent stem, from three to five feet high, and often more than an inch in thickness. The leaves are ternate, downy on their under surface, and supported on downy footstalks; the leaflets petiolate, roundish cordate, and lobed. The flowers are white, in large umbels, and followed by orbicular seeds. Like the European species this is sometimes called cow-parsnep. It grows in meadows and along fences or hedges, from Canada to Pennsylvania, and flowers in June. The root, which is the officinal part, bears some resemblance to that of part i. Heracleum.—Heuchera.—Hirudo. 369 common parsley. It has a strong disagreeable odour, and a very acrid taste. Both the leaves and root excite redness and inflammation when ap- plied to the skin. Dr. Bigelow considers the plant poisonous, and advises caution in its use, especially when it is gathered from a damp situation. Medical Properties, fyc. Masterwort appears to be somewhat stimulant and carminative, and was used successfully by Dr. Orne,of Salem, Massa- chusetts, in cases of epilepsy, attended with flatulence and gastric disorder. He directed two or three drachms of the pulverized root to be taken daily, for a long time, and a strong infusion of the leaves to be drunk at bed-time. (Thacher's Dispensatory.) W. HEUCHERA. U.S. Secondary. Alum-root. "The root of Heuchera Americana." U. S. Heuchera. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Saxifragaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five, small. Capsule bi-rostrate, bi-locu- lar, many-seeded. Nuttall. Heuchera Americana. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1328; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 159.—H. cortusa. Michaux, Flor. Boreal. Am. i. 171.—H.viscida. Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. p. 187. The alum-root or American sanicle is a peren- nial, herbaceous plant, the leaves of which are all radical, petiolate, cordate, with rounded lobes, furnished with obtuse mucronate teeth. There is no proper stem ; but numerous scapes or flower-stems are sent up by the same root, from one to three feet in height, very hairy in their upper part, and terminating in long, loose, pyramidal, dichotomous panicles. The calyx is small, with obtuse segments ; the petals lanceolate, rose-coloured, and of the same length with the calyx ; the filaments much longer, yellowish, and sur- mounted by small, red, globose anthers. The whole plant is covered with a viscid pubescence. It is found in shady, rocky situations, from New England to Carolina, and flowers in June and July. The root is the medicinal portion. It is horizontal, somewhat compressed, knotty, irregular, yellowish, and of a strongly styptic taste. Medical Properties. Alum-root is powerfully astringent, and may be em- ployed in similar cases with other medicines belonging to the same class. It has hitherto, however, been little used. We are informed in Dr. Barton's " Collections," that it is applied by the Indians to wounds and obstinate ulcers, and that it is the basis of a powder which, when the author wrote, enjoyed some reputation as a cure for cancer. W. HIRUDO. Lond. The Leech. Off. Syn. HIRUDO MEDICINALIS. Dub. Sangsue, Fr.; Blutegel, Germ.; Mignatta, Ital; Sauguijuela, Span. Hirudo. Class l,Annelides. Order 3, Abranchiatas. Family2, Asetigeras. Cuvier. The leech belongs to that class of invertebrated articulated animals called Annelides. This class contains the worms with red blood, having soft retractile bodies composed of numerous segments or rings, breathing gene- rally by means of branchiae, with a nervous system consisting in a double knotted cord, destitute of feet, and supplying their place by the contractile 370 Hirudo. PART I. power of their segments or rings. The third order of this class—Abran- chiatae—comprehends those worms which have no apparent external organ of respiration. This order is again divided into two families, to the second of which—the Asetigerae, or those not having setas to enable them to crawl —the leech belongs. It is an aquatic worm with a flattened body, tapering towards each end, and terminating in circular flattened disks, the hinder one being the larger of the two. It swims with a vertical undulating motion, and moves when out of the water by means of these disks or suckers, fastening itself first by one and then by the other, and alternately stretching out and contracting its body. The mouth is placed in the centre of the anterior disk, and is furnished with three cartilaginous lens-shaped jaws at the entrance of the alimentary canal. These jaws are lined at their edges with fine sharp teeth, and meet so as to make a triangular incision in the flesh. The head is furnished with small raised points, supposed by some to be eyes. Respiration is carried on through small apertures ranged along the inferior surface. The nervous system consists of a cord extending the whole length, furnished with nume- rous ganglions. The intestinal canal is straight and terminates in the anus, near the posterior disk. Although hermaphrodite, leeches mutually impreg- nate each other. They are oviparous, and the eggs, varying from six to fifteen, are contained in a sort of spongy, slimy coccoon, from half an inch to an inch in diameter. These are deposited near the edge of the water, and hatched by the heat of the sun. The leech is torpid during the winter, and casts off from time to time a thick slimy coating from its skin. It can live a considerable time in sphagnous moss, or in moistened earth, and is frequently transported in this manner to great distances by the dealers. Savigny has divided the genus Hirudo of Linnasus into several genera. The true leech is the Sanguisuga of this author, and is characterized by its three lenticular jaws, each armed with two rows of teeth, and by having ten ocular points. Several species are used for medicinal purposes, of which the most common are the gray and the green leech of Europe, both of which are varieties of the Hirudo medicinulis of Linnasus; and the Hirudo decora of this country. 1. Hirudo medicinalis, Linn. Ed. Gmel. I. 3095.—Sanguisuga offici- nalis. Savigny, Mon. Hir. p. 112. t. 5. f. 1. The green leech.—Sanguisuga medicinalis. Savigny, Mon. Hir. p. ni,t. 5./. 2. The gray leech. Many of the best zoologists regard the Sanguisuga officinalis and S. medicinalis of Savigny as mere varieties. They are both marked with six longitudinal dorsal ferruginous stripes, the four lateral ones being interrupted or tesse- lated with black spots. The colour of the back varies from a blackish to a grayish-green. The belly in the first variety is of a yellowish-green colour, free from spots, and bordered with longitudinal black stripes. In the second it is of a green colour, bordered and maculated with black. This leech varies from two to three or four inches in length. It inhabits marshes and running streams, and is found abundantly throughout Europe. The great use made of leeches in the modern practice of medicine has occasioned them to become a considerable article of commerce. They are collected in Spain, France, Italy, and Germany, and carried in large numbers to London and Paris. They are also frequently brought to this country; as the practitioners in some of our large cities use only the foreign leech, although our own waters furnish an inexhaustible supply of this useful worm. 2. Hirudo decora. Say, Major Long's Second Expedition, ii. 268. The medicinal leech of America has been described by Say under the name of Hirudo decora, in the Appendix to the Second Expedition of Major Long. PART I. Hirudo. 371 Its back is of a deep pistachio green colour, with three longitudinal rows of square spots. These spots are placed on every fifth ring, and are twenty- two in number. The lateral rows of spots are black, and the middle range of a light brownish-orange colour. The belly is of the same colour, vari- ously and irregularly spotted with black. The American leech sometimes attains the length of four or five inches, although its usual length is from two to three. It does not make so large and deep an incision as the European leech, and draws less blood. The indigenous leech is much used in the city of Philadelphia. The practitioners of New York and Boston depend chiefly for their supplies upon foreign countries. Those which are used in Philadelphia are generally brought from Bucks and Berks county in Pennsylvania, and occasionally from other parts of the State. The proper preservation of leeches is an object of importance to the prac- titioner, as they are liable to great and sudden mortality. They are usually kept in jars in clear, soft water, which should be changed twice a week in winter, and every other day in summer. The jar must be covered with a linen cloth, and placed in a situation not liable to sudden changes of tempera- ture. They will live a Jong time and continue active and healthy, without any other attention than that of frequently changing the water in which they are kept. M. Derheims has proposed the following excellent method of pre- serving them. In the bottom of a large basin or trough of marble he places a bed, six or seven inches deep, of a mixture of moss, turf, and fragments of wood. He strews pebbles above, so as to retain them in their place without compressing them too much, or preventing the water from freely penetrating them. At one end of the trough and about midway of its height, is placed a thin slab of marble or earthenware, pierced with numerous holes, and covered with a bed of moss which is compressed by a thick layer of peb- bles. The reservoir being thus disposed is half-filled with water, so that the moss and pebbles on the shelf shall be kept constantly moist. The basin is protected from the light by a linen cover stretched over it. By this arrangement the natural habits of the leech are not counteracted. One of these habits, essential to its health, is that of drawing itself through the moss and roots to clear its body from the slimy coat which forms on its skin, and is a principal cause of its disease and death. Mr. James Banes recom- mends that, when kept in jars, they should be cleansed by means of a whisk of very fine broom or willow, when the water is changed.* Medical Uses.—Leeches afford the least painful, and in many instances the most effectual means for the local abstraction of blood. They are often applicable to parts which, either from their situation or their great tender- ness when inflamed, do not admit of the use of cups; and in the cases of infants, are under all circumstances preferable to that instrument. They are indeed a powerful therapeutic agent, and give to the physician in many instances, a control over disease which he could obtain in no other way. Their use is in great measure restricted to the treatment of local inflamma- tions ; and, as a general rule, they should not be resorted to until the force of the circulation has been diminished by bleeding from the arm, or in the natu- ral progress of the complaint. * M. Soubeiran considers it important that they should be kept in running water, and has figured an apparatus for this purpose in the second edition of his Treatise on Phar- macy. The addition of a solution of chlorine to the water, in the proportion of one or two drops to the pint, or of a little muriatic or sulphuric acid to neutralize the ammonia which forms, has sometimes been found a preservative against diseases to which leeches axe liable. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., x. ISO, from Repert.fur die Pharm., xlii. 367.) 372 Hirudo.—Hordeum. PART I. In applying leeches to the skin, care should be taken to shave off the hair, if there be any, and to have the part well cleansed with soap and water, and afterwards with pure water. If the leech does not bite readily, the skin should be moistened with a little blood, or milk and water. Sometimes the leech is put into a large quill open at both ends, and applied with the head to the skin until it fastens itself, when the quill is withdrawn. If it be de- sirable that the leech shall bite in a particular spot, this end may be attained by cutting a small hole in a piece of blotting paper, and then applying this moistened to the skin, so that the hole shall be immediately over the spot from which the blood is to be taken. Leeches continue to draw blood until they are gorged, when they drop off The quantity of blood which they draw varies according to the part to which they are applied, and the degree of inflammation existing in it. In the loose and vascular textures they will abstract more than in those which are firm and compact, and more from an inflamed than a healthy part. As a general rule our leechers apply six for every fluidounce of blood. A single European leech will draw from half an ounce to an ounce. The quantity may often be much increased by bathing the wound with warm water. Leeches will continue to suck after their tails are cut off, which is sometimes done, although it is a barbarous practice. It is said that they will draw better if put into cold beer, and allowed to remain until they become very lively. They may be separated from the skin at any time by sprinkling a little salt upon them. After they drop off, the same application will make them disgorge the blood they have swallowed. Some leechers draw the leeches from the tail to the head through their fingers, and thus squeeze out the blood, after which all that is necessary is to put them in clean water, and change it frequently.* Leeches which are gorged with blood should be kept in a vessel by themselves, as they are more subject to disease, and often occasion a great mortality among the others. They should not be again used until they have recovered their activity. In cases where the bleeding from leech-bites continues longer than is desirable it may be stopped by continued pressure, with the appli- cation of lint, or by touching the wounds with lunar causlic.t It may sometimes be necessary in the case of a deep bite, to sew the wound, which is readily done with a single stitch of the needle, that need not penetrate deeper than the cutis. D. B. S. HORDEUM. U. S., Lond., Ed. Barley. " The decorticated seeds of Hordeum distichon." U. S., Ed. "Hordeum distichon. Semina integumentis nudata." Lond. Off. Syn. HORDEUM DISTICHON. Semina decorticata. Dub. Orge, Fr.; Gerstengraupen, Germ.; Orzo, Ital; Cebada, Span. Hordeum. Sex. Syst. Triandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Graminaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx lateral, two-valved, one flowered, three-fold. Willd. Several species of Hordeum are cultivated in different parts of the world. The most common are the H. vulgare, and H. distichon, both of which have been introduced into the United States. * Immersion in camphor, water for a few moments, is said by Mr. Boyce to cause them to vomit all their blood. They should afterwards be put into clean water, which should be changed in half an hour. {Pharm. Journ., Jan. 1845.) f A little cotton, impregnated with a saturated solution of alum, will sometimes be found an effectual application. PART I. Hordeum. 373 I. Hordeum vulgare. Willd. Sp.Plant, i. 472; Loudon's Encyc. of „ Plants, p. 73. The culm or stalk of common barley is from two to four feet in height, fistular, and furnished with alternate, sheathing, lanceolate, roughish,and pointed leaves. The flowers are all perfect, and arranged in a close terminal spike, the axis of which is dentate, and on each tooth sup- ports three sessile flowers. The calyx or outer chaff has two valves. The corolla or inner chaff is also composed of two valves, of which the exterior is larger than the other, and terminates in a long, rough, serrated awn or beard. The seeds are arranged in four rows. 2. H. distichon. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 473; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 73. This species is distinguished by its flat spike or ear, which on each flat side has a double row of imperfect or male florets without beards, and on each edge, a single row of bearded perfect or hermaphrodite florets. The seeds therefore are in two rows, as indicated by the specific name of the plant. The original country of the cultivated barley is unknown. The plant has been found growing wild in Sicily, and various parts of the interior of Asia; but it may have been introduced into these places. H. vulgare is said by Pursh to grow in some parts of the United States, apparently in a wild state. The seeds are used in various forms. 1. In their natural state they are oval, oblong, pointed at one end, obtuse at the other, marked with a longitudinal furrow, of a yellowish colour exter- nally, white within, having a faint odour when in mass, and a mild sweetish taste. They contain, according to Proust, in 100 parts, 32 of starch, 3 of gluten, 5 of sugar, 4 of gum, 1 of yellow resin, and 55 of hordein,a. principle closely analogous to lignin. Berzelius suggests that hordein may be an intimate mixture of vegetable fibre with gluten and starch, which are very difficultly separable as they exist in this grain. Einhoff found in 100 parts 67-18 of starch, 5-21 of uncrystallizable sugar, 4-62 of gum, 3-52 of gluten, 1-15 of albumen, 0-24 of phosphate of lime, and 7-29 of vegetable fibre; the remainder being water and loss. 2. Malt consists of the seeds made to germinate by warmth and moisture, and then baked so as to deprive them of vitality. By this process the sugar, starch, and gum are increased at the expense of the hordein, as shown by the analysis of Proust, who found in 100 parts of malt, 56 of starch, 1 of gluten, 15 of sugar, 15 of gum, 1 of yellow resin, and only 12 of hordein. Berzelius attributes the diminution of the hordein to the separation, during germination, of the gluten or starch from the fibrous matter with which he supposes them to be associated in that substance. It is in the form of malt that barley is so largely consumed in the manufacture of malt liquors. An interesting substance, called diastase, was discovered by MM. Payen and Persoz in the seeds of barley, oats, and wheat, and in the potato. It is found, however, only after these have undergone germination, of which pro- cess it appears to be a product. Germinated barley seldom contains it in larger proportion than two parts in a thousand. It is obtained by bruising freshly germinated barley, adding about half its weight of water, expressing strongly, treating the viscid liquid thus obtained with sufficient alcohol to destroy its viscidity, then separating the coagulated albumen, and adding a fresh portion of alcohol, which precipitates the diastase in an impure state. To render it pure, it must be redissolved as often as three times in water, and precipitated by alcohol. It is solid, white, tasteless, soluble in water and weak alcohol, but insoluble in the latter fluid in a concentrated state. Though without action upon gum and sugar, it has the extraordinary pro- perty, when mixed, in the proportion of only one part to 2000, with starch 33 374 Hordeum.—Humulus. part i. suspended in water, and maintained at a temperature of about 160°, of con- verting that principle into dextrine and the sugar of grapes. The whole of the starch undergoes this change, with the exception of the teguments of the granules, amounting to about 4 parts in 1000. 3. Hulled barley is merely the grain deprived of its husk, which, accord- ing to Einhoff, amounts to 18-75 parts in the hundred. 4. Barley meal is formed by grinding the seeds, previously deprived of their husk. It has a grayish-white colour, and contains, according to Four- croy and Vauquelin, an oleaginous substance, sugar, starch, azotized matter, acetic acid, phosphate of lime and magnesia, silica, and iron. It may be made into a coarse, heavy, hard bread, which in some countries is much used for food. 5. Pearl barley—hordeum perlatum—is the seed deprived of all its in- vestments, and afterwards rounded and polished in a mill. It is in small round or oval grains, having the remains of the longitudinal furrow of the seeds, and of a pearly whiteness. It is wholly destitute of hordein^ and abounds in starch, with some gluten, sugar, and gum. This is the proper officinal form of barley, and is kept in the shops almost to the exclusion of the others. Medical Properties. Barley is one of the mildest and least irritating of farinaceous substances; and, though not medically used in its solid state, forms by decoction with water a drink admirably adapted to febrile and in- flammatory complaints, and much employed from the times of Hippocrates and Galen to the present. Pearl barley is the form usually preferred for the preparation of the decoction, though the hulled grain is sometimes used, and malt affords a liquor more demulcent and nutritious, and therefore better adapted to cases of disease which require a supporting treatment. (See Decoctum Hordei.) The decoction of malt may be prepared by boiling from two to four ounces in a quart of water and straining the liquor. When hops are added, the decoction takes the name of wort, and acquires tonic properties, which render it useful in debilitated conditions of the system, especially those which attend the suppurative process. Off. Prep. Decoctum Hordei, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Decoctum Hordei Compositum, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. HUMULUS. U.S. Hops. " The strobiles of Humulus Lupulus." U. S. Off. Syn. LUPULUS. Humulus Lupulus. Strobili exsiccati. Lond.; LUPULUS. Catkin of Humulus Lupulus. Ed.; HUMULUS LUPU- LUS. Strobili siccati. Dub. Houblon, Fr.; Hopfen. Germ.; Luppolo, Ital; Lupulo, Hombrecillo, Span. Humulus. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Pentandria.—Nat. Ord. Urticaceas. Gen.Ch. Male. Calyx five-leaved. Corolla none. Female. Calyx one- leafed, obliquely spreading, entire. Corolla none. Styles two. Seed one, within a leafy calyx. Willd. Humulus Lupulus. Willd. Sp.Plant, iv. 769; Bigelow, Am. Med.Bot. iii. 163. The root of the hop is perennial, and sends up numerous annual angular, rough, flexible stems, which twine around neighbouring objects in a spiral direction, from left to right, and climb to a great height. The leaves are opposite and stand upon long footstalks. The smaller are sometimes cordate; the larger have three or five lobes; all are serrate, of a deep green PART I. Humulus. 375 colour on the upper surface, and, together with the petioles, extremely rough, with minute prickles. At the base of the footstalks are two or four smooth, ovate, refiexed stipules. The flowers are numerous, axillary, and furnished with bractes. The male flowers are yellowish-white, and arranged in pani- cles ; the female, which grow on a separate plant, are pale green, and dis- posed in solitary, peduncled aments, composed of membranous scales, ovate, acute, and tubular at the base. Each scale bears near its base, on its inner surface, two flowers, consisting of a roundish compressed germ, and two styles, with long filiform stigmas. The aments are converted into ovate membranous cones or strobiles, the scales of which contain each at their base two small seeds, surrounded by a yellow, granular, resinous powder. The hop is a native of North America and Europe. It is occasionally found growing wild in the Eastern States, and, according to Mr. Nuttall, is abundant on the banks of the Mississippi and Missouri. In New England it is extensively cultivated, and most of the hops consumed in the United States are supplied by that district of country. The part of the plant used, as well in the preparation of malt liquors as in medicine, is the fruit or stro- biles. These when fully ripe are picked from the plant, dried by artificial heat, packed in bales, and sent into the market under the name of hops. They consist of numerous thin, translucent, veined, leaf-like scales, which are of a pale greenish-yellow colour, and contain near the base two small, round, black seeds. Though brittle when quite dry, they are pulverized with great difficulty. Their odour is strong, peculiar, somewhat narcotic, and fragrant; their taste very bitter, aromatic, and slightly astringent. Their aroma, bitterness, and astringency are imparted to water by decoction; but the first-mentioned property is dissipated by long boiling. The most active part of hops is a substance secreted by the scales, and in the dried fruit existing upon their surface in the form of a powder, composed of very small granules. This substance was called lupulin by the late Dr. A. W. Ives, of New York, by whom its properties were first investigated and made generally known; though it appears to have been previously noticed by Sir J. E. Smith, of England, and M. Planche, of France. It enters into the officinal catalogue of the United States Pharmacopoeia. The scales them- selves, however, are not destitute of virtues, and contain, as shown by MM. Payen and Chevallier, the same active principles as the powder upon their surface, though in smaller proportion. Lupulina. Lupulin. U. S. This is obtained separate by rubbing or threshing and sifting the strobiles, of which it constitutes from one-sixth to one-tenth by weight. It is in the state of a yellowish powder, mixed with minute particles of the scales, from which it cannot be entirely freed when procured by a mechanical process. It has the peculiar flavour of hops, and appeared to MM. Lebaillif and Raspail, when examined by the microscope, to consist of globules filled with a yellow matter, resembling in this respect the pollen of vegetables. It is inflammable, and when moderately heated becomes somewhat adhesive. MM. Chevallier and Payen obtained from 200 parts, 105 of resin, and 25 of a peculiar bitter principle, besides volatile oil, gum, traces of fixed oil, a small quantity of an azotized substance, and various salts. Dr. Ives found in 120 grains, 5 of tannin, 10 of extractive, 11 of bitter principle, 12 of wax, 36 of resin, and 46 of lignin. The virtues of the powder probably reside in the volatile oil and bitter principle, and are readily imparted to alcohol. By boiling in water the bitterness is extracted, but the aroma is partially driven off. The volatile oil, which may be ob- tained by distillation with water, is yellowish, of the odour of hops, of an acrid taste, and lighter than water. It is said to have narcotic properties. 376 Humulus. PART I. The bitter principle, which is called lupulite or lupuline, may be procured by treating with alcohol the aqueous extract of lupulin previously mixed with a little lime, evaporating the tincture thus formed, treating the resulting extract with water, evaporating the solution, and washing the residue with ether. In a state of purity it is yellowish or orange-yellow, inodorous at common temperatures, but of the smell of hops when heated, of the peculiar bitter taste of hops, slightly soluble in water which takes up five percent, of -its weight, readily soluble in alcohol, almost insoluble in ether, neither acid nor alkaline in its reaction, and without nitrogen in its composition. It is scarcely affected by the weak acids or alkaline solutions, or by the metallic salts. It is probably the tonic principle of the medicine. Medical Properties and Uses. Hops are tonic and moderately narcotic, and have been highly recommended in diseases of general or local debility, associated with morbid vigilance, or other nervous derangement. They have some tendency to produce sleep and relieve pain, and may be used for these purposes in cases where opiates, from their tendency to constipate, or other cause, are inadmissible. Diuretic properties have also been ascribed to them, but are by no means very obvious. The complaints in which they have been found most useful are dyspepsia, and the nervous tremors, wakefulness, and delirium of drunkards. Dr. Maton found the extract advantageous in allaying the pain of articular rheumatism. The medicine may be given in substance, infusion, tincture, or extract. From three to twenty grains are mentioned as a dose of the powder; but the quantity is too small to produce any decided effect; and this mode of administration is in fact scarcely ever resorted to. An infusion prepared from half an ounce of hops and a pint of boiling water, may be given in the dose of two fluidounces three or four times a day. The extract and tincture are officinal. (See Extractum Humuli Lupuli and Tinctura Humuli.) A pillow of hops has been found useful in allaying restlessness and producing sleep, in cases of nervous derangement. They should be moistened with some spirituous liquor, previously to being placed under the head of the patient, in order to prevent their rustling noise. Fomentations with hops, and cataplasms made by mixing them with some emollient adhesive sub- stance, are often beneficial in local pains and tumefactions. An ointment of the powder with lard is recommended by Mr. Freake as an application to cancerous sores, the pain of which it has relieved when other means have failed. All the effects of the preparations of hops may be obtained with greater certainty and convenience by the use of lupulin. The dose of this in sub- stance is from six to twelve grains, given in the form of pills, which may be made by simply rubbing the powder in a warm mortar till it acquires the consistence of a ductile mass, and then moulding it into the proper shape. A tincture is directed by the United States Pharmacopoeia. (See Tinctura Lupulinas.) Lupulin maybe incorporated with poultices, or formed into an ointment with lard, and used externally for the same purposes as the hops themselves. Off. Prep. Extractum Humuli Lupuli, Dub., Lond., Ed.; Infusum Hu- muli, U.S., Lond.; Tinctura Humuli, U.S., Dub., Lond.; TincturaLupu- linas, U.S., Ed. W. PART I. Hydrargyrum. 377 HYDRARGYRUM. U.S., Lond, Ed., Dub. Mercury. Quicksilver; Mercurius, Lat.; Mercure, Vif argent, Fr.; Quecksilber, Germ.; Mercu- rio, Ital.; Azogue, Span, and Port. This metal is found pure, combined with sulphur, united with silver, and in the form of protochloride (native calomel); but of all its combinations, the most abundant is the bisulphuret, or native cinnabar. Its most im- portant mines are found at Almaden in Spain, at Idria in Carniola, in the Duchy of Deux-ponts, at Durasno in Mexico, near Azogue in New Granada, and near Huancavelica in Peru. It also occurs in the Philippine Islands and China. The most ancient and productive mine is that of Almaden. Extraction. Nearly all the mercury consumed in medicine and the arts is obtained from the bisulphuret, or native cinnabar. It is extracted by two principal processes. According to one process, the mineral is picked, pound- ed, and mixed with lime. The mixture is then introduced into cast iron retorts, which are placed in rows, one above the other, in an oblong fur- nace, and connected with earthenware receivers, one-third full of water. Heat being applied, the lime combines with the sulphur, so as to form sul- phuret of calcium and sulphate of lime ; while the mercury distils over, and is condensed in the receivers. The other process is practised at Almaden in Spain. Here a square furnace is employed, the floor of which is pierced with many holes, for the passage of the flame from the fireplace underneath. At the upper and lateral part of the furnace, holes are made, which commu- nicate with several rows of aludels, which terminate in a small chamber that serves both as condenser and receiver. The mineral, having been picked by hand and pulverized, is kneaded with clay and formed into small masses, which are placed on the floor of the furnace. The heat being ap- plied, the sulphur undergoes combustion, while the mercury, being volatil- ized, passes through the aludels to be condensed in the chamber. This pro- cess economizes fuel, but is wasteful of the mercury. Commercial History. Mercury is imported into, this country generally in cylindrical wrought-iron bottles, called flasks, each containing 765 pounds, and comes principally from the Atlantic ports of Spain, particularly Cadiz. A portion also is received from the Austrian port of Trieste, from which it generally comes tied up in whole skins of white leather, forming bags, each containing 31 pounds, and four of which are usually packed together with straw in a rough flattened keg. In both Spain and Austria, the produce of the quicksilver mines is a government monopoly. In Spain all the metal is brought from the mines to Seville, whence, after paying an export duty, it is carried by small vessels down the river Guadalquiver to Cadiz and Gibraltar, which are the chief places of its depot for foreign commerce. The quantity imported into the United States varies in different years. The greater part received is exported again, principally to Mexico, Chili, and China. Its chief consumption is in the extraction of silver and gold from their ores, and in the preparation of vermilion. In the United States, it is consumed for making thermometers and barometers, for silvering looking- glasses, and for preparing various pharmaceutical compounds. Of late the home consumption has increased, in consequence of its employment in the mining operations of the gold region of the Southern States. Properties. Mercury is a very brilliant liquid, of a silver-white colour, and without taste or smell. When perfectly pure it undergoes no alteration by the action of air or water, but in its ordinary state suffers a slight tar- nish. When heated to near the boiling point, it gradually combines with 33* 378 Hydrargyrum. PART I. oxygen, and becomes converted into deutoxide ; but at the temperature of ebullition it parts with the oxygen which it had absorbed, and is reduced again to the metallic state. Its sp. gr. is 13-5, and its equivalent number 202. Liquid at ordinary temperatures, it freezes at 39° below zero, and boils at 656°. When frozen it forms a malleable solid resembling lead. It is a good conductor of caloric, and its specific heat is small. It is not attacked by muriatic acid, nor by cold sulphuric acid ; but boiling sulphuric acid, or cold nitric acid dissolves it, generating a sulphate or nitrate of the deu- toxide, with the extrication, in the former case, of sulphurous acid, in the latter, of nitric oxide becoming nitrous acid red fumes. Its combinations are numerous, and several of them constitute important medicines. It forms two oxides, two sulphurets, two chlorides, three iodides, and one cyanuret, all of which, excepting the protosulphuret and sesquiodide, are officinal, and will be noticed elsewhere under separate heads. Both the oxides are capable of uniting with acids so as to form salts, of which the nitrate, sulphate, bisulphate, and acetate of the deutoxide are officinal, or enter into officinal combinations. Mercury, as it occurs in commerce, is generally sufficiently pure for pharmaceutical purposes. Occasionally it contains foreign metals, such as lead, bismuth, and tin. Mr. Brande informs us that, in examining large quantities of this metal in the London market, he found it only in one in- stance intentionally adulterated. When impure, the metal has a dull ap- pearance, easily tarnishes, is deficient in due fluidity and mobility, as shown by its not forming perfect globules, is not totally dissipated by heat, and, when shaken in a glass bottle, coats its sides with a pellicle, or, if very impure, deposits a black powder. If agitated with strong sulphuric acid, the adulterating metals become oxidized, and in this manner the mercury may in part be purified. Lead is detected by shaking the suspected metal with equal parts of acetic acid and water, and then testing the acid by sul- phate of soda, or iodide of potassium. The former will produce a white, the latter a yellow precipitate, if lead be present. Bismuth is discovered by dropping a nitric solution of the mercury, prepared without heat, into distilled water, when the subnitrate of bismuth will precipitate. The solu- bility of the metal in nitric acid shows that tin is not present; and if sul- phuretted hydrogen does not act upon muriatic acid previously boiled upon the metal, the absence of the usual contaminating metals is shown. Mercury may be purified, according to Berzelius, by digesting it with a small portion of nitric acid, or with a solution of bichloride of mercury (cor- rosive sublimate); whereby all the ordinary contaminating metals will be removed. M. Ulex recommends its purification by triturating, for ten mi- nutes, a pound of the metal with an ounce of the solution of sesquichloride of iron (sp. gr. 1-48), diluted with an equal measure of water. The mercury is thus divided to a very great extent, and the contaminating metals are separated as chlorides ; the sesquichloride of iron being, in the meantime, reduced to protochloride. After decanting the iron solution, and washing with water, the mercury is dried by a gentle heat, and subjected to tritura- tion, when the greater portion of it runs together. Mercury, however, is usually purified by distillation; and the Dublin College has given direc- tions for conducting the process. Medical Properties. Mercury, in its uncombined state, is deemed inert; but in a state of combination, it acts as a peculiar and universal stimulant. When exhibited in a state of minute division, as it exists in several prepa- rations, it produces its peculiar effects; but this does not prove that the uncombined metal is active, but only that the condition of minute division PART I. Hydrargyrum. 379 is favourable to its entering into combination in the stomach. Its combina- tions exhibit certain general medical properties and effects, which belong to the whole as a class; while each individual preparation is characterized by some peculiarity in its operation. Our business, in the present place, is to consider generally the physiological action of mercury, and the principles by which its administration should be regulated; while its effects, as modi- fied in its different combinations, will be more properly noticed under the head of each preparation individually. Of the modus operandi of mercury we know nothing, except that it probably acts through the medium of the circulation, and that it possesses a peculiar alterative power over the vital functions, which enables it in many cases to subvert diseased actions by substituting its own in their stead. This alterative power is sometimes exerted, without being attended with any other vital phenomenon than the removal of the disease; while at other times it is attended with certain obvious effects, indicative of the agency of a potent stimulus. In the latter case, its operation is marked by a quick- ened circulation, by a frequent, jerking pulse, by an increased activity im- parted to all the secretory functions, particularly those of the salivary glands and the liver, by an exaltation of nervous sensibility, and, in short, by a general excitation of the organic actions of the system. When mercury acts insensibly as an alterative, there is not the least apparent disturbance of the circulation; but when it operates decidedly and obviously, it is very prone to let the brunt of its action fall upon the salivary glands, causing, in many instances, an immoderate flow of saliva, and con- stituting the condition denominated ptyalism or salivation. Under these circumstances, to the alterative effects of the mineral are added those of depletion and revulsion. In the saliva, discharged as a consequence of its action, mercury has been detected by chemical tests. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiii. 625.) Occasionally its depletory action is exhibited in an increased secretion of urine, or an immoderate flow of the bile; and, where ptyalism cannot be induced, and either of these secretions becomes considerably augmented, the circumstance may be held as equally conclusive of the con- stitutional impression of the mercury, as if the mouth had been affected. Mercury has been found in the urine of those under the influence of cor- rosive sublimate, by M. Audouard. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., vii. 235.) It has, indeed, been detected in most of the solids and fluids of the body. Mercury has been used in almost all diseases, but too often empirically, and without the guidance of any recognised therapeutic principle. Never- theless, its efficacy in certain classes of diseases is universally acknowledged. In functional derangement of the digestive organs, mercurials in minute doses often exert a salutary operation, subverting the morbid action, and that too by their insensible alterative effect,without affecting the mouth. In these cases no decided disturbance of the vital functions takes place; but the al- vine discharges, if clay-coloured, are generally restored to their natural hue, a certain proof that the remedy is stimulating the liver, and promoting the secretion of the bile. Indeed, there is no fact better established in medicine, than that of the influence of the mercurial preparations over the hepatic system; and, whether the liver be torpid and obstructed as in jaundice, or pouring out a redundancy of morbid bile as in melasna, its judicious use seems equally efficacious in unloading the viscus, and restoring its secretion to a healthy state. In the acute and chronic hepatitis of India it is consider- ed almost a specific; but here its use must be generally preceded by bleeding, and carried to the extent of exciting ptyalism. In chronic inflammation of the mucous and serous membranes, the alterative effects of mercury are sometimes attended with much benefit. In many of these cases effusion 380 Hydrargyrum. PART I. has taken place; and under these circumstances the mercury often proves useful, by promoting the absorption of the effused fluid, as well as by re- moving the chronic inflammation on which the effusion depends. Hence it is that this metal is often given with advantage in chronic forms of me- ningitis, bronchitis, pleuritis, pneumonia, dysentery, rheumatism, &c, and in hydrocephalus, hydrothorax, ascites, and general dropsy. Mercury may also be advantageously resorted to in certain states of fe- brile disease. In some forms of the remittent fever of our own country, a particular stage of its course is marked by a dry tongue, torpor of the bowels, scanty urine, and an arid state of the surface. Here depletion by the lancet or leeches is often inadmissible, and the measure most to be relied on is the judicious employment of mercury. It acts in such cases by increas- ing the secretions and stimulating the exhalent capillaries, and, perhaps, by producing a new impression, incompatible with the disease. In syphilitic affections, mercury, until of late years, has been held to be an indispensable specific. Of its mode of action in these affections we know nothing, except that it operates by substituting its own peculiar impression for that of the disease. Without entering upon the question of the neces- sity or non-necessity of mercury in venereal complaints, as out of place in this work, we are free to admit that the discussion which has grown out of it has shown that this remedy has sometimes been unnecessarily resorted to in affections resembling syphilis, though of a different character; and that the disease in question ought to be treated less empirically, and more on the general principles of combating morbid action occurring in other parts. Mercury also appears to exert a peculiar control over the morbid effects of lead; and hence in colica pictonum, it is accounted by some writers to act almost as a specific. For inducing the specific effects of mercury on the constitution, blue pill or calomel is generally resorted to. In order to produce what we have called the insensible alterative effects of the metal, a grain or two of blue pill may be given in the twenty-four hours, or from a sixth to a fourth of a grain of calomel; or if a gentle ptyalism be our object, from three to five grains of the former, or a grain of the latter, two or three times a day. Where the bowels are peculiarly irritable, it is often necessary to introduce the metal by means of frictions with mercurial ointment; and, where a speedy effect is desired, the internal and external use of the remedy may be simultaneously resorted to. The first observable effects of mercury in inducing ptyalism are a coppery taste in the mouth, a slight soreness of the gums, and an unpleasant sensa- tion in the sockets of the teeth, when the jaws are firmly closed. Shortly afterwards the gums begin to swell, a line of whitish matter is seen along their edges, and the breath is infected with a peculiar and very disagreeable smell, called the mercurial fetor. The saliva at the same time begins to flow; and, if the affection proceeds, the gums, tongue, throat, and face are much swollen; ulcerations attack the lining membrane of the mouth and fauces; the jaws become excessively painful; the tongue is coated with a thick whitish fur; and the saliva flows in streams from the mouth. It occa- sionally happens that the affectidn thus induced in the mouth proceeds to a dangerous extent, inducing extensive ulceration, gangrene, and even hemor- rhage. The best remedies are the various astringent and detergent gargles, used weak at first, as the parts are extremely tender. In cases attended with swelling and protrusion of the tongue, the wash is best applied by injection, by means of a large syringe. We have found lead-water among the best local applications in these cases; and dilute solutions of chlorinated soda or of chlorinated lime, while they correct the fetor, will be found to exert a curative influence on the ulcerated surfaces. PART I. Hydrargyrum. 381 While the system is under the action of mercury, the blood is more watery, less charged with albumen, fibrin, and red globules, and loaded with a fetid fatty matter. (Dr. S. Wright, quoted by Christison.) When drawn from a vein, it exhibits the same appearance as in inflammation. In the foregoing observations we have described the ordinary effects of mercury; but occasionally, in peculiar constitutions, its operation is quite different, being productive of a dangerous disturbance of the vital functions. The late Mr. Pearson has given a detailed account of this occasional pecu- liarity in the operation of mercury, in his work on the venereal disease. The symptoms which characterize it are a small frequent pulse, anxiety about the prascordia, pale and contracted countenance, great nervous agitation, and alarming general debility. Their appearance is the signal for discon- tinuing the mercury; as a further perseverance with it might be attended with fatal consequences. Mercury is also productive of a peculiar eruption of the skin, which will be found described by systematic writers under the various names of hydrargyria, eczema mercuriale, and lepra mercurialis. Those who work in mercury, and are therefore exposed to its vapours, such as water-gilders, looking-glass silverers, and quicksilver miners, are injured seriously in their health, and not unfrequently affected with shaking palsy, attended with vertigo and other cerebral disorders. Mercury is sometimes given in the metallic state, in the quantity of a pound or two in obstructions of the bowels, to act by its weight: but the practice is of doubtful advantage. Mercury in solution is detected with great delicacy by the use of Smithson's battery, which consists of a plate of tin, lined with a plate of gold in the form of a spiral. When immersed in a mercurial solution, this galvanic combination causes the precipitation of the mercury on the gold, which consequently contracts a white stain. In order to be sure that the stain is caused by mercury, the metal is volatilized in a small tube, so as to obtain a characteristic globule. MM. Danger and Flandin have improved on Smithson's process. (See Chem. Gaz., No. 61, p. 191.) Pharmaceutical Preparations. The following is a tabular view of all the officinal preparations of this metal. Mercury is officinal:— I. In the metallic state. Hydrargyrum, U. S„ Lond., Ed., Dub. Hydrargyrum Purificatum, Dub. Emplastrum Hydrargyri, U. S., Lond., Ed. Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro,Lond.,Dub.; Em- plastrum Ammoniaci et Hydrargyri, Ed. Hydrargyrum cum Creta, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Hydrargyrum cum Magnesia, Dub. Pilulas Hydrargyri, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Anglice, JBlue Pill. Unguentum Hydrargyri, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Hy- drargyri Fortius, Lond.; Anglice Mercurial ointment. Unguentum Hydrargyri Mitius, Lond., Dub. Ceratum Hydrargyri Compositum, Lond. Linimentum Hydrargyri Compositum, Lond. II. Protoxidized. (By the action of solution of potassa on calomel.) Hydrargyri Oxidum Nigrum, U. S.; Hydrargyri Oxydum Nigrum, Dub. (By the action of lime-water on calomel.) Hydrargyri Oxydum, Lond. 382 Hydrargyrum. PART I. III. Deutoxidized. (By the action of heat and air.) Hydrargyri Oxydum Rubrum, Dub,; Anglice, Red precipitate per se; Calcined mercury. (By the action of nitric acid.) Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum, U. S„ Ed.; Hydrargyri Nitrico- Oxydum, Lond.; Hydrargyri Oxydum Nitricum, Dub.; Anglice, Red precipitate. Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Rubri, U. S.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitrico-Oxydi, Lond.; Unguentum Oxidi Hydrargyri, Ed.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxydi Ni- trici, Dub. (Obtained by precipitation.) Hydrargyri Binoxydum, Lond. IV. Sulphuretted. Hydrargyri Sulphuretum Nigrum, U. S., Dub.; Hydrargyri Sulphuretum cum Sulphure, Lond.; Anglice, Ethiops mineral. Hydrargyri Sulphuretum Rubrum, U. S., Dub.; Hydrargyri Bisulphuretum, Lond.; Cinnabaris, Ed.; Anglice, Cin- nabar. V. As A PROTOCHLORIDE.. (Obtained by sublimation.) Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite, U. S.; Hydrargyri Chloridum, Lond.; Calomelas, Ed.; Calomelas Sublimatum, Dub.; Anglice, Calomel. Pilulas Calomelanos Compositas, Ed., Dub.; Pilulas Hydrar- gyri Chloridi Compositas, Lond. Pilulas Calomelanos et Opii, Ed. Pilulas Catharticas Compositas, U. S. Pilulas Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis, U. S. (Obtained by precipitation.) Calomelas prascipitatum, Dub. VI. As A BICHLORIDE. Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum, U. S.; Hydrargyri Bichlo- ridum, Lond.; Sublimatus Corrosivus, Ed.; Hydrargyri Murias Corrosivum, Dub.; Anglice, Corrosive subli- mate. Liquor Hydrargyri Bichloridi, Lond. Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum, U. S.; Hydrargyri Ammonio- Chloridum, Lond.; Hydrargyri Precipitatum Album, Ed.; Hydrargyri Submurias Ammoniatum,Dub.; An- glice, White precipitate. Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammoniati, U. S.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammonio-Chloridi, Land.; Unguentum Precipitati Albi, Ed.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Submu- riatis Ammoniati, Dub. VII. Combined with iodine. Hydrargyri Iodidum, U. S., Lond. Pilulas Hydrargyri Iodidi, Lond. Unguentum Hydrargyri Iodidi, Lond. Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, U. S.; Hydrargyri Biniodidum, Isond., Ed. Unguentum Hydrargyri Biniodidi, Lond. part i. Hyoscyami Folia.—Hyoscyami Semen. 383 VIII. Combined with cyanogen. Hydrargyri Cyanuretum, U. S., Dub.; Hydrargyri Bicyani- dum, Lond. IX. Oxidized and combined with acids. Hydrargyri Acetas, Dub. Hydrargyri Persulphas, Dub. Hydrargyri Sulphas Flavus, U. S.; Hydrargyri Oxydum Sul- phuricum, Dub.; Anglice, Turpeth mineral. Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis, U. S., Lond.; Unguentum Citrinum, Ed.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis, vel Unguentum Citrinum, Dub.; Anglice, Citrine oint- ment. B. HYOSCYAMI FOLIA. U.S., Lond. Henbane Leaves. " The leaves of Hyoscyamus niger." U. S. " Hyoscyamus niger. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. HYOSCYAMUS. Leaves of Hyoscyamus niger. Ed.; HY- OSCYAMUS NIGER. Folia. Dub. HYOSCYAMI SEMEN. U.S. Henbane Seed. "The seeds of Hyoscyamus niger." U.S. Off. Syn. HYOSCYAMI SEMINA. Hyoscyamus niger. Semina. Lond. Jusquiame noire, Fr.; Schwarzes Bilsenkraut, Germ.; Giusquiamo nero, Ital; Beleno, Span. Hyoscyamus. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceas. Gen.Ch. Corolla funnel-form,obtuse. Stamens inclined. Capsules covered with a lid, two-celled. Willd. Hyoscyamus niger. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1010; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 204. t. 76; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 161. Henbane is usually a bien- nial plant, with a long, tapering, whitish, fleshy, somewhat branching root, bearing considerable resemblance to that of parsley, for which it has been eaten by mistake. The stem is erect, round, branching, from one to three feet in height, and thickly furnished with leaves. These are large, oblong, ovate, deeply sinuated, with pointed segments, undulated, soft to the touch, and at their base embrace the stem. The upper leaves are generally entire. Both the stem and leaves are hairy, viscid, and of a sea-green colour. The flowers form long, one-sided leafy spikes, which terminate the branches, and hang downwards. They are composed of a calyx with five pointed divisions, a funnel-shaped corolla, with five unequal, obtuse segments at the border, five stamens inserted into the tube of the corolla, and a pistil with a blunt, round stigma. Their colour is an obscure yellow, beautifully variegated with purple veins. The fruit is a globular two-celled capsule, covered with a lid, invested with the persistent calyx, and contain- ing numerous small seeds, which are discharged by the horizontal separa- tion of the lid. The whole plant has a rank offensive smell. The H. niger seems to be susceptible of considerable diversity of cha- racter, giving rise to varieties which have by some been considered as dis- tinct species. Thus the plant is sometimes annual, the stem simple, the 384 Hyoscyami Folia.—Hyoscyami Semen. part i. leaves more deeply incised and less hairy than in the common variety, and the flowers yellow without the purple streaks. It has not been determined whether any difference of medical properties is connected with these diver- sities of character. The plant is found in the northern and eastern sections of the United States, occupying waste grounds in the vicinity of the older settlements, particularly graveyards, old gardens, and the foundations of ruined houses. It grows in great abundance in the neighbourhood of De- troit, and we have seen a specimen brought from the ruins of Ticonderoga. It is rare, however, in this country, of which it is not a native, having been introduced from Europe. In Great Britain, France, Germany, and other parts of Europe, it grows abundantly along the roads, around villages, amidst rubbish, and in uncultivated places. It flowers in June and July. The H. albus, so named from the whiteness of its flowers, is used in France indiscriminately with the former species, which it resembles exactly in medicinal properties. All parts of the Hyoscyamus niger are possessed of activity. The leaves are the part usually employed, but both these and the seeds are recognised in the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias. Much of the efficacy of hen- bane depends upon the time at which it is gathered. The leaves should be collected soon after the plant has flowered. In the biennial plant, those of the second year are asserted by Dr. Houlton to be greatly preferable to those of the first. The latter, he informs us, are less clammy and fetid, yield less extractive matter, and are medicinally much less efficient. As the plant is sometimes destroyed by the severe winters in England, no leaves of the second year's growth are obtainable, and the market is on these occasions supplied with the medicine of inferior quality. This is, perhaps, one of the causes of its great inequality of strength and uncertainty of operation. The root also is said to be much more poisonous in the second year than the first. Properties. The recent leaves have, when bruised, a strong, disagree- able, narcotic odour, somewhat like that of tobacco. Their taste is mucila- ginous and very slightly acrid. When dried, they have little smell or taste. Thrown upon the fire they burn with a crackling noise, as if they contained a nitrate, and at the same time emit a strong odour. Their virtues are completely extracted by diluted alcohol. The watery infusion is of a pale yellow colour, insipid, with the narcotic odour of the plant. The leaves have been analyzed by Lindbergsen, who obtained from them a narcotic principle. The seeds are very small, roundish, compressed, somewhat kidney-shaped, a little wrinkled, of a gray or yellowish-gray colour, of the odour of the plant, and an oleaginous bitterish taste. Analyzed by Brandes, they yielded 24-2 per cent, of fixed oil, 1-4 of a solid fatty substance, traces of sugar, 1-2 of gum, 2-4 of bassorin, 1-5 of starch, 3-4 of a substance soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, and precipitated by infusion of galls (phyteumacolla, Brandes), 4-5 of albumen soluble or coagulated, 26-0 of vegetable fibre, 24-1 of water, and 9-7 of saline matters, including an alka- line principle called hyoscyamin or hyoscyamia, combined with malic acid. But the process employed by Brandes for separating this principle, has not succeeded in other hands; and it was doubtful whether the sub- stance obtained by that experimentalist was really what he supposed it to be. Geiger and Hesse were the first to demonstrate the existence of an organic alkali in hyoscyamus. Its extraction from the plant is somewhat difficult, in consequence of its strong tendency to undergo a change by the contact of alkaline solutions, which render it very soluble in water. The following is the process of the last-mentioned chemists. The seeds of part i. Hyoscyami Folia.—Hyoscyami Semen. 385 the plant are macerated in alcohol; the tincture thus obtained is evaporated by a very gentle heat, decolorized by repeated additions of lime and sul- phuric acid, with filtration after each addition, and then still further con- centrated by evaporation;' an excess of powdered carbonate of soda is added, and the precipitate produced is separated, as speedily as possible, from the alkaline carbonate by expressing and treating it with absolute alcohol, while the mother waters are at the same time treated with ether; the alco- holic and ethereal liquors are united, again treated with lime, filtered, decolorized with animal charcoal, and evaporated by a very gentle heat. If the hyoscyamia now deposited should still be coloured, it will be neces- sary to combine it anew with an acid, and to treat as before, in order to obtain it quite pure. The product is very small. Hyoscyamia crystallizes in colourless, transparent, silky needles, which are without odour, of an acrid disagreeable taste, slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol and ether, and volatilizable with little change if care- fully distilled. It is quickly altered by contact with water and an alkali, and when heated with potassa or soda is completely decomposed, with the disengagement of ammonia. It neutralizes the acids, forming with them crystallizable salts. The infusion of galls precipitates it from its aqueous solution. Both the alkali and its salts are very poisonous; and the smallest quantity, introduced into the eye, produces a dilatation of the pupil, which continues for a long time. Henbane leaves yield, by destructive distillation, a very poisonous empy- reumatic oil. Medical Properties and Uses. Hyoscyamus ranks among the narcotics, In moderate quantities it gently accelerates the circulation, increases the general warmth, occasions a sense of heat in the throat, and after a short period induces sleep. This action is sometimes attended with vertigo, pain in the head, and dilated pupils ; and the medicine occasionally acts as a diaphoretic or diuretic, and even produces a pustular eruption. It does not constipate like opium, but, on the contrary, often proves laxative. In over doses it powerfully irritates the brain and alimentary canal, causing dilatation of the pupil, disordered vision, loss of speech, delirium or stupor, convul- sions, paralysis, pain in the bowels, diarrhoea, great arterial prostration, petechias, and other alarming symptoms, which sometimes end in death. Dissection exhibits marks of inflammation of the stomach and bowels. The poisonous effects are to be counteracted in the same manner as those of opium. Acid drinks, such as lemon-juice and vinegar, are recommended after the evacuation of the stomach. Numerous instances might be adduced from authors to prove the deleterious influence of all parts of the H. niger, when taken in large quantities. Upon inferior animals its effects are not always the same. While it proves fatal to birds and dogs, the leaves are eaten with entire impunity by horses, cows, sheep, goats, and swine. It is not impossible that injury has in some cases resulted from the use of milk, derived from cows or goats which had been feeding on henbane. The remedial operation of hyoscyamus is anodyne and soporific. The medicine was known to the ancients, and was employed by some of the earlier modern practitioners; but had fallen into disuse, and was almost for- gotten, when Baron Storck again introduced it into notice. By this cele- brated physician and some of his successors it was prescribed in numerous diseases, and, if we may credit their testimony, with the happiest effects; but subsequent experience of its operation has been such as very much to narrow the extent of its application. It is at present used almost exclusively to relieve pain, procure sleep, or quiet irregular nervous action; and is not 34 386 Hyoscyami Folia.—Hyoscyami Semen. part i. supposed to exercise any specific curative influence over particular diseases. Even for the purposes which it is calculated to answer, it is infinitely inferior to opium or its preparations; and is generally resorted to only in cases in which the latter remedy is from peculiar circumstances deemed inadmissible. Hyoscyamus has one great advantage over opium in certain cases, that it has no tendency to produce constipation. The diseases to which it is appli- cable it would be useless to enumerate, as there are few complaints in which circumstances might not be such as to call for its employment. Neuralgic and spasmodic affections, rheumatism, gout, hysteria, and various pectoral diseases, as catarrh, pertussis, asthma, phthisis, &c, are among those in which it is most frequently prescribed. In Europe, where the fresh leaves are readily obtained, it is often applied externally in the shape of lotion, cataplasm, or' fomentation, to allay pain and irritation, in scrofulous or can- cerous ulcers, scirrhous, hemorrhoidal, or other painful tumours, gouty and rheumatic swellings, and nervous headache. The smoke of the leaves or seeds has also been used in toothache; but the practice is deemed hazardous. The effect of henbane in dilating the pupil, when applied to the conjunc- tiva, has already been noticed. For this purpose it is used by European oculists, previously to the operation for cataract. An infusion of the leaves, or a solution of the extract, is dropped into the eye. The effect is usually greatest at the end of four hours from the time of application, and in twelve hours ceases entirely. Vision is not impaired during its continuance. Rei- singer recommends a solution of hyoscyamia in the proportion of one grain to twenty-four of water, of which one drop is to be applied to the eye. Henbane may be given in substance, extract, or tincture. The dose of the powdered leaves is from five to ten grains; that of the seeds somewhat smaller. The common extract, or inspissated juice of the fresh leaves (Extractum Hyoscyami, U. S.), is exceedingly variable and precarious in its operation, being sometimes active, sometimes almost inert. The usual dose is two or three grains, repeated and gradually increased till the desired effect is obtained. Cullen rarely procured the anodyne operation of the medicine till he had carried the dose to eight, ten, or even fifteen or twenty grains. Collin pushed it to thirty-six grains; and Professor Fouquier, who experimented largely with hyoscyamus in the Hopital de la Charite, gave two hundred and fifty grains of the extract during twenty-four hours, with- out any specific or curative impression. (Richard, Elem. Hist. Nat. Med.) The alcoholic extract prepared from the recently dried leaves (Extractum Hyoscyami Alcoholicum, U. S.) is said to be more certain and effectual. The dose of this to begin with is one or two grains, which may be increased gradually to twenty or even thirty grains. The dose of the tincture is one or two fluidrachms. A good plan in administering any of the preparations of hyoscyamus is to repeat the dose every hour or two till its influence is felt. Off. Prep. Extractum Hyoscyami, U. S., Lond, Ed., Dub.; Extractum Hyoscyami Alcoholicum, U. S.; Tinctura Hyoscyami, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PART I. Ichthyocolla. 387 ICHTHYOCOLLA. U.S. Isinglass. " The swimming bladder of Acipenser Huso, and other species of Aci- penser." U. S. Fish-glue; Ichthyocolle, colle de poisson, Fr.; Hausenblase, Fischleim, Germ.; Colla di pesce, Ital; Cola de pescado, Span. Isinglass is a gelatinous substance, prepared chiefly from the sounds or swimming bladders of fishes, especially those of different species of stur- geon. Though no longer retained by any of the British Colleges in their officinal catalogues, it still has a place in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, and being universally kept in the shops, requires at least a brief notice in the present work. In most fishes there is a membranous bag, placed in the anterior part of the abdomen, communicating frequently, though not always, by means of a duct, with the oesophagus or stomach, and containing usually a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases in various proportions. From the supposition that it was intended by its expansion or contraction to enable the fish to rise or sink in the water, it has been denominated swimming bladder. It is of different shape in different fishes, and consists of three coats, of which the two interior are thin and delicate, the outer tough and of a sil- very whiteness. The Acipenser Huso, or beluga of the Russians, is particularly designated by the Pharmacopoeia as the species of sturgeon from which isinglass is pro- cured; but three others, the A. Rulhenus, or sterlet, A. Sturio, or common sturgeon, and A. stellatus, or starred sturgeon, also furnish large quantities to commerce. All these fish inhabit the interior waters of Russia, especially the Wolga, and other streams which empty into the Caspian Sea. Immense quantities are annually taken and consumed as food by the Russians. The air-bags are removed from the fish, and, having been slit open and washed in water in order to separate the blood, fat, and adhering extraneous mem- branes, are spread out, and when sufficiently stiffened are formed into cylin- drical rolls, the ends of which are brought together and secured by pegs. The shape given to the roll is that of a staple, or more accurately that of a lyre, which it firmly retains when dried. Thus prepared it is known in commerce by the name of staple isinglass, and is distinguished into the long and short staple. Sometimes the membranes are dried in a flat state, or simply folded, and then receive the name of leaf ox book isinglass. The scraps or fragments of these varieties, with various other parts of the fish, are boiled in water, which dissolves the gelatin, and upon evaporation leaves it in a solid state. This is called cake isinglass, from the shape which it is made to assume. It is sometimes, however, in globular masses. Of these varieties the long staple is said to be the best; but the finest book isinglass is not surpassed by any brought to this country. It is remarkable for its beautiful iridescence by transmitted light. One hundred grains of this isin- glass dissolve in ten ounces of water, forming a tremulous jelly when cold, and yield but two grains of membranous insoluble residuum. The price of it is from three dollars and a half to four dollars a pound. That in cakes is brownish, of an unpleasant odour, and employed only in the arts. Inferior kinds, with the same commercial titles, are said to be prepared from the peritoneum and intestines of the fish. An inferior Russian product, known in English commerce by the name of Samovey isinglass, is procured, ac- cording to Pereira, from the Silurus Glanis. It comes, like the better kind, in the shape of leaf, book, and short staple. (Am. J. of Pharm., xviii. 54.) 388 Ichthyocolla. part i. Isinglass little inferior to the Russian is made in Iceland from the sounds of the cod and ling. Considerable quantities of isinglass are manufactured in New England from the intestines of the cod—Morrhua Americana (Storer, Report on Fishes of Mass., 1839)—and of some of its allied fishes. This sort is in the form of thin ribbons several feet in length, and from an inch and a half to two inches in width. It sells at from seventy-five to ninety cents a pound. One hundred grains dissolve almost entirely in water, leaving but two grains of insoluble membrane, and form a tremulous jelly when cold with eight ounces of water. It is, therefore, as pure and nearly as strong a gelatin as the Russian isinglass, but retains a fishy taste and odour, which render it unfit for culinary or medicinal purposes. We receive from Brazil the air-bladders of a large fish, prepared by dry- ing them in their distended state. They are oblong, tapering and pointed at one end, bifid with the remains of their pneumatic duct at the other, and of a firm consistence. Isinglass of a good quality is also made in.New York, from the sounds of the weak fish—Ototithus regalis of Cuvier (Storer, Rep. on Fishes of Mass., p. 33)—and perhaps of other fishes caught in the neighbourhood. The sounds are dried whole, or merely split open, and vary much in size and texture, weighing from a drachm up to an ounce. An article called " refined or transparent isinglass," is made by dissolv- ing the New England isinglass in hot water, and spreading the solution to dry on oiled muslin. It is in very thin transparent plates, and is an excel- lent glue, but retains a strong fishy odour. It sells at about two-thirds the price of the Russia isinglass. A preparation called Cooper's gelatin, has been introduced as a substi- tute for isinglass in making jellies. It appears to be the dried froth of a solution of pure bone glue. Most of the above facts, in relation to American isinglass, were derived from Mr. D. B. Smith. (See Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., iii. 17 and 92.) .. Isinglass is sometimes kept in the shops cut into fine shreds, and is thus more easily acted on by boiling water. In its purest form it is whitish, semi-transparent, of a shining, pearly ap- pearance, and destitute of smell and taste. The inferior kinds are yellowish and more opaque. In cold water it softens, swells up, and becomes opa- lescent. Boiling water entirely dissolves it, with the exception of a minute proportion of impurities, amounting, according to Mr. Hatchet, to less than two parts in the hundred. The solution on cooling assumes the form of a jelly, which consists of pure gelatin and water. Isinglass is in fact the purest form of gelatin with which we are acquainted, and may be used whenever this principle is required as a test. It is insoluble in alcohol, but is dissolved readily by most of the diluted acids, and by solutions of the alkalies. It has a strong affinity for tannin, with which it forms an insolu- ble compound. Boiled with concentrated sulphuric acid, it is converted into a peculiar saccharine matter. Its aqueous solution speedily putrefies. Medical Properties and Uses. Isinglass has no peculiar medical proper- ties. It may be given internally, in the form of jelly, as a highly nutritious article of diet; but it has no advantages over the jelly prepared from calves- feet. Three drachms impart sufficient consistency to a pint of water. It is employed in the arts for clarifying liquors, and imparting lustre to various woven fabrics. Added in small quantities to vegetable jellies, it gives them a tremulous appearance, which they want when unmixed. As a test of tan- nin it is used in solution, in the proportion of a drachm to ten fluidounces of distilled water. It forms the basis of the English court-plaster. W. PART I. Inula. 389 INULA. U.S. Secondary, Lond. Elecampane. "The root of Inula Helenium." U.S. " Inula Helenium. Radix " Lond Off. Syn. INULA HELENIUM. Radix. Dub. Aunee, Fr.; Alantwurzel, Germ.; Enula campana, Ital, Span. Inula. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Compositas-Aste- roideas, De Cand. Asteraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seed-down simple. Anthers ending in two bristles at the base. Willd. Inula Helenium. Willd. Sp.Plant, iii. 2089; Woodv. Med. Bot.-p. 64. t. 26. Elecampane has a perennial root, and an annual stem, which is round, furrowed, villous, leafy, from three to six feet high, and branched near the top. The leaves are large, ovate, serrate, crowded with reticular veins, smooth and deep green upon the upper surface, downy on the under, and furnished with a fleshy midrib. Those which spring directly from the root are petiolate, those of the stem sessile and embracing. The flowers are large, of a golden-yellow colour, and stand singly at the ends of the stem and branches. The calyx exhibits several rows of imbricated ovate scales. The florets of the ray are numerous, spreading, linear, and tridentate at the apex. The seeds are striated, quadrangular, and furnished with a simple somewhat chaffy pappus. This large and handsome plant is a native of Europe, where it is also cultivated for medical use. It has been introduced into our gardens, and has become naturalized in some parts of the country, growing in low mea- dows, and on the roadsides, from New England to Pennsylvania. It flowers in July and August. The roots, which are the officinal part, should be dug up in autumn, and in the second year of their growth. When older they are apt to be stringy and woody. The fresh root of elecampane is very thick and branched, having whitish cylindrical ramifications, which are furnished with thread-like fibres. It is externally brown, internally whitish and fleshy ; and the transverse sections present radiating lines. The dried root, as found in the shops, is usually in longitudinal or transverse slices, and of a grayish colour internally. The smell is slightly camphorous, and, especially in the dried root, agreeably aromatic. The taste, at first glutinous and said to resemble that of rancid soap, becomes upon chewing, warm, aromatic, and bitter. • Its medical vir- tues are extracted by alcohol and water, the former becoming most strongly impregnated with its bitterness and pungency. A peculiar principle, resem- bling starch was discovered in elecampane by Valentine Rose, of Berlin, who named it alantin; but the title inulin, proposed by Dr. Thomson, has been generally adopted. It differs from starch in being deposited un- changed from its solution in boiling water when the liquor cools, and in giving a yellowish instead of a blue colour with iodine. It has been found in the roots of several other plants. Besides this principle, elecampane contains, according to John, a white, concrete substance, called helenin, intermediate in its properties between the essential oils and camphor, and separable by distillation with water; a bitter extractive, soluble in water and alcohol; a soft, acrid, bitter resin, having an aromatic odour when heated; gum; albumen ; lignin; traces of volatile oil; a little wax; and various saline substances. Medical Properties and Uses. Elecampane is tonic and gently stimulant, and has been supposed to possess diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, and 34* 390 Inula.—Iodinum. PART I. emmenagogue properties. By the ancients it was much employed, espe- cially in the complaints peculiar to females; and it is still occasionally resorted to in cases of retained or suppressed menstruation. In this country it is chiefly used in chronic diseases of the lungs, and is sometimes beneficial when the affection of the chest is attended with weakness of the digestive organs, or with general debility. From a belief in its deobstruentand diu- retic virtues, it was formerly prescribed in chronic engorgements of the abdo- minal viscera, and the dropsy to which they so often give rise. It has also been highly recommended both as an internal and external remedy in tetter, psora, and other diseases of the skin. The usual modes of administration are in powder and decoction. The dose of the former is from a scruple to a drachm. The decoction may be prepared by boiling half an ounce of the root in a pint of water, and given in the dose of one or two fluidounces. Off.Prep. Confectio Piperis Nigri, Lond., Dub. W. IODINUM. U.S. Iodine. Off.Sxjn. IODINIUM. Lond., Dub.; IODINEUM. Ed. lode, Fr.; Iod, Germ.; Iodiria, Ital, Span. Iodine is an elementary non-metallic body, having many analogies to chlorine. It was discovered in 1812 by Courtois, a soda manufacturer of Paris. Some years after its discovery, its therapeutic powers were tried; and these having been found valuable, it is now recognised as a standard remedy. Natural State and Preparation. Iodine exists in certain marine vege- tables, particularly the fuci or common sea-weeds; in the animal kingdom, in sponge, the oyster, various polypi, and cod's liver oil; and, in the mineral kingdom, in sea-water in minute quantity, in certain salt springs, united with silver in a rare Mexican mineral, and in a zinc ore from Silesia. It was first discovered in the United States in the water of the Congress Spring, at Saratoga, by Dr. William Usher; and afterwards in the same water by Dr. J. H. Steel, who ascertained it to be in the state of iodide of sodium. (See p. 114.) It was also detected in the Kenhawa saline waters, by the late Professor Emmet; and it exists in the bittern of the salt-works of west- ern Pennsylvania, in the amount of about eight grains to the gallon. In sea- weeds, the iodine probably exists in the state of iodide of sodium. In both England and France, sea-weeds are burned for the sake of their ashes ; the product being a dark-coloured fused mass called kelp. This substance con- tains, besides carbonate of soda and iodide of sodium, more or less common salt, chloride of potassium, sulphate of soda, &c. The deep-sea fuci con- tain the most iodine; and when these are burned at a low temperature, for fuel, as is the case in the island of Guernsey, their ashes furnish more iodine than ordinary kelp. (Graham.) Preparation. It is from kelp that iodine is obtained, and that procured in Great Britain is exclusively manufactured in Glasgow. The kelp, which on an average contains a 224th part of iodine, is lixiviated in water, in which about half dissolves. The solution is concentrated to a pellicle, andallowed to cool, whereby all the salts, except the iodide of sodium, are almost com- pletely separated, they being less soluble than the iodide. The remaining liquor, which is dense and dark-coloured, is rendered sour by sulphuric acid, whereby carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid are evolved, and sulphur is deposited. The liquor is now introduced into a leaden still, and distilled with a portion of deutoxide of manganese into a series of glass receivers, inserted into one another, in which the iodine is PART I. Iodinum. 391 condensed. In this process the iodide of sodium is decomposed, and the iodine evolved ; and the sulphuric acid, deutoxide of manganese, and sodium unite, so as to form the sulphate of protoxide of manganese and sulphate of soda. Properties. Iodine is a soft, friable, opaque substance, in the form of crystalline scales, having a bluish-black colour and metallic lustre. It pos- sesses a strong and peculiar odour, somewhat resembling that of chlorine, and a hot acrid taste. Applied to the skin, it produces an evanescent yel- low stain. Its sp. gr. is a little less than 5. It is a volatile substance, and evaporates even at common temperatures, provided it be in a moist state. When heated it evaporates more rapidly, and when the temperature reaches 225°, it fuses, and rises in a rich purple vapour, a property which suggested its name. Its vapour has the sp. gr. of 8-7, and is the heaviest aeriform substance known. If inhaled mixed with air, it excites cough and irritates the nostrils. When it comes in contact with cool surfaces, it condenses in brilliant steel-gray crystals. Iodine is soluble in 7000 times its weight of water, and in a much smaller quantity of alcohol or ether. Its solution in water has no taste, a feeble odour, and a light brown colour; in alcohol or ether, a nearly black hue. Its solubility in water is very much increased by the addition of certain salts, as the chloride of sodium, nitrate of am- monia, or iodide of potassium. In chemical habitudes it resembles chlo- rine, but its affinities are weaker. Its equivalent number is 126-3. It combines with most of the non-metallic, and nearly all the metallic bodies, forming the class of compounds called iodides. Some of these are officinal, as the iodides of iron, mercury, lead, potassium, and sulphur. It forms with oxygen one oxide, oxide of iodine, and three acids, the iodous, iodic, and hyperiodic acids, and with hydrogen, a gaseous acid, analogous in pro- perties and constitution to the muriatic, called hydriodic acid. Iodine, in most cases, may be recognised by its characteristic purple vapour;Jjut where this cannot be made evident, it is detected unerringly by starch, which produces with it a deep blue colour. This test was dis- covered by Colin and Gaultier de Claubry, and is so delicate, that it will indicate the presence of iodine in 450,000 times its weight of water. In order that the test may succeed, the iodine must be free and the solutions cold. To render it free when it happens to be in combination, a little nitric acid must be added to the solution suspected to contain it. Adulterations. Iodine is said to be occasionally adulterated with mine- ral coal, charcoal, plumbago, and black oxide of maganese; but neither Dr. Pereira nor Dr. Christison has found any of these substances in sam- ples of iodine which they have examined. They are easily detected by their fixed nature, while pure iodine is wholly vaporizable, or by their in- solubility in alcohol. The present high price of iodine (1847) has given rise to its more frequent adulteration. Herberger found native sulphuret of antimony in one sample, and artificial graphite in another; and Righini has detected as much as 25 per cent, of chloride of calcium. An impurity which is almost always present in commercial iodine is water. Several years ago Dr. Christison called attention to this fact, and until within a re- cent period, he had not met with any British iodine which did not contain from fifteen to twenty per cent, of moisture. This impurity is of conse- quence, as it interferes with uniformity in the iodine preparations. If con- siderable, it is easily detected by the iodine adhering to the inside of the bottle. The Edinburgh College has given a test which detects all impurity beyond two per cent. It is founded upon the fact that pure iodine, diffused in water, forms a clear solution with a certain proportion of quicklime. Accordingly, an amount of quicklime is directed which is not quite suffi- *$92 Iodinum. part i. cient to form a colourless solution with iodine, containing only two per cent, of impurity; and, hence, if the sample contain more impurity, the lime is competent to produce this effect. With this explanation, the Edin- burgh directions for applying the test will be understood. " Thirty-nine grains [of iodine] with nine grains of quicklime and three ounces of water, when heated short of ebullition, slowly form a perfect solution, which is yellowish or brownish if the iodine be pure, but colourless if there be above two per cent, of water or other impurity." The Edinburgh College, in view of the almost uniform presence of water in commercial iodine, and of its consequent unfitness " for making pharma- ceutical preparations of uniform strength," directs it to " be dried by being placed in a shallow basin of earthenware, in a small confined space of air, with ten or twelve times its weight of fresh-burnt lime, till it scarcely adheres to the inside of a dry bottle." Medical Properties and Uses. Iodine was first employed as a medicine in 1820, for the cure of goitre, by Dr. Coindet, Senior, of Geneva. It operates as a general excitant of the vital actions, but particularly of the absorbent and glandular systems. Its special effects are varied by its degree of concentration, state of combination, dose, &c.; and hence, under different circumstances of the remedy and of the system, it is deemed capable of acting as a corrosive, irritant, desiccant, tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic, and em- menagogue. It probably acts by passing into the circulation; at-least it has been proved by Dr. A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, that it enters into a number of the secretions, particularly the urine and saliva, not, as he believes, in an uncombined state, but in that of hydriodic acid. Cantu detected it not only in the urine and saliva, but also in the sweat, milk, and blood, and always as hydriodic acid or an iodide. Its tonic operation is evinced by its strength- ening the digestive organs, and increasing the appetite, which are the most constant effects of its use. Salivation is occasionally produced by it, and sometimes soreness of mouth only. In some cases-,'pustular eruptions and, coryza have been produced; effects most apt to occur when the remedy is given in the form of iodide of potassium. When taken in an overdose it acts as an irritant poison. In doses of two drachms, administered to dogs, it produced irritation of the stomach, and death in seven days; and the stomach on dissection was found studded with numerous little ulcers Of a yellow colour. In the dose of from four to six grains in man, it produces a sense of constriction in the throat, sickness and pain at the stomach, and at length vomiting and colic. These facts demonstrate the activity of iodine, and show the necessity of caution in its exhibition. Even when given in medicinal doses, especially if these be rather large, it sometimes produces dangerous symptoms; such as restlessness, palpitation, a sense of burning along the gullet, excessive thirst, acute, pain in the stomach, vomiting and purging, violent cramps, rapid and extreme emaciation, and frequent pulse. The condition of the system, in which the poisonous effects of iodine are developed, is called iodism.. Though this condition may be produced by incautious doses of the medicine, too long continued, still it must be ad- mitted that it sometimes arises, under other circumstances, from causes not well explained. On the other hand, large doses have been given for a Jong time with perfect impunity. This variable operation of iodine may in some measure be accounted for by the variable condition of the stomach, and by the more or less amylaceous character of the food ; starch having the power of uniting with iodine and rendering it mild. Upon the appear- ance of the first symptoms of fever or general nervous disturbance, indi- cating the approach of iodism, the remedy should be instantly laid aside. PART I. Iodinum. 393 Dr. Lugol, of Paris, who has used iodine more methodically than any other practitioner, has never observed these alarming effects to arise from the re- medy, given in the small doses and in the state of dilution in which he is in the habit of prescribing it. He has not found it to cause emaciation, haemo- ptysis, pulmonary tubercles, or other bad effects. On the contrary, in the hospital of St. Louis, the theatre of his extensive trials of the remedy in scrofulous diseases, many of the patients gained flesh and improved in general health. Notwithstanding this testimony, we have indubitable evidence that rapid emaciation is occasionally produced by iodine; and a long course of the remedy has in some instances occasioned absorption of the mammas. The wasting of the testicles, under similar circumstances, is comparatively rare. Dr. R. Coates, of this city, reports a case in the Medical Examiner, of the complete absorption of the female breast from the use of iodine; but the mammas recovered their original,developement after the lapse of a year. Iodine has been principally employed in diseases of the absorbent and glandular systems. In ascites it has been used with success by Dr. Baron. It is said not to act efficaciously while the abdomen is tense, and the ab- sorbents consequently compressed, but operates after this condition is removed by tapping. Dr. Bardsley recommends it in that form of ascites which is connected with diseased liver. It has been used successfully by some British practitioners in ovarian tumours, but failed in the hands of others. In glandular enlargements and morbid growths, its use has proved^ more efficacious than, perhaps, in any other class of diseases. Dr. Coindet discovered its extraordinary power in promoting the absorption of the thy- roid gland in bronchocele; and it has been used with more or less success in enlargements of the liver, spleen, mammas, testes, and uterus. When used in broqchocele, its good effects are commonly shown in three weeks, but often not until the treatment has been continued for a longer time. In , induration and enlargement of the liver, where mercury has failed or is inadmissible,.iodine forms our best resource. In chronic diseases of the* uterus, attended with induration and enlargement, and in hard tumours of the cervix, and indurated -puckerings of the edges of the os tineas, iodine has occasionally effected a cure, administered internally, and rubbed intor the cervix in the form of ointment for ten or twelve minutes every night. The emmenagogue power of iodine has been noticed by several practi- tioners; and Dr. Lugol mentions instances, among his scrofulous patients, in which it cured obstructed and painful menstruation. It has been recom- mended in gleet, and also in gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea, after the inflam- matory symptoms have subsided. In pseudo-syphilis and cachexy arising from the abuse of mercury, it is one of our best remedies; but to the treat- ment of these cases iodide of potassium is considered to be best suited. In chronic rheumatism it is a favourite remedy with some, particularly in the form of iodide of potassium; and by Gendrin-it has been employed in the acute forms of gout, with the effect, as he supposed, of cutting short the fits. Dr. Manson, in his work on the medical effects of iodine, published in 1825, has recorded cases of its efficacy in several nervous diseases, such as chorea and paralysis. In various scaly eruptions, the internal and external use of the preparations of iodine is very much relied on. It is in scrofulous diseases that the most interesting results have been jf obtained by the use of iodine. Dr. Coindet first directed public attention to its effects in scrofula, and Dr. Manson reported a number of cases of this disease in the form of enlarged glands, ulcers, and ophthalmia, occurring in his practice between 1821 and 1821, in a large proportion of which the 394 Iodinum. part i. disease was either cured or meliorated, and the general health much im- proved. But we are indebted to Dr. Lugol for the most extended and valuable researches in relation to the use of iodine in the different forms of scrofula. This physician began his trials with the remedy in the hospital Saint Louis in 1827, and made known his results in three Memoirs pub- lished in 1829, 1830, and 1831. These memoirs give the detail of a suc- cess which would stagger belief, were not the results substantiated by committees of distinguished physicians of the French Royal Academy of Sciences. The scrofulous affections in which Dr. Lugol succeeded by the administration of iodine were glandular tubercles, especially of the neck, ophthalmia, ozasna, noli me tangere (dartre rongeante scrophuleuse), and fistulous and carious ulcers. He also obtained favourable results in some cases of scrofulous syphilis by the use of the iodide of mercury. In con- nexion with Dr. Lugol's results in scrofulous affections, it may be proper to mention that Dr. Manson derived benefit from the use of iodine in white swelling, hip-joint disease, and distortions of the spine, diseases generally admitted to be more or less dependent on the scrofulous taint. Iodine is employed both internally and externally. Internally it is some- times used in the form of tincture; but Dr. Lugol objects to this preparation on account of its unequal strength, and of its being liable to have the iodine precipitated by water; and when swallowed with the solid iodine diffused through it, injurious irritation of the stomach is apt to be produced. It has been found, however, by Guibourt that the latter objection to the tincture applies in its full force, only when it is freshly formed; for when kept, it becomes less and less precipitable by water, in consequence of the formation of hydriodic acid at the expense of the alcohol. (See Tinctura Iodini Com- posita.) Dr. Lugol prefers to the tincture a mixed solution of iodine and iodide of potassium in distilled water. He employs three strengths, namely, three-fourths of a grain, one grain, and a grain and a quarter of iodirte to half a pint of distilled water; the quantity of iodide of potassium in each solution being double that of the iodine. These solutions are permanent, perfectly transparent, and of an orange colour. The London College has imitated this combination in a new officinal formula. (See Liquor Potassii Iodidi Compositus.) The mode of administration employed by Dr. Lugol for his solutions, is to give two-thirds of the weakest solution, or half a grain of iodine daily for the first fortnight; the weakest solution entire for the second and third fortnight; the medium solution during the fourth and fifth fortnight; and lastly, in some cases, the strongest solution for theremainder of the treatment. In the majority of cases, however, he had not occasion to resort to the strongest solution. He gives half the daily quantity in the morning fasting, and the other half, an hour before dinner; each portion being slightly sweetened at the moment of taking it. For the convenience of making the weak iodine solution, or of administering the remedy by drops, Dr. Lugol prepares a concentrated solution, consisting of a scruple of iodine and two scruples of iodide of potassium dissolved in seven flui- drachms of water.* Of this solution the dose is six drops twice a day, (in the morning fasting, and an hour before dinner,) in a glass of sweetened water, gradually increasing weekly by two drops at a time, until the dose reaches to thirty or thirty-six drops. For children under seven years, the dose is two drops twice a day, gradually increased to five. This solution has been made officinal in the last edition of the United States Pharma- fe * In the original it is seven ounces; but from the context of the author, this is evidently a misprint for seven drachms. PART I. Iodinum. 395 copoeia. (See Liquor Iodini Compositus.) It will be observed that these doses are considerably smaller than those usually employed by Dr. Coindet. The external treatment by iodine may be divided into local and general. By its use in this way it does not merely create a topical effect on the skin; but by its absorption produces its peculiar constitutional impression. Dr. Lugol has given a number of formulas for preparations for the local use of iodine, a short account of which may be usefully inserted here. His iodine ointment varies in strength from six to twelve grains of iodine, mixed with from two to four scruples of iodide of potassium, to the ounce of lard. (See Unguentum Iodini Compositum.) It has a mahogany colour, and is em- ployed in frictions to scrofulous tumours, and as a dressing to scrofulous ulcers. The ointment of protiodide of mercury which he recommends, con- sists of from one to two scruples of the mercurial iodide to an ounce of lard. (See Unguentum Hydrargyri Iodidi.) Its proper colour is canary yellow; but occasionally it has a decided greenish tint, derived from the presence of protoxide of mercury, or an orange colour, when it contains the biniodide. This ointment, which has the advantage of producing very little pain, is used by Dr. Lugol in noli me tangere, and in scrofulous ulcers which have a syphilitic aspect. The ointment of biniodide of mercury, which is much more powerful, has also been used with apparent advantage in similar cases. (See Unguentum Hydrargyri Biniodidi.) Dr. Lugol's iodine lotion con- sists of from two to four grains of iodine to a pint of distilled water, the solution being rendered complete by the addition of double the quantity of iodide of potassium. This is used by injection, principally in scrofulous ophthalmia, ozasna, and fistulous ulcers. His rubefacient solution is formed by dissolving half an ounce of iodirte and an ounce of iodide of potassium in six fluidounces of distilled water. This is useful for exciting scrofulous ulcers, for touching the eyelids, and as an application to recent scrofulous cicatrices, to render them smooth and less prominent. A certain quantity of the rubefacient solution added to warm water, makes a convenient local bath for the arms, legs, feet, or hands; and, mixed with linseed meal, or some similar substance, it forms a cataplasm, useful in particular cases, especially where the object is to promote the falling off of scabs. The only remaining preparation for local use is what Dr. Lugol calls iodine caustic. It consists of iodine and iodide of potassium, each an ounce, dissolved in two ounces of distilled water, and is used to stimulate or destroy soft and fungous granu- lations. Its employment in this way has been attended with decidedly good effects in noli me tangere. The external application of iodini when general, consists in the use of iodine baths, a mode of applying the remedy which originated with Dr. Lugol. This mode is considered very valuable by this physician, on account of the great extent of the skin, which furnishes the means of intro- ducing a considerable quantity of iodine into the circulation without de- ranging the digestive functions, an object of great importance, where the medicine disagrees with the stomach. The iodine bath for adults, accord- ing to the formula of Dr. Lugol, should contain from two to four drachms of iodine, with double that quantity of iodide of potassium, dissolved in water, in a wooden bath tub, the proportion of the water being nbout a gallon for every three grains of iodine employed. The quantity of ingre- dients for the baths of children is one-third as much as for adults, but dis- solved in about the same proportional quantity of water. The quantity of iodine and iodide for a bath being determined on, it is best to dissolve them in a small quantity of water, (half a pint for example,) before they are added to the water of the bath; as this mode of proceeding facilitates their thorough 396 Iodinum. PART I. diffusion. In the composition of these baths, the iodide of potassium is used by Dr. Lugol merely to promote the solubility of the iodine, and not as a medicinal agent; as, upon trial, a bath containing the iodide alone proved nearly inert. The iodine baths, which may be directed three or four times a week, usually produce a slight rubefacient effect; but, occasionally, a stronger im- pression, causing the epidermis to peel off, particularly of the arms and legs. The skin at the same time contracts a deep yellow tinge, which usually dis- appears in the interval between the baths: Iodine has been used as a local application in erysipelas and chilblains. In these cases the tincture is recommended, brushed over and a little beyond the seat of inflammation, by means of a camel's hair pencil. The efficacy of the remedy in the former disease has been confirmed in two cases by Dr. Robert Burns, of Frankford, Pa. (Med. Exam., iv. 709.) We have tried it in one case with the effect of apparently cutting short the disease; but its application produced very severe pain, and we regretted that we had used the tincture undiluted. In cutaneous scrofula, the tincture has been found beneficial by Dr. Pereira, applied in the same way, having the effect of drying up the discharge and promoting cicatrization. The same topical application has been found useful in various scaly cutaneous diseases, such as lepra, psoriasis, &c. Sir Charles Scudamore, Sir James Murray, and Dr. Corrigan have re- commended the inhalation of iodine vapour in phthisis. The plan of Sir Charles is to inhale from a glass inhaler for ten minutes, two or three times a day, a small portion of a solution of ioduretted iodide of potassium, mixed with a saturated tincture of conium. The ioduretted solution is made by dissolving six grains, each, of iodine and iodide of potassium, in five ounces and three-quarters of distilled water and a quarter of an ounce of alcohol. The dose for each inhalation is from half a drachm to a drachm of the iodine solution, gradually increased, with half a drachm of the tincture, added to a portion of water of the temperature of 120°, nearly sufficient to half fill the inhaler. We have no disposition to discourage the trial of new methods of treatment in phthisis; but cannot conceive that this inhaling treatment can have any other than a palliative effect. Since the publication of Dr. Lugol's memoirs, detailing his success with iodine in the treatment of scrofulous affections, his practice has been imitated and extended by several practitioners, and generally with encouraging re- sults. Dr. Bermond, of Bordeaux, has succeeded with the iodine treatment in enlarged testicle from a venereal cause, scrofulous ophthalmia of six years' duration, and scrofulous ulcers and abscesses of the cervical and sub- maxillary glands. In numerous other cases of scrofula under his care, the iodine treatment proved beneficial; though, before its commencement, the cases underwent no improvement. The only peculiarity in Dr. Bermond's treatment, was that, in some cases, he associated opiate preparations with the iodine. In the case of ophthalmia which he treated, the collyrium em- ployed consisted of tincture of iodine thirty drops, laudanum thirty-six drops, to four fluidounces of distilled water. When the local application of the iodine created much pain or rubefaction, he found advantage from combining extract of opium with it. A plaster which proved efficacious as an appli- cation to an enlarged parotid, in one of his cases, consisted of lead plaster (diachylon) and iodide of potassium, each, four parts; iodine and extract of opium, each, three parts. In confirmation of Dr. Bermond's views, M. Lemasson, one of the house pupils of the hospital St. Louis, has published a number of cases, proving the efficacy of a combination of iodine and opium PART I. Iodinum. 397 in the local treatment of scrofulous ulcerations. He concludes from his experience that the union of opiate preparations with iodine imparts to the latter, in many cases, new and valuable powers. One of the combinations which he employed consisted offifteen grains of iodine, a drachm of iodide of potassium, and two drachms of Rousseau's laudanum, made up into an ointment with two ounces of fresh lard. The protiodide and biniodide of mercury, besides being used in the form of ointment as already mentioned, are employed internally, especially in the treatment of scrofulous syphilis. They are both recognised as officinal in the different Pharmacopoeias. (See Hydrargyri Iodidum, and Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum.) For the iodides of iron, lead, potassium, and sulphur, see Ferri Iodidum, Plumbi Iodidum, Potassii Iodidum, and Sutphuris Iodidum. The results obtained by Dr. Lugol and others in the treatment of scrofu- lous diseases by the iodine preparations are so diversified, as to leave no doubt of their superiority over all other remedies in these affections. A considerable number of practitioners in the United States have employed them in the same diseases with encouraging success; but at the same time, there has been a number of failures. To judge fairly, however, of Dr. Lugol's results, it is not sufficient for our practitioners to give iodine; but they should use it in the peculiar manner, and with the observance of all the rules, which are so fully laid down in the published memoirs of that physician. Reasoning on the subject, we can readily conceive that a dilute aqueous solution of iodine may act differently from the tincture; and that a therapeutical agent may be introduced gradually and imperceptibly into the current of the circulation in one form of administration, and thus be capable of producing important alterative effects ; while in another, it may create irritation and even ulceration of the stomach, without being absorbed, and thus prove mischievous. A case in point is furnished by mineral waters, which, though generally containing a minute proportion of saline matter, often produce remedial effects which cannot be obtained by their constituents given in larger doses. The views here presented are supported and extended by the observations and experiments of Dr. A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, who contends that iodine is divested of its irritant qualities in certain states of combination, in which it may be given in large doses without risk, and with the effect of pervad- ing nearly all the secretions, and, under certain circumstances, even the blood. The combinations which he prefers, enumerated in the order of their relative efficacy, are iodide of starch, hydriodic acid, and iodide of potassium, the first and last of which he supposes to act as hydriodic acid, the iodine in them being, agreeably to his view, converted into that acid in the stomach and bowels. (See Potassii Iodidum in Part II., and hydriodic acid and iodide of starch in the Appendix.*) The following is a list of all the officinal preparations of iodine, contained in the United States and British Pharmacopoeias. Iodine is officinal:— I. In SOLUTION IN ALCOHOL. Tinctura Iodini, U.S.; Tinctura Iodinei, Ed.; Iodinii Tinctura. Dub. * For further details the reader is referred to the work of Dr. Lugol, " Sur l'Emploi de llode dans les Maladies Scrofuleuses,'' or its Translation, with valuable additions, by Dr. O'Shaughnessy. For notices of the iodides of ammonium and zinc, and of the iodohy- drargyrate of potassium, see Appendix. 35 398 Io dinum.—Ipecacuanha. PART I. II. In solution in alcohol with iodide of potassium. Tinctura Iodini Composita, U. S.; Tinctura Iodinii Composita, Lond. III. In THE FORM OF OINTMENT. Unguentum Iodini, U. S.; Unguentum Iodinii, Dub. IV. IN THE FORM OF OINTMENT WITH IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. Unguentum Iodini Compositum, U.S.; Unguentum Iodinii Compositum, Lond.; Unguentum Iodinei, Ed. V. In solution in water with iodide of potassium. Liquor Iodini Compositus, U. S.; Iodinei Liquor Compositus, Ed. Liquor Potassii Iodidi Compositus, Lond. VI. Combined with sulphur. Sulphuris Iodidum, U. S. VII. In saline combination. Ferri Iodidum, U. S., Ijond., Ed. Ferri Iodidi Syrupus, Ed. Liquor Ferri Iodidi, U. S. Hydrargyri Iodidum, U. S., Lond. Pilulas Hydrargyri Iodidi, Lond. Unguentum Hydrargyri Iodidi, Lond. Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, U. S.; Hydrargyri Biniodidum, Lond., Ed. Unguentum Hydrargyri Biniodidi, Lond. Plumbi Iodidum, Lond., Ed. Unguentum Plumbi Iodidi, Lond. Potassii Iodidum, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Potassas Hydriodas, Dub. Unguentum Potassas Hydriodatis, Dub. B. IPECACUANHA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Ipecacuanha. " The root of Cephae'lis Ipecacuanha." U. S., Ed. " Cephaelis Ipe- cacuanha. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. CEPHAELIS IPECACUANHA. Radix. Dub. Ipecacuanha, Fr.; Brechwurzel, Ipecacuanha, Germ.; Ipecacuana. Ital., Span. The term ipecacuanha, derived from the language of the aborigines of Brazil, has been applied to various emetic roots of South American origin. The British Colleges and our national Pharmacopoeia recognise only that of the Cephaelis Ipecacuanha; and no other is known by the name in the shops of this country. Our chief attention will, therefore, be confined to this root, and the plant which yields it; but as others are employed in South America, are occasionally exported, and may possibly reach our markets mingled with the genuine drug, we shall, in a note, give a suc- cinct account of those which have attracted most notice. The botanical character of the plant which yields genuine ipecacuanha was long unknown. Pison and Marcgrav, who were the first to treat of his medicine, in their work on the natural history of Brazil, published at Amsterdam, A.D. 1648, describe in general terms two plants ; one produc- ing a whitish root, distinguished by the name of white ipecacuanha, the other, a brown root which answers in their description precisely to the offi- cinal drug. But their account was not sufficiently definite to enable bota- nists to decide upon the character of the plants; and much uncertainty PART I. Ipecacuanha. 399 existed on the subject. The medicine was generally thought to be derived from a species of l^iola, which Linnasus designated by the title of V. Ipe- cacuanha. Opinion afterwards turned in favour of a plant sent to Linnasus by the celebrated Mutis from New Granada, as affording the ipecacuanha of that country and of Peru. This was described in the Supplementum of the younger Linnasus, A. D. 1781, under the name of Psychotria emetica, and was long erroneously considered as the source of the true ipecacuanha. Dr. Gomez, of Lisbon, was the first who accurately described and figured the genuine plant, which he had seen in Brazil, and specimens of which he took with him to Portugal; but Brotero, professor of botany at Coimbra, with whom he had left specimens, having drawn up a description, and had it inserted with a figure in the Linnean Transactions, without acknowledg- ment, enjoyed for a time the credit due to his fellow countryman. In the paper of Brotero the plant is named Callicocca Ipecacuanha ; but the term Callicocca, having been applied by Schreber, without sufficient reason, to a genus previously established and named, has been universally abandoned by botanists for the Cephaelis of Swartz ; though this, also, it appears, is a usurpation upon the previous rights of Aublet. Cephaelis. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceas, Juss. Cinchonaceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Flowers in an involucred head. Corolla tubular. Stigma two- parted. Berry two-seeded. Receptacle chaffy. Willd. Cephaelis Ipecacuanha. Richard, Hist. Ipecac, p. 21. t. i.; Martius, Spec. Mat. Med. Brazil, p. 4. t. i.; Curtis's Bot. Mag. N. S. vol. xvii.pl. 4063, A. D. 1844.—Callicocca Ipecacuanha. Brotero, Linn. Trans, vi. 137. This is a small shrubby plant, with a root from four to six inches long, about as thick as a goose-quill, marked with annular rugas, simple or some- what branched, descending obliquely into the ground, and here and there sending forth slender fibrils. The stem is two or three feet long; but being partly under ground, and often procumbent at the base, usually rises less than a foot in height. It is slender; in the lower portion leafless, smooth, brown or ash-coloured, and knotted, with radicles frequently proceeding from the knots; near the summit, pubescent, green, and furnished with leaves seldom exceeding six in number. These are opposite, petiolate, oblong obovate, acute, entire, from three to four inches long, from one to two broad, obscurely green and somewhat rough on their upper surface, pale, downy, and veined on the under. At the base of each pair of leaves are deciduous stipules, embracing the stem, membranous at their base, and separated above into numerous bristle-like divisions. The flowers are very small, white, and collected to the number of eight, twelve, or more, each accompanied with a green bracte, into a semi-globular head, supported upon a round, solitary, axillary footstalk, and embraced by a monophyllous involucre deeply divided into four, sometimes five or six obovate pointed segments. The fruit is an ovate, obtuse berry, which is at first purple, but becomes almost black when ripe, and contains two small plano-convex seeds. The plant is a native of Brazil, flourishing in moist, thick, and shady woods, and abounding most within the limits of the eighth and twentieth degrees of south latitude. According to Humboldt, it grows also in New Grenada. It flowers in January and February, and ripens its fruit in May. The root is usually collected during the period of flowering, though equally good at other seasons. By this practice the plant is speedily extirpated in places where it is most eagerly sought. Were the seeds allowed to ripen, it would propagate itself rapidly and thus maintain a constant supply. The root is collected chiefly by the Indians, who prepare it by separating it from 400 Ipecacuanha. PART I. the stem, cleaning it, and hanging it up in bundles to dry in the sun. The Brazilian merchants carry on a very brisk trade in this drug. The chief places of export are Rio Janeiro, Bahia, and Pernambuco. It is brought to the United States in large bags or bales. Genuine ipecacuanha is in pieces two or three lines in thickness, variously bent and contorted, simple or branched, consisting of an interior slender, light straw-coloured, ligneous cord, with a thick cortical covering, which presents on its surface a succession of circular, unequal, prominent rings or rugas, separated by very narrow fissures frequently extending nearly down to the central fibre. This appearance of the surface has given rise to the term annele or annulated, by which the true ipecacuanha is designated in the French works on Pharmacy. The cortical part is hard, horny, and semi-transparent, breaks with a resinous fracture, and easily separates from the tougher ligneous fibre, which possesses the medicinal virtues of the root in a much inferior degree. Attached to the root is frequently a smoother and more slender portion, which is the base of the stem, and should be sepa- rated before pulverization. Pereira has met, in the English market, with distinct bales composed of these fragments of stems, with occasionally por- tions of the root attached. Much stress has been laid in works on the materia medica upon the colour of the external surface of the ipecacuanha root, and diversity in this respect has even led to the formation of distinct varieties. Thus, the epidermis is sometimes deep brown or even blackish, sometimes reddish-brown or reddish-gray, and sometimes light-gray or ash- coloured. Hence the distinction into brown, red, and gray ipecacuanha. But these are all derived from the same plant, are essentially the same in properties and composition, and probably differ only in consequence of dif- ference in age, or place of growth, or mode of desiccation. The colours in fact are often so intermingled, that it would be impossible to decide in which variety a particular specimen should be placed. The brown is the most abundant in the packages which reach our market. The red, besides the colour of its epidermis, presents a rosy tint when broken, and is said to be somewhat more bitter than the preceding variety. The gray is much lighter coloured externally, usually rather larger, with less prominent rings and wider fissures, and is still more decidedly bitter. We have seen, in this market, bales of gray ipecacuanha, with very imperfectly developed rings, which were said to have come from Caraccas. At present, however, this is very rare, if to be found at all. When the bark in either variety is opaque, with a dull amylaceous aspect, the root is less active as a medicine. As the woody part is nearly inert, and much more difficult of pulverization than the cortical, it often happens that, when a particular parcel of the root is powdered, the portion which remains last in the mortar possesses scarcely any emetic power; and care should be taken to provide against any defect from this cause. The colour of the powder is a light grayish-fawn. Ipecacuanha has little smell in the aggregate state, but when powdered has a peculiar nauseous odour, which in some persons excites violent sneez- ing, in others dyspnoea resembling an attack of asthma. The taste is bitter, acrid, and very nauseous. Water and alcohol extract its virtues, which are injured by decoction. Its emetic property resides in a peculiar alkaline principle called emetin, or more properly emelia, discovered by Pelletier in the year 1817. The cortical portion of the brown ipecacuanha, analyzed by this chemist under the erroneous name of Psychotria emetica, yielded in the hundred parts, 16 of an impure salt of emetia, which was at first con- sidered the pure emetic principle, 2 of an odorous fatty matter, 6 of wax, 10 of gum, 42 of starch, 20 of lignin, with 4 parts loss. The woody fibre PART I. Ipecacuanha. 401 was found to contain only 1-15 per cent, of the impure emetia. M. A. Richard obtained, from the cortical part, the same proportion of emetia as found by Pelletier, but detected some principles not noticed by that chemist, among which were traces of gallic acid. The bark of the red ipecacuanha was found by Pelletier to contain but fourteen per cent, of the impure eme- tia. The gray variety has not been analyzed. One hundred parts of good ipecacuanha contain about 80 of cortical and 20 of ligneous matter. Emetia when perfectly pure is whitish, inodorous, slightly bitter, pulveru- lent, unalterable in the air, very fusible, sparingly soluble in cold water and ether, more soluble in hot water, and very soluble in alcohol; is not reddened by nitric acid; forms crystallizable salts with the mineral acids and acetic acid; is precipitated by gallic and tannic acids from its solutions; and con- tains nitrogen among its ingredients. It is, however, very difficult to pro- cure it in this state of purity, and the proportion afforded by the root is exceedingly small. As originally obtained it was very impure, probably in the condition of a salt, and in this state is directed by the French Codex. Impure emetia is in transparent scales of a brownish-red colour, almost inodorous, of a bitterish acrid taste, deliquescent, very soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether, precipitated from its solutions by gallic acid and the acetates of lead, but not by tartar emetic or the salts of iron. The Co- dex directs it to be prepared by evaporating a filtered aqueous solution of an alcoholic extract of ipecacuanha. According to the original method, it was obtained by treating powdered ipecacuanha with ether to remove the fatty matter, exhausting the residue with alcohol, evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness, and subjecting the extract to the action of cold water, which dissolves the emetia with some free acid, and leaves the wax and other matters. To separate the acid, the watery solution is treated with carbonate of magnesia, filtered, and then evaporated. If pure emetia is required, magnesia is used instead of the carbonate. The salt is thus decom- posed, and the organic alkali, being insoluble, is precipitated with the excess of the earth. The precipitate is washed with cold water, and digested in alcohol, which dissolves the emetia; the alcoholic solution is then evaporated, the residue redissolved in a dilute acid, and the alkali again precipitated by a salifiable base. To deprive it of colour it is necessary to employ animal charcoal. Berzelius has obtained emetia by treating the powdered root with very dilute sulphuric acid, precipitating with magnesia, and treating the pre- cipitate in the manner above directed. Pure emetia has at least three times the strength of the impure.* * Nov-officinai. Ipecacuanhas.—When ipecacuanha began to be popular in Europe, the roots of several other plants were imported and confounded with the genuine, and the name came at length to be applied to almost all emetic roots derived from America. Several of these are still occasionally met with, and retain the name originally applied to them. The two most worthy of notice are the ipecacuanha of New Grenada and Peru, and the white ipecacuanha of Brazil. On each of these we shall offer a few remarks. 1. Peruvian Ipecacuanha. Striated Ipecacuanha. Black Ipecacuanha.—This is the root of the Psychotria emetica, formerly supposed to produce the genuine Brazilian ipe- cacuanha. The plant, like the Cephaelis, belongs to the class and order Pentandria Mo- nogynia, and to the natural order Rubiacea? of Jussieu. A description of it sent by Mutis was published by Linnaeus the younger in his supplement. It has since been described in the Plant. JEquin. of Humb. and Bonpl.; and has been figured by A. Richard in his History of the Ipecacuanhas, and by Hayne in the eighth volume of his Medical Botany published at Berlin. It is a small shrub, with a stem twelve or eighteen inches high, simple, erect, round, slightly pubescent, and furnished with opposite, oblong lanceolate, pointed leaves, narrowed at their base into a short petiole, and accompanied with pointed s-tipules. The flowers are small, white, and supported in small clusters towards the end of an axillary peduncle. The plant flourishes in Peru and New Grenada, and was seen 35* 402 Ipecacuanha. PART I. Medical Properties and Uses. Ipecacuanha is in large doses emetic, in smaller, diaphoretic and expectorant, and in still smaller, stimulant to the stomach, exciting appetite and facilitating digestion. In quantities insuffi- cient to vomit, it produces nausea, and frequently acts upon the bowels. As an emetic it is mild but tolerably certain in its operation, and, being usually thrown from the stomach by one or two efforts, is less apt to produce dan- by Humboldt and Bonpland growing in abundance near the river Magdalena. The dried root is said to be exported from Carthagena. It is cylindrical, somewhat thicker than the root of the Cephaelis, usually simple, but sometimes branched, not much contorted, wrinkled longitudinally, presenting here and there deep circular intersections, but without the annular rugae of the true ipecacuanha. The longitudinal direction of the wrinkles has given origin to the name of striated ipe- cacuanha, by which it is known in French Pharmacy. It consists of an internal woody cord and an external cortical portion; but the former is usually larger in proportion to the latter than in the root of the Cephaelis. The bark is soft and easily cut with a knife, and when broken exhibits a brown slightly resinous fracture. The epidermis is of a dull reddish-gray colour, which darkens with age and exposure, and ultimately becomes almost black. Hence the root has sometimes been called black ipecacuanha. The ligne- ous portion is yellowish, and perforated with numerous small holes visible by the micro- scope. The Peruvian ipecacuanha is nearly inodorous, and has a flat taste, neither bitter nor acrid. Out of 100 parts Pelletier obtained 9 of impure emetia, 12 of fatty matter, ■with an abundance of starch, besides gum and lignin. The dose as an emetic, is from two scruples to a drachm. 2. White Ipecacuanha. Amylaceous Ipecacuanha. Undulated Ipecacuanha.—This variety was noticed in the work of Pison; but the vegetable which produced it was not satisfac- torily ascertained till a recent date. Gomez, indeed, in the memoir which he published at Lisbon, A.D. 1,801, gave a figure and description of the plant: but the memoir was not generally known, and botanists remained uncertain upon the subject. By the travels of M. Saint Hilaire and Dr. Martius in Brazil, more precise information has been obtained; and the white ipecacuanha is now confidently referred to different species of Richard- sonia, the Richardia of Linnaeus. The R. scabra, or R. Brazilienzis of Gomez, and the R. emetica are particularly indicated by Martius. For the root usually called white ipeca- cuanha, Guibourt has proposed the name of undulated ipecacuanha, derived from the peculiar character of the surface, which presents indentations or concavities on one side, corresponding with prominences or convexities on the other, so as to give a wavy ap- pearance to the root. It differs little in size from the genuine; is of a whitish-gray colour externally; and when broken presents a dull white farinaceous fracture, offering by the light of the sun, shining points, which are nothing more than small grains of fecula. Like the other varieties it has a woody centre. It is inodorous and insipid, and contains, according to Pelletier, a very large proportion of starch, with only six per cent. of impure emetia, and two of fatty matter. Richard found only 3-5 parts of emetia in the hundred. It is said to be sometimes mixed with the genuine Ipecacuanha; but we have discovered none in the bales which we have examined. According to Martius, different species of Ionidium (Viola, Linn.) produce also what is called white ipecacuanha. The roots of all the species of Ionidium possess emetic or pur- gative properties, and some of them have been reported to be equal to the genuine ipeca- cuanha. The root of the J. Ipecacuanha is described by Guibourt as being six or seven inches long, as thick as a quill, somewhat tortuous, and exhibiting at the points of flexion semicircular fissures, which give it some resemblance to the root of the Cephaelis. It is often bifurcated at both extremities, and terminates at top in a great number of small hg- neous stalks. It is wrinkled longitudinally, and of a light yellowish-gray colour. The bark is thin, and the interior ligneous portion very thick. The root has little taste or smell. According to Pelletier, it contains in 100 parts 5 of an emetic substance, 35 of gum, 1 of azotized matter, and 37 of lignin. {Hist. Abreg. des Drogues Simples, i. 514.) The root of a species of Ionidium growing in Quito has attracted some attention as a remedy in elephantiasis, under the South American name of cuichunchulli. The plant, being considered an undescribed species by Dr. Bancroft, was named by him I. Marcucci; but Sir W. Hooker found the specimen, received from Dr. Bancroft, to be identical with the I. parviflorum of Ventenat. Lindley thinks a specimen he received under the same name from Quito, to be the /. microphyllum of Humboldt. If useful in elephantiasis, it is so probably by its emeto-purgative action. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., vii. 186.)* * See a paper on ipecacuanha by R. E. Griffith, M. D., in the Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., vol. 3, p. 181, for a more extended account of the roots which have been used under the name of ipecacuanha. PART I. Ipecacuanha. 403 gerous effects when taken in an overdose than some other substances of the same class. It is also recommended by the absence of corrosive and nar- cotic properties. It was employed as an emetic by the natives of Brazil, when that country was first settled by the Portuguese; but, though described in the work of Pison, it was not known in Europe till the year 1672, and did not come into use till some years afterwards. John Helvetius, grandfather of the celebrated author of that name, having been associated with a merchant who had imported a large quantity of ipecacuanha into Paris, employed it as a secret remedy, and with so much success in dysentery and other bowel affections, that general attention was attracted to it; and the fortunate physi- cian received from Louis XIV. a large sum of money, and public honours, on the sole condition that he should make the remedy public. From this period it has maintained its standing among the most useful articles of the materia medica. As an emetic it is peculiarly adapted by its mildness and efficiency to all cases in which the object is merely to evacuate the stomach, or a gentle impression only is desired; and in most other cases in which emetics are indicated, it may be advantageously combined with the more energetic medi- cines, the action of which it renders safer by insuring their discharge. It is especially useful where narcotic poisons have been swallowed; as under these circumstances it may be given in almost indefinite doses, with little comparative risk of injury to the patient. In dysentery it has been sup- posed to exercise peculiar powers; but is at present less used than formerly in doses sufficient to excite vomiting. As a nauseating remedy it is used in asthma, hooping cough, and the hemorrhages; as a diaphoretic, combined with opium, in a wide circle of diseases. (See Pulvis Ipecacuanhas et Opii.) Its expectorant properties render it beneficial in catarrhal and other pulmonary affections. It has been given also, with supposed advantage, in very minute doses, in dyspeptic cases, and in chronic disease of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. Ipecacuanha is most conveniently administered as an emetic in the form of powder suspended in water. The dose is about twenty grains, repeated if necessary at intervals of twenty minutes till it operates. In some individuals much smaller quantities prove emetic, and we know one person who is gene- rally vomited by the fraction of a grain. The operation of the medicine may be facilitated, and rendered milder, by copious draughts of warm water, or warm chamomile tea. An infusion in boiling water, in the proportion of two drachms of the powder to six fluidounces of menstruum, may be given in the dose of a fluidounce repeated as in the former case. With a view to the production of nausea, the dose in substance may be two grains, repeated more or less frequently according to circumstances. As a diaphoretic it may be given in the quantity of a grain; as an alterative, in diseases of the stomach and bowels, of a quarter or half a grain two or three times a day. Emetia has been used on the continent of Europe as a substitute, but with no great advantage. Its operation on the stomach is apt to be more violent and continued than that of ipecacuanha itself; and, if given in over- doses, it may produce dangerous and even fatal consequences. From the experiments of Magendie, it appears to have a peculiar direction to the mucous membranes of the alimentary canal and the bronchial tubes. Ten grains of the impure alkali, administered to dogs, were generally found to destroy life in twenty-four hours, and the mucous membranes mentioned were observed to be inflamed throughout their whole extent. The same result took place when emetia was injected into the veins, or absorbed from 404 Ipecacuanha.—Iris Florentina. part i. any part of the body. The dose of impure emetia is about a grain and a half, of the pure not more than half a grain, repeated at proper intervals till it vomits. In proportional doses, it may be applied to the other purposes for which ipecacuanha is used. It will excite vomiting when applied to a blistered surface after the removal of the cuticle. Magendie found that dogs slept much after being vomited with emetia, and concluded that the medicine was narcotic; but other emetic medicines produce the same effect, which is to be ascribed rather to exhaustion than to any direct operation on the brain. Dr. Turnbull recommends the external use of ipecacuanha as a counter- irritant. An ointment made with one part of the powder, one of olive oil, and two of lard, rubbed once or twice a day, for a few minutes upon the skin, produces a copious eruption, which continues out for many days, without pain or ulceration. (London Lancet, May, 1842.) It has, however, been found by others of little efficacy in the great majority of cases. Off. Prep. Pilulas Conii Compositas, Lond.; Pulvis Ipecacuanhas et Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Ipecacuanhas, U. S., Ed.; Trochisci Ipecacuanhas, £7. £.; Trochisci Morphias et Ipecacuanhas, Ed.; Vinum Ipecacuanhas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W, IRIS FLORENTINA. U.S. Secondary. Florentine Orris. "The rhizoma of Iris Florentina." U.S. Iris de Florence, Fr.; Florentinische Violenwurzel, Germ.; Ireos, Ital; Lirio Floren tina, Span. Iris. Sex. Syst. Triandria Monogynia.'—Nat. Ord. Iridaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla six-parted; the alternate segment reflected. Stigmas petal-shaped. Willd. In all the species belonging to this genus, so far as examined, the roots are more or less acrid, and possessed of cathartic and emetic properties, in Europe, the I.fostidissima, I. Florentina, I. Germanica, I. pseudo-acorus, and /. tuberosa have at various times been admitted into use. Of these the /. Florentina is the only one officinal in this country. Iris Florentina. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 226; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 776. t. 262. The root (rhizoma) of the Florentine Iris is perennial, horizontal, fleshy, fibrous, and covered with a brown epidermis. The leaves spring directly from the root, are sword-shaped, pointed, nerved, and shorter than the stem, which rises from the midst of them more than a foot in height, round, smooth, jointed, and bearing commonly two large white or bluish- white terminal flowers. The calyx is a spathe with two valves. The corolla divides into six segments or petals, of which three stand erect, and the remaining three are bent backward, and bearded within at their base with yellow-tipped white hairs. The fruit is a three-celled capsule, containing numerous seeds. This plant is a native of Italy, and other parts of the South of Europe. The root, which is the officinal portion, is dug up in spring, and prepared for the market by the removal of its cuticle and fibres. It is brought from Leghorn in large casks. Properties. Florentine orris is in pieces of various form and size, often branched, usually about as thick as the thumb, knotty, flattened, white, heavy, of a rough though not fibrous fracture, a pleasant odour resembling that of the violet, and a bitterish acrid taste. The acrimony is greater in the recent than in the dried root; but the peculiar smell is more decidedly part i. Iris Versicolor.—Jalapa. 405 developed in the latter. The pieces are brittle and easily powdered, and the powder is of a dirty white colour. Vogel obtained from Florentine orris gum, a brown extractive, fecula, a bitter and acrid fixed oil or soft resin, a volatile crystallizable oil, and vegetable fibre. Medical Properties. This medicine is cathartic, and in large doses emetic, and was formerly employed to a considerable extent on the continent of Europe. It is said also to be diuretic, and to have proved useful in dropsies. At present it is highly valued for its pleasant odour. It is occa- sionally chewed to conceal an offensive breath, and enters into the compo- sition of numerous tooth-powders. In the form of small round balls, about the size of a pea, it is much used by the French for maintaining the dis- charge from issues, a purpose to which it is adapted not only by its odour, but also by the slight degree of acrimony which it retains in its dried state, and by the property of swelling very much by the absorption of moisture. W. IRIS VERSICOLOR. U.S. Secondary. Blue Flag. "The rhizoma of Iris versicolor." U.S. Iris. See IRIS FLORENTINA. Iris versicolor. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 233; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 155. This indigenous species of Iris has a perennial, fleshy, horizontal, fibrous root or rhizoma, and a stem two or three feet high, round on one side, acute on the other, and frequently branching. The leaves are sheath- ing at the base, sword-shaped, and striated. The flowers are from two to six in number, and are usually blue or purple, though varying much in colour. The capsule has three valves, is divided into three cells, and when mature is oblong, three-sided, with obtuse angles, and contains numerous flat seeds. The blue flag is found in all parts of the United States, flourishing in low wet places, in meadows, and on the borders of swamps, which it serves to adorn with its large and beautiful flowers. These make their appearance in June. The root is the medicinal portion. The flowers afford a fine blue infusion, which serves as a test of acids and alkalies. The recent root is without odour, and has a nauseous, extremely acrid taste, which is imparted to water by decoction, and still more perfectly to alcohol. The acrimony as well as medicinal activity is impaired by age. Blue flag possesses the cathartic, emetic, and diuretic properties common to most of the species of this genus. It is said by Mr. Bartram to be held in much esteem by the Southern Indians; and Dr. Bigelow informs us that he has found it efficacious as a purgative, though inconvenient from the distressing nausea and prostration which it is apt to occasion. Dr. Mac- bride, of Carolina, found it useful in dropsy. It is, however, very little employed by the profession at large, and is seldom if ever kept in the shops. It may be given in substance, decoction, or tincture. The dose of the dried root is from ten to twenty grains. W. JALAPA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Jalap. " The root of Ipomasa Jalapa (Coxe, Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences)." U. S. "Ipomasa Jalapa. Radix." Lond. "Root of Ipomasa Purga (Nees von Esenbeck)." Ed. "Convolvulus Jalapa. Radix." Dub. 406 Jalapa. PART I. Jalap, Fr.; Jalappen-Wurzel, Germ.; Sciarappa, Ital; Jalapa, Span. It is only within a few years that the precise botanical origin of jalap has been known. It was at first ascribed by Linnasus to a Mirabilis, but afterwards to a new species of Convolvulus, to which he gave the name of C. Jalapa. The correctness of the latter reference was generally admitted; and, as the Ipomasa macrorhiza of Michaux, growing in Florida and Georgia, was believed to be identical with the C. Jalapa of Linn., it was thought that this valuable drug, which had been obtained exclusively from Mexico, might be collected within the limits of the United States. But the error of this opinion was soon demonstrated; and botanists now universally concur in the belief, that jalap is the product of a plant first made known to the scientific world by Dr. John R. Coxe,of Philadelphia, and described by Mr. Nuttall under the name of Ipomasa Jalapa. When this Dispensa- tory was first published, opinion in relation to the botanical history of the drug was unsettled, and it was deemed proper to enter at some length into the consideration of the subject; but the subsequent general admission of the views then advocated renders an equal degree of minuteness now un- necessary. It is sufficient to state, that Dr. Coxe received living roots of jalap from Mexico in the year 1827, and succeeded in producing a perfect flowering plant, of which a description, by Mr. Nuttall, was published in the Am. Journ. of Medical Sciences for January, 1830; that the same plant was afterwards cultivated in France and Germany from roots transmitted to those countries from the jalap region of Mexico; and that one of the authors of this work has produced, from roots obtained in the vicinity of Xalapa, and sent to him by the late Dr. Marmaduke Burrough, then United States consul at Vera Cruz, luxuriant plants, which he was enabled to compare with others descended from the plant of Dr. Coxe, and found to be identical with them. In the United States, London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, this origin of jalap is now admitted; but the London Col- lege has quoted as authority for their Ipomasa Jalapa an unpublished manu- script by Don, and the Edinburgh College has adopted Hayne's and Wende- roth's name of I. Purga, thus overlooking the prior claims of the American authorities. J. H. Balfour, in the number of Curtis's magazine for February 1847, states that the plant belongs to the genus Exogonium of Choisy, as defined in De Candolle's Prodromus, being distinguished from Ipomasa by its exserted stamens. IpomjEa. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Convolvulaceas. Gen. Ch. Sepals five. Corolla campanulate. Stamens included. Style one. Stigma two-lobed; the lobes capitate. Ovary two-celled; cells two- seeded. Capsule two-celled. Lindley. Ipomasa Jalapa. Nuttall, Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences, v. 300. Ipomasa Purga. Hayne, Darstel, unci Beschreib. &c, xii. 33 and 34; Lindley, Flor. Med. 396. Exogonium Purga. Balfour, Curtis's Bot. Mag. 3d ser., vol. iii. tab. 4280. The root of this plant is a roundish somewhat pear- shaped tuber, externally blackish, internally white, with long fibres pro- ceeding from its lower part as well as from the upper root-stalks. A tuber produced by Dr. Coxe was, in its third year, between two and three inches in diameter. The stem is round, smooth, much disposed to twist, and rises to a considerable height upon neighbouring objects, about which it twines. The leaves are heart-shaped, entire, smooth, pointed, deeply sinuated at the base, prominently veined on their under surface, and supported upon long footstalks. The lower leaves are nearly hastate, or with diverging angular points. The flowers, which are large and of a lilac-purple colour, stand upon peduncles about as long as the petioles. Each peduncle supports two, or more rarely, three flowers. The calyx is without bractes, five- PART I. Jalapa. 407 leaved, obtuse, with two of the divisions external. The corolla is funnel- form. The stamens are five in number, with oblong, white, somewhat exserted anthers. The. stigma is simple and capitate. The above descrip- tion is taken from that drawn up by Mr. Nuttall, and published in Dr. Coxe's paper in the American Journal of the Medical Sciences. The jalap plant is a native of Mexico, and derived its name from the city of Xalapa, in the state of Vera Cruz, in the neighbourhood of which it grows, at a height of about 6000 feet above the ocean. It might probably be cultivated in the southern section of the United States. The drug is brought from the port of Vera Cruz in bags, containing usually between one hundred and two hundred pounds. Properties. The tuber comes either whole, or divided longitudinally into two parts, or in transverse circular slices. The entire tubers are irregularly roundish, or ovate and pointed, or pear-shaped, usually much smaller than the fist, and marked with circular or vertical incisions, made to facilitate their drying. The root is preferred in this state, as it is less apt to be defective, and is more easily distinguished from the adulterations than when sliced. A much larger proportion comes entire than formerly, indi- cating a greater scarcity of the older roots, which it is necessary to slice in order to dry them properly. The tuber is heavy, compact, hard, brittle, with a shining undulated fracture, exhibiting numerous resinous points, dis- tinctly visible with the microscope. It is externally brown and wrinkled, internally of a grayish colour, diversified by concentric darker circles, in which the matter is denser and harder than in the intervening spaces. Jalap is always kept in the shops in the state of powder, which is of a yellowish- gray colour, and when inhaled irritates the nostrils and throat, and provokes sneezing and coughing. The odour of the root, when cut or broken, is heavy, sweetish, and rather nauseous; the taste is sweetish, somewhat acrid, and disagreeable. It yields its active properties partly to water, partly to alcohol, and completely to diluted alcohol. M. Cadet de Gassicourt obtained from 500 parts of jalap, 24 of water, 50 of resin, 220 of gummy extract, 12-5 of fecula, 12-5 of albumen, 145 of lignin, 16-3 of saline matters, 2-7 of silica, with a loss of 17 parts. The resin of jalap consists of two por- tions, one of which, amounting to seven parts out of ten, is hard and insoluble in ether, the other is soft and soluble in that menstruum. The hard resin is stated by G. A. Kaiser to have acid properties, and to be identical with the jalapin of Herberger and Buchner. He proposes to call it rhodeoretin. (Chem. Gaz., No. 53, from Liebig's Annalen.) The proportion of resin to the other ingredients of the root varies considerably in different specimens. According to Gerber, the root contains 7*8 per cent, of hard resin, 3-2 of soft resin, 17*9 of extractive, 14*5 of gummy extract, 8*2 of a colouring sub- stance which becomes red under the influence of the alkaline carbonates, 1-9 of uncrystallizable sugar, 15*6 of gum mixed with some saline matters, 3-2 of bassorin, 3*9 of albumen, 6*0 of starch, 8*2 of lignin, with some water, and various salts. For the method of obtaining the resin of jalap pure, see Extractum sive Resina Jalapse. Jalap is apt to be attacked by worms, which, however, are said to devour the amylaceous or softer parts, and to leave the resin; so that the worm-eaten drug is more powerfully purgative than that which is sound. Thus, out of 397 parts of the former, M. Henry obtained 72 parts of resin, while from an equal quantity of the latter he procured only 48 parts. Hence worm- eaten jalap should be employed for obtaining the resin, but should not be pulverized, as it would afford a powder of more than the proper strength. The drug is also liable to various adulterations, or fraudulent substitutions, which, however, can usually be detected without difficulty. Those which 408 Jalapa. PART I. have attracted particular attention are mentioned in the note below.* Jalap should be rejected when it is light, of a whitish colour internally, of a dull fracture, spongy, or friable. Powders of calomel and jalap, taken on long * Adulterations, fyc. Jalap is said to be sometimes adulterated with bryony root; but no instance of the kind has come under our notice; and the two drugs are so widely different that the fraud would be instantly detected. (See Briony in the Appendix.) It is probable, however, that the adulteration which has been considered as bryony root, is the mechoacan, which in Europe is sometimes called American bryony, and was formerly erroneously supposed to be derived from a species of Bryonia. The mechoacan is a pro- duct of Mexico, which was taken to Europe even before the introduction of jalap. The plant which produces it has been conjectured to.be the Ipomcea macrorhiza of Michaux, which is believed to grow in Mexico near Vera Cruz, as well as in our Southern States, and the root of which, when of full size, is said to weigh from fifty to sixty pounds, and, according to Dr. Baldwin, has little or no purgative power. But this origin is altogether uncertain. Mechoacan is in circular slices, or fragments of various shapes, white and farinaceous within, and, as found in European markets, generally destitute of bark, of which, however, portions of a yellowish colour sometimes continue to adhere. The larger pieces are sometimes marked with faint concentric stria;; and, upon the exterior surface, when any portion of this remains, are brown spots and ligneous points left by the radicles which have been removed. {Guibourt.) Though tasteless when first taken into the mouth, it becomes after a time slightly acrid. It is very feebly purgative. We have seen fiat circular pieces of root, mixed with jalap, altogether answering this description, except that the cortical portion still remained, between which and the amylaceous parenchyma there was a very evident line of division. A drug formerly known in our markets as spurious jalap, sometimes comes mingled with the genuine, and has been imported, unmixed, in mistake for that root. It is pro- bably the same with that referred to by French writers as the product of a plant denomi- nated male jalap in Mexico, and named by M. Ledanois Convolvulus Orizabensis, from the city of Orizaba, in the neighbourhood of which it grows abundantly. In the shops of Paris the drug is called light jalap, and, in the last edition of Guibourt's Histoire des Drogues, is described under the title of fusiform jalap. A description of it was first pub- lishedin this country by Mr. D. B. Smith, in a valuable paper upon the Ipomsea Jalapa, in the Am. Journ. of Pharm., vol. ii. p. 22. For an account of the plant, the reader is referred to the same Journal, vol. x. p. 224. The recent root i3 large, spindle-shaped sometimes as much as twenty inches in length, branched at its lower extremity, of a yellow colour on its outer surface, and white and milky within. The drug, as described by Guibourt, is in circular pieces, two or three inches in diameter, or in longer and more slender sections. As we have seen it, the shape of the pieces is often such as to indicate that the root was sliced transversely, and each circular slice divided into quarters. The horizontal cut surface is dark from exposure, unequal from the greater shrinking in the drying process of some parts than others, and presents the extremities of numerous fibres, which are often concentrically arranged, and run in the longitudinal direction of the root. Internally the colour is whitish, and the texture, though much less compact than that of jalap, is sometimes almost ligneous. The taste is at first slight, but after a time becomes somewhat acrid and nauseous. The dried root of the Convolvulus Orizabensis, or male jalap, analyzed by M. Ledanois, yielded in 1000 parts, 80 of resin, 256 of gummy extract, 32 of fecula, 24 of albumen, and 580 of lignin. From experiments made with it in Paris, it appears to have cathartic properties similar to those of the true jalap, but to be con- siderably more feeble, requiring to be given in a dose of from thirty to sixty grains in order to operate effectively. The proportion of resin, which in both is the most active purgative principle, is considerably less in the male jalap, while that of lignin, which is wholly inert, is about double. {Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 166; also Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 223.) This resin, according to G. A. Kaiser, differs essentially from the true jalap resin, by consisting of only one principle, which is entirely soluble in ether. But both resins are distinguished from all others by being gradually dissolved in concentrated sul- phuric acid, and deposited again after some hours in a soft state. {Chem. Gaz., No. 53, from Liebig's Annalen.) A false jalap was a few years since brought into the United States, different from any thing before seen in our market. It was said to have been imported from Mexico into New York in considerable quantities, and was offered for sale under the name of overgrown jalap. A specimen, brought to Philadelphia, and examined by a Committee of the Col- lege of Pharmacy, presented the following characters. It was in light, entire or vertically sliced tubers, of different form and magnitude, spindle-shaped, ovate, and kidney-form, some as much as six inches long and three thick, others much smaller, externally somewhat PART I. Jalapa. 409 voyages to southern climates, are said, when brought back, to have become consolidated, and so far chemically altered as plainly to exhibit globules of mercury. This change is ascribed by Schacht and Wackenroder to a fun- gous growth in the powder. (Arch, der Pharm., xxxiv. 289.) Medical Properties and Uses. Jalap is an active cathartic, operating briskly and sometimes painfully upon the bowels, and producing copious watery stools. The aqueous extract purges moderately, without much griping, and is said to increase the flow of urine. The portion not taken up by water gripes severely. The watery extract obtained from jalap pre- viously exhausted by rectified spirit, is said to have no cathartic effect, but to operate powerfully by urine. (Duncan.) The alcoholic extract, usually called resin of jalap, purges actively, and often produces severe griping. From these facts it appears, that the virtues of this cathartic do not depend exclusively upon any one principle. Jalap was introduced into Europe in the latter part of the sixteenth, or beginning of the seventeenth century, and now ranks among the purgative medicines most extensively employed. It is applicable to most cases in which an active cathartic is required, and from its hydragogue powers is especially adapted to the treatment of dropsy. It is generally given in connexion with other medicines, which assist or qualify its operation. In dropsical complaints it is usually combined with the bitar- trate of potassa; and the same mixture is much employed in the treatment of the hip disease, and scrofulous affections of other joints. With calomel it forms a cathartic compound, which has long been highly popular in the United States in bilious fever, and other complaints attended with congestion of the liver or portal circle. In overdoses it may produce dangerous hyper- catharsis. It is said to purge when applied to a wound. The dose of jalap in powder is from fifteen to thirty grains; of the resin or alcoholic extract, which is much used on the continent of Europe, and is now directed by the Edinburgh College, from four to eight grains. The latter is usually given rubbed up with sugar, or in emulsion, by which its tendency to irritate painfully the mucous membrane of the bowels is thought to be in some measure obviated. The extract of the United States and London Pharmacopoeias is preferable to the alcoholic, as it more completely represents the jalap itself. The dose of calomel and jalap is ten grains of each, that of bitartrate of potassa and jalap, two drachms of the former and ten or fifteen grains of the latter. Off. Prep. Extractum Jalapas, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Extractum sive Re- sina Jalapas, Ed.; Pulvis Jalapas Compositus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Jalapas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Sennas et Jalapas, U. S., Ed. W. wrinkled, with broad flattish light-brown, ridges and shallow darker furrows, internally grayish-white, with distant darker concentric circles, sometimes uniformly amylaceous, of a dull rough fracture, a loose texture, a slight, peculiar, and sweetish odour, and a feeble jalap-like taste. The powder was of a light-gray colour, and did not irritate the nostrils or diroat during pulverization. The root differed from mechoacan by the absence of the marks of radical ^fibres, and from male jalap by the want of a fibrous structure. It yielded by analysis, in 100 parts, 3 of a soft and 4 of a hard and brittle resin, 17 of gummy extractive, 28 of starch and inulin, 10 of gum and albumen, 23-2 of lignin, and 14-8 of saccharine matter and salts of lime, including loss. In doses of from fifteen to twenty grains it produced no effect on the system, and cannot, therefore, be used as jalap. A similar root was described by Guibourt in the Journal de Chimie Medicate, and afterwards in the London Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, (ii. 331,) by the name of rose- scented jalap. It was taken to France from Mexico mixed with genuine jalap. It proved equally inefficacious as a purgative, and probably had the same origin. This spurious drug is probably the product of a Convolvulus or Ipomfea. See a report by Messrs. Duhamel, Ellis, and Ecky, in the American Journal of Pharmacy, xiv. 289. 36 410 Juglans. PART I. JUGLANS. U.S. Butternut. " The inner bark of the root of Juglans cinerea." U. S. Juglans. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Juglandaceas. Gen.Ch. Male. Amentum imbricated. Calyx a scale. Corolla six-part- ed. Filaments four to eighteen. Female. Calyx four-cleft, superior. Co- rolla four-cleft. Styles two. Drupe coriaceous with a furrowed nut. Willd. Several products of Juglans regia, or common European walnut, are used medicinally in Europe. The hull of the fruit has been employed as a vermifuge from the times of Hippocrates, and has been recommended in syphilis and old ulcers. The expressed oil of the fruit is deemed by some practitioners efficacious against the tape-worm, and is also used as a laxative injection. The leaves, long occasionally employed for various purposes both in regular and domestic practice, have recently been found by Professor Ne- grier, of Angers, in the highest degree efficacious in scrofula. He gave to children a teacupful of a pretty strong infusion, or six grains of the aqueous extract, or an equivalent dose of the syrup prepared from the extract, two, three, or four times a day; and at the same time applied a strong decoction to the ulcers, and as a collyrium when the eyes were diseased. No injury was ever experienced from a long-continued use of the remedy. It appears to act as a moderately aromatic bitter and astringent. (Archives Gen., 'Se serie, x. 399 and xi. 41.) The leaves of our J. nigra or common black walnut, or those of J. cinerea, which is the only officinal species, would probably answer as good a purpose. Juglans cinerea. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 456; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 115.—J. cathartica. Michaux, N. Am. Sylva. i. 160. This is an indi- genous forest tree, known in different sections of the country, by the various names of butternut, oilnut, and white walnut. In favourable situations it attains a great size, rising sometimes fifty feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter at the distance of five feet from the ground. The stem divides, at a small distance from the ground, into numerous nearly hori- zontal branches, which spread widely, and form a large tufted head, giving to the tree a peculiar aspect. The young branches are smooth and of a grayish colour, which has given origin to the specific name of the plant. The leaves are very long, and consist of seven or eight pairs of sessile leaflets, and a single petiolate leaflet at the extremity. These are two or three inches in length, oblong-lanceolate, rounded at the base, acuminate, finely serrate, and somewhat downy. The male and female flowers are dis- tinct upon the same tree. The former are in large aments, four or five inches long, hanging down from the sides of the shoots of the preceding year's growth near their extremity. The fertile flowers are at the end of the shoots of the same spring. The germ is surmounted by two large, feathery, rose- coloured stigmas. The fruit is sometimes single, suspended by a thin pliable peduncle; sometimes several are attached to the sides and extremity of the same peduncle. The drupe is oblong-oval, with a terminal projection, hairy, viscid, green in the immature state, but brown when ripe. It contains a hard, dark-coloured, oblong, pointed nut, with a rough deeply and irregu- larly furrowed surface. The kernel is thick, oily, and pleasant to the taste. The butternut grows in Upper and Lower Canada, and throughout the whole northern, eastern, and western sections of the United States. In the Middle States, the flowers appear in May, and the fruit ripens in September. PART I. Juglans.—Juniperus. 411 The tree, if pierced immediately before the leaves unfold, yields a richly saccharine juice, from which sugar may be obtained, nearly if not quite equal to that from the sugar maple. The wood, though neither strong nor com- pact, is useful for some purposes on account of its durability, and exemption from the attacks of worms. The fruit, when half-grown, is sometimes made into pickles, and when ripe, affords, in its kernel, a grateful article of food. The bark is used for dyeing wool a dark-brown colour, though inferior for this purpose to that of the black walnut. It is said, when applied to the skin, to have a rubefacient effect. The inner bark is the medicinal portion, and that of the root, being considered most efficient, is directed by the national Pharmacopoeia. It should be collected in May or June. On the living tree, the inner bark when first uncovered is of a pure white, which becomes immediately on exposure a beautiful lemon colour, and ulti- mately changes to deep brown. It has a fibrous texture, a feeble odour, and a peculiar, bitter, somewhat acrid taste. Its medical virtues are entirely ex- tracted by boiling water. Dr. Bigelow could detect no resin among its con- stituents ; and the presence of tannin was not evinced by the test of gelatin, though a brownish-black colour was produced by the sulphate of iron. Medical Properties and Uses. Butternut is a mild cathartic, operating without pain or irritation, and resembling rhubarb in the property of evacuat- ing without debilitating the alimentary canal. It was much employed during our revolutionary war by Dr. Rush and other physicians attached to the army, and was highly esteemed. It is especially applicable to cases of habitual costiveness and other bowel affections, particularly dysentery, in which it has acquired considerable reputation. In connexion with calomel it becomes more active, and is sometimes used in our intermittent and remit- tent fevers, and other complaints attended with congestion of the abdominal viscera. It is given in the form of decoction or extract, never in substance. The extract is officinal, and is almost always preferred. The dose of it is from twenty to thirty grains as a purge, from five to ten grains as a laxative. Off. Prep. Extrafetum Juglandis, U. S. W. JUNIPERUS. U.S. Juniper. " The fruit of Juniperus communis." U. S. Off. Syn. JUNIPERI CACUMINA. JUNIPERI FRUCTUS. Juni- perus communis. Cacumina. Fructus. Lond.; JUNIPERI CACUMI- NA. Tops of Juniperus communis. JUNIPERI FRUCTUS. Berries of Juniperus communis. Ed.; JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS. Baccas. Cacu- mina. Dub. Genevrier commun, Baies de Genievre, Fr.; Gemeiner Wachholder, Wachholderbeeren, Germ.; Ginepro, Ital; Enebro, Bayas de enebro, Span. Juniperus. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Pinaceas or Coniferas. Gen. Ch. Male. Amentum ovate. Calyx a scale. Corolla none. Sta- mens three. Female. Calyx three-parted. Petals three. Styles three. Berry three-seeded, irregular, with the three tubercles of the calyx. Willd. Juniperus communis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 853; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 13. t. 6. This is an erect evergreen shrub, usually small, but sometimes attaining a height of twelve or fifteen feet, with numerous very close branches. The leaves are narrow, longer than the fruit, entire, sharply pointed, chan- neled, of a deep green colour, somewhat glaucous on their upper surface, 412 Juniperus. PART I. spreading, and attached to the stem or branches in threes, in a verticillate manner. The flowers are dioecious, and disposed in small, ovate, axillary, sessile, solitary aments. The fruit is formed of the fleshy coalescing scales of the ament, and contains three angular seeds. The common juniper is a native of Europe; but has been introduced into this country, in some parts of which it has become naturalized. It is not uncommon in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. The plant described in Bigelow's American Medical Botany under the title of /. communis, and very common in certain parts of New England, deserves, perhaps, to be considered a distinct species. It is a trailing shrub, seldom more than two or three feet in height, spreading in all directions, throwing out roots from its branches, and forming beds which are often many rods in circumference. The name of J. depressa has been proposed for it. The common juniper flowers in May; but does not ripen its fruit till late in the following year. All parts of the plant contain a volatile oil, which imparts to them a peculiar flavour. The wood has a slight aromatic odour, and was formerly used for fumigation. A terebinthinate juice exudes from the tree and hardens on the bark. This has been erroneously considered as identical with sandarach. The peasanty in the South of France prepare a sort of tar, which they call ilhuile de cade," from the interior reddish wood of the trunk and branches by a distillation per descensum. It is a brownish thick liquid, of a strong tar-like smell, and is used internally in worms, and externally in scabies and various scaly eruptions. (Ann. de Therap., 1847, p. 65.) The fruit and tops of juniper are the only officinal parts. The berries, as the fruit is commonly called, are sometimes collected in this country, and parcels are occasionally brought to the Philadelphia mar- ket from New Jersey. But, though equal to the European in appearance, they are inferior in strength, and are not much used. The best come from the South of Europe, particularly from Trieste and the Italian ports. They are globular; more or less shriveled ; about as large as a pea ; marked with three furrows at the summit, and with tubercles from the persistent calyx at the base; covered with a glaucous bloom, beneath which they are of a shining blackish-purple colour; and containing a brownish-yellow pulp, and three angular seeds. They have an agreeable somewhat aromatic odour, and a sweetish, warm, bitterish, slightly terebinthinate taste. These pro- perties, as well as their medical virtues, they owe chiefly to an essential oil, which may be separated by distillation. (See Oleum Juniperi.) The other ingredients, according to Trommsdorff, are resin, sugar, gum, wax, lignin, water, and various saline substances. The proportion of these ingredients varies according to the greater or less maturity of the berries. The volatile oil is most abundant in those which have attained their full growth and are still green, or in those which are on the point of ripening. In the latter, Trommsdorff found one per cent, of the oil. In those which are perfectly ripe it has been partly changed into resin, and in those quite black, com- pletely so. The berries impart their virtues to water and alcohol. They are very largely consumed in the preparation of gin. The tops of Juniper are directed by the London and Dublin Colleges. Their odour is balsamic, their taste resinous and bitterish ; and they possess similar virtues with the berries. Medical Properties and Uses. Juniper berries are gently stimulant and diuretic, imparting to the urine the smell of violets, and producing occasion- ally, when very largely taken, disagreeable irritation in the urinary passages. They are chiefly used as an adjuvant to more powerful diuretics in dropsical complaints; but have been recommended also in scorbutic and cutaneous dis- part i. Juniperus.—Juniperus Virginiana. 413 eases, catarrh of the bladder, and atonic conditions of the alimentary canal and uterus. They may be given in substance triturated with sugar, in the dose of one or two drachms repeated three or four times a day. But the infusion is a more convenient form. It is prepared by macerating an ounce of the bruised berries in a pint of boiling water, the whole of which may be taken in the course of twenty-four hours. Extracts are prepared from the berries, both bruised and unbruised, and given in the dose of one or two drachms; but, in consequence of the evaporation of the essential oil, they are probably not stronger than the berries in substance. Off.Prep. Decoctum ScopariiCompositum, Lond.,Ed.; Oleum Juniperi, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Juniperi Compositus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA. U.S. Secondary. Red Cedar. "The tops of Juniperus Virginiana." U.S. Juniperus. See JUNIPERUS. Juniperus Virginiana. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 853; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 49; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 221. This species of juniper, known commonly by the name of red cedar, is an evergreen tree of slow growth, seldom attaining a very large size, though sometimes rising forty or fifty feet in height, with a stem twelve or thirteen inches in diameter. It has numerous very close branches, which, in the young tree, spread out horizontally near the ground; but, as the tree advances, the lower branches slowly decay, leaving the trunk irregular with knots and crevices. The leaves are very small, fleshy, ovate, concave, pointed, glandular on their outer surface, either ternate or in pairs, and closely imbricated. Those of the young shoots are often much longer, and spreading. The leaves closely invest the extreme twigs, increasing with their growth, till ultimately lost in the encroachments of the bark. "The barren flowers are in oblong aments, formed by peltate scales with the anthers concealed within them. The fertile flowers have a proper perianth, which coalesces with the germ, and forms a small, roundish berry, with two or three seeds, covered on its outer surface with a bright blue powder." (Bigelow.) The red cedar grows in all latitudes of the United States, from that of Burlington, in Vermont, to the Gulf of Mexico; but is most abundant and most vigorous in the southern section. The interior wood is of a reddish colour, and highly valuable on account of its great durability. Small ex- crescences which are sometimes found on the branches of the tree, are popularly used as an anthelmintic under the name of cedar apples, in the dose of from ten to twenty grains three times a day. The tops or leaves only are officinal. They have a peculiar not unpleasant odour, and a strong, bitterish, somewhat pungent taste. These properties reside chiefly in an essential oil, and are readily imparted to alcohol. The leaves, analyzed by Mr."Wm. J. Jenks, were found to contain volatile oil, gum, tannic acid, albumen, bitter extractive, resin, chlorophylle, fixed oil, lime, and lignin. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 235.) They bear a close resemblance to the leaves of Junipe- rus Sabina, from which they can be certainly distinguished only by the difference of odour. Medical Properties and Uses. The resemblance of red cedar to savine is said also to extend to their medical properties; the former being considered, 36* 414 Juniperus Virginiana.—Kino. part i. like the latter, stimulant, emmenagogue, diuretic, and, under certain cir- cumstances, diaphoretic. It is, however, much less energetic; and,though advantage may, as has been asserted, have accrued from its use in amenor- rhoea, chronic rheumatism, and dropsy, it has not acquired the confidence of the profession generally. Externally applied it acts as an irritant; and an ointment, prepared by boiling the fresh leaves for a short time in twice their weight of lard, with the addition of a little wax, is employed as a substitute for savine cerate in maintaining a purulent discharge from blistered surfaces. Sometimes the dried leaves in powder are mixed with six times their weight of resin cerate, and used for a similar purpose. But neither of these pre- parations is as effectual as the analogous preparation of savine. W. KINO. U. S., Lond., Ed.. Dub. Kino. "An extract obtained from an uncertain plant." U.S. "Pterocarpus erinaceus. Extractum." Lond. "Concrete exudation of Pterocarpus erina- ceus, and of other undetermined genera and species." Ed. Kino, Fr., Germ., Ital; Quino, Span. The term kino was originally applied to a vegetable extract orinspissated juice, taken to London from the western coast of Africa, and introduced to the notice of the profession by Dr. Fothergill. Vegetable products obtained from various other parts of the world, resembling kino in their appearance and properties, afterwards received the same name; and much confusion and uncertainty have existed, and to a considerable degree still exist, in relation to the botanical and commercial history of the drug. We shall first give an account of the general properties which at present entitle a medi- cine to the name of kino, and shall then treat of the several varieties. General Properties. Kino, as found in the shops, is usually in small, irregular, angular, shining fragments, seldom so large as a pea, of a dark reddish-brown or blackish colour, very brittle, easily pulverizable, and afford- ing a reddish powder, much lighter coloured than the drug in its aggregate state. If in larger masses, it may be reduced without difficulty into these minute fragments. It is without odour, and has a bitterish, highly astrin- gent taste, with a somewhat sweetish after-taste. It burns with little flame, and does not soften with heat. It imparts its virtues and a deep-red colour to water and alcohol. Cold water forms with it a clear infusion. Boiling water dissolves it more largely; and the saturated decoction becomes turbid on cooling, and deposits a reddish sediment. The tincture is not disturbed by water. When Jong kept it often gelatinizes, and loses its astringency. (See Tinctura Kino.) Kino consists chiefly of a modification of tannic acid or tannin, with extractive, gum, and sometimes probably a little resin; but we need a careful analysis of the different well-ascertained varieties. The aqueous solution of kino is precipitated by gelatin, the soluble salts of iron, silver, lead, and antimony, the bichloride of mercury, and the sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. The precipitate with iron is of an olive or green- ish-black colour. The alkalies favour the solubility of kino in water, but essentially change its nature, and destroy its astringency. 1. East India Kino. This is the variety at present probably most used, and most highly esteemed. Its origin was Jong unknown. Recently, it has been ascertained, by the united researches of Drs. Pereira, Royle, Wight, and others, to be the product of Pterocarpus Marsupium, a lofty tree, grow- ing upon the mountains of the Malabar coast of Hindostan. Kino is thejuice PART I. 'Kino. 415 of the tree, extracted through longitudinal incisions made in the bark, and afterwards dried in the sun. Upon drying it breaks into small fragments, and is put into wooden boxes for exportation. It is collected near Telli- cherry, and exported from Bombay. (Royle's Mat. Med. and Therap.) It is sometimes imported into this country directly from the East Indies, but more commonly from London. It comes from the East in boxes. East India kino is in small, angular, glistening fragments, of a uniform consistence, appearing as if formed by the breaking down of larger masses. The larger fragments are opaque and nearly black; but minute splinters are sometimes translucent, and of a deep garnet redness when viewed by trans- mitted light. This variety of kino is very brittle, readily breaking between the fingers, and easily pulverized, affording a dark reddish powder, a portion of which, resulting from the mutual attrition of the fragment, is often found interspersed among them. When chewed, it softens in the mouth, adheres somewhat to the teeth, and tinges the saliva of a blood-red colour. In odour, taste, and chemical relations, it corresponds with the account already given of kino in general. It was analyzed by Vauquelin, and found to contain 75 per cent, of tannin and peculiar extractive, 24 of red gum, and I of insoluble matter. Pereira states that it has been shown by A. W. Buchner to contain catechuin, or catechuic acid. (See Catechu, p. 194.) 2. West India or Jamaica Kino. This is believed to be the product of the Coccoloba uvifera, or sea-side grape, a tree twenty feet or more in height, bearing beautiful broad shining leaves, and large bunches of purple berries, to which it owes its vernacular name. It grows in the West Indies and neighbouring parts of the continent. The kino is said to be obtained by evaporating a decoction of the wood and bark, which are very astringent. Many years since, a thick reddish-brown liquid was imported into Phila- delphia from the West Indies, which, when dried by exposure to the air in shallow vessels or by heat, afforded an extract having all the properties of kino, for which it was sold by the druggists. This has been long exhausted; but, within a few years, a considerable quantity of West India kino has been brought into this market, and now enters into the consumption of the country. It is contained in large gourds, into which it has evidently been poured while in a liquid or semi-liquid state, and then allowed to harden. When taken from the gourd, it breaks into fragments of various sizes, upon an average about as large as a hazelnut, and having some tendency to the rectangular form. The consistence of these fragments is uniform, their surface smooth and shining, and their colour a dark reddish-brown, approach- ing to black. They are, however, not so glistening, nor so black as the East India kino. In mass they are quite opaque, but in thin splinters are translucent and of a ruby redness. They are readily broken by the fingers into smaller fragments, are easily pulverized, and yield a dull reddish pow- der, considerably lighter-coloured than that of the former variety. The West India kino is without odour, and has a very astringent bitterish taste, with a scarcely observable sweetish after-taste. It adheres to the teeth when chewed, though rather less than the East India variety, and colours the saliva red. The solubility of Jamaica kino was very carefully ex- amined, at our request, by Dr. Robert Bridges, of this city, who found that cold water dissolved 89 per cent., and ordinary officinal alcohol 94 per cent. The portion dissolved by alcohol and not by water was probably of a resin- ous nature; as it appeared to be viscid, and very much impeded the filtra- tion of the watery solution. Guibourt, who states that Jamaica kino is but slightly dissolved by cold water, must have operated on a different product. According to Bostock, it contains 41 per cent, of tannin. 416 Kino. PART I. 3. South American Kino.—Caracas Kino. In 1839, when the fourth edition of this Dispensatory was published, an astringent extract had recently been introduced into our market, derived, as we were informed, from Caracas, and known by that name to the druggists. Since that period it has come much more into use, and now constitutes a considerable portion of the con- sumption of the country. It is probably the same as that described by Guibourt, in the last edition of his History of Drugs, as the kino of Columbia. As imported, this variety of kino is in large masses, some weighing seve- ral pounds, covered with thin leaves, or exhibiting marks of leaves upon their unbroken surface, externally very dark, and internally of a deep red- dish-brown or dark port-wine colour. It is opaque in the mass, but trans- lucent in thin splinters, very brittle, and of a fracture always shining, but in some masses wholly rough and irregular, in others rough only in the interior, while the outer portion, for an inch or two in depth, breaks with a rather smooth and uniform surface like that of the West India kino. This outer portion is easily broken into fine angular fragments, while the interior crumbles quite irregularly. Some of the masses are very impure, contain- ing pieces of bark, wood, leaves, &c.; others are more homogeneous, and almost free from impurities. The masses are broken up by means of a mill so as to resemble East India kino, from which, however, this variety differs in being more irregular, less sharply angular, more powdery, and less black. On comparing the finer and more angular portions of the masses with the West India kino, we were strongly struck with their resemblance; and in fact could discover no difference between the two varieties either in colour, lustre, taste, the colour of the powder, or other sensible property. South American kino was found by Dr. Bridges to yield 93-5 per cent, to cold water, and 93 per cent, to alcohol; so that, while it has almost the same solubility as Jamaica kino in alcohol, it is somewhat more soluble in cold water. The aqueous solution, in this case, was not embarrassed by the adhesive matter which impeded the filtration in the former variety; and the want of a minute proportion of resinous matter in the South America kino is the only difference we have dis- covered between the two drugs. It is not improbable that they are derived from the same plant; and there is no difficulty in supposing that this may be the Coccoloba uvifera, as that tree grows as well upon the continent as in the islands. 4. African Kino. The original kino employed by Dr. Fothergill was known to be the produce of a tree growing in Senegal, and upon the banks of the Gambia, on the western coast of Africa; but the precise character of the tree was not ascertained, until a specimen, sent home by Mungo Park during his last journey, enabled the English botanists to decide that it was the Pterocarpus erinaceus of Lamarck and Poiret. The London College accordingly refers kino to this plant; but in so doing has overlooked the fact that not one of the varieties now used is brought from Africa. The importation of African kino has long ceased, and the most experienced pharmacologist cannot speak with certainty of having seen a specimen. That described by Guibourt has turned out to be the Butea gum;* and the * Butea gum is the concrete juice of the Butea frondosa or Dhak-tree of Hindostan. The juice flows from natural fissures, and from wounds made in the bark of the tree, and quickly hardens. It is in small elongated tears, or irregular angular masses, less in size than a grain of barley, apparently black and opaque, but translucent and of a ruby-red colour when examined in small fragments by transmitted light. Many of the"tears have small portions of bark adhering to them. They are very brittle, and readily puiverizable, yielding a reddish powder. They are very astringent to the taste, do not adhere to the PART I. Kino. 417 description in Christison's Dispensatory evidently applies to the common East India kino. A specimen given to Dr. A. T. Thomson as African kino, and described in his Dispensatory, is certainly not the drug spoken of by Fothergill, but rather resembles the Butea gum. As described by Fothergill, the African kino, for which he proposed the name of gummi rubrum astringens Gambinense, was in lumps of about the size of those of gum Senegal or dragon's blood, and so similar in appear- ance to the latter that a good judge might easily be deceived. These Jumps were hard, brittle, opaque, and almost black; but minute fragments were reddish and transparent like garnet. The drug was inodorous, of a strongly astringent and sweetish taste, and soluble in water to the extent of about five or six parts out of seven, forming a deep red astringent infusion. There can be little doubt that this variety of kino is a concrete juice, which exudes either spontaneously or from wounds in the bark, and hardens in the air. (See Med. Obs. and Inq., i. 358.) 5. Botany Bay kino. This is the concrete juice of the Eucalyptus re- sinifera, or brown gum tree of New Holland, a lofty tree, belonging to the class and order Icosandria Monogynia, and the natural order Myrtaceae. When the bark is wounded the juice flows very freely, and hardens in the air. According to~Mr. White, a single tree is capable of furnishing five hundred pounds of kino in one year. (White's Voyage.) Duncan states that specimens of the juice have reached Great Britain in the fluid form, and that when he first examined kino in 1802, it was common, and was the finest kind in commerce. According to inforrhation received by Dr. Thom- son, its importation into Great Britain must have ceased soon after that period (Thomson's Dispensatory, 1826, p. 506); but Dr. Pereira speaks of it as imported in boxes, and has himself met with a parcel of it from Van Diemen's Land. Ainslie informs us that he has met with it in the markets of Hindostan. Parcels may occasionally reach this country; but by such complicated routes that their origin is unknown. The specimen examined by Pereira was in irregular masses, many of them in the form of tears as large as those of Senegal gum. " The purer pieces were vitreous, almost black in the mass, but transparent and of a beautiful ruby-red in small and thin fragments. Some of the pieces, how- ever, were opaque and dull, from the intermixture of wood and other im- purities." This variety of kino is brittle, with a resinous unequal fracture, and yields a reddish-brown powder. It is infusible, without odour, of an astringent taste followed by sweetness, and when long chewed adheres to the teeth. (Duncan.) It swells up and becomes gelatinous with cold water, yielding a red solution, which gives precipitates with lime-water, gelatin, and sesquichloride of iron, but not with alcohol or tartar-emetic. With rectified spirit it also becomes gelatinous, and forms a red tincture which is not precipitated by water. (Pereira.) White states that only one-sixth of this kino is soluble in water; Guibourt found it wholly soluble with the teeth when chewed, and tinge the saliva red. The relations of this product to water, alcohol, and other chemical reagents are nearly the same as those of ordinary kino. When freed from impurities, consisting of from 15 to 25 per cent, of wood, bark, sand, &c, it contains, according to Mr. E. Solly, 73-26 per cent, of tannin, 5-05 of soluble extractive, and 21-67 Of gum and other soluble substances. It is used in the arts in India, and might undoubt- edly be employed as kino in medicine. It is, however, very seldom imported into Eng- land, and never, at present, into this country. Dr. Pereira found a quantity in an old drug store in London, and sent a portion to Guibourt, from which that writer drew up his description of African kino. It is possible that the kino which formerly reached us, full of small pieces of wood, bark, &c, may have been the Butea gum. 418 Kino.—Krameria. PART I. exception of foreign matters; and Dr. Thomson informs us that water at 60° dissolves more than one-half. These gentlemen must have experimented with different substances. According to Dr. Duncan, alcohol dissolves the whole except impurities; and the tincture, with a certain proportion of water, lets fall a copious red precipitate, but with a large proportion only becomes slightly turbid. It is said that catechu, broken into small fragments, has sometimes been sold as kino. Fortunately little injury can result from the substitution, as the medical virtues of the two extracts are very nearly the same. Medical Properties and Uses. Kino is powerfully astringent, and in this country is much used for the suppression of morbid discharges. In diarrhoea not attended with febrile excitement or inflammation, it is often an excellent adjunct to opium and the absorbent medicines, and is a favourite addition to the chalk mixture. It is also used in chronic dysentery when astringents are admissible; in leucorrhoea and diabetes; and in passive hemorrhages, particularly that from the uterus. It was formerly used in intermittent fever, but has given way to more efficient remedies. It may be given in powder, infusion, or dissolved in diluted alcohol. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains. The infusion, which is a very convenient form of administration, may be made by pouring eight fluidounces of boiling water on two drachms of the extract, and straining when cool. Aromatics may be added, if deemed advisable. The dose is a fluidounce. The proportion of alcohol in a dose of the tincture renders it frequently an unsuitable preparation. Locally applied, kino is often productive of benefit. Its infusion is useful as an injection in leucorrhoea and obstinate gonorrhoea, and thrown up the nostrils we have found it very efficacious in suppressing hemorrhage from the Schneiderian membrane. A case of obstinate hemorrhage from a wound in the palate, after resisting various means, yielded to the application of powdered kino, which was spread thickly on lint, and pressed against the wound by the tongue. The powder is also a very useful application to indolent and flabby ulcers. Off. Prep. Electuarium Catechu, Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Aluminis Compo- situs, Ed.; Pulvis Kino Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Kino, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. KRAMERIA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Rhatany. "The root of Krameria triandra." U. S., Ed. "Krameria triandra. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. RHATANIA. KRAMERIA TRIANDRA. Radix et extrac- tum. Dub. Ratanhie, Fr.; Ratanhiawurzel, Germ.; Ratania, Ital, Span. Krameria. Sex. Syst. Tetrandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Polygaleae, De Cand. Krameriaceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla four-petalled; the superior nectary three- parted, and inferior two-leaved. Berry dry, echinated, one-seeded. Willd. Krameria triandra. Ruiz and Pavon, Flor. Peruv. i. 61. The rhatany plant is a shrub, having a long, much branched, and spreading root, of a blackish-red colour; with a round, procumbent, very dark-coloured stem, divided into numerous branches, of which the younger are leafy and thickly covered with soft hairs, giving them a white, silky appearance. The leaves PART I. Krameria. 419 are few, sessile, oblong-ovate, pointed, entire, presenting on both surfaces the same silky whiteness with the young branches, on the sides of which they are placed. The flowers are lake-coloured, and stand singly on short peduncles at the axils of the upper leaves. There are only three stamens. The nectary consists of four leaflets, of which the two upper are spatulate, the lower roundish and much shorter: it does not correspond with the gene- ric character of Willdenow, which was drawn from the Krameria Ixina. The fruit is globular, of the size of a pea, surrounded by stiff reddish-brown prickles, and furnished with one or two seeds. This species of Krameria is a native of Peru, growing in dry argillaceous and sandy places, and abundant about the city of Huanuco. It flowers at all seasons, but is in the height of its bloom in October and November. The root is dug up after the rains. The K. Ixina, growing in Hayti, and in Cumana on the South American continent, is said to afford a root closely analogous in appearance and pro- perties to that of the Peruvian species ; but the latter only is officinal. The name rhatany is said to express, in the language of the Peruvian Indians, the creeping character of the plant. We receive rhatany in pieces of various shapes and dimensions, some being simple, some more or less branched, the largest as much as an inch in thickness, being derived from the main body of the root, the smallest not thicker than a small quill, consisting of the minute ramifications. The pieces are often nearly cylindrical, and as much as twoor three feet in length. Sometimes many of the radicles are united in a common head, which is short, and from half an inch to two inches or more in diameter. The roots are composed of a dark reddish-brown, slightly fibrous, easily separable bark, and a central woody portion, less coloured, but still reddish or reddish-yellow. The root is without smell, but has a bitter, very astringent, slightly sweetish taste, which is connected with its medical virtues, and is much stronger in the cortical than the ligneous part. The smallest pieces are therefore pre- ferable, as they contain the largest proportion of the bark. The powder is of a reddish colour. The virtues of the root are extracted by water and alcohol, to which it imparts a deep reddish-brown colour. From the researches of Vogel, Gmelin, Peschier, and Trommsdorff, it appears to contain tannin, lignin, and minute quantities of gum, starch, saccharine matter, and an acid which Peschier considered as peculiar, and named krameric acid. The tan- nin is in three states ; 1st, in that of purity, in which it is without colour; 2d, that of apotheme, in which it has lost its astringency, and been rendered insoluble by the action of the air, and 3d, that of extractive, which is a soluble combination of tannin and its apotheme, and is the substance which imparts to the infusion and tincture of rhatany their characteristic reddish- brown colour. (Soubeiran, Journ. de Pharm., xix. 596.) The proportion of red astringent matter obtained by Vogel was 40 per cent. The mineral acids and most of the metallic salts throw down precipitates with the infusion, decoction, and tincture of rhatany, and are incompatible in prescription. Cold water, by means of displacement or percolation, extracts all the astringency of rhatany, forming a clear deep-red infusion, which, upon careful evaporation, yields an almost perfectly soluble extract. The root yields its virtues also to boiling water by maceration; but the resulting infu- sion becomes turbid upon cooling, in consequence of the deposition of apo- theme taken up by the water when heated. By boiling with water a still larger proportion of the apotheme is dissolved, and a considerable quantity of the pure tannin becomes insoluble in cold water, and medicinally inert, either by combining with the starch which is also dissolved, or by conver- 420 Krameria.—Lacmus. PART I. sion into apotheme through the agency of the atmosphere. The decoction is, therefore, an ineligible preparation, and the extract resulting from its evaporation, though greater in weight than that from the cold infu- sion, contains much less soluble and active matter. Alcohol dissolves a larger proportion of the root than water, but this excess is owing to the solution of apotheme; and the alcoholic extract contains little if any more of the astringent principle than that prepared by cold water, while it is encumbered with much inert matter. (See Extractum Kramerise.) Medical Properties and Uses. Rhatany is gently tonic and powerfully astringent; and may be advantageously given in chronic diarrhoea, passive hemorrhages, especially menorrhagia, some forms of leucorrhoea, and in all those cases in which kino and catechu are beneficial. It has long been used in Peru as a remedy in bowel complaints, as a corroborant in cases of en- feebled stomach, and as a local application to spongy gums. Ruiz, one of the authors of the Peruvian Flora, first made it known in Europe. It was not till after the year 1816 that it began to come into general use. In this country it is now extensively employed. It has the advantage over the astringent extracts imported, that, being brought in the state of the root, it is free from adulteration, and may be prescribed with confidence. The dose of the powder is from twenty to thirty grains; but in this form the root is little used. The infusion or decoction is more convenient, and is usually preferred. The proportions are an ounce of the bruised or pow- dered root to a pint of water, and the dose one or two fluidounces. The extract, tincture, and syrup are officinal preparations; and may be given, the first in the dose of fifteen or twenty grains, the second in that of two or three fluidrachms, and the third in that of half a fluidounce for an adult. In the form of infusion, tincture, and extract, rhatany has been highly recom- mended as a local remedy in fissure of the anus, prolapsus ani, and leucor- rhoea. (See a paper by Drs. Johnston and Biddle, in the Medical Exa- miner, iv. 293.) Off. Prep. Extractum Kramerias, U. S., Ed.; Infusum Kramerias, U. S., Lond.; Tinctura Kramerias, U. S. W. LACMUS. Lond., Ed. Litmus. " Roccella tinctoria. Thallus praeparatus." Lond. "A peculiar colour- ing matter from Roccella tinctoria." Ed. Off. Syn. LITMUS. Roccella tinctoria. Dub. Turnsol, Orchill; Tournesol, Fr.; Lakmus, Germ.; Oricello, Ital; Orchilla, Span. Various species of lichens afford, when macerated with alkaline liquors, a purple colouring matter much esteemed in dyeing. That most used at present is the cudbear, prepared from the Lichen tartareus, which grows on limestone rocks in the North of Europe. The orchill or litmus is a similar dye-stuff, prepared from the Roccella tinctoria of Acharius, a lichen which grows on maritime rocks, and is especially abundant in the Canary and Cape Verde Islands. Litmus is prepared by coarsely powdering the lichen, and macerating and fermenting it in close wooden vessels, for several weeks, with urine and either potash or soda. The colouring matter is thus evolved, and the prepared mass is taken out, dried, and cut into small squares for use. Litmus, as thus prepared, is in friable, violet-coloured, finely granular pieces, from a quarter of an inch to an inch in diameter, scattered over with part i. Lactuca Elongata.—Lactuca Virosa. 421 white saline points. It has an alkaline smell, tinges the saliva of a deep blue, and is somewhat pungent and saline to the taste. It is much used as one of the most delicate tests of uncombined acids, which change its blue colour to red; and of alkalies, which restore the original hue. The most convenient mode of preparing litmus for use as a test, is to stain paper with it. For this purpose the watery infusion, made with one part of powdered litmus and four of water, is applied by means of a brush to white unsized paper. The sheets when dried must be kept in close vessels in the dark. D. B. S. LACTUCA ELONGATA. U. S. Secondary. Wild Lettuce. " The herb of Lactuca elongata." U. S. , Lactuca. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia JEqualis.—Nat. Ord. Compositas-Ci- choraceas, De Cand. Cichoraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx imbricated, cylindrical, with a mem- branous margin. Pappus simple, stipitate. Seed smooth. Willd. Lactuca elongata. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1525. This indigenous spe- cies of lettuce is biennial, with a stem from three to six feet in height, and leaves of which the lower are runcinate, entire, and clasping, the lowest toothed, and the highest lanceolate. They are all smooth on their under surface. The flowers are in corymbose panicles, small, and of a pale yel- low colour. The stem and leaves yield, when wounded, a milky juice in which the virtues of the plant reside. The wild lettuce grows in all latitudes of the United States, from Canada to the Carolinas. It is found in woods, along roads, and in fertile soils, and flowers in June and July. It was introduced into the secondary list of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia as a substitute for the Lactuca virosa of Europe, which it is said to resemble somewhat in medical properties. Dr. Bigelow was informed by physicians who had employed it, that it acts as an anodyne, and promotes the secretion from the skin and kidneys. It is seldom used in regular practice. Accord- ing to M. Aubergier, who made numerous experiments with different spe- cies of Lactuca, in order to ascertain from which lactucarium might be most advantageously obtained, the milky juice of the L. elongata is of a flat and sweetish taste without bitterness, contains much mannite, but no bitter principle, and is consequently destitute of narcotic properties. (Annuaire de Therap., 1843, p. 18.) An extract prepared by expressing and inspissating the juice of the fresh plant may be given in doses of from five to fifteen grains. (Bigelow.) W. LACTUCA VIROSA. Folia. Dub. Strong-scented Lettuce. Laitue vireuse, Fr.; Gift.-Lattig, Germ.; Lattuga salvatica, Ital. Lactuca. See LACTUCA ELONGATA. Lactuca virosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1526; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 75. t. 31. The strong-scented lettuce is biennial, with a stem from two to four feet high, erect, prickly near the base, above smooth and divided into branches. The lower leaves are large, oblong obovate, undivided, toothed, commonly prickly on the under side of the midrib, sessile, and horizontal; the upper are smaller, clasping, and often lobed ; the bractes are cordate and 37 422 Lactuca Virosa.—Lactuca.—Lactucarium. part i. pointed. The flowers are numerous, of a sulphur-yellow colour, and dis- posed in a panicle. The plant is lactescent, and has a strong disagreeable smell like that of opium, and a bitterish acrid taste. The inspissated expressed juice is the part usually employed in medicine. It should be prepared while the plant is in flower; as the milky fluid, upon which its virtues depend, is then most abundant. Mr. Duncan, of Edinburgh, has prepared lactucarium from this species, which is said to yield it in greater quantity, and of better quality than the garden lettuce. Mr. Schutz, of Germany, obtained only 17 grains of lactucarium, on the average, from a single plant of the garden lettuce, while a plant of the L. virosa yielded 56 grains. The strong-scented lettuce is a native of Europe. Medical Properties and Uses. The extract or inspissated juice is a seda- tive narcotic, said also to be gently laxative, powerfully diuretic, and some- what diaphoretic. It is employed in Europe, particularly in Germany, in the treatment of dropsy, and is especially recommended in cases attended with visceral obstruction. Dr. Collin of Vienna, was very successful with it in the cure of that disease. It is usually, however, combined with squill, digitalis, or some other diuretic; and it is not easy to decide how much of the effect obtained is justly ascribable to the lettuce. The medicine is never used in this country. The dose is eight or ten grains, which may be gra- dually increased to a scruple or more. The Lactuca Scariola, another European species, possesses similar properties, and is used for the same purposes. W. LACTUCA. Lond. Lettuce. " Lactuca sativa." Lond. Off. Syn. LACTUCA SATIVA. Herba. Dub. Laitue, Fr.; Garten-Lattig, Germ.; Lattuga, Ital; Lechuga, Span. Lactuca. See LACTUCA ELONGATA. LACTUCARIUM. U S., Lond., Ed. Lactucarium. "The inspissated juice of Lactuca sativa." U.S. "Lactuca sativa. Succus spissatus." Lond. " Inspissated juice of Lactuca virosa and sativa ; Lettuce-opium." Ed. Lactuca saliva. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1523. The garden lettuce is an annual plant. The stem, which rises above two feet in height, is erect, round, simple below, and branching in its upper part. The lower leaves are obovate, rounded at the end, and undulating; the upper are smaller, ses- sile, cordate, and toothed ; both are shining, and of a yellowish-green colour. The flowers are pale yellow, small, and disposed in an irregular terminal corymb. Before the flower-stem begins to shoot, the plant contains a bland, pellucid juice, has little taste or smell, and is much used as a salad for the table ; but during the period of inflorescence it abounds in a peculiar milky juice, which readily escapes from incisions in the stem, and has been found to possess decided medicinal as well as sensible properties. A similar juice is produced by other species of lettuce, and has in fact served as the origin of the title by which the genus is designated. This juice is more abundant in the wild than in the cultivated plants. That of the L. sativa, inspissated by exposure to the air, has been adopted as officinal in the U. S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, under the name of Lactucarium. The Edin- burgh College admit also L. virosa as a source of the medicine. In the PART I. Lactuca.—Lactucarium. 423 edition of the London Pharmacopoeia of 1836, lettuce has been omitted from the Materia Medica; but we have retained it here; as an extract of lettuce is directed, in the same edition, among the Preparations. The original native country of the garden lettuce is unknown. The plant has been cultivated from time immemorial, and is now employed in all parts of the civilized world. It flourishes equally well in hot and tem- perate latitudes. Some botanists suppose that L. virosa of the old con- . tinent is the parent of all the varieties of the cultivated plant. The milky juice undergoes little alteration, if confined in closely stopped bottles from which the air is excluded. But, when exposed to the air, it concretes and assumes a brownish colour somewhat like that of opium. Mr. Young, of Edinburgh, recommended the following mode of collecting it. When the stem is about a foot high, the top is cut off, and the juice which exudes, being absorbed by cotton or a piece of sponge, is pressed out into a cup or other small vessel, and exposed till it concretes. In order to obtain all the juice which the plant is capable of affording, it is necessary to cut off five or six successive slices of the stem at short intervals, and to repeat the process two or three times a day. The juice may also be collected by the finger as it flows from the incisions. A plan proposed by Mr. Probart, of London, is to collect the milky juice on pieces of woven cotton about half a yard square, to throw these when fully charged into a vessel containing a small quantity of water, and allow the water thus impregnated to evaporate in shallow dishes at the ordinary atmospheric temperature. The lactucarium is left in the form of an extract, differing from the concrete juice chiefly in being destitute of caoutchouc. Another method of extracting the virtues of the lettuce has been recom- mended by Mr. Probart. When the plant begins to assume a yellow hue, the white juice concretes in the bark of the stem, and in the old leaves, which become very bitter. These parts being separated, are macerated for twenty-four hours in water, then boiled for two hours; and the clear decoction, after having been allowed to drain off through a sieve without pressure, is evaporated in shallow vessels by simple exposure. The result- ing extract, according to Mr. Probart, has half the strength of lactucarium, and may be obtained at one-sixth of the cost. The London College direct an extract to be prepared by inspissating the expressed juice of the leaves; but this must be exceedingly uncertain, from the variable quantity of the milky juice contained in the plant; and as the young leaves, which contain little or none of it, are often employed, the preparation is liable to be quite inert. It has been asserted that the thridace of Dr. Francois is the inspissated milky juice of lettuce, and therefore identical with lactucarium; and a state- ment to this effect was made in some former editions of this work, upon what was deemed sufficient authority. In an article, however, in the Jour- nal de Pharmacie for December, 1836, it is asserted that thridace strongly attracts moisture from the air, is without narcotic odour, and instead of being bitter, like lactucarium, has a saline and extractive taste. It is, therefore, in all probability, the inspissated expressed juice, and, indeed, is directed as such in the last French Codex, the leaves being rejected, and the stalks alone, near the flowering period, being subjected to pressure. M. Aubergier, of Clermont, in a treatise presented to the French Acade- my of Sciences in November, 1842, states that lactucarium, identical with that of the garden lettuce, is yielded by several other species of Lactuca, and can be abundantly and cheaply procured from the Lactuca altissima, which is a large plant, with a stem more than nine feet high, and an inch and a half in diameter. (Annuaire de Therap., 1843, p. 18.) 424 Lactuca.—Lactucarium. PART I. Lactucarium is in small irregular lumps, of a reddish-brown colour exter- nally, and of a narcotic odour and bitter taste. As prepared near Edinburgh it is commonly in roundish, compact, and rather hard masses, weighing several ounces. (Christison.) In colour, taste, and smell, it bears consider- able resemblance to opium, and has sometimes been called lettuce opium. It does not attract moisture from the air. It yields nearly half its weight to water, with which it forms a deep-brown infusion. From its resemblance in sensible properties and therapeutical effects to opium, it was conjectured to contain morphia, or some analogous principle; but none such has been discovered. Analyzed by M. Aubergier, it yielded 1. a bitter crystallizable principle, soluble in alcohol and boiling water, scarcely soluble in cold water, insoluble in ether, without alkaline reaction, and supposed to be the active principle, 2. mannite, 3. asparamide, 4. a crystallizable substance having the property of colouring green the sesquisalts of iron, 5. an electro-nega- tive resin, combined with potassa, 6. a neuter resin, 7. ulmate of potassa, 8. cerin, myricin, pectin, and albumen, 9. oxalate, malate, nitrate, and sulphate of potassa, chloride of potassium, phosphate of lime and magnesia, oxides of iron and manganese, and silica. The lactescence of the juice is owing to a mixture of wax and resin, and not to caoutchouc, as previously supposed. (Annuaire de Therapeutique, 1843, p. 19.) The fresh juice of L. vi- rosa, according to M. Kohnke, contains succinic acid. (Chem. Gaz., no. 55—from Archiv. der Pharm., xxxix. 153.) Dr. Walz, in an inaugural thesis published at Heidelberg in 1839, gives the following constituents of lactucarium from L. virosa; viz., a peculiar principle denominated lactu- cin, volatile oil, a fatty matter easily dissolved by ether, and another of diffi- cult solubility in that fluid, a reddish-yellow tasteless resin, a greenish-yellow acrid resin, common sugar, uncrystallizable sugar, gum, pectic acid, a brown humus-like acid, a brown basic substance, albumen, oxalic, citric, malic, and nitric acids, potassa, lime, and magnesia. Lactucin, as obtained by Walz, is in yellow crystalline needles, without smell, of a strong and durable bitter taste, easily fusible, soluble in from 60 to 80 parts of cold water, freely solu- ble in alcohol, less so in ether, soluble in very dilute acids, and possessing neither alkaline nor acid reaction. (Annul, der Pharm., xxxii. 97.) It differs from the bitter principle obtained by Aubergier, in its greater solubility in cold water. M. Lenoir considers the lactucin of these two chemists as im- pure, and denies that it is the active principle, which, he thinks, is probably an organic alkali. He obtained it pure by treating the lactucarium of L. virosa with boiling alcohol, and filtering while hot. The lactucin was de- posited on the cooling of the liquid, and afterwards purified by frequent crystallization from alcohol, and treatment with animal charcoal. Thus obtained, it was without taste and smell, and without effect upon the sys- tem. It is nearly insoluble in water, but readily dissolved by alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils. He proposes to name it lactucone, leaving the former name for the active principle when it shall have been isolated. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Feb., 1847.) Medical Properties and Uses. That lettuce possesses soporific proper- ties, is a fact which was known to the ancients; but Dr. J. R. Coxe, of Philadelphia, enjoys the credit of having first proposed the employment of its inspissated milky juice as a medicine. From experiments with a tinc- ture prepared from lactucarium, Dr. Coxe obtained the same results as usually follow the administration of common laudanum. Dr. Duncan, senior, of Edinburgh, afterwards paid particular attention to the subject, and, in his treatise on pulmonary consumption, recommended lactucarium as a substitute for opium, the anodyne properties of which it possesses, without being followed by the same injurious effects. In consequence of PART I. Lauri Baccce.—Lauri Folia. 425 this recommendation the medicine came into extensive use, and was adopted as officinal in several of the Pharmacopoeias. Dr. Francois, a French phy- sician, also investigated, with great care, the medicinal properties of the inspissated juice of lettuce. According to this author, it is sedative in its action, diminishing the rapidity of the circulation, and consequently the temperature of the body, without producing that disturbance of the functions which often follows the use of opium. The general inference which may be drawn from the recorded experience in relation to lactucarium is, that it has, in a much inferior degree, the anodyne and calming properties of opium, without its disposition to excite the circulation, to produce headache and ob- stinate constipation, and to derange the digestive organs. In this country the medicine is habitually employed by some practitioners to allay cough, and quiet nervous irritation. It may be given in all cases in which opium is indicated, in reference to its anodyne or soothing influence, but cannot be administered from idiosyncrasy of the patient. It is, however, a very uncer- tain medicine. The dose of lactucarium is from five to fifteen or twenty grains. An alcoholic extract would be a good preparation. It may be given in the dose of from two to five grains. Water distilled from lettuce (eau de laitue) is used in France as a mild sedative, in the quantity of from two to four ounces. The fresh leaves boiled in water are sometimes employed in the shape of cataplasm. It is said that in Egypt a mild oil is derived from the seeds, fit for culinary use. Off. Prep. Of Lactucarium. Tinctura Lactucarii, Ed.; Trochisci Lac- tucarii, Ed. — Of Lactuca. Extractum Lactucas, Lond. W. LAURI BACOE. LAURI FOLIA. Lond. Berries and Leaves of the Bay Tree. " Laurus nobilis. Baccse. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. LAURUS NOBILIS. Folia. Baccas. Dub. Laurier, Fr.; Lorbeer, Germ.: Allorg, Ital; Laurel, Span. Laurus. Sex. Syst. Enneandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lauraceas. Gen. Ch. Flowers dioecious or hermaphrodite, involucrated. Calyx four- parted ; segments equal, deciduous. Fertile stamens twelve in three rows; the outer alternate with the segments of the calyx; all with two glands in the middle or above it. Anthers oblong, two-celled, all looking inwards. Fertile flowers with two to four castrated males surrounding the ovary. Stigma capitate. Fruit succulent, seated in the irregular base of the calyx. Umbels axillary, stalked. (Lindley, Flor. Med., 340.) Laurus nobilis. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 479; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 678. t. 235. This species of laurel is an evergreen tree, attaining in its native climate the height of twenty or thirty feet. Its leaves are alternate, on short petioles, oval lanceolate, entire, sometimes wavy, veined, of a firm texture, smooth, shining, deep green upon their upper surface, paler beneath. The flowers are dioecious, of a yellowish-white colour, and placed in small clusters of three or four together upon a common peduncle in the axils of the leaves. The corolla is divided into four oval segments. The fruit is an oval berry, of the size of a small cherry, and when ripe of a dark purple, nearly black colour. The bay tree, so famous among the ancients, is a native of the countries bordering on trhe Mediterranean. Its leaves and fruit, and an oil expressed from the latter, are the officinal parts. The leaves have a fragrant odour, especially when bruised, and a bitter, aromatic, somewhat astringent taste. They yield by distillation a greenish- 37* 426 Lauri Baccce.—Lauri Folia.—Lauro-cerasus. part i yellow volatile oil, upon which their properties chiefly depend. Water dis- tilled from them has their peculiar odour. The berries when dried are black and wrinkled, and contain two oval, fatty seeds within a thin, friable envelope; or they may be considered as drupes, with a kernel divisible into two lobes. They have the same aroma- tic odour and taste as the leaves, but are more pungent. Besides an essen- tial oil, they contain also a fixed oil, which may be separated by expression or decoction. The expressed oil, which is obtained from the fresh fruit, is concrete, of a greenish colour, and retains a portion of the volatile oil, which renders it agreeably aromatic. Lard impregnated with the odorous principle of the berries, and coloured green, is said to be often substituted for the genuine expressed oil. Medical Properties and Uses. The leaves, berries, and oil of the bay tree possess exciting and narcotic properties, but at present are never used internally as medicines, and in this country are scarcely employed in any manner. Their chief use is to communicate a pleasant odour to external stimulant remedies. Dr. A. T. Thomson says that he has found an infusion of the berries useful in impetigo. Off. Prep. Confectio Rutas, Lond. W. LAURO-CERASUS. Ed. Cherry-laurel. "Leaves of Prunus lauro-cerasus." Ed. Off. Syn. PRUNUS LAURO-CERASUS. Folia. Dub. Laurier cerise, Fr.; Kirschlorbeer, Germ.; Lauro ceraso, Ital Cerasus. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Amygdaleas. Gen. Ch. Differing from Prunus only in its fruit being destitute of bloom, with the stone round instead of acute, and the leaves when in bud folded flat, not rolled up. (Lindley, Flor. Med., 232.) Cerasus Lauro-cerasus. De Cand. Prodrom. ii. 540.—Prunus Lauro- cerasus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 988; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 513. t. 185 — This is a small evergreen tree, rising fifteen or twenty feet in height, with long spreading branches, which, as well as the trunk, are covered with a smooth blackish bark. The leaves, which stand alternately on short strong footstalks, are oval oblong, from five to seven inches in length, acute, finely toothed, firm, coriaceous, smooth, beautifully green and shining, with oblique nerves, and yellowish glands at the base. The flowers are small, white, strongly odorous, and disposed in simple axillary racemes. The fruit con- sists of oval drupes, very similar to small black cherries, both in their shape and internal structure. The cherry-laurel is a native of Asia Minor, but has been introduced into Europe, throughout which it is cultivated, both for medical use and for the beauty of its shining evergreen foliage. Almost all parts of it are more or less impregnated with the odour supposed to indicate the presence of hydro- cyanic acid. The leaves only are officinal. In their recent and entire state they have scarcely any smell; but when bruised, they emit the characteristic odour of the plant in a high degree. Their taste is somewhat astringent and strongly bitter, with- the peculiar flavour of the peach kernel. By drying they lose their odour, but retain their bitterness. They yield a peculiar volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid by distillation with water, which they strongly impregnate with their flavour. The oil resembles that of bitter almonds, for which it is said to be some- PART I. Lauro-cerasus.—Lavandula. 427 times sold in the shops in Europe, where it is employed to flavour liquors and various culinary preparations ; but, as it is highly poisonous, dangerous consequences may result from its careless use. It has not yet been deter- mined how far the mode of production of this oil resembles that of bitter almonds (see Amygdala Amara); but chemists have not succeeded in obtaining amygdalin from the leaves; and that the oil exists already formed to a certain extent, in the fresh leaves, is rendered probable by the fact, stated by Winkler, that they yield it in considerable quantity when distilled without water. (Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 195.) The fresh leaves are occasionally used to flavour milk, cream, &c; and more safely than the oil; though they also are poisonous when too largely employed. Medical Properties and Uses. The leaves of the cherry-laurel possess properties similar to those of hydrocyanic acid; and the water distilled from them is much employed in various parts of Europe for the same purposes as that active medicine. But it is deteriorated by age ; and, therefore, as kept in the shops, must be of variable strength. Hence, while Hufeland directs only twenty drops for a dose every two hours, to be gradually increased to sixty drops, M. Fouquier has administered several ounces without effect. Another source of inequality of strength must be the variable quality of the leaves, according to the time they have been kept after separation from the tree, and probably also to their age and degree of developement. It is not, therefore, to be regretted, that the want of the plant in this country has prevented the introduction of the distilled water into our shops. Off. Prep. Aqua Lauro-cerasi, Ed., Dub. W. LAVANDULA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Lavender. "The flowers of Lavandula vera." U. S. "Lavandula Spica. Flores." Lond. " The flowering heads of Lavandula vera." Ed. Off. Syn. LAVANDULA SPICA. Flores. Dub. Lavande, Fr.; Lavandelblumen, Germ.; Lavandola, Ital; Espliego alhucema, Span. Lavandula. Sex. Syst. DidynamiaGymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Lamia- ceas or Labialas. Gen. Ch. Calyx ovate, somewhat toothed, supported by a bracte. Corolla resupine. Stamens within the tube. Willd. Lavandula vera. De Cand. Flor. Fr. Sup. p. 398.—L. Spica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 60; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 321. t. 114.—The Lavandula Spica of Linnasus includes two distinct species, which were considered by him merely as varieties of the same plant, but have been separated by subsequent botanists. Of these, the officinal plant, the narrow-leaved variety of Linnasus, has been denominated by De Candolle L. vera, while the broad-leaved variety still retains the title of L. Spica. The latter is scarcely cultivated in Great Britain or the United States. The common lavender is a small shrub, usually rising not more than two or three feet, but sometimes attaining an elevation of six feet. The stem is woody below, and covered with a brown bark; above, is divided into nu- merous, slender,straight, herbaceous, pubescent,quadrangular branches, fur- nished with opposite, sessile, narrow, nearly linear, entire, and green or glaucous leaves. The flowers are small, blue, and disposed in interrupted whorls around the young shoots, forming terminal cylindrical spikes. Each whorl is accompanied with two bractes. The corolla is tubular and labiate, with the lower lip divided into three segments, the upper larger and bifid. The filaments are within the tube. f 428 Lavandula.—Limon.—Limonis Cortex. part i. The plant is a native of Southern Europe, and covers vast tracts of dry and barren land in Spain, Italy, and the South of France. It is cultivated abundantly in our gardens, and in this country flowers in August. All parts of it are endowed with properties similar to those for which the flowers are used; but these only are officinal. The spikes should be cut when they begin to bloom. Lavender flowers have a strong fragrant odour, and an aromatic, warm, bitterish taste. They retain their fragrance a long time after drying. Alco- hol extracts their virtues; and a volatile oil upon which their odour depends rises with that liquid in distillation. The oil may be procured separate by distilling the flowers with water. (See Oleum Lavandulae.) Hagen obtained from a pound of the fresh flowers sometimes two drachms, sometimes only half a drachm of the oil. Medical Properties and Uses. Lavender is an aromatic stimulant and tonic, esteemed useful in certain conditions of nervous debility, but very sel- dom given in its crude state. The products obtained by its distillation are much used in perfumery, and as grateful additions to other medicines, which they render at the same time more acceptable to the palate, and cordial to the stomach. Off.Prep. Oleum Lavandulas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Asari Compositus, Dub.; Spiritus Lavandulas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. LIMON. U.S. Lemons. "The fruit of Citrus Limonum (De Candolle)." U. S. Off. Syn. LIMONES. Citrus Limonum. Fructus. LIMONUM SUC- CUS. Succus. Lond.; LIMONES. Fruit of Citrus medica and Citrus Limonum; Lemons and Limes. Ed.; LIMONES. CITRUS MEDICA. Fructus succus. Dub. LIMONIS CORTEX. U. S. Lemo7i Peel. "The outer rind of the fruit of Citrus Limonum." U. S. Off. Syn. LIMONUM CORTEX. Fructus cortex exterior. Lond.; Rind of the fruit of Citrus medica. Ed.; CITRUS MEDICA. Fructus tunica exterior. Dub. Limons, Citrons, Fr.; Limonen, Citronen, Germ.; Limoni, Ital; Limones. Span. For some general remarks on the genus Citrus, see Aurantii Cortex. Citrus medica. Willd. Sp.Plant, iii. 1426; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 582. t. 189. This tree closely resembles in its general aspect the C. Aurantium before described. The leaves, however, are larger, slightly indented at the edges, and stand upon footstalks which are destitute of the winged append- ages that characterize the other species. The flowers, moreover, have a purplish tinge on their outer surface, and the fruit is entirely different in appearance from the orange. There are several varieties of the Citrus medica, which some botanists consider entitled to the rank of species, but which are scarcely distinguishable, except by the character of their fruit. Those which are particularly deserving of notice are the citron, lemon, and lime. 1. In the citron, C. medica of Risso, the fruit is very large, sometimes six inches in length, ovoidal with a double rind, of which the outer layer is yellowish, thin, unequal, rugged, with innumerable vesicles filled with essential oil; the inner is white, very thick, and spongy. It is divided in the interior into nine or PART I. Limon.—Limonis Cortex. 429 ten cells, filled with oblong vesicles, which contain an acid juice precisely like that of the lemon, and used for the same purposes. The rind is applied to the preparation of conserves, to which it is adapted by its great thickness. This fruit is called cedrat by the French. 2. The lemon—C. medica, variety limon of Linnasus—the Citrus Limonium of Risso—is smaller than the preceding variety, with a smoother and thinner rind, a pointed nipple- shaped summit, and a very juicy and acid pulp. In other respects it bears a close resemblance to the citron, to which, however, it is usually preferred in consequence of the greater abundance of its juice. 3. The lime is still smaller than the lemon, with a smoother and thinner rind, of an oval shape, rounded at the extremities, of a pale-yellow or greenish-yellow colour, and abounding in a very acid juice, which renders it highly useful for all the purposes to which the lemon is applied. It is the product of the variety C. acris of Miller. The Citrus medica, like the orange-tree, is a native of Asia. It was intro- duced into Europe from Persia or Media, was first cultivated in Greece, after- wards in Italy, so early as the second century, and has now spread over the whole civilized world, being raised by artificial heat, where the climate is too cold to admit of its exposure with safety during winter to the open air. We are supplied with lemons and limes chiefly from the West Indies and the Mediterranean. Though the former of these fruits only is directed by the United States Pharmacopoeia, both kinds are employed indiscriminately for most medicinal purposes; and the lime affords a juice at least equal in proportional quantity, and in acidity, to that obtained from the lemon. Properties. The exterior rind of the lemon has a fragrant odour, and a warm, aromatic, bitter taste, somewhat similar to that of the orange, though less agreeable. It contains a bitter principle, and yields, by expression or distillation, an essential oil which is much used for its flavour. Both this and the rind itself are recognised as officinal in all the Pharmacopoeias. (See Oleum Limonis.) Lemon-peel yields its virtues to water, wine, and alcohol. But the juice is the part for which this fruit is most esteemed. It is very sharply acid, with a peculiar grateful flavour, and consists chiefly of citric acid, mucilage, and extractive, dissolved in water. As lemons cannot always be obtained, the juice is often kept in a separate state ; but, from its liability to spontaneous decomposition, it speedily becomes unfit for medical use ; and, though various means have been resorted to for its preservation, it can never be made to retain for any length of time its original flavour unaltered. The best medicinal substitute for lemon-juice, when the fresh fruit is not attainable, is a solution of crystallized citric acid in water, in the proportion of about an ounce to the pint, with the addition of a little oil of lemons.* One of the most effectual methods of preserving the juice is to allow it to stand for a short time after expression till a coagulable matter separates, then to filter, and introduce it into glass bottles, with a stratum of almond oil or other sweet oil upon its surface. It will keep still better, if the bottles con- taining the filtered juice be suffered, before being closed, to stand for fifteen minutes in a vessel of boiling water. The juice may also be preserved by concentrating it either by means of evaporation with a gentle heat, or by ex- posure to a freezing temperature, which congeals the watery portion, and leaves the acid much stronger than before. When wanted for use it maybe diluted to the former strength; but though the acid properties are retained, the flavour of the juice is found to have been deteriorated. * Nine drachms and a half dissolved in a pint of water, form a solution of the average strength of lime-juice ; but, where precision is not requisite, the proportion mentioned in the text is most convenient. 430 Limon.—Limonis Cortex.—Linum. part i. Medical Properties and Uses. The rind of the lemon is sometimes used to qualify the taste and increase the power of stomachic infusions and tinc- tures. The juice is refrigerant, and properly diluted forms a refreshing and very agreeable beverage in febrile and inflammatory affections. It may be given with sweetened water in the shape of lemonade, or may be added to the mildly nutritive drinks, such as gum-water, barley-water, &c, which are usually administered in fevers. It is also much employed in the forma- tion of those diaphoretic preparations known generally by the names of neutral mixture, and effervescing draught. (See Liquor Potassas Citralis, in the second part of this work.) One of the most beneficial applications of lemon-juice is to the prevention and cure of scurvy, for which it maybe considered almost a specific. For this purpose, ships destined for long voyages should always be provided with a supply of the concentrated juice, or of crystallized citric acid with the oil of lemons. Lemon-juice is some- times prescribed in connexion with opium and Peruvian bark, the effects of which it is thought in some instances to modify favourably, by substituting the citrate of their respective alkalies for the native salts. It has been used with advantage as a local application in pruritus of the scrotum, and in ute- rine hemorrhage after delivery. Off. Prep. Of the rind, Infusum Aurantii Compositum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Gentianas Comp., Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Ammonias Aro- maticus, U. S., Lond.;—Of the juice, Acidum Citricum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Potassas Citratis, U. S.; Syrupus Limonis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. LINUM. U.S. Flaxseed. "The seeds of Linum usitatissimum." U. S. Off. Syn. LINI SEMINA. Linum usitatissimum. Semina. Lond.; LINI SEMINA. Seeds of Linum usitatissimum. LINI FARINA. Meal of the seeds deprived of their fixed oil by expression. Ed. LINUM USITATIS- SIMUM. Semina. Dub. Linseed; Grains de lin, Fr.; Leinsame, Germ.; Semi di lino, Ital; Linaza, Span. Linum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Linaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five. Capsule five-valved, ten-celled. Seeds solitary. Willd. Linum usitatissimum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1533; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 565, t. 202. Common flax is an annual plant with an erect, slender, round stem, about two feet in height, branching at top, and, like all other parts of the plant, entirely smooth. The leaves are small, lanceolate, acute, entire, of a pale-green colour, sessile, and scattered alternately over the stem and branches. The flowers are terminal and of a delicate blue colour. The calyx is persistent, and composed of five ovate, sharp-pointed, three-nerved leaflets, which are membranous on their border. The petals are five, obo- vate, striated, minutely scolloped at their extremities, and spread into funnel- shaped blossoms. The filaments are also five, united at the base; and the germ, which is ovate, supports five slender styles, terminating in obtuse stigmas. The fruit is a globular capsule, about the size of a small pea, having the persistent calyx at the base, crowned with a sharp spine, and containing ten seeds in distinct cells. This highly valuable plant, now almost everywhere cultivated, is said by some to have been originally derived from Egypt, by others from the great elevated plain of central Asia. It flowers in June and July, and ripens its PART I. Linum. 431 seeds in August. Both the seeds, and an oil expressed from them, are officinal. The seeds are oval, oblong, flattened on the sides with acute edges, some- what pointed at one end, about a line in length, smooth, glossy, of a brown colour externally, and yellowish-white within. They are without smell, and have an oily mucilaginous taste. Meyer found them to contain fixed oil, wax, resin, extractive, tannin, gum, azotized mucilage, starch, albumen, gluten, and various salts. Their investing coat or husk abounds in a pecu- liar gummy matter or mucilage, which is readily imparted to hot water, form- ing a thick viscid fluid, which lets fall white flakes upon the addition of alcohol, and affords a copious dense precipitate with subacetate of lead. By Berzelius the term mucilage is applied to a proximate vegetable principle, distinguished from gum by being insoluble in cold, and but slightly soluble in boiling water, in which it swells up and forms a mucilaginous, viscid body, which loses its water when placed upon filtering paper, or other porous sub- stance, and contracts like starch in the gelatinous state. The name, however, is unfortunate; as it is generally applied to the solution of gum, and must inevitably lead to confusion. Nor is it strictly a distinct proximate principle; as it embraces a number of different bodies, such as bassorin, cerasin, &c. According to Guerin, the mucilage of flaxseed, obtained at a temperature of from 120° to 140°, and evaporated to dryness, by means of a salt water bath, contains in 100 parts, 52-70 of a principle soluble in cold water, 29-89 of a principle insoluble in that liquid, and 10-30 of water, and yields 7-11 per cent, of ashes. The soluble part he believes to be arabin or pure gum; the insoluble he found not to afford mucic acid with the nitric, and therefore to differ from both bassorin and cerasin. There was also a small proportion of azotized matter which he did not succeed in isolating. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xlix. 263.) Vauquelin found among its constituents free acetic acid, silica, and various salts of potassa and lime. The interior part of the seed, or nucleus, is rich in a peculiar oil, which is separated by expression, and very extensively employed in the arts. (See Oleum Lini.) The ground seeds are kept in the shops under the name of flaxseed meal. This is of a dark gray colour, highly oleaginous, and when mixed with hot water forms a soft adhesive mass, which is much employed for luting by practical chemists. The cake which remains after the expres- sion of the oil, usually called oil-cake, still retains the mucilaginous matter of the envelope, and affords a highly nutritious food for cattle. This is the Lini Farina of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Flaxseed is sometimes accidentally or fraudulently mixed with other seeds, especially of plants which grow among the flax. We have seen a parcel containing a considerable proportion of the seeds of an indigenous species of garlic. Medical Properties and Uses. Flaxseed is demulcent and emollient. The mucilage obtained by infusing the entire seeds in boiling water, in the pro- portion of half an ounce to the pint, is much and very advantageously em- ployed in catarrh, dysentery, nephritic and calculous complaints, strangury, and other inflammatory affections of the mucous membrane of the lungs, intestines, and urinary passages. By decoction water extracts also a por- tion of the oleaginous matter, which renders the mucilage less fit for admin- istration by the mouth, but superior as a laxative enema. The meal mixed with hot water forms an excellent emollient poultice. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Conii, Lond.; Cataplasma Lini, Zone?.; Cata- plasma Sinapis, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Lini, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Lini, Dub., Ed.; Pulvis pro Cataplasmate, Dub. W. 432 Linum Catharticum.—Liriodendron. part i. LINUM CATHARTICUM. Ed. Purging Flax. "Herb of Linum catharticum." Ed. Lin cathartique, Fr.,- Purgirflacks, Germ.; Lino purgativo, Ital; Cantilagua, Span. Linum. See LINUM. Linum catharticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1541; Smith, Flor. Brit. 344. This is an annual plant, about six or eight inches high, having erect, slender stems, dichotomous near the summit, furnished with opposite, obo- vate lanceolate, entire leaves, and bearing minute white flowers, the petals of which are obovate and acute. It is a native of Europe, and not found in the United States, where it is never employed as a medicine. The whole plant is very bitter and somewhat acrid, and imparts its vir- tues to water, which acquires a yellow colour. It appears to owe its activity to a peculiar drastic principle, which has received the name of linin, and which is afforded most largely by the plant after the flower has fallen. (Pharm. Central Blatt, 1844, p. 110.) Purging flax formerly enjoyed some reputation in Europe as a gentle cathartic, but has fallen into'disuse. A drachm of the powder, or an infusion containing the virtues of two or three drachms of the herb, may be taken for a dose. W. LIRIODENDRON. U.S. Secondary. Tulip-tree Bark. "The bark of Liriodendron tulipifera." U. S. Liriodendron. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Magno- liaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals six. Samarse sublanceolate, one or two-seeded, imbricated in a cone. Nuttall. Liriodendron tulipifera. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1254; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 107; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 92. This noble tree is both from its magnitude and beauty the boast of American landscape. Rising on an erect, straight, cylindrical stem, which is often of nearly equal thickness for the distance of forty feet, it attains, in favourable situations, an elevation seldom less than fifty and sometimes more than one hundred feet, with a diameter of trunk varying from eighteen inches to three feet; and individuals are occa- sionally met with which greatly exceed these dimensions. The branches, though not very numerous, are thrown out in a somewhat regular order, and give the tree a symmetrical aspect. The bark is of a brown or grayish- brown colour, except in the young branches, on which it is bluish or of a reddish tinge. The leaves, which stand on long footstalks, are alternate, somewhat fleshy, smooth, of a beautiful shining green colour, and divided into three lobes, of which the upper one is truncated and horizontally notched at its summit, so as to present a two-lobed appearance, and the two lower are rounded at the base and usually pointed. In the larger leaves, the lateral lobes have each a tooth-likfe projection at some distance below their apex. This peculiar form of the leaf serves to distinguish the tree from all others inhabiting the American forests. On isolated trees the flowers are very numerous. They are large, beautifully variegated with different colours, among which yellow predominates, and in their general appearance bear some resemblance to the tulip, which has given a name to the species. Each flower stands on a distinct terminal peduncle. The calyx is double, the outer being two leaved and deciduous, the inner consisting of three large, PART I. Liriodendron. 433 oval, concave leaves, of a pale green colour. The corolla is composed of six, seven, or more, obtuse, concave petals. The stamens are numerous, with short filaments, and long linear anthers. The pistils are collected into the form of a cone, the upper part of which is covered with minute stigmas. The fruit consists of numerous long, narrow scales, attached to a common axis, imbricated in a conical form, and containing each two seeds, one or both of which are often abortive. The tulip-tree extends from New England to the borders of Florida, but is most abundant and attains the greatest magnitude in the Middle and Western States. It delights in a rich strong soil, and luxuriates in the exhaustless fertility of the banks of the Ohio and its tributary streams. Throughout the United States it is known by the inappropriate name of poplar, for which that of tulip-tree is beginning to be substituted. When in full bloom, about the middle of May, it presents, in its profusion of flowers, its rich, shining, luxuriant foliage, its elevated stature, and elegant outline, one of the most magnificent objects which the vegetable kingdom affords. The interior or heart wood, which is yellowish, of a fine grain, and compact without being heavy, is much employed in the making of furniture, carriages, door-panels, and for other useful purposes. It is recommended by its property of re- sisting the influence of atmospheric moisture and the attacks of worms. The bark is the officinal portion. It is taken for use indiscriminately from the root, trunk, and branches, though that derived from the root is thought to be most active. Deprived of the epidermis, it is of a yellowish-white colour, the bark of the root being somewhat darker than that of the stem or branches. It is very light and brittle, of a feeble, but heavy and rather disagreeable odour, which is stronger in the fresh bark, and of a bitter, pungent, and aromatic taste. These properties are weakened by age, and we have found speci- mens of the bark which have been long kept in the shops, almost insipid. The peculiar properties of liriodendron appear to reside in a volatile prin- ciple, which partially escapes during decoction. The late Professor Emmet, of the University of Virginia, believed that he had isolated this principle, and gave it the name of liriodendrin. As described by Professor Emmet, it is, in the pure state, solid, white, crystallizable, brittle, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, fusible at 180°, volatilizable and partly decom- posed at 270°, of a slightly aromatic odour, and a bitter warm pungent taste. It is incapable of uniting with alkalies, which precipitate it from the infusion or decoction of the bark by combining with the matter which tenders it soluble in the water. Neither does it unite with acids. Water precipitates it from its alcoholic solution. It is obtained by macerating the root in alco- hol, boiling the tincture with magnesia till it assumes an olive-green colour, then filtering, concentrating by distillation till the liquid becomes turbid, and finally precipitating the liriodendrin by the addition of Cold water. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., iii. 5.) The virtues of the bark are extracted by water and alcohol, but are injured by long boiling. Medical Properties. Liriodendron is a stimulant tonic, with diaphoretic properties. It has been used as a substitute for Peruvian bark in intermit- tent fevers, and has proved serviceable in chronic rheumatism, dyspepsia, and other complaints in which a gently stimulant and tonic impression is desirable. The dose of the bark in powder is from half a drachm to two drachms. The infusion and decoction are also used, but are less efficient. They may be prepared in the proportion of an ounce of the bark to a pint of water, and given in the quantity of one or two fluidounces. The dose of the saturated tincture is a fluidrachm. W. 38 434 Lobelia. PART I. LOBELIA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Lobelia. "Lobelia inflata." U.S., Lond. "Herb of Lobelia inflata." Ed. Lobelia. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lobeliacea?. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla irregular, five-parted, cleft on the upper side nearly to the base. Anthers united into a tube. Stigma two- lobed. Capsule inferior or semi-superior, two or three-celled, two-valved at the apex. Torrey. Lobelia inflata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 946; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 177; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 181. This species of Lobelia, commonly called Indian tobacco, is an annual or biennial indigenous plant, usually a foot or more in height, with a fibrous root, and a solitary, erect, angular, very hairy stem, much branched about midway, but rising considerably above the sum- mits of the highest branches. The leaves are scattered, sessile, oval, acute, serrate, and hairy. The flowers are numerous, small, disposed in leafy terminal racemes, and supported on short axillary footstalks. The segments of the calyx are linear and pointed. The corolla, which is of a delicate blue colour, has a labiate border, with the upper lip divided into two, the lower into three segments. The united anthers are curved, and enclose the stigma. The fruit is an oval, striated, inflated capsule, crowned with the persistent calyx, and containing, in two cells, numerous very small, brown seeds. The Lobelia inflata is a very common weed, growing on the road-sides, and in neglected fields, throughout the United States. Its flowers begin to appear towards the end of July, and continue to expand in succession till the occurrence of frost. The plant when wounded or broken exudes a milky juice. All parts of it are possessed of medicinal activity; but, accord- ing to Dr. Eberle, the root and inflated capsules are most powerful. The plant should be collected in August or September, when the capsules are numerous, and should be carefully dried. It may be kept whole, or in the state of powder. As found in the shops, it is often in oblong compressed cakes, prepared by the Shakers. Dried lobelia has a slight irritating odour, and when chewed, though at first without much taste, soon produces a burning acrid impression upon the posterior parts of the tongue and palate, very closely resembling that occa- sioned by tobacco, and attended, in like manner, with a flow of saliva and a nauseating effect upon the stomach. The powder is of a greenish colour. The plant yields its active properties readily to water and alcohol. Water distilled from it, according to Mr. Procter, has the odour of the plant, with- out its acrimony. Mr. Procter found the plant to contain an odorous vola- tile principle, probably volatile oil; a peculiar alkaline principle named lobelina; a peculiar acid, first noticed as distinct by Pereira, called lobelic acid; besides gum, resin, chlorophylle, fixed oil, lignin, salts of lime and potassa, and oxide of iron. The seeds contain at least twice as much of lobelina, in proportion, as the whole plant, which yielded only one part in five hundred. They contain also thirty per cent, of a nearly colourless fixed oil, having the drying property in an extraordinary degree. Lobelina was obtained by Mr. Procter from the seeds by the following process. The seeds were treated with alcohol acidulated with acetic acid, until deprived of their acrimony,and the tincture was evaporated; the resulting extract was tritu- rated with magnesia and water,and, after repeated agitation for several hours, the liquor, holding lobelina in solution, was filtered; this was then shaken PART I. Lobelia. 435 repeatedly with ether until deprived of acrimony; and the ethereal solution, having been decanted, was allowed to evaporate spontaneously. The resi- due, which had a reddish-brown colour, and the consistence of honey, was deprived of colouring matter by dissolving it in water, adding a slight excess of sulphuric acid, boiling with animal charcoal, saturating with magnesia, filtering, agitating with ether until this fluid had deprived the water of acri- mony, and finally decanting, and allowing the ether to evaporate. Thus obtained, lobelina is a yellowish liquid, lighter than water, of a somewhat aromatic odour, and a very acrid durable taste. It is soluble in water, but much more copiously in alcohol and ether, and the latter fluid readily re- moves it from its aqueous solution. It has a decided alkaline reaction, and forms soluble and crystallizable salts with sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, and a very soluble but not crystallizable salt with acetic acid. It forms an insoluble compound with tannic acid, which instantly precipitates it from its solution. By a boiling heat it is entirely decomposed, losing all its acri- mony ; but, when combined with acids, it may be subjected to ebullition with water without change. Mr. Procter introduced a grain of it diluted with water into the stomach of a cat, which became immediately prostrate, remained for an hour nearly motionless, with dilated pupils, and had not recovered wholly from the prostrating influence of the poison at the end of fifteen hours. It did not occasion vomiting or purging. There can be little doubt that it is the narcotic principle of lobelia. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., ix. 105, and xiii. 1.) The late Dr. S. Colhoun, of Philadelphia, was the first to announce the existence of a peculiar active principle in lobelia, capable of forming salts with the acids; but he did not obtain it in an isolated state. An important inference from the effects of heat upon lobelina is that, in any of the preparations of lobelia, the plant, should never be heated in connexion with a salifiable base. Medical Properties and Uses. Lobelia is emetic, and like other medicines of the same class is occasionally cathartic, and in small doses diaphoretic and expectorant. It is also possessed of narcotic properties. The leaves or capsules, chewed for a short time, occasion giddiness, headache, general tremors, and ultimately nausea and vomiting. When swallowed in the full dose, the medicine produces speedy and severe vomiting, attended with con- tinued and distressing nausea, copious sweating, and great general relaxa- tion. Its effects in doses too large, or too frequently repeated, are extreme prostration, great anxiety and distress, and ultimately death preceded by convulsions. Fatal results have been experienced from its empirical use. These are more apt to occur when the poison, as sometimes happens, is not rejected by vomiting. In its operation upon the system, therefore, as well as in its sensible properties, lobelia bears a close resemblance to tobacco. It is among the medicines which were employed by the aborigines of this country; and was long in the hands of empirics before it was introduced into regular practice. The Rev. Dr. Cutler, of Massachusetts, first attracted to it the attention of the profession. As an emetic it is too powerful, and too distressing as well as hazardous in its operation for ordinary use. The disease in which it has proved most useful is spasmodic asthma, the paroxysms of which it often greatly mitigates, and sometimes wholly relieves, even when not given in doses sufficiently large to produce active vomiting. It was from the relief obtained from an attack of this complaint in his own person, that Dr. Cutler was induced to recommend the medicine. It has also been used in catarrh, croup, pertussis, and other laryngeal and pectoral affections; and we have seen it apparently- advantageous in some of these complaints, especially in severe croup; but it 436 Lobelia.—Lupulina.—Lycopus. part i. should always be used with caution. Administered by injection it produces the same distressing sickness of stomach, profuse perspiration, and universal relaxation, as result from a similar use of tobacco. Dr. Eberle administered a strong decoction of it successfully by the rectum, as a substitute for this narcotic in a case of strangulated hernia. It has been employed effectually, in small doses repeated so as to sustain a slight nausea, for producing relaxa- tion of the os uteri. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xvii. 248.) It may be given in substance, tincture, or infusion. The dose of the powder as an emetic is from five to twenty grains, to be repeated if neces- sary. The tincture is most frequently administered. The full dose of this preparation for an adult is half a fluidounce, though in asthmatic cases it is better administered in the quantity of one or two fluidrachms, repeated every two or three hours till its effects are experienced. Two other species of Lobelia have attracted some attention from medical writers. The L. cardinalis or cardinal flower, distinguished for its showy red flowers, is supposed to possess anthelmintic properties; but is seldom or never used. The L. syphilitica is said to have been used by the Indians in the cure of the venereal disease, but has upon trial been found wholly inefficacious in that complaint. It is emetic and cathartic, and appears also to possess diuretic properties, whence it has been conjectured that it might have proved serviceable in gonorrhoea. Dr. Chapman states that it has been employed, as he has been informed, by some practitioners of the western country in dropsy, and not without success. The root is the part used. Both these species of Lobelia are indigenous. For a more detailed account of them the reader is referred \o Dr. W. P. C. Barton's Medical Botany. Off. Prep. Tinctura Lobelias, U. S., Ed.; Tinct. Lobelias iEtherea, Ed. W. LUPULINA. U.S. Lupulin. " The powder attached to the strobiles of Humulus Lupulus." U. S. Lupulina is described under HUMULUS, page 374. LYCOPUS. U.S. Secondary. Bugle-weed. "The herb of Lycopus Virginicus." U.S. Lycopus. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiaceas or Labiatas. Gen. Ch. Calyx tubular, five-cleft, or five-toothed. Corolla tubular, four- lobed, nearly equal; the upper segment broader, and emarginate. Stamens distant. Seeds four, naked, retuse. Nuttall. Lycopus Virginicus. Michaux, Flor. Boreal. Americ.i. 14; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. vol. ii. The bugle-weed is an indigenous herb, with a perennial creeping root, which sends up an erect, nearly simple, obtusely quadran- gular stem, from twelve to eighteen inches high, and furnished with oppo- site, sessile leaves. These are broad lanceolate, attenuated and entire at both extremities, remotely serrate in the middle, somewhat rough, purplish, and beset with glandular dots on their under surface. The flowers are minute, in small axillary whorls, with two small subulate bractes to each flower, and a white corolla. The seeds are longer than the calyx, which is spineless. part i. Lycopus.—Lythrum Salicaria. 437 This plant grows in shady and wet places throughout the greater part of the United States. Its flowering period is August. The whole herb is used. It has a peculiar odour, and a nauseous slightly bitter taste, and imparts these properties, as well as its medical virtues, to boiling water. The L. Europxus is said to be frequently collected and sold for the L. Virginicus. The former may be distinguished by its acutely quadrangular stem, its narrow lanceolate leaves of which the lower are somewhat pinna- tifid, its more crowded flowers, and the acute segments of its calyx, armed with short spines. Medical Properties and Uses. According to Dr. A. W. Ives, the bugle- weed is a very mild narcotic. It was introduced into notice by Drs. Pen- dleton and Rogers, of New York, who obtained favourable effects from its use in incipient phthisis and hemorrhage from the lungs. (N. Y. Med. and Phys. Journ., i. 179.) In these complaints it is useful by diminishing the frequency of the pulse, quieting irritation, and allaying cough. It is most conveniently taken in the form of infusion, which may be prepared by mace- rating an ounce of the herb in a pint of boiling water, and drunk ad libitum. LYTHRUM SALICARIA. Herba. Dub. Loosestrife. Purple Willow-Herb. Salicaire, Fr.; Rother Weiderich, Germ.; Salicaria, Ital. Lythrum. Sex. Syst. Dodecandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lythraceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx twelve-toothed. Petals six, inserted into the calyx. Capsule two-celled, many-seeded. Willd. Lythrum Salicaria. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 865. Loosestrife is an elegant perennial plant, two or three feet high, with an erect, quadrangular or hexagonal, downy, herbaceous stem, bearing opposite, ternate, sessile, lan- ceolate leaves, cordate at the base, and downy on the under surface and at the margin. The flowers are axillary, forming a leafy verticillate spike. The calyx is red, with unequal segments, the petals purple and undulate, the fruit a small elliptical capsule. The plant grows wild in all parts of Europe, and is found in New Eng- land and Canada. It prefers meadows, swamps, and the banks of streams, which it adorns in July and August with its showy purple flowers. The whole herbaceous part is medicinal, and is dried for use. In this state it is inodorous, and has an herbaceous somewhat astringent taste. It renders boiling water very mucilaginous, and its decoction is blackened by the sulphate of iron. Medical Properties and Uses. Loosestrife is demulcent and astringent, and may be advantageously given in diarrhoea and chronic dysentery after due preparation by evacuating treatment. It has long been used in Ireland in these complaints, and is said to be a popular remedy in Sweden. The dose of the powdered herb is about a drachm two or three times a day. A decoction of the root, prepared by boiling an ounce in a pint of water, may be given in the dose of two fluidounces. W. 38* 438 Magnesia Carbonas. PART I. MAGNESLE CARBONAS. U. S., Lond., Ed, Dub. Carbonate of Magnesia. Magnesia alba, Lot.; Carbonate de magnesie, Fr.; Kohlensaure Magnesia, Germ.; Car- bonato di magnesia, Ital; Carbonato de magnesia, Span. Carbonate of magnesia sometimes though rarely occurs as a native mine- ral. That which is sold in the shops is prepared on a large scale by the manufacturer, and the article is, therefore, very properly placed in the list of Materia Medica of the United States Pharmacopoeia. The British Colleges still retain it among the preparations, and the London and Edinburgh Col- leges direct it to be prepared by decomposing the sulphate of magnesia with carbonate of soda; and the Dublin College, by decomposing the same salt with carbonate of potassa. The London College dissolves four pounds eight ounces of carbonate of soda, and four pounds of sulphate of magnesia, separately, in two gallons (Imp. Meas.) of distilled water; then mixes the solutions, boils for fifteen minutes, constantly stirring with a spatula; and lastly, pours off the liquor, washes the precipitated powder with boiling distilled water, and dries it. The Edinburgh formula is substantially the same. The directions differ only in using water, instead of distilled water, and in collecting the precipitate on a filter of calico or linen. The Dublin College dissolves twenty-five parts of sulphate of magnesia and fourteen parts of carbonate of potassa, each in two hundred parts of boiling water, mixes the solutions, boils, filters, and washes the precipitate well with boil- ing water. The carbonate of potassa is not as advantageously used as the carbonate of soda for the preparation of carbonate of magnesia. It is difficult to sepa- rate the last portions of sulphate of potassa from the precipitate, and the carbonate of potassa usually contains silica, which is thrown down with the magnesia. The consequence is that, when prepared with that salt, the car- bonate of magnesia is liable to be gritty to the touch and to have a saline taste. The following is said to be the method pursued by some of the best manufacturers. To a saturated solution of one hundred parts of sulphate of magnesia, a solution of one hundred and twenty-five parts of crystallized carbonate of soda is gradually added, the solutions being constantly stirred. The mixture is then heated to ebullition, to complete the precipitation of the magnesia, which is afterwards washed with tepid and finally with cold water, until the washings no longer give a precipitate with the barytic salts. When it is sufficiently washed, the carbonate is allowed to drain for one or two days on large linen filters, and is then placed in wooden moulds with a porous bottom of brick or gypsum, and subjected to pressure in order to give it the square and compact form into which it is usually wrought. The density of carbonate of magnesia is said to depend upon the strength of the solutions from which it is first precipitated, and its fineness and soft- ness to the touch, upon the use of carbonate of soda in its preparation. The principal part of the carbonate of magnesia used in this country is imported from Scotland. In the New England States it is prepared from the bittern of salt works, which consists chiefly of sulphate of magnesia and chloride of magnesium; and it is manufactured in Baltimore from the sul- phate of magnesia prepared in that city. The Scotch magnesia is generally put up in cases of one hundred and twenty pounds each, the American in boxes containing fifty pounds. # We have spoken of the impurities which carbonate of magnesia prepared part r. Magnesice Carbonas. 439 by the officinal process is apt to contain. When made from the bittern of salt works, it is contaminated with carbonate of lime, salts of that earth being contained in sea water; and when it is prepared from magnesite, or from magnesian schist, iron is almost always present. The only way in which these impurities can be avoided, is to prepare pure sulphate of magnesia by repeated crystallization, and to use a pure carbonate of soda. It is also necessary that the water with which the precipitate is washed should be free from earthy salts, which would be decomposed and contaminate the magnesia. Properties. Carbonate of magnesia is inodorous, nearly insipid, perfectly white, smooth to the touch, and nearly insoluble in water, requiring 2493 parts of cold, and 9000 parts of hot water for solution. It is decomposed by a strong heat, by all the acids, by potassa, soda, lime, baryta, and strontia, and by acidulous and metallic salts. Two kinds of carbonate of magnesia are distinguished, the light and the heavy. The light carbonate is the kind manufactured in Scotland. The heavy, according to Dr. Pereira, may be manufactured as follows:—" Add one volume of a cold saturated solution of carbonate of soda to a boiling mixture of one volume of a saturated solution of sulphate of magnesia, and three volumes of water. Boil until effervescence has ceased, constantly stirring with a spatula. Then dilute with boiling water, set aside, pour off the supernatant liquor, and wash the precipitate with hot water on a linen cloth: afterwards dry it by heat in an iron pot." A solution in carbonic acid water, prepared by passing carbonic acid gas into a reservoir containing the carbonate of magnesia suspended in water, has been introduced into use as a cathartic and antacid. Dinneford's mag- nesia is a solution of this nature. According to Dr. Christison's analysis, it contains only nine grains of carbonate in the fluidounce, though it is alleged to contain twice that quantity. Its taste is more disagreeable than that of the undissolved carbonate. Adulterations and Tests. Carbonate of magnesia may contain an alka- line carbonate, or an alkaline sulphate, or both, from insufficient washing; also chloride of sodium, alumina, and carbonate of lime. If water boiled on it changes turmeric, an alkaline carbonate is indicated. If chloride of barium produces a precipitate in the water, the presence of a sulphate or carbonate, or both, is shown, and if nitrate of silver produces the same effect, a chloride is indicated. When dissolved in an excess of muriatic acid, an excess of ammonia will throw down alumina, which is scarcely ever absent in minute quantity; and oxalate of ammonia, afterwards added to the filtered muriatic solution, will throw down lime as oxalate of lime, if that earth be present. Composition. According to Berzelius, the carbonate of magnesia of the" shops (magnesia alba) is a combination of three equivalents'; of carbonate of magnesia with one of hydrate of magnesia. Each eq. of carbonate con- tains an eq. of water, and the composition of the salt maybe thus stated :— three equivalents of carbonate (acid 66, magnesia 62-1, water 27) = 155-1 -f- one equivalent of hydrate (magnesia 20-7 water 9) = 29-7 =184-8. This theoretic composition agrees very nearly with the analysis of Berzelius, who fixes it at 44-75 magnesia, 35-77 acid, and 19-48 water. According to Phillips, whose analysis agrees with that more recently made by George Fownes, four equivalents of the carbonate are combined with one of the bihydrate, and four of water. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iii. 480.) The composition of this salt varies with the mode of preparation. Thus Buchholz, by decomposing the sulphate of magnesia with 170 per cent, of 440 Magnesice Carbonas.—Magnesia Sulphas. part i. carbonate of soda, and using only cold water throughout, obtained a very light, spongy, somewhat coherent magnesia, containing 32 acid, 33 base, and 35 water. By using 120 per cent, of the carbonate, and boiling the water for fifteen minutes, he obtained a heavy granular precipitate contain- ing 35 acid, 42 base, and 23 water. Medical Properties and Uses. Carbonate of magnesia is antacid, and, by combining with acid in the stomach, becomes generally cathartic. When it undergoes no change in the alimentary, canal, it produces no purgative effect. Under these circumstances, it may usually be made to operate by following it with draughts of lemonade. It is useful in all cases which require a laxative antacid; and, though apt.to produce flatulence in conse- quence of the extrication of its carbonic acid in the stomach and bowels, and therefore in ordinary cases inferior to calcined magnesia, it sometimes ope- rates favourably, in consequence of this very property, in sick stomach attended with acidity. Carbonate of magnesia is also an excellent antilithic in those cases in which uric acid is secreted in too great abundance. The dose is from half a drachm to two drachms, which may be given suspended in water or milk. In order that it may be accurately diffused through water, it should be previously rubbed down with simple syrup or ginger syrup.* Carbonate of magnesia is a useful agent for diffusing camphor and the volatile oils through water, in preparing several of the medicated waters. (See Aquae Medicatse.) Off. Prep. Hydrargyrum cum Magnesia, Dub.; Magnesia, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Magnesias Sulphas Purum, Dub.; Mistura Camphoras cum Magnesia, Ed.; Trochisci Magnesias, Ed. D. B. S. MAGNESLE SULPHAS. U.S., Lond.,Ed.,Dub. Sulphate of Magnesia. Epsom salt; Sulfate de magnesie, Fr.; Schwefelsaure Magnesia, Germ.; Solfato di magnesia, Ital; Sulfato de magnesia, Span. Sulphate of magnesia is one of the constituents of sea-water, and of some saline springs. It also occurs native, either crystallized in long, slender, prismatic, adhering crystals, or as an efflorescence on certain rocks and soils, which contain magnesia and a sulphate or sulphuret. In the United States it is found abundantly in the great caverns, so numerous to the west of the Alleghany mountains. In one of those caves, near Corydon in Indiana, it forms a stratum on the bottom several inches deep; or appears in masses sometimes weighing ten pounds; or is disseminated in the earth of the cavern, one bushel of which yields from four to twenty-five pounds of this sulphate. It also appears on the walls of the cavern, and, if it be removed, acicular crystals again appear in a few weeks. (Cleaveland.) Sulphate of magnesia was originally procured by evaporating the waters of some saline springs at Epsom in England. Dr. Grew prepared it in this manner in 1675. It was afterwards discovered that the brine remaining after the crystallization of common salt from sea-water, furnished by careful evaporation precisely the same salt; and, as this was a much cheaper product, it superseded the former. This residual brine or bittern consists of sulphate * Dolby's Carminative consists of carbonate of magnesia ^ij, oil of peppermint Tr\j, oil of nutmeg n\ij, oil of aniseed rrLiij, tincture of castor TTlxxx, tincture of assafetida n\xv, tincture of opium TT^v, spirit of pennyroyal lT\,xv, compound tincture of cardamom nhxxx, peppermint water f^ij. part i. Magnesia Sulphas. 441 of magnesia, and the chlorides of magnesium and calcium. As the sulphate of magnesia crystallizes first, it may with proper care be obtained nearly pure, although most frequently the salt prepared in this way is deliquescent from being contaminated with the chloride of magnesium. It may be puri- fied from this mixture by washing the crystals with its own saturated solution. It was from this source that the greater part of the Epsom salt of commerce was long obtained in Europe. The salt-works of New England supplied our own markets with an impure and deliquescent sulphate. With the im- provements of chemistry, other and better processes have latterly been adopted. In the neighbourhood of Genoa and Nice, sulphate of magnesia is prepared in large quantities from a schistose rock, which contains magnesia and sulphuret of iron. The mineral is roasted and exposed in heaps for some months to the combined action of air and water. It is then lixiviated, the sulphate of iron decomposed by lime-water, and the salt is obtained pure by repeated solution and crystallization. William Henry of Manchester, whose calcined magnesia has become famous throughout the world, took out a patent for a mode of preparing magnesia and its salts from the double carbonate of magnesia and lime—the dolomite of mineralogists. His process was to drive off the carbonic acid by heat, and to convert the remaining earths into hydrates. He treated these with a sufficient quantity of muriatic acid to dissolve out the lime, and then converted the magnesia into a sulphate either by sulphuric acid or sulphate of iron. This salt is extensively manufactured at Baltimore from the siliceous hydrate of magnesia, or magnesile. This mineral occurs in veins in the serpentine and other magnesian rocks which abound in the neighbourhood of that city, and in the southern counties of Pennsylvania. The advantage which it possesses over the dolomite, in the preparation of this salt, is the almost entire absence of lime, owing to which circumstance there is little or no waste of acid, and the operation is much simplified. The mineral is reduced to a fine powder, and saturated with sulphuric acid. The mass is then dried and calcined at a red heat, in order to convert the sulphate of iron which may be present into red oxide. It is then dissolved in water, and sulphuret of lime added to separate any remaining portion of iron. The salt is crystallized and dissolved a third time, in order to purify it. The sulphate prepared at the Baltimore works by this process is generally very pure and clean, although it sometimes contains sulphate of iron. Properties, Src. Sulphate of magnesia is a colourless transparent salt, without smell, and of a bitter, nauseous, saline taste. It crystallizes in quadrangular prisms, terminating in a four-sided pyramid or in a dihedral summit. It usually occurs in small acicular crystals. It slowly effloresces in the air. At 32° of Fahrenheit, 100 parts of water dissolve 25-76 parts of the anhydrous salt, and for every increased degree of heat 0-8597 parts additional are taken up. The crystals contain 51-22 per cent, of water of crystallization, and dissolve in their own weight of water at 60°, and in three-fourths of their weight of boiling water. They melt in their water of crystallization, and at a high temperature fuse into an enamel. (Berzelius.) This salt consists of one equivalent of acid = 40, one of base = 20-7, and seven of water = 63; and its combining number is 123-7. Sulphate of magnesia is completely decomposed by potassa, soda, and their carbonates ; by lime, baryta, and strontia, and their soluble salts. Am- monia partially decomposes it, and forms with the remaining salt a double sulphate. The bicarbonates of potassa and soda do not decompose the sul- phate of magnesia, except by the aid of heat. 442 Magnesia Sulphas.—Magnolia. part i. Sulphate of magnesia is liable to contain iron and chloride of magnesium, the former of which may be detected by ferrocyanuret of potassium, and the latter by its rendering the salt moist. If the addition of sulphuric acid produce no extrication of muriatic acid gas, the fact proves the absence of all chlorides. One hundred grains of an aqueous solution of the salt should yield, when completely decomposed by a boiling solution of carbonate of soda, thirty-four grains of dry carbonate of magnesia. If the dry precipitate be less, the specimen tested is not all sulphate of magnesia, and probably contains sulphate of soda. Mfedical Properties and Uses. Sulphate of magnesia is a mild and safe cathartic, operating with little pain or nausea, and producing watery stools. It is more acceptable to the stomach than most medicines of its class, and will often be retained when others are rejected.' Like many of the other neutral salts it is refrigerant, and may be made to act as a diuretic, by keep- ing the skin cool, and walking about after it has been taken. It is well adapted to the treatment of fevers and inflammatory affections, especially after a previous thorough evacuation of the bowels by a more energetic cathartic. It is also useful in colic and obstinate constipation, and may be employed in most cases which require the use of a cathartic, without being attended with debility or relaxation of the stomach and bowels. The medium dose is an ounce; but advantage often results from its administra- tion in divided doses frequently repeated. It is often given in combination with other medicines, especially with senna, the griping effect of which it tends to obviate. The pleasantest form for administering the salt, and that in which it usually agrees best with the stomach, is a solution in carbonic acid water with lemon syrup. By Dr. Henry, of Dublin, it is highly recommended in connexion with sulphuric acid. To seven ounces of the saturated aqueous solution of the salt he adds an ounce of the diluted sul- phuric acid of the Pharmacopoeias, and gives a tablespoonful of the mixture for a dose, in a wineglassful of water. Off. Prep. Enema Catharticum, Ed., Dub.; Magnesias Carbonas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Salinus Compositus, Ed., Dub. D. B. S. MAGNOLIA. U.S. Secondary. Magnolia. "The bark of Magnolia glauca, Magnolia acuminata, and Magnolia tri- petala." U. S. Magnolia. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Magnoliaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals six or more. Capsules two-valved, one-seeded,_imbricated in a cone. Seeds berried, pendulous. Bigelow. The medicinal properties which have rendered the bark of the Magnolia officinal, are common to most, if not all of the species composing this splen- did genus. Among the numerous trees which adorn the American landscape, these are most conspicuous for the beautiful richness of their foliage, and the magnificence as well as delicious odour of their flowers; and the M. grandiflora of the Southern States rivals in magnitude the largest inhabit- ants of our forests. The Pharmacopoeia designates the M. glauca, M. acuminata, and M. tripetala, each of which we shall briefly describe. 1. Magnolia glauca. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1256; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 67; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 77; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 8. This species of Magnolia, which in the Northern States is often nothing more than a shrub, sometimes attains in the South the height of forty feet. The PART I. Magnolia. 443 leaves are scattered, petiolate, oval, obtuse, entire, glabrous, thick, opaque, yellowish-green on their upper surface, and of a beautiful pale glaucous colour beneath. The flowers are large, terminal, solitary, cream-coloured, strongly and gratefully odorous,often scenting the air to a considerable dis- tance. The calyx is composed of three leaves; the petals from eight to fourteen in number, are obovate, obtuse, concave, and contracted at the base; the stamens are very numerous, and inserted on a conical receptacle ; the germs are collected into a cone, and each is surmounted by a linear recurved style. The fruit is conical, about an inch in length, consisting of numerous imbricated cells, each containing a single scarlet seed. This escapes through a longitudinal opening in the cell, but remains for some time suspended from the cone by a slender thread to which it is attached. The M. glauca extends along the seaboard of the United States, from Cape Ann, in Massachusetts, to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. It is abundant in the Middle and Southern States, usually growing in swamps and morasses; and is seldom met with in the interior of the country west of the mountains. It begins to flower in May, June, or July, according to the latitude. It is known by the name of magnolia simply in the Northern and Middle States, by that of white bay or sweet bay in the South, and is occasionally called swamp sassafras, beaver tree, $-c. 2. M. acuminata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1257; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 12. This species is much larger than the preceding, often growing to the height of seventy or eighty feet. The leaves are six or seven inches long, by three or four in breadth, oval, acuminate, and pubescent on their under surface. The flowers are five or six inches in diameter, bluish or cream-coloured, slightly odorous, with obovate rather obtuse petals from six to nine in number. Mingled with the splendid foliage, they give a magni- ficent aspect to the tree when large and in full bloom. The tree grows in the mountainous regions in the interior of the United States, extending along the Alleghanies from the state of New York to their termination in Georgia, and seldom existing in the low country far either to the east or the west of this range. Wherever it is found, it is called cucumber tree, from the resemblance of its fruit in shape and size to this product of the gardens. 3. M. tripetala. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1258; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 18. This is a small tree, sometimes though rafely reaching an elevation of thirty feet, and almost always having an inclined trunk. It is remarkable for the size of its leaves and flowers. The former are eighteen or twenty inches long by seven or eight in breadth, thin, obovate, somewhat wedge- shaped, entire, acute at both extremities, pubescent when young, and often disposed in rays at the extremity of the shoots, displaying a surface thirty inches in diameter. Hence has arisen the name of umbrella tree, by which this species is distinguished. The flowers are terminal, seven or eight inches in diameter, white, with from five to twelve oval acute petals, of which the three outer are refiexed. This species extends from the northern parts of New York to the southern limits of the United States. It is found only in situations which are shady, with a strong, deep, and fertile soil. It is common in some of the islands of the Susquehanna, and still more so in the Southern and South Western States. (Michaux.) The bark and fruit of all the species of Magnolia are possessed of similar medicinal properties; but the bark only is officinal; and that of the root is thought to be most efficient. It has an aromatic odour, and a bitter, pun- gent, spicy taste. The aromatic property, which resides in a volatile prin- ciple, is diminished by desiccation, and entirely lost when the bark is long kept. The bitterness, however, remains. The bark is destitute of astring- 444 Magnolia.—Malva. PART I. ency. The bark of the Magnolia grandiflora, examined by Dr. Stephen Procter, was found to contain volatile oil, resin, and a principle analogous to the liriodendrin of Professor Emmet. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 95.) It is probable that the bark of the other species contains similar ingredients. Medical Properties and Uses. Magnolia is a gently stimulant aromatic tonic and diaphoretic, useful in chronic rheumatism, and capable, if freely given, of arresting the paroxysms of intermittent fever. It has been used advantageously in these complaints, and in remittents, especially of a typhoid character. The dose of the recently dried bark in powder is from half a drachm to a drachm, frequently repeated. The infusion may also be used, but is less efficient. Diluted alcohol extracts all the virtues of the medi- cine ; and a tincture, made by macerating the fresh bark or cones in brandy, is a popular remedy in chronic rheumatism. W. MALVA. Lond., Ed. Common Mallow. "Malva sylvestris." Lond. "Herb of Malva sylvestris." Ed. Mauve sauvage, Fr.; Waldmalve, Germ.; Malva, Ital, Span. Malva. Sex. Syst. Monadelphia Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Malvaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx double, the exterior three-leaved. Capsules very many, one-seeded. Willd. Malva sylvestris. Willd. Sp.Plant, iii. 787; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 554. t. 197. This is a perennial, herbaceous plant, with a round, hairy, branch- ing, usually erect stem, from one to three feet high, bearing alternate, petiolate, cordate, roughish leaves, which are divided into five or seven crenate lobes, and on the upper part of the stem are almost palmate. The flowers are large, purplish, and placed from three to five together at the axils of the leaves, upon long slender peduncles, which, as well as the petioles, are pubescent. The petals are five, inversely cordate, and three times as long as the calyx. The capsules are disposed compactly in a cir- cular form. This species of mallow is a native of Europe, where it grows abundantly on waste grounds and by the way-sides, flowering from May to August. It is sometimes cultivated in our gardens. Other species, indigenous or naturalized in this country, are possessed of the same properties, which are in fact common to the whole genus. The M. rotundifolia is one of the most common, and may be substituted for the M. sylvestris. The herb and flowers, which are the officinal parts, have a weak,herba- ceous, slimy taste, without odour. They abound in mucilage, which they readily impart to water; and the solution is precipitated by acetate of lead. The infusion and tincture of the flowers are blue, and serve as a test of acids and alkalies, being reddened by the former, and rendered green by the latter. The roots and seeds are also mucilaginous. Medical Properties and Uses. Common mallow is emollient and de- mulcent. The infusion and decoction are sometimes employed in catarrhal, dysenteric, and nephritic complaints; and are applicable to all other cases which call for the use of mucilaginous liquids. They are also used as an emollient injection; and the fresh plant forms a good suppurative or relax- ing cataplasm in external inflammation. It was formerly among the culi- nary herbs. Off Prep. Decoctum Malvas Compositum, Lond. W. PART I. Manganesii Oxidum. 445 MANGANESII OXIDUM. Ed. Oxide of Manganese. Off. Syn. MANGANESII BINOXYDUM. Lond.; MANGANESII OXYDUM. Dub. Manganese, Peroxide of manganese, Deutoxide of manganese/ Black oxide of manga- nese ; Oxide noir de manganese, Fr.; Braunstein, Germ.; Manganese, Ital, Span. Black oxide of manganese is the deutoxide or binoxide of a peculiar metal properly called manganese; though this name is commonly applied to the oxide itself. Metallic manganese was discovered by Scheeie and Gahn in 1774, and is obtained from the native black oxide by intense ignition with charcoal. It is hard, brittle, granular, of a grayish-white colour, and emits a disagreeable odour in a moist atmosphere. It oxidizes readily by the action of the air, first tarnishing, then assuming a yellowish or violet colour, and finally becoming converted into a black powder. Its sp. gr. is 8, melting point 160° of Wedgwood, and equivalent number 27-7. With oxygen it forms five combinations, three regular oxides and two acids. The protoxide is of a light green colour, and is the oxide present in the salts of manganese. The sesquioxide is black or dark brown, and the deutoxide black. The two acids are formed by the action of potassa on the deutoxide, and are called manganic and hypermanganic acids. Assuming one eq. of manganese in each of these combinations, the protoxide is found to contain one, the sesqui- oxide one and a half, the deutoxide two, manganic acid three, and hyper- manganic acid three and a half equivalents of oxygen.* (Berzelius.) Besides these, there exist a double oxide, of a brownish-red colour, called the red oxide, consisting of one eq. of protoxide and one of sesquioxide, and invari- ably formed when any one of the other oxides of manganese is exposed to a white heat; and a native oxide, called Varvicite, composed of two eqs. of deutoxide, and one of sesquioxide. Metallic manganese is an occasional constituent of organic matter. It was detected in minute quantity in bones by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, and is often present in the ashes of plants. In the mineral kingdom, it occurs sometimes as a sulphuret, rarely as a phosphate, but very abundantly as the black or deutoxide. It is this latter mineral which constitutes the officinal oxide. Properties. Deutoxide of manganese, as it occurs in nature, is very vari- able in its appearance. It is found sometimes in brilliant needle-shaped crystals, often in compact masses having the metallic lustre, but far more frequently in the form of a dull earthy-looking substance of a black or brown colour. It is purest when crystallized. As it occurs in commerce it is usually in the form of powder, of a black colour, insoluble in water, and con- taining as impurities more or less oxidized iron, carbonate of lime, sulphate of baryta, and earthy matter. Iron, which is rarely absent, is detected by the production of a greenish or blue tint on the addition of ferrocyanuret of potassium. When exposed to a red heat it yields a considerable quantity of oxygen, and is reduced to the state of sesquioxide. Hence its. use in obtain- ing that gas. When dried, and afterwards heated to whiteness, good sam- ples lose twelve per cent, of oxygen. (Lond. Pharm.) It is distinguished from the sulphuret of antimony by its infusibility, and by its causing the evolution of chlorine on being heated with muriatic acid. When of a brown colour, it is not of good quality. Its composition has been given above. * In order to avoid fractional equivalents, the sesquioxide is generally stated to consist of two eqs. of metal and three of oxygen, and the hypermanganic acid, of two eqs. of metal and seven of oxygen. 39 446 Manganesii Oxidum.—Manna. part i. But few mines of deutoxide of manganese exist, though the metal itself is very generally diffused throughout the mineral kingdom. It occurs most abundantly in Bohemia, Saxony, the Hartz, France, and Great Britain. In the United States no mines have been opened, except in Vermont, from which state an inferior brown ferruginous manganese is supplied through Boston. Besides this source of supply, the mineral is received from Nova Scotia, France, Germany, England, and occasionally Scotland. It comes packed in casks or barrels, generally in lumps and coarse powder, just as it is dug out of the mines; though occasionally it is received from England ready pulverized. It is a good rule to buy it unpowdered, as its quality can be better judged of in that state. A dark shining crystalline appearance may be taken as an indication of good quality. The Nova Scotia man- ganese is better than the Vermont; but that received from Germany and England is the best, and commands the highest price in the market. The Scotch manganese is also of good quality. Medical Properties and Uses. The physiological effects of the prepara- tions of manganese are but imperfectly known. Manganic acid, given to a rabbit, seemed to increase the urine. C. G. Gmeliri found the sulphate of the protoxide to produce an extraordinary secretion of bile when exhibited to animals. According to Dr. Thomson, of Glasgow, it acts on man as a purgative, resembling sulphate of soda both in taste and effects The black oxide is deemed a tonic by some experimenters. When slowly introduced into the system, as happens to those engaged in grinding the mineral, it acts, according to Dr. Coupar, of Glasgow, as a cumulative poison, inducing a disease which first shows itself by a staggering gait, and ends in paraplegia. It has been used in syphilis, chlorosis, scurvy, and various skin diseases, especially itch and porrigo. The dose is from three to twenty grains, three times a day, given in the form of pill. For external use, the ointment is made of one or two drachms of the oxide to an ounce of lard. Black oxide of manganese is used in the arts for obtaining chlorine for the purpose of bleaching, to give a black glazing to pottery, and for freeing glass from the. colour which it derives from the sesquioxide of iron. According to Berzelius, a few pounds of it added to each cask of water intended for sea- voyages, will preserve it sweet. In the laboratory, it is employed to obtain oxygen and chlorine, and to form the salts of manganese. Pharmaceutically it is used, in conjunction with sulphuric acid, for liberating chlorine from common salt, in the processes for preparing Aqua Chlorinii, Dub., Calx Chlorinata, Lond., and Liquor Sodas Chlorinatas, Lond. B. MANNA. U S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Manna. "The concrete juice of Ornus Europasa." U.S. "Ornus Europasa. Succus concretus." Lond. " Sweet concrete exudation, probably from several species of Fraxinus and Ornus." Ed. Manne, Fr.; Manna, Germ., Ital; Mana, Span. Manna is not the product of one plant exclusively. Besides the Ornus Europaea indicated by the Pharmacopoeias, it is said to be obtained also from several other trees, belonging to the genera Ornus and Fraxinus, among which the 0. rotundifolia, F. excelsior, and F. parviflora have been par- ticularly designated. Burkhardt states that a species of manna, which exudes from the tamarisk of the North of Africa (Tamarix Gallica,Ehren- berg), is used by the Bedouin Arabs of the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai with their food. This substance, however, according to Mitscherlich, con- PART I. Manna. 447 tains no mannite, but consists wholly of mucilaginous sugar. The manna used in India is said to be the product of Hedysarum Alhagi of Linn., Alhagi Maurorum of De Candolle, a thorny shrub which grows abundantly in the deserts of Persia and Arabia. It is, however, much inferior to that obtained from the Ornus. A substance closely resembling manna, is pro- cured by exudation from a species of Eucalyptus called E. mannifera, growing in New South Wales. The substance known in France by the name of Briancon Manna, is an exudation from the common European larch—Larix Europaea or Pinus Larix—and differs chemically from ordi- nary manna in containing no mannite. A substance resembling manna, of a sweet, slightly bitter, and terebinthinate taste, and actively purgative, exudes from incisions in the Pinus Lambertiana, of Southern Oregon, and is used by the inhabitants. (Nar. of U. S. Expl. Exped., v. 232.) Ornus. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Oleaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx very small, four-cleft. Corolla divided to the base into linear segments. Pericarp a winged key not dehiscing. Lindley. This genus was separated by Persoon from the Fraxinus of Linnasus, and is now admitted by the best botanists. Ornus Europaea. Persoon, Synops. i. 9; Lindley, Flor. Med. 547.— Fraxinus Ornus. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1104; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 589, t. 209. The flowering ash is a tree of moderate height, usually from twenty to twenty-five feet, very branching, with opposite, petiolate, pinnate leaves, composed of three or four pairs of leaflets, and an odd one at the extremity. The leaflets are oval, acuminate, obtusely serrate, about an inch and a half in length, smooth, of a bright green colour, and stand on short footstalks. The flowers are white, and usually expand with the leaves. They grow in close panicles at the extremities of the young branches, and have a very short calyx with four teeth, and four linear lanceolate petals.* Both this species of Ornus and the O. rotundifolia are natives of Sicily, Calabria, and Apulia; and both contribute to supply the manna of commerce. During the hot months, the juice exudes spontaneously from the bark, and concretes upon its surface; but, as the exudation is slow, it is customary to facilitate the process by making deep longitudinal incisions on one side of the trunk. In the following season these are repeated on the other side, and thus alternately for thirty or forty years, during which the trees are said to yield manna. Straw or clean chips are frequently placed so as to receive the juice, which concretes upon them. The manna varies in its character according to the mode of collection and nature of the season, and the period of the year in which the exudation takes place. That procured in Sicily is said to be the best. Three varieties are distinguishable in commerce. 1. The purest is that usually known by the name offtake manna, called also manna cannulata. It exudes spontaneously, or by incisions, during the hottest and dryest weather in July and August. It is in irregular, unequal pieces, often several inches long, resembling stalactites, rough, light, porous, brittle, whitish or yellowish-white, and frequently concave on the surface by which they were attached to the trunk, and which is often soiled by im- purities, sometimes by adherent fragments of the bark. When broken, these pieces exhibit a crystalline or granular structure. This variety is sometimes in small fragments, generally less than an inch in length. 2. Common manna—manne en sorte of French pharmacy—is next in quality, and is collected in September and the beginning of October, when * A syrup prepared from the inner bark of this tree has been employed, in Europe, by Dr. Devergie, with supposed advantage, in chronic eczema and impetigo. The bark con- tains much tannin, and a mucilaginous principle, which renders diluted alcohol a better menstruum than boiling water. {Journ. de Pharm., oe ser., ix. 347.) 448 Manna. PART I. the heat of the weather has begun to moderate. The juice does not now concrete so readily, and a portion, falling on the ground at the root of the tree, becomes more or less mixed with impurities, and forms imperfectly solid masses, which require to be further dried in the sun. The common manna consists of whitish or yellowish fragments similar to the pieces of flake manna, but much smaller, mixed with a soft, viscid, uncrystailized brownish matter, identical with that which constitutes the following variety. 3. Fat manna is collected in the latter part of October and November, when the weather is cooler and rains more common. The juice is now still less disposed to concrete, and flowing down the trunk is received in a small excavation at its base. As found in commerce it is in the form of a soft, viscous mass, containing few crystalline fragments, of a brown or yellowish- brown colour, and full of impurities. Manna may be found in the shops of every grade, from the most impure of the third variety to the purest of the first; but the worst kind is not often imported into this country. Attempts have sometimes been made to counterfeit it; but the facility of detection renders frauds of this kind unprofitable, and they are not often practised. Baume describes a method in which common manna is purified so as to resemble flake, manna. It consists in dissolving common manna in a little water, allowing the liquid to settle, decanting it in order to separate the impurities, then inspissating it so that it will eongeal on cooling, and immersing threads in the inspissated liquid several times successively in the manner practised by candle-makers. It may be still further purified by the use of animal charcoal. Thus prepared it contains less mannite than flake manna, and less of the nauseous principle; but is said not to operate less effectively as a laxative. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., ix. 45.) Properties. Manna has a slight, peculiar odour, and a sweet taste, which in the impure kinds is also very nauseous, but in the finest flake manna, scarcely so much so as to' be disagreeable. It melts with heat, and takes fire, burning with a blue flame. When pure it is soluble in three parts of cold, and in its own weight of boiling water. From a boiling saturated aqueous solution, it separates in partially crystalline masses. Alcohol also dissolves it, and, if saturated by means of heat, deposits upon cooling a large proportion of the manna in a beautifully crystalline form. Analyzed by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, manna was found to consist of, 1. a peculiar crys- tallizable sweet principle, called mannite, which constitutes seventy-five per cent.; 2. true sugar; 3. a yellow nauseous matter, upon which the pur- gative property is thought chiefly to depend; and 4. a small quantity of mucilage. Leuchtweiss obtained from 105 parts of manna 11*6 of water, 0-4 of insoluble matter, 9-1 of sugar, 42-6 of mannite, 40-0 of a mixture of mucilaginous matter containing mannite, with resin, an organic acid, and a nitrogenous substance, and 1-3 of ashes. (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm., liii. 124.) It is owing to the presence of true sugar that manna is capable of fermenting. Mannite is white, inodorous, crystallizable in semi-trans- parent needles, of a sweetish taste, soluble in five parts of cold water, scarcely soluble in cold alcohol, but readily dissolved by that liquid when hot, and precipitated when it cools. Unlike sugar, it is incapable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. It may be obtained by boiling manna in alcohol, allowing the solution to cool, and redissolving the crystalline precipitate. Pure mannite is now deposited. This principle has been found in numerous vegetables. It is said to be gently laxative, in the dose of one or two ounces.* * G. Ruspini prepares mannite more economically from common manna, by first melt- ing six pounds over the fire with three pounds of water previously beaten with the white of an egg, boiling for a few minutes, straining through flannel, and allowing the PART I. Manna.—Maranta. 449 Manna, when long kept, acquires a deeper colour, softens, and ferments. That which is dryest resists this change the longest. It is said, when recently gathered, to be less purgative than it afterwards becomes. Medical Properties and Uses. Manna is a gentle laxative, usually ope- rating mildly, but in some cases producing flatulence and pain. Though peculiarly adapted to children and pregnant women, it may be given with advantage in ordinary cases of piles from constipation, unattended with dys- peptic symptoms. It is usually, however, prescribed with other purgatives, particularly senna, rhubarb, magnesia, and the neutral salts, the taste of which It conceals, while it adds to the purgative effect. The dose for an adult is from one to two ounces; for children, from one to four drachms. It is usually given dissolved in water or some aromatic infusion; but the best flake manna may be administered in substance. Off. Prep. Confectio Cassias, Lond., Dub.; Enema Catharticum, Dub.; Syrupus Sennas, Lond. W. MARANTA. U S., Lond., Ed. Arrow-root. " The fecula of the rhizoma of Maranta arundinacea." U. S. "Maranta arundinacea. Rhizomalis Fsecula." Lond. " Fecula of the tubers of Ma- ranta arundinacea and Maranta indica." Ed. Arrow-root, Fr.; Amerikanisches Starkmehl, Arrowmehl, Germ. Maranta. Sex. Syst. Monandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Marantaceas. Gen. Ch. Anther attached to the petal-like filament. Style petal-shaped. Stigma three-sided. Flowers panicled. Loudon's Encyc. Maranta arundinacea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 13; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 2. The root (rhizoma) of this plant is perennial, tuberous, fleshy, horizontal, nearly cylindrical, scaly, from six inches to a foot or more in length, and furnished with numerous long white fibres. It sends forth several tuberous, jointed, curved, white, scaly stoles, the points of which sometimes rise above the ground, and become new plants. The stems, of which several proceed from the same root, are annual, slender, branched, jointed, leafy, and about three feet in height. The leaves are ovate lanceo- late, about four inches long, alternate, and supported solitarily at the joints of the stem upon long, sheathing footstalks. The flowers are in a long, loose, spreading, terminal panicle, at each ramification of which is a solitary linear bracte. The calyx consists of three small lanceolate leaves. The corolla is while and monopetalous, with a tube longer than the calyx, and a double border, of which the three outermost segments are smallest, and the two inner obovate, and slightly emarginate. The arrow-root plant is a native of the West Indies, where it is largely cultivated. It has been cultivated also in our Southern States, but not very extensively. The plant is easily propagated by cuttings of the root. In the West Indies, the fecula, so well known by the name of arrow-root, is prepared in the following manner. The roots are dug up when a year old, washed, and then beat into a pulp, which is thrown into water, and agitated so as to separate the amylaceous from the fibrous portion. The fibres are liquid to solidify by cooling; then adding an equal weight of cold water, expressing, dis- solving the residue in boiling water with animal charcoal, filtering the liquid boiling hot, and, lastly, evaporating to a pellicle. The mannite separates, upon cooling, in beautiful truncated quadrangular prisms, perfectly white, and transparent. (/. de Pharm., 3ejer., x. 117.) 39* 450 Maranta. PART I. removed by the hand, and the starch remains suspended in the water, to which it gives a milky colour. This milky fluid is strained through coarse linen, and allowed to stand that the fecula may subside, which is then washed with a fresh portion of water, and afterwards dried in the sun. We obtain the officinal arrow-root chiefly, if not exclusively, from the West Indies; and that from the Bermudas is most highly esteemed. Other plants contribute to furnish the arrow-root of commerce. Lindley states that it is procured in the West Indies from the Maranta Allouya and M. nobilis, besides the M. arundinacea. Under the name of M. Indica, Tussac describes a distinct species which he says was originally brought from the East Indies, and is now cultivated in Jamaica. This, however, is generally considered as a mere variety of the M. arundinacea, from which it differs chiefly in having leaves more elongated at the point, and smooth on both sides. Very fine arrow-root is obtained in the East Indies from the root of the Curcuma angustifolia, of Roxburgh, which is cultivated in Tra- vancore. But the product is lighter than the Maranta arrow-root, and does not so quickly make a jelly. Ainslie states that the M. arundinacea has been introduced from the West Indies into Ceylon, where good arrow-root is prepared from it. A fecula, closely resembling that of the Maranta, is said by Guibourt to be prepared in the West Indies from the root of the cassava plant, Jatropha Manihot; and it is not improbable that a variety of arrow-root brought to this country from Brazil has a similar origin. In fact, it often contains small lumps, as large as a pin's head, identical with tapioca, which is a product of the J. Manihot. A variety of arrow-root has been imported from the Sandwich Islands. It was supposed to be pro- cured from the root of the Tacca pinnatifida, which grows abundantly in Tahiti and other islands of the South Pacific; but Mr. Nuttall, during his visit to the Sandwich Islands, found that it was the product of another species of Tacca, which he has described under the name of Tacca oceanica. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., ix. 305.) Arrow-root is occasionally brought into the market from Florida, prepared in the neighbourhood of St. Augustine from the root of Zamia integrifolia, by a process similar to that employed in the preparation of the fecula of the Maranta. (Dr. Joseph Carson, Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 22.) Attempts have been made to substitute finely prepared potato starch for arrow-root; and there is no doubt that, medically considered, it is quite equal; but patients complain of an unpleasant taste of the potato which it is apt to retain. Arrow-root is in the form of a light white powder, or of small pulverulent masses, without smell or taste. It has a firm feel when pressed between the fingers, and produces a faint crackling sound when rubbed. It is a pure starch, identical in chemical properties with that of wheat and the potato. 'It is very apt to be musty, and should then be rejected. The odour and taste are the best criteria of its purity. It should be perfectly free from smell and unpleasant flavour. Mr. Procter has rendered musty arrow-root quite sweet and fit for use by washing it thoroughly with two successive portions of cold water, and then drying it upon frames of muslin in a warm place. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 188.) Arrow-root is said to be some- times adulterated with common starch, and that of the potato. These may be detected by the aid of the microscope. Muriatic acid has been proposed as a test of their presence. A mixture of equal parts of that acid and of water, rubbed with about half its weight of potato or wheat starch, very quickly forms so thick a mucilage that the mortar in which the trituration is effected may be raised by the pestle; while the same result does not take place with rice flour or arrow-root under 25 or 30 minutes. So small a PART I. Maranta.—Marmor. 451 proportion as from four to six per cent, of the impurity may, it is asserted, be detected in this way. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser., ii. 246.) As the microscope affords the best means of distinguishing the different varieties of fecula sold as arrow-root, or used for its adulteration, it is proper to indicate the form of their granules as exhibited by this instrument. Those of the proper officinal or Maranta arrow-root are rarely oblong, somewhat ovate-oblong, or irregularly convex, with very fine rings, a circular hilum which cracks in a linear or stellate manner, and small mammillary pro- cesses occasionally projecting from them. (Pereira.) The largest are the 750th of an inch, but many not more than the 2000th of an inch long; and their breadth is generally two-thirds of their length. (Christison.) The granules of the East India arrow-root are, according to Pereira, of unequal size, ovate or oblong-ovate, flattened, and often furnished with a very short neck or nipple-like projection. The rings are numerous, close, and very fine; and the hilum, which is situated at the narrow extremity, is circular, small, and indistinct. The microscopic appearance of the tapioca fecula will be described under the head of Tapioca, to which the reader is referred. The Tacca fecula from the South Sea Islands, examined by Pereira, con- sisted of circular, muller-shaped, or polyhedral granules, with few and not very distinct rings, and a small, circular hilum, which cracked in a linear or stellate manner. The Florida arrow-root was found by Dr. Carson to consist of granules, forming the half, the third, or the quarter of a solid sphere. The potato starch granules are of various shape and size, but generally ovate or elliptical, and from the 7000th to the 300th of an inch in length, the largest being inferior in size only to the largest of the canna starch or tous-les-mois. (See Canna.) They are strongly marked with concentric rings, and have a circular hilum, from which usually proceed the cracks observable in some of the larger grains. (Pereira.) Medical Properties and Uses. Arrow-root is nutritious and demulcent, affording a light, very mild, and easily digested article of diet, well adapted for the sick and convalescent, and peculiarly suited, from its demulcent pro- perties, to bowel complaints and diseases of the urinary passages. It is much used as food for infants after weaning, or when the mother's milk is insufficient. It is prepared by dissolving it in hot water, with which it forms a pearly gelatinous solution, and, if in sufficient quantity, a jelly-like mass on cooling. A tablespoonful will communicate sufficient consistence to a pint of water. It should first be formed into a paste with a little cold water, and the boiling water then gradually added with brisk agitation. The preparation may be rendered more palatable by lemon-juiceand sugar, or in low forms of disease by wine and spices, if not contra-indicated. For children, arrow-root is usually prepared with milk. W. Off. Prep. Trochisci Ipecacuanhas, U. S. MARMOR. U. S., Lond., Ed. Marble. "White granular carbonate of lime." U. S. "Carbonas calcis (dura)." Lond. "Massive crystalline carbonate of lime." Ed. Off. Syn. CALCIS CARBONAS. MARMOR ALBUM. Dub. White marble; Marbre, Fr.; Marmor, Germ.; Marmo, Ital; Marmol, Span. Marble is used for obtaining carbonic acid, and for making several offi- cinal preparations. For the former purpose, common marble is sufficiently pure; but for the latter, the purer varieties must be selected. The officinal marble is a white granular substance, having a specific 452 Marmor.—Marrubium. PART I. o-ravity varying from 2-7 to 2-8. It is brittle, puiverizable, and insoluble fn water. It is wholly dissolved in dilute muriatic acid with effervescence. If mao-nesia be present, the neutral muriatic solution will be precipitated by ammonia; and if baryta or strontia be an impurity, a similar effect will be produced by a solution of sulphate of lime. When marble is exposed to a full red heat, it loses about 44 per cent, of carbonic acid, and is con- verted into lime. (See Calx.) In composition it agrees with chalk. The purest kind of marble is that of Carrara, sometimes called statuary marble; but it is not necessary that this kind should be obtained for phar- maceutic operations. Marble, sufficiently pure for these purposes, is found in various parts of the United States. It is necessary, however, to reject the dolomitic marbles, which contain a considerable proportion of magnesia. Marble is used by the Edinburgh College, merely to get rid of excess of acid by saturating it, in the processes for preparing muriate of morphia, and the sulphates of potassa and soda. Off.Prep. Aqua Acidi Carbonici, U.S.; Calcis Murias, Ed.; Calx, Ed.; Liquor Calcii Chloridi, U. S.; Potassas Bicarbonas, U. S., Dub.; Sodas Bicarbonas, U.S.,Ed.,Dub. B. MARRUBIUM. U.S. Secondary, Lond. Horehound. ■ "The herb of Marrubium vulgare." U.S. "Marrubium vulgare." Lond. Off. Syn. MARRUBIUM VULGARE. Dub. Marrube blanc, Fr.; Weisser Andorn, Germ.; Marrubio, Ital, Span. Marrubium. Sex. Syst. Didynamia Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Lami- aceas or Labiatas. Gen.Ch. Calyx salver-shaped, rigid, ten-streaked. Corolla with the upper lip bifid, linear, and straight. Marrubium vulgare. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. Ill; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 332. t. 118. White horehound has a perennial fibrous root, and numerous annual stems, which are quadrangular, erect, very downy, and from twelve to eighteen inches high. The leaves are roundish ovate, dentate or deeply serrate, wrinkled, veined, hoary on the under surface, and supported in pairs upon strong footstalks. The flowers are white, and in crowded axil- lary .whorls. The calyx is tubular, and divided at the margin into ten narrow segments, which are hooked at the end. The corolla is also tubular, with a labiate margin, of which the upper lip is bifid, the under reflected and three-cleft, with the middle segment broad and slightly scolloped. The seeds are four, and lie in the bottom of the calyx. This plant is a native of Europe, but has been naturalized in this country, where it grows on the roadsides, and flowers in July and August. It is cultivated in our gardens. The herb has a strong rather agreeable odour, which is diminished by drying, and is lost by keeping. Its taste is bitter and durable. The bitter- ness is extracted by water and alcohol. It contains a volatile oil, bitter extractive, resin, tannin, and lignin. Medical Properties and Uses. Horehound is tonic, in large doses laxa- tive, and may be so given as to increase the secretion from the skin, and occasionally from the kidneys. It was formerly considered a valuable deobstruent, and recommended in chronic hepatitis, jaundice, menstrual obstructions, phthisis, and various cachectic affections. By its gently tonic powers it may undoubtedly have proved advantageous in some of these complaints; but it exerts no specific influence over any; and has now passed almost entirely from the hands of physicians into domestic use. It is em- PART I. Mastiche. 453 ployed chiefly in catarrh, and other chronic affections of the lungs attended with cough and copious expectoration. The infusion made in the propor- tion of an ounce of the herb to a pint of boiling water may be given in wineglassful doses. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. The medicine is also much used in the shape of syrup and candy. W. MASTICHE. Lond., Ed., Dub. Mastich. "Pistacia Lentiscus. Resina." Lond., Dub. "Concrete resinous exu- dation of Pistacia Lentiscus." Ed. Mastic, Fr.; Mastix, Germ.; Mastice,Ital; Almastiga, Span.; Sakes.Turk.; Arah, Arab. Pistacia. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Pentandria.—Nat. Orel. Anacardiaceas. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla none. Female. Calyx three- cleft. Corolla none. Styles three. Drupe one-seeded. Willd. Pistacia Lentiscus. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 753; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 26. t. 11. The lentisk is a shrub or small tree, seldom rising more than twelve feet in height, much branched towards the top, and furnished with petiolate, abruptly pinnate leaves. The leaflets are from eight to twelve in number, usually alternate, with the exception of the two upper which are opposite. They are ovate lanceolate, entire, obtuse, often mucronate, and sessile upon the common footstalk, which is winged, or furnished with a narrow foliaceous expansion on each side. The flowers are dioecious, and very small. The male are in an axillary ament; the female are arranged alternately upon a common peduncle, which is also axillary. This tree is a native of the countries which border upon the Mediterra- nean; but does not yield mastich in all places. The island of Scio in the Grecian Archipelago is the place whence the drug is chiefly obtained. Inci- sions are made in the trunk and principal branches, from which the juice slowly exudes, and either hardens in tears upon the bark, or drops on the ground, where it is sometimes received upon cloths, sometimes upon the bare earth, and concretes in irregular masses. The tears are most esteemed. They are of various sizes, oval or roundish, often compressed, smooth, semi-transparent, of a pale yellow colour, of a shining fracture, friable, and usually covered with a whitish powder, occasioned by their friction against each other. The masses are composed of yellowish tears agglutinated toge- ther, with others of a darker colour and less translucent, and often fragments of wood, bark, or earthy matter intermingled. Mastich is nearly inodorous, unless rubbed or heated, when it becomes fragrant. Its taste is weak but agreeably terebinthinate, and, after long chewing, very slightly acrid. It is at first friable under the teeth, but soon becomes soft and ductile, and acquires a white opaque appearance. Its sp. gr. is 1-074. It is fusible and inflammable by heat. Alcohol dissolves about four-fifths of it, leaving a viscid substance which becomes brittle when dried, and for which the name of masticin has been proposed. This substance, though not dissolved by alcohol, softens and swells up in it, as gluten does in water. According to Berzelius, it enjoys the same general properties as copal, and should be considered as a variety of resin. Mastich is wholly soluble in ether and in oil of turpentine, scarcely soluble in the fixed oils, and insoluble in water. It consists chiefly of resin, with masticin, and a minute proportion of volatile oil, which can scarcely be said to have been obtained in a separate state, though it imparts flavour to alcohol and water distilled from the mastich, especially when this has been previously triturated with an equal weight of carbonate of potassa. 454 Mastiche.—Matricaria. PART I. Medical Properties and Uses. Mastich was formerly thought to possess properties analogous to those of the turpentines, and was used in debility of the stomach, hasmoptysis from ulceration, leucorrhoea, chronic diarrhcea, &c; but its virtues were overrated; and it is at present scarcely ever given internally. It is sometimes employed to fill the cavities of carious teeth, for which purpose it is well fitted by its softness. Great quantities of it are consumed in Turkey, where it is habitually chewed by the women, under the impression that it sweetens the breath, and preserves the gums and teeth. Dissolved in alcohol or oil of turpentine, it forms a brilliant varnish. The following mode of applying it to carious teeth is highly recommended. Dissolve four parts of mastich in one part of sulphuric ether, in a bottle well stopped. With the solution thus formed, which is of a yellow colour and oily consistence, saturate a small piece of cotton of the size of the carious cavity, and having well cleansed and dried the cavity, introduce the cotton, without painful pressure, so as to fill it exactly. The ether is soon evapo- rated, and the resin, remaining soft and adhesive, attaches itself to the dis- eased surface of the tooth, which it protects from the action of the air, and of the food taken into the mouth. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 597.) Off. Prep. Tinctura Ammonias Composita, Lond. W. MATRICARIA. U. S. Secondary. German Chamomile. "The flowers of Matricaria Chamomilla." U. S. Matricaria. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Compositas- Senecionideas, De Cand. Asteraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx flat, imbricate, with scales having scarious margins. Receptacle naked, terete. Pappus none. Matricaria Chamomilla. Linn. Sp. 1256. This is an annual plant, with a branching stem a foot or two in height, bearing alternate leaves about two inches long, the lower ones tripinnate, the upper bipinnate or simply pinnate, and all of them very green, and nearly or quite smooth. The leaflets are linear and very small. The flowers appear singly at the ends of the stem and branches. They are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with the ray spreading. The scales of the calyx are obtuse, green in the middle, and whitish, membranous, and translucent at the margin. The ray florets are white, at first spreading, and ultimately reflected. The disk is of a deep yellow colour, at first flat, but in the end convex, and even somewhat conical. The plant is a native of Europe, and is occasionally cultivated in our gardens. All parts of it are active ; but the flowers only are officinal. These shrink in drying, so that they are scarcely half as large as in their recent state. Those found in our shops are imported from Germany. The dried flowers of the Matricaria are considerably smaller than com- mon chamomile, and exhibit a larger proportion of the disk florets compared with those of the ray. They have a strong, peculiar, rather unpleasant odour, and a disagreeable bitter taste. Their active constituents are volatile oil and bitter extractive, which are readily extracted by water and alcohol. The oil, which is obtained by distillation with water, is thick, somewhat tenacious, of a dark-blue colour becoming br&wn by age, and almost opaque in mass. Medical Properties and Uses. Matricaria is a mild tonic, very similar to chamomile in medical properties, and, like it, capable, in large doses, of PART I. Matricaria.—Mel. 455 producing an emetic effect. It is esteemed also in Europe antispasmodic and anthelmintic. It is much employed in Germany; but in this country scarcely at all, unless by some German practitioners. It may be given for the same purposes and in the same manner as chamomile. W. MEL. U.S.fLond.,Ed., Dub. Honey. "A liquid prepared from flowers by Apis mellifica." U. S. " Apis mel- lifica. Humor ejloribus decerptus, et ab ape paratus." Lond. " Saccharine secretion of Apis mellifica." Ed. Miel, Fr; Honig, Germ.; Miele, Ital; Miel, Span. Naturalists have not yet determined whether honey is a secretion of the bee, Apis mellifica, or whether it exists already formed in plants. It is certain that the nectaries of flowers contain a saccharine matter, which is extracted by the insect, and the fact is well known that the flavour and cha- racter of honey are very much affected by the nature of the plants which predominate in the vicinity of the hive ; so much so, that when these plants are poisonous, the fluid sometimes partakes of their noxious qualities. Still, it probably undergoes some change in the organs of the bee ; as the saccharine matter of the nectaries, so far as it has been possible to examine it, wants some of the characteristic properties of honey. The finest honey is that which is allowed to drain from the comb. If obtained from hives that have never swarmed, it is called virgin honey. An inferior kind is procured by exposing the comb to pressure, and, if heat be employed previous to expression, the product is still more impure. Much honey is collected in different parts of the United States ; but that with which the shops of cities on the seaboard are supplied, is derived chiefly from Cuba. In the recent state honey is fluid ; but, on being kept, it forms a crystal- line deposit, and is ultimately converted into a soft granular mass. In the shops it is found of every consistence, from that of a viscid liquid like thin syrup or oil, to that of lard or soft suet. Its colour is sometimes white, but usually yellowish, and occasionally of a brown or reddish tinge. It has a peculiar agreeable odour, varying somewhat with the flowers from which it was collected, and a very sweet feebly aromatic taste, which is followed by a slight prickling or sense of acrimony in the fauces. Its specific gravity is about 1-333. (Duncan.) Cold water dissolves it readily, alcohol with less facility. It contains crystallizable sugar analogous to that of grapes, uncrystallizable sugar, an aromatic principle, an acid, wax, and, according to Guibourt, a little mannite. The crystalline sugar may be obtained by treating granular honey with a small quantity of alcohol, which when ex- pressed takes along with it the other ingredients, leaving the crystals nearly untouched. The same end may be attained by melting the honey, saturating its acid with carbonate of lime, filtering the liquid, then setting it aside to crystallize, and washing the crystals with alcohol. Inferior honey usually contains a larger proportion of uncrystallizable sugar and .vegetable acid. Diluted with water, honey undergoes the vinous fermentation; and treated with nitric acid is converted into oxalic acid. In warm weather, honey, if not very pure, sometimes ferments, acquiring a pungent taste, and a deeper colour. Starch is said to be occasionally added to the inferior kinds to give them a white appearance. The adulteration may be detected by dilution with water, which dissolves the honey and leaves 456 Mel.—Melissa. PART I. the starch at the bottom of the vessel. The nature of the deposit may be tested by the tincture of iodine. Water is said to be sometimes added to honey to increase its bulk. Its presence may be suspected from the greater thinness of the liquid, and its want of disposition to crystallize. Medical Properties and Uses. Honey possesses the same medical pro- perties with sugar, but is more disposed to run off by the bowels, and to occasion griping pain. Though largely consumed as an article of food, it is seldom employed medicinally, except as the vehicle of more active sub- stances. Its taste and demulcent qualities render it a useful addition to gargles, and it is sometimes employed as an application to foul ulcers, and in the form of enema. Off. Prep. Confectio Piperis Nigri, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Confectio Rutas, Lond., Dub.; Linimentum iEruginis, Lond.; Mel Boracis, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mel Despumatum, U. S., Dub.; Mel Rosas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oxymel, Lond., Dub.; Oxymel Colchici, Dub.; Oxymel Cupri Subacetatis, Dub.; Oxymel Scillas, U. S., Lond., Dub. W. MELISSA. U.S. Secondary, Ed. Balm. " The leaves of Melissa officinalis." U. S. " Herb of Melissa officinalis." Ed. Off. Syn. MELISSA OFFICINALIS. Herba. Dub. Melisse, Fr.; Garten-Melisse, Germ.; Melissa, Ital; Torongil, Span. Melissa. Sex. Syst. Didynamia Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiaceae or Labiatas. Gen. Ch. Calyx dry, nearly flat above; with the upper lip sub-fastigiate. Corolla, upper lip somewhat arched, bifid; lowet lip with the middle lobe cordate. Willd. Melissa officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 146; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 334. t. 119. Balm has a perennial root, which sends up annually several erect, quadrangular stems, usually branched towards the base, and a foot or two in height. The leaves are opposite, ovate or cordate, deeply serrate, pubes- cent; the lower on long foot stalks, the uppermost nearly sessile. The flowers are white or yellowish, upon short peduncles, and in axillary whorls, surrounding only half the stem. The calyx is tubular, pentangular, and bilabiate, with the upper lip tridentate and flattened, the lower cut into two pointed teeth. The corolla is also tubular and bilabiate, the upper lip less convex and notched, the lower three-cleft. The plant is a native of the South of Europe. It has been introduced into this country, where it is cultivated in gardens, and grows wild along the fences of our roads and lanes. For medical use the herb should be cut before the appearance of the flowers, which begin to expand in July. In the fresh state, it has a fragrant odour very similar to that of lemons; but is nearly inodorous when dried. The taste is somewhat austere and slightly aromatic. The herb contains a minute proportion of a yellowish or reddish-yellow essential oil, which has its peculiar flavour in a very high degree. It contains also tannin, bitter extractive, and gum. Medical Properties and Uses. Balm scarcely produces any remedial operation upon the system. The quantity of oil which it contains is not more than sufficient to communicate a pleasant flavour to the infusion, which forms an excellent drink in febrile complaints, and when taken warm tends to promote the operation of diaphoretic medicines. W. part i. Mentha Piperita. 457 MENTHA PIPERITA. U S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Peppermint. "The herb of Mentha piperita." U.S., Ed. "Menthapiperita." Lond. Menthe poivree, Fr.; Pfeffermiinze, Germ.; Menta piperita, Ital; Pimenta piperita, Span. Mentha. Sex. Syst. Didynamia Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiaceas or Labiatas. Gen. Ch. Corolla nearly equal, four-cleft; the broader segment emarginate. Stamens upright, distant. Willd. Mentha piperita. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 79; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 336. t. 120. Peppermint is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a creeping root, and quadrangular, channeled, purplish, somewhat hairy stems, which are branched towards the top, and about two feet in height. The leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate, serrate, pointed, smoother on the upper than the under surface, and of a dark green colour, which is paler beneath. The flowers are small,'purple, and disposed in terminal obtuse spikes, which are interrupted below. The calyx is tubular, furrowed, and five-toothed; the corolla is also tubular, with its border divided into four segments, of which the uppermost is broadest, and notched at its apex. The anthers are con- cealed within the tube of the corolla; the style projects beyond it, and ter- minates in a bifid stigma. The four-cleft germ is converted into four seeds, which are lodged in the calyx. This species of mint is a native of Great Britain, whence it has been con- veyed to the continent of Europe and to this country. In some parts of the United States, especially in New England, the western part of New York, Ohio, and New Jersey, it is largely cultivated for the sake of its volatile oil. We occasionally find it growing wild along the fences of our villages. The cultivators of this herb have observed that, in order to maintain its flavour in perfection, it is necessary to transplant the roots every three years. It should be cut for medical use in dry weather, about the period of the ex- pansion of the flowers. These appear in August. The herb, both in the recent and dried state, has a peculiar, penetrating, grateful odour. The taste is aromatic, warm, pungent, glowing, camphor- ous, bitterish, and attended with a sensation of coolness when air is admitted into the mouth. These properties depend on a volatile oil, which abounds in the herb, and may be separated by distillation with water. (See Oleum Menthse Piperitae.) The virtues of the herb are imparted to water, and more readily to alcohol. Medical Properties and Uses. Peppermint is a very grateful aromatic stimulant, much used for all the purposes to which medicines of this class are applied. To allay nausea, to relieve spasmodic pains of the stomach and bowels, to expel flatus, to cover the taste or qualify the nauseating or griping effects of other medicines, are among the most common of these purposes. The fresh herb, bruised and applied over the epigastrium, often allays sick stomach, and is especially useful in the cholera of children. The medicine may be given in infusion; but the volatile oil, either alone, or in some state of preparation, is almost always preferred. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthas Piperitas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Menthas Piperitas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Menthas, Ed. W. 40 458 Mentha Pulegium.—Mentha Viridis. part I. MENTHA PULEGIUM. Lond., Dub. European Pennyroyal. " Mentha Pulegium." Lond. Menthe-pouliot, Pouliot, Fr.; Poleymiinze, Germ.; Puleggio, Ital; Poleo, Span. Off. Syn. PULEGIUM. Herb of Mentha Pulegium. Ed. Mentha. See MENTHA PIPERITA. Mentha Pulegium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 82; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 342. t. 122. This species of mint is distinguished by its roundish prostrate stems, its ovate obtuse somewhat crenate leaves, and its verticillate flowers. It is a native of Europe, and neither cultivated nor employed in this coun- try. Our native pennyroyal belongs to a different genus. (See Hedeoma Pulegioides.) The Pulegium possesses similar properties, and is employed for the same purposes with the other mints. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthas Pulegii, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Menthas Pulegii, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. MENTHA VIRIDIS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Spearmint. " The herb of Mentha viridis." U.S., Ed. "Mentha viridis." Lond. Menthe a epi, Fr.; Grune Miinze, Germ.; Menta Romana, Ital; Yerba buena puntia- guda, Span. Mentha. See MENTHA PIPERITA. Mentha viridis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 76; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 338. t. 121. Spearmint, sometimes called simply mint, differs from the M. piperita chiefly in having sessile, or nearly sessile, lanceolate, naked leaves; elon- gated, interrupted,panicled spikes; setaceous bractes; and stamens longer than the tube of the corolla. Like the two preceding species, it is a native of Europe. In this country it is cultivated in gardens for domestic use, and in some places more largely for the sake of its oil. It also grows wild in low grounds in parts of the country which have been long settled. Its flowering season is August. According to Thomson, it should be cut in very dry weather, and, if intended for medical use, just as the flowers ap- pear ; if for obtaining the oil, after they have expanded. The odour of spearmint is strong and aromatic, the taste warm and slightly bitter, less pungent than that of peppermint, but considered by some as more agreeable. These properties are retained for some time by the dried plant. They depend on a volatile oil which rises on distillation with water, and is imparted to alcohol and water by maceration. (See Oleum Menthas Viridis.) Medical. Properties. The virtues and applications of this plant are the same with those of peppermint. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthas Viridis, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Menthas Com- positum, Dub.; Oleum Menthas Viridis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PART I. Menyanthes. 459 MENYANTHES. Lond., Ed. Buckbean. " Menyanthes trifoliata." Lond. " Leaves of Menyanthes trifoliata." Ed. Off. Syn. MENYANTHES TRIFOLIATA. Folia. Dub. Menyanthe, Trefle d'eau, Fr.; Bitterklee, Germ.; Trifogolio fibrino, Ital; Trifolio pa- lustre, Span. Menyanthes. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentiana- ceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla hirsute. Stigma bifid. Capsule one-celled. Willd. Menyanthes trifoliata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 811; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 55. The buckbean or marsh trefoil has a perennial, long, round, jointed, horizontal, branching, dark-coloured root or rhizoma, about as thick as the finger, and sending out numerous fibres from its under surface. The leaves are ternate, and stand upon long stalks, which proceed from the end of the root, and are furnished at their base with sheathing stipules. The leaflets are obovate, obtuse, entire or bluntly denticulate, very smooth, beautifully green on their upper surface, and paler beneath. The scape or flower stalk is erect, round, smooth, from six to twelve inches high, longer than the leaves, and terminated by a conical raceme of whitish somewhat rose-coloured flowers. The calyx is five-parted; the corolla funnel-shaped, with a short tube, and a five-cleft, revolute border, covered on the upper side with numerous long, fleshy fibres. The anthers are red and sagittate; the germ ovate, supporting a slender style longer than the stamens, and terminating in a bifid stigma. The fruit is an ovate, two-valved, one-celled capsule, containing numerous seeds. This beautiful plant is a native both of Europe and North America, grow- ing in boggy and marshy places which are always moist, and occasionally overflowed with water. It prevails, in the United States, from the northern boundary to Virginia. In this country the flowers appear in May, in England not till June or July. All parts of it are medicinal. The leaves are directed by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, the whole plant by the London College. The taste of buckbean is intensely bitter and somewhat nauseous, the odour of the leaves faint and disagreeable. The virtues of the plant depend on a bitter principle, denominated menyanthin, which may be obtained sufficiently pure for use by treating the spirituous extract of the plant with hydrated oxide of lead, removing the lead by hydrosulphuric acid, filtering and evaporating the liquor, exhausting the residue with alcohol, and again evaporating with a gentle heat. It has a pure bitter taste, is soluble in alcohol and water, but not in pure ether, and possesses neither acid nor alkaline properties. {Pharm. Cent. Blatt, A. D. 1843, p. 24.) Medical Properties and Uses. With the ordinary properties of the bitter tonics, menyanthes unites a cathartic power, and in large doses is apt to vomit. It was formerly held in high estimation in Europe as a remedy in numerous complaints, among which were intermittents, rheumatism, scro- fula, scurvy, dropsy, jaundice, and various cachectic and cutaneous affec- tions. In most of these complaints it was administered under a vague im- pression of its alterative powers. It is scarcely ever employed in this country; but, as it is a native plant, capable of useful application in cases where a combined tonic and purgative effect is demanded, it is desirable that our country practitioners should be aware of its properties, and pre- pared to take advantage of them should occasion offer. The dose of the powdered leaves or root as a tonic is from twenty to thirty grains; of an infusion, prepared with half an ounce to a pint of boiling water, from one to two fluidounces; and of the extract ten or fifteen grains, to be 460 Mezereum. PART I. repeated three or four times a day. A drachm of the powder, or a gill of the strong decoction generally purges, and often occasions vomiting. W. MEZEREUM. U S., Lond. Mezereon. "The bark of Daphne Mezereum and Daphne Gnidium." U. S. "Daphne Mezereum. Radicis Cortex." Lond. Off. Syn. MEZEREON. Root-bark of Daphne Mezereon. Ed.; ME- ZEREON. DAPHNE MEZEREUM. Cortex. Dub. Bois gentil, Fr.; Kellerhals, Germ.; Mezereo, Ital; Mecereon, Span. Daphne. Sex. Syst. Octandria Monogynia.-—Nat. Ord. Thymelaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla four-cleft, withering, enclosing the sta- mens. Drupe one-seeded. Willd. All the species of Daphne are possessed of active properties ; but two only are officinal—-the D. Mezereum and D. Gnidium—the former of which is recognised in the British Pharmacopoeias, the latter in the French Co- dex, and both in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. 1. Daphne Mezereum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 415; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 717. t. 245. This is a very hardy shrub, three or four feet high, with a branching stem, and a smooth dark-gray bark, which is very easily separa- ble from the wood. The leaves spring from the ends of the branches, are deciduous, sessile, obovate lanceolate, entire, smooth, of a pale green colour, somewhat glaucous beneath, and about two inches long. They are preceded by the flowers, which appear very early in spring, and sometimes bloom even amidst the snow. These are of a pale rose colour, highly fragrant, and disposed in clusters, each consisting of two or three flowers, forming together a kind of spike at the upper part of the stem and branches. At the base of each cluster are deciduous floral leaves. The fruit is oval, shining, fleshy, of a bright red colour, and contains a single round seed. Another variety produces white flowers and yellow fruit. This species of Daphne is a native of Great Britain and the neighbouring continent, in the northern parts of which it is particularly abundant. It is cultivated in Europe both for medicinal purposes, and as an ornamental plant, and is occasionally found in our own gardens. It flowers in February, March, or April, according to the greater or less mildness of the climate. 2. D. Gnidium. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 420. In this species, called garou or sain-bois by the French, the le'aves are linear lanceolate, acute, entire, smooth, and irregularly but closely set upon the branches. The flowers are white, downy, odoriferous, and disposed in terminal panicled racemes. The fruit is globular, dry, at first green, but ultimately black. The D. Gnidium grows in dry uncultivated places in the South of Europe, and flowers in June. In France its bark is used indiscriminately with that of the former species. Besides the officinal species above described, the D. Laureola, ox spurge laurel, is said to furnish a portion of the mezereon of commerce; but its product is inferior in acrimony, and consequently in medicinal activity. The bark of the root was the part directed by the former U. S. Pharma- copoeia, as it now is by the British Colleges ; and it is said to be exclusively employed in Great Britain. But the mezereon with which our markets are now supplied is evidently the bark of the stem ; and the present Phar- macopoeia, therefore, very properly directs the bark, without designating the part from which it must be taken. The British writers state that the bark of the root is the most active. The berries and leaves of the plant are also possessed of active properties; and the former have sometimes proved fatal PART I. Mezereum. 461 to children who have been attracted by their beautiful colour. Pallas states that they are used as a purgative by the Russian peasants, and that thirty berries are required to produce this effect. The French authors observe that fifteen are sufficient to kill a Frenchman. Mezereon is brought to us chiefly from Germany. Properties. Mezereon, as it comes to us, is usually in strips, from two to four feet long and an inch or less in breadth, sometimes flat, sometimes par- tially rolled, and always folded in bundles, or wrapped in the shape of balls. It is covered externally with a grayish or reddish-brown wrinkled epidermis, very thin and easily separable from the bark. Beneath the epidermis is a soft greenish tissue. The inner bark is tough, pliable, fibrous, striated, and of a whitish colour. When fresh it has a nauseous smell, but in the dry state is nearly inodorous. Its taste is at first sweetish, but afterwards highly acrid and even corrosive. It yields its virtues to water by decoction. Vau- quelin ascertained the presence of a peculiar principle in the bark of the D. Alpina. This has subsequently been discovered in other species, and has received the name of daphnin. Gmelin and Bar found it in the bark of the D. Mezereum, associated with wax, an acrid resin, a yellow colouring mat- ter, a reddish-brown extractive matter, an uncrystallizable and fermentable sugar, a gummy matter containing azote, ligneous fibre, malic acid, and seve- ral malates. Daphnin is in prismatic crystals grouped together, colourless, transparent, brilliant, slightly soluble in cold water, very soluble in boiling water, ether, and alcohol, without odour, and of a bitter, somewhat austere taste. It is obtained by treating the alcoholic extract of the bark with water, decanting the solution, precipitating with subacetate of lead, filtering, decom- posing the excess of the subacetate by sulphuretted hydrogen, again filtering, evaporating to dryness, submitting the residue to the action of anhydrous alcohol, and evaporating the alcoholic solution to the point of crystallization. Though daphnin is probably not inactive, it is not the principle upon which the virtues of mezereon chiefly depend. Vauquelin thinks that in the recent plant these reside in an essential oil, which by time and exposure is changed into a resin, without losing its activity. The acrid resin observed by Gmelin and Bar, is probably the characteristic principle to which the bark owes its vesicating properties. It is obtained separate by boiling mezereon in alcohol, allowing the liquor to cool in order that it may deposit some wax which it has taken up, then distilling off the alcohol, and treating the residue with water, which leaves the resin. This is of a dark green, almost black colour, hard and brittle, and of an exceedingly acrid and permanent taste. In the isolated state, it is slightly soluble in water, and much more so when com- bined with the other principles of the bark. It appears, however, not to be a pure proximate principle, but rather a resinoid combination of an acrid vesi- cating fixed oil with another substance. The acrid principle of mezereon is partially given off by decoction with water, as proved by the irritating cha- racter of the vapour when inhaled ; but none of it appears to escape when the bark is boiled with alcohol. (Squire, Pharmaceutical Transactions, i.395.) Medical Properties and Uses. The recent bark applied to the skin pro- duces inflammation followed by vesication, and has been popularly used as an epispastic from time immemorial in some of the southern countries of Europe. The dried bark, though less active, is possessed of a similar pro- perty, and is occasionally employed in France by regular practitioners for the purpose of forming issues, in cases which do not admit of the use of Spanish flies. A small square piece of the bark, moistened with vinegar, is applied to the skin, and renewed twice a day till a blister is formed, and occasionally afterwards in order to maintain the discharge. It is slow in its 40* 462 Mezereum.—Monarda. PART I. operation, generally requiring from twenty-four to forty-eight hours to vesi- cate. An irritant ointment is prepared from mezereon, which answers for application to blistered surfaces in order to maintain the discharge, and may be applied advantageously to obstinate, ill-conditioned, indolent ulcers. (See Unguentum Mezerei.) The alcoholic extract of mezereon has also been employed to communicate irritant properties to issue peas. Internally administered, mezereon is a stimulant capable of being directed to the skin or kidneys, and in large doses apt to excite purging, nausea, and vomiting. In overdoses it produces all the fatal effects of the acrid poisons, and a case of apparently severe narcotic effects has been recorded. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xxi. 518.) It had at one time much reputation as a remedy in the secondary stages of the venereal disease, and still enters as an ingredient into the officinal compound decoction of sarsaparilla. It has also been thought to act favourably as an alterative in scrofulous affections, chronic rheumatism, and obstinate diseases of the skin. For this purpose it is usually administered in decoction. (See Decoctum Mezerei.) Dr. With- ering cured a case of difficult swallowing, arising from paralysis, by direct- ing the patient to chew frequently small pieces of the root. The affection, which had continued three years, was removed in a month. The dose of the bark in substance may be stated at ten grains, though it is seldom used in this way. Off. Prep. Decoctum Mezerei, Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Sarsaparillas Com- positum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Mezerei, U. S. W. MONARDA. U.S. Horsemint. " The herb of Monarda punctata." U.S. Monarda. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiaceas or Labiatas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-toothed, cylindric, striate. Corolla ringent, with a long cylindric tube ; upper lip linear, nearly straight and entire, involving the filaments, lower lip reflected, broader, three-lobed,the middle lobe longer. Nuttall. Monarda punctata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 126; Am. Med. Recorder, vol. ii. p. 496. This is an indigenous perennial or biennial plant, with herba- ceous, obtusely angled, downy, whitish, branching stems, which rise one or two feet in height, and are furnished with oblong lanceolate, remotely serrate, smooth, punctate leaves. The flowers are yellow, spotted with red or brown, and are disposed in numerous whorls, provided with lanceolate, coloured bractes, longer than the whorl. The horsemint grows in light gravelly or sandy soils from New Jersey to Louisiana, and flowers from June to September." The whole herb is em- ployed. It has an aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent, bitterish taste; and abounds in a volatile oil, which may be separated by distillation with water. Medical Properties and Uses. Horsemint is stimulant and carminative; but is seldom used in regular practice. In the state of infusion it is occa- sionally employed in families as a remedy for flatulent colic and sick stomach, and for other purposes to which the aromatie herbs are applied. It was in- troduced into the primary catalogue of the United States Pharmacopoeia on account of the volatile oil which it affords. (See Oleum Monardae.) Off. Prep. Oleum Monardas, U. S. W. PART I. Mo ra.—Moschus. 463 MORA. Lond. Mulberries. "Morus nigra. Fructus." Lond. Off. Syn. MORUS NIGRA. Baccas, Dub. Mures, Fr.; Schwarze Maulbeeren, Germ.; Morone, Ital; Moras, Span. Morus. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Tetrandria.'—Nat. Ord. Urticaceas. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx four-parted. Corolla none. Female. Calyx four- leaved. Corolla none. Styles two. Calyx berried. Seed one. Willd. Morus nigra. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 36; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 712. t. 243. This species of mulberry is distinguished by its cordate ovate, or lobed, unequally toothed, and scabrous leaves. It is a tree of middle size, supposed to have been brought originally from Persia into Italy, and thence spread over Europe and America. Its leaves afford food for the silk- worm ; and the bark of the root, which is bitter and slightly acrid, has been employed as a vermifuge, especially in cases of the tape-worm, in the dose of two drachms infused in eight ounces of boiling water. But the fruit is the only portion directed by the Colleges. This is oblong oval, of a dark reddish-purple almost black colour, and consists of numerous minute berries united together and attached to a com- mon receptacle, each containing a single seed, the succulent envelope of which is formed by the calyx. It is inodorous, has a sweet, mucilaginous, acidulous taste, and abounds in a deep red juice. *The sourish taste is owing, according to Hermbstadt, to the presence of tartaric acid. Medical Properties and Uses. Mulberries are refreshing and laxative, and serve to prepare a grateful drink well adapted to febrile cases. A syrup is made from them, and used as a pleasant addition to gargles in inflamma- tion of the throat. They are, however, more used as food than medicine. Our native mulberry, the fruit of the M. rubra, is quite equal to that of the imported species. The M. alba, originally from China, and now exten- sively cultivated as a source of food for the silk-worm, bears a white fruit, which is sweeter and less grateful than the others. Off. Prep. Syrupus Mori, Lond. W. MOSCHUS. U.S., Lond., Ed, Dub. Musk. " A peculiar concrete substance obtained from Moschus moschiferus." U. S. " Moschus moschiferus. Humor in folliculo praeputii secretus." Lond. " Inspissated secretion in the follicles of the prepuce of Moschus moschiferus." Ed. Muse, Fr.; Bisam, Germ.: Muschio, Ital.; Almizcle, Span. Moschus. Class Mammalia. Order Pecora. Gen. Ch. Horns none. Fore teeth eight in the lower jaw. Tusks one on each side in the upper jaw, projecting out of the mouth. Moschus moschiferus. Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. 172; Rees's Cyclopaedia. This animal bears a close resemblance to the deer in shape and size. It is usually less than three feet in length, with haunches considerably more elevated than the shoulders. From its upper jaw two tusks project down- wards out of the mouth, each about two inches long, curved backwards, and serving to extract the roots which are used as food by the animal. The ears are long and narrow, and the tail very short. The fleece, which con- sists of strong, elastic, undulated hairs, varies in colour with the season, the 464 Moschus. PART I. age of the animal, and perhaps the place which it inhabits. The general colour is a deep iron-gray. The individual hairs are whitish near the root, and fawn-coloured or blackish towards the tip. The musk is contained in an oval, hairy, projecting sac, found only in the male, situated between the umbilicus and the prepuce, from two to three inches long, and from one to two broad, communicating externally by a small hairy orifice at its anterior part, and marked posteriorly by a groove or furrow which corresponds with the opening of the prepuce. It is lined internally by a smooth membrane, which is thrown into a number of irregular folds forming incomplete parti- tions. In the vigorous adult animal, the sac sometimes contains six drachms of musk; but in the old seldom more than two drachms, and none in the young. The musk is secreted by the lining membrane, and in the living animal forms a consistent mass, which, on the outside, is compact, and marked with the folds of the membrane, but is less firm towards the centre, where there is sometimes a vacant space. As first secreted it is probably in the liquid state, and a portion is occasionally forced out by the animal, to which it communicates its odour. The musk deer inhabits the vast mountainous regions of central Asia, extending from India to Siberia, and from the country of the Turcomans to China. It is an active and timid animal, springing from rock to rock with surprising agility, and frequenting the snowy recesses, and most inaccessi- ble crags of the mountains. Concealing itself during'the day, it chooses the night for roaming in search of food; and, though said to be abundant in its native regions, is taken with difficulty. It is hunted for its hide, as well as for the musk. As soon as the animal is killed, the sac is cut off, and dried with its contents; and in this state is sent into the market. Musk varies in quality with the country inhabited by the animal. That procured from the mountains on the southern borders of Siberia, and brought into the market through Russia, is comparatively feeble. The best is im- ported from China, and is said to be the product of Tonquin. A variety intermediate between these is procured in the Himalaya Mountains and Thibet, and sent to Calcutta. We derive our chief supply from Canton, though portions are occasionally brought hither from Europe. Two varieties are distinguished in the market, the Chinese and Russian. Both come in sacs, convex and hairy on one side, flat and destitute of hair on the other. The hairs are brownish-yellow, grayish, or whitish, stiff and short, and arranged concentrically around the orifice of the sac. The Chinese, which is the most highly valued, is in bags of a rounder shape, covered with brownish-yellow or reddish-brown hairs, and containing at most a drachm and a half of large-grained, dark, strong-scented musk, having an ammoniacal odour. The Russian, which is contained in longer and larger bags, is small grained, of a clear yellowish-brown colour, of a weaker and more fetid odour, with less smell of ammonia. Properties. Musk is in grains or lumps concreted together, soft and unc- tuous to the touch, and of a reddish-brown or ferruginous colour, resembling that of dried blood. Some hairs of the pod are generally mixed with it. The odour is strong, penetrating, and so powerfully diffusive, that one part of musk communicates its smell to more than 3000 parts of inodorous pow- der. (Fee.) In some delicate individuals it produces headache and other disagreeable symptoms, and has even given rise to convulsions. The taste is bitter, disagreeable, and somewhat acrid. The colour of the powder is reddish-brown. Musk is inflammable, burning with a white flame, and leaving a light spongy charcoal. It yields, upon analysis, a great number of proximate principles. Guibourt and Blondeau obtained water, ammonia, stearin, olein, cholesterin, an oily acid combined with ammonia, volatile PART I. Moschus. 465 oil, muriate of ammonia, chlorides of potassium and calcium, an uncertain acid combined with ammonia potassa and lime, gelatin, albumen, fibrin, a highly carbonaceous matter soluble in water, a soluble calcareous salt with a combustible acid, carbonate and phosphate of lime, hair, and sand. {Annal. de Chim. et de Phys., ix. 327.) Besides these principles, Geiger and Rein- man found a peculiar bitter resin, osmazome, and a peculiar substance in part combined with ammonia. According to Guibourt and Blondeau, it contains 47 per cent, of volatile matter, thought by some to be chiefly am- monia, by others to be a compound of ammonia and volatile oil. Theimann obtained only from 10 to 15 per cent. But the quantity of volatile as well as of soluble matter varies exceedingly in different specimens. Thus Thei- mann found from 80 to 90 per cent, of matter soluble in water, Buchner, only 54-5 per cent., and other chemists intermediate proportions. The pro- portion soluble in alcohol, as ascertained by different experimenters, varies from 25 to 62 per cent. Sulphuric ether is a good solvent. The watery infusion has a yellowish-brown colour, a bitterish taste, a strong smell of musk, and an acid reaction. The alcoholic tincture is transparent, and of a reddish-brown colour, with the peculiar odour of the medicine. The action of potassa upon musk is accompanied with the extrication of ammonia, and an increase of its peculiar odour. By the influence of heat and moisture long continued, ammonia is developed, which acts upon the fatty matter, producing a substance resembling adipocire, but, according to Guibourt, without diminishing the activity of the medicinal principles. The correct- ness, however, of this opinion, is perhaps questionable; and it is advisable to preserve the musk as much as possible unaltered. When kept in glass bottles, in a situation neither moist nor very dry, it remains for a great length of time without material change. The odour of musk is very much diminished by mixing it with emulsion or syrup of bitter almonds, or cherry- laurel water. From the experiments of Wimrner it appears that musk loses its odour when rubbed with kermes mineral, or golden sulphur of antimony, and reacquires it on the addition of a little solution of ammonia to the mix- ture. (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, A. D. 1843, p. 406.) Adulterations. The price of this medicine is so high, and the sources of supply so limited, as to offer strong temptations to adulteration; and it is said that little of the genuine unmixed musk is to be found in the market. The sophistication commences with the Chinese, and is completed in Europe and this country. A common practice in the East is to open the sac, and to supply the place of the musk with an adulterated mixture. Sometimes the scrotum of the animal is filled with this mixture, and not unfrequently the sacs are manufactured out of the skin. Dried blood, from its resemblance in appearance to musk, is among the most common adulte- rations; but besides this, sand, lead, iron-filings, hair, animal membrane, tobacco, the dung of birds, wax, benzoin, storax, asphaltum, and other substances are introduced. These are mixed with a portion of musk, the powerful odour of which is diffused through the mass, and renders the dis- covery of the fraud sometimes difficult. It is said that the Chinese some- times mix the musk of Tonquin with that of Siberia. The bags containing the drug should have the characters before described as belonging to the natural sac, and should present no evidence of having been opened. The slit is sometimes carefully sewed up, sometimes glued together. The former condition may be discovered by close inspection, the latter by immersion in hot water. When the bag is made from any other portion of the skin, the dif- ference may be detected, according to Mr. Neligan, by a microscope which magnifies 300 diameters. The genuine hairs appear furnished with innu- merable cells, which are wanting in the spurious. (Chem. Gaz., Feb. 1846, 466 Moschus.—Moxa. PART I. p. 79.) Musk which burns with difficulty, which has a feeble odour, and a colour either pale or entirely black, which feels gritty to the finger, is very moist, or contains obvious impurities, should be rejected. It is asserted that the Russian musk is never adulterated before leaving Russia. Medical Properties and Uses. Musk is stimulant and antispasmodic, increasing the vigour of the circulation, and exalting the nervous energy, without producing, either as an immediate or secondary effect, any con- siderable derangement of the purely cerebral functions. Its medical uses are such as may be inferred from its general operation. In almost all spas- modic diseases, so far as mere relaxation of spasm is desirable, it is more or less efficacious; but peculiar advantages may be expected from it in those cases in which a prostrate condition of the system, attended with great ner- vous agitation, or irregular muscular action, calls for the united influence of a highly diffusible stimulant and powerful antispasmodic. Such are very low cases of typhous disease, accompanied with subsultus tendinum, tremors, and singultus. Such also are many instances of gout in the stomach, and other spasmodic affections of that organ. In very obstinate hiccough we have found it more effectual than any other remedy; and have seen great advantage from its use in those alarming and dangerous convulsions of infants which have their origin in spasm of the intestines. It is said to have cLine much good combined with opium, and administered in very large doses in tetanus. Epilepsy, hysteria, asthma, pertussis, palpitations, cholera, and colic, are among the numerous spasmodic affections in which circumstances may render the employment of musk desirable. The chief obstacles to its general use are its very high price, and. the great uncertainty as regards the degree of its purity. Musk was unknown to the ancients. Ae'tius was the first writer who noticed it as a medicine. It was introduced into Europe through the Arabians, from whose language its name was derived. It may be given in the form of pill or emulsion. The medium dose is ten grains to be repeated every two or three hours. In the cases of children it may be given with great advantage in the form of enema. The tincture, which is an officinal preparation, is sometimes prescribed. Off. Prep. Mistura Moschi, Lond.; Tinctura Moschi, Dub. W. MOXA. Dub. Moxa. " Artemisia Chinensis et A. Indica. Folia." Dub. The term moxa is employed to designate small masses of combustible matter, intended, by being burnt slowly in contact with the skin, to produce an eschar. They are of various forms, and made of different materials. The Chinese moxa is in small cones from eight to twelve lines in height, and is prepared from the leaves of one or more species of Artemisia. The A. Chinensis and A. Indica axe indicated by the Dublin College; but Lindley states that it is the A. Moxa of De Candolle which is employed. Accord- ing to some authors, the part used is the down which covers the leaves and stems; but others, with greater probability, assert that it is a fine lanuginous substance, prepared from the leaves by beating them in a mortar. A coarser and a finer product are obtained, the former of which is used for tinder, the latter worked up into moxa. A similar moxa has been made in France, by a similar process, from the leaves of the A. vulgaris. Various substitutes have been proposed for the Chinese moxa, all com- posed of some light, porous, soft, inflammable substance, which burns slowly, and thus allows the heat to be regulated according to the effect desired. PART I. Moxa. 467 Linen rolled into a cylinder, cotton formed into the same shape and enclosed in a piece of linen, cords of cotton in small masses of various shapes, and even common spunk made from the agaric of the oak, have been employed by different persons with the desired effect. But all these bodies are sub- ject to the inconvenience of requiring to be constantly blown upon, in order that their combustion may be sustained. To remedy this defect, cotton impregnated with nitre has been recom- mended ; and the moxa usually employed is prepared from that substance. It is important that the impregnation should be uniform; as otherwise differ- ent parts of the cylinder, burning with different degrees of rapidity, would produce unequal effects upon the skin. The following process is recom- mended. One pound of cotton is introduced into a vessel containing two ounces of nitre dissolved in half a gallon of water, and a moderate heat applied, till all the liquid is evaporated. The cotton when perfectly dry is formed into thin, narrow sheets, which are rolled round a central cord of linen, so as to form a cylinder from half an inch to an inch in diameter, and several inches long. This is enclosed in a covering of silk or linen sewed firmly around it; and when used may be cut by a razor into transverse slices a few lines in length. By leaving a hole in the centre of the cylinder, the combustion will be rendered more vigorous, and a deeper eschar produced. The pith of the Helianthus annuus, or common sun-flower, has been proposed by M. Percy for the preparation of moxa, for which it is well adapted by the nitre which it contains, and which enables it to burn without insufflation. The stem, when perfectly mature, is cut into transverse sections about half an inch in thickness, which must be carefully dried, and kept in a perfectly dry place. They have this advantage, that, in consequence of the retention of the cortical portion, they may be held with impunity, while burning, between the fingers of the operator. They are, however, frequently defective in consequence of an insufficiency of nitre in the pith, or of the unequal inflammability of different parts of it. M. Robinet has perfected the preparation of moxa, by combining the advantages of the two kinds last described. He rolls cotton round a small central cylinder of pith, and envelopes the whole in a piece of muslin, which is more or less firmly applied, according to the degree of compactness required. The cylinders thus made burn without assistance, uniformly, and with a rapidity proportionate to their firmness. Dr. Jacobson, of Copenhagen, has proposed, as a substitute for the ordi- nary forms of moxa, small cylinders formed out of strips of paper imbued with a solution of chromate of potassa; and-cotton, impregnated with the solution of chlorate of potassa instead of nitre, is said to answer an excellent purpose. (Journ. de Pharm., xix. 608.) Small cylinders made out of strips of coarse muslin imbued with the same solution are also employed. Lime in the act of slaking has been employed by Dr. Osborne for the pur- poses of moxa. A portion of powdered quicklime, half an inch in thickness, and of suitable lateral dimensions, is applied to the skin, and confined by some convenient arrangement. A few drops of water are then added, and a degree of heat is soon evolved sufficient for a caustic effect, if the lime be allowed to remain as long as the heat continues. This may be increased or diminished by increasing or diminishing the quantity of lime employed. The eschar formed is somewhat more than double the extent of the base of the moxa. (Dublin Journ., Jan., 1842.) Medical Use. Cauterization by fire, in the treatment of disease, has been commonly practised among savage and half civilized nations from the earliest periods of history, and has not been unknown as a remedy in the most 468 Moxa.—Mucuna. PART I. polished communities. The ancient Egyptians and Greeks were acquainted with the use of moxa; and in China, Japan, and other countries of Asia, it appears to have been employed from time immemorial. From these coun- tries the early Portuguese navigators introduced it into Europe; and the term moxa is said to have been derived from their language, though supposed by some to be of Chinese origin. The true Chinese name is said to be kiew. (Percy and Laurent.) Some years since, the remedy became very popular in France, and attracted some attention in this country. It acts on the prin- ciple of revulsion; relieving deep-seated inflammation, and local irritation whether vascular or nervous, by inviting the current of excitement to the skin. In some cases it may also operate advantageously by the propagation of a stimulant impression to neighbouring parts. The celebrated Larrey was among those who contributed most to bring this remedy into repute. The diseases in which it was recommended by this author were amaurosis, loss of taste, deafness, paralytic affections of the muscular system, asthma, chronic catarrh and pleurisy, phthisis, chronic engorgement of the liver and spleen, rachitis, diseased spine, coxalgia, and other forms of scrofulous and rheumatic inflammation of the joints. It has also been used advantageously in neuralgia, and is applicable to chronic complaints generally, in which powerful external revulsion is indicated. The parts of the body upon which, according to Larrey, it should not be applied are the cranium when protected only by the skin and pericranium; the eyelids, nose, and ears; the skin over the larynx, trachea, and mam- mary glands, over superficial tendons, projecting points of bones, and arti- cular prominences in which the capsular ligament might be involved; the anterior surface of the abdomen; and the genitals. As a general rule it should be applied as near as possible to the seat of the disease; and, in neuralgic or paralytic cases, at the origin or over the course of the nerves proceeding to the part affected. Some advise that the cylinder be attached to the skin by some adhesive liquid; but a more gene- ral practice is to retain it in the proper position by a pair of forceps or other instrument. Larrey recommends that the skin around it be covered with a piece of moistened lint, having a hole in the centre to admit the base of the cylinder. The moxa should be set on fire at the summit, and the combus- tion sustained if necessary by the breath, the blow-pipe, or the bellows. The size of the cylinder should vary, according to the effect desired, from half an inch to an inch or more in diameter, and from a few lines to an inch in height. Any degree of effect may be obtained, from a slight inflamma- tion to the death of the skin, by regulating the time during which the moxa is allowed to burn. When a slough is required, it should be suffered to burn until consumed. The first sensation experienced is not disagreeable; but the operation becomes gradually more painful, and towards the close is for a short time very severe. W. MUCUNA. U. S. Secondary. Cowhage. "The bristles of the pods of Mucuna pruriens." U. S. "Mucuna pru- riens. Leguminis Pubes." Lond. "Hairs from the pod of Mucuna pru- riens." Ed. Off. Syn. DOLICHOS PRURIENS. Pubes leguminis. Dub. Pois a gratter, Fr.; Kuhkriitze, Germ.; Dolico Scottante, Ital. Mucuna. Sex. Syst. Diadelphia Decandria.—iVar. Ord. Fabaceas or Leguminosas. PART I. Mucuna. 469 Gen. Ch. Calyx campanulate, bilabiate ; the lower lip trifid, with acute segments, the middle one longest; the upper lip broader, entire, obtuse. Corolla with the vexillum ascending, shorter than the wings and keel; the wings oblong, equal to the keel in length; the keel oblong, straight, acute. Stamens diadelphous, with five anthers oblong-linear, and five ovate, hir- sute. Legume oblong, torose, bivalvular, with cellular partitions. Seeds roundish, surrounded circularly by a linear hilum, (De Candolle.) Mucuna pruriens. De Cand., Prodrom. ii. 405; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 254.—Dolichos pruriens. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1041; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 422.—Stizolobium pruriens. Persoon. This is a perennial climb- ing plant, with an herbaceous branching stem, which twines round the trees in its vicinity, and rises to a considerable height. The leaves are pinnately trifoliate, and stand on long footstalks, placed alternately on the stem at the distance of a foot from each other. The leaflets are acuminate, smooth on their upper surface, and hairy beneath. The lateral leaflets are oblique at the base, the middle one somewhat rhomboidal. The flowers, which resem- ble those of the pea in form, are large, of a red or purplish colour, usually placed in threes on short peduncles, and hang from the axils of the leaves in pendent spikes about a foot in length. The fruit is a coriaceous pod, shaped like the Italic lettery, about four inches long, and covered with brown bristly hairs, which easily separate, and when handled stick in the fingers, pro- ducing an intense itching sensation. The plant is a native of the West Indies, and other parts of tropical America. It has been supposed to grow also in the East Indies; but the plant of that region is now considered a distinct species, and entitled Mucunaprurita. The part usually imported is the pod, of which the hairs are the officinal portion. Medical Properties and Uses. These spiculas are said to be possessed of powerful vermifuge properties, and are thought to act mechanically, by penetrating, the worms. That they do act in this manner is evinced as well by the result of direct experiment upon worms out of the body, as by the fact that neither the tincture nor decoction is in the slightest degree anthel- mintic. Why the worms should be injured, and the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels escape with impunity, is not satisfactorily explained. The medicine was first employed as a vermifuge by the inhabitants of the West Indies, and thence passed into British practice. The testimony in its favour is too strong to admit of any reasonable doubt as to its efficiency. It has been chiefly employed against the round worm; but all the different species which infest the alimentary canal have been expelled by its use. It is best administered mixed with some tenacious vehicle. The usual mode of preparing it is to dip the pods into syrup or molasses, and scrape off the hairs with the liquid, which is in a proper state for administration when it has attained the consistency of thick honey. The dose of this preparation is a tablespoonful for an adult, a teaspoonful for a child three or four years old, to be given every morning for three days, and then fol- lowed by a brisk cathartic. The root 6f the M. pruriens (M. prurita) is said by Ainslie to be em- ployed in the East Indies in the treatment of cholera; and both this part and the pods have been thought to possess diuretic properties. W. 41 470 Myristica.—Myristica Adeps.—Macis. part i. MYRISTICA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Nutmeg. "The kernels of the fruit of Myristica moschata." U. S. "Myristica moschata. Nuclei." Lond. "Kernel of the fruit of Myristica officinalis." Ed. Off. Syn. NUX MOSCHATA. MYRISTICA MOSCHATA. Nu- cleus. Dub. Noix muscade, Fr.; Muskatnuss, Germ.; Noce moschata, Ital; Nuez moscada, Span. MYRISTIOE ADEPS. Ed. Concrete Oil of Nutmeg. "Concrete expressed oil from the kernel of the fruit of Myristica offici- nalis." Ed. MACIS. Dub. Mace. " Myristica moschata. Involucrum MACIS dictum." Dub. Macis, Fr.; Muskafblufhe, Germ.; Macis, Ital; Macias, Span. Myristica. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Myristicaceas. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx none. Corolla bell-shaped, trifid. Filament co- lumnar. Anthers six or ten united. Female. Calyx none. Corolla bell- shaped, trifid, deciduous. Style none. Stigmas two. Drupe with a nut involved in an arillus with one seed. Willd. Myristica moschata. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 869; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 698. t. 238. M. officinalis. Linn. Suppl. 265; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 21. The nutmeg tree is about thirty feet high, with numerous branches, and an aspect somewhat resembling that of the orange tree. The leaves stand alternately on short footstalks, are oblong oval, pointed, entire, undulated, obliquely nerved, bright green and somewhat glossy on their upper surface, whitish beneath, and of an aromatic taste. The flowers are male and female upon different trees. The former are disposed in axillary, peduncled, soli- tary clusters; the latter are single, solitary and axillary; both are minute and of a pale yellowish colour. The fruit, which appears on the tree min- gled with the flowers, is round or oval, of the size of a small peach, with a smooth surface, at first pale green, but yellow when ripe, and marked with a longitudinal furrow. The external covering, which is at first thick and fleshy, and abounds in an austere, astringent juice, afterwards becomes dry and coriaceous, and, separating into two valves from the apex, discloses a scarlet reticulated membrane or arillus, commonly called mace, closely in- vesting a thin, brown, shining shell, which contains the kernel or nutmeg. Not less than eight varieties of this species are said by Crawford to be cul- tivated in the East Indies; but they have not been well defined. The Myristica moschata is a native of the Moluccas and other neigh- bouring islands, and abounds especially in that small cluster distinguished by the name of Banda, whence the chief supplies of nutmegs have long been derived. The plant, however, is now cultivated in Sumatra, Java, Penang, and some other parts of the East Indies; and has been introduced into the Isle of France and Bourbon, the French colony of Cayenne, and some of the West India islands. part i. Myristica.—Myristica Adeps. 471 The tree is produced from the seed. It does not flower till the eighth or ninth year; after which it bears flowers and fruit together, without intermis- sion, and is said to continue bearing for seventy or eighty years. Little trouble is requisite in its cultivation. A branch of the female tree is grafted into all the young plants when about two years old, so as to insure their early fruitfulness. In the Moluccas the tree yields three crops annually. The fruit is gathered by the hand, and the outside covering is rejected as useless. The mace is then carefully separated, so as to break it as little as possible, is flattened, and dried in the sun, and afterwards sprinkled with salt water, with the view of contributing to its preservation. Its fine red colour is much impaired by drying. The nuts are dried in the sun or by ovens, and exposed to smoke, till the kernel rattles in the shell. They are then broken open, and the kernels having been removed, and steeped for a short time in a mixture of lime and water, probably in order to preserve them from the attack of worms, are next cleaned, and packed in casks or chests for exporta- tion. Nutmegs are brought to this country either directly from the East Indies, or indirectly through England and Holland. They are also occasionally imported in very small quantities from the West Indies. Properties. The nutmeg (nux moschata) is of a roundish or oval shape, obtuse at the extremities, marked with vermicular furrows of a grayish colour, hard, smooth to the touch, yielding readily to the knife or the grater, but not very pulverulent. When cut or broken it presents a yellowish sur- face, varied with reddish-brown, branching, irregular veins, which give to it a marbled appearance. These dark veins abound in oily matter, upon which the medicinal properties depend. The odour of nutmeg is delightfully fra- grant, the taste warm, aromatic and grateful. Its virtues are extracted by alcohol and ether. M. Bonastre obtained from 500 parts, 120 of a white insoluble oily substance (stearin), 38 of a coloured soluble oil (olein), 30 of volatile oil, 4 of acid, 12 of fecula, 6 of gum, 270 of lignin ; and 20 parts were lost. (Journ. de Pharm., ix. 281.) The volatile oil is obtained by distillation with water. (See Oleum Myristicae.) By pressure with heat an oily matter is procured from the kernels, which becomes solid on cooling, and is commonly though erroneously called oil of mace. It is said that nutmegs are often punctured and boiled in order to extract their essential oil, and the orifice afterwards closed so carefully as not to be discoverable unless by breaking the kernel. The fraud may be detected by their greater levity. They are also apt to be injured by worms, which, however, attack preferably those parts which are least impregnated with the volatile oil. We are told that the Dutch heat them in a stove in order to deprive them of the power of germinating, and thus prevent the propagation of the tree. The small and round nutmegs are preferred to those which are large and oval. They should be rejected when very light, with a feeble taste and smell, worm eaten, musty, or marked with black veins. A kind of nutmeg is occasionally met with, ascribed by some to a variety of the M. moschata, by others to a different species, which is distinguished from that just described by its much greater length, its elliptical shape, the absence of the dark brown veins, and its comparatively feeble odour, and disagreeable taste. It has been called male or wild nutmeg, the other being designated as the female or cultivated nutmeg. The concrete or expressed oil of nutmeg (Myristicje Adeps, Ed.), commonly called oil of mace, is obtained by bruising nutmegs, exposing them in a bag to the vapour of water, and then compressing them strongly between heated plates. A liquid oil flows out which becomes solid when it 472 Myristica.—Macis. PART I. cools. Nutmegs are said to yield from ten to twelve per cent, of this oil. The best is imported from the East Indies in stone jars. It is solid, soft, unctuous to the touch, of a yellowish or orange-yellow colour, more or less mottled, with the odour and taste of nutmeg. It is composed, according to Schrader, of 52-09 per cent, of a soft oily substance, yellowish or brownish, soluble in cold alcohol and ether; 43-75 of a white pulverulent, inodorous substance, insoluble in these liquids ; and 4-16 of volatile oil. An inferior kind of expressed oil of nutmegs is prepared in Holland, and sometimes found in the shops. It is in hard, shining, square cakes, of a lighter colour than that from the East Indies, and with less smell and taste. It is supposed to be derived from nutmegs previously deprived of most of their volatile oil by distillation. An artificial preparation is sometimes sub- stituted for the genuine oil. It is made by mixing together various fatty matters, such as suet, palm oil, spermaceti, wax, &c, adding some colouring substance, and giving flavour to the mixture by the volatile oil of nutmeg. Mace (Macis, Dub.) is in the shape of a flat membrane irregularly slit, smooth, soft, flexible, of a reddish or orange-yellow colour, and an odour and taste closely resembling those of nutmeg. It consists, according to M. Henry, of an essential oil in small quantity; a fixed oil, odorous, yellow, soluble in ether, insoluble in boiling alcohol; another fixed oil, odorous, red, soluble in alcohol and ether in every proportion ; a peculiar gummy matter, analogous to amidin and gum, constituting one-third of the whole mass; and a small proportion of ligneous fibre. Mace yields a volatile oil by distillation, and a fixed oil by pressure. Neumann found the former heavier than water. The latter is less consistent than the fixed oil of nutmegs. Mace is inferior when it is brittle, less than usually divided, whitish or pale yellow, or with little taste and smell. Medical Properties and Uses. Nutmeg unites with the medicinal proper- ties of the ordinary aromatics, considerable narcotic power. In the quantity of two or three drachms it has been known to produce stupor and delirium; and dangerous if not fatal consequences are said to have followed its free use in India. It is employed to cover the taste or correct the operation of other medicines, but more frequently as an agreeable addition to farinaceous arti- cles of diet, and to various kinds of drink in cases of languid appetite and delicate stomach. It is usually given in substance, and is brought by grating to the state of a powder. Mace possesses properties essentially the same with those of nutmeg, but is less used as a medicine The dose of either is from five to twenty grains. As the virtues of nutmeg depend chiefly if not exclusively on the volatile oil, the latter may be substituted, in the dose of two or three drops, whenever a liquid preparation is desirable. The expressed oil of nutmeg is occasionally used as a gentle external stimulant, and, though not admitted into the Materia Medica list of the London Phar- macopoeia, is an ingredient in the Emplastrum Picis of that work. The ancients were wholly unacquainted with the nutmeg; and Avicenna is said to be the first author by whom it is noticed. / Off.Prep. Of Myristica. Acetum Opii, U.S.; Confectio Aromatica* Lond., Dub.; Electuarium Catechu, Ed.; Pulvis Aromaticus, U.S.; Pulvis Cretas Compositus, Ed.; Spiritus Ammonias Aromaticus, Dub.; Spiritus Armoracias Comp., Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Lavandulas Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Myristicas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus, U. S.; Trochisci Cretas, U. S., Ed.; Trochisci Magnesias, U.S., Ed. W. PART I. Myroxylon. 473 MYROXYLON. U.S. Balsam of Peru. "The juice of Myroxylon Peruiferum." U. S. Off. Syn. BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM. Myroxylon Peruiferum. Bahamum Liquidum. Lond.; BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM. Fluid balsamic exudation of Myrospermum Peruiferum. Ed.; MYROXYLUM PERUVIANUM. Balsamum. Dub. Bauine de Perou, Fr.; Peruvianischcr Balsam, Germ.; Balsamo del Peru, Ital; Bal- samo negro, Span. Myroxylon. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Legurni- nosas, De Cand. Amyridaceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx bell-shaped, five-toothed. Petals five, the upper one larger than the others. Germen longer than the corolla. Legume with one seed only at the point. Willd. Myroxylon peruiferum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 546 ; Lambert's Illustra- tions, A. D. 1821. p. 97. Myrospermum peruiferum. DeCand. Prodrom. ii. 95; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 279. This is a tall and very beautiful tree, with a straight, smooth trunk, and branches nearly horizontal. The bark is of a gray colour, compact, heavy, and highly resinous; and has the aromatic flavour of the balsam. The leaves are alternate, and composed of two, three, four, and sometimes five pairs of leaflets, which are nearly opposite, ovate, lanceolate, with a lengthened but somewhat blunt and emar- ginate apex, entire, smooth and shining, hairy on the under surface, marked with numerous transparent points, and placed on short footstalks. Many leaves terminate unequally, consisting of five, seven, or nine leaflets. The common petioles are rather thick and hairy. The flowers are white or rose- coloured, and disposed in axillary racemes, longer than the leaves. The fruit is a pendulous, straw-coloured legume, club-shaped, somewhat curved, terminating in the curved style, and globular near the extremity, where there is a single cell, containing a crescent-shaped seed. The tree is a native of the warmer regions of South America, growing in various parts of Peru and New Granada, where it is called quinquino by the natives. The wood is employed in building, and is valuable for its dura- bility. The baric and fruit are used to perfume apartments. The tree yields by incision a balsamic juice, which, when received in bottles, may be pre- served in a liquid state for some years. This is called white liquid balsam. When this juice is deposited in mats or calabashes, it becomes concrete, and acquires the name of dry white balsam, thought by some to be identical with balsam of Tolu. By boiling the bark in water, a dark-coloured liquid is procured, which retains its fluid consistence, and is called black Peruvian balsam. According to Ruiz, from whose account the above details were derived, " there is no difference in these three balsams, excepting in the name, colour and consistence." It is only the dark-coloured liquid that is known with us by the name of balsam of Peru, and to this the following remarks are confined. In stating that it is procured by boiling the bark in water, Ruiz does not speak from his own knowledge. A general opinion is, that it is prepared by decoction from the smaller branches. As brought into the United States, it is usually in tin canisters, with a whitish scum upon its surface, and more or less deposit, which, however, is dissolved with the aid of heat. In a communication by M. Guibourt to the Society of Pharmacy at Paris, 41* 474 Myroxylo n.—Myrrha. PART I. it is stated, on the authority of M. Bazire, that a product, exactly resembling the dark-coloured Peruvian balsam of commerce, is collected largely in Guatemala, and thence sent to Peru. It is obtained from a tree belonging to the genus Myrospermum of Jacquin—Myroxylon of Linnasus—but spe- cifically different from the M. Peruiferum. Properties. Balsam of Peru is viscid like syrup or honey, of a dark reddish-brown colour, a fragrant odour, and a warm bitterish taste, leaving when swallowed a burning or prickling sensation in the throat. Its sp. gr. is from 1-14 to 1-15. When exposed to flame it takes fire, diffusing a white smoke and a fragrant odour. Consisting chiefly of resin, essential oil, and benzoic acid, it is properly considered a balsam, though probably altered by heat. Alcohol in large proportion entirely dissolves it. Boiling water extracts the benzoic acid. From 1000 parts of the balsam, Stolze obtained 24 parts of a brown nearly insoluble resinous matter, 207 of resin readily soluble, 690 of oil, 64 of benzoic acid, 6 of extractive matter, and a small proportion of water. The oil he considers to be of a peculiar nature, differing from the volatile, the fixed, and the empyreumatic oils. Results of a different character were obtained by Fremy, who maintains that the acid contained in the balsam is cinnamic and not benzoic acid. Medical Properties and Uses. This balsam is a warm, stimulating tonic and expectorant, and has been recommended in chronic catarrhs, certain forms of asthma, phthisis, and other pectoral complaints attended with debility. It has also been used in gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, amenorrhoea, chronic rheumatism, and palsy. At present, however, it is little employed by American physicians. As an external application it has been found beneficial in chronic indolent ulcers. The dose is half a fluidrachm. It is best administered diffused in water by means of sugar and the yolk of eggs or gum Arabic. Off. Prep. Tinctura Benzoini Composita, Ed. W. MYRRHA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Myrrh. "The concrete juice of Balsamodendron Myrrha." U.S. "Balsamo- dendron Myrrha. Gummi-resina." Lond. "Gummy resinous exudation of Balsamodendron Myrrha." Ed. Myrrhe, Fr., Germ.; Mirra, Ital, Span.; Murr, Arab.; Bowl, Hindoost. Though myrrh has been employed from the earliest periods of history, the plant which yields it has not been certainly known till a very recent date. The Amyris Kataf of Forskhal, seen by that traveller in Arabia, was sup- posed by him to be the myrrh tree, but without sufficient evidence. More recently Ehrenberg, a German traveller, met on the frontiers of Arabia Felix with a plant, from the bark of which he collected a gum resin precisely simi- lar to the myrrh of commerce. From specimens of the plant taken by Ehrenberg to Germany, Nees von Esenbeck referred it to the genus Balsa- modendron of Kunth, and named it Balsamodendron Myrrha. This genus was formed by Kunth from Amyris, and includes the Amyris Kataf of Forskhal, which may possibly also produce a variety of myrrh. The new genus differs from Amyris, chiefly in having the stamens beneath instead of upon the germ. It was not thought by De Candolle sufficiently distinct. Balsamodendron Myrrha. Fee, Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm., i. 641. This is a small tree, with a stunted trunk, covered with a whitish-gray bark, and furnished with rough abortive branches terminating in spines. The PART I. Myrrha. 475 leaves are ternate, consisting of obovate, blunt, smooth, obtusely denticulate leaflets, of which the two lateral are much smaller than that at the end. The fruit is oval lanceolate, pointed, longitudinally furrowed, of a brown colour, and surrounded at its base by the persistent calyx. The tree grows in Arabia Felix, in the neighbourhood of Gison, in dwarfish thickets, interspersed among the Acacias and Euphorbias. The juice exudes spon- taneously, and concretes upon the bark. Formerly the best myrrh was brought from the shores of the Red Sea by way of Egypt and the Levant, and hence received the name of Turkey myrrh; while the inferior qualities were imported from the East Indies, and commonly called India myrrh. These titles have ceased to be appli- cable ; as myrrh of all qualities is now brought from the East Indies, whither it is carried from Arabia and probably from Abyssinia. It is usually im- ported in chests containing between one and two hundred weight. Some- times the different qualities are brought separate; but sometimes also more or less mingled. Only the best kind should be selected for medical use. Properties. Myrrh is in small irregular fragments or tears, or in larger masses, composed apparently of agglutinated portions differing somewhat in their shade of colour. The pieces are exceedingly irregular in shape and size, being sometimes not larger than a pea, and sometimes, though rarely, almost as large as the fist. They are often powdery upon the sur- face. When of good quality, myrrh is reddish-yellow or reddish-brown and translucent, of a strong peculiar somewhat fragrant odour, and a bitter aromatic taste. It is brittle and puiverizable, presenting, when broken, a shining surface, which in the larger masses is very irregular, and some- times exhibits opaque whitish or yellowish veins. In powder it is of a light yellowish colour. Under the teeth it is at first friable, but soon softens and becomes adhesive. It is inflammable, but does not burn vigorously, and is not fusible by heat. Its specific gravity is stated at 1-36. The in- ferior kind of myrrh, commonly called India myrrh, is in pieces much darker than those described, more opaque, less odorous, and often abound- ing with impurities. We have seen pieces of India myrrh enclosing large crystals of common salt, as if the juice might have fallen from the tree and concreted upon the ground, where this mineral abounds. Pieces of bdel- lium and other gummy or resinous substances of unknown origin are often mixed with it. Among these is a product which may be called false myrrh. It is in pieces of irregular form, of a dirty reddish-brown colour, a vitreous brownish-yellow fracture, semitransparent, of a faint odour of myrrh, and a bitter balsamic taste. It is best to purchase myrrh in mass; as in powder it is very liable to adulterations which are not easily detected. Myrrh is partially soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Triturated with water it forms an opaque yellowish or whitish emulsion, which deposits the larger portion of the myrrh upon standing. Its alcoholic tincture is rendered opaque by the addition of water, but throws down no precipitate. According to Neumann, alcohol and water severally extract the whole of its odour and taste. By distillation a volatile oil rises, having the peculiar flavour of myrrh, and leaving the residue in the retort simply bitter. The gum-resin is soluble in solutions of the alkalies, and when triturated with them in a crystalline state forms a tenacious liquid. Hence carbonate of potassa may be used to facilitate its suspension in water. Braconnot found 2-5 parts of volatile oil and 23 parts of a bitter resin, 46 of soluble, and 12 of insoluble gum in the hundred. (Ann. de Chim., lxvii., 52.) Pelletier obtained 34 per cent, of resin, with a small proportion of volatile oil, and 66 per cent, of gum. A more recent analysis by Ruickoldt gave in 100 parts 2-183 of volatile oil, 44-760 of resin, 40-818 of gum or arabin, 1-475 476 Myrrha.—Nux Vomica. PART I. of water, and 3-650 of carbonate of lime and magnesia, with some gypsum and peroxide of iron. The resin, which he calls myrrhin, is neuter, but acquires acid properties when kept for a short time in fusion. In the latter state M. Ruickoldt proposes to call it myrrhic acid. (Archiv. der Pharm., xli. 1.) Myrrh which contains little volatile oil, according to MM. Bley and Diesel, always has an acid reaction, which they ascribe to the oxida- tion of the oil. They found formic acid in the myrrh. (Ibid, xliii. 304.) The same writers give as a test of myrrh the production of a transparent dirty yellow liquid with nitric acid, while false myrrh affords a bright yel- low solution in the same fluid, and bdellium is not dissolved by it, but becomes whitish and opaque. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 228.) According to M. Righini, when powdered myrrh is rubbed for fifteen minutes, with an equal weight of muriate of ammonia, and fifteen times its weight of water gradually added, if it dissolves quickly and entirely it may be considered pure. (Journ. de Chim. Med., 1844, p. 33.) Medical Properties and Uses. Myrrh is a stimulant tonic, with some tendency to the lungs, and perhaps to the uterus. Hence it is employed as an expectorant and emmenagogue, in debilitated states of the system, in the absence of febrile excitement or acute inflammation. The complaints in which it is usually administered are chronic catarrh, phthisis pulmo- nalis, humoral asthma, other pectoral affections in which the secretion of mucus is abundant but not easily expectorated, chlorosis, amenorrhoea, and the various affections connected with this state of the uterine function. It is generally given combined with the chalybeates or other tonics, and in amenorrhoea very frequently with aloes. It is used also as a local appli- cation to spongy gums, the aphthous sore mouth of children, and various kinds of unhealthy ulcers. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, and may be given in the form of powder or pill, or suspended in water, as in the famous antihectic mixture of Dr. Griffith, which has become officinal by the name of Mistura Ferri Composita. The watery infusion is also some- times given, and an aqueous extract has been recommended as milder than myrrh in substance. The tincture is used chiefly as an external application. Off. Prep. Decoctum Aloe's Compositum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Ferri Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulas Aloes et Myrrhas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Assafoetidas, Ed.; Pil. Ferri Comp., U.S., Lond., Dub.; Pil. Galbani Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Rhei Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Myrrhas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. NUX VOMICA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Nux Vomica. "The seeds of Strychnos Nux vomica." U.S., Ed. "Strychnos nux vomica. Semina." Lond. Noix vomique, Fr.; KriLhenaugen, Brechnusse, Germ.; Noce vomica, Ital; Nuez vo- mica, Span. Strychnos. Sex. Syst. PentandriaMonogynia.—Nat. Ord. Apocynaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla five-cleft. Berry one-celled, with a ligneous rind. Willd. Strychnos Nux vomica. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1052; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 222. t. 79. This tree is of a moderate size, with numerous strong branches, covered with a smooth, dark-gray bark. The young branches are long, flexuous, very smooth, dark-green, and furnished with oval roundish, entire, smooth, and shining leaves, having three or five ribs, and placed opposite to each other on short footstalks. The flowers are small, white, funnel-shaped, and disposed in terminal corymbs. The fruit is a PART I. Nux Vomica. 477 round berry, about as large as an orange, covered with a smooth, yellow or orange-coloured, hard, fragile rind, and containing numerous seeds em- bedded in a juicy pulp. The tree is a native of the East Indies, growing in Bengal, Malabar, on the coast of Coromandel, in Ceylon, in numerous islands of the Indian Archipelago, in Cochin-china, and other neighbouring countries. The wood and root are very bitter, and employed in the East Indies for the cure of intermittents. The radices colubrinae and lignum colubrinum of the older writers, which have been long known in Europe as narcotic poisons, have been ascribed to this species of Strychnos, under the impres- sion that it is identical with the S. Colubrina, to which Linnasus refers them. They have been ascertained by Pelletier and Caventou to contain a large quantity of strychnia. The bark is said by Dr. O'Shaughnessy to answer exactly to the description given by authors of the false angustura, and, like that, to contain a large quantity of brucia. The identity of the two barks has been confirmed by Dr. Pereira, from a. comparison of speci- mens. (See Angustura.) The only officinal portion of the plant is the seeds. These are circular, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, and two or three lines in thickness, flat, or slightly convex on one side and concave on the other.' They are thickly covered with fine, silky, shining, ash-coloured or yellowish-gray hairs, attached to a thin fragile coating, which closely invests the interior nucleus or kernel. This is very hard, horny, usually whitish and semitransparent, sometimes dark-coloured and opaque, and of very difficult pulverization. The powder is yellowish-gray, and has a faint sweetish odour. The seeds are destitute of odour, but have an acrid very bitter taste, which is much stronger in the kernel than in the investing mem- brane. They impart their virtues to water, but more readily to diluted alcohol. Nux vomica has been analyzed by several chemists, but most accurately by Pelletier and Caventou, who discovered in it two alkaline principles, strych- nia and brucia, united with a peculiar acid which they named igasuric. Its other constituents are a yellow colouring matter, a concrete oil, gum, starch, bassorin, and a small quantity of wax. Strychnia and brucia are its active principles. Strychnia was discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, A. D. 1818, both in the nux vomica and bean of St. Ignatius, and received its name from the generic title of the plants (Strychnos), to which these two products belong. According to these chemists, it exists much more abundantly in the bean of St. Ignatius than in the nux vomica, the former yielding 1-2 per cent., the latter only 0-4 per cent, of the alkali. For an account of its properties and mode of preparation, see Strychnia, in the second part of this work. Brucia was discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, first in the bark called false angustura, in combination with gallic acid, and subsequently, asso- ciated with strychnia in the form of igasurates, in the nux vomica and bean of St. Ignatius. It is crystallizable; and its crystals are said to contain 18-41 per cent, of water. It is without smell, but of a permanent, harsh, very bitter taste; soluble in 850 parts of cold, and 500 of boiling water; very soluble in alcohol, whether hot or cold; but insoluble in ether and the fixed oils, and only slightly dissolved by the volatile oils. It is permanent in the air, but melts at a temperature a little above that of boiling water, and on cooling congeals into a mass resembling wax. It forms crystallizable salts with the acids. Concentrated nitric acid produces with brucia or its salts an intense crimson colour, which changes to yellow by heat, and upon the addition of protochloride of tin becomes violet. These effects are peculiar to brucia, and, if produced with strychnia, evince the presence of the former alkali. According to MM. Larocque and Thibierge, the chloride of gold 478 Nux Vomica. part i. produces, with solutions of the salts of brucia, precipitates at first milky, then coffee-coloured, and finally chocolate-brown. (Journ. de Chim. Med., Oct., 1842.) Brucia is analogous in its operation to strychnia, but possesses, according to M. Andral, only about one-twelfth of its strength, when the latter principle is entirely pure. It is therefore seldom employed. It may be procured from false Angustura bark, in a manner essentially the same with that in which strychnia is procured from nux vomica; with this difference, that the alcoholic extract, obtained from the precipitate produced by lime or magnesia, should be treated with oxalic acid, and subsequently with a mixture of rectified alcohol and ether, which takes up the colouring matter, leaving the oxalate of brucia. This is decomposed by magnesia, and the brucia is separated by alcohol, which, by spontaneous evaporation, yields it in the state of crystals. According to Dr. Fuss and Professor Erdmann, brucia is not a distinct alkali, but merely a compound of strychnia and resin. (Pereira's Materia Medica.) Medical Properties and Uses. Nux vomica is very peculiar in its operation upon the system. In very small doses, frequently repeated, it is tonic, and is said to be diuretic, and occasionally diaphoretic and laxative. When it is given in larger doses, so as to bring the system decidedly under its influence, its action appears to be directed chiefly to the nerves of motion, probably through the medium of the spinal marrow. Its operation is evinced at first by a feeling of weight and weakness, with tremblings in the limbs, and some rigidity on attempting motion. There seems to be a tendency to permanent involuntary muscular contraction, as in tetanus; but at the same time frequent starts or spasms occur, as from electric shocks. These spasms are at first brought on by some exciting cause, as by a slight blow or an attempt to move; but, if the medicine is persevered in, occur without extraneous agency, and are sometimes frequent and violent. In severe cases there is occasionally general rigidity of the muscles. A sense of heat in the stomach, constriction of the throat and abdomen, tightness of the chest, and retention of urine are frequently experienced, to a greater or less extent, according to the quantity of the medicine administered. It sometimes, also produces pain in the head, vertigo, contracted pupil, and dimness of vision. Sensa- tions analogous to those attending imperfect palsy, such as formication, tingling, &c, are experienced in some cases upon the surface. The pulse is not materially affected, though sometimes slightly increased in frequency. In over-doses, the medicine is capable of producing fatal effects. Given to the inferior animals in fatal doses it produces great anxiety, difficult and confined breathing, retching to vomit, universal tremors, spasmodic action of the muscles, and ultimately violent convulsions. Death is supposed to take place from a suspension of respiration, resulting from a spasmodic constriction of the muscles concerned in the process. Upon dissection, no traces of inflammatory action are observable, unless large quantities of the nux vomica have been swallowed, when the stomach appears inflamed. A division of the spinal marrow near the occiput, does not prevent the peculiar effects of the medicine, so that the intervention of the brain is not essential to its action. That it enters the circulation, and is brought into contact with the parts upon which it acts, is rendered evident by the experiments of Magendie and others. Nux vomica has long been employed in India, and was known as a me- dicine to the Arabian physicians. On the continent of Europe, it has at various times been recommended as an antidote to the plague, and as a remedy in intermittents, dyspepsia, pyrosis, gastrodynia, dysentery, colica pictonum, worms, mania, hypochondriasis, hysteria, rheumatism, and hy- drophobia. It is said to have effectually cured obstinate spasmodic a'sthma. PART I. Nux Vomica. 479 Its peculiar influence upon the nerves of motion, to which the public atten- tion was first called by Magendie, suggested to M. Fonquier, a French phy- sician, the application of the remedy to paralytic affections ; and his success was such as to induce him to communicate to the public the result of his experience. Others have subsequently employed it with variable success; but the experience in its favour so much predominates, that it may now be considered a standard remedy in palsy. It is a singular fact attested by numerous witnesses, that its action is directed more especially to the para- lytic part, exciting contraction in this before it is extended to other muscles. The medicine, however, should be administered with judgment, and never given in cases depending on inflammation or organic lesion of the brain or spinal marrow, until after the removal of the primary affection by bleeding or other depletory measures. It has been found more successful in general palsy and paraplegia, than in hemiplegia, and has frequently effected cures in palsy of the bladder, incontinence of urine from paralysis of the sphincter, amaurosis, and other cases of partial palsy, and has been employed with asserted success in prolapsus ani and impotence. It has recently been recom- mended in neuralgia and in chorea. Nux vomica may be given in powder in the dose of five grains, repeated three or four times a day, and gradually increased till its effects are expe- rienced. In this form, however, it is very uncertain; and fifty grains have been given with little or no effect. It is most readily reduced to powder by filing or grating, and the raspings may be rendered finer by first steaming them, then drying them by stove heat, and lastly rubbing them in a mortar. The Edinburgh College direct that the seeds should be first well softened with steam, then sliced, dried, and ground in a coffee-mill. The alcoholic extract is more convenient and more certain in its operation. From half a grain to two grains may be given in the form of pill, repeated as above-mentioned, and gradually increased. (See Extractum Nucis Vo- micae.) The watery extract is comparatively feeble. Strychnia has recently been much used, and possesses the advantage of greater certainty and uniformity of action. Its effects are precisely similar. With the exception of prussic acid, it is perhaps the most violent poison in the catalogue of medicines, and should therefore be administered with great caution. The dose is one-twelfth of a grain, repeated twice or three times a day, and gradually increased. Even the quantity men- tioned sometimes produces spasmodic symptoms, and these generally occur when the dose is augmented to half a grain three times a day. The system is not so soon habituated to its impression as to that of the narcotics generally; so that, after its effects are experienced, it is unne- cessary to go on increasing the dose. Strychnia has been applied externally with advantage in amaurosis. It should be sprinkled upon a blistered sur- face near the temples, in the quantity of half a grain or a grain, morning and evening; and the quantity may be gradually augmented. The best form of administration is that of pill, in consequence of the excessive bitterness of the solution. Strychnia may, however, be given, dissolved in alcohol, or in water by the intervention of an acid. Brucia maybe used for the same purposes with strychnia in the dose of one grain twice or three times a day. Dr. Bardsley found that the quantity of two grains, three or four times a day, was seldom exceeded without the occurrence of the characteristic effects of the medicine. Magendie has found this alkali very useful in small doses as a tonic. He employed for this purpose one-eighth of a grain frequently repeated. Off. Prep. Extractum Nucis Vomicas, U.S., Ed.,Dub.; Strychnia, U.S., Lond*, Ed. W. 480 Olea.— Olea Fixa. PART I. OLEA. Oils. These are liquid or solid substances, characterized by an unctuous feel, inflammability, and the property of leaving a greasy stain upon paper. They are divided into two classes, the fixed and volatile, distinguished, as their names imply, by their different habitudes in relation to the vaporizing influence of caloric. 1. OLEA FIXA. Fixed Oils. These are termed Olea expressa, expressed oils, in the Dublin Pharma- copoeia, in which alone they are designated as a class. The fixed oils, though existing in greater or less proportion in various parts of plants, are furnished for use exclusively by the fruit; and, as a general rule, are most abundant in the dicotyledonous seeds. They are obtained either by submitting the bruised seeds to pressure in hempen bags, or by boiling them in water, and skimming off the oil as it rises to the surface. When pressure is employed, it is customary to prepare the seeds for the press by exposing them to a moderate heat, so as to render the oil more liquid, and thus enable it to flow out more readily. The consistence of the fixed oils varies from that of tallow to perfect fluidity, but by far the greater part are liquid at ordinary temperatures. They are somewhat viscid, transparent, and usually of a yellowish colour, which disappears when they are treated with animal charcoal. When pure they have little taste or smell. They are lighter than water, varying in specific gravity from 0-913 to 0-936. (Berzelius.) They differ very much in their point of congelation, olive oil becoming solid a little above 32° F., while linseed oil remains fluid at 4° below zero. They are not volatilizable without decomposition. At about 600° they boil, and are converted into vapour, which, when condensed, is found to contain a large proportion of oleic and margaric acids, together with benzoic acid, another volatile acid, and an empyreumatic oil. Exposed to a red heat, in close vessels, they yield, among other products of the destructive distillation of vegetables, a large quantity of the combustible compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Heated in the open air they take fire, burning with a bright flame, and pro- ducing waterand carbonic acid. When kept in air-tight vessels, they remain unchanged for a great length of time, but exposed to the atmosphere, they attract oxygen, and ultimately become concrete. Some, in drying, lose their unctuous feel, and are converted into a transparent, yellowish, flexible solid. These are called drying oils. Others, especially such as contain mucilaginous impurities, become rancid, acquiring a sharp taste,and unplea- sant smell. This change is owing to the formation of an acid, from which the oil may be freed by boiling it for a short time with hydrate of magnesia and water. The fixed oils are insoluble in water, but are miscible with that fluid by means of mucilage, forming mixtures which are called emulsions. They are in general very sparingly soluble in alcohol, but readily dissolved by ether, which serves to separate them from other vegetable proximate principles. By the aid of heat they dissolve sulphur and phosphorus. Chlorine and iodine are converted by them into muriatic and hydriodic acids, which reacting upon the oils increase their consistence, and ultimately render them as hard as wax. The stronger acids decompose them, giving PART I. Olea Fixa. 481 rise, among other products, to the oleic and margaric acids. Boiled with diluted nitric acid, they are converted into malic and oxalic acids, besides other substances usually resulting from the action of this acid upon vegeta- ble matter. Several acids are dissolved by them without producing any sensible change. They combine with salifiable bases; but at the moment of combination undergo a change, by which they are converted into a peculiar substance called glycerin, and into the oleic and margaric acids, which unite with the base employed. The compounds of these acids with potassa and soda are called soaps. (See Sapo and Emplastrum Plumbi.) The fixed oils dissolve many of the vegetable alkalies, the volatile oils, resin, and other proximate principles of plants. They consist of two distinct substances, one of which is liquid at ordinary temperatures, and therefore called olein, the other solid, and called margarin. The more solid ingredient of the vegetable oils was originally called stearin, the name applied to the analogous ingre- dient of the animal oils, with which it was supposed by Chevreul, the dis- coverer of this complex constitution of oleaginous substances, to be identical. It has, however, been found to be essentially different, yielding margaric acid in the process of saponification, while stearin yields stearic acid ; and a new name has accordingly been conferred upon it. For the mode of sepa- rating the liquid from the solid principles of oils, as well as for an account of their distinctive properties, the reader is referred to the article Adeps. Margarin is distinguished from stearin by its greater fusibility, and by its solubility in cold ether; and the two principles may be separated by the action of boiling ether, which dissolves both, but deposits the stearin upon cooling, while it retains the margarin and yields it by evaporation. These principles, however, are thought by Berzelius not to be absolutely identical in the different oils; as they have different points of congelation and lique- faction, according to the substance from which they are derived.* By the action of nitric acid or nitrous acid fumes, olein is converted into a deep- yellow butyraceous mass. If this be treated with warm alcohol, a deep orange-red oil is dissolved, and a peculiar fatty matter remains, called ela'idin. It is white, fusible at 97°, insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, readily soluble in ether, and converted, in the process of saponi- fication by the alkalies, into a peculiar acid, denominated elaidic acid, and into glycerin. (Kane's Chemistry.) The view now taken of the nature of olein, margarin, stearin, ela'idin, and other similar fatty matters, is that they are compounds of the oleic, margaric, stearic, elaidic acids, &c, with gly- cerin ; and in the process of saponification, the alkali takes the oily acid and * Some interesting results in relation to the fixed oils have been obtained by MM. Pelouze and Boudet, and published in the Journal de Pharmacie, torn. xxiv. p. 385. Ac- cording to these chemists, the variable fusibility of the margarin and stearin of fixed oils, which has induced some chemists to believe that they are severally not entirely identical as obtained from different oils, is owing to the existence of definite combinations of mar- garin and stearin respectively with olein; and each of these principles, in a state of purity, is probably the same from whatever souree derived, whether from vegetable or from animal oils. Thus they found the same margarin in palm oil and in human fat. But there appear to be two distinct kinds of olein, one existing in the drying oils, as lin- seed oil, the oil of poppies, &c, the other in the oils which are not drying, as in olive oil, almond oil, human fat, and lard. These two forms of olein are different in their solu- bility in different menstrua, and in the circumstances that one is drying and the other not so, that one remains liquid under the action of nitrous acid, while the other is con- verted by it into a solid substance called ela'idin, and finally that the former contains much less hydrogen than the latter. Bosides, the oleic acid formed in the process of saponification from these two kinds of olein is decidedly different, inasmuch as, in the one case, it is converted by nitrous acid into ela'idic acid, and in the othetf is not thus changed. —Note to Fourth Edition. 42 482 Olea Fixa.— Olea Volatilia. PART I. sets o-lycerin free. The ultimate constituents of the fixed oils are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the hydrogen being in much larger proportion than is necessary to form water with the oxygen. Those which are least fusible contain most carbon and least oxygen; and, according to De Saussure, their solubility in alcohol is greater in proportion to their amount of oxygen. (Berzelius.) Some of them contain a very minute proportion of nitrogen. 2. OLEA VOLATILIA. Volatile oils. These are sometimes called distilled oils, from the mode in which they are usually procured; sometimes essential oils, from the circumstance that they possess, in a concentrated state, the properties of the plants from which they are derived. In the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and London, the former title has been adopted; in that of Dublin, the latter; the Edin- burgh College use the term volatile oils. They exist in all odoriferous vegetables, sometimes pervading the whole plant, sometimes confined to a single part; in some instances contained in distinct cellules, and preserved after desiccation, in others formed upon the surface as in many flowers, and exhaled as soon as they are formed. Oc- casionally two or more are found in different parts of the same plant. Thus the orange tree produces one volatile oil in its leaves, another in its flowers, and a third in the rind of its fruit. In a few instances, when existing in dis- tinct cellules, they may be obtained by pressure, as from the rind of the lemon and orange; but they are generally procured by distillation with water. (See Olea Destillata.) Some volatile oils, as those of bitter almonds and mustard, are formed during the process of distillation, out of substances of a different nature pre-existing in the plant. The volatile oils are usually yellowish, but sometimes brown, red, green, or even blue, and occasionally colourless. They have a strong odour, re- sembling that of the plants from which they were procured, though generally less agreeable. Their taste is hot and pungent, and when they are diluted is often gratefully aromatic. The greater number are lighter than water; some are heavier; and their sp. gr. varies from 0-847 to 1-17. They par- tially rise in vapour at ordinary temperatures, diffusing their peculiar odour, and are completely volatilized by heat. Their boiling point is various, generally as high as 320° F., and sometimes higher; but most of them rise readily with the vapour of boiling, water. When distilled alone, they almost always undergo partial decomposition. They differ also in their point of congelation. A few are solid at ordinary temperatures, several become so at 32° F., and many remain liquid considerably below this point. Heated in the open air, the volatile oils take fire, and burn with a bright flame at- tended with much smoke. Exposed at ordinary temperatures, they absorb oxygen, assume a deeper colour, become thicker and less odorous, and are ultimately converted into resin. This change takes place most rapidly under the influence of light. Before the alteration is complete, the remaining portion of oil may be recovered by distillation. Some of them, instead of resin, form well-characterized acids by combination with oxygen. The volatile oils are very slightly soluble in water. Agitated with this fluid they render it milky; but separate upon standing, leaving the water impregnated with their odour and taste. This impregnation is more com- plete when water is distilled with the oils, or from the plants containing them. Trituration with magnesia or its carbonate renders them much more soluble, probably in consequence of their minute division. The interven- tion of sugar also greatly increases their solubility, and affords a convenient PART I. Olea Volatilia. 483 method of preparing them for internal use. Most of them are very soluble in alcohol, and in a degree proportionate to its freedom from water. The oils which contain no oxygen are scarcely soluble in diluted alcohol, and, according to De Saussure, their solubility generally in this liquid is propor- tionate to the quantity of oxygen which they contain. They are readily dissolved by ether. The volatile oils dissolve sulphur and phosphorus with the aid of heat, and deposit them on cooling. By long boiling with sulphur they form brown, unctuous, fetid substances, formerly called balsams of sulphur. They absorb chlorine, which converts them into resin, and then combines with the resin. Iodine produces a similar effect. They are. decomposed by the strong mineral acids, and unite with several of those from the vegetable kingdom. When treated with a caustic alkali, they are converted into resin, which unites with the alkali to form a kind of soap. Several of the metallic oxides, and various salts which easily part with oxygen, convert them into resin. The volatile oils dissolve many of the proximate principles of plants and animals, such as the fixed oils and fats, resins, camphor, and several of the vegetable alkalies. The volatile, like the fixed oils, consist of distinct principles, which are congealed at different temperatures, and may be separated by compressing the frozen oil between the folds of bibulous paper. The solid matter remains within the folds; and the fluid is absorbed by the paper, from which it may be separated by distillation with water. The name of stearoptene has been proposed for the former, that of eleoptene for the latter. The solid crys- talline substances deposited by certain volatile oils upon standing, usually considered as camphor, are examples of stearoptene. Some of these are isomeric with the oils in which they are formed, others are oxides. Some oils, under the influence of water, deposit crystalline bodies which appear to be hydrates of the respective oils. The ultimate constituents of the volatile oils are usually carbon, hy- drogen, and oxygen. Some, as the oils of turpentine and copaiba, in their purest state, contain only carbon and hydrogen. Several have nitrogen in their composition ; and the oils of horse-radish and mustard contain sulphur. The volatile oils are often sophisticated. Among the most common adul- terations are fixed oils, resinous substances, and alcohol. The presence of the fixed oils may be known by the permanent greasy stain which they leave on paper, while that occasioned by a pure volatile oil disappears entirely when exposed to heat. They may also in general be detected by their com- parative insolubility in alcohol. Both the fixed oils and resins are left behind when the adulterated oil is distilled with water. If alcohol is present, the oil becomes milky when agitated with water, and, after the separation of the liquids, the water occupies more space and the oil less than before. The following method of detecting alcohol has been proposed by M. Beral. Put twelve drops of the suspected oil in a perfectly dry watch-glass, and add a piece of potassium about as large as the head of a pin. If the potassium remain for twelve or fifteen minutes in the midst of the liquid, there is either no alcohol present, or less than four per cent. If it disappear in five minutes, the oil contains more than four per cent, of alcohol; if in less than a minute twenty-five per cent, or more. M. Borsarelli employs chloride of calcium for the same purpose. This he introduces in small pieces, well dried and perfectly free from powder, into a small cylindrical tube, closed at one end, and about two-thirds filled with the oil to be examined, and heats the tube to 212°, occasionally shaking it. If there be a considerable proportion of alcohol, 484 Olea Volatilia.— Oleum Amygdala. parti. ihe chloride is entirely dissolved, forming a solution which sinks to the bot- tom of the tube; if only a very small quantity, the pieces lose their form, and collect at the bottom in a white adhering mass; if none at all, they re- main unchanged. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 429.) Sometimes volatile oils of little value are mixed with those which are costly. The taste and smell afford in this case the best means of detecting the fraud. The specific gravity of the oils may also serve as a test of their purity. When two oils, of which one is lighter and the other heavier than water, are mixed, they are separated by long agitation with this fluid, and will take a place correspond- ing to their respective specific gravities; but it sometimes happens that an unadulterated oil may thus be separated into two portions. When oil of turpentine is used as the adulteration, it may be known by remaining in part undissolved, when the mixture is treated with three or four times its volume of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-84; or, according to M. Mero, by causing the sus- pected oil, when agitated with an equal measure of poppy oil, to remain transparent, instead of becoming milky, as it would do if pure.^ The latter test will not apply to the oil of rosemary. (Journ. de Pharm.,'Se ser., vii. 303.) Volatile oils may be preserved without change in small well-stopped bot- tles, entirely filled" with the oil, and excluded from the light. W. OLEUM AMYGDALAE. U.S. Oil of Almonds. "The fixed oil of the kernels of Amygdalus communis." U. S. Off. Syn. AMYGDALAE OLEUM. Amygdalus communis. Var. a. Var |3. Oleum ab allerutriusque nucleis expressum. Lond.; OLEUM AMYGDALARUM, Dub. Huile d'amandes, Fr.; Mandelol, Germ.; Olio di mandorle, Ital; Aceyte de almen- dras, Span. See AMYGDALA. This oil is obtained equally pure from sweet and bitter almonds. In its preparation, the almonds, after having been deprived of a reddish-brown powder adhering to their surface, by rubbing them together in a piece of coarse linen, are ground in a mill resembling a coffee-mill, or bruised in a stone mortar, and then submitted to pressure in canvas sacks between plates of iron slightly heated. The oil, which is at first turbid, is clarified by rest and filtration. The Dublin College directs the oil to be prepared by bruising the almonds, and then expressing without heat. Sometimes the almonds are steeped in very hot water, deprived of their cuticle, and dried in a stove previously to expression. The oil is thus obtained free from colour, but in no other respect better. Bitter almonds, when treated in this way, are said to impart a smell of hydrocyanic acid to the oil. With regard to these, therefore, the process is objectionable. M. Boullay obtained fifty-four per cent, of oil from sweet almonds, Vogel twenty-eight per cent. from bitter almonds. Oil of almonds is clear and. colourless, or slightly tinged of a greenish- yellow, is nearly inodorous, and has a bland sweetish taste. It remains liquid at temperatures considerably below the freezing point of water. Its sp. gr. is from 0-917 to 0-92. From the statement of Braconnot it appears to contain 76 per cent, of olein and 24 of margarin. It may be used for the same purposes with olive oil; and, when suspended in water by means of mucilage or the yolk of eggs and loaf sugar, forms a part i. Oleum Bergamii.— Oleum Bubulum. 485 very pleasant emulsion, useful in pulmonary affections attended with cough. From a fluidrachm to a fluidounce may be given at a dose. Off. Prep. Unguentum Aquas Rosas, U. S. W. OLEUM BERGAMII. U. S. Oil of Bergamot. "The volatile oil of the rind of the fruit of Citrus Limetta (De Candolle)." U. S. Off. Syn. BERGAMII OLEUM. Citrus Limetta Bergamium. Oleum e fructus cortice deslillatum. Lond.; BERGAMOTiE OLEUM. Volatile oil of the rind of the fruit of Citrus Limetta. Ed. Huile de bergamotte, Fr.; Bergamottol, Germ.; Oleo di bergamotta, Ital Citrus. See. AURANTII CORTEX. Citrus Limetta. De Cand. Prodrom. i. 539. The bergamot tree has been ranked by botanists generally among the lemons; but is now considered as a variety of the Citrus Limetta of Risso, and is so placed by De Candolle. It has oblong ovate, dentate, acute or obtuse leaves, somewhat paler on the under than the upper surface, and with footstalks more or less winged or margined. The flowers are white, and usually small; the fruit pyriform or roundish, pale yellow, terminated by an obtuse point, with a sourish pulp, and concave receptacles of oil in the rind. The pulp of the fruit is sourish, somewhat aromatic, and not disagreeable to the taste. The rind is shining, and of a pale yellow colour, and abounds in a very grateful volatile oil. This may be obtained either by expression or distillation. In the former case, it preserves the agreeable flavour of the rind, but-is somewhat turbid; in the latter,'it is limpid but less sweet. The mode of procuring it by expression is exactly that used for the oil of lemons. (See Oleum Limonis.) It is brought from the South of France, Italy, and Portugal. The oil of bergamot, often called essence of bergamot, has a sweet, very agreeable odour, a bitter aromatic pungent taste, and a pale greenish-yellow colour. Its sp. gr. is 0-885, and its composition the same as that of the oil of lemons. Though possessed of the excitant properties of the volatile oils in general, it is employed chiefly, if not exclusively, as a perfume. Off. Prep. Unguentum Sulphuris, Lond.; Unguentum Sulphuris Com- positum, U. S., Lond, W. OLEUM BUBULUM. U.S. Neats-foot Oil. " The oil prepared from the bones of Bos domesticus." U. S. Huile de pied do bceuf, Fr.; Ochsenfussefett, Germ. Neats-foot oil is obtained by boiling in water for a long time the feet of the ox, previously deprived of their hoof. The fat and oil which rise to the surface are removed, and introduced into a fresh portion of water heated nearly to the boiling point. The impurities having subsided, the oil is drawn off, and, if required to be very pure, is again introduced into water, which is kept for twenty-four hours sufficiently warm to enable the fat which is mixed with the oil to separate from it. The liquid being then allowed to cool, the fat concretes, and the oil is removed and strained, or filtered through layers of small fragments of charcoal free from powder. 42* 486 Oleum Bubulum.— Oleum Cajuputi. part i. The oil is yellowish, and, when properly prepared, inodorous and of a bland taste. It thickens or congeals with great difficulty, and is therefore very useful for greasing machinery in order to prevent friction. It was introduced into the officinal catalogue of the United States Phar- macopoeia as an ingredient of the ointment of nitrate of mercury. Off.Prep. Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis, U.S. W. OLEUM CAJUPUTI. U.S. Secondary. Cajeput Oil. "The volatile oil of the leaves of Melaleuca Cajuputi." U. S. Off. Syn. CAJUPUTI. Melaleuca minor. Oleum e foliis destillatum. Lond.; CAJUPUTI OLEUM. Volatile oil of the leaves of Melaleuca minor. Ed.; MELALEUCA LEUCADENDRON. Oleum volatile Ca- jeput. Dub. Huile de cajeput, Fr.; Kajeputol, Germ.; Olio di cajeput, Ital; Kayuputieh, Malay. Melaleuca. Sex. Syst. Polyadelphia Icosandria.—Nat. Ord. Myrtaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, semi-superior. Corolla five-petaled. Stamens about forty-five, very long, conjoined in five bodies. Style single. Capsule three-celled. Seeds numerous. Roxburgh. It was long supposed that the oil of cajeput was derived from the Melaleuca leucadendron; but from specimens of the plant affording it, sent from the Moluccas and cultivated in the botanical garden of Calcutta, it appears to be a distinct species, which has received the name of M. Cajuputi. It cor- responds with the arbor alba minor of Rumphius, and is a smaller plant than the M. leucadendron. It is possible, however, that the oil may be obtained from different species of Melaleuca; as M. Stickel, of Jena, suc- ceeded in procuring from the leaves of the M. hypericifolia, cultivated in the botanical garden of that place, a specimen of oil not distinguishable from the cajeput oil of commerce, except by a paler green colour. (Annal. der Pharm., xix. 224.) Melaleuca Cajuputi. Rumphius, Herbar. Amboinense, torn. ii. tab. 17; Roxburgh, Trans. Lond. Med. Bot. Soc, A.D. 1829; Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., vol. i. p. 193.—Melaleuca minor. De Candolle. This is a small tree, with an erect but crooked stem, and scattered branches, the slender twigs of which droop like those of the weeping willow. The bark is of a whitish-ash colour, very thick, soft, spongy, and lamellated, throwing off its exterior layer from time to time in flakes, like the birch tree. The leaves have short footstalks; are alternate, lanceolate, when young sericeous, when full grown smooth, deep green, three and five-nerved, slightly falcate, entire, from three to five inches long, from one-half to three-quarters of an inch broad; and when bruised exhale a strong aromatic odour. The flow- ers, which are small, white, inodorous, and sessile, are disposed in terminal and axillary downy spikes, with solitary, lanceolate, three-flowered bractes. The filaments are three or four times longer than the petals, and both are inserted in the rim of the calyx. This species of Melaleuca is a native of the Moluccas, and other neigh- bouring islands. The oil is obtained from the leaves by distillation. It is prepared chiefly in Amboyna and Bouro, and is exported from the East Indies in glass bottles. The small proportion yielded by the leaves, and the extensive use made of it in India, render it very costly. Properties. Cajeput oil is very fluid, transparent, of a fine green colour, a lively and penetrating odour analogous tothat of camphor and cardamom,and parti. Oleum Cajuputi.— Oleum Caryophylli. 487 a warm pungent taste. It is very volatile and inflammable, burning without any residue. The sp. gr. has been variously stated from 0-914 to 0-980. Dr. Thomson says it varies from 0-914 to 0-9274. The oil is wholly solu- ble in alcohol. When it is distilled a light colourless liquid first comes over, and afterwards a green and denser one. The green colour has been ascribed to a salt of copper, derived from the vessels in which the distilla- tion is performed, and Guibourt obtained two grains and a half of oxide of copper from a pound of the commercial oil. But neither Brande nor Goertner could detect copper in specimens which they examined; and M. Lesson, who witnessed the process for preparing the oil at Bouro, attributes its colour to chlorophylle, or some analogous principle, and states that it is rendered colourless by rectification. Guibourt, moreover, obtained a green oil by dis- tilling the leaves of a Melaleuca cultivated at Paris. A fair inference is that the oil of cajeput is naturally green; but that, as found in commerce, it sometimes contains copper, either accidentally present, or added with a view of imitating or maintaining the fine colour of the oil. The proportion of copper, however, is not so great as to interfere with the internal use of the oil; and the metal may be readily separated by distillation with water, or agitation with a solution of ferrocyanuret of potassium. (Guibourt.) The high price of cajeput oil has led to its occasional adulteration. The oil of rosemary, or that of turpentine, impregnated with camphor and coloured with the resin of milfoil, is said to be employed for the purpose. Medical Properties and Uses. This oil is highly stimulant, producing when swallowed a sense of heat, with an increased fulness and frequency of pulse, and exciting in some instances profuse perspiration. It is very highly esteemed by the Malays and other people of the East, who consider it a uni- versal panacea. (Lesson, Journ. de Chim. Med., 1827.) They are said to employ it with great success in epilepsy and palsy. (Ainslie.) The com- plaints to which it is best adapted are probably chronic rheumatism, and spasmodic affections of the stomach and bowels, unconnected with inflam- mation. It has been highly extolled as a remedy in spasmodic cholera, and has been used also as a diffusible stimulant in low fevers. Diluted with an equal proportion of olive oil, it is applied externally to relieve gouty and rheumatic pains. Like most other highly stimulating essential oils, it re- lieves toothache, if introduced into the hollow of the carious tooth. It is little used in the United States. The dose is from one to five drops, given in emulsion, or upon a lump of sugar. W. OLEUM CARYOPHYLLI. U S. Oil of Cloves. "The volatile oil of the unexpanded flowers of Caryophyllus aromaticus." U.. S. Off. Syn. CARYOPHYLLI OLEUxM. Caryophyllus aromaticus. Ole- um efloribus destillatum. Lond.; CARYOPHYLLI OLEUM. Volatile oil of the undeveloped flowers of Caryophyllus aromaticus. Ed.; EUGE- NIA CARYOPHYLLATA. Oleum volatile. Dub. Huile de girofle, Fr.; Nelkenol, Germ.; Olio di garofani, Ital; Aceyte de clavos Svan See CARYOPHYLLUS. This oil is obtained by distilling cloves with water, to which it is cus- tomary to add common salt, in order to raise the temperature of ebullition; and the water should be repeatedly distilled from the same cloves, in order completely to exhaust them. The product of good cloves is said to be about 488 Oleum Caryophylli.— Oleum Cinnamomi. part i. one-fifth or one-sixth of their weight. The oil was formerly brought from Holland or the East Indies ; but, since the introduction of the Cayenne cloves into our markets, the reduced price and superior freshness of the drug have rendered the distillation of oil of cloves profitable in this country; and the best now sold is of domestic extraction. We have been informed that from seven to nine pounds of cloves yield to our distillers about one pound of the oil. Properties. Oil of cloves, when recently distilled, is very fluid, clear, and colourless, but becomes yellowish by exposure, and ultimately reddish- brown. It has the odour of cloves, and a hot, acrid, aromatic taste. Its sp. gr. is variously stated at from 1-034 to 1-061, the latter being given by Bonastre as the sp.gr. of the rectified oil. It is one of the least volatile of the essential oils, and requires for congelation a temperature from zero of Fahrenheit to—4°. It is completely soluble in alcohol, ether, and strong acetic acid. Nitric acid changes its colour to a deep red, and converts it by the aid of heat into oxalic acid. When long kept it deposits a crystalline stearoptene. It is frequently adulterated with fixed oils, and sometimes also with oil of pimento and with copaiba. When pure it sinks in distilled water. According to Ettling, the oil of cloves consists of two distinct oils, one lighter, the other heavier than water. They may be obtained separate by distilling the oil from a solution of potassa. The lighter comes over, the heavier remains combined with the potassa, from which it may be separated by adding sulphuric acid and again distilling. Light oil of cloves is colour- less, has the sp. gr. 0-918, and consists exclusively of carbon and hydrogen, being isomeric with pure oil of turpentine. It is said not to possess active properties. (Kane.) Heavy oil of cloves is colourless at first, but darkens with age, has the odour and taste of cloves, is of the sp. gr. 1-079, boils at 470°, and forms soluble and crystallizable salts with the alkalies. Hence it has been called eugenic or caryophyllic acid. It consists of carbon, hy- drogen, and oxygen ; the formula, according to Ettling, being C24H15Os. Medical Properties and Uses. The medical effects of the oil are similar to those of cloves, and it is used for the same purposes; but its most com- mon employment is as a corrigent of other medicines. Like other powerful irritants, it is sometimes effectual in relieving toothache, when introduced into the cavity of a carious tooth. The dose is from two to six drops. Off. Prep. Pilulas Colocynthidis Compositas, Ed., Dub. W. OLEUM CINNAMOMI. U.S. Oil of Cinnamon. " The volatile oil of the bark of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, and Cinna- momum aromaticum." U. S. Off. Syn. CINNAMOMI OLEUM. Laurus Cinnamomum. Oleum e cortice destillatum. Lond.; CINNAMOMI OLEUM. Volatile oil of the bark of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. CASSLE OLEUiVI. Volatile oil of the bark of Cinnamomum Cassia. Ed.; LAURUS CINNAMOMUM. Oleum volatile. Dub. Huile de cannelle, Fr.; Zimmtol, Germ.; Olio di cannella, Ital; Aceyte de canela, Span. See CINNAMOMUM. The United States Pharmacopoeia includes, under the name of Oil of Cinnamon, both the oil procured from the Ceylon cinnamon, and that from the Chinese cinnamon or cassia. As these oils, though very different in price, and slightly in flavour, have the same medical properties, are used for the same purposes, are often sold by the same name,and are not unfrequently PART I. Oleum Cinnamomi. 489 mixed together, there does not seem to be sufficient ground for maintaining any officinal distinction between them. Nevertheless, the Edinburgh Col- lege has given them distinct places in its officinal list, designating the one as oil of cinnamon and the other as oil of cassia. Oil of Cinnamon of Ceylon, is prepared in that island from the inferior kinds of cinnamon, which are of insufficient value to pay the export duty. The following account of the method of extraction, as formerly practised, is given by Marshall. The bark, having been coarsely powdered, is macerated for two days in sea-water, and then submitted to distillation. A light and a heavy oil come over with the water, the former of which separates in a few hours, and swims upon the surface, the latter falls to the bottom of the re- ceiver, and continues to be precipitated for ten or twelve days. In future distillations the saturated cinnamon water is employed in connexion with sea-water to macerate the cinnamon. Eighty pounds of the bark, freshly prepared, yield about two and a half ounces of the lighter oil, and five and a half of the heavier. From the same quantity of cinnamon which has been kept for several years in store, about half an ounce less of each oil is ob- tained. The two kinds are probably united in the oil of commerce. Recently prepared oil of cinnamon is of a light yellow colour, becoming deeper by age, and ultimately red. Pereira states that the London druggists redistil the red oil, and thus obtain two pale yellow oils, one lighter and the other heavier than water, with a loss of about ten per cent., in the process. The'oil has the flavour of cinnamon in a concentrated state. When applied undiluted to the tongue it is excessively hot and pungent. According to Dr. Duncan, it sometimes has a peppery taste, ascribable to an admixture of the leaves with the bark in the preparation of the oil. Chinese oil of cinnamon (oil of cassia) is imported from Canton and Singapore. Like the former variety it has a pale yellow colour, which becomes red with age; at least such is the case with the specimens which have come under our observation. Its flavour is similar to that of oil of cinnamon, though inferior; and it commands a much smaller price. The following remarks apply to both oils. Oil of cinnamon is heavier than water, having the sp.gr. of about 1-035. Alcohol completely dissolves it; and, as it does not rise in any considerable quantity at the boiling temperature of that liquid, it may be obtained by forming a tincture of cinnamon and distilling off the menstruum. When exposed to the air, it absorbs oxygen, and is said to be slowly converted into a peculiar acid denominated cinnamic or cinnamonic acid, two distinct resins, and water. Cinnamic acid is colourless, crystalline, of a sourish taste, volatilizable, slightly soluble in water, readily dissolved by alcohol, and convertible by nitric acid with heat into benzoic acid. It is sometimes seen in crystals in bottles of the oil which have been long kept. Like benzoic acid, it is said when swallowed to occasion the elimination of hippuric acid by urine. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iii. 64.) It may be obtained by dis- tilling the balsam of Tolu. (See Tolutanum.) Of the two resins, one is soluble both in hot and cold alcohol; the other readily in the former, but sparingly in the latter. Oil of cinnamon is almost wholly converted by nitric acid slowly added to it into a crystalline mass, which is supposed to be a compound of the oil and acid. The researches of Dumas and Peligot have led to the opinion, that there exists in the oil a compound radical, named cinnamyle, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C^H^) which unites with one equivalent of hydrogen to form oil of cinnamon, and with one equivalent of oxygen to form anhydrous cinnamic acid. Crystallized cinnamic acid contains, in addition, one equivalent of water. The oil of cinnamon is said to be frequently adulterated with alcohol and fixed oil. 490 Oleum Cubeba.—Oleum Limonis. part i. Medical Properties and Uses. It has the cordial and carminative pro- perties of cinnamon, without its astringency; and is much employed as an adjuvant to other medicines, the taste of which it corrects or conceals, while it conciliates the stomach. As a powerful local stimulant, it is sometimes prescribed in gastrodynia, flatulent colic, and languor from gastric debility. The dose is one or two drops, and may be most conveniently administered in the form of emulsion. Off. Prep. Aqua Cinnamomi, U. S., Lond.; Mistura Spiritus Vini Gal- lici, Land.; Spiritus Cinnamomi, Lond. W. OLEUM CUBEBtE. U.S., Ed. Oil of Cubebs. "The volatile oil of the berries of Piper Cubeba." U. S. See CUBEBA. This oil is obtained from the fruit of Piper Cubeba, by grinding it, and then distilling with water. From ten pounds of cubebs Schonwald pro- cured eleven ounces of oil, and this result very nearly coincides with the experiments of Christison, who obtained seven per cent. When perfectly pure, the oil is colourless; but as usually found, is yellowish or greenish. It has the smell of cubebs, and a warm, aromatic, camphorous taste; is of a consistence approaching that of almond oil; is lighter than water, having the sp. gr. 0-929; and, when exposed to the air, is said to thicken without losing its odour. Upon standing, it sometimes deposits crystals, which are thought to be a hydrate of the oil. It consists of carbon and hydrogen, and its formula is stated to be C^H^. The oil has all the medicinal properties of cubebs, and may often be advantageously substituted for the powder, in the commencing dose of ten or twelve drops, to be gradually increased until its effects are obtained, or until it proves offensive to the stomach. It may be given suspended in water by means of sugar, or in the form of emulsion, or enclosed in cap- sules of gelatin. W. OLEUM LIMONIS. U.S. Oil of Lemons. "The volatile oil of the rind of the fruit of Citrus Limonum." U. S. Off Syn. LIMONUM OLEUM. Citrus Limonum. Oleum e Fructus Cortice exteriori destillatum. Lond.; LIMONUM OLEUM. Volatile oil of the rind of the fruit of Citrus medica. Ed.; CITRUS MEDICA. Fructus tunicas exterioris oleum volatile. Dub. Huile de citron, Fr.; Citronencil, Germ.; Olio di limone, Ital; Aceyte de limon, Span. See LIMON. The exterior rind of the lemon abounds in an essential oil, which, as it is contained in distinct cellules, may be separated by simple expression. The rind is first grated from the fruit, and then submitted to pressure in a bag of fine cloth. The oil thus obtained is allowed to stand till it becomes clear, when it is decanted, and preserved in stopped bottles. By a similar process, that delightful perfume, the essence of bergamot, is procured from the fruit of the bergamot Citrus; and the oil called by the French huile de cedrat, from the citron. (See Oleum Bergamii and Limon.) All these oils may also be obtained by distillation; but thus procured, though clearer, and, in consequence of the absence of mucilage, less liable to change on keeping, PART I. Oleum Limonis.— Oleum Lini. 491 they have less of the peculiar flavour of the fruit; and the mode by expres- sion is generally preferred. They are all brought originally from Italy, Portugal, or the South of France. Properties. The oil of lemons is a very volatile fluid, having the odour of the fruit, and a warm, pungent aromatic taste. As ordinarily procured it is yellow, and has the specific gravity 0-8517; but by distillation it is rendered colourless, and, if three-fifths only are distilled, its sp. gr. is re- duced to 0-847, at 71° F. It is soluble in all proportions in anhydrous alcohol. When perfectly pure, it consists exclusively of carbon and hydro-' gen, and is said to be identical in composition with pure oil of turpentine, or camphene ; its formula being C10H8. In this state it is capable of absorbing almost half its weight of muriatic acid gas, by which it is converted into a crystalline substance, and a yellow oily fuming liquid. The crystals are analogous to the artificial camphor which results from the action of muriatic acid upon oil of turpentine, and are a compound of the oil and acid. The oil of lemons is said to consist of two isomeric oils. The oil of lemons is often adulterated by the fixed oils and by alcohol, the former of which may be detected by the permanent stain which they impart to paper, the latter by the milkiness produced by the addition of water. Medical Properties and Uses. This oil has the stimulant properties of the aromatics; but is chiefly used to impart a pleasant flavour to other medi- cines. It has recently been lauded as an application to the eye in certain cases of ophthalmia. Off. Prep. Liquor Potassas Citratis, U. S.; Spiritus Ammonias Aroma- ticus, Ed., Dub.; Trochisci Acidi Tartarici, Ed.; Unguentum Veratri Albi, U. S., Lond. OLEUM LINI. U. S., Dub. Flaxseed oil. "The oil of the seeds of Linum usitatissimum." U. S. Off. Syn. LINI OLEUM. Linum usitatissimum. Oleum e Seminibus expressum. Lond.; Expressed oil of the seeds of Linum usitatissimum. Ed. Linseed oil; Huile de lin, Fr.; Leinol, Germ.; Olio di lino, Ital; Aceyte de linaza, Span. See LINUM. This oil is obtained by expression from the seeds of the Linum usitatis- simum, or common flax. In its preparation on a large scale, the seeds are usually roasted before being pressed, in order to destroy the gummy matter contained in their exterior coating. The oil is thus obtained more free from mucilage, but more highly coloured and more acrid than that procured by cold expression. Flaxseed oil has a yellowish-brown colour, a disagreeable odour, and nauseous taste ; is of the sp. gr. 0-932; boils at 600° F.; does not congeal at zero; dissolves in forty parts of cold and five of boiling alcohol, and in one part and a half of ether (Christison's Dispensatory); becomes rancid with facility; and has the property of drying, or becoming solid on exposure to the air. On account of its drying property, it is highly useful in painting, and the formation of printers' ink. Medical Properties and Uses. It is laxative in the dose of a fluidounce; but on account of its disagreeable taste is seldom given internally. It is sometimes added to purgative enemata ; but its most common application is externally to burns, usually in combination with lime-water. Off. Prep. Ceratum Resinas Compositum, U. S.; Linimentum Calcis, U. S., Ed., Dub. W. 492 Oleum Myristica.— Oleum Oliva. part i. OLEUM MYRISTKLE. U.S. Oil of Nutmeg. " The volatile oil of the kernels of Myristica moschata." U. S. Off. Syn. MYRISTICA OLEUM. Myristica moschata. Oleum e nucleis destillatum. Lond.; MYRISTIC^E OLEUM. Volatile oil of the kernels of the fruit of Myristica officinalis. Ed.; MYRISTICA MOS- CHATA. Oleum volatile. Dub. See MYRISTICA. This oil is obtained from powdered nutmegs by distillation with water. It is colourless or of a pale straw colour, limpid, lighter than water, soluble in alcohol and ether, with a pungent spicy taste, and a strong smell of nut- meg. It consists of two oils, which may be separated by agitation with water, one rising to the surface, the other sinking to the bottom. Upon standing it deposits a crystalline stearoptene, which is called by John myris- ticin. It may be used for the same purposes as nutmeg, in the dose of two or three drops ; but is not often employed. W. OLEUM OLIV.E. U.S. Olive oil. " The oil of the fruit of Olea Europasa." U. S. Off. Syn. OLIViE OLEUM. Olea europoea. Oleum e drupis ex- pressum. Lond.; Expressed oil of the pericarp of Olea europoea. Ed.; OLEA EUROPCEA. Oleum ex fructu. Dub. Huile d'olive, Fr.; Olivenol, Germ.; Olio delle olive, Ital; Aceyte de olivas, Span. Olea. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Oleaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla four-cleft, with subovate segments. Drupe one-seeded. Willd. Olea Europoea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 44; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 280. t. 98. This valuable tree is usually from fifteen to twenty feet in height, though it sometimes attains a much greater size, particularly in Greece and the Levant. It has a solid, erect, unequal stem, with numerous straight branches, covered with a grayish bark. The leaves, which stand opposite to each other on short footstalks, are evergreen, firm, lanceolate, entire, two or three inches in length, with the edges somewhat reverted, smooth and of a dull green colour on their upper surface, whitish and almost silvery be- neath. The flowers are small, whitish, and disposed in opposite axillary clusters, which are about half as long as the leaves, and accompanied with small, obtuse, hoary bractes. The fruit or olive is a smooth, oval drupe, of a greenish, whitish, or violet colour, with a fleshy pericarp, and a very hard nut of a similar shape. The flowers are not very fruitful, as clusters con- taining not less than thirty yield only two or three ripe olives. The olive tree, though believed by some to have been originally from the Levant, flourishes at present in all the countries bordering on the Mediterra- nean, and has been cultivated from time immemorial in Spain, the South of France, and Italy. It begins to bear fruit after the second year, is in full bearing at six years, and continues to flourish for a century. There are several varieties, distinguished by the form of the leaves, and the shape, colour, and size of the fruit. The variety longifolia of Willdenow is said to be chiefly cultivated in Italy and the South of France, and the variety latifolia in Spain. The latter bears much larger fruit than the former; but the oil is less esteemed. PART I. Oleum Oliva. 493 The leaves and bark of the olive tree have an acrid and bitterish taste, and have been employed as substitutes for cinchona, though with no great success. In hot countries, a substance resembling the gum-resins exudes spontaneously from the bark. It was thought by the ancients to possess useful medicinal properties, but is not now employed. Analyzed by Pel- letier, it was found to contain resinous matter, a small quantity of benzoic acid, and a peculiar principle analogous to gum, which has received the name of olivile. But the fruit is by far the most useful product of the tree. In the unripe'state it is hard and insupportably acrid; but, when macerated in water, or an alkaline solution, and afterwards introduced into a solution of common salt, it loses these properties, and becomes a pleasant and highly esteemed article of diet. The pericarp, or fleshy part of the ripe olive, abounds in a fixed oil, which constitutes its greatest value, and for which the tree is chiefly cultivated in the South of Europe. The oil is obtained by first bruising the olives in a mill, and then submitting them to pressure. The'product varies much, according to the state of the fruit, and the circumstances of the process. The best oil, called virgin oil, is obtained from the fruit picked before it has arrived at perfect maturity, and immediately pressed. It is distinguished by its greenish hue. The com- mon oil used for culinary purposes, and in the manufacture of the finest soaps, is procured from very ripe olives, or from the pulp of those which have yielded the virgin oil. In the latter case, the pulp is thrown into boiling water, and the oil removed as it rises to the surface. An inferior kind, employed in the arts, especially in the preparation of the coarser soaps, plasters, unguents, &c, is afforded by fruit which has been thrown into heaps, and allowed to ferment for several days, or by the marc left after the expression of the finer kinds of oil, broken up, exposed to the fer- menting process, and again introduced into the press. Olive oil is imported in glass bottles, or in flasks surrounded by a pecu- liar kind of net-work made of grass, and usually called Florence flasks. The best comes from the South of France, where most care is exercised in the selection of the fruit. Properties. The pure oil is an unctuous liquid, of a pale yellow or greenish-yellow colour, with scarcely any smell, and a bland slightly sweet- ish taste. Its sp. gr. is 0-9153. It is soluble in twice its volume of ether, but is only partially soluble in alcohol, at least unless this liquid be in very large proportion. It begins to congeal at 38° F. At a freezing tempera- ture a part of it becomes solid, and the remainder, retaining the liquid consistence, may be separated by pressure, or by the agency of cold alcohol, which dissolves it. The concrete portion has been found by MM. Pelouze and Boudet to be a definite compound of margarin and olein; the liquid portion is uncombined olein. According to Braconnot, the oil contains 72 parts of olein, and 28 of margarin in the hundred. Olive oil is solidified by nitrous acid and by nitrate of mercury, and converted into a peculiar fatty substance, which has received the name of ela'idin. The olein of all oils which have not the drying property undergoes the same change, when acted on by nitrous acid; and the singular fact is stated by MM. Pelouze and Boudet, that the margarin of olive oil, combined as it is with olein, is converted by that acid into ela'idin, while the same principle in a state of purity is not affected by it. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 391.) Olive oil when exposed to the air is apt to become rancid, acquiring a disagreeable smell, a sharp taste, a thicker consistence, and a deeper colour; and the change is promoted by heat. It is said to be frequently adulterated with the cheaper fixed oils, especially with that of poppies; but 43 494 Oleum OKva.— Oleum Ricini. PART I. the adulteration may be easily detected by reducing the temperature to the freezing point. As other oils are less readily congealed than the olive oil, the degree of its purity will be indicated by the degree of concretion. An- other mode has been indicated by M. Poutet, founded on the property pos- sessed by the supernitrate of mercury of solidifying the oil of olives, without a similar influence upon other oils. Six parts of mercury are dissolved at a low temperature in seven and a half parts of nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1-35; and this solution is mixed with the suspected oil in the proportion of one part to twelve, the mixture being occasionally shaken. If the oil is pure, it is converted after some hours into a yellow solid mass; if it contain a minute proportion, even so small as a twentieth of poppy oil, the resulting mass is much less firm; and a tenth prevents a greater degree of consist- ence than oils usually acquire when they concrete by cold. M. Gobel has invented an instrument which he calls the ela'iometer, by which the smallest quantity of poppy oil can be detected. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 24.) According to M. Diesel, pure olive oil is coloured green by common nitric acid, whereas, if mixed with rape oil, it is rendered of a strong yellowish- gray colour. (Arch, der Pharm., xlvi. 287.) Medical Properties and Uses. Olive oil is nutritious and mildly laxative, and is occasionally given in cases of irritable intestines, when the patient objects to more disagreeable medicines. Taken into the stomach in large quantities, it serves to involve acrid and poisonous substances, and mitigate their action. It has also been recommended as a remedy for worms, and is a very common ingredient in laxative enemata. Externally applied, it is useful in relaxing the skin, and sheathing irritated surfaces from the action of the air; and is much employed as a vehicle or diluent of more active substances. In the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, it is thought, when smeared over the skin, to afford some protection against the plague; and applied warm, by means of friction over the surface, is said to be useful as a remedy in the early stages of that complaint. But the most extensive use of olive oil is in pharmacy, as a constituent of liniments, ointments, cerates, and plasters. The dose as a laxative is from one to two fluidounces. Off. Prep. Enema Catharticum, Ed. W. OLEUM RICINI. U. S. Castor Oil. "The oil of the seeds of Ricinus communis." U. S. . Off. Syn. RICINI OLEUM. Ricinus communis. Oleum e seminibus expressum. Lond.; RICINI OLEUM. Expressed oil of the seeds of Rici- nus communis. Ed.; RICINUS COMMUNIS. Oleum e seminibus. Dub. Huile de ricin, Fr.; Ricinusol, Germ.: Olio di ricino, Ital: Aceyte de ricino, Span. Ricinus. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Ned. Ord. Euphorbiaceas. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-parted. Corollanone. Stamens numerous. Female. Calyx three-parted. Corolla none. Styles three, bifid. Capsule three-celled. Seed one. Willd. Ricinus communis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 564; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 624. t. 221. The castor oil plant, or palma Christi, attains in the East Indies and Africa the character of a tree, and rises sometimes thirty or forty feet in height. In the temperate latitudes of North America and Europe it is an annual plant; though it is stated by M. Achille Richard, that in the South of France, in the vicinity of Nice, on the seacoast, he saw a small wood consisting entirely of this species of Ricinus. The following descrip- PART I. Oleum Ricini. 495 tion applies to the plant as cultivated in cool latitudes. The stem is of vigorous growth, erect, round, hollow, smooth, glaucous, somewhat purplish towards the top, branching, and from three to eight feet or more in height. The leaves are alternate, peltate or supported upon footstalks inserted into their lower disk, palmate with seven or nine pointed serrate lobes, smooth on both sides, and of a bluish-green colour. The flowers are monoecious, stand upon jointed peduncles, and form a pyramidal terminal raceme, of which the lower portion is occupied by the male flowers, the upper by the female. Both are destitute of corolla. In the male flowers the calyx is divided into five oval, concave, pointed, reflected, purplish segments; and encloses numerous stamens, which are united into fasciculi at their base. In the female the calyx has three or five narrow lanceolate segments; and the ovary, which is roundish and three-sided, supports three linear, reddish stigmas, forked at their apex. The fruit is a roundish glaucous capsule, with three projecting sides, covered with tough spines, and divided into three cells, each containing one seed, which is expelled by the bursting of the capsule. This species of Ricinus is a native of the East Indies and Northern Africa, has become naturalized in the West Indies, and is cultivated in various parts of the world, in no country perhaps more largely than in the United States. New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, and the States upon the right bank of the Ohio, are the sections in which it is most abundant. The flowers appear in July, and the seeds ripen successively in August and September. The part employed in medicine is the fixed oil extracted from the seeds. 1. The Seeds. These are about as large as a small bean, oval, com- pressed, obtuse at the extremities, very smooth and shining, and of a grayish or ash colour, marbled with reddish-brown spots and veins. At one end of the seed is a small yellowish tubercle, from which an obscure longitudinal ridge proceeds to the opposite extremity, dividing the sides upon which it is situated into two flattish surfaces. In its general appearance the seed is thought to resemble the insect called the tick, the Latin name of which has been adopted as the generic title of the plant. Its variegated colour depends upon a very thin pellicle, closely investing a hard, brittle, blackish, tasteless, easily separable shell, within which is the kernel, highly oleaginous, of a white colour, and a sweetish taste succeeded by a slight degree of acrimony. The seeds easily become rancid, and are then unfit for the extraction of the oil, which is acrid and irritating. In 100 parts of the seeds Geiger found, exclusive of moisture, 23-82 parts of envelope, and 69-09 of kernel. These 69-09 parts contained 46-19 of fixed oil, 2-40 of gum, 20-00 of starch and lignin, and 0-50 of albumen. Taken internally the seeds are powerfully cathartic, and often emetic. Two or three are sufficient to purge, and seven or eight act with great violence. This property depends upon an acrid principle, which has by some been thought to exist exclusively in the integuments, by others in the embryo. But it is now satisfactorily ascertained that the integuments are inert; and Guibourt maintains that the principle alluded to pervades the whole kernel, in connexion with the oil. This principle is considered by some as volatile, and is said to be dissipated by the heat of boiling water. According to MM. Soubeiran and Mialhe, it is of a resinous character. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. Se ser., vi. 225.) By a much greater heat the oil itself becomes altered, and acquires acrid properties. 2. The Oil. This may be extracted from the seeds in three ways ; 1. by decoction, 2. by expression, and 3. by the agency of alcohol. 496 Oleum Ricini. PART I. The process by decoction, which is practised in the East and West In- dies, consists in bruising the seeds, previously deprived of their husk, and then boiling them in water. The oil, rising to the surface, is skimmed or strained off, and afterwards again boiled with a small quantity of water to dissipate the acrid principle. To increase the product it is said that the seeds are sometimes roasted. The oil is thus rendered brownish and acrid; and the same result takes place in the second boiling, if care is not taken to suspend the process soon after the water has been evaporated. Hence it happens that the West India oil has generally a brownish colour, an acrid taste, and irritating properties. The oil is obtained, in this country, by expression. The following, as we have been informed, are the outlines of the process usually employed by those who prepare it on a large scale. The seeds, having been thoroughly cleansed from the dust and fragments of the capsules with which they are mixed, are conveyed into a shallow iron reservoir, where they are submitted to a gentle heat insufficient to scorch or decompose them, and not greater than can be readily borne by the hand. The object of this step is to render the oil sufficiently liquid for easy expression. The seeds are then introduced into a powerful screw press. A whitish oily liquid is thus obtained, which is transferred to clean iron boilers, supplied with a considerable quantity of water. The mixture is boiled for some time, and, the impurities being skimmed off as they rise to the surface, a clear oil is at length left upon the top of the water, the mucilage and starch having been dissolved by this liquid, and the albumen coagulated by the heat. The latter ingredient forms a whitish layer between the oil and the water. The clear oil is now carefully removed; and the process is completed by boiling it with a minute propor- tion of water, and continuing the application of heat till aqueous vapour ceases to rise, and till a small portion of the liquid, taken out in a vial, pre- serves a perfect transparency when it cools. The effect of this last operation is to clarify the oil, and to render it less irritating by driving off the acrid vola- tile matter. But much care is requisite not to push the heat too far, as the oil then acquires a brownish hue, and an acrid peppery taste, similar to those of the West India medicine. After the completion of the process, the oil is put into barrels, and thus sent into the market. There is reason, however, to believe that much of the American oil is prepared by merely allowing it to stand for some time after expression, and then drawing offthe supernatant liquid. One bushel of goodseeds yields five or six quarts, or about twenty-five per cent, of the best oil. If not very carefully prepared, it is apt to deposit a sediment upon standing; and the apothecary frequently finds it necessary to filter it through coarse paper before dispensing it. Perhaps this may be owing to the plan just alluded to of purifying the oil by rest and decantation.* We have been told that the oil in barrels occasionally deposits a copious * We find the following sentence in Christison's Dispensatory, p. 793. "If the state- ment made above on the authority of Boutron-Charla,rd, be correct [that no margarin is deposited by castor oil previously heated to 212°], this circumstance [the deposition of a crystalline matter by castor oil in cold weather], instead of being an objection, is strong proof of the American oil being really cold drawn, and not prepared by dry heat and ebullition as Drs. Wood and Bache have represented/' If it be intended here to throw discredit on our statement, we have only to reply, that we have ourselves witnessed the arrangements above described, and had the account of the steps of the process from the manufacturers, as it was at the time conducted in this city. That American castor oil is also prepared by mere expression, rest, and decantation, we have stated in the text; but we are disposed to give the preference to that prepared by the former process, as freer from impurities, and therefore likely to keep better, and as milder in its action in consequence of the volatilization of a portion of the acrid principle. PART I. Oleum Ricini. 497 whitish sediment in cold weather, which it redissolves when the temperature rises. This substance is probably margarin, or an analogous principle. A large proportion of the drug consumed in the eastern section of the Union is derived, by way of New Orleans, from Illinois and the neighbouring States, where it is so abundant that it is sometimes used for burning in lamps. The process for obtaining castor oil by means of alcohol has been prac- tised in France, but the product is said to become rancid more speedily than that procured in the ordinary mode. Properties. Pure castor oil is a thick, viscid, colourless fluid, with little or no odour, and a mild though somewhat nauseous taste, followed by a slight sense of acrimony. As found in the shops it is often tinged with yel- low, and has an unpleasant smell; and parcels are sometimes though rarely met with, of a brownish colour, and hot acrid taste. It does not readily congeal by cold. When exposed to the air it slowly thickens, without be- coming opaque, and it ranks among the drying oils. It is heavier than most of the other fixed oils, from which it differs also in being soluble in all pro- portions in cold absolute alcohol. Weaker alcohol, of the sp. gr. 0-8425, takes up about three-fifths of its weight. Adulterations with other fixed oils may thus be detected, as the latter are much less soluble in this fluid. Such adulterations, however, are seldom if ever practised in this country. Castor oil is also soluble in sulphuric ether. Its proximate composition is but imperfectly understood. When distilled it yields, according to MM. Bussy and Lecanu, 1. a colourless, highly odorous volatile oil, which crystallizes by cold, 2. two oleaginous acids, denominated ricinic and ricin-oleic, which are excessively acrid and nearly concrete, and 3. a solid spongy residue, amounting to two-thirds of the oil employed. Supposing these acids to be developed by heat, we can readily account for the injurious influence of too high a temperature in the preparation of the oil. By the action of nitrous acid, it is converted into a peculiar oleaginous substance calledpalmin, which yields palmic acid and glycerin'when saponified. Alkalies unite with cas- tor oil forming soaps, and determine the formation of three acids, the ricinic, ricin-oleic, and ricino-stearic acids, which can be obtained separate. Hence it has been inferred that the oil consists of three principles, for which the names of ricin, ricin-olein, and ricino-stearin have been proposed. (Kane's Chemistry.) These principles, however, have not been isolated. The purgative property of the oil is supposed by MM. Bussy and Lecanu to belong essentially to the oil itself, and not to reside in any distinct princi- ple which it may hold in solution. Castor oil which is acrid to the taste may sometimes be rendered mild by boiling it with a small proportion of water. If turbid, it should be clari- fied by filtration through coarse paper. On exposure to the air, it is apt to become rancid, and is then unfit for use. Medical Properties and Uses. Good castor oil is a mild cathartic, speedy in its action, usually operating with little griping or uneasiness, and evacu- ating the contents of the bowels without much increasing the alvine secre- tions. Hence it is particularly applicable to cases of constipation from collections of indurated feces, and to those cases in which acrid substances have been swallowed, or acrid secretions have accumulated in the bowels. From its mildness it is also especially adapted to diseases attended with irritation or inflammation of the bowels, as colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, and enteritis. It is habitually resorted to in the cases of pregnant and puerperal women; and is decidedly, as a general rule, the best and safest cathartic for children. Infants usually require a larger relative dose than adults, pro- bably because they digest a larger proportion of the oil. 43* 498 Oleum Ricini.— Oleum Rosa. part i The dose for an adult is about a fluidounce, for an infant from one to three or four fluidrachms. It is sometimes of exceedingly difficult admin- istration, not so much from any peculiarly disagreeable taste, as from the recollection of former nausea, or other uneasiness which it may have pro- duced, and from its clamminess and unpleasant adhesiveness to the mouth. In a few cases, the disgust which it excites is utterly unconquerable by any effort of resolution. It is desirable, therefore, to obviate this inconvenience as far as possible by the mode of exhibition. A common method is to give it floating on the surface of mint or cinnamon water; but that which we have found upon the whole the least offensive, is to mix it with a cup of hot sweetened coffee, by which it is rendered more fluid, and its taste con- siderably disguised. Some take it in wine or spirituous liquors; but these are generally contraindicated in the cases to which the medicine is applica- ble. When the stomach is unusually delicate, the oil may be made into an emulsion with mucilage or the yolk of an egg, loaf sugar, and some aromatic water. To the mixture laudanum may be added in cases of intestinal irri- tation. Castor oil may also be beneficially used as an enema, in the quan- tity of two or three fluidounces, mixed with some mucilaginous liquid. Though apt to become rancid by itself, it loses much of this susceptibility when mixed with lard; and some apothecaries are said to use it as a sub- stitute for olive oil in unguents and cerates. But the slightly irritating properties of even the mildest castor oil, render it unfit for those preparations which are intended to alleviate irritation. W. OLEUM ROSiE. U.S. Oil of Roses. "The volatile oil of Rosa centifolia." U. S. Off. Syn. ROS^I OLEUM. Volatile oil of the petals of Rosa centifolia. Ed See ROSA CENTIFOLIA. This is commonly called attar, otto, or essence of roses. It is prepared on a large scale in Egypt, Persia, Cashmere, India, and other countries of the East, by distilling the petals of the rose with water. The oil concretes and floats upon the surface of the water when it cools. The precise species of rose from which the oil is extracted is not in all instances certainly known; but it is said to be obtained from the R. damascena in Northern India, and the R. moschata in Persia. It is furnished in very minute pro- portion ; not more than three drachms having been obtained by Colonel Polier, in Hindostan, from one hundred pounds of the petals. It is usually imported in small bottles, and is very costly. Oil of roses is nearly colourless, or presents some shade of green, yellow, or red; but, according to Polier, the colour is no criterion of its value. It is concrete below 80°, and becomes liquid between 84° and 86°. Its odour is very powerful and diffusive. At 90° its sp. gr. is 0-832. Alcohol dis- solves it, though not freely when cold. It consists of two oils, one liquid, the other concrete at ordinary temperatures. These may be separated by freezing the oil, and compressing it between folds of blotting paper, which absorbs the liquid oil or eleoptene, and leaves the concrete or stearoptene. The latter consists exclusively of carbon and hydrogen; the former, of these and oxygen. Sandal-wood oil, other volatile oils, fixed oils, spermaceti, &c, are said to be added as adulterations. The volatile additions may be detected by not being concrete; the fixed, by the greasy stain they leave on paper when heated. PART I. Oleum Sesami.— Oleum Terebinthina. 499 Oil of roses may be added, as a very grateful perfume, to various spiritu- ous preparations for internal use, and to cerates and ointments. W. OLEUM SESAMI. U.S. Secondary. Benne Oil. "The oil of the seeds of Sesamum orientale." U. S. See SESAMUM. OLEUM TEREBINTHIN^E. U.S., Dub. Oil of Turpentine. "The volatile oil of the juice of Pinus palustris and other species of Pinus." U.S. "Pinus Sylvestris. Oleum volatile." Dub. Off. Syn. TEREBINTHINA OLEUM. Pinus Sylvestris. Oleum e resina destillatum. Lond.; TEREBINTHINA OLEUM. Volatile oil of the liquid resinous exudation of various species of Pinus and Abies. Ed. Huile volatile de terebehthine, Fr.; Terbinthinol, Germ.; Olio della trementina, Ital; Accvte de trementina, Span. See TEREBINTHINA. This is commonly called spirits or spirit of turpentine. It is prepared by distillation from our common turpentine, though equally afforded by other varieties. It may be distilled either with or without water; but in the latter case a much higher temperature is required, and the product is liable to be empyreumatic. To obtain it absolutely pure it should be redis- tilled from a solution of caustic potassa. The Dublin College gives the following formula for its preparation. "Take of common turpentine [Terebinthina Vulgaris, Lond.], five pounds; water, four pints. Draw off the oil in a copper alembic." But it is at present never prepared by the apo- thecary, and in all the other Pharmacopoeias is placed in the catalogue of the Materia Medica. The turpentine of the Pinus palustris is said to yield about seventeen per cent, of oil; while the common turpentine of Europe affords twenty-four per cent. Large quantities of the oil are distilled in North Carolina for exportation. Pure oil of turpentine is perfectly limpid and colourless, of a strong, penetrating, peculiar odour, and a hot, pungent, bitterish taste. It is much lighter than water, having the specific gravity 0-86 at 72° F.; is highly vola- tile and inflammable; boils at a temperature somewhat higher than 300°; is very slightly soluble in water, less soluble in alcohol than most other vola- tile oils, and readily soluble in sulphuric ether. Boiling alcohol dissolves it with facility, but deposits most of the oil upon cooling. One hundred parts of alcohol of 0-84, dissolve 13-5 parts of the oil at 72°. As found in commerce, it always contains oxygen; but, when perfectly pure, it consists exclusively of carbon and hydrogen, and is thought to be isomeric with the radical of camphor. Hence it has been denominated camphene. (Seepage 155.) According to Blanchet and Sell, it consists of two distinct isomeric oils, which, by the absorption of oxygen, are converted into two distinct resins, corresponding to those found by Unverdorben in colophony. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 226.) But there is reason to believe that these oils are the results of chemical reaction; as, when isolated, they have boiling points higher than that of the original oil. The oil of turpentine absorbs muri- atic acid, forming with it two compounds, one a red dense liquid, the other a white crystalline substance resembling camphor, and hence called arti- ficial camphor. The latter consists of the unaltered oil (camphene) com- 500 Oleum Terebinthina. PART I. bined with the acid, and is therefore muriate of camphene. In the former the oil appears to have undergone some molecular change, being converted into an oil isomeric with the oil of turpentine, but differing from it in its action on polarized light, and in forming a liquid compound with muriatic acid. If the muriate of camphene be distilled with lime, the acid is re- tained, and an oil comes over, differing from pure oil of turpentine in having no action on polarized light, and from the oil just mentioned in forming a solid compound with muriatic acid. These three oils are said to be isomeric. (Soubeiran and Capitaine, Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 11.) Nitric acid converts the oil of turpentine into resin, and, by long boiling, into tur- pentinic acid. On exposure to the air and light, oil of turpentine deposits a white solid matter in acicular crystals, which are without taste or smell, insoluble in cold water, but soluble in ether and alcohol. (Boissenot, Journ. de Chim. Med., ii. 143.) White crystals of stearoptene, heavier than water and fusible at 20°, separate from the oil at the temperature of 18° below zero. These are probably a hydrate of the oil. Exposed to the air the oil absorbs oxygen, becomes thicker and yellowish, and loses much of its activity, owing to the formation of resin. A small pro- portion of formic acid is said also to be generated. Hence the British Col- leges direct a process for the rectification of the oil, consisting in distilling it with about four measures of water. But the process is difficult, in conse- quence of the great inflammability of the vapour, and its rapid formation, which causes the liquid to boil over. In this country it is scarcely necessary; as the recent oil can be obtained at an expense less than that which would be incurred by its redistillation on a small scale. Another mode of purifying the oil is to agitate it with one-eighth of alcohol, which dissolves the portion that has become resinous by the absorption of oxygen. About one-fifth of the alcohol is retained by the oil, but is readily separated by agitation with water. Medical Properties and Uses. Oil of turpentine is stimulant, diuretic, occasionally diaphoretic, anthelmintic, in large doses cathartic, and exter- nally rubefacient. When swallowed in moderate quantities it produces a sense of warmth in the stomach, accelerates the circulation, and increases the heat of the skin, without especially affecting the functions of the brain. In small doses, frequently repeated, it stimulates the kidneys, augmenting the secretion of urine, and often producing, especially if long continued, painful irritation of the urinary passages, amounting sometimes to violent strangury. At the same time it imparts the odour of violets to the urine; and this effect is also produced by its external application, or even by breathing the air of an apartment impregnated with its vapours. In large doses it occasions slight vertigo, or a sense of fulness in the head, some- times amounting to intoxication, attended frequently with nausea, and suc- ceeded generally, though not always, by speedy and brisk catharsis. When this effect is experienced, the oil is carried out of the bowels, and, no time being allowed for absorption, is less apt to irritate the kidneys and bladder than when taken in small and repeated doses. In some constitu- tions it produces, even when taken internally, an erythematic eruption on the skin. The oil is employed in numerous diseases. As a stimulant it is useful in low forms of fever, particularly in cases where there is reason to sus- pect ulcerations of the mucous membranes. There is a particular state of fever usually attended with much danger, in which we have found this remedy uniformly successful. The condition of things alluded to, is one which occurs in the latter stages of typhoid fevers or lingering remittents, in which the tongue, having begun to throw off its load of fur in patches, PART I. Oleum Terebinthina. 501 has suddenly ceased to clean itself, and has become dry and brownish. The skin is at the same time dry, the bowels distended with flatus, and the patient sometimes affected with slight delirium. Under the use of small doses of oil of turpentine frequently repeated, the tongue becomes moist and again coated, the tympanitic state of the bowels disappears, and the patient goes on to recover as in a favourable case of fever. We are disposed to ascribe the effect to a healthy change produced by the oil in the ulcerated surface of the intestines. The medicine has also been recommended as a counter-irri- tant in yellow and puerperal fevers; and may undoubtedly be given with advantage in the latter stages of these diseases, and in other instances of gastric and enteritic inflammations, which require a resort to stimulation; but the highly favourable reports which have been made of its effects in the early stages of puerperal peritonitis, have probably originated in the confound- ing of intestinal irritation with that formidable disease. In chronic rheuma- tism, particularly sciatica and lumbago, the oil has often been given with great benefit. It has also been much extolled as a remedy in neuralgia, in epilepsy and tetanus, in passive hemorrhages, particularly from the bowels, in disordered conditions of the alimentary canal attended with sallow coun- tenance, foul tongue, tumid abdomen, sour or fetid eructation, and general depravation of health, in obstructions of the bowels, in some forms of chronic dysentery and diarrhoea, in obstinate gleets and leucorrhoea, in suppression of urine, and in chronic nephritic and calculous affections. We have seen it very beneficial in hasmoptysis. As a vermifuge also it is very highly esteemed, especially in cases of tasnia. It appears, by its poisonous opera- tion, to destroy or debilitate the worm, which losing its hold upon the bowels is then easily discharged. In cases of worms in the stomach it is often very useful. The worms, in this instance, are destroyed, and digested as any other dead animal matter. In dropsies with feeble action, the oil may some- times be advantageously given as a diuretic; and in amenorrhoea from torpor of the uterine vessels it is occasionally useful. As a local stimulant or car- minative it may be given beneficially in some instances of flatulent colic, and gout in the stomach. The dose for ordinary purposes is from five to thirty drops, repeated every hour or two in acute, and three or four times a day in chronic diseases. In rheumatism it is recommended by some in the dose of a fluidrachm every four hours. As a remedy for the tape worm it is given in the quantity of one or two fluidounces, and should be followed by castor oil if it do not ope- rate in three or four hours. It has also proved successful in tasnia in the dose of half a drachm, twice a day, continued for a considerable time. In ordinary cases of worms, the usual dose may be given. It may be adminis- tered dropped on sugar, or in emulsion with gum Arabic, loaf sugar, and cinnamon or mint water. In the form of enema, it has been employed in amenorrhoea, and is highly useful in cases of ascarides, obstinate constipation, and distension of the bowels from accumulation of air. No remedy is more effectual in tym- panites than injections of the oil of turpentine. From half a fluidounce to two fluidounces may be administered in this way, suspended by the yolk of eggs in half a pint or a pint of water, or some mucilaginous fluid. Externally applied, the oil of turpentine irritates and speedily inflames the skin; and, in low forms of fever, with coldness of the surface, is when heated one of the most efficacious rubefacients. It is also used as a liniment in rheumatic and paralytic affections, and various internal inflammations. It should generally, in mild cases, be diluted with olive oil; and in some con- stitutions, even in this state, produces such violent inflammation of the skin, with extensive eruptions, as to render its external use in any shape improper. 502 Oleum Terebinthina.— Oleum Tiglii. part i. Mixed with some mild oil and introduced on cotton into the ear, it is some- times beneficial in deafness arising from a deficient or unhealthy secretion of wax. Applied to recent burns, it is thought by some to be highly useful in allaying the burning pain, and promoting a disposition to heal. For this pur- pose, however, it is usually mixed with the resin cerate (basilicon ointment), so as to form a liniment capable of being spread upon linen rags. (See Lini- mentum Terebinthinaef* Off. Prep. Enema Terebinthinas, Ljond., Ed.; Linimentum Gantharidis, U. S.; Linimentum Terebinthinas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Tere- binthinas Purificatum, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. OLEUM TIGLII. U. S. Croton Oil. " The oil of the seeds of Croton Tiglium." U. S. Off. Syn. TIGLII OLEUM. Croton Tiglium. Oleum e seminibus expressum. Lond.; CROTONIS OLEUM. Expressed oil of the seeds of Croton Tiglium. Ed. CROTON TIGLIUM. Oleum ex seminibus ex- pressum. Dub. Huile de croton, Fr.; Crotonbl, Germ.; Nerval urn unnay, Tamool Croton. See Cascarilla. Croton Tiglium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 543 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. 3d ed. vol. 5. p. 71. This species of Croton is a small tree or shrub, with a few spreading branches, bearing alternate petiolate leaves, which are ovate, acu- minate, serrate, smooth, of a dark green colour on the upper surface, paler beneath, and furnished with two glands at the base. The flowers are in erect terminal racemes, scarcely as long as the leaf—the lower being female, the upper male, with straw-coloured petals. The fruit is a smooth capsule, about the size of a filbert, with three cells, each containing a single seed. The tree is a native of Hindostan, Ceylon, the Moluccas, and other parts of continental and insular India. It is pervaded throughout by an acrid pur- gative principle, which is probably analogous to that found in other plants - belonging to the family of the Euphorbiaceas. Rumphius says that the root is employed in Amboyna, in the dose of a few grains, as a drastic purge in dropsy; and, according to the same author, the leaves are so acrid that, when chewed and swallowed, they excite painful inflammation in the lips, mouth, throat, and along the whole course of the alimentary canal. The wood is said in small doses to be diaphoretic, in larger, purgative and emetic. But the seeds are the portion in which the active principle of the plant is most concentrated. These have been long employed throughout the whole of India as a powerful purgative, and were introduced so early as the year 1630 into Europe, where they were known by the names of Grana Molucca and Grana Tiglia. But in consequence of their violent effects they passed into neglect, and had ceased to be ranked among medicines, when,at a recent period, attention was again called to them by the writings of some English physicians in India. They are now imported for the oil which they afford, and which is the only portion of the plant considered officinal. These seeds are rather larger than a grain of coffee, of an oblong form, * The following is the formula adopted by the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy for the preparation of the rubefacient liniment, so much sold under the name of British Oil JR. Olei Terebinth. f|viij, Olei Lini fgviij, Olei Succini fgiv, Olei Juniperi f~iv, Pe- trolei Barbadens. f giij, Petrolei American. (Seneca oil) f ?i. Misce. {Journ. of'the Phil Col-of Pharm., v. 29.) PART I. Oleum Tiglii. 503 rounded at the extremities, with two faces, the external considerably more convex than the internal, separated from each other by longitudinal ridges, and each divided by a similar longitudinal ridge, so that the whole seed pre- sents an irregular quadrangular figure. Sometimes, as in the grain of coffee, their internal surface is flat with a longitudinal groove, owing to the presence of only two seeds in the capsule, the groove being produced by the central column or axis. The shell is covered with a soft yellowish-brown epider- mis, beneath which the surface is black and smooth; and, as the epidermis is often partially removed by friction during their carriage, the seeds as they come to us are frequently of a mottled appearance, and sometimes nearly black. The kernel or nucleus is of a yellowish-brown colour, and abounds in oil. In India the seeds are prepared for use by submitting them to slight torrefaction, by which the shell is rendered more easily separable. In the dose of one or two grains the kernel purges with great activity. The oil is obtained by expression from the seeds, previously deprived of the shell. It may also be separated by decoction in water, or by the action of ether, which dissolves the oil, and leaves it behind when evaporated. According to Dr. Nimmo, the seeds consist of 64 parts of kernel, and 36 of envelope in the hundred; and the cotyledons yield 60 per cent, of oil. They yielded to Brandes upon analysis, independently of the shell, traces of a volatile oil, fixed oil, a peculiar fatty acid called crotonic acid, an alkaloid which he called crotonin, resin, stearin, wax, extractive, sugar, starch, gum, albumen, gluten, lignin, and salts. Some doubts are entertained as to the existence of crotonin. The crotonic acid is the most interesting ingredient, is thought to be the active principle of the seeds, and is separated along with the oil in expression. It may be obtained by treating the oil with solution of potassa, decomposing the resulting soap by tartaric acid, filtering and dis- tilling the solution, neutralizing the product with baryta water, evaporating to dryness, decomposing the salt of baryta with strong phosphoric acid, and again distilling. (Christison's Dispensatory.) The acid solidifies at 23° F., is highly volatile, has a very acrid taste, is very irritating to the nostrils, and forms salts with alkaline bases called crotonates. It is this principle, pro- bably, which causes the dust and exhalation from the croton seed sometimes to excite excessive irritation in the mucous surfaces of those who prepare them for expression, or otherwise work among them. Properties. Croton oil, as found in the shops, is often of an orange or reddish-yellow colour, which is owing to the roasting of the seeds previously to expression, or to their having been kept too long. When procured with- out roasting from fresh seeds, it is yellowish or nearly colourless. Its smell is faint but peculiar, its taste hot and acrid, leaving in the mouth a disagree- able sensation which continues for many hours. The oil is wholly soluble in sulphuric ether and oil of turpentine, and partially so in alcohol. Ac- cording to Dr. Nimmo, it consists of two portions, one acrid and purgative, amounting to forty-five per cent., soluble in cold alcohol, and having an acid reaction, the other a mild oleaginous substance like olive oil, soluble in ether and the oil of turpentine, and very slightly soluble in hot alcohol, by which it is deposited when the liquor cools. The acrid portion probably consists of a resinous substance, and the acrid volatile acid before men- tioned by the name of crotonic acid. It is thought that croton oil is often adulterated with other fixed oils. The Edinburgh College gives the following test of its purity. " When agitated with its own volume of pure alcohol and gently heated, it separates on standing, without having undergone any apparent diminution." This, however, does not agree with the statement of Dr. Nimmo. 504 Oleum Tiglii. PART I. We were told by the late Dr. M. Burrough, who was for some time in India, that much of the oil there prepared for exportation, under the name of croton oil, is derived from the seeds of a plant different from the Croton Tiglium. From a parcel of these seeds presented to him by Dr. Burrough, Dr. R. E. Griffith produced a plant which proved to be the Jatropha Curcas, the seeds of which are known by the name of Barbadoes nuts. (See Ta- pioca.) This oil, though weaker than the genuine, was said by Dr. Burrough to be an efficient cathartic in the dose of three or four drops. It is stated by Dr. Hamilton that croton seeds are afforded by the Croton Pavana, growing in Ava and the Eastern parts of Bengal; and it is highly probable that a portion of the croton oil of commerce is obtained from these seeds. {Trans. Lin. Soc, xiv. 257.) Medical Properties and Uses. Croton oil is a powerful hydragogue pur- gative, acting, for the most part, when given in moderate doses, with ease to the patient, but in large doses apt to excite vomiting and severe griping pain, and capable, if immoderately taken, of producing fatal effects. It acts with great rapidity, frequently evacuating the bowels in less than an hour, and generally exciting a rumbling sensation in half that period. It possesses also great advantage in the minuteness of the dose, on account of which it may frequently be given when we should fail with more bulky medicines, as in mania, coma, and the cases of children. A drop placed on the tongue of a comatose patient will generally operate. Though long used in India, and known a century ago to the Dutch physicians, it did not attract general notice till about 1820, when it was introduced into England by Mr. Con- well. It is chiefly employed in cases of obstinate constipation, in which it often produces the happiest effects after the failure of other medicines; but it may also be advantageously employed in almost all cases in which pow- erful and speedy purging is demanded. Dropsy, apoplexy, mania, and visceral obstructions, are among the complaints in which it has been parti- cularly recommended. It has recently been employed with great asserted benefit in neuralgia, epilepsy, and spasm of the glottis, and has been sup- posed to have powers in these affections, independent of its purgative pro- perty. The seeds are said to have been used with great success in India in amenorrhoea. Applied externally, the oil produces inflammation of the skin, attended with a pustular eruption, and has been used in this way in rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, glandular and other indolent swellings,and in pulmonary diseases. It should be diluted with three parts of olive oil, soap liniment, oil of turpentine, or other convenient vehicle, and applied as a liniment twice or oftener in the twenty-four hours. Sometimes the insus- ceptibility of the skin to its influence is such as to require its application undiluted. For further information on this subject the reader is referred to the Amer. Journ. of Med. Sciences, xv. 240. The oil may also be ap- plied externally, in the form of a plaster, made by incorporating one part of it with four parts of lead plaster melted by a very gentle heat. Sometimes it appears to produce inflammation in parts distant from those to which it was directly applied. The dose for an adult is one or two drops, and is most conveniently ad- ministered in the form of pill. A very safe and convenient plan is to make two drops into four pills with crumb of bread, and to give one every hour till they operate. The oil may also be given in emulsion. The form of tincture may be advantageously resorted to when a minute quantity of the medicine is required, as it affords the means of readily dividing the dose. It is said that four drops of the oil, applied externally by friction around the umbilicus, will produce a purgative effect. (Diet, des Drogues.) PART I. Olibanum. 505 OLIBANUM. Lond., Dub. Olibanum. " Boswellia serrata. Gummi-resina." Lond., Dub. Encens, Fr.,- Weihrauch, Germ.; Olibano, Ital; Olibano, Incienso, Span.; Koondir Zuckir, Hindoo.; Cundur Looban, Arab. Olibanum, the frankincense of the ancients, was erroneously ascribed by Linnasus to the Juniperus Lycia. There appear to be two varieties of olibanum, one derived from the countries bordering on the Red Sea, and taken to Europe by way of the Mediterranean, the other brought directly from Calcutta. The tree producing the former has not been botanically de- scribed, though believed by some writers to be a species of Amyris. Captain Kempthorne, of the E. India Company's Navy,saw the tree growing upon the mountains, on the African coast, between Bunder Maryah and Cape Guar- dafui. According to his statement, it grows upon the bare marble rocks com- posing the hills in that region, without any soil or. the slightest fissure to support it, adhering by means of a substance thrown out from the base of the stem. This rises forty feet, and sends forth near the summit short branches, covered with a bright green, singular foliage. The juice, which exudes through deep incisions made into the inner bark, is at first of the colour and consistence of milk, but hardens on exposure. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iv. 37.) The India olibanum has been satisfactorily ascertained to be the product of the Boswellia serrata of Roxburgh, a large tree growing in the mountains of India, and found by Mr. Colebrook abundant in the vicinity of Nagpur. The tree belongs to the class and order Decandria Monogynia, and to the natural order Terebintaceae of Kunth. The Arabian or African frankincense is in the form of yellowish tears and irregularreddish lumps or fragments. The tears are generally small, oblong or roundish, not very brittle, with a dull and waxy fracture, softening in the mouth, and bearing much resemblance to mastich, from which, however, they differ in their want of transparency. The reddish masses soften in the hand, have a stronger smell and taste than the tears, and are often mixed with fragments of bark, and small crystals of carbonate of lime. The Indian frankincense, or olibanum, consists chiefly of yellowish, somewhat translucent, roundish tears, larger than those of the African, and generally covered with a whitish powder produced by friction. It has a balsamic resinous smell, and an acrid, bitterish, and somewhat aromatic taste. When chewed it softens in the mouth, adheres to the teeth, and partially dissolves in the saliva, which it renders milky. It burns with a brilliant flame, and a fragrant odour. Triturated with water it forms a milky imperfect solution. Alcohol dissolves nearly three-fourths of it, and the tincture is transparent. From 100 parts, Braconnot obtained 8 parts of volatile oil, 56 of resin, 30 of gum, and 5-2 of a glutinous matter insoluble in water or alcohol, with 0-8 loss. Various saline substances were found in its ashes. The oil may be separated by distillation, and resembles that of lemons in colour and smell. Medical Properties and Uses. Olibanum is stimulant like the other gum- resins ; but is now never used internally. It is chiefly employed for fumi- gations, and enters into the composition of some unofficinal plasters. W. 44 506 Opium. PART I. OPIUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Opium. " The concrete juice of the unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum." U. S. " Papaver somniferum. Capsulae immaturae Succus concretus." Lond. " Concrete juice from the unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum." Ed. "Papaver somniferum. Capsularumsuccus proprius concretus." Dub. Opium, Fr.; Opium, Monshaft, Germ.; Oppio, Ital; Opio, Span.; Afik)n\,Turk.; Ufyoon, Arab.; Sheerikhaskash, Persian.; TJfeem, Hindoo. Papaver. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Monogynia.—Nat Ord. Papaveraceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla four-petaled. Calyx two-leaved. Capsule one-celled, opening by pores under the persistent stigma. Willd. Opium is at present generally believed to be derived exclusively from the Papaver somniferum; though every species of poppy is capable of yielding it to a greater or less extent, and some authors have indicated the Papaver orientate as its real source. The British and French Pharmacopoeias unite with our own in recognising only the first-mentioned species. Papaver somniferum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1147; Woodv. Med. Bot., p. 376. t. 138. There are two varieties of this species, which are distin- guished by the titles of the white and black poppy, derived from the colour of their seeds. It is the former which is usually described as the proper opium plant. The white poppy is an annual plant, with a round, smooth, erect, glaucous, often branching stem, rising two or three feet in height, and sometimes attaining five or even six feet in favourable situations. The leaves are large, variously lobed and toothed, and alternately disposed upon the stem, which they closely embrace. The flowers are terminal, very large, and of a white or silver gray colour. In India they appear in Febru- ary, in Europe and the United States, not earlier than June, July, or August. The calyx is smooth, and composed of two leaves, which fall when the petals expand. These are usually four in number ; but there is a variety in which the flower is double. The germen, which is smooth and globular, supports a radiated stigma, and is surrounded by numerous short and slender fila- ments, with erect, oblong, compressed anthers. The capsule is smooth and glaucous, of a rounded shape, from two to four inches in diameter, somewhat flattened at the top and bottom, and crowned with the persistent stigma, the diverging segments of which are arranged in a circle upon the summit. It contains numerous minute white seeds, which, when perfectly ripe, escape through small openings beneath the stigma. In the black poppy, the flower, though sometimes white, is usually violet coloured or red, the capsule is somewhat smaller and more globular, and the seeds are of a brown or blackish colour. All parts of the poppy are said to contain a white, opaque, narcotic juice; but'the leaves, when analyzed by M. Blondeau, yielded none of those active principles by which opium is characterized. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 214.) It is in the capsule that the juice most abounds, and the virtues of the plant chiefly reside. Hence this part is sometimes employed medicinally in Eu- rope, where it is considered officinal. (See Papaveris Capsulae.) The seeds are wholly destitute of narcotic properties, and are even used as food in many parts of the world. The Romans employed them in the preparation of various dainties. They abound with a bland oil, which may be extracted by expression, and has most of the useful properties of olive oil. It is an article of much importance on the continent of Europe, particularly in PART I. Opium. 507 France, in the northern departments of which the black poppy is very ex- tensively cultivated for the seed alone. The oil is employed for culinary and pharmaceutic purposes, in painting, and the manufacture of soap, and in other ways as a substitute for olive oil, which is said to be frequently adulterated with it. The poppy does not appear to elaborate the milky fluid in which its narcotic properties reside, before a certain period of its growth; for we are told that in Persia, the young plants which are pulled up to prevent too thick a crop, are used as pot-herbs; and the prjxw of the Greeks, which is believed to be identical with the Papaver somniferum, is said by Hippocrates to be nutritive. Though generally believed to be a native of Asia, this species of poppy grows wild in the South of Europe, and even in England, whither its seeds are supposed to have been brought at a very early period. It was cultivated by the ancient Greeks, and is mentioned by Homer as a garden plant. It is at present cultivated very extensively in India, Persia, Egypt, and Asia- tic Turkey, for opium; and in several parts of Europe, especially in France, not only for this product, but also for the seed and capsules. In this coun- try it is found only in our gardens as an ornamental flower. The process for procuring opium from the poppy, as practised by the modern inhabitants of India and Persia, according to the reports of Kerr and of Koempfer, is very nearly the same with that described by Diosco- rides as employed in his own times, about eighteen hundred years since; and the accounts of Belon, OJivier, and Texier, as to the modes of collec- tion in Asia Minor, are not materially different. As the capsules abound most in the narcotic juice, it is from these that the opium is procured. According to Texier, a few days after the fall of the flower, men and wo- men proceed to the fields, and make horizontal incisions in the capsule, taking care not to penetrate its cavity. A white juice exudes, and appears in the form of tears upon the edges of the incisions. The field is left in this state for twenty-four hours, after which the juice is scraped off by means of large blunt knives. A portion of the epidermis of the capsule is also removed, and constitutes about one-twelfth of the whole product. Each poppy-head affords opium but once. Thus collected, the opium is in the state of an adhesive and granular jelly. It is placed in small earthen vessels, where it is beaten, and at the same time moistened with saliva. When of a proper consistence, it is wrapped in leaves and sent into the market. (Journ. de Pharm., xxi. 196.) Considerable quantities of good opium have been obtained in England by scarifying the capsules of the poppy.* Similar success has been met with in France; and the drug ob- tained by incisions in both countries has been found nearly if not quite equal to that imported from the East. In the Dictionnaire des Drogues it is stated, that a specimen of opium collected in this way in the vicinity of Provins, gave sixteen per cent, of the active principle, while a good com- mercial specimen, examined by M. Petit, afforded only eight per cent. Another method of extracting the virtues of the capsules, is to select such as have ceased to yield their juice by exudation, to beat them with a small * So early as the year 1796, a premium was awarded by the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, to Mr. Ball, for a specimen of British opium; and in 1823, Messrs. Cowley and Stains collected 196 pounds, which sold for nearly seven dollars a pound, from little more than twelve acres of land. This product, however, was by no means equal to that obtained in Scotland by Mr. John Young. From one acre of ground planted with pop- pies and potatoes, he procured fifty-six pounds of opium, valued at 450 dollars, while the whole expense was more than repaid by the potatoes, and the oil expressed from the seeds. For papers on the subject of the cultivation of the poppy in England, see Edin. Phibsoph. Journ., vol. i. p. 258, and the Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. iv. p. 69. 508 Opium. PART I. proportion of water, and inspissate the liquid thus obtained by artificial heat. The ancient Greeks were acquainted with both processes, as appears from the writings of Dioscorides. The term omov, derived from ortoj, juice, they applied to the substance procured by incisions, and answering precisely to the modern opium. The inspissated expressed juice they called uyxuviov, from urjxav, the name of the plant. Tournefort states that it is the latter preparation which is exported from Turkey as opium, the former being much more valuable, and therefore retained in the country for the use of the great and wealthy. This error has been copied by many writers on the materia medica; and till within a comparatively few years, opium was generally believed to be an extract obtained by evaporating either the ex- pressed juice, or a decoction of the capsules. Commercial History. Commerce is supplied with opium chiefly from Hindostan, Persia, Egypt, and the Asiatic dominions of Turkey. Im- mense quantities are produced in the Indian provinces of Bahar and Be- nares, and in the more interior province of Malwa. The opium of Hin- dostan is distributed extensively through continental and insular India, where it is habitually employed in the place of spirituous liquors. Great quantities are also sent to China, into which it finds an easy entrance, not- withstanding prohibitory laws. Much was formerly imported by the East India Company into England, through which a small portion reached our own country; but at present India opium is considered so far inferior to that from Turkey, that it has been almost entirely excluded from our market, and none is brought directly from the East. The great demand for it in the Indian Archipelago and in China, and its consequent high price, have probably contributed "more even than its reputed inferiority to this result. Indeed, Ainslie explicitly states that India opium is inferior to none; and it is probable that the specimens from which the description was drawn up that has been current among authors upon the materia medica, were the refuse of the Eastern market. We know that the drug was formerly very much and variously adulterated by the natives. Among the impurities mentioned by authors are the extract of the poppy procured by decoction, the powdered leaves and stems of the plant made into a paste with muci- lage, the oil of sesamum, catechu, and even cow-dung. But a more care- ful superintendence by the officers of the Company is said to have resulted in a great improvement of the India opium. Of that produced in Persia, very little is brought to this country; and it is scarcely known in our mar- ket as a distinct variety. Much was formerly produced in Upper Egypt, especially in the district of ancient Thebes, which was supposed to yield it in greatest perfection. It was in fact for a long time generally known by the name of Opium Thebaicum, and laudanum is still frequently directed in prescriptions as the Tinctura Thebaica. Its cultivation has recently been again introduced into Egypt; and considerable quantities are now exported. Turkey opium is produced in Anatolia, and shipped chiefly from the port of Smyrna. It is brought to the United States, either directly from the Levant, or indirectly through other European ports. From the treasury returns for the years from 1827 to 1845 inclusive, according toatable prepared by Dr. J. B. Biddle, and published in the American Journal of Pharmacy for April 1847, it appears, that the average value of the annual importations for the period referred to has been from Turkey 128,137 dollars, from Eng- land 13,744, from France 4,470, and from all other places 6,607 dollars. Of this amount so much was exported as to leave for the average annual con- sumption of the country the value of 66,809 dollars. Turkey opium usually comes to us in masses of irregular size and shape, generally more PART I. Opium. 509 or less flattened, covered with leaves, or the remains of leaves, and with the reddish capsules of some species of Rumex, which are said to be absent in the inferior kinds, and may therefore be considered as affording some indi- cation of the purity of the drug. We may account for this circumstance upon the very probable supposition, that these capsules are removed during the operation which the masses sometimes undergo in the hands of the mer- chants, after leaving those of the cultivators. We are told by the French writers, that extensive frauds are practised at Marseilles in this branch of commerce. The opium brought thither from the Levant is first softened, and then adulterated, with various matters, which are incorporated in its sub- stance. To use a strong expression of M. Guibourt, they make the opium over again at Marseilles. Our traders to the Mediterranean would do well to bear this assertion in mind. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, one-fourth part of Turkey opium generally consists of impurities. Sand, ashes, the seeds of different plants, the extracts of the poppy, Lactuca virosa, Glycyr- rhiza glabra, and Chelidonium glaucum, gum Arabic, tragacanth, aloes, even small stones, and minute pieces of lead and iron, are mentioned among the substances employed in the sophistication of the drug. Mr. Landerer, of Athens, was informed by a person who had been engaged in the extrac- tion of opium, that grapes freed from their seeds and crushed, were almost universally mixed with the poppy juice, and that another adulteration con- sisted of the epidermis of the capsules and stem of the plant, pounded in a mortar with the white of eggs. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 238.) In Eng- land a sophisticated opium has been prepared, so nearly resembling good Turkey opium in appearance, that by the eye alone it would be difficult to detect the fraud, and yet wholly destitute of the active principle of this drug. Portions of it have been sent into the markets both of France and this counfry. It is probably the genuine drug, deprived of its morphia by some process which does not materially disturb the visible arrangement of its par- ticles.* (Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 261.) * The great importance of opium renders it desirable that all its commercial varieties should be accurately described, and their relative value so far as possible ascertained. The following statement has been drawn up from the most recent published accounts of this drug, and from'the personal observations of the author. The papers of Guibourt in France, Christison in Great Britain, and Merck and Martius in Germany, have been con- sulted. (See Journ. de Pharm.,x\ii. 714, and xxi. 542; and Annalen der Pharm., xviii. 79, and xxiv. 56.) The varieties of this drug may be arranged, according to the countries in which they arc produced, under the heads of Turkey, Egyptian, India, and Persia opium. I. TURKEY OPIUM. This title belongs to the opium produced in the Turkish pro- vince of Anatolia, and exported from Smyrna and Constantinople. According to some authorities, there is no essential difference between the parcels of the drug brought from these two ports. Odiers maintain that they are distinct varieties, differing in their interior structure, and probably also in the precise place of their production, and the mode of their collection. The truth probably is, that most of the opium shipped at Constantinople is produced in the northern parts of Anatolia, while that from Smyrna is collected in the provinces more convenient to the latter city.; and though it is possible that an identical drug may be occasionally brought from the two ports, yet there seems to be good ground in general for arranging it under different varieties, as derived from these different sources. 1. Smyrna Opium. This is the variety which is, beyond all comparison, most abundant in our markets; and it is from this that the ordinary descriptions of opium are drawn up. It comes to us in masses of various size, usually from half a pound or somewhat less to a pound in weight, sometimes, though rarely, as much as two or even three pounds, ori- ginally, perhaps, of a globular form, but variously indented, and rendered quite irregular in shape, by the pressure to which they are subjected, while yet soft, in the cases which contain them. Sometimes they are even pressed out into flat cakes. As brought into market, the lumps are usually hard on the outside, but still soft within. They are covered externally with the remains of leaves, and with the reddish capsules of a species of Rumex, 44* 510 Opium. PART I. Opium is regarded as inferior when it is of a blackish colour; a weak or empyreumatic smell; a sweet or slightly nauseous and bitter taste; a soft, viscid, or greasy consistence; a dull fracture; or an irregular, heterogeneous texture, arising from the intermixture of foreign substances. It should not which have no doubt been applied in order to prevent the surfaces from adhering. Not- withstanding, however, this coating, the masses sometimes stick together, and two or more become consolidated into one. In this way the fact may be accounted for, that the seeds of the Rumex are occasionally found in the interior of the masses. In the finer parcels of Smyrna opium, the colour internally is light brown; in the inferior it is darker. A peculiar character of this variety is, that when a lump of it is cut into and then carefully torn, numerous minute shining tears are observable, particularly under a microscope, bearing some resemblance to small seeds, but readily distinguishable by pressure between the fingers. They are undoubtedly formed from the drops of juice which escape from the incisions in the capsules, and which, according to Belon, are allowed to concrete before they are removed. From the account of the same author it appears that, after the juice has been collected, it is not subjected to the process of kneading or beating, as-in the case of other varieties of opium; so that the tears preserve their original shape in the mass. It is probably owing to the peculiar mode of collecting Smyrna opium, that minute pieces of the skin of the poppy capsules are found intermingled in the mass; these being sepa- rated in the process of removing the adhering tears. In the finer specimens of Smyrna opium these fragments of the capsules are the only impurities. This variety of the drug is of very different qualities, the finest kinds yielding, according to Merck, as much as 13 per cent, of pure morphia, while from some very bad parcels he could not procure more than 3 or 4 per cent. In these inferior specimens the colour is darker, the smell is often musty, and there is very generally more or less mouldiness both upon the surface, and in the interior of the masses, indicating perhaps too.much moisture in the opium originally, or its subsequent exposure to an injurious degree of dampness. Good Smyrna opium ought to yield 10 or 11 per cent, of morphia. 2. Constantinople Opium. Most of the Constantinople opium is in lumps from half a pound to two and a half pounds in weight, and scarcely distinguishable in exterior appear- ance from those of the former variety, being equally irregular in shape, and in like manner covered with the capsules of the Rumex. It differs, however, strikingly from the Smyrna opium in its interior constitution, being, according to Merck, wholly destitute of the tears which characterize that variety. This would indicate some difference in the mode of collecting and preparing the juice. In the case of the Constantinople opium, it is pro- bably either removed from the capsules before concretion, or subjected to pressure after- wards. Merck says that he has not discovered, in this variety, those minute portions of the poppy capsules which are usually present in the Smyrna opium. The average quality of the Constantinople opium, as above described, is about equal to that of the drug from Smyrna; but it appears to be occasionally purer; as Merck obtained from one specimen as much as 15 per cent, of pure morphia. Notwithstanding what has been above stated, we are not yet in possession of facts to prove that this is not, as some have supposed it to be, the better sort of Smyrna opium selected and sent to the capital. Guibourt describes another variety of Constantinople opium of much inferior character. "It comes," he observes, "in small flattened cakes, sufficiently regular and of a lenticular shape, from two to two and a half inches in diameter, and always covered with a poppy leaf, the midrib of which divides the surface into two equal parts. It has an odour similar to that of the preceding variety, but feebler, and it blackens and dries in the air. It is more mucilaginous than Smyrna opium, and contains only half as much morphia." These characters are obviously those of Egyptian opium; and, though the parcels which came under the notice of Guibourt may have been imported directly from Constantinople, it is highly probable that they were originally from Alexandria. Mr. Stettner, of Trieste, though well acquainted with the opium commerce of that port, admits no such Constan- tinople opium as that described by Guibourt. {Annal. der Pharm., xxiv. 65.) II. EGYPTIAN OPIUM. This is in flat roundish cakes, of various dimensions, sometimes as much as six inches in diameter and a pound in weight, usually, however, much smaller, and sometimes not weighing more than half an ounce. These cakes are either wrapped in a poppy leaf, so placed that the midrib divides the surface into two equal parts, or exhibits vestiges of such a covering. Occasionally the brown colour of the opium is seen through the leaf, and the surface appears as if uncovered, while the leaf is still present This variety of opium is always destitute of the Rumex capsules, and differs from the Smyrna opium also in being brittle instead of tenacious, and equally hard in the centre as at the surface of the mass. Its fracture is conchoidal and of a waxy lustre, and PART I. Opium. 511 impart a deep brown colour to the saliva, nor leave a dark uniform trace when drawn over paper, nor form with water a thick viscid solution. Properties. Good opium has a peculiar strong narcotic odour, and a bitter, somewhat acrid taste. When long chewed it excites much irritation small fragments of it are translucent. Its colour is usually redder than that of Smyrna opium, though it is sometimes dark. Some of the pieces, on exposure to the air, become damp and sticky on the outer surface, indicating the fraudulent addition of some deli- quescent substance. The odour is similar to that of Smyrna opium, but weaker.. There can be little doubt that this opium is, in some way, sophisticated in its preparation; as it yields only 6 or 7 per cent, of morphia. {Merck.) A specimen examined by Mr. J. Evans, of Philadelphia, yielded only 3-55 per cent. Egyptian opium, therefore, should never be dispensed by the apothecary, or employed in the preparation of his tinctures; as the prescription of the physician is based upon the strength of good Smyrna opium, which is about twice that of the Egyptian. III. INDIA OPIUM. Little if any of this opium reaches our market There appear to be two chief varieties of it, one produced in Bahar and Benares, in the Bengal Presi- dency, and called Bengal opium, the other in the interior provinces, and designated by the name of Malwa opium. 1. Bengal opium. This appears to be identical with the variety sometimes called Patna opium. It is in round balls, weighing three pounds and a half, invested by a coating half an inch thick, composed of agglutinated leaves and poppy-petals. The interior of the mass is of a brownish-black colour, of the consistence of a stiff paste, and possessed in a high degree of the characteristic odour and taste of opium. Mr. Smyttan, inspector' of opium at Bombay, obtained from two to three and a half per cent, of morphia from this variety of opium; but, as he obtained only from five to six and a half per cent, from Smyrna opium, we may conclude that the drug was not exhausted by his process, and may estimate the proportion of its active principle at double that stated above. Still, even with this allowance, it must be subjected to great adulteration in its preparation; as it is by no means probable that the poppies cultivated in India yield a product materially weaker than those of Turkey. Yet Christison states, that all the India opium which he has seen is exempt from the mixture of leaves, seeds, and fragments of poppy capsules so abundant in Smyrna opium. Its inferior character is in some degree probably owing to the juice, after collection, being kept for some time before it is made up, and conse- quently undergoing fermentation. The India opium examined by Dr. A. T. Thomson was apparently of inferior character. As described by that author, it was in round masses, covered with the petals of the poppy in successive layers, to the thickness of nearly one-fourth of an inclu It had a strong empyreumatic smell, with little of the peculiar heavy odour of Turkey opium. Its taste was more bitter and equally nauseous, but less acrid. Its colour was blacker, and its texture, though as tenacious, was less plastic. It was more friable, and when triturated with water, was wholly suspended or dissolved, leaving none of that plastic residue which is afforded by the other variety. It yielded to Dr. Thomson more narcotina than Turkey opium, but only about one-third the quantity of morphia. All these are the characters of an extract of the poppy heads, rather than of their inspissated juice. The absence of the plastic principle analogous to caoutchouc is strong evidence in favour of this view of its nature; for it is obvious that water would not extract this principle from the capsules, while it is hardly probable that the juice is destitute of it. Besides, the strength indicated by Dr. Thomson is very nearly the same with that of the extract of the capsules prepared in France. The Bengal opium is at present a superior drug to that here described, though still inferior to the Smyrna opium. There is a variety of Patna or Bengal opium, called garden Patna opium, which was described in the fifth edition of this work on the authority of Dr. Christison, as Malwa opium. Dr. Christison has subsequently ascertained its true origin. It is prepared in Bahar with peculiar care, from juice which has not been suffered to undergo fermentation. It is in cakes three or four inches square, and about half an inch thick, which are packed in cases with a layer of mica between them. These cakes are without covering, hard, dry, and brittle, of a uniform shining fracture, and not unlike an extract in appearance. The colour is sometimes almost black, and sometimes of a light brown, not unlike that of Egyptian opium. Dr. Christison states that it is much superior to the globular Bengal opium, and that some specimens are little inferior to Turkey opium in the proportion of morphia. 2. Malwa Opium. This is in flat, roundish cakes, five or six inches in diameter, and from four to eight ounces in weight They are commonly quite hard, dry, and brittle, 512 Opium. PART I. in the lips and tongue, and even blisters the mouth of those unaccustomed to its use. Its colour is a reddish-brown or deep fawn; its texture compact; its specific gravity 1*336. When drawn over paper it usually leaves an interrupted trace of a light brown colour. It is often soft in the interior of the mass, and in this state is tenacious; but when exposed to the air it gradually hardens, and ultimately becomes brittle, breaking with a shining fracture, and affording, when pulverized, a yellowish-brown powder, which becomes adhesive upon a slight elevation of temperature. It readily inflames upon the application of a lighted taper. It yields its virtues to water, alcohol, and diluted acids, but not to ether. To all these menstrua it imparts a deep brown colour. Alcohol dissolves about four-fifths of it. Pelletier states that the proportion taken up by water varies in all specimens. He never found the quantity of extract prepared with cold water to exceed 12 parts out of 16. (Journ. de Pharm., Nov., 1832.) Much attention has been devoted to the chemical constitution of opium; and very interesting results have been obtained. It was by their researches into the nature of this substance that chemists were led to the discovery of those vegetable alkaloids, which, as the active principles of the plants in which they are found, have recently attracted so much attention among physicians, and been applied so advantageously in the treatment of disease. To Serturner, an apothecary at Eimbeck, in Hanover, certainly belongs the credit of having opened this new and most important field of experiment. In the year 1&03, M. Derosne made known the existence of a crystal- lizable substance which he had discovered in opium, and which he erro- neously believed to be the active principle. In the following year, Seguin discovered another crystallizable body, which subsequent experience has proved to be the true narcotic principle of opium; but he did not fully in- vestigate its nature, and no immediate practical advantage was derived from his excellent analysis. About the same time, Serturner was engaged in a similar investigation, the results of which, very analogous to those obtained by Seguin, were published in a German journal, without, however, attract- ing general attention. In this state the subject remained till the year 1817, when Serturner announced the existence of a saline compound in opium, consisting of a peculiar alkaline principle united with a peculiar acid, and clearly demonstrated the precise nature of a substance, which, though before discovered both by Seguin and by himself, had been hitherto but of a light brown colour, a shining fracture, a compact homogeneous texture, and free from mechanical impurities. The quality is superior to that of common Bengal opium.— {Christison's Dispensatory.) IV. PERSIA OPIUM. A variety of opium under this name has sometimes existed in the markets of London, and has even found its way to this country, though it is very rare. It is described as being in cylindrical pieces, about three and a half inches long and half an inch thick, wrapped in glossy paper, and tied with a cotton thread. It is of a uniform consistence, but exhibits, nevertheless, under the microscope, small agglu- tinated tears, much less than those of the Smyrna opium. It has the liver-brown colour of Egyptian opium, a virose, musty odour, and a very bitter taste; and, like Egyptian opium, softens in a moist atmosphere. It is said to have been brought to England from Trebizond on the Black Sea; but its origin is not known. It is of inferior quality. From the report of a trial in the city of New York, published in the Journal of Commerce, it appears, that a parcel of Persia opium imported into that city from London in August, 1835, was in small round balls, and contained only 3 per cent, of morphia. It is highly important that the real value of these commercial varieties of opium should be known to the physician and apothecary; as otherwise, there can be no certainty in relation to the strength of the preparations which may be made from them. In the pre- paration of laudanum and the other tinctures into which opium enters, it is understood that the drug employed should have the average quality of good Smyrna opium. The inferior kinds should be used only for the extraction of morphia. PART I. Opium. 513 vaguely known. To the alkali, in which he correctly conceived the nar- cotic powers of the opium to reside, he gave the name of morphium, which has been subsequently changed to morphia by English writers, in order to render it analogous to the titles of the other alkalies. The acid he called meconic, a term derived from the Greek name of the poppy. The correctness of the statements of Serturner was confirmed by the experi- ments of Robiquet, who also satisfactorily demonstrated that the substance obtained by Derosne, and called by him the salt of opium, was a principle altogether distinct from the morphia, though supposed to possess very con- siderable influence over the system. In the belief of its narcotic powers, Robiquet denominated it narcotin, a title which it still retains. Several other peculiar principles have since been discovered; though it is difficult to resist the impression, that some of them may be the result of the pro- cesses to which opium is submitted for their extraction. According to the views of its constitution at present admitted, opium contains, 1. morphia; 2. narcotin or narcotina; 3. codeia; 4. paramorphia; 5. narcein; 6. meconin; 7. meconic and sulphuric acids; 8. a peculiar acid, not yet fully investigated; 9. extractive matter; 10. gum; 11. bassorin; 12. a peculiar resinous body insoluble in ether and containing nitrogen; 13. fixed oil; 14. a substance resembling caoutchouc; 15. an odorous volatile principle; besides lignin, and a small proportion of acetic acid, sulphate of lime, sulphate of potassa, alumina, and iron. Besides these principles, Pelletier announced the dis- covery of another which he called pseudomorphia, but which appears to be only an occasional constituent of opium (See Journ. de Pharm., xxi. 575.) Of the principles above mentioned morphia is by far the most important. It is generally admitted to exist in opium united with meconic acid in the state of meconate, and to a certain extent also as a sulphate. Of morphia and the mode of procuring it, and of its salts, we shall treat at large under another head. (See Morphia.) Narcotina or narcotin receives one or the other of these names according as it is considered alkaline or neuter; they who rank it among the alkalies giving it the former, they who deny it such a position, the latter. It exists in opium, chiefly at least, in the free state, and is left behind in considerable quantity when the drug is macerated with water. It is white, tasteless, and inodorous; and crystallizes in silky flexible needles, usually larger than the crystals of morphia, fusible at a moderate elevation of temperature, insoluble in cold water, soluble in 400 parts of boiling water, in 100 parts of cold and 24 of boiling alcohol which deposits it upon cooling, and very soluble in ether. The fixed and volatile oils, and the diluted acids also dissolve it. As it exerts no alkaline reaction upon vegetable colours, and does not pre- vent the acids from reddening litmus paper, there would appear to be some reason for denying it the rank of an alkali. But it unites with some of the acids forming definite compounds, which may be procured in a separate state; and Robiquet obtained the sulphate and muriate of narcotina well crystallized. (Journ. de Pharm., xvii. 639, and xix. 59.) Hence many chemists, among whom is Berzelius, consider it alkaline; and, perhaps, this view of it is the most convenient. It must be admitted, however, to have a very feeble neutralizing power. With acetic acid it does not appear to form a permanent combination ; for, though dissolved by cold acetic acid, it is separated by heating the solution. Narcotina is composed, according to an analysis conducted with great care by Pelletier, of 4*31 parts of nitrogen, 65-16 of carbon, 5*45 of hydrogen, and 25-08 of oxygen. (Journ. de Pharm., xviii. 624.) According to Robiquet, its muriate consists of 4*585 parts of narcotina, and 0*409 of dry acid. (Ibid., xix. 63.) Narcotina may be dis- 514 Opium. PART I. tinguished from morphia by its insipidity, solubility in ether, and insolubility in alkaline solutions, by not affecting vegetable colours, by assuming a yel- lowish instead of a blood-red colour under the action of strong nitric acid, and by not producing a blue colour with the salts of iron. It is, however, reddened by a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. It gives a greasy stain to paper when heated upon it over a candle. Heated with an excess of sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, it is converted into an acid called opianicacid, and into a substance of feeble alkaline properties, which has received the name of cotarnine (cotarnina), (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser., vi. 99.) Water extracts it partially from opium, in consequence of the acid which the latter contains, either free or combined with the narcotina. It is usually obtained mixed with morphia in the processes for procuring that principle; and may be separated by the action of sulphuric ether, which dissolves it without affecting the morphia, and yields it upon evaporation. It may also be obtained by digesting opium in sulphuric ether, and slowly evaporating the ethereal solution, which deposits crystals of narcotina. Another mode of procuring it is to treat opium, which has been exhausted by previous mace- ration in water, with dilute acetic acid, filtering the solution, precipitating by an alkali, washing the precipitate with water, and purifying it by solution in boiling alcohol, from which it crystallizes as the liquid cools. Should it still be impure, the solution in alcohol and crystallization may be repeated. Though narcotina itself is tasteless, its salts are very bitter, even more so than those of morphia. (Berzelius.) Their solution reddens litmus, and affords precipitates with the alkalies and infusion of galls. They have not been very accurately investigated. It has already been stated that Robiquet obtained the sulphate and muriate crystallized. Different opinions have been advanced relative to the action of narcotina on the system. Derosne believed it to be the active principle of opium ; though, upon experimenting with it, he obtained effects but little stronger than those produced by an equal dose of opium itself. Magendie found it to exercise a powerful influence upon the system of dogs. One grain dis- solved in oil was sufficient to throw the animal into a state of stupor, which terminated in death in the course of twenty-four hours. This stupor was wholly different from the composed sleep produced by morphia and its pre- parations. He inferred that, while the latter principle exercises the reme- dial, anodyne, and soporific virtues of opium, the injurious excitant operation of the medicine is ascribable to the narcotina. Both Derosne and Magendie found its unpleasant effects to be modified or prevented by its conjunction with acetic acid. According to Magendie, twenty-four grains, dissolved in vinegar, may be given to a dog without destroying life. M. Baily pre- scribed it in the dose of sixty grains, both in the solid state and dissolved in muriatic acid, without observing from it any sensible effect. In the same state, Orfila found that it might be taken by man in very large doses with impunity; and thirty grains of it dissolved in acetic acid, produced no effect upon several patients to whom it was administered. Upon dogs, he informs us, that it is without action when dissolved in nitric or muriatic acid ; but held in solution by acetic or sulphuric acid, or by olive oil, thirty or forty grains of it were sufficient to produce fatal effects. A singular circumstance noticed by the same experimenter is, that the solution in acetic or sulphuric acid oc- casioned violent excitement; while the contrary condition uniformly resulted from the use of the solution in olive oil. On the whole, we may conclude that narcotina, either in the solid form or dissolved in acids, is not possessed of any considerable narcotic powers; and that the effects of a narcotic cha- PART I. Opium. 515 racter which have been attributed to it, have probably arisen from the em- ployment of a preparation not entirely freed from other principles contained in the opium. Dr. O'Shaughnessy, Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College* of Calcutta, recommends narcotina very highly in intermittent fever, and believes that he has discovered in it even stronger anti-periodical pro- perties than those of quinia. Should his reports in its favour be confirmed by further experiments, it will undoubtedly take its place among the most valuable substances of the materia medica. In the cases reported by him, it was employed in combination with muriatic acid. Given in this form, though powerfully febrifuge, it was found not to produce narcotic effects, not to constipate the bowels, and never to occasion that distresssing headache and restlessness which sometimes follow the use of quinia. It proved, more- over, powerfully sudorific. It was given in doses of three grains, three times a day. Dr. O'Shaughnessy was induced to recommend its employ- ment to his medical friends in India, from a knowledge that it had proved effectual in mild agues in the hands of Dr. Roots and Mr. Jetson in Eng- land. Codeia was discovered in 1832 by Robiquet in the muriate of morphia prepared according to the process of Gregory. It exists in opium combined like morphia with meconic acid, and is extracted along with that alkali in the preparation of the muriate. (See Morphia.) When the solution of the mixed muriates of morphia and codeia is treated with ammonia, the former alkali is precipitated,and the codeia, remaining in solution, may be obtained by evaporation and crystallization. It may be purified by treating the crys- tals with hot ether, which dissolves them and yields the codeia in colourless crystals by spontaneous evaporation. This alkaline product melts at 300° without decomposition. It is soluble in water, which takes up 1-26 per cent, at 60°, 3*7 at 110°, and 5*9 at 212°. When added in excess to boiling water, the undissolved portion melts and sinks to the bottom, having the appearance of an oil. It is soluble also in alcohol and ether, but is insoluble in alkaline solutions. Hence it may be separated from morphia by a solu- tion of potassa or soda, which dissolves the morphia, and leaves the codeia. It has an alkaline reaction on test paper, and combines with acids to form salts, some of which are crystallizable, particularly the nitrate. Its- capacity of saturation is almost identical with that of morphia. According to Robi- quet, 1 part of muriatic acid is saturated by 7*837 of codeia, and by 7*88 of morphia. It is distinguishable, however, from the latter principle, by the different form of its crystals, which are octohedral, by its,solubility in boiling ether, greater solubility in water, and insolubility in alkaline solutions, and by not assuming a red colour with nitric acid, nor a blue one with the salts of the sesquioxide of iron. (Journ. de Pharm., xix. 91.) Tincture of galls pre- cipitates from its solutions a tannate of codeia. Crystallized from a watery solution, it contains about six per cent, of water, which is driven off at 212°. The crystals obtained from a solution in ether contain no water. Like the other vegetable alkalies, it consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen. Its formula is N C35H20O5; and its combining number consequently 284. Dr. Gregory tried the effects of nitrate of codeia upon himself and several of his pupils, and found that, in a dose of three grains or less, it produced no obvious effect, but in the quantity of from four to six grains, accelerated the pulse, occasioned a sense of heat in the head and face, and gave rise to an agreeable excitement of the spirits like that resulting from intoxicating drinks, which was attended with a sense of itching upon the skin, and, after lasting for several hours, was followed by an unpleasant depression, with 516 Opium. PART I. nausea and sometimes vomiting. No tendency to sleep was observed, except in the state of depression. In two or three cases the medicine pro- duced a slight purgative effect; but in others it appeared to exercise no peculiar influence on the bowels. M. Barbier, of Amiens, administered codeia uncombined in numerous cases, and observed that, in the dose of one or two grains, it acted on the nervous system, and appeared to be di- rected especially to the great sympathetic; as it relieved painful affections having their origin apparently in disorders of this nerve, while it exerted no influence over pains of the back and extremities supplied by nerves from the spinal marrow. He did not find it to affect the circulation, to disturb digestion, or to produce constipation. In sufficient quantity, it induced sleep, without occasioning those marks of cerebral congestion occasioned by opium. Dr. Miranda, of Havana, has employed it with great advantage in several bad cases of dyspepsia. On the whole, there can be no doubt that this principle has a decided action on the animal economy, and is among those upon which opium depends for its peculiar powers. Paramorphia (thebaina) is the name given by Pelletier to a principle, discovered by him in the precipitate thrown down from an infusion of opium treated with milk of lime. The precipitate being washed with water till the liquid came away colourless, and then treated with alcohol, instead of affording morphia to this solvent, as was anticipated, yielded a new alkaline principle, which was obtained separate by evaporating the alcohol, acting on the residue with ether, allowing the ethereal solution to evaporate spon- taneously, and then purifying the resulting crystalline mass by dissolving it in an acid, precipitating by ammonia, and recrystallizing by means of alcohol or ether. Pelletier named it paramorphia, from its close analogy in composition with morphia, from which, however, it is quite distinct in properties. It is white, crystallizable in needles, of an acrid and styptic rather than bitter taste, fusible at about 300°, scarcely soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol and ether even when cold, and still more so when heated, and capable of combining with the acids, with which, however, it does not form crystaJlizable salts. Alkalies precipitate it from its acid solutions, and, unless in very concentrated solution, do not redissolve it when added in ex- cess. It is not, like morphia, reddened by nitric acid, nor does it become blue with solutions of the salts of sesquioxide of iron. From codeia it differs in never being in large crystals, in not forming crystallizable salts, in being always precipitated from its acid solutions by ammonia, and in not melting in oily drops. From narcotina, which it most resembles, it may be distin- guished by its shorter crystals, which want the pearly appearance of those of narcotina, by its different taste, by its much greater solubility in cold alcohol of which 10 parts will dissolve 1 of this principle, while narcotina requires 100 parts, and by the action of nitric acid, which converts it into a resin-like matter before dissolving it, while the same acid instantly dissolves narcotina. It consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, its formula being NCasH^Og (Kane), and its combining number consequently 202. The name of thebain was proposed for it by M. Couerbe, who was disposed to give the credit of its discovery to M. Thiboumery, the director of Pelle- tier's laboratory. According to Magendie, it is closely analogous, in its effects on the system, to strychnia and brucia, producing tetanic spasms in the dose of a grain. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., viii. 69.) Narcein, discovered by Pelletier in 1832, is white, in silky acicular crys- tals, inodorous, of a slightly bitter taste, fusible at 197° F., soluble in 375 parts of cold and 220 of boiling water, soluble also in alcohol, and insoluble PART I. Opium. 517 in ether. It is rendered blue by the action 'of mineral acids so far diluted as not to decompose it; but does not, like morphia, become blue by the action of the salts of iron, nor red by that of nitric acid. It is dissolved by the acids, but does not combine with or neutralize them, and, though at first thought to be alkaline by Pelletier, is not so considered at present. It re- sembles the vegetable alkalies, however, in its constitution, consisting of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Its formula is NC^H^O^. Pel- letier obtained it in the course of his analysis of opium. Having formed an aqueous extract of opium, he treated it with distilled water, precipitated the morphia by ammonia, concentrated the solution, filtered it, threw down the meconic acid by baryta water, separated the excess of baryta by carbonate of ammonia, drove off the excess of the ammoniacal salt by heat, evaporated the liquor to the consistence of syrup, set it aside till a pulpy matter formed containing crystals, separated and expressed this pulpy matter, then treated it with alcohol, and concentrated the alcoholic solution. This, upon cooling, deposited crystals of narcein, which were easily purified by repeated solu- tion and crystallization. When mixed with meconin, which often crystal- lizes with it, the latter may be separated by the agency of ether. It has not been ascertained to have any influence upon the system. Two grains of it have been introduced into the jugular vein of a dog without any ob- servable effect. Meconin, the existence of which was announced in 1832 by M. Couerbe, is identical with a substance discovered several years previously by M. Dublanc, jun., but of which no account was published. It is perfectly white, in the form of acicular crystals, soluble in about 265 parts of cold and 18 of boiling water, very soluble in ether, alcohol, and the essential oils, fusible at 195°, volatilizable without change, and possessed of a degree of acrimony which favours the supposition that it may not be without action upon the system. It is neither acid nor alkaline, and contains no nitrogen. Meconin is obtained by precipitating the aqueous infusion of opium with ammonia, washing the precipitate with water until the latter nearly ceases to acquire colour, mixing the watery fluids, evaporating them to the consist- ence of molasses, setting them aside for two or three weeks, during which a mass of granular crystals is formed, then decanting the liquid, expressino- the mass, and drying it with a gentle heat. The meconin may be separated from the mass by treating it with boiling alcohol of 36° Baume, evaporating so as to obtain crystals, dissolving these in boiling water with animal char- coal, filtering the liquid while hot, and subjecting the crystals which form upon the cooling of the solution to the action of ether, which dissolves the meconin, and yields it in a state of purity by spontaneous evaporation. (Journ. de Pharm., Decern., 1832.) Of pseudomorphia, as it is found in opium only as an accidental ingre- dient, and is not generally present, it is scarcely necessary to treat in detail. An interesting fact, however, in relation to it, and one of some toxicological importance, is that it possesses two properties considered characteristic of morphia, those namely of being reddened by nitric acid, and of striking a blue colour with the salts of iron, and yet is without any poisonous influence upon the animal economy. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., viii. 77, or Journ. de Pharm., xxi. 575.) But it differs in not forming salts with the acids, and in not decomposing iodic acid. It consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Meconic acid is in white crystalline scales, of a sour taste followed by bitterness, fusible and volatilizable by heat, soluble in four parts of boiling 45 518 Opium. PART I. water, soluble also in cold water and alcohol, With the property of reddening vegetable blues, and forming-salts. Its compounds with the earths and heavy metallic oxides are generally insoluble in water. Its characteristic proper- ties are, that it produces a blood-red colour with the salts of sesquioxide of iron, a green precipitate with a weak solution of ammoniated sulphate of copper, and white precipitates, soluble in nitric acid, with acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and chloride of barium. It is obtained by macerating opium in water, filtering the infusion, and adding a solution of chloride of calcium. Meconate and sulphate of lime are precipitated. The precipitate, having been washed with hot water and with alcohol, is treated with dilute muriatic acid at 180°. The meconate of lime is taken up, and, upon the cooling of the liquid, bimeconate of lime is deposited. This is dissolved in warm concentrated muriatic acid, which deposits pure meconic acid when it cools. It may be freed from colouring matter by neutralizing it with potassa, de- composing the crystallized meconate thus obtained by muriatic acid, and again crystallizing. Meconic acid has little or no action on the system, and is not used separately in medicine; but its natural relation to morphia re- quires that it should be understood. In compatibles. All the substances which produce precipitates with opium do not necessarily affect its medical virtues; but the alkalies, and all vege- table infusions containing tannin and gallic acid, are strictly incompatible; the former separating and precipitating the active principle, the latter form- ing with it an insoluble compound. The proportion of morphia which any particular specimen of opium will furnish, may be considered as the best test of its value, except that of actual trial upon the system. Good opium should yield ten or twelve per cent. of the impure morphia precipitated from the infusion by ammonia with alcohol, according to the process of the United States Pharmacopoeia. (See Morphia.) The Edinburgh College gives the following test. "A solution from 100 grains of fine opium macerated twenty-four hours in two fluid- ounces of water, filtered, and strongly squeezed in a cloth, if treated with a cold solution of half an ounce of carbonate of soda in two waters, yields a precipitate, which weighs, when dry, at least ten grains, and dissolves en- tirely in solution of oxalic acid." Tests of Opium. It is sometimes highly important to be able to ascer- tain the presence or absence of opium in any suspected mixture. As me- conic acid and morphia have been found only in the products of the poppy, if,either or both of them be shown to exist in any substance, very strong evidence is afforded of the presence of opium in that substance. Our tests should, therefore, be applied in reference to the detection of these two prin- ciples. If an aqueous infusion of the substance examined yield a red colour with the tincture of chloride of iron, there is presumptive evidence of the presence of meconic acid. Greater certainty may be obtained by the following process. Add in excess to the filtered liquor a solution of acetate of lead. If opium be present, there will be a precipitate of meconate of lead, and the acetates of morphia and lead will remain in solution. The precipitate is then to be suspended in water and decomposed, either by adding a little diluted sulphuric acid, which forms the sulphate of lead and leaves the meconic acid in solution, or by passing through it a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, removing by filtration the precipitated sulphuret of lead, and heating the clear liquor so as to drive off the sulphuretted hydro- gen. With the clear liquor thus obtained, if it contain meconic acid, the tincture of chloride of iron will produce a striking red colour, the ammo- niated sulphate of copper a green precipitate, and acetate of lead, nitrate of PART I. Opium. 519 silver, and chloride of barium, white precipitates soluble in nitric acid. It has been ascertained that hydrosulphocyanic acid or a sulphocyanuret, and consequently saliva which occasionally contains it, produce a red colour with the salts of sesquioxide of iron,resembling that produced by meconic acid; but, according to Mr. Everitt, this colour is entirely and at once destroyed by a solution of corrosive sublimate, which has no effect on the red colour of the meconate of iron. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xii. 88.) On the contrary, chloride of gold reddens a solution of hydrosulphocyanic acid or a sulpho- cyanuret, but not of meconic acid. Pereira says the acetates also redden the salts of sesquioxide of iron; but they do not afford the results above mentioned with acetate of lead and chloride of barium. To test the presence of morphia, the liquid from which the meconate of lead has been precipitated, and which may be supposed to contain the acetates of morphia and lead, must be freed from the lead bya'stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, and then from the sulphu- retted hydrogen by heat; after which, the following reagents may be applied: —viz. 1, nitric acid, which colours the morphia red; 2, iodic acid, which is decomposed by the morphia with the extrication of iodine, which colours the liquid reddish-brown, and, if starch is present, unites with it to form a blue compound; 3, solution of ammonia, which, if carefully added so as not to be in excess, throws down a precipitate of morphia soluble in a great excess of that alkali or of potassa; and 4, tannic acid, which precipitates an insoluble tannate of morphia. If the precipitate thrown down by ammonia afford a deep red colour, becoming yellow, with nitric acid, and a blue colour with the sesquichloride of iron, the proof may be considered as complete. The London College judiciously directs that opium, before being used, be carefully separated from all foreign substances, especially those which are external. The College also directs that it should be kept in two states— soft, fit to form pills; and hard, by drying it with the aid of a water-bath, so that it may be pulverized. Medical Properties and Uses. -Opium is a stimulant narcotic. Taken by a healthy person, in a moderate dose, it increases the force, fulness, and frequency of the pulse, augments the temperature of the skin, invigorates the muscular system, quickens the senses, animates the spirits, and gives new energy to the intellectual faculties. Its operation, while thus extending to all parts of the system, is directed with peculiar force to the brain, the functions of which it excites sometimes even to intoxication or delirium. In a short time this excitation subsides ; a calmness of the corporeal actions, and a delightful placidity of mind succeed; and the individual, insensible to painful impressions, forgetting all sources of care and anxiety, submits him- self to a current of undefined and unconnected, but pleasing fancies; and is conscious of no other feeling than that of a quiet and vague enjoyment. At the end of half an hour or an hour from the administration of the narcotic, all consciousness is lost in sleep. The soporific effect, after having con- tinued for eight or ten hours, goes off, and is generally succeeded by more or less nausea, headache, tremors, and other symptoms of diminished or irregular nervous action, which soon yield to the recuperative energies of the system ; and, unless the dose be frequently repeated, and the powers of nature worn out by over-excitement, no injurious consequences ultimately result. Such is the obvious operation of opium when moderately taken; but other effects, very important in a remedial point of view, are also expe- rienced. All the secretions, with the exception of that from the skin, are either suspended or diminished; the peristakic motion of the bowels is lessened; pain and inordinate muscular contraction, if present, are allayed; and general nervous irritation is composed, if not entirely relieved. 520 Opium. PART I. When large doses are taken, the period of excitement and exhilaration is shorter; the soporific and anodyne effects are more intense and of longer duration; and the succeeding symptoms of debility are more obvious and alarming. In quantities sufficient to destroy life, opium scarcely produces any sen- sible increase of the general powers of the system, but almost immediately reduces the frequency, though not the force of the pulse, diminishes mus- cular strength, and brings on languor and drowsiness, which soon eventuate in a deep apoplectic sleep. A stertorous respiration; a dark suffusion of the countenance; a full, slow, and labouring pulse; an almost total insensibility to external impressions; and—when a moment of consciousness has been obtained by violent agitation, or powerfully irritating applications—a con- fused state of intellect, and an irresistible disposition to sink back into coma- tose sleep, are symptoms which, for the first few hours, attend the operation of the poison. Though not signs of an elevated condition of the bodily powers, neither do they imply a state of pure, unmixed debility. The pulse is, indeed, slow; but it is often so full, and so powerful in its beat, that the practitioner feels himself obliged to use the lancet. In the space, however, of a few hours, varying according to the quantity of the narcotic taken, and the powers of the patient's constitution, a condition of genuine debility ensues ; and this condition will be hastened in point of time, though it will be more under the control of remedies, if the opium be removed artificially from the stomach. Called to an individual labouring under the influence of a fatal dose of opium, at a period from six to eight hours after it has been swallowed, the practitioner will generally find him with a cool, clammy skin; cold extremities; a pallid countenance; a feeble, thread-like, scarcely perceptible pulse; a slow, interrupted, almost gasping respiration; and a torpor little short of absolute, death-like insensibility. Death soon follows, unless relief is afforded. No appearances are revealed by the dissection of those who have died of the immediate effects of opium, which can be considered as affording satisfactory evidence of its mode of operation. The redness occasionally observed in the mucous membrane of the stomach is by no means con- stantly present, and is ascribable rather to the irritating substances pre- scribed as remedies, or to the spirituous vehicle in which the poison has been swallowed, than to the action of the poison itself. Such at least is the inference drawn by Nysten from his experiments and observations; and Orfila states that the stomachs of dogs which he had killed by opium inter- nally administered, did not present the slightest vestige of inflammation. The force of the medicine is directed to the cerebral and nervous functions; and death is produced by a suspension of respiration, arising from the want of due influence from the brain. The section of the par vagum on both sides has not been found to prevent or retard the death of animals to which large doses of opium have been given, nor even materially to modify its narcotic effects. (Nysten, quoted by Orfila.) It would seem, therefore, that the active principle is conveyed into the circulation, and operates upon the brain, and probably upon the nervous system at large, by immediate contact with their interior structure. It is an error to attribute the anodyne, sedative, and soporific effects of the medicine to the previous excitement. They are, as much as this very excitement, the direct results of its action upon the brain. It is in the state of exhaustion and collapse which ensue after the peculiar influence of the opium has ceased, that we are to look for an illustration of that principle of the system, by which any great exaltation of its energies above the natural standard is followed by a corresponding PART I. Opium. 521 depression. We maybe permitted to advance the conjecture, that the ex- citement which almost immediately supervenes upon the internal use of opium, is produced by means of nervous communication; while the suc- ceeding narcotic effects are attributable to its absorption and entrance into the circulation; and the prostration of all the powers of the system which ultimately takes place, is a necessary consequence of the agitation into which the various organs have been thrown. On some individuals opium produces very peculiar effects, totally differ- ing from the ordinary results of its operation. In very small quantities it occasionally gives rise to excessive sickness and vomiting, and even spasm of the stomach; in other cases it produces restlessness, headache, and deli- rium ; and we have known it, even in large doses, to occasion obstinate wakefulness. The headache, want of appetite, tremors, &c, which usually follow, in a slight degree, its narcotic operation, are uniformly experienced by some individuals to such an extent, as to render the use of the medicine very inconvenient. It is possible that some of these disagreeable effects may arise not from the meconate of morphia contained in the opium, but from some other of its ingredients, and those which do result from the meconate may not be produced by other salts of morphia. It has, in fact, been found that the operation of opium may often be favourably modified by changing the slate of combination in which its active principle naturally exists. Dissolved in vinegar or lemon juice, it had been known to act in some instances more pleasantly and effectually than in substance, or in the state of tincture, long before physicians had learned to explain the phe- nomenon by referring it to the production of an acetate or citrate of morphia. When upon the subject of morphia, we shall take occasion to treat of the medical properties of this principle in its various combinations. An occasional effect of opium, which has not yet been alluded to, is a disagreeable itching or sense of pricking in the skin, which is sometimes attended with a species of miliary eruption. We have found the effect to result equally from all the preparations of this narcotic. The general operation of opium may be obtained by injecting it into the rectum, or applying it to the surface of the body, especially upon a part denuded of the cuticle. It has appeared to us, when thus applied, to pro- duce less general excitement, in proportion to its other effects, than when administered by the mouth; but we do not make the statement with entire confidence. It is said that when introduced into the cellular membrane, it acts with great energy; and when thrown into the cavity of the peritoneum, speedily produces convulsions and death. Injected into the cavity of the heart, it impairs or altogether destroys the powers of that organ. The local effects of opium are similar in character to those which follow its general operation. An increased action of the part is first ob- servable ; then a diminution of its sensibility and contractility; and the latter effect is more speedy, more intense, and of longer continuance, the larger the quantity in which the narcotic is applied. In all parts of the world, opium is habitually employed by many with a view to its exhilarating and anodyne influence. This is particularly the case among the Mahomedans and Hindoos, who find in this narcotic the most pleasing substitute for those alcoholic drinks which are interdicted by the precepts of their religion. In India, Persia, and Turkey, it is con- sumed in immense quantities; and many nations of the East smoke opium as those of the West smoke tobacco. This is not the place to speak of the fearful effects of such a practice upon both the intellectual and bodily faculties. 45* 522 Opium. PART I. The use of opium as a medicine can be clearly traced back to Diagoras, who was nearly cotemporary with Hippocrates; and it was probably em- ployed before his time. It is at present more frequently prescribed than perhaps any other article of the materia medica. Its extensive applica- bility to the cure of disease, will be rendered evident by a view of the indications which, it is calculated to fulfil. 1. It is excitant in its primary action. In low or typhoid complaints, requiring a supporting treatment, it exalts the actions of the arterial and nervous systems, and, in moderate doses frequently repeated, may be employed with advantage in conjunction or alternation with other stimulants. 2. It relieves pain more speedily and effectually than any other medicine with which we are acquainted. If possessed of no other property than this, it would be entitled to high con- sideration. Not to mention cancer, and other incurable affections, which, if not alleviated by opium, would render the remainder of life a continued scene of torture, we have numerous instances of painful diseases which are not only temporarily relieved, but entirely cured by the remedy ; and there is scarcely a complaint in the catalogue of human ailments, in the treatment of which it is not occasionally demanded for the relief of suffer- ing, which, if allowed to continue, might aggravate the disorder, and pro- tract if not prevent a cure. 3. Another very important indication, which, beyond any other narcotic, it is capable of fulfilling, is the production of sleep. For this purpose it is given in a great variety of diseases—when- ever, in fact, morbid vigilance exists, not dependent on acute inflammation of the brain. Among the complaints in which it proves most serviceable in this way is delirium tremens, or the mania of drunkards, in which it is frequently sufficient of itself to effect a cure. Opium produces sleep in two ways; first, by its direct operation on the brain, secondly, by allaying that morbid nervous irritation upon which wakefulness generally depends. In the latter case it may frequently be advantageously combined with.cam- phor or Hoffmann's anodyne. 4. Opium is powerfully antispasmodic. No medicine is so efficient in relaxing spasm, and in controlling those irregular muscular movements which depend on unhealthy nervous action. Hence its great importance as a remedy in tetanus; colic; spasm of the stomach attending gout, dyspepsia, and cholera; spasm of the ureters in nephritis, and of the biliary ducts during the passage of calculi; and in various convulsive affections. 5. Probably dependent upon a similar in- fluence over the nervous system, is the property which it possesses of allaying general and local irritations, whether exhibited in the nerves or blood-vessels, provided the action do not amount to positive inflammation; and even in this case it is sometimes prescribed with advantage. Hence its use in composing restlessness, quieting cough, and relieving nausea, tenesmus, and strangury. 6. In suppressing morbid discharges, it answers another indication which fits it for the treatment of a long list of diseases. This effect it is, perhaps, enabled to produce by diminishing the nervous energy upon which secretion and muscular motion depend. Upon this principle it is useful in diarrhoea, when the complaint consists merely in increased secretion into the-bowels, without high action or organic derange- ment; in consumption, chronic catarrh, humoral asthma, and other cases of morbidly increased expectoration; in diabetes, and in certain forms of hemorrhage, particularly that from the uterus, in combination with other remedies. 7. It remains to mention one other indication—that of produc- ing perspiration—in fulfilling which opium, conjoined with small doses of emetic medicines, is pre-eminent. No diaphoretic is so powerful as a PART I. Opium. 523 combination of opium and ipecacuanha; and none is so extensively em- ployed. We shall speak more fully of this application of the remedy under the head of Pulvis Ipecacuanhas et Opii. It is here sufficient to say, that its beneficial effects are especially experienced in rheumatism, the bowel affections, and certain forms of pulmonary disease. From this great diversity of properties, and the frequent occurrence of those morbid conditions in which opium affords relief, it is often prescribed in the same disease to meet numerous indications. Thus, in idiopathic fevers, we frequently meet with morbid vigilance and great nervous irritation, combined with a low condition of the system. In typhous pneumonia, there is the same depression of the vital powers, combined with severe neuralgic pains, and much nervous irritation. In diarrhoea, besides the indications presented by the spasmodic pain and increased discharge, there is a strong call for the diaphoretic operation of the opium. It is unnecessary to multiply instances. There is hardly a complaint which does not occasionally pre- sent a complication of symptoms demanding the use of this remedy. But a medicine possessed of such extensive powers may do much injury if improperly directed; and conditions of the system frequently occur, in which, though some one of the symptoms calls for its use, others, on the contrary, are incompatible with it. Thus, opium is contra-indicated by a high state of inflammatory excitement, which should be reduced before we can with propriety venture upon its employment; and, when there is any doubt as to the sufficiency of the reduction, the opium should be given in combination with tartarized antimony or ipecacuanha, which modify its stimulant operation, and give it a more decided tendency to the skin. It is also contra-indicated by inflammation of the brain, or strong determination of blood to the head, by deficient secretion from inflamed mucous mem- branes, as in the early stages of bronchitis, and generally by constipation of the bowels. When, however, the constipation depends upon intestinal spasm, as in colic, it is sometimes relieved by the anti-spasmodic action of the opium; and the binding effects of the medicine may generally be coun- teracted by the use of laxatives. Opium is usually administered in substance or in tincture. In the former state it is given in the shape of pill, which, as a general rule, should be formed out of powdered opium, as it is thus more readily dissolved in the liquors of the stomach, and therefore operates more speedily and effectually than when made, as it sometimes is, immediately from the plastic mass. There is no medicine of which the dose is more variable, according to the habits of the patient, the nature of his complaint, or the purpose to be ef- fected. While in catarrh and diarrhoea, we often prescribe not more than one-fourth or one-third of a grain, in tetanus and some other nervous affec- tions, it has been administered, without abating the violence of the symp- toms, in the enormous quantity of two drachms in twenty-four hours; and in a case of cancer of the uterus, under the care of the late Drs. Monges and La Roche, of this city, the quantity is stated to have been gradually in- creased till the amount taken during one day, either in the shape of tincture or in substance, was equivalent to more than three ounces. The medium dose, in ordinary cases of disease, to produce the anodyne and soporific effects of the medicine, is one grain. Opium may often be applied with great advantage by the rectum. In this way it operates most advantageously in cases of obstinate vomiting, of pain- ful nephritic and uterine affections, of strangury from blisters, and of dysen- teric tenesmus. It may be employed as a suppository, or in the form of enema made with laudanum and a small quantity of viscid liquid, as flaxseed 524 Opium. PART I. tea, mucilage of gum Arabic, or starch prepared with hot water. The quan- tity, as a general rule,may be three times that administered by the mouth; but the relative susceptibility of the stomach and rectum in different persons is not always the same; and the effects produced by the narcotic, given by injection, are sometimes much greater than was anticipated. The prac- titioner, moreover, should take into consideration the previous habits of the patient. In an individual who has long been accustomed to take opium internally, and whose stomach will receive large doses with impunity, it is possible that the rectum may not have lost, in a proportionate degree, its absorbing power or susceptibility; and that serious consequences might re- sult by adhering, in such a case, to the general rule as to the relative quan- tity to be given in the way of enema or suppository. In some one of its liquid preparations, opium is often used externally as an addition to collyria in ophthalmia, to injections in gonorrhoea, and to lotions in various complaints of the skin, and external pains, as those of gout and rheumatism. It is also used as a local anodyne in the state of powder, made into a plaster or cataplasm. But its external use requires some caution, espe- cially when the skin is deprived of the cuticle. Death is said to have re- sulted from the application of a cataplasm, containing a very large quantity of laudanum, to the epigastrium. (Annuaire de The rap., 1843, p. 5.) When opium has been taken in an overdose, the only effectual mode of relief is immediately to evacuate the stomach, either by means of the sto- mach-pump, or, when this is not attainable, by the more active emetics, such as tartarized antimony, sulphate of zinc, or sulphate of copper, conjoined with ipecacuanha. Emetics are preferable to the stomach-pump, when opium has been swallowed in substance; as the capacity -of the tube is insufficient to admit of the passage of the masses in which the poison is sometimes taken. The operation of the emetic should be promoted by a very free use of warm drinks, by irritating the fauces with a feather, by keeping the patient in motion, and, if the insusceptibility to the action of the remedy is very great, by dashing cold water upon the head and shoulders, thus counteracting, for a moment, the narcotic influence of the opium upon the brain, and enabling this organ to receive and transmit the necessary impressions. For the same purpose it has been recommended to pass a current of electricity through the brain. After the evacuation of the poison, the chief indication is to obviate the debility which generally supervenes, and which, in cases where the quantity of the narcotic has been large, or has remained long in the stomach, is sometimes alarming and even fatal. For this purpose, the carbonate of ammonia or the aromatic spirit of am- monia, with wine whey, may be employed internally, and sinapisms and stimulant frictions applied to the surface. The practitioner should not de- spair even if called at the last moment. The stomach tube may be applied at any period; and it is possible that, even without an evacuation of the stomach, a little assistance may enable the system to resist successfully the prostrating influence of the poison, if not taken in an overwhelming dose. The electro magnetic battery was employed with great advantage in a case of prostration of this kind by Dr. Page, of Valparaiso; and the practice has since been imitated in Europe. Should all other measures fail, resort may be had to artificial respiration, by which the functions of the lungs and heart may possibly be sustained till the brain has struggled through its conflict with the narcotic, and is enabled to resume its natural action. Brodie has demonstrated that death from many of the narcotics results from a suspension of the cerebral influence necessary to sustain the respiratory function, and that the heart ceases to act in consequence of the cessation of respiration. PART I. Opium,.— Opopanax. 525 If this can be restored artificially before the contractions of the heart have entirely ceased, the circulation may continue, and life be supported for a time without aid from the brain, which now receives a supply of arterial blood, and is thus better enabled to rise above the repressing action of the opium. As this narcotic does not produce a structural derangement, but operates chiefly upon the nervous power, a favourable result is more likely to be ex- perienced than in cases of poisoning from some other articles of the same class. Several cases are on record, in which patients, apparently in the very last'stage, were saved by a resort to artificial respiration.* Off. Prep. Acetum Opii, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Confectio Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Electuarium Catechu, Ed., Dub.; Emplastrum Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Opii, Ed., Lond., Dub.; Linimentum Opii, Ed.; Morphia, U. S.; Morphia? Murias, Ed., Lond.; Pilula? Calomelanos et Opii, Ed.; Pilulae Opii, U. S., Ed.; Pil. Plumbi Opiatae, Ed.; Pil. Sapo- nis Composita?, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Pil. Styracis Comp., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Cretae Compositus cum Opio, Lond., Ed.; Pulvis Ipecacu- anha? et Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Kino Compositus, Lond.; Tinctura Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tr. Opii Acetata, U. S.; Tr. Opii Ammoniata, Ed.; Tr. Opii Camphorata, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tro- chisci Glycyrrhiza? et Opii, U. S., Ed.; Vinum Opii, U. S., Lond., Ed. W. OPOPANAX. Lond. Opopanax. "Opopanax Chironium. Gummi-resina." Lond. Off. Syn. OPOPONAX. Pastinaca Opoponax. Gummi Resina. Dub. Opopanax, Fr.; Panax, Opopanax, Germ.; Opopanace, Ital; Opopanaco, Span.; Jawe- sheer, Arab.; Giiwsheer, Pers. Pastinaca. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifera?. Gen. Ch. Fruit elliptical, compressed, flat. Petals involute, entire. Willd. Pastinaca Opopanax. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1466; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 122. t. 47.—Opopanax Chironium. De Candolle. This species of parsnep, usually called rough parsnep, has a thick, yellow, fleshy, perennial root, which sends up annually a strong branching stem, rough near the base, about as thick as a man's thumb, and from four to eight feet in height. The leaves are variously pinnate, with long sheathing petioles, and large, oblong, serrate leaflets, of which the terminal one is cordate, others are deficient at their base upon the upper side, and the whole are hairy on their under surface. The flowers are small, yellow, and form large flat umbels at the termination of the branches. The plant is a native of the Levant, and grows wild in the South of France, Italy, and Greece. When the base of the stem is wounded, a juice exudes, which, when dried in the sun, constitutes the opopanax of com- merce. Some authors state that it is obtained from the root. A warm climate appears necessary for the perfection of the juice, as that which has * One case was that of an infant, ten days old, who had received by mistake from twenty-five to thirty drops of laudanum intended for the mother, had completely lost the power of deglutition, was comatose, and had had several convulsions. Artificial respira- tion was sustained two or three hours. (See case by Dr. Ogi [vie, in the N. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ., vol. iii. p. 277.) Another case was that of an adult female, for a notice of winch, see the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, vol. xx. p. 450. 526 Opopanax.— Origanum. part i. been collected from the plant in France, though similar to opopanax, is of inferior quality. The drug is brought from Turkey. It is said to come also from the East Indies; but Ainslie states that he has never met with it in any Indian medicine bazaar. It is sometimes in tears, but usually in irregular lumps or fragments, of a reddish-yellow colour, speckled with white on the outside, paler within, and, when broken, exhibiting white pieces intermingled with the mass. Its odour is strong, peculiar, and unpleasant; its taste bitter and acrid. Its sp. gr. is 1*622. It is inflammable, burning with a bright flame. In chemical con- stitution it is a gum-resin, with an admixture of other ingredients in small proportion. The results of its analysis by Pelletier were from 100 parts, 33*4 of gum, 42 of resin, 4*2 of starch, 1*6 of extractive, 0*3 of wax, 2-8 of malic acid, 9*8 of lignin, 5*9 of volatile oil and loss, with traces of caout- chouc. Water by trituration dissolves about one-half of the gum-resin, forming an opaque milky solution, which deposits resinous matter on stand- ing, and becomes yellowish. Both alcohol and water distilled from it retain its flavour ; but only a very minute proportion of oilcan be obtained in a separate state. Medical Properties and Uses. Opopanax was formerly employed, as an antispasmodic and deobstruent, in hypochondriasis, hysteria,1 asthma, and chronic visceral affections, and as an emmenagogue in suppression of the menses; but it is now generally regarded as a medicine of very feeble powers, and in this country is scarcely ever used. Its dose is from ten to thirty grains. W. ORIGANUM. U S., Lond., Ed. Origanum, " The herb of Origanum vulgare." U. S., Ed. " Origanum vulgare." Lond. Off. Syn. ORIGANUM VULGARE. Dub. Origan, Fr.; Gemeiner Dosten, Wohlgemuth, Germ.; Origano, Ital; Oregano, Span. Origanum. Sex. Syst. Didynamia Gymnospermia.—Nat. Ord. Lamia- cea? or Labiata?. Gen. Ch. Strobile four-cornered, spiked, collecting the calyces. Corolla with the upper lip erect and flat, the lower three-parted, with the segments equal. Willd. Origanum vulgare. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 135 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 344. t. 123. Origanum or common marjoram is a perennial herb, with erect, purplish, downy, four-sided, trichotomous stems, which rise about eighteen inches high, and bear opposite, ovate, entire, somewhat hairy leaves, of a deep yellowish-green colour. The flowers are numerous, of a pinkish-pur- ple or rose colour, disposed in roundish, panicled spikes, and accompanied with ovate reddish bractes, longer than the calyx. This is tubular, and five- toothed, with nearly equal segments. The corolla is funnel-shaped, with the upper lip erect, bifid, and obtuse, the lower trifid, blunt, and spreading. The anthers are double, the stigma bifid, and refiexed. The plant is a native of Europe and America. In this country it grows along the road sides, and in dry stony fields and woods, from Pennsylvania to Virginia, and is in flower from June to October; but it is not very abun- dant, and is seldom collected for use. The oil, which is the part chiefly employed, is imported from Europe. parti. Origanum.— Origanum Major ana.— Os. 527 Properties. Common marjoram has a peculiar agreeable aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent taste. These properties it owes to a volatile oil, which may be separated by distillation. (See Oleum Origani.) Medical Properties and Uses. It is gently tonic and excitant, and has been used in the form of infusion as a diaphoretic and emmenagogue, and externally as a fomentation; but it is at present scarcely employed. Off'.Prep. Oleum Origani, U.S.,Lond., Ed., Dub. W. ORIGANUM MAJORANA. Herba. Dub. Sweet Marjoram. Marjolaine, Fr.; Majoran, Wurstkraut, Germ.; MaggiOrana, Ital; Mejorana, Span. Origanum. See ORIGANUM. Origanum Major ana. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 137; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 345. t. 124. This species of Origanum has a perennial root with numerous stems, which are woody, branching, four-sided, and a foot and a half high. The leaves are sessile, in pairs, ovate, obtuse, entire, downy, and of a pale green colour. The flowers are small, white, and appear successively be- tween the bracteal leaves, which are numerous, and form round compact spikes, of which three or four are placed at the extremity of each peduncle. The corolla is funnel-shaped, with the upper lip erect and roundish, the under divided into three pointed segments. Sweet marjoram grows wild in Portugal and Andalusia, and is cultivated as a garden herb in other parts of Europe and in the United States. Some authors, however, consider the O. Majoranoides, which is a native of Bar- bary, and closely allied to the O. Majorana, as the type of the sweet mar- joram of our gardens. This plant has a pleasant odour, and a warm, aromatic, bitterish taste, which it imparts to water and alcohol. By distillation with water it yields a volatile oil, which, is directed by the Edinburgh College among their pre- parations, though the plant has been rejected. It is tonic and gently excitant, but is used more as a condiment in cookery than as a medicine. In domestic practice, its infusion is much employed by the vulgar to hasten the tardy eruption in measles and other exanthe- matous diseases. Off. Prep. Oleum Volatile Origani Majorana?. Ed. W. OS. U.S. Bone. Off. Syn. OSSA. Dub. Os, Fr.; Knochen, Germ.; Ossa, Ital; Huesos, Span. Bones are employed in several pharmaceutical processes, and those de- rived from the domestic quadrupeds, especially the ox, may be assumed as the kind intended for officinal use. They have been expunged from the officinal list of the Edinburgh College, though used by the College for pre- paring phosphate of soda. Properties, fyc. They are solid white substances, of a lamellated texture, constituting the skeleton of the superior orders of animals, of which they form the hardest and densest parts. They consist of a cellular gelatinous tissue, the cavities of which are filled up with certain earthy salts, to be 528 Os. PART I. mentioned presently. When subjected to destructive distillation, in close vessels, they, are decomposed without alteration of shape, lose about three sevenths of their weight, become brittle, and are converted into a black substance, containing the earthy salts of the bone, and constituting the species of animal charcoal called bone-black. (See Carbo Animalis.) The portions which distil over consist of the usual ammoniacal products derived from animal matter. (See Ammonias Murias.) When calcined in open vessels they lose more of their weight, and are converted into a white friable substance, consisting of the incombustible part, and commonly called bone-earth, or bone-ash; and a similar residue is obtained by calcining horn. (See Cornu Uslum.) Treated with boiling water, a small portion of the gelatinous matter is dissolved; but when acted on by water in a Papin's digester, the whole of it is taken up, and the earthy salts, deprived of their cement, crumble into powder, and become diffused through the solution. When subjected to the action of dilute muriatic acid, the earthy salts are dissolved, and the bone softens without losing its shape, and becomes semi- transparent and flexible. The portion remaining unattacked by the acid is the gelatinous tissue, which may be converted into gelatin by long boil- ing. This portion of bone is nutritious, and has been prepared so as to form a wholesome aliment, by M. d'Arcet. His process for obtaining it consists in digesting bones in weak muriatic acid for seven or eight days, occasionally renewing the acid, plunging them for a few moments in boil- ing water, and then subjecting them to a strong current of cold water. The pure animal matter thus procured is made into cakes called portable soup (tablettes de bouillon), by dissolving it in water, concentrating the solution until it gelatinizes, and drying the matter obtained. Composition. The bones of different animals, and of the same animal at different ages, vary somewhat in their composition. Dry ox-bones, ac- cording to Berzelius, consist of animal matter 33*3, bone-phosphate of lime 55*45, carbonate of lime 3*85, fluoride of calcium 2*90, soda, chloride of sodium, water, &c. 2.45, phosphate of magnesia 2*05 = 100. Fourcroy and Vauquelin's results give a larger proportion of animal matter and car- bonate of lime, and a smaller of bone-phosphate. Fluoride of calcium is not always present in recent bone, but is invariably found in fossil bones. Human bones differ somewhat in the proportions of their constituents, and in containing traces of iron and manganese. Bone-phosphate of lime, so called to distinguish it from the other calcareous phosphates, consists of three eqs. of phosphoric acid and eight of lime. Uses. Bones are applied to numerous uses. Burnt to whiteness, they furnish bone-phosphate of lime, from which phosphorus and all its com- pounds are either directly or indirectly obtained. (See Phosphorus.) Sub- jected to destructive distillation, they yield impure carbonate of ammonia, and empyreumatic oil; and a carbonaceous residue is left, called bone- black. Calcined, pulverized, and washed, they form the material of which cupels axe made. As bone-dust, they form an excellent manure. Deprived of their earthy portion by weak acids, they furnish a nutritious article of diet. By proper treatment with water they furnish gelatin, applicable not only to the purposes of size and common glue, but also to those of the finer sorts of gelatin, called isinglass, in making animal jellies, and for the fining of wines. (See Ichthyocolla and Cornu.) The hoof-bones of the ox, when boiled with water, furnish a peculiar oil, called neats-foot oil. (See Oleum Bubulum.) Off.Prep. Calcis Phosphas Praecipitatum, Dub.; Soda? Phosphas, U.S., Ed., Dub. B. " PART I. Ovum. 529 OVUM. Lond., Ed. E99- " Phasianus Gallus. Ovum." Lond. " Egg of Phasianus gallus." Ed. 02uf, Fr.; Ei, Germ.; Ovo, Ital; Huevo, Span. The common dunghill fowl is supposed to have come originally from India, where it is found in a wild state. It is now domesticated in' almost all parts of the globe. The egg, which is the only officinal product, consists of 1. an exterior covering called the shell; 2. a white, semi-opaque membrane, lining the in- ternal surface of the shell; 3. the white; 4. the yolk. Other distinct parts are recognised by the comparative anatomist, but they have no peculiar interest for the practical physician or pharmaceutist. 1. The shell—testa ovi or putamen ovi—consists, according to Vauque- lin, chiefly of carbonate of lime, with animal matter, and a minute propor- tion of phosphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, oxide of iron, and sulphur. When exposed to a high degree of heat in the open air, the carbonic acid is driven off, the animal matter consumed, and lime is left nearly pure. 2. The membrane lining the shell appears to be of an albuminous nature. 3. The white —albumen ovi—is a glairy viscid liquid contained in very delicate membranes, without odour or taste, readily soluble in water, coagu- lable by the stronger acids, by alcohol, and by a heat of 160° F. Exposed in thin layers to a current of air, it becomes solid, retaining its transparency and solubility in water. By coagulation it is rendered sapid, white, opaque, and insoluble. At a temperature of 212,° one part of it renders one thou- sand parts of water in which it has been dissolved opaque. It contains, according to Dr. Bostock, in one hundred parts, 85 of water, 12 of pure albumen, 2*7 of mucus or uncoagulable matter, and 0*3 of saline substances, including soda with traces of sulphur. The white of egg is precipitated by chloride of tin, chloride of gold, subacetate of lead, corrosive sublimate, and tannin. When kept in the fluid state it soon putrefies; but, if carefully dried without coagulation, it may be long preserved without change, and may be applied in a state of solution to the same purposes as in its original condition. 4. The yolk—vitellus ovi—is inodorous, of a bland oily taste, and forms an opaque emulsion when agitated with water. By heat it is coagulated into a granular solid, which yields a fixed oil by expression. According to M. Gobley, 100 parts of it contain 51*486 of water, 15*760 of a peculiar albuminous principle, denominated vitellin, 21*304 of margarin and olein, 0*438 of cholesterin, 7*226 of oleic and margaric acids, 1*200 of phospho- glyceric acid, 0*034 of muriate of ammonia, 0*277 of chlorides of sodium and potassium, and sulphate of potassa, 1*022 of phosphates of lime and magnesia, 0-400 of animal extract (extrait de viande), and 0*853 of ammo- nia, a nitrogenous substance, and colouring matter, with traces of iron, &c. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., ix. 174.) Medical Properties and Uses. Eggs are applied to various purposes in medicine and pharmacy. The shells, powdered and levigated, may be used beneficially as an antacid in diarrhoea. In common with oyster-shells, they possess the advantage of uniting intimately animal matter with the carbon- ate of lime, the particles of which are thus more thoroughly isolated, and prove more acceptable to the stomach than chalk, in the finest state of divi- sion to which the latter can be brought by mechanical means. The dose and mode of preparation are the same with those of oyster-shell. (See Testa.) 46 530 Ovum.—Panax. part i. The white of the egg is used chiefly for the clarification of liquids, which it effects by involving, during its coagulation, the undissolved particles, and rising with them to the surface or subsiding. It is highly recommended as an antidote for corrosive sublimate and sulphate of copper, with which it forms insoluble and comparatively inert compounds. It is sometimes also used for the suspension of insoluble substances in water, but is inferior for this purpose to the yolk, and even to mucilage of gum Arabic. Agitated briskly with a lump of alum it coagulates, at the same time dissolving a portion of the alum, and thus forming an astringent poultice, which maybe advantageously applied between folds of gauze over the eye, in some states of ophthalmia. (See Cataplasma Aluminis.) The yolk in its raw state is thought to be laxative, and is a popular remedy in jaundice. If beneficial in this complaint, it is probably in con- sequence of affording a mild nutritious diet, acceptable to the stomach, and easily digested. In dyspepsia it. is, from this cause, highly useful. The late Dr. Parrish, of Philadelphia, found great advantage in that complaint from the habitual use of the yolk of egg, beat up with water and a little ginger. In pharmacy, the yolk is highly useful as an intermedium between water and insoluble substances, such as the balsams, turpentine, oils, &c. It is a mistake to employ the white, instead of the yolk of eggs, in preparing emulsions. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Aluminis, Dub.; Enema Terebinthina?, Lond., Ed.; Dubi; Mistura Spiritus Vini Gallici, Lond. W. PANAX. U.S. Secondary. Ginseng. '•The root of Panax quinquefolium." U. S. Ginseng, Fr., Germ., Span.; Ginsen, Ital. Panax. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia. (Polygamia Dicecia, Linn.)— Nat. Ord. Araliacea?. Gen. Ch. Flowers polygamous. Umbel simple. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla of five petals. Berry inferior, subcordate, two, sometimes three- seeded. Calyx in the male flower entire. Nuttall. Panax quinquefolium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1124; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 149. t. 58; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 82. The ginseng has a perennial root, which sends up annually a smooth, round stem, about a foot high, and divided at the summit into three leafstalks, each of which supports a com- pound leaf, consisting of five, or more rarely of three or seven petiolate, oblong obovate, acuminate, serrate leaflets. The flowers are small, green- ish, and arranged in a simple umbel, supported by a peduncle, which rises from the top of the stem in the centre of the petioles. The fruit consists of kidney-shaped, scarlet berries, crowned with the styles and calyx, and containing two and sometimes three seeds. The plant is indigenous, growing in the hilly regions of the Northern, Middle, and Western States, and preferring the shelter of thick, shady woods. The root is the part employed. This is collected in considerable quantities in Ohio and Western Virginia, and brought to Philadelphia and other cities on the sea-board for the purpose of exportation to China, where it is highly valued. Some suppose the ginseng plant of Chinese Tartary to be the same as ours; others believe it to be the Panax Schinseng of Nees von Esenbeck ; while by others, again, though acknowledged to be a Panax, it is thought to be a different species from either of those mentioned. While supplied with this drug exclusively from their own native sources, PART I. Panax. -^-Papaver. 531 which furnished the root only in small quantities, the Chinese entertained the most extravagant notions of its virtues, considering it as a remedy for all diseases, and as possessing almost miraculous powers in preserving health, invigorating the system, and prolonging life. It is said to have been worth its weight in gold at Pekin ; and the first shipments made from North Ame- rica to Canton, after the discovery of the root in this country, yielded enor- mous profits. But the subsequent abundance of supply has greatly di- minished its value. The root is fleshy, somewhat spindle-shaped, from one to three inches long, about as thick as the little finger, and terminated by several slender fibres. Frequently there are two portions, sometimes three or more, con- nected at their upper extremity, and bearing a supposed, though very re- mote resemblance to the human figure, from which circumstance it is said that the Chinese name ginseng originated. When dried, the root is yel- lowish-white and wrinkled externally, and within consists usually of a hard central portion, surrounded by a soft whitish bark. It has. a feeble odour, and a sweet, slightly aromatic taste, somewhat analogous to that of liquorice root. It has not been accurately analyzed, but is said to be rich in gum and starch. It is sometimes submitted, before being dried, to a process of clarifi- cation, which renders it semitransparent and horny, and enhances its value as an article of export. The extraordinary medical virtues formerly ascribed to ginseng, had no other existence than in the imaginations of the Chinese. It is little more than a demulcent, and in this country is not employed as a medicine. Some persons, however, are in the habit of chewing it, having acquired a relish for its taste; and it is chiefly to supply the wants of these that it is kept in the shops. W. PAPAVER. U S., Lond., Ed. Poppy-heads. "The ripe capsules of Papaver somniferum." U.S. "Papaver somnir ierum. Capsulae malurae." Lond. " Capsules of Papaver somniferum, not quite ripe." Ed. Off. Syn. PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM. Capsula? matura?. Dub. Capsules des pavots, Fr.; Kapseln des weissen Mohns, Germ.; Capidel papavero, Ital; Cabezas de amapola, Spatu See OPIUM. In England the poppy is cultivated chiefly for its capsules, which are gathered as they ripen, and taken to market enclosed in bags. The Edin- burgh College properly direct them to be collected before they are quite ripe, as they contain at that period more of the active milky juice. They are occasionally imported into this country; but as no effect is produced by them which cannot be as readily obtained from opium, or some one of its preparations, they are little employed. The dried poppy capsules vary in size from the dimensions of a small egg to those of the fist. They are of a spheroidal shape, flattened below, and surmounted by a crown-like expansion—the persistent stigma—which is marked by numerous diverging rays that rise somewhat above its upper surface, and appear to be prolongations of partial septa, or partitions, pro- ceeding along the interior circumference of the capsule from the top to the bottom. In the recent state, the seeds, which are very numerous, adhere to these septa; but in the dried capsule they are loose in its cavity. The cap- sules of the black poppy are smaller and more globular than those of the white, and contain dark instead of light-coloured seeds. There appears to 532 Papaver.—^Pareira. part i. be no essential difference in their properties. Both kinds, when fresh, are glaucous, but when dry, as directed in the Pharmacopoeias, are of a dirty white or purplish-brown colour, have a consistence somewhat like that of paper, are without smell, and have little taste, unless long chewed, when they are decidedly bitter. Submitted to analysis, they are found to contain principles similar to those of opium, which they yield to water by decoction. They have been employed in France for obtaining morphia. Medical Properties and Uses. Dried poppy-heads, though analogous to opium in medical properties, are exceedingly feeble. They are sometimes employed in the form of decoction, as an external emollient and anodyne application; and, in the shape of emulsion,syrup, or extract, are often used internally by European practitioners to calm irritation, promote rest, and produce generally the narcotic effects of opium. Off. Prep. Decoctum Papaveris, Lond., Ed.; Extractum Papaveris, Lond., Ed.; Syrupus Papaveris, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PA RE IRA. U. S. Secondary, Lond., Ed. Pareira Brava. "The root of Cissampelos Pareira." U.S., Ed. "Cissampelos Pareira. Radix." Lond. Cissampelos. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Monadelphia.--Nat. Ord. Menisper- maceae. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx four-leaved. Corolla none. Nectary rotate. Stamens four, with connate filaments. Female one-leaved, ligulate round- ish. Corolla none. Styles three. Berry one-seeded. Cissampelos Pareira. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 861; Woodv. Med. Bot. 3d ed. p. 167. t. 65. This is a climbing plant, with numerous slender, shrubby stems, and roundish, entire leaves, indented at the top, covered with soft hair upon their under surface, and supported upon downy footstalks, which are inserted into the back of the leaf. The flowers are very small, and disposed in racemes, of which those in the female plant are longer than the leaves. The plant is a native of the West Indies and South America, and is supposed to be the source of the root brought from Brazil, under the name of'pareira brava. According to Auguste St. Hilaire, however, the true pareira is obtained from another species of the same genus, growing in Brazil, and denominated C. glaberrima; while by Aublet it is referred to a species of Abuta, belonging to the same natural family. The root comes in pieces from the thickness of the finger to that of the arm, from a few inches to two or more feet in length, cylindrical, sometimes contorted or forked, and covered with a thin, firmly adhering, grayish-brown bark. The outer surface is marked with longitudinal and annular wrinkles, and sometimes, in the larger pieces, with knotty excrescences. The interior is ligneous, yellowish, very porous, marked by irregular concentric circles, inodorous, and of a sweetish, nauseous, bitter taste. The root imparts its virtues readily to water. . M. Feneulle found in it a soft resin, a yellow bitter principle, a brown substance, an azotized substance, fecula, acidulous malate of lime, nitrate of potassa, and various other salts. M. Feneulle considers the yellow bitter substance as the active principle. It is soluble in water and alcohol, and precipitated from its solution by tincture of galls. Wiggers announced, in 1838, the existence in pareira brava of a vegetable alkali, for which he proposed the name of cissampelina. He procured it by boiling the root with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, precipitating by car- bonate of potassa, dissolving the precipitate again in water acidulated with part i. Pareira.—Petroleum. 533 sulphuric acid, treating the solution with animal charcoal, precipitating anew with carbonate of potassa, drying and pulverizing the precipitate, treating it repeatedly with ether, and evaporating the ethereal solution. The alkali thus obtained may be rendered entirely pure by dissolving it in diluted acetic acid, precipitating with carbonate of potassa, and washing and drying the precipitate. (Annal. der Pharm., xxvii. 29.) Wiggers did not describe this alkali. It is probably the chief ingredient of the bitter substance ob- tained by Feneulle. Peretti of Rome and Pelletier afterwards separated an alkali from the root, which was characterized by assuming a beautiful purple colour by contact with strong nitric acid. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 162.) In Christison's Dispensatory it is stated to be uncrystallizable, inso- luble in water, soluble in ether, alcohol, and the acids, and of an intensely bitter and sweetish taste. Medical Properties and Uses. Pareira brava is said to be tonic, aperient and diuretic. It was introduced into European practice so long ago as 16&8, and at one time enjoyed considerable reputation as a lithontriptic. It has been recommended in calculous affections, chronic inflammation and ulcer- ation of the kidneys and bladder, leucorrhoea, dropsy, rheumatism, and jaundice. The purpose for which it is at present chiefly employed is the relief of chronic diseases of the urinary passages. Sir Benjamin Brodie has found it very useful, in chronic inflammation of the bladder, in allaying irritability of that organ, and correcting the disposition to profuse mucous secretion. Dr. T. F. Betton, of Germantown, near Philadelphia, has. also employed it successfully in a case of irritable bladder. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xvii. 259.) Advantage may often be derived from combining it, in this complaint, with one of the narcotics, as opium or hyoscyamus. In Brazil, it is used in the cure of the bites of poisonous serpents; a vinous infusion of the root being taken internally, while the bruised leaves of the plant are applied to the wound. The dose of pareira brava in substance-is from thirty grains to a drachm. The infusion, however, is more convenient. (See Infusum Pareirae.) A tincture made by macerating one part of the root in five parts of alcohol has been given in the dose of a fluidrachm. The aqueous extract may be given in the dose of from ten to thirty grains. Off.Prep. Extractum Pareira?, Lond., Ed.; Infusum Pareira?, Lond., Ed. W. PETROLEUM. Lond., Ed. Petroleum. " Petroleum (Barbadense)." Lond. Off. Syn. PETROLEUM. BITUMEN PETROLEUM. PETRO- LEUM BARBADENSE. Dub. Barbadoes tar, Rock oil; Petrole, Huile de Gabian, Fr.; Steinol, Germ.; Petrolio, Ital; Petroleo. Span. Petroleum belongs to the class of native inflammable substances, called bitumens. These are liquids or readily fusible solids, which emit, when heated, a peculiar smell, burn easily, and leave a. very small carbonaceous residue. They are of two kinds, one liquid, called naphtha, the other solid, denominated asphaltum. Naphtha is a transparent yellowish-white, very light and inflammable limpid liquid, which is found abundantly in Persia. It consists exclusively of carbon and hydrogen. As oxygen does not enter into its composition, it may be advantageously employed for preserving potassium. During the formation of coal gas, an artificial naphtha is ob- tained, which by rectification is rendered equally light and limpid with the 46* 534 Petroleum. PART I. natural substance. Thus purified, it was found, by Mr. James Syme, of Edinburgh, to possess the property of dissolving caoutchouc, and the solution has been usefully applied to the purpose of forming various surgical instruments of that material. This solution has also been employed, at the suggestion of Mr. Macintosh, of Glasgow, for rendering cloth and other fabrics water-proof. They are varnished with the solution on one side, and the varnished surfaces are applied to each other, and made to adhere by powerful pressure. Asphaltum is solid, black, dry, friable, and insoluble in alcohol. These two varieties of bitumen often exist in a state of mixture in nature. When the asphaltum predominates it takes the name of maltha or mineral tar; when the naphtha is in the larger proportion it is called petro- leum. Localities. Petroleum is found principally at Amiano in Italy, at Gabian in France, upon the borders of the Caspian Sea, near Rangoon in the Bir- man Empire, and in Barbadoes, Trinidad, and other West India islands. The wells of petroleum in Birmah are said to produce four hundred thou- sand hogsheads annually. The petroleum from Barbadoes is indicated as the officinal variety by the London and Dublin Colleges. The kind is not specified by the Edinburgh College. In the United States, petroleum is found in various localities, the princi- pal of which are on the Kenhawa in Virginia ; near Scottsville in Kentucky; in Western Pennsylvania ; on Duck Creek in Ohio ; and on the shores of Seneca lake in New York. That found in the latter locality is usually called in this country Seneca oil, and similar varieties of petroleum from other native sources are known by the same name. Properties. Barbadoes petroleum is a black, nearly opaque, inflammable liquid, of the consistence of molasses, unctuous to the touch, and possessing a bituminous taste, and strong and tenacious odour. Its sp. gr. varies from 0*730 to 0*878. When subjected to distillation, it yields naphtha, and leaves a solid residue of asphaltum. It is little affected by alcohol, acids, or alka- lies, but dissolves in ether and in the fixed and volatile oils. It consists chiefly of carbon and hydrogen, associated with a little nitrogen and oxygen. Rangoon petroleum has a dark reddish-black colour, a strong, rather fragrant odour, and the consistence of lard in summer. When heated to 90°, it be- comes a reddish-brown very mobile liquid. (Christison.) Dr. Christison obtained from it by distillation, first, a large quantity of naphtha, and after- wards a crystalline principle, which he ascertained to be identical with pa- raffin. In the naphtha Dr. Gregory subsequently discovered eupione. It is probable, as Dr. Christison remarks, that this petroleum is more active than the Barbadoes. Medical Properties and Uses. Petroleum is accounted a stimulating anti- spasmodic and sudorific. It is occasionally given in disorders of the chest, when not attended with inflammation. In Germany it has been extolled as a remedy for tape-worm. Schwartz's formula in such cases was a mixture of one part of petroleum with one and a half parts of tincture of assafetida, of which forty drops were given three times a day. Externally, petroleum is employed as a stimulating embrocation in chilblains, chronic rheumatism, affections of the joints, and paralysis. It is an ingredient in the popular remedy called British oil. The dose of petroleum is from thirty drops to a small teaspoonful, given in any convenient vehicle. The native petroleum called Seneca oil is used to a considerable extent as an external application in domestic practice. It is lighter coloured, thinner in consistence, and less sapid and odorous than the Barbadoes petroleum, and probably contains more naphtha. B. part i. Petroselinum.—Phosphorus. 535 PETROSELINUM. U.S. Secondary. Parsley Root. "The root of Apium Petroselinum."U. S. Per^il, Fr.; Petersilie, Germ.; Prezzemolo, Ital; Perexil, Span. Apium. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Apiacea? or Umbel- liferae. Gen.Ch. Fruit ovate, striated. Involucre one-leafed. Petals equal. TVilld. Apium Petroselinum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1475; Wood v. Med. Bot. p. 118. t. 45. Petroselinum sativum. Hoffmann, Umb. i. t. 1. f. 2.; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 35. Parsley has a biennial root, with an annual, round, fur- rowed, jointed, erect, branching stem, which rises about two feet in height. The radical leaves are compound, pinnated in ternaries, with the leaflets smooth, divided into three lobes, and notched at the margin. In the cauline leaves, the segments of the leaflets are linear and entire. The flowers are small, pale yellow, and disposed in terminal compound umbels, with a one or two-leaved general involucre, and partial ones composed of six or eight leaflets. The petals are five, roundish, and inflexed at their apex. The seeds (half fruits) are small, ovate, flat on one side, convex on the other, of a dark-green colour, and marked with five longitudinal ridges. They have a strong, terebinthinate odour, and a warm aromatic taste. The plant is a native of Sardinia, and other parts of Southern Europe, and is cultivated everywhere in gardens. All parts of it contain an essential oil, to which it owes its medicinal virtues, as well as its use in seasoning. M.' H. Braconnot obtained from the herb a peculiar gelatinous substance, resem- bling pectic acid in appearance, which he named apiin. It is procured by boiling the herb in water, straining the liquor, and allowing it to cool. The apiin then forms a gelatinous mass, which requires only to be washed with cold water. (Phil. Mag., xxiv. 155.) The root is the part directed by the Pharmacopoeia, though the fruit is at least equally efficient. The root is spindle-shaped, about as thick as the finger, externally white, and marked with close annular wrinkles, internally fleshy and white, with a yellowish central portion. It has a pleasant smell, and a sweetish slightly aromatic taste; but loses these properties by long boiling, and by the action of time. It should be employed in the recent state. Medical Properties and Uses. Parsley root is said to be aperient and diuretic, and is occasionally used in nephritic and dropsical affections, in connexion with more active medicines. It is highly recommended by Pro- fessor Chapman. The usual form of administration is that of strong infu- sion. The juice of the fresh herb has been employed as a substitute for quinia in intermittents. W. PHOSPHORUS. Lond. Phosphorus. Phospore, Fr.; Phosphor, Germ.; Fosforo, Ital, Span. This elementary substance was discovered in 1669 by Brandt, an al- chemist of Hamburg; and the process by which it was made remained a secret until 1737. At first it was obtained from putrid urine, and was ex- ceedingly scarce and costly. In 1769, Gahn discovered it in bones, and shortly afterwards published a process by which it might be extracted from them; and his method has been followed to the present time. Preparation. Powdered calcined bones, which consist principally of 536 Phosphorus. PART I. that variety of phosphate of lime called bone-phosphate, are digested for twenty-four hours with two-thirds of their weight of strong sulphuric acid, previously diluted with twelve times its weight of water. The sulphuric acid separates a part of the lime from the phosphoric acid, and precipitates as sulphate of lime; while a superphosphate of lime remains in solution. The whole is then strained through a linen cloth to separate the sulphate of lime, and afterwards submitted to evaporation, which causes a fresh pre- cipitation of sulphate, requiring to be separated by a new straining. The strained solution of superphosphate is evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and then thoroughly mixed with half its weight of powdered charcoal, so as to form a soft mass, which is dried by being heated to dull redness in an iron pot. The mass when cool is quickly transferred to a coated earthen- ware retort, furnished with an adopter of copper, bent downwards at right angles, so as to enter a bottle with a large neck containing water, which should rise about two lines above the orifice of the adopter. The bottle is closed round the adopter with a cork, which is traversed by a small glass tube, to give exit to the gaseous products. The retort is heated in a fur- nace, furnished with a dome, in the most gradual manner, so as to occupy about four hours in bringing it to a red heat. Afterwards the heat is pushed vigorously, so long as any phosphorus drops into the water; and this takes place generally for from twenty-four to thirty hours. During this part of the process, the excess of acid in the superphosphate is decom- posed ; its oxygen combining with the charcoal, and the liberated phos- phorus distilling over. A quantity of the materials sufficient to fill a quart retort will yield about a pound of phosphorus. Properties. Phosphorus is a semitransparent solid, without taste, but possessing an alliaceous smell. When perfectly pure it is colourless; but as usually prepared it is yellowish or reddish-yellow. It is flexible, and when cut exhibits a waxy lustre. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves sparingly in alcohol and the oils, and more freely in ether. Its sp. gr. is 1*77, and its equivalent number 31*4. It takes fire at 100°, melts at 108°, and boils at 550°, air being excluded. During its combustion, it combines with the oxygen of the air, and forms phosphoric acid. On account of its great inflammability, it requires to be kept under water. When exposed to the air it undergoes a slow combustion, emitting white vapours, which are luminous in the dark. It has been found by Wohler, in one instance, to contain one-half of one per cent, of arsenic; and, therefore, when used in forming medicinal preparations, should be tested for that metal. Phos- phorus forms with oxygen the hypophosphorous, phosphorous, and phos- phoric acids, and two isomeric varieties of the latter acid, called pyro- phosphoric andmetaphosphoric. With hydrogen it forms three combinations; one solid, a second gaseous, not spontaneously inflammable when pure, and a third, not yet isolated, generally present as an impurity jn the second, which it renders spontaneously inflammable. The only officinal combina- tions containingphosphorus are " the diluted phosphoric acid," of the London College, and the phosphates of iron, lime, and soda. These will be noticed under their several officinal titles. Medical Properties. Phosphorus, exhibited in small doses, acts as a powerful general stimulant; in large doses, as a violent irritant poison. Its action seems directed particularly to the kidneys and genital organs, pro- ducing diuresis, and excitation of the venereal appetite. The latter effect has been conclusively proved by the experiments of Alphonse Leroy, Che- nevix, and Bertrand-Pelletier. From its peculiar physiological action, it is considered applicable to diseases attended with extreme prostration of the vital powers. It has been recommended in dropsy, impotency, typhus part i. Phytolacca Bacca.—Phytolacca Radix. 537 fever, phthisis, marasmus, chlorosis, paralysis, amaurosis, mania, &c. The usual form for exhibition is an ethereal solution, as directed by the Paris Codex, under the title of Tinctura Mtherea cum Phosphoro. It is formed by macerating for a month, in a well-stopped bottle, covered with black paper, 4 parts of phosphorus, cut in small pieces, in 200 parts of sulphuric ether, and decanting into small bottles, prepared in a similar manner. The proportion of phosphorus dissolved is about four grains to the ounce of ether. The dose of this solution is from five to ten drops, given every two or four hours, iii a small portion of some bland drink. It has been objected to the ethereal solution, that, upon the evaporation of the ether, the phos- phorus is liable to be set free, and may inflame in the stomach. It is on this account that oil is preferred as a solvent. The Oleum Phosphoratum ox phosphorated oil of the Prussian Pharmacopoeia is made as follows. Take of phosphorus twelve grains; almond oil, recently prepared, an ounce. Melt the phosphorus in the oil by the heat of warm water, and, agitate until it appears to be dissolved. The ounce of oil takes up about about four grains of phosphorus; and the dose of the solution is from five to ten drops, mixed with some mucilaginous liquid. An aromatic flavour may be given to the phosphorated oil by the addition of a few drops of oil of bergamot. Great caution is necessary in the exhibition of phosphorus, and its effects should be closely watched. It ought never to be given in substance; as, when thus administered, it is apt to produce violent irritation of the stomach. When taken in substance in a poisonous dose, two or three grains of tartar emetic should be given to dislodge it. If swallowed in the state of solu- tion, copious draughts of cold water, containing magnesia in suspension, should be administered, in order to arrest the further combustion of the phosphorus, and to neutralize any acid which may have been formed. Off. Prep. Acidum Phosphoricum Dilutum, Lond. B. PHYTOLACCA BACCA. U.S. Secondary. Poke Berries. "The berries of Phytolacca decandra." U. S. PHYTOLACCA RADIX. U. S. Secondary. Poke Root. "The root of Phytolacca decandra." U. S. Phytolacca. Sex. Syst. Decandria Decagynia.—Nat. Ord. Phytolac- caceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five, calycine. Berry superior, ten-celled, ten-seeded. Willd. Phytolacca decandra. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 822; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 39; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 213. This is an indigenous plant with a very large perennial root, often five or six inches in diameter, divided into two or three principal branches, soft, fleshy, fibrous, whitish within, and covered with a brownish cuticle. The stems, which are annual, fre- quently grow to the height of six or eight feet, and divide into numerous spreading branches. They are round, very smooth, of a green colour when . young, but purple after the berries have ripened. The leaves are scattered, ovate oblong, entire, pointed, smooth, ribbed beneath, and supported on short footstalks. The flowers are numerous, small, and grow in long racemes, which are sometimes erect, sometimes drooping. The corolla consists of 538 Phytolacca Bacca.—Phytolacca Radix. part i. five ovate, concave, petals, folding inwards, and of a whitish colour. The germ is green. There are ten stamens, and the same number of pistils. The raceme of flowers becomes a cluster of dark purple, almost black, shining berries, flattened above and below, and divided into ten cells, each of which contains one seed. The poke is abundant in all parts of the United States, flourishing along fences, by the borders of woods, and especially in newly-cleared and uncul- tivated fields. It also grows spontaneously in the North of Africa and the South of Europe, where, however, it is supposed to have been introduced from America. Its flowers begin to appear in July, and the fruit ripens in autumn. The magnitude of the poke-weed, its large rich leaves, and its beautiful clusters of purple berries, often mingled upon the same branch with the green unripe fruit, and the flowers still in bloom, render it one of the most striking of our native plants. The young shoots are much used as food early in the spring, boiled in the manner of spinage. The ashes of the dried stems and leaves contain a very large proportion of potassa, yielding, according to Braconnot, not less than forty-two per cent, of the pure caustic alkali. In the plant the potassa is neutralized by an acid closely resembling the malic, though differing from it in some respects. The leaves, berries, and root are used in medicine, but the two latter only are mentioned in the Pharmacopoeia. The root abounds most in the active principles of the plant. It should be dug up late in November, cut into thin transverse slices, and dried with a moderate heat. As its virtues are diminished by keeping, a new supply should be procured every year. The berries should be collected when perfectly ripe, and the leaves about the middle of summer, when the footstalks begin to redden. The berries contain a succulent pulp, and yield upon pressure a large quantity of fine purplish-red juice. They have a sweetish, nauseous, slightly acrid taste, with little odour. The colouring principle of their juice is evanescent, and cannot be applied to useful purposes in dyeing, from the difficulty of fixing it. Alkalies render it yellow; but the original colour is restored by acids. The juice contains saccharine matter, and, after fermenting, yields alcohol by distillation. The dried root is of a light yellowish-brown colour externally, very much wrinkled, and, when in transverse slices, exhibits on the cut surface nume- rous concentric rings, formed by the projecting ends of fibres, between which the intervening matter has shrunk in the drying process. The structure internally in the older roots is firm and almost ligneous; the colour yellowish-white, alternating with darker circular layers. There is no smell; the taste is slightly sweetish, and at first mild, but followed by a sense of acrimony. The active matter is imparted to boiling water and alcohol. From the analysis of Mr. Edward Donelly, the root appears to contain tannic acid, starch, gum, sugar, resin, fixed oil, and lignin, besides various inorganic principles. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 169.) Medical Properties and Uses. Poke is emetic, purgative, and somewhat narcotic. As an emetic it is very slow in its operation, frequently not begin- ning to vomit in less than one or two hours after it has been taken, and then continuing to act for a long time upon both the stomach and bowels. The vomiting produced by it is said not to be attended with much pain or spasm; but narcotic effects have been observed by some physicians, such as drowsiness, vertigo, and dimness of vision. In over-doses it produces excessive vomiting and purging, attended with great prostration of strength, and sometimes with convulsions. It has been proposed as a substitute for ipecacuanha; but the slowness and long continuance of its action, and its tendency to purge, wholly unfit it for the purposes which that emetic is PART I. Pimenta. 539 calculated to fulfil. In small doses it acts as an alterative, and has been highly recommended in the treatment of chronic rheumatism. The dose of the powdered root, as an emetic, is from ten to thirty grains; as an alterative, from one to five grains. A saturated tincture of the berries pre- pared with diluted alcohol may be given in rheumatic cases, in the dose of a fluidrachm three times a day. A strong infusion of the leaves or root has been recommended in piles. An ointment prepared by mixing a drachm of the powdered root or leaves with an ounce of lard, has been used with advantage in psora, tinea capitis, and some other forms of cutaneous dis- ease. It occasions at first a sense of heat and smarting in the part to which it is applied. An extract made by evaporating the expressed juice of the recent leaves has been used for the same purposes, and acquired at one time considerable repute as a remedy in cancer. W. PIMENTA. U S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Pimento. " The unripe berries of Myrtus Pimenta." U. S. " Myrtus Pimenta. Baccae immaturae exsiccatae." Lond. " Unripe berries of Eugenia Pimen- ta." Ed. " Myrtus Pimenta. Fructus." Dub. Allspice, Jamaica pepper; Piment, Poivre de la Jamaique, Fr.; Nelkenpfeffer, Germ.; Pimenti, Ital; Pimienta de la Jamaica, Span. Myrtus. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Myrtacea?. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, superior. Petals five. Berry two to five- celled, many-seeded. Willd. Myrtus Pimenta. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 973 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 541. t. 194. Eugenia Pimenta. De Cand. Prodrom. iii. 285; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 76. This is a beautiful tree, about thirty feet high, with a straight trunk, much branched above, and covered with a very smooth gray bark. Its dense and ever-verdant foliage gives it at all times a refreshing appear- ance. The leaves, which are petiolate, vary in shape and size ; but are usually about four inches long, elliptical, entire, blunt or obtusely pointed, veined, and of a deep shining green colour. The flowers are small, without show, and disposed in panicles upon trichotomous stalks, which usually terminate the branches. The fruit is a spherical berry, crowned with the persistent calyx, and when ripe is smooth, shining, and of a black or dark- purple colour. The tree exhales an aromatic fragrance, especially during the summer months, when it is in flower. It is a native of the West Indies, Mexico, and South America, and is abundant in Jamaica, whence its fruit received the name of Jamaica pepper. The berries are the officinal part. They are gathered after having attained their full size, but while yet green, and are carefully dried in the sun. When sufficiently dry, they are put into bags and casks for exportation. Properties. The berries, as they reach us, are of different sizes, usually about as large as a small pea, round, wrinkled, umbilicate at the summit, of a brownish colour, and when broken present two cells, each containing a black hemispherical seed. They have a fragrant odour, thought to resemble that of a mixture of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. Hence the name of all- spice, by which they are best known in this country. Their taste is warm, aromatic, pungent, and slightly astringent. They impart their flavour to water, and all their virtues to alcohol. The infusion is of a brown colour, and reddens litmus paper. They yield a volatile oil by distillation. (See Oleum Piment se.) By a minute analysis, Bonastre obtained from them a 540 Pimenta.—Piper. part i. volatile pil, a green fixed oil, a concrete oleaginous substance in yellowish flakes, tannin, gum, resin, uncrystallizable sugar, colouring matter, malic and gallic acids, saline matters, moisture, and lignin. The green oil has the burning aromatic taste of pimento, and is supposed to be the acrid principle. Upon this, therefore, together with the volatile oil, the medical properties of the berries depend; and as these two principles exist most largely in the shell or cortical portion, this part is most efficient. Accord- ing to Bonastre, the shell contains 10 per cent, of the volatile, and 8 of the fixed oil, the seeds only 5 per cent, of the former, and 2*5 of the latter. Berzelius considers the green fixed oil of Bonastre as a mixture of volatile oil, resin, fixed oil, and perhaps a little chlorophylle. Medical Properties and Uses. Pimento is a warm, aromatic stimulant, used in medicine chiefly as an adjuvant to tonics and purgatives, the taste of which it serves to cover, while it increases their warmth, and renders them more acceptable to the stomach. It is particularly useful in cases attended with much flatulence. It is, however, much more largely employed as a condiment than as a medicine. The dose is from ten to forty grains. Off. Prep. Aqua Pimenta?, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Pimenta?, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Pimenta?, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rhamni, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PIPER. U.S. Black Pepper. " The berries of Piper nigrum." U. S. Off. Syn. PIPER NIGRUM. Piper nigrum. Baccae. Lond.; PIPER NIGRUM. Dried unripe berries of Piper nigrum. Ed.; PIPERNIGRUM. Semina. Dub. Poivre, Fr.; Schwarzer Pfeffer, Germ.; Gemeine peper, Dutch; Pepe nero, Ital; Pi- mienta negra, Span.; Fifil uswud, Arab.; Lada, Malay; Maricha, Javan.; Sahan, Palem- bang. Piper. See CUBEBA. Piper nigrum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 159; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 721. t. 246. The pepper vine is a perennial plant, with a round, smooth, woody, articulated stem, swelling near the joints, branched, and from eight to twelve feet or more in length. The leaves are entire, broad ovate, acumi- nate, seven-nerved, coriaceous, very smooth, of a dark green colour, and attached by strong sheath-like footstalks to the joints of the branches. The flowers are small, whitish, sessile, covering thickly a cylindrical spadix, and succeeded by globular berries, which are of a red colour when ripe. The plant grows wild in Cochin-china and various parts of India. It is cultivated on the coast of Malabar, in the peninsula of Malacca, in Siam, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, and many other places in the East. We are told by Crawford, that the best pepper is produced in Malabar; but Europe and America derive their chief supplies from Sumatra and Java. The plant is propagated by cuttings, and is supported by props, or by trees of various kinds planted for the purpose, upon which it is trained. In three or four years from the period of planting, it begins to bear fruit. The ber- ries are gathered before they are all perfectly ripe, and, upon being dried, become black and wrinkled. White pepper is the ripe berry, deprived of its skin by maceration in water and subsequent friction, and afterwards dried in the sun. It has less of the peculiar virtues of the spice than the black pepper, and is seldom employed in this country. PART I, Piper. 541 Properties. The dried berries are about as large as a small pea, exter- nally blackish and wrinkled, internally whitish, of an aromatic smell, and a hot, pungent, almost fiery taste. They yield their virtues partially to water, entirely to alcohol and ether. Pelletier found them to contain a peculiar crystalline matter called piperin, an acrid concrete oil or soft resin of a green colour, a balsamic volatile oil, a coloured gummy substance, an extractive matter like that found in leguminous plants capable of being precipitated by infusion of galls, a portion of bassorin, uric and malic acids, lignin, and various salts. Piperin was discovered by Professor QUrsted, of Copenhagen, who considered it a vegetable alkali, and the active principle of pepper. Pelletier, however, utterly denied its alkaline nature and medical activity, and ascribed all the effects, supposed to have been obtained from it, to a por- tion of the acrid concrete oil with which it is mixed when not very carefully prepared. When perfectly pure, piperin is in colourless transparent crys- tals, without taste, fusible at 212°, insoluble in cold water, slightly soluble in boiling water which deposits it upon cooling, soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, decomposed by the concentrated mineral acids, with the sulphuric becoming of a blood-red colour, with the nitric, first of a greenish- yellow, then orange, and ultimately red. Christison, however, states in his Dispensatory, that the whitest crystals he had been able to obtain were still acrid, and emitted an irritating'vapour when thrown on heated iron. Piperin is obtained by treating pepper with alcohol, evaporating the tinc- ture to the consistence of an extract, submitting the extract to the action of an alkaline solution by which the oleaginous matter is converted into soap, washing the undissolved portion with cold water, separating the liquid by filtration, treating the matter left on the filter with alcohol, and allowing the solution thus obtained to evaporate spontaneously, or by a gentle heat. Crystals of piperin are deposited, and may be purified by alternate solution in alcohol or ether, and crystallization. The taste and medicinal activity of pepper probably depend on the peculiar concrete oil or resin before alluded to, and on the volatile oil. The concrete oil is of a deep green colour, very acrid, and soluble in alcohol and ether. The volatile oil is limpid, colourless, becoming yellow by age, of a strong odour, and of a taste less acrid than that of the pepper. It consists of ten equiv. of carbon, and eight of hydrogen, and forms a liquid, but not a concrete compound with muriatic acid. Medical Properties and Uses. Black pepper is a warm carminative stimulant, capable of producing general arterial excitement, but acting with greater proportional energy on the part to which it is applied. From the time of Hippocrates it has been employed as a condiment and medicine. Its culinary uses at present are too well known to require notice. Its chief medicinal application is to excite the languid stomach, and correct flatu- lence. It was long since occasionally administered for the cure of inter- mittents ; but its employment for this purpose had passed from the hands of the profession into those of the vulgar, till a few years since revived by an Italian physician, to be again consigned to forgetfulness. Piperin has also been employed in the same complaint, and has been recommended as superior even to the sulphate of quinia; but experience has not confirmed the first reports in its favour. That, in its impure state, when mixed with a portion of the acrid principle, it will occasionally cure intermittents, there can be no doubt; but it is not comparable to the preparations of bark, and is probably less active than the alcoholic extract of pepper. In those cases of intermittents in which the stomach is not duly susceptible to the action 47 542 Piper.—Piper Longum.—Pix Abietis. part i. of quinia, as in some instances of drunkards, pepper may be found a useful adjuvant to the more powerful febrifuge. The dose of pepper is from five to twenty grains. It may be given in the slate of the berry or in powder; but is more energetic in the latter. Pipe- rin has been given in doses varying from one to six or eight grains. Off. Prep. Confectio Piperis Nigri, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Confectio Rutae, Lond., Dub.; Emplastrum Cantharidis Compositum, Ed.; Unguentum Piperis Nigri, Dub. W. PIPER LONGUM. Lond., Ed., Dub. Long Pepper. "Piper longum. Fructus immaturus exsiccatus." Lond. "Dried spikes of Piper longum." Ed. " Semina." Dub. Poivre longue, Fr.; Langer Pfeffer, Germ.; Pepe lungo, Ital.; Pimienta larga, Span. Piper. See CUBEBA. Piper longum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 161; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 724. t. 247. This species of Piper differs from its congeners in having its lower leaves cordate, petiolate, seven-nerved, its upper oblong cordate, sessile, and five-nerved; its flowers in dense, short, terminal, and nearly cylindrical spikes ; and its fruit, consisting of very small one-seeded berries or grains, embedded in a pulpy matter. It is a native of South-eastern Asia, and is produced abundantly in Bengal and many parts of Hindostan. The fruit is green when immature, and becomes red as it ripens. It is gathered in the former state, as it is then hotter than when perfectly ripe. The whole spike is taken from the plant and dried in the sun. Long pepper is cylindrical, an inch or more in length, indented on its surface, of a dark gray colour, a weak aromatic odour, and a pungent fiery taste. M. Dulong found its chemical composition to be closely analogous to that of black pepper, as ascertained by Pelletier. Like that it Contains piperin, a concrete oil or soft resin upon which its burning acrimony de- pends, and a volatile oil to which it probably owes its odour. Its medical virtues are essentially the same as those of the black pepper; but it is considered inferior to that spice, and is seldom used. Off. Prep. Confectio Opii, Lond., Dub.; Pulvis Aromaticus, Dub., Lond.; Pulvis Creta? Compositus, Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Cinnamomi Composita, Lond., Ed. W. PIX ABIETIS. U.S. Burgundy Pitch. "The prepared concrete juice of Abies excelsa." U. S. Off. Syn. PIX ABIETINA. Pinus Abies. Resina prseparata. Lond.; PIX BURGUNDICA. Concrete resinous exudation, probably in a great measure from Abies excelsa. Ed.; PIX BURGUNDICA. PINUS ABIES. Resina. Thus. Dub. Poix de Bourgogne, Poix jaune, Poix blanche, Fr.; Burgundisches Pech, Germ. The genus Pinus of Linnaeus has been divided into three genera, which are now acknowledged by most botanists, viz., Pinus, Abies, and Larix; the first including the pines, the second the firs and spruces, and the third the larches. In former editions of this work we followed the United States PART I. Pix Abietis. 543 Pharmacopoeia in adhering to the Linnaean arrangement; in the present, we follow the same authority in adopting the new division. Abies. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Pinacea? or Coni- fer a?. Gen. Ch. Male flowers. Catkins solitary, not racemose; Scales sta- miniferous at the apex. Stamens two, with one-celled anthers. Females. Catkins simple. Ovaries two. Stigmas glandular. Cone with imbricated scales, which are thin at the apex, and rounded. Cotyledons digitate-partite. Leaves solitary in each sheath. De Cand. Abies excelsa. De Cand.—A. communis. Lindley, Loudon's Encyc. of Plants.—Pinus Abies. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 506; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 4. t. 2. The Norway spruce is a very lofty tree, rising sometimes one hun- dred and fifty feet in height, with a trunk from three to five feet in diameter. The leaves, which stand thickly upon the branches, are short, obscurely four-cornered, often curved, of a dusky green colour, and shining on the upper surface. The male aments are purple and axillary, the female of the same colour, but usually terminal. The fruit is in pendent, purple, nearly cylindrical strobiles, the scales of which are oval, pointed, and ragged at the edges. This tree is a native of Europe and Northern Asia. Though designated as the source of Burgundy pitch, it furnishes but a part of the substance sold under that name by the druggists. Tingley asserts that the real Burgundy pitch is obtained from the Abies picea, or European silver fir tree ; and the same fact is stated by Fee. According to Geiger, who is probably correct, it is procured from both species. To obtain the pitch, portions of the bark are removed so as to lay bare the wood, and the flakes of concrete resinous matter which form upon the surface of the wound, having been detached by iron instruments, are melted with water in large boilers, and then strained through coarse cloths. It is called Burgundy pitch from the province of that name in the East of France. We are told that the greater portion is collected in the neighbourhood of Neufchatel. From other species of pine, in different parts of Europe, a similar product is obtained and sold by the same name. It is prepared by removing the juice which concretes upon the bark of the tree, or upon the surface of inci- sions, called galipot by the French, and purifying it by melting and straining, either through cloth or a layer of straw. A factitious Burgundy pitch is also made by melting together common pitch, resin, and turpentine, and agitating the mixture with water, which gives it the requisite yellowish colour. Its odour is different from that of the genuine. As brought to this country, Burgundy pitch is generally mixed with impurities, which require that it should be melted and strained before being used. In its pure state it is hard, brittle, quite opaque, of a yellowish or brownish-yellow colour, and a weak terebinthinate taste and odour. It is very fusible, and at the heat of the body softens and becomes adhesive. It differs from turpentine in containing a smaller proportion of essential oil. Under the name of Abietis Resina, the London College directs the con- crete juice of the spruce fir, as taken immediately from the bark of the tree, without any preparation. It is the Thus or Frankincense of the former London and present Dublin Pharmacopoeias. It is in solid brittle tears, of a brownish-yellow colour on the outside, and paler within, and emits an agreeable odour when burned. It softens and becomes adhesive at the tem- perature of the body. Though ascribed to the Abies excelsa, it is probably obtained also from other sources; and we have been told by an apothecary 544 Pix Abietis.—Pix Canadensis. part i. from London, that an article exactly resembling our common white turpen- tine when perfectly dried, is sold as frankincense in the shops of that city. Medical Properties and Uses. Applied to the skin in the shape of a plas- ter, Burgundy pitch acts as a gentle rubefacient, producing a slight degree of inflammation and serous effusion without separating the cuticle. Sometimes it excites a papillary or vesicular eruption; and we have known it to act upon the surface as a violent poison,giving rise to excessive pain, tumefaction, and redness, followed by vesication and even ulceration. It is used chiefly in cases of slight chronic pains of a rheumatic character, or in chronic affections of the chest or abdominal viscera, which call for a gentle but long-continued revulsive action upon the skin. The resin of the spruce fir (Abietis Resina) is used only as an ingredient of plasters. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Cantharidis Comp., Ed.; Emplast. Ferri, U. S.; Emplast. Galbani Comp., U. S.; Emplast. Opii, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Emplast. Picis, Lond., Ed.; Emplast. Picis cum Cantharide, U. S., Dub. Off. Prep, of Abietes Resina. Emplast. Aromaticum, Dub.; Emplast. Galbani, Lond.; Emplast. Opii, Lond.; Emplast. Picis, Lond. W. PIX CANADENSIS. U. S. Canada Pitch. "The prepared concrete juice of Abies Canadensis." U. S. Abies. See PIX BURGUNDICA. Abies Canadensis. Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 185.'—Pinus Canadensis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 505. This is the hemlock spruce of the United States and Canada. When of full growth it is often seventy or eighty feet high, with a trunk two or three feet in diameter, and of nearly uniform dimensions for two-thirds of its length. The branches are slender, and dependent at their extremities. The leaves are very numerous, six or eight lines long, flat, denticulate, and irregularly arranged in two rows. The strobiles are ovate, little longer than the leaves, pendulous, and situated at the ends of the branches. The tree is abundant in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the more northern parts of New England; and is found in the elevated and mountainous re- gions of the Middle States. Its bark abounds in the astringent principle, and is much used for tanning in the northern parts of the United States. It contains much less juice than some other of the Pinaceae; and very little flows from incisions made into its trunk. But in the trees which have at- tained their full growth, and are about or have begun to decay, the juice exudes spontaneously, and hardens upon the bark in consequence of the partial evaporation or oxidation of its essential oil. The bark thus incrusted is stripped from the tree, broken into pieces of convenient size, and boiled in water. The pitch melts, rises to the surface, is skimmed off, and is still further purified by a second boiling in water. It is brought to Philadel- phia from the north of Pennsylvania, in dark-coloured brittle masses, which, on being broken, exhibit numerous minute fragments of bark, interspersed through their substance. From these it is purified in the shops by melting and straining through linen or canvas. (Ellis, Journ. of Phil. Col. of Pharm., ii. 18.) J Thus prepared it is hard, brittle, quite opaque, of a dark yellowish-brown colour, which becomes still darker by exposure to the air, of a weak pecu- part i. Pix Canadensis.—Pix Liquida. 545 liar odour, and scarcely any taste. It softens and becomes adhesive with a moderate heat, and melts at 198° F. Its constituents are resin and a minute proportion of essential oil. It is most generally known by the incorrect name of hemlock gum, and in the former edition of the U. S. Pharmaco- poeia was named hemlock pitch. Medical Properties and Uses. Canada pitch is a gentle rubefacient, closely analogous to Burgundy pitch in its properties, and employed for precisely the same purposes. W. PIX LIQUIDA. U S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tar. " The impure turpentine procured by burning from the wood of Pinus palustris and other species of Pinus." U. S. " Pinus sylvestris, Resina praeparata liquida." Lond. " Tar from various species of Pinus and Abies." Ed. " E speciebus Pini diversis." Dub. Goudron, Fr.; Theer, Germ.; Pece liquida, Ital; Alquitran, Span. The tar used in this country is prepared from the wood of various species of pine, particularly the Pinus palustris of the Southern States, the P. aus- tralis of Michaux. (See Terebinthina.) The dead wood is usually selected, because, when vegetation ceases, the resinous matter becomes concentrated in the interior layers. The wood is cut into billets of a convenient size, which are placed together so as to form a large stack or pile, and then covered with earth as in the process for making charcoal. The stack is built upon a small circular mound of earth previously prepared, the summit of which gradually declines from the circumference to the centre, where a small cavity is formed, communicating by a conduit with a shallow ditch surround- ing the mound. Fire is applied through an opening in the top of the pile, and a slow combustion is maintained, so that the resinous matter may be melted by the heat. This runs into the cavity in the centre of the mound, and passes thence by the conduit into the ditch, whence it is transferred into barrels. Immense quantities of tar are thus prepared in North Caro- lina and the south-eastern parts of Virginia, sufficient, after supplying our own consumption, to afford a large surplus for exportation. Considerable quantities of tar are also prepared in the lower parts of New Jersey, in some portions of New England, and in Pennsylvania west of the Allegheny mountains, from the Pinus rigida, or pitch pine, and perhaps from some other species. Properties. Tar has a peculiar empyreumatic odour, a bitterish, resinous somewhat acid taste, a colour almost black, and a tenacious consistence intermediate between that of a liquid and solid. It consists of resinous mat- ter, united with acetic acid, oil of turpentine, and various volatile empyreu- matic products, and coloured with charcoal. By distillation it yields an acid liquor called pyroligneous acid (see Acidum Pyroligneum), and an empyreumatic oil called oil of tar; and what is left behind is pitch. The empyreumatic oil has been ascertained by Dr. Reichenbach, of Moravia, to contain, besides oil of turpentine, sixdistinct principles, which he has named paraffine, eupione, creasote, picamar, capnomor, and pittacal. Of these only picamar and creasote merit particular attention ; the former as the prin- ciple to which tar owes its bitterness, the latter as the one upon which it probably depends chiefly for its medical virtues. (See Creasotum.) Tar yields a small proportion of its constituents to water, which is thus rendered 546 Pix Liquida.—Pix Nigra.—Plumbum. part i. medicinal, and is employed under the name of tar water. It is dissolved by alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils. Medical Properties and Uses. The medical properties of tar are similar to those of the turpentines. It is sometimes used in chronic coughs, and, when the disease depends on chronic bronchial inflammation, with occa- sional advantage. Little benefit can be expected from it in genuine phthisis, in the treatment of which it was formerly highly recommended. Dr. Bate- man employed it advantageously as an internal remedy in ichthyosis. Its vapour, inhaled into the lungs, has been found serviceable in numerous cases of bronchial disease. Externally applied, in the state of ointment, it is a very efficient remedy in tinea capitis, or scaldhead, and in some cases of psoriasis ; and has been used with advantage in foul or indolent ulcers, and some other affections of the skin. It may be used in the form of tar water (Aqua Picis Liquidse), or in sub- stance made into pills with wheat flour, or mixed with sugar in the form of an electuary. The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm, and may be repeated so as to amount to three or four drachms daily. Off. Prep. Aqua Picis Liquida?, Dub.; Unguentum Picis Liquida?, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PIX NIGRA. Lond. Black Pitch. " Pinus sylvestris. Resina praeparata solida." Lond. Off. Syn. PIX ARIDA. Pitch: from various species of Pinus and Abies. Ed. This is the solid black mass left after the evaporation of the liquid parts of tar. (See Pix Liquida.) It has a shining fracture, softens and becomes adhesive with a moderate heat, melts in boiling water, and consists of the resin of the pine unaltered, and of various empyreumatic resinous products which have received the name of pyretine. (Berzelius, Trait, de Chim., vi. 641 and 680.) It appears to be very gently stimulant or tonic, and has been used internally in ichthyosis and other cutaneous diseases, and recently with great advantage in piles. The dose is from ten grains to a drachm given in pills. Pitch is also used externally in the form of ointment. (See Unguent- um Picis Nigrae.) Off. Prep. Unguentum Picis Nigra?, Lond. W. PLUMBUM. Lead. Plomb, Fr.; Blei, Germ.; Lood, Dutch; Plombo, Ital; Plomo, Span.; Chumbo, Port. Lead is not officinal in its metallic state ; but enters into a number of im- portant medicinal preparations. It occurs in nature in three principal states —as an oxide, as a sulphuret called galena, and in saline combination, forming the native sulphate, phosphate, carbonate, chromate, molybdate, tungstate, and arseniate of lead. The oxide is rare, but galena is exceedingly abun- dant and diffused, and is the ore from which all the lead of commerce is extracted. The process of extraction consists merely in melting the ore in contact with charcoal. Mines of galena occur in different parts of the world, but the richest and most extensive are found in our own country. The lead PART I. Plumbum. 547 region of the United States extends in length from the Wisconsin in the north to the Red river of Arkansas in the south, and in breadth about one hundred and fifty miles. It is only of latter years that these mines have been extensively worked. Properties, head is a soft, bluish-gray, and very malleable metal, present- ing a bright surface when newly melted or cut. It has a perceptible taste, and a peculiar smell when tubbed. It undergoes but little change in the air, but is corroded by the combined action of air and water. Its sp. gr. is 11*4, melting point about 612,° and equivalent number 103*6. Exposed to a stream of oxygen on ignited charcoal, it burns with a blue flame, throwing off'dense yellow fumes. The best solvent of lead is nitric acid ; but the presence of sulphuric acid destroys, and that of muriatic acid lessens its solvent power, on account of the insolubility of the compounds which these acids form with the metal. Lead forms five oxides, a dinoxide, protoxide, sesquioxide, deutoxide, and red oxide. The dinoxide consists of two equivalents of lead and one of oxygen. The protoxide, called in commerce massicot, may be obtained by calcining, in a platinum crucible, the sub- nitrate of lead, formed by precipitating a solution of the nitrate by ammonia. On a large scale it is manufactured by exposing melted lead to the action of the air. Its surface becomes encrusted with a gray pellicle, which, being scraped off, is quickly succeeded by another; and the whole of the metal, being in this way successively presented to the air, becomes converted into a greenish-gray powder, consisting of protoxide and metallic lead. This, by exposure to a moderate heat, absorbs more oxygen, and is converted entirely into protoxide. This oxide has a yellow colour, and is the only one present in the salts of lead. As a hydrate it is officinal with the London College. (See Plumbi Oxydum Hydratum.) It consists of one eq. of lead 103*6, and one of oxygen 8=111*6. A variety of the protoxide called litharge is very much used in pharmacy, and is officinal in all the Pharma- copoeias. (See Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum.) The sesquioxide, disco- vered by Winkelblech, is unimportant. The deutoxide, called also puce oxide from its^ea-brown colour, may be obtained by treating red lead with nitric acid. The acid takes up the protoxide, and leaves the deutoxide, which may be purified by washing with boiling water. It is a tasteless powder, of a dark-brown colour. When heated to redness it loses half its oxygen and becomes protoxide. It consists of one eq. of lead, 103*6, and two of oxygen 16=119*6. The red oxide, called in commerce minium or red lead, is described under another head. (See Plumbi Oxidum Rubrum.) Lead combines with chlorine and iodine, forming officinal preparations. (See Plumbi Chloridum and Plumbi Iodidum.) The acetate, carbonate, and nitrate are also officinal. The best tests of this metal are sulphuretted hydrogen, and a solution of iodide of potassium. The former produces a black precipitate of sulphuret of lead, the latter, a yellow one of iodide of lead. Medical Properties and Uses. The effects of lead in its various combina- tions are those of a sedative and astringent. It is used internally for the purpose of reducing vascular action, and restraining inordinate discharges ; and externally as an abater of inflammation. When introduced into the system in a gradual manner, either by working in the metal, or by taking it in small and frequently repeated doses, it acts injuriously on the nervous system, producing a peculiar colic, called lead colic, sometimes apoplectic symptoms, and palsy which is almost always partial and incomplete, and affects for the most part the upper extremities. Occasionally salivation is produced, and, according to Dr. Henry Burton, the constitutional effects of 548 Plumbum. PART I. the metal are indicated by a narrow lead-blue line at the edge of the gum, round two or more of the teeth, as a constant and early sign. The treatment necessary in lead colic is given under carbonate of lead. Lead palsy is usually attended with dyspepsia, constipation, tendency to colic, lassitude, and gloominess of mind; and is best treated by tonics, aperients, exercise, and avoidance of the cause of the disease. The poisonous effects of an overdose of the lead preparations are to be combated by emetics, if free vomiting has not previously occurred, by the exhibition of the sulphate of magnesia or sulphate of soda, to act as an antidote by forming the inert sulphate of lead, and by opium. Orfila has determined, by experiments on dogs, the appearance exhibited by the mucous membrane of the stomach, after the use of small doses of the salts of lead. After the action of such doses for two hours, dull white points are visible on the membrane, sometimes in rows and sometimes disseminated, and evidently consisting of the metal, united with the organic tissue. If the animal be allowed to live for four days, the same spots may be seen with the magnifier, and if sulphurretted hydrogen be applied to the membrane, they are instantly blackened. (Archives Gen., 3e Serie, iv. 244.) According to M. Gendrin, sulphuric acid, prepared like lemonade, and used both internally and externally, is a prophylactic against the poisonous effects of lead, especially the lead colic. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xv. 528.) It may be supposed to act by forming the inert sulphate with the poison. Mr. Benson, a manager of white lead works at Birmingham, has tried this acid, and finds it an effectual preventive of lead colic in his esta- blishment, where it was exceedingly prevalent before its employment. He uses it as an addition to ginger beer, to which bicarbonate of soda is also added to render it brisk, but not in sufficient quantity to prevent a con- siderable portion of the acid remaining in excess. (London Lancet, Dec, 1842.) On the other hand, the powers of sulphuric acid in preventing the poisonous effects of lead are positively denied by Dr. A. Grisolle. This writer recommends that workmen employed in lead manufactories should use frequent baths, avoid intemperance, and always eat before they enter upon their work in the morning. He supposes that, in a great majority of cases, the metal is introduced into the system through the stomach by means of the saliva or food. Pharm. Preparations. The following table embraces all the officinal preparations containing lead, in the United States and British Pharma- copoeias. Plumbi Oxidum Rubrum, U. S., Ed. Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum, U. S.; Plumbi Oxydum,Lond.; Lithargy- rum, Ed.; Plumbi Oxydum Semivitreum, Dub. Anglice, Litharge. Ceratum Saponis, U. S., Lond. Emplastrum Plumbi, U. S., Lond.; Emplastrum Lithargyri, Ed., Dub. Anglice, Lead plaster, Litharge plaster.* Unguentum Plumbi Compositum, Lond. Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S.; Liquor Plumbi Diacetatis, Lond.; Plumbi Diacetatis Solutio,.Ed.; Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor, Dub. Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus, U. S.; Liquor Plumbi Dia- cetatis Dilutus, Lond.; Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor Com- positus. Dub. Anglice, Lead-water. * This plaster forms the basis of a number of other plasters. PART I. Plumbum.—Plumbi Acetas. 549 Ceratum Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S.; Ceratum Plumbi Compo- situm, Lond. Anglice, Goulard's cerate. Plumbi Oxydum Hydratum, Lond. Plumbi Chloridum, Lond. Plumbi Iodidum, Lond., Ed. Unguentum Plumbi Iodidi. Lond. Plumbi Acetas, U. S>, Lond., Ed., Dub. Ceratum Plumbi Acetatis, Lond.; Unguentum Plumbi Acetatis, Ed., Dub. Pilula? Plumbi Opiata?, Ed. Plumbi Carbonas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis, U. S., Ed., Dub. Plumbi Nitras, Ed. B. PLUMBI ACETAS. U.S., Lond., Ed.,Dub. Acetate of Lead. Sugar of lead; Saccharum Saturni, Cerussa acetata, Lat.; Acetate de plomb, Sucre de plomb, Sel de Saturne, Fr.; Essigsaures Bleioxyd, Bleisucker, Germ.; Zucchero di Sa- turno, Ital; Azucar de' plomo, Span. Directions are given by the three British Colleges for preparing acetate of lead; but as it is seldom or never prepared by the apothecary, and may be obtained in the greatest perfection, and at a cheap rate, from the manu- facturing chemist, it is more properly placed, in the United States Pharma- copoeia, in the catalogue of the Materia Medica. Preparation. Sugar of lead is obtained by two methods, By one me- thod, thin plates of lead are placed in shallow vessels filled with distilled vinegar, in such a manner as to have a part of each plate rising above the vinegar; and they are turned from time to time, so as to bring different portions of the metallic surface in contact with the air. The metal becomes protoxidized and dissolves in the vinegar to saturation, and the solution is evaporated to the point of crystallization. This process is a slow one, but furnishes a salt which is perfectly neutral. The other method consists in dissolving, by the assistance of heat, litharge, or the protoxide of lead ob- tained by calcination, in an excess of distilled vinegar or of purified pyrolig- neous acid, contained in leaden boilers. The oxide is quickly dissolved, and, when the vinegar has become saturated, the solution is transferred to other vessels to cool and crystallize. The crystals having formed, the mo- ther waters are decanted, and, by a new evaporation, made to yield a new crop. These are generally of a yellow colour, but may be rendered white by repeated solutions and crystallizations. The London College directs this salt to be formed by dissolving litharge, by the aid of a gentle heat, in dilute acetic acid. The Edinburgh process is substantially the same as the London; the pyroligneous acid directed by the Edinburgh College being in fact acetic acid of medium strength. The process of the Dublin College consists in the solution of carbonate of lead (white lead) in the acid; but is ineligible on account of its expense. Sugar of lead is extensively manufactured in Germany, Holland, France, and England, as well as in the United States. It is principally consumed in the arts of dyeing and calico-printing, in which it is employed to form with alum the acetate of alumina, which is used as a mordant. Properties. Acetate of lead is a white salt, crystallized in brilliant needles, which have the shape of long prisms, terminated by dihedral summits. Its 550 Plumbi Acetas. PART I. taste is at first sweet and afterwards astringent. Exposed to the air it effloresces slowly. It dissolves in four times its weight of cold, and in a much smaller quantity of boiling water. It is soluble also in alcohol. Its solution in common water is turbid, in consequence of the formation of car- bonate of lead with the carbonic acid which such water always contains. This turbidness may be removed by the addition of a small proportion of vinegar, or of dilute acetic acid. In pure distilled water, free from car- bonic acid, it ought to dissolve entirely, and form a clear solution. Sul- phuric acid, when added to a solution of acetate of lead, produces instantly a precipitate of sulphate of lead; and the disengaged acetic acid gives rise to vapours having the smell of vinegar. The salt, when heated, first fuses and parts with its water of crystallization, and afterwards is decomposed, yielding acetic acid and pyroacetic spirit (acetone), and leaving a residue of charcoal and reduced lead. An important property of sugar of lead is its power of dissolving a large quantity of protoxide of lead. (See Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis.) It consists of one eq. of acetic acid 51, one of pro- toxide of lead 111*6, and three of water 27= 189*6. Incompatibles. Acetate of lead is decomposed by all acids, and by those soluble salts, the acids of which produce with protoxide of lead insoluble or sparingly soluble compounds. Acids of this character are the sulphuric, muriatic, citric, and tartaric. It is also decomposed by lime-water, and by ammonia, potassa, and soda; the last two, if added in excess, dissolving the precipitate at first formed. It is decomposed by hard water, in consequence of the sulphate of lime and common salt which such water usually contains. With sulphuretted hydrogen, it gives a black precipitate of sulphuret of lead, with iodide of potassium, a yellow one of iodide of lead, and with carbonate of soda, a white one of carbonate of lead. Medical Properties and Uses. Acetate of lead, in medicinal doses, is a powerful astringent and sedative ; in large ones, an irritant poison. The danger, however, from over-doses of sugar of lead is not so great as is generally supposed. It has sometimes been given in pretty large doses in regular practice without any bad effects, and cases are on record where a quarter of an ounce has been swallowed without proving fatal. It may be remarked, however, that the immediate effects of an over-dose are often escaped by prompt and spontaneous vomiting ; and that the remote constitu- tional effects are not apt to occur, so long as the evacuations from the bowels are not materially diminished. The principal diseases in which it has been exhibited are hemorrhages, particularly from the lungs, intestines, and ute- rus. Its effect in restraining the discharge of blood is admitted to be very powerful. It has also been used with advantage in certain forms of dy- sentery and diarrhoea, and has been recommended in particular stages of cholera infantum. Combined with opium it is well suited to the treatment of the diarrhoea occurring in phthisis. It sometimes proves a valuable remedy in checking vomiting. Dr. Irvine, of Charleston, recommends it to compose the irritability of the stomach in yellow fever; and Dr. Davis, of Columbia, S. C, used it with benefit in the irritable stomach attendant on bilious fever. It has been much extolled by the German practitioners in dothinenteritis, or the typhoid fever attended with ulcerations of the intes- tines. In some of these cases it was advantageously combined with car- bonate of ammonia. The same practitioners have strongly recommended it in aneurism of the aorta, and Dupuytren, on their report of its efficacy, tried it in several cases, and with marked results in diminishing the size of the aneurismal tumour. (Archives Gen., 3e Serie, v. 445.) One of the authors of this Dispensatory has imitated the practice in aneurism of the part i. Plumbi Acetas.—Plumbi Carbonas. 551 aorta, and in enlargement of the heart, and with encouraging results. In mercurial salivation, M. Brachet, of Lyons, found sugar of lead very effi- cacious, administered in grain pills, night and morning. Several cases of severe salivation of several months' duration, which had resisted the use of opium, purgatives, &c, were speedily relieved by the remedy. The solu- tion is frequently used as a collyrium ; and, applied by means of cloths, or mixed with crumb of bread, it forms a good application to superficial inflam- mation. For the latter purpose, the dilute solution of subacetate of lead is generally preferred. (See Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus.) When employing this medicine, the practitioner should always bear in mind that, when long continued in small doses, it is apt to produce dan- gerous constitutional effects. These are chiefly of two kinds; 1. an affection of the alimentary canal, attended with severe pain and obstinate constipation, called colica pictonum or lead colic; 2. a chronic affection of the muscles, especially of the extensors of the upper extremities, charac- terized by an excessive wasting of these organs, and denominated lead palsy. Both these affections are apt to be excited in those artisans who work in lead. The approach of these dangerous constitutional symptoms is said to be indicated by a narrow lead-blue line at the edge of the gums. (See page 548.) The dose of sugar of lead is from one to three grains, in the form of pill, repeated every two or three hours. It is generally given combined with opium. The solution for external use may be made by dissolving from two to three drachms of the salt in a pint of water; and if it be wanted clear, a fluidrachm of vinegar, or of dilute acetic acid may be added, which imme- diately dissolves the carbonate of lead, to which its turbidness is owing. The usual strength of the solution as a collyrium is from one to two grains to the fluidounce of distilled water. Off. Prep. Acidum Aceticum, Ed.; Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Pilulae Plumbi Opiata?, Ed.; Plumbi Chloridum, Lond.; Plumbi Iodidum, Lond.; Unguentum Plumbi Acetatis, Ed., Dub., Lond. B. PLUMBI CARBONAS. U.S., Lond., Ed. Carbonate of Lead. Off. Syn. PLUMBI CARBONAS. CERUSSA. Dub. White lead. Ceruse; Ceruse, Carbonate de plomb., Blanc de plomb, Blanc de ceruse, Fr.; Bleiweiss, Germ.; Cerussa, Lat., Ital; Albayalde, Span. Preparation. Carbonate of lead is prepared by two principal methods. By one method it is obtained by passing a stream of carbonic acid through a solution of subacetate (trisacetate) of lead. The carbonic acid combines with the excess of protoxide and precipitates as carbonate of lead, while a neutral acetate remains in solution. This, by being boiled with a fresh portion of protoxide, is again brought to the state of subacetate, when it is treated with carbonic acid as before. In this way the same portion of ace- tate repeatedly serves the purpose of being converted into subacetate, and of being decomposed by carbonic acid. The carbonate obtained is washed, dried by a gentle heat, and thrown into commerce. This process, which produces white lead of the first quality, was invented and made public by Thenard, about the year 1802, and is that which is usually pursued in France and Sweden. A modification of the process of Thenard is now pursued by some manu- 552 Plumbi Carbonas. part i. facturers in England. Litharge is mixed with a hundredth part of acetate of lead, and the mixture, previously moistened with very little water, is sub- jected to a stream of carbonic acid. (Pelouze.) The other method, which consists in exposing lead to the vapours of vine- gar, originated in Holland, and is usually pursued in England and the United States ; but in England, with some modifications which are not well known. We shall describe this process as pursued by our own manufacturers. The lead is cast into thin sheets, made by pouring the melted lead over an oblong sheet-iron shovel, with a flat bottom, and raised edges on its sides, which is held in a slanting direction over the melting-pot. As many of these sheets are then loosely rolled up as may be sufficient to form a cylinder five or six inches in diameter, and seven or eight high, which is placed in an earthen pot containing about half a pint of vinegar, and having within, a few inches from the bottom, three equidistant projecting portions in the earthenware, on which the cylinder of lead is supported, in order to keep it from contact with the vinegar. The pots thus prepared are placed side by side, in horizontal layers, in a building roughly constructed of boards, with interstices between them. The first layer is covered with boards, on which a stratum of tan or refuse straw from the stables is strewed ; and fresh layers of pots, boards, and straw are successively placed until the whole building is filled. The sides also are enclosed with straw. The pile of pots, called a bed, is allowed to remain undisturbed for about six weeks, at the end of which time it is taken down, and the cylinder of sheet-lead in each pot, though still retaining its shape, is found almost entirely converted into a flaky, white, friable substance, which is the white lead. This is separated from the lead yet remaining in the metallic state, ground in water, whereby it is washed and reduced to fine powder, and finally dried in long shallow reservoirs, heated by steam. Pelouze has succeeded in explaining all these processes on the same gene- ral principles. In Thenard's process it is admitted, that the same portion of acetate of lead repeatedly unites with protoxide, and gives it up again to carbonic acid to form the carbonate. In the modified English process, he supposes that the one per cent, of acetate of lead combines with sufficient litharge to convert it into subacetate, which immediately returns to the state of neutral acetate, by yielding up its excess of base to form the carbonate with the carbonic acid. The acetate is now ready to combine with a fresh portion of litharge, to be transferred to the carbonic acid as before; and thus this small proportion of acetate, by combining with successive portions of the litharge, finally causes the whole of it to unite with the carbonic acid. In the Dutch process, Pelouze has rendered it almost certain, that none of the oxygen or carbonic acid of the carbonate is derived from the vinegar. Here he supposes that the heat, generated by the fermentation of the straw or tan, volatilizes the vinegar, the acetic acid of which, with the assistance of the oxygen of the air, forms with the lead a small portion of subacetate. This, by reacting with the carbonic acid resulting from the decomposition of the straw or tan, or derived from the atmosphere, forms carbonate of lead, and is reduced to the state of neutral acetate. The neutral acetate returns again to the state of subacetate, and, by alternately combining with and yielding up the protoxide, causes the whole of the lead to be finally con- verted into carbonate. (Journ. de Pharm., 3c. Ser., i. 51 and 443.) The views of Pelouze have been fully confirmed by Hochstetter. (Ibid., ii. 428.) The temperature of the beds of pots in the Dutch process is about 113°. If it fall below 95°, a part of the lead escapes corrosion, and if it rise above 122°, the product is yellow. The form of acetic acid usually em- ployed in this process is common vinegar; but the variable nature of that PART I. Plumbi Carbonas. 553 liquid as to strength and purity is an objection to its use ; and, accordingly, other forms of the acid have been substituted for it with advantage, as, for example, the purified acetic acid from wood in a diluted state. For further information in relation to the different processes proposed or pursued for making white lead, the reader is referred to a paper by Prof. J. C. Booth, in the Journal of the Franklin Institute for Jan. 1842. Properties. Carbonate of lead is a heavy, opaque substance, in powder or friable lumps, insoluble in water, of a fine white colour, inodorous and nearly insipid. Its beauty as a pigment depends in a great measure on the purity of the lead from which it is manufactured. It is wholly soluble, with effer- vescence, in dilute nitric acid. Exposed to heat it becorhes yellow, and with charcoal is reduced to the metallic state. It is sometimes adulterated with the sulphates of baryta, lime, and lead, particularly the former. M. Louyet has examined samples of French white lead, containing considerably more than half their weight of sulphate of baryta (Chem. Gaz., No. 100, p. 493). These sulphates, if present, are left undissolved by nitric acid. Chalk or whiting is another adulteration. This may be detected by adding to the nitric solution of the white lead an excess of potassa, which will redissolve the protoxide of lead first thrown down, but leave a white powder of lime. Neutral carbonate of lead consists of one eq. of carbonic acid 22, and one of protoxide of lead 111*6=133*6. Commercial white lead is generally a mixture, in varying proportions, of the carbonate and hydrate of lead. Medical Properties and Uses. Whitelead is ranked in the materia medica as an astringent and sedative. It is employed externally only, being used as an application to ulcers, and to inflamed and excoriated surfaces. It has been recommended also in facial neuralgia. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 603.) It is applied either by sprinkling the powder on the part, or in the form of ointment. (See Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis.) Its external use, how- ever, is viewed by many practitioners as dangerous, on account of the risk of absorption ; but the danger is certainly overrated, as we have the testi- mony of respectable physicians that they frequently employ it in this way, without the least unpleasant result. Of the different preparations of lead, the carbonate is considered to be the most poisonous. Being extensively manufactured for the purposes of the arts, it is that preparation which, by slow absorption, most frequently pro- duces the peculiar spasmodic colic, called colica pictonum. This disease is characterized by pain about the region of the navel, and by obstinate con- stipation, attended with a frequent desire to evacuate the bowels, and is supposed to depend upon a spasmodic constriction of the intestinal tube, particularly of the colon. The principal indications in the treatment are, first to relax the spasm, and then to evacuate the bowels by the gentlest means. Opium and mild aperients, used alternately, are accordingly the best remedies, and among the latter castor oil and sulphate of magnesia are to be preferred. Indeed the latter appears peculiarly adapted to the case; for, while it acts as an aperient, it operates as a counterpoison, by forming the inert sulphate of lead with any soluble compound of the metal which it may meet with in the bowels. Calomel is often useful; and if it happen to induce ptyalism, the complaint immediately yields. Sometimes acute poisoning is produced by carbonate of lead, where a large amount of the salt has been swallowed at once. (See Journ. de Pharm., vii. 473, and viii. 148.) Off. Prep. Plumbi Acetas, Dub.; Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis,*7. S., Ed., Dub. B. 48 554 Plumbi Oxidum Rubrum. PART I. PLUMBI OXIDUM RUBRUM. U.S., Ed. Red Oxide of Lead. Red lead, Minium ; Deutoxide de plomb, Oxide rouge de plomb, Minium, Fr.; Men- nig, Germ.; Minio, Ital, Span. Preparation. Red lead is prepared on the large scale in a furnace, with the floor slightly concave and the roof arched, presenting a general resem- blance to a baker's oven. The lead is placed on the floor, and gradually raised to a red heat, whereby it melts and becomes covered with a pellicle of protoxide, which is removed by means of a Jong iron scraper; and the pellicles, as they successively form, are scraped off, until the whole of the metal has been converted into them. The product is subjected to further calcination with occasional stirring, for some time, with a view to oxidize any particles of metallic lead. It is thus rendered yellow, and constitutes the protoxide of lead, or massicot. This is taken out of the furnace and thrown upon a level pavement, and cooled by being sprinkled with water. It is next reduced to fine powder by trituration and levigation, and dried; and in this state is introduced into large, shallow, square tin boxes, which are placed in another furnace, closed from the air, and heated nearly to red- ness ; the heat being allowed gradually to fall during a period of from twenty-four to thirty hours. At the end of this time the protoxide of lead will have combined with an additional quantity of oxygen, and become the red oxide. This is taken out, and having been passed through a fine wire sieve, is packed in barrels for the purposes of commerce. The above is an outline of the French process for making red lead. In England and the United States, the calcination of the protoxide is not per- formed in tin boxes, but by returning it to the furnace in which it was first calcined. To save the first calcination, litharge is generally used for making the red lead of commerce, which consequently is liable to contain the im- purities of that substance, consisting of iron, copper, a little silver, and silica. Copper is hurtful in red lead when used for making glass, to which it com- municates colour. In order to have red lead of good quality, it should be made in large quantities at a time. It is also important that it be slowly cooled ; for, as the absorption of oxygen by which it is formed takes place during a particular interval of temperature only, it is necessary that the heat within that interval should be maintained sufficiently Jong to allow all the protoxide to absorb its appropriate dose of oxygen. It is said that the finest red lead is procured by calcining the protoxide obtained from the car- bonate. Properties, fyc. Red lead is in the form of a heavy, scaly powder, of a bright red colour, with a slight shade of orange. Its sp. gr. is about 9. When exposed to heat it gives off oxygen, and is reduced to the state of protoxide. It is sometimes adulterated with red oxide of iron, or red bole, substances which may be detected by dissolving the suspected red lead in nitric acid, and testing with tincture of galls. This reagent will produce a black precipitate, in Consequence of the iron present in the substances men- tioned. If brick-dust be present, it will be left undissolved upon treating the suspected specimen with muriatic acid. When free from impurities, it is completely reduced on charcoal, by means of the blowpipe, into a globule of metallic lead. It is completely soluble in highly fuming nitrous acid. (Ed. Pharm.) The resulting solution is one of the nitrate of the protoxide, formed by a transfer of the excess of oxygen in the red lead to the nitrous PART I. Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum. 555 acid, which is thus converted into the nitric. When treated with nitric acid, it is resolved into protoxide which dissolves, and deutoxide which remains in the form of a deep-brown powder. The red lead of commerce may be considered as a mixture of what may be called the true red oxide, and variable proportions of protoxide. That this is its nature is proved by the action of cold dilute acetic acid, not used in excess, which takes up a variable quantity of protoxide, leaving a portion unchanged in colour, which may be deemed the pure red oxide. This latter, when analyzed by nitric acid, has been proved, by the coincident results of Dalton, Dumas, and Phillips, to consist of two eqs. of protoxide, and one of deutoxide, corresponding to three eqs. of lead, and four of oxygen. Red lead enters into no officinal preparation. It is employed in preparing Acidum Aceticum, U. S., Ed., and Chlorinei Aqua, Ed. It is used in the arts chiefly as a paint, and in the manufacture of flint glass. B. PLUMBI OXIDUM SEMIVITREUM. U S. Semivitrifed Oxide of Lead. Off. Syn. PLUMBI OXYDUM. Plumbi Oxydum (semivitreum). Lond.; LITHARGYRUM. Ed.; PLUMBI OXYDUM SEMIVITRE- UM. LITHARGYRUM. Dub. Litharge; Oxide de plomb fondu, Litharge, Fr.; Bleiglatte, Germ.; Litargirio, Ital; Almartaga, Span. When the protoxide of lead is rendered semi-crystalline by incomplete fusion, it becomes the semivitrified oxide, or litharge. Almost all the litharge of commerce is obtained, as a secondary product, in the process for extract- ing silver from argentiferous galenas. After extracting the argentiferous lead from the ore, the alloy is calcined in the open air; whereby the lead be- comes oxidized, and by fusion passes into the state of litharge, while the silver remains behind. The following is an outline of the process. The lead containing the silver is placed upon an oval slightly excavated dish, about three feet long and twenty inches wide, called a test, made by beating pulverized bone-earth formed into a paste with water, into a mould, the sides of which are formed of an elliptical band of iron, and the bottom, of strips of sheet iron, placed a short distance apart. The test is of such a size as exactly to fit an opening in the floor of a reverberatory furnace, where it is placed and adjusted to the level of the floor. On one side of the test the fire-place is situated, and exactly opposite, the chimney ; while at one extre- mity of it the pipe of a strong bellows is placed, and at the other a vertical hole is made, communicating with a gutter leading from the centre of the test. The furnace is now lighted, and shortly afterwards the bellows is put in motion. The lead fuses and combines with oxygen, and the resulting oxide melting also, forms a stratum which swims on the surface, and which is driven by the blast of the bellows along the gutter, and through the vertical hole into a recipient below, where, upon solidifying, it crystallizes in small scales, which form the litharge. In proportion as the lead is oxidized and blown off the test, fresh portions are added, so as to keep it always suffi- ciently full. The process is continued for eight or ten days, after which no more lead is added. The operation is now confined to the metal remaining on the test; and, the oxidation proceeding, a period at last arrives when the whole of the lead has run off as litharge, and the silver, known to be pure 556 Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum.—Podophyllum. part i. by its brilliant appearance in the fused state, alone remains. This is then removed, and the process repeated on a fresh portion of argentiferous lead. Properties. Litharge is in the form of small, brilliant, vitrified scales, some presenting a red, and others a yellow colour. In mass it has a foliaceous structure. It is devoid of taste or smell. It slowly attracts carbonic acid from the air, and contains more of this acid the longer it has been prepared. It is on this account that it commonly effervesces slightly with the dilute acids. It has the property of decolorizing wines, when agitated with them. When heated with the fats and oils, in connexion with water, it saponifies them. (See Emplastrum Plumbi.) In dilute nitric acid it should be almost entirely soluble. As it occurs in commerce, it usually contains iron, copper, and a little silver and silica. The English litharge is most esteemed; that from Germany being generally contaminated with iron and copper. In choosing litharge, samples should be selected which are free from copper, and from fragments of vegetable matter. This metal is detected, if upon adding ferrocyanuret of potassium to a nitric solution of the litharge, a brown instead of a white precipitate is produced. Two varieties of litharge are dis- tinguished in commerce, named from their colour, and dependent on differ- ences in the process for making it. Sometimes it has a pale yellow colour and silvery appearance, and is then denominated silver litharge or yellow litharge ; at other times it is of a red colour, and is known under the name of gold litharge or red litharge. The latter has been said to owe its colour to the presence of a portion of red lead; but M. Leblanc has shown that the two varieties of litharge differ in colour, structure, and density only, and not in chemical composition. In composition, litharge is essentially identical with the protoxide of lead. (See Plumbum.) The carbonic acid which it contains is variable; but its average amount is about four per cent. Pharmaceutical Uses, $*c. Litharge is never used internally, but is employed in several pharmaceutical operations, and forms an ingredient in various external applications, used for abating inflammation, and for other purposes, Combined with olive oil it forms the Emplastrum Plumbi, which is the basis of many of the Plasters. (See Emplastra.) In the arts it is employed in the glazing of pottery, in painting to render oils dry- ing, and as an ingredient in flint glass. Off. Prep. Ceratum Saponis, Lond.; Emplastrum Plumbi, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Plumbi Acetas, Lond., Ed.; Plumbi Nitras, Ed. PODOPHYLLUM. U.S. May-apple. "The rhizoma of Podophyllum peltatum." U. S, Podophyllum. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranun- culi, Juss.; Podophylleae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Corolla nine-petalied. Berry one-celled, crowned with the stigma. Willd. Podophyllum peltatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1141; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 34; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 9. The may-apple, known also by the name of mandrake, is an indigenous herbaceous plant, and the only species belonging to the genus. The root (rhizoma) is perennial, creeping, usually several feet in length, about one quarter of an inch thick, of a brown colour externally, smooth, jointed, and furnished with radicles at the joints. The stem is about a foot high, erect, round, smooth, divided at top into two PART I. Podophyllum. 551 petioles, and supporting at the fork a solitary one-flowered peduncle. Each petiole bears a large peltate, palmate leaf, with six or seven wedge-shaped lobes, irregularly incised at the extremity, yellowish-green on their upper surface, paler and slightly pubescent beneath. The flower is noddin°". The calyx is composed of three oval, obtuse, concave, deciduous leaves. The corolla has from six to nine white, fragrant petals, which are obovate, obtuse, concave, with delicate transparent veins. The stamens are from thirteen to twenty, shorter than the petals, with oblong, yellow anthers of twice the length of the filaments. The stigma is sessile, and rendered irregular on its surface by numerous folds or convolutions. The fruit is a large oval berry, crowned with the persistent stigma, and containing a sweetish fleshy pulp, in which about twelve ovate seeds are imbedded. It is, when ripe, of a lemon-yellow colour, diversified by round brownish spots. The plant is extensively diffused throughout the United States, growing luxuriantly in moist shady woods, and in low marshy grounds. It is pro- pagated by its creeping root, and is often found in large patches. The flowers appear about the end of May and beginning of June; and the fruit ripens in the latter part of September. The leaves are said to be poisonous. The fruit has a subacid, sweetish, peculiar taste, agreeable to some palates, and may be eaten freely with impunity. From its colour and shape it is sometimes called wild lemon. The root is the officinal portion, and is said to be most efficient when collected after the falling of the leaves. It shrinks considerably in drying. Properties. The dried root is in pieces about two lines in thickness, with swelling, broad, flattened joints at short intervals. It is much wrinkled lengthwise, is yellowish or reddish-brown externally, and furnished with fibres of a similar, but somewhat paler colour. The fracture is short and irregular, and the internal colour whitish. The powder is light yellowish- gray, resembling that of jalap. The root in its aggregate state is nearly inodorous; but in powder has a sweetish not unpleasant smell. The taste is at first sweetish, afterwards bitter, nauseous, and slightly acrid. The de- coction and tincture are bitter. A peculiar bitter principle was discovered in the root by William Hodgson, jun., of Philadelphia. It is in pale brown shining scales, unalterable in the air, very sparingly soluble in cold water, much more soluble in boiling water, soluble also in ether, and freely so in boiling alcohol. It has neither acid nor alkaline properties. Nitric acid dissolves it with effervescence, producing a rich deep red colour. Its taste, at first not very decided, in consequence of its sparing solubility, becomes at length very bitter and permanent; and its alcoholic solution is intensely bitter. Should it be found to be the purgative principle of the plant, it would be entitled to the name of podophyllin. It may be obtained by boil- ing the root with quicklime in water, straining the decoction, precipitating the lime with sulphate of zinc, evaporating the clear solution to the con- sistence of an extract, treating this with cold alcohol of 0*817, filtering and evaporating the alcoholic solution, and treating the residue with boiling distilled water, which deposits the bitter principle on cooling. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., iii. 273.) Medical Properties and Uses. Podophyllum is an active and certain cathartic, producing copious liquid discharges without much griping or other unpleasant effect. In some cases it has given rise to nausea and even vomiting, but the same result is occasionally experienced from every active cathartic. Its operation resembles that of jalap; but is rather slower, and is thought by some to be more drastic. It is applicable to most in- flammatory affections which require brisk purging; and is much employed 48* 558 Polygala Rubella.—Polygonum Bistorta. part i. in various parts of the country, especially combined with calomel, in bilious fevers and hepatic congestions. It is also frequently used in connexion with bitartrate of potassa in dropsical, rheumatic, and scrofulous complaints. The dose of the powdered root is about twenty grains. An extract is prepared from it possessing all its virtues in a smaller bulk. (See Extractum Podophylli.) In minute doses frequently repeated, podophyllum is said to diminish the frequency of the pulse, and to relieve cough; and for these effects is sometimes used in haemoptysis, catarrh, and other pulmonary affections. Off. Prep. Extractum Podophylli, U. S. W. POLYGALA RUBELLA. U.S. Secondary. Bitter Polygala. "The root and herb of Polygala rubella." U. S. Polygala. See SENEGA. Polygala rubella. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 875; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 129.—P.polygama. Walter, Flor. Car. 179; Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. 465. This species of Polygala is an indigenous, perennial plant, with a branching, somewhat fusiform root, which sends up annually numerous simple, smooth, and angular stems, from four to eight inches in height. The leaves are scattered, sessile, obovate or linear lanceolate, attenuated towards the base, obtuse, and mucronate. The flowers are purple, and in elongated terminal racemes. From the base of the stem proceed other racemes, which lie upon the ground, or are partially buried under it, and bear incomplete but fertile flowers, the calyx of which is without wings. This plant is found in many parts of the United States, preferring a dry sandy or gravelly soil, and flowering in June and July. The whole plant is officinal. It has a strong and permanent bitter taste, which it yields to water and alcohol. Medical Properties and Uses. In small doses it is tonic, in larger laxa- tive and diaphoretic. The infusion of the dried plant has been usually employed to impart tone to the digestive organs. (Bigelow.) It appears to be closely analogous in medical virtues to the Polygala amara of Eu- rope, which is used for a similar purpose. - W. POLYGONUM BISTORTA. Radix. Dub. Bistort Root. Bistorte, Fr.; Natter-Wurzel, Germ.; Bistorta, Ital, Span. Polygonum. Sex. Syst. Octandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Polygonaceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla five-parted, calycine. Seed one, angular. Willd. Besides the bistort, some other plants belonging to this genus have been used as medicines. Among these are the P. aviculare, or knot-grass, a mild astringent formerly employed as a vulnerary and styptic; the P. Per- sicaria (Persicaria mitis), of a feebly astringent saline taste, and at one time considered antiseptic; and the P. Hydropiper or water-pepper (Per- sicaria urens), the leaves of which have a burning and biting taste, inflame the skin when rubbed upon it, and are esteemed diuretic. The water- pepper or smart-weed of this country—P. punctatum (Elliott), P. Hydro- piperoides (Michaux)—which grows abundantly in moist places, possesses properties similar to those of the European water-pepper, and is occasion- ally used as a detergent in chronic ulcers, and internally in gravel. Dr. part i. Polygonum Bistorta.—Porrum.—Potassium. 559 Eberle very strongly recommended it in amenorrha-a, in which complaint he found no other remedy equally effectual. He gave a fluidrachm of the saturated tincture of the plant, or from four to six grains of the extract, three or four times a day. He found it to produce a warmth and peculiar tingling sensation throughout the system, with slight aching pains in the hips and loins, and a sense of weight and tension within the pelvis. (Eberle's Mat. Med., 4th ed., vol. i. p. 441.) The P. Fagopyrum is the common buckwheat. Polygonum Bistorta. Willd. aS^. Plant, ii. 441; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 668. t. 232. This plant has a perennial root, and an annual herbaceous stem, which is simple, erect, jointed, and rises one or two feet in height. The lower leaves are cordate lanceolate, and supported on long-winged foot- stalks ; the upper are ovate, almost sessile, amplexicaule, and sheathing. The flowers are of a pale rose colour, and form a close terminal spike. The plant is a native of Europe and the North of Asia. The root, which is the officinal portion, is cylindrical, somewhat flattened, about as thick as the little fingermarked with annular or transverse wrinkles, furnished with numerous fibres, and folded or bent upon itself, so as to give it the tortuous appearance from which its name was derived. When dried it is solid, brittle, of a deep brown colour externally, reddish within, desti- tute of smell, and possessed of a rough, astringent taste. It contains much tannin, some gallic acid and gum, and a large proportion of starch. Medical Properties. Bistort resembles the other vegetable astringents, such as galls, kino, &c, in medical properties, and is applicable to the same complaints; but in this country is seldom or never used. It may be em- ployed in the form of decoction or of powder. The dose of the latter is twenty or thirty grains, three or four times a day. W. PORRUM. Lond. Leek Root. "Allium Porrum. Bulbus." Lond. Poireau, Fr.; Gemeiner Lauch, Germ.; Porro, Ital; Puerro, Span. Allium. See ALLIUM. Allium Porrum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 64. " Stem flat-leaved, umbelli- ferous. Stamens tricuspidate. Root truncated." The leek is a biennial bulbous plant, growing wild in Switzerland, and cultivated in the gardens of Europe and this country for culinary purposes. All parts of it have an offensive pungent odour, and an acrid taste, dependent on an essential oil, which is in a great measure dissipated by decoction, and may be obtained separate by distillation. The bulb, which is the officinal portion, consists of concentric layers, like the onion, which it resembles in medical properties, though somewhat milder. It is gently stimulant, with a peculiar direction to the kidneys. The expressed juice may be given in the dose of a fluidrachm, mixed with syrup. This species of Allium is not used medicinally in the United States. W. POTASSIUM. Potassium. Potassium, Fr.; Potassium, Kalimetall, Germ.; Pottassio, Ital; Potasio, Span. Potassium is a peculiar metal, forming the radical of a number of import- ant medicinal preparations. It was discovered in 1807 by Sir H. Davy, 560 Potassium.—Potassa Bitartras. part i. who obtained it by decomposing hydrate of potassa by galvanic electricity. It was afterwards procured in larger quantity by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, by bringing the fused alkali in contact with white-hot iron, which attracted the oxygen and set free the metal. The best process is that of Brunner, as modified by Wohler, which consists in decomposing potassa in the state of carbonate, mixed with charcoal. The mixture of carbonate and charcoal is obtained by heating cream of tartar to redness in a covered crucible. Potassium is solid, softer and more ductile than wax, easily cut with a knife, and of a silver-white colour. A newly cut surface is brilliant; but the metal quickly tarnishes by combining with the oxygen of the air, and assumes the appearance of lead. It possesses a remarkably strong affinity for oxygen, and is capable of taking that element from every other substance. On ac- count of this property it must be kept in liquids, such as naphtha, which are devoid of oxygen as a constituent. Its sp. gr. is 0*865, its melting point 136°, its equivalent number 39*15, and symbol K. When thrown upon water it swims, takes fire, and burns with a rose-coloured flame, combining with oxygen, and generating potassa which dissolves in the water. It forms numerous combinations, uniting with most of the non-metallic bodies, and with several of the metals. It combines in two proportions with oxygen, forming a protoxide (dry potassa) of a gray, and a teroxide of a yellowish- brown colour; the former containing one, and the latter three equivalents of oxygen to one of metal. It also unites with chlorine, and forms officinal compounds with iodine, bromine, sulphur, cyanogen, and ferrocyanogen, under the names of iodide, bromide, sulphuret, cyanuret, and ferrocyanuret of potassium. Its protoxide (dry potassa)- is a very strong salifiable base, existing in nature always in combination, and forming with acids a numerous and important class of salts. Of these, the acetate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chlorate, citrate (in solution), hydrate (caustic potassa), nitrate, sulphate, sulphuretted sulphate, bisulphate, tartrate, and bitartrate are officinal, and will be described under their respective titles, to which, for their properties, the reader is referred. B. POTASSSE BITARTRAS. U.S., Lond., Ed. Bitartrate of Potassa. Off. Syn. POTASS^ BITARTRAS. TARTARI CRYSTALLI. Dub. Supertartrate of potassa, ^Cream of tartar, Crystals of tartar; Cremor tartari, LaL; Tartrate acide de potasse, Creme de tartre, Fr.; Doppelt weinsaures Kali, Weinsteinrahm, Germ.; Cremore di tartaro, Ital; Cremor de tavtaro, Span. During the fermentation of wines, especially those that are tart, a pecu- liar matter is deposited on the bottom and sides of the casks, forming a crystalline crust, called crude tartar or argol. That deposited from red wines is of a reddish colour, and called in commerce red tartar; while that derived from white wines is of a dirty white colour, and denominated white tartar. Both kinds consist of potassa, united with an excess of tartaric acid, forming bitartrate of potassa, rendered impure by tartrate of lime, more or less colouring matter, and the lees and other matters which are deposited during the clarification of the wine. The deposition of the tartar is thus explained. The bitartrate exists naturally in the juice of the grape, held in solution by saccharine matter. When the juice is sub- mitted to fermentation in the process for converting it into wine, the sugar disappears, and is replaced by alcohol, which, not being competent to dis- PART I. Potassa Bitartras. 561 solve the salt, allows it to precipitate as a crystalline crust. It is from this substance that cream of tartar is obtained by a process of purification. The process is conducted on a large scale at Montpellier, in France, and is founded upon the greater solubility of bitartrate of potassa in hot than in cold water. The tartar, previously pulverized, is boiled with water in copper boilers. The solution, when saturated, is transferred to earthen pans, where it deposits on cooling a crystalline layer, nearly free from colour. This is redissolved in boiling water; and the solution, having been mixed with,four or five per cent, of pipe-clay, is evaporated to a pellicle. The clay precipitates with the colouring matter, and the clear solution, as it cools, deposits white crystals in crusts, which, upon being exposed to the air on linen for several days, acquire an increased degree of whiteness. These constitute the crystals of tartar of pharmacy. The salt, however, as met with in the shops, is generally, for greater convenience, in the form of powder; and it is to the substance in this form that the name of cream of tartar is properly applied. Properties. Bitartrate of potassa occurs in commerce, in white crystal- line crusts, or masses of aggregated crystals, and is received in that state from France by our wholesale druggists, who procure its pulverization for the use of the apothecaries. In crystals it is hard and gritty between the teeth, and dissolves slowly in the mouth; in powder it has a white colour. It is a per- manent salt, of an acid, not ungrateful taste, soluble in 184 parts of cold, and 18 of boiling water, but insoluble in alcohol. When exposed to a red heat it is decomposed, exhales a peculiar odour, gives rise to a solid pyrogenous acid, and the usual products of the destructive distillation of vegetable matter; and carbonate of potassa, mixed with charcoal, is left. Its solution is pre- cipitated by solutions of baryta, strontia, and lime, which form insoluble tar- trates, and by acetate of lead, forming tartrate of lead. If chloride of barium throws down a precipitate not entirely soluble in nitric acid, the fact indicates the presence of a sulphate; for the tartrate of baryta is soluble in this acid, but not the sulphate. With salifiable bases which form soluble tartrates, it gives rise to double salts, consisting of neutral tartrate of potassa, and the tartrate of the base added. Several of them are important medicines, and will be described under their respective titles. Cream of tartar, though sparingly soluble in water, becomes abundantly so by the addition of borax or boracic acid. These combinations are sometimes used in medicine, and will be described under borax. (See Sodas Boras.) The cream of tartar of commerce is not a pure bitartrate of potassa. It usually contains from two to five per cent, of tartrate of lime ; and is some- times adulterated with sand, clay, and similar substances. The fraud may be easily detected by the salt not being entirely soluble in boiling water, or by treating it with a hot solution of potassa, which will dissolve the cream of tartar, and leave the adulterating substances. Composition. Cream of tartar consists of two eqs. of tartaric acid 132, one of potassa 47* 15, and one of water 9= 188*15. The water cannot . be expelled without decomposing the salt, and is supposed to act the part of a base. > Medical Properties and Uses. Bitartrate of potassa is cathartic, diuretic, and refrigerant. In small doses it acts as a cooling aperient, in large ones as a hydragogue cathartic, producing copious watery stools; and from this latter property, as well as its tendency to excite the action of the kidneys, it is very much used in dropsical affections. It is frequently prescribed in combination with sulphur or jalap. (See Pulvis Jalapse Compositus.) Its solution in boiling water, sweetened with sugar and allowed to cool, forms 562 Potassa Bitartras.—Potassa Carbonas Impurus. part i. an acid, not unpleasant, refrigerant drink, advantageously used in some febrile affections, and frequently employed as a domestic remedy. The beverage called imperial is a drink of this kind, made by dissolving half an ounce of the salt in three pints of boiling water, and adding to the solution four ounces of white sugar, and half an ounce of fresh lemon peel. Cream of tartar whey is prepared by adding about two drachms of the bitartrate to a pint of milk. It may be given, diluted with water, in dropsical com- plaints. The dose of cream of tartar'is a drachm or two as an aperient; and from half an ounce to an ounce as a hydragogue cathartic, mixed with molasses or suspended in water. As a diuretic in dropsical cases, it may be given in the dose of a drachm and a half or two drachms, several times a day. In pharmacy, cream of tartar is employed to obtain the neutral tartrate of potassa (soluble tartar), tartrate of potassa and soda (Rochelle salt), tartrate of antimony and potassa (tartar emetic), and tartrate of iron and potassa. Saturated by means of chalk, its second eq. of acid is converted into tartrate of lime, which, decomposed by sulphuric acid, yields tartaric acid. Defla- grated with nitre, it is converted into a pure form of carbonate of potassa, called salt of tartar. (See Potassae Carbonas Purus.) In the laboratory it is used to procure potassa in a pure state, and in making black and white flux. Black flux is prepared by deflagrating cream of tartar with half its weight of nitre ; and white flux, by a similar process, with twice its weight of the same salt. Off. Prep. Acidum Tartaricum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Antimonii et Potasss Tartras, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Scoparii, Ed.; Ferri et Po- tassa? Tartras, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassae Carbonas Purus, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Potassa? Tartras, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Jalapa? Com- positus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Scammonii Compositus, Ed.} Soda? et Potassa? Tartras, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. B. POTASSAE carbonas IMPURUS. U.S. Impure Carbonate of Potassa. "The impure carbonate of potassa known in commerce by the name of pearlash." U.S. Off. Syn. POTASSA CARBONAS IMPURA. Lond.; LIXIVUS CINIS. Dub. Pearlash, Pearlashes, Impure potassa, Impure subcarbonate of potassa; Potasse du commerce, Fr.; Rohe Pottasche, Germ.; Potasch, Dutch; Potaske, Dan.; Potaska, Swed.; Potassa del commercio, Ital; Cenizas claveladas, Span. The alkali potassa, using this term in its strict sense, is the protoxide of the metal potassium. (See Potassium.) It exists in various states of com- bination and purity. In its most impure state, it is the common potash of commerce. This, subjected to calcination, becomes somewhat purer, and is then called pearlash, the form of the alkali intended to be designated by the officinal name at the head of this article. Natural State and Preparation. Potash and pearlash of commerce are procured from the ashes of wood, by lixiviation, and the subsequent evapo- ration of the solution obtained. The alkali exists in the wood, principally in the state of acetate; and being of a fixed and incombustible nature, is left behind after the incineration. The wood is burnt on the ground, in a place sheltered from the wind. The ashes consist of a soluble and insoluble por- tion. The soluble part is made up of carbonate of potassa, together with part i. Potassa Carbonas Impurus. 563 the sulphate, phosphate, and silicate of potassa, and the chlorides of potas- sium and sodium ; and the insoluble portion, of carbonate and subphosphate of lime, alumina, silica, oxidized iron and manganese, and a little carbona- ceous matter that had escaped combustion. The ashes are lixiviated in barrels with the addition of a portion of lime, and the soluble substances above mentioned are taken up. The lixivium is then evaporated in large iron kettles, which for several days are kept constantly full. The evaporation is continued until the mass has become of a black colour, and of the con- sistence of brown sugar. It is now subjected to as powerful a heat as can be raised by the best wood fire for a number of hours, by which it is fused. During the progress of the fusion, the combustible impurities are for the most part burnt out, and a gaseous matter is emitted, which agitates the more fluid part.. When the fusion is complete, the liquid becomes quiescent, and looks like melted iron. It is now transferred, by means of large iron ladles, to iron pots, where it congeals in cakes. These are broken up and packed in tight barrels, and constitute the potash of commerce. (Dr. G. A. Rogers, in Silliman's Journal.) If it be intended to make pearlash, the process is varied. In this case the black matter, above mentioned as- of the consistence of brown sugar, called black salts by our manufacturers, instead of being fused, is trans- ferred from the kettles to a large oven-shaped furnace, so constructed that the flame may be made to play over the alkaline mass, which in the mean time is stirred by means of an iron rod. The ignition is in this way con- tinued, until the combustible impurities are burnt out, and the mass, from being black, becomes of a dirty bluish-white colour. (Rogers.) The ashes of plants amount generally to not more than a few parts in the hundred; and of these a portion only consists of potassa. The different parts of the same vegetable, and, for a stronger reason, different plants, fur- nish variable quantities of ashes. Ligneous plants furnish less than herba- ceous, the trunk less than the branches, and the branches less than the leaves. The bark yields more ashes than the wood; and the leaves of trees which drop their foliage in winter, more than the leaves of evergreens. The following table gives the quantity of potassa contained in the ashes of one thousand parts of different plants. Pine, - - 0-45 Barley straw, - 5-8 Poplar, - - - 0-75 Beech bark, - 6-0 Birch, - - - 1-29 Fern, ... . 6-2 Beech, - - - 1-45 Stalks of Indian corn, . 17-5 Oak, - - 2-03 Sun-flower stalks, . 19-4 Oak bark, - - 2-08 Dry oak leaves, - 240 Box, • - - 2-20 Common nettle, - 25-0 Willow, - - 2-85 Black elder, - 25-5 Linden, - - - 3-27 Vetch, ... - 27-5 Elm, - . - 3-9 Poke, - - - 45-6 Maple, - - - - 3-9 Wheat stalks, young, - 47-0 Wheat straw, - - 4-18 Dried stems of potatoes, - 55-0 Flax, - - - 5-0 Wormwood, - 73-0 Rush, - - - 5-08 Fumitory, - 79-0 Common thistle, - - 5-37 Angelica, - - - 96-2 Vine branches, - ■ • 5-5 Commercial History. Potash and pearlash are made in those countries in which forests abound. Accordingly, the alkali is extensively manu- factured in Canada and the United States, and constitutes a very important export of this country. It is prepared chiefly in the state of New York, which is supposed to furnish three-fourths of our exports of this alkali. It is also produced in considerable quantities in the northern countries of 564 Potassa Carbonas Impurus. part i. Europe, especially in Russia, and on the shores of the Baltic. It is of different qualities as it occurs in commerce; and is distinguished by the country or place of manufacture,as American, Russian, Dantzic potash, &c. Properties. Potash is in the form of fused masses of a stony appear- ance and hardness, and caustic burning taste. Its colour is variegated, but reddish and dark-brown are the predominant hues. When exposed to the air it absorbs moisture and deliquesces; and, if sufficiently long exposed, finally becomes liquid. Pearlash is of a white colour, with usually a tinge of blue. As it occurs in commerce, it is in tight casks, containing about three hundred and fifty pounds, in which it forms one entire, hard, concrete mass. In the shops it is found in coarse powder, intermingled with lumps as dug out of the casks, presenting an opaque granular appearance, like table salt or Havana sugar. It is a deliquescent salt, and has a burning alkaline taste. It is soluble in water, with the exception of impurities. One hundred grains of that of medium quality will neutralize about fifty- eight grains of sulphuric acid. It differs from potash principally in con- taining less combustible impurities, and in being less caustic and deliquescent. The colouring matter of both these forms of alkali is derived from carbon- aceous impurities, and small portions of iron and manganese. Composition. The basis of both pot and pearlash is carbonate of potassa; but this is associated with certain salts and with insoluble impurities. Several varieties of potash found in commerce were analyzed by Vauquelin, whose principal results are contained in the following table. Caustic Sulphate Chloride of Insoluble Carbonic Kinds op Potash. Hydrate of Potassa. of Potassa. Potassium. Residue. Acid and Water. American potash, 857 - 154 20 2 "1ft Russian potash, 772 65 5 5B 254 Pearlash, 754 80 4 6 308 Dantzic potash, 603 152 14 79 304 By the above table it is perceived that the American potash contains 74 per cent, of pure hydrated alkali, and the Russian 67 per cent. Pearlash, it is seen, is more rich in carbonic acid than potash; and this result of ana- lysis corresponds with the qualities of the two substances as prepared in the United States; potash being known to be far more caustic than pearl- ash. Besides the impurities shown by the table, silicate of potassa is present. As the potash of commerce is valuable, in the arts in proportion to the quantity of real alkali which it contains, it becomes important, in so variable a substance, to possess an easy method of ascertaining its quality in that respect. The process by which this is accomplished is called alkalimetry, and the instrument used an" alkalimeter. The best mode of conducting the assay, which is applicable to the commercial forms of soda as well as those of potassa, is that proposed by Faraday, and described by Turner as follows. Take a cylindrical tube, sealed at one end, nine and a half inches long, and three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and pour into it one thou- sand grains of water, marking with a file the point at which the water stands. Divide the space occupied by the water into one hundred equal parts, graduating from above downwards; and, opposite to the numbers 23-44, 48-96, 54-63, and 65, severally write the words soda, potassa, car- bonate of soda, and carbonate of potassa. Then prepare a dilute sulphuric acid, having the specific gravity 1-127, which may be formed by adding to the strong acid about four times its volume of distilled water. An acid part i. Potassa Carbonas Impurus.—Potassa Chloras. 565 of this strength, if added to the tube so as to reach to any one of the heights denoted by the above numbers, will be just sufficient to neutralize one hundred grains of the alkali written opposite to it. Suppose, for example, that the dilute acid be added until it stands opposite to the word carbonate of potassa, we shall then have the exact quantity necessary to neutralize one hundred grains of that carbonate; and if we add pure water, until the liquid reaches to 0, or the beginning of the scale, it is evident that the acid has been brought to the bulk of a hundred measures, each of which would be competent to neutralize one grain of the carbonate in question. All that is now necessary, in order to ascertain the quality of any commercial sample of this carbonate, is to dissolve one hundred grains of it in warm water, filter the solution to remove insoluble impurities, and add by degrees the dilute acid from the tube until the solution is exactly neutralized, as shown by litmus paper. The number of divisions of acid, expended in attaining this point, may be read off from the tube; and for each division one grain of real carbonate is indicated. This method of testing the potash of commerce indicates its alkaline strength, assuming this to be dependent solely on potassa; but soda may be present also, and its proportion is important to be known. To solve this problem, M. O. Henry proposes that the saturating power of a given weight should be first determined in relation to sulphuric acid, and after- wards the proportion of carbonate of potassa in an equal weight, by first converting it into an acetate, and then precipitating the potassa by hyper- chlorate (oxychlorate) of soda, the reacting salts being in alcoholic solution. The precipitated hyperchlorate of potassa indicates the proportion of car- bonate of potassa. The amount of the latter determines how much of the sulphuric acid was expended in saturating the potassa; and the soda is indicated by the amount of this alkali, equivalent to the remainder of the acid. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 214.) Pharmaceutical Uses. Pearlash is never used as a medicine in regular practice, being considered as too impure; but it is employed pharmaceutic- ally in several processes. The Dublin College uses it for depriving recti- fied spirit of water, in the process for strengthening it; and it is directed to be purified in all the Pharmacopoeias, in order to form the carbonate of potassa. Off. Prep. Potassa? Carbonas, U. S., Lond., Dub. B. POTASSAE CHLORAS. Lond. Chlorate of Potassa. Hyperoxymuriate of potassa; Chlorate de potasse, Fr.; Chlorsaures Kali, Germ. Chlorate of potassa may be prepared by passing an excess of chlorine through a solution of either caustic hydrate, or carbonate of potassa. At first two eqs. of chlorine react with two eqs. of potassa, so as to form one eq. of chloride of potassium, and one eq. of hypochlorite of potassa (2Cland 2K0=KC1 and KO,C10). Afterwards by the further action of the chlo- rine, more chloride of potassium is formed, and the oxygen separated from the potassa converts the hypochlorous acid into the chloric, and conse- quently the hypochlorite into chlorate of potassa. Thus, 4C1, reacting with 4KO and KO,C10 will form 4KC1 and KO,C105. The chlorate, being but sparingly soluble in water, is separated from the chloride of potassium by priority of crystallization. When carbonate of potassa is 49 566 Potassa Chloras. PART I. used, the carbonic acid is first transferred from a part of the alkali to the remainder, and finally evolved. Graham has devised an improved process for obtaining this salt. It con- sists in mixing the carbonate of potassa with an equivalent quantity of hy- drate of lime, before submitting it to the action of chlorine. The gas is absorbed with avidity, and the mass becomes hot, while water is given off. The lime converts the carbonate into caustic potassa, and the reaction then takes place between six eqs. of potassa and six of chlorine, with the result of forming five eqs. of chloride of potassium, and one of chlorate of potassa. (6KO and 6C1=5KC1 and KO,C105.) The products are, therefore, car- bonate of lime, chloride of potassium, and chlorate of potassa. The chlo- ride and chlorate are separated from the carbonate by solution in hot water, and the chlorate from the chloride by priority of crystallization as before. Properties. Chlorate of potassa is a white anhydrous salt, of a cooling and slightly acerb taste. It crystallizes in rhomboidal plates of a pearly lustre. It is soluble in sixteen parts of water at 60°, and in two and a half parts of boiling water. When thrown on burning coals, it augments their combustion remarkably. This property is due to the presence of oxygen, which may be evolved from the salt in the proportion of nearly 39 per cent., by heating it a little above its point of fusion. The residue is chlo- ride of potassium. Chlorate of potassa is characterized by giving out oxygen upon fusion, and leaving a residue of chloride of potassium ; by becoming first yellow and then red by admixture with a little sulphuric acid, and by the action of that acid evolving chlorous acid gas (quadroxide of chlorine), known by its yellow colour, and explosive property when heated ; by its bleaching power when mixed first with muriatic acid and then with water; and by its property of exploding violently when triturated with a small portion of sulphur or phosphorus. Its usual impurity is chloride of potassium, which may be detected by a precipitate of chloride .of silver being produced on the addition of nitrate of silver. It consists of one eq. of chloric acid 75-42, and one of potassa 47-15=122-57. Medical Properties and Uses. Chlorate of potassa is ranked as a refri- gerant and diuretic. From experiments made by Dr. O'Shaughnessy and others, it gives a bright scarlet colour to the venous blood, and passes un- decomposed into the urine. The first trials made with it as a medicine were founded upon the supposition that it would prove an oxidizing re- medy ; and hence it was employed in scurvy, which was supposed to de- pend upon a deficiency of oxygen in the system, and in syphilis and liver complaint as a substitute for mercury, which mineral was "held by some to act in these affections by imparting oxygen. In scurvy it appears to have acted beneficially, but not on the principle which induced its trial; as it would seem not to be decomposed in the system. It has been employed by Dr. Stevens and others as a remedy for certain fevers, and for malig- nant cholera, to supply a supposed deficiency of saline matter in the blood. Dr. Henry Hunt recommends it strongly in cancrum oris, given in solution, in divided doses, to the amount of from twenty to sixty grains in twenty- four hours, according to the age of the child. It lessens the fetor and sali- vation attendant on the disease, and promotes the granulation of the sores. With this treatment Dr. Hunt conjoins the use of an aperient of rhubarb and sulphate of potassa with a grain of calomel, sometimes repeated occa- sionally during the progress of the cure. (Braithwaite's Retrospect, viii. 148.) For an account of the physiological effects of chlorate of potassa, and the trials which have been made with it as a medicine, the reader is re- part i. Potassa Chloras.—Potassa Nitras. 567 ferred to Pereira's Elements of Materia Medica, 2d ed., 1842. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. Chlorate of potassa is used to obtain pure oxygen ; to make matches which take fire by friction, or when dipped in sulphuric acid ; and to prepare prim- ing for cannon and fire-arms. B. POTASSA NITRAS. U.S., Lond., Ed, Dub. Nitrate of Potassa. Nitre, Saltpetre; Nitrate de potasse, Azotate de potasse, Salpetre,, Fr.; Salpetersaures Kali, Salpeter, Germ., Dutch, Dan., Swed.; Nitro, Ital, Span., Port. Nitre or saltpetre is both a natural and artificial production. It is found ready formed in many countries, existing in the soil on which it forms a saline efflorescence, in the fissures of calcareous rocks, and in caves. It has been found in different parts of Europe, in Egypt, and in Peru ; but the country in which it is most abundantly produced is India, whence the principal part is furnished for the demands of commerce. In the United States it is found in Georgia, Tennessee, Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, and Kentucky. It exists, in these States, for the most part, in caverns situated in limestone rock, called saltpetre caves, and is associated with nitrate of lime. The earths contained in them are lixiviated, and yield, according to their richness, from one to ten pounds of crude nitre to the bushel. These caves are particularly numerous in Kentucky, and furnished a large portion of the nitre consumed in the United States during the late war. It exists also in the vegetable kingdom, having been found in borage, tobacco, bu- gloss, parietaria, hemlock, and the sun-flower. The artificial sources of nitre are certain mixtures of animal and vegetable substances with wood- ashes and calcareous matter, called nitre beds ; and certain materials, im- pregnated with saltpetre, consisting principally of old plaster, derived from the demolition of old buildings. Preparation from its Natural Sources. In India the saline earth, which on an average contains seven parts of nitre in a thousand, is placed in large mud filters lined with stiff clay, on which wood-ashes have been previously laid. Water is added, and the solution filters through the wood-ashes, with the effect of converting any nitrate of lime present, which amounts to nearly one per cent., into nitrate of potassa. The solution obtained is evaporated in earthen pots, filtered, and set aside to crystallize. The im- pure nitre thus obtained contains from 45 to 70 per cent, of the pure salt. It is redissolved and crystallized by the native merchants, and thrown into commerce under the name of crude nitre, or crude saltpetre. Artificial Preparation. The plan of forming saltpetre in artificial nitre- beds is principally practised in Germany; while the method of obtaining it from old plaster rubbish is followed in France. Artificial nitre-beds axe formed of animal and vegetable remains, together with ashes and calcareous earth, which are mixed up with a portion of loose soil and placed under sheds, to shelter them from the rain; while the sides are left open to permit the free access of air. The matter is disposed in little ranges or heaps, which are frequently turned over with a spade, and sprinkled with urine, as a substance containing a large quantity of nitrogen. At the end of two or three years the nitrogen is converted into nitric acid, and this, by uniting with the potassa existing in the vegetable remains, forms nitre. When the contents of the bed contain about four ounces of the salt for every cubic foot of the materials, they are deemed fit to be lixiviated. The lixivialion is performed with boiling water, which is repeatedly thrown upon fresh por- 568 Potassa Nitras. part i. tions of the mass, until the solution obtained is sufficiently strong. The lixivium is of a brown colour, and contains chiefly the nitrate of potassa; but at the same time more or less of the nitrates of lime and magnesia, and of common salt. The earthy nitrates are then decomposed by a solution of wood-ashes, which, by furnishing potassa, converts them into nitre, and precipitates the earths. The solution being further evaporated, the common salt rises to the surface as a scum, and is removed. The solution is then allowed to cool, and the nitre crystallizes in dirty white crystals, called crude nitre. When obtained from old plaster rubbish, the material is reduced to powder and lixiviated, in order to exhaust it of everything soluble. The solution is found to contain the nitrates of potassa and lime, and common salt, and is treated with wood-ashes, which convert the nitrate of lime into nitrate of potassa, with precipitation of the earth as a carbonate. The liquor is separated from the precipitate and concentrated by heat; and the common salt as it rises to the surface is skimmed off. When the solution is so strong as to mark 45° of Baume's areometer, it is allowed to cool and crystallize; and the crystals form the crude nitre of this process. The salt obtained in this way generally contains from 85 to 88 per cent, of pure nitre; the re- mainder being made up of chloride of sodium, and certain deliquescent salts. The details of this process, as practised in Paris, are given with minuteness by Thenard. Purification. Nitrate of potassa, as first obtained, either from natural or artificial sources, is called in commerce crude saltpetre, and requires to be purified or refined before it can be used in medicine, or in most of the arts. The process, which is founded principally on the fact that nitre is more soluble than common salt in hot water, is conducted in the follow- ing manner in France. Thirty parts of the saltpetre are boiled with six parts of water, and the portion which remains undissolved, or is deposited, consisting of common salt, is carefully removed. As the ebullition pro- ceeds, a little water is added from time to time, to hold the nitre in solution. When common salt ceases to be separated, the solution is clarified with glue, and more water is added at intervals, until the whole amounts, includ- ing that previously added, to ten parts. The clear solution is now trans- ferred to large, shallow copper coolers, where it is agitated with wooden instruments to hasten the cooling, and to cause the nitre to crystallize in small grains. The purification is completed by washing the salt with water, or a saturated solution of nitre, in a kind of wooden hopper, with holes in the bottom stopped with pegs. The liquid employed is allowed to remain in contact with.the nitre for several hours, at the end of which time it is permitted to drain off by taking out the pegs. The salt being now dried, its purification is completed. In Sweden, the process of purification is conducted in a different manner. The solution of the crude nitre is boiled, until a saline crust (common salt) forms on its surface, and until it is so far concentrated that a small portion of it crystallizes upon cooling. The crust being removed, the solution is filtered, and diluted with l-48th of water, with a view to retain in solution the common salt, which, being somewhat less soluble in cold than in boil- ing water, would otherwise be in part precipitated on refrigeration. The solution is now allowed to cool, and, at the moment crystals begin to form, is, stirred constantly to cause the salt to crystallize in small grains. The granular salt is then washed after the French method, as above described, dried, and, being fused, is cast in sheet iron moulds so as to form masses, each weighing from ten to twenty pounds. The preparation of nitre in this manner by fusion is, according to Berzelius. attended with several advan- PART I. Potassa JYitras. 569 tages; such as its occupying less space, its losing nothing by waste in trans- portation, and in its presenting in this state, an obvious index of its quality. This index is the character of its fracture. When the salt is perfectly pure, the fracture is radiated, the radii being generally large. The presence of l-80th of common salt renders the radii smaller; and of l-40th or a largefquantity, produces a zone in the substance of the mass, devoid of the radiated struc- ture, or causes this structure to disappear entirely. On the other hand, the process by fusion has the disadvantage of converting the salt in part into hyponitrite, when heated too high, and of rendering it difficult to pulverize. Commercial History. Nitre is received in this country from Calcutta in the state of crude saltpetre, packed in grass cloth bags, containing from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five pounds. The greater portion of it arrives in Boston. Its quality varies considerably. That which comes in dirty yellow crystals is called crude saltpetre; while the finer lots, in small, comparatively clear crystals, approaching to white, are called East India refined. Very little crude saltpetre is at present prepared in the United States, on account of the low price of that from India. The refined salt- petre is almost exclusively prepared by our own chemists; and a considerable portion of it is exported. As connected with the subject of saltpetre, it may be proper in this place to notice what is incorrectly called South American saltpetre, considerable quantities of which have been received within a few years from Peru. It is the nitrate of soda, and comes in bags containing about two hundred and seventy pounds of the salt in the crude state. This nitrate is coming into use with our manufacturing chemists, and is better suited than nitre for pre- paring nitric and sulphuric acids, on account of the greater proportional quantity of acid which it contains. It is, however, not applicable to the purpose of making gunpowder, from its tendency to absorb moisture. Properties. Nitre is a white salt, possessing a sharp, cooling, and slightly bitterish taste, and generally crystallized in long, striated, semi-transparent, six-sided prisms, with dihedral summits. It dissolves in four or five times its weight of cold, and in about two-fifths of its weight of boiling water. It is sparingly soluble in rectified spirit, but insoluble in absolute alcohol. It undergoes no alteration in the air, unless this be very moist. It contains no water of crystallization; but is apt to hold a portion of liquid, mechanically lodged within the substance of the crystals. This is particularly the case with the large crystals, and, according to Berzelius, is a source of im- purity; as the liquid in question is a portion of the mother-waters in which they were formed. It is on this account that Berzelius recommends that the solution of the purified salt should be stirred during crystallization, so as to cause it to shoot into small crystals. When exposed to heat, nitre fuses at about 662°. The fused mass, when cast in moulds, or formed into little circular cakes, constitutes that form of nitre, kept in the shops under the name of crystal mineral or sal prunelle.* If the heat be increased, the salt is decomposed, evolves pure oxygen, and is reduced to the state of hyponitrite, which, when rubbed to powder, emits orange-coloured fumes of nitrous acid and nitric oxide, on the addition of sulphuric acid. Upon a further continuance of the heat, the hyponitrous acid itself is decomposed, * Sal prunelle, as directed to be made in the French Codex, is a mixture of nitrate and sulphate of potassa. It is prepared by fusing nitre in a Hessian crucible, adding 1-12 Sth part of sulphur, and pouring out the product on a smooth marble slab, where it is allowed to congeal. The sulphur immediately takes fire, and by combining with oxy- gen from a part of the nitre,- becomes sulphuric acid, which then unites with the potassa of this salt, and forms sulphate of potassa. 49* 570 Potassa JVltras. , A part i. and a large additional quantity of oxygen is evolved,contaminated, however, with more or less nitrogen. The residuum, after the gaseous matter has ceased to come over, is, according to Berzelius, acompound of potassa with nitric oxide; but, sometimes at least, it is the teroxide of potassium, as was ob- served abdfut the same time by Mr. Phillips, of London, and Dr. Bridges, of this city. On account of the large quantity of oxygen which it contains, nitre increases the combustion of many substances in a remarkable degree. When thrown on burning coals, it deflagrates with bright scintillations. Nitre may be readily recognised by its effect in increasing the combustion of live coals, when thrown upon them; and by evolving white or reddish vapours on the addition of sulphuric acid. Its most usual impurity is common salt, which is seldom entirely absent, and which injures it for the manufacture of gun- powder. The presence of this salt is readily detected by nitrate of silver. If a sulphate be present, it will cause a precipitate to be formed with chlo- ride of barium. Lime is indicated by a precipitate being produced by ox- alate of ammonia. The refined or purified saltpetre of commerce may be deemed the officinal nitre, and is sufficiently pure for medical use. Never- theless, the Dublin College, with needless refinement, has given a formula for its purification. (See Potassae Nitras Puriflcatum.) Nitrate of potassa is composed of one eq. of nitric acid 54, and one of potassa 47-15=101-15. Medical Properties and Uses. Nitre is considered refrigerant, diuretic, and diaphoretic, and is much used in inflammatory diseases. It is known to be a powerful antiseptic. It generally promotes the secretion of urine and sweat, lessens the heat of the body and the frequency of the pulse, and has a tendency to keep the bowels in a soluble condition. It is very frequently prescribed with tartar emetic and calomel, forming a combination usually called the nitrous powder, which promotes most of the secretions, particularly those of the liver and skin, and which in many cases is advan- tageously employed in lessening and modifying febrile excitement. The formula usually preferred is eight or ten grains of nitre, the eighth of a grain of tartar emetic, and from the fourth to the half of a grain of calomel, exhibited every two or three hours. Nitre is frequently given in active hemorrhages, particularly hsemoptysis, and is a useful ingredient of gargles, in certain stages of inflammatory sorethroat. Dr. Frisi, an Italian physician, found it very efficacious in a case of obstinate spasmodic asthma, in giving speedy relief, and in cutting short the attack as often as it was repeated. In the form of sal prunelle, it is rubbed with advantage on chapped lips. The dose is from ten to fifteen grains, dissolved in water or some mucilaginous fluid, and repeated every two or three hours. From one to three drachms may be exhibited in the course of the day. If given too freely, or for too long a period, it is apt to excite pains in the stomach. In an overdose, (half an ounce to an ounce or more,) taken in concentrated solution, it causes heat and pain in the stomach, vomiting and purging of blood, great prostration, con- vulsions, and sometimes death. On dissection, the stomach and intestines are found inflamed. The treatment in such cases consists in the speedy removal of the poison from the stomach, and in the administration of mucila- ginous and demulcent drinks, laudanum to allay pain and irritatipn, and cor- dials to sustain the sinking powers of the system. No antidote is known. Notwithstanding the toxical properties of nitre when taken in a large dose in concentrated solution, it may be given, in divided doses, to the extent of one or two ounces in twenty-four hours, provided it be largely diluted with water. It is principally in acute rheumatism that large doses of this salt have been given, and both M. Gendrin and M. Martin-Solon bear testimony to its remarkable efficacy in that disease, after ample experience with its use in two of the hospitals of Paris. Dr. Henry Bennet, of London, also speaks part i. Polmsa Mtras.—Potassa Sulphas. 511 ■£*■■ . highly of its efficacy" in the same disease. It may be given in quantities, varying from six to sixteen drachms in twenty-four hours, dissolved in sweetened barley water, in the proportion of half an ounce of the salt to a pint and a half or two pints of the liquid. Administered in this manner, the principal action of the salt is that of a sedative on the circulation, decreasing the force and frequencey of the pulse, without exercising any injurious effect on the heart or kidneys. Pharmaceutical Uses, fyc. In pharmacy nitre is employed to form crocus of antimony, (see London process for tartar emetic,) and to procure nitric acid. It is also used in the formulas of the United States Pharmacopoeia for obtaining sweet spirit of nitre, and pure carbonate of potassa (salt of tartar). It enters into the composition of moxa, and is employed in pre- paring the sulphate of potassa with sulphur of the Edinburgh College. In the laboratory it is used as an oxidizing agent, and to yield oxygen at a red heat. In the arts it is employed in the production of aquafortis, the manu- facture of sulphuric acid, and the fabrication of gunpowder. Off.Prep. Acidum Nitricum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Antimonii Potassio- Tartras, Lond.; Potassae Carbonas Purus, U. S.; Potassae Nitras Purifica- tum, Dub.; Potassas Sulphas cum Sulphure, Ed.; Spiritus ^Etheris Nitrici, U.S.; Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, U. S., Lond. B. POTASS^ SULPHAS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Sulphate of Potassa. Vitriolated tartar; Tartarum vitriolatum, Arcanum duplicatum, Sal de duobus, Lat.; Sulfate de potasse, Potasse vitriolee, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Kali, Vitriolisirtir Weinstein, Germ.; Soll'ato di potassa, Ital. Several chemical processes give rise to sulphate of potassa as a secondary product. Thus it is produced in the distillation of nitric acid from a mix- ture of nitre with sulphuric acid; in the decomposition of sulphate of magnesia by carbonate of potassa, in order to form carbonate of magnesia ; and during the combustion of the mixture of nitre and sulphur in the manu- facture of sulphuric acid. (See Acidum Nitricum and Acidum Sulphuricum.) When nitric acid is obtained by calcining a mixture of nitre and sulphate of iron, the residue consists of sesquioxide of iron and sulphate of potassa, the latter of which, being alone soluble, is separated by means of water, and crystallized from its solution. The residue of the combustion of sulphur and nitre, in making sulphuric acid, is an impure sulphate of potassa mixed with sulphur, and is not purified for use in medicine, but sold to the alum makers. The British Colleges agree in obtaining sulphate of potassa from the salt which remains after the distillation of nitric acid. The salt is a supersul- phate of potassa, and must be so treated as to bring it to the neutral state. The London College brings it to this state by igniting it in a crucible; the Dublin College, by saturating the excess of acid with carbonate of potassa; and the Edinburgh College, by removing the excess by the addition of white marble, which converts it into an insoluble sulphate of lime. The directions of the London College are as follows. "Take of the salt which remains after the distillation of nitric acid two pounds, boiling water two gallons. Ignite the salt in a crucible until the excess of thesulphuric acid is entirely expelled ; then boil it in the two gallons of water until a pellicle forms, and, the liquor being strained, set it aside that crystals may form. Pour off the liquor from the crystals and dry them." Sulphate of potassa is placed in the Materia Medica list of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and, therefore, no pro- cess is given for obtaining it. 572 Potassa Sulphas.—Potassii Ferrocyanuretum. part i. Properties. Sulphate of potassa is a white, anhydrous salt, in the form of small, aggregated, transparent, very hard crystals, permanent in the air, having the shape usually of short six-sided prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids, and possessing a nauseous, somewhat bitter taste. It is slowly soluble in about nine and a half times its weight of cold, and in less than four times its weight of boiling water. {Gay-Lussac.) Added to a solution of sulphate of alumina, it generates alum, recognised by the octohedral shape of its crystals. > It is decomposed by tartaric acid, which forms bitar- trate of potassa, and by .the soluble salts of baryta, strontia, lime, silver, and lead, forming insoluble or sparingly soluble sulphates. This salt is not sub- v ject to adulteration. It consists of one eq. of sulphuric acid 40, and one of potassa 47-15=87-15. Medical Properties and Uses. Sulphate of potassa is a mild purgative, operating without heat, pain, or other symptom of irritation. In small doses, from a scruple to half a drachm, it operates as an aperient, and is useful in removing obstructions; in larger doses, of four or five drachms, it acts slowly as a purge. Combined with rhubarb, in the proportion of about a drachm of the salt to ten grains of the root, Dr. Fordyce found it an excellent alterative cathartic in the visceral obstructions of children, cha- racterized by a tumid abdomen, and defective digestion and nutrition ; and we can bear testimony to its efficacy in these cases from our own experi- ence. Dr. A. T. Thomson states that this salt, in combination either with rhubarb or aloes, has proved in his hands " more useful than any of the other saline purgatives, in jaundice and dyspeptic affections." It enters into the composition of Dover's powder. Notwithstanding the general sentiment of practitioners as to the mildness- and safely of sulphate of potassa as a purgative, several cases have been latterly reported in the Journals of supposed poisoning from its use. On the continent of Europe it is frequently given as an aperient after delivery, and for the purpose of decreasing or drying up the milk. M. Moritz at- tributed the poisonous effects of the salt, in the case which came under his notice, to the presence of a notable quantity of sulphate of zinc; but his explanation cannot be admitted as adequate. In other cases, the salt,though found to be,pure, seemed to act as a poison. Still, we are not disposed to admit that sulphate of potassa is poisonous. In the cases in which it ap- parently acted as such, its effects may be attributed sometimes to the large- ness of the dose in which it was administered, and perhaps also to the insufficiency of the water used to dissolve it,—at other times, where the dose used was moderate, to the existence of a predisposition to gastric in- flammation. For further information in relation to this subject, the reader is referred to an interesting paper by Dr. T. Romeyn Beck, in the Amer. Journ. of the Med. Sciences, N. S., vii. b8. Off. Prep. Pilulae Colocynthidis Compositas, Dub., Ed.; Pilulae Opii sive Thebaicae, Ed.; Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Salinus Compositus, Ed., Dub. B. POTASSII FERROCYANURETUM. U.S. Ferrocyanuret of Potassiutn. Off. Syn. POTASSII FERROCYANIDUM, Lond., Ed. Ferrocyanide of potassium. Ferrocyanate of potassa, Ferroprussiate "of potassa, Prus- siate of potassa ; Proto-cyanure jaune de fer et de potassium, Fr.; Cyaneiseiikalium, Germ. This is the yellow double cyanuret of potassium and iron, the salt from which the cyanuret of potassium is obtained by calcination at a low red heat. (See Potassi Cyanuretum.) PART I. Potassii Ferrocyanuretum. 573 This salt is prepared on a large scale by calcining animal matters, such as dried blood, hoofs, horns, and other substances rich in nitrogen, with the pearlash of commerce, in an egg-shaped iron pot, dissolving the calcined mass, after cooling, in water, and evaporating the solution so as to crystal- lize. The requisite iron for forming the salt is derived from the pots and stirrers used in the process. Occasionally iron filings are added. Properties. Ferrocyanuret of potassium is in large, beautiful, transparent, permanent, four-sided, tabular crystals, of a lemon-yellow colour, devoid of odour, but possessing a sweetish, yet somewhat bitter, saline taste. It dis- solves in between three and four times its weight of cold water, and in about its own weight of boiling water, but is insoluble in alcohol. It acts but slightly, if at all, on turmeric paper. The alkaline reaction, when it occurs, is probably owing to the presence of a little free potassa retained by the water of crystallization. (R. Phillips.) When heated to 140° it loses its water of crystallization, amounting to 12-6 per cent., and becomes white. When ignited, the fixed residue amounts to 18-7 per cent, of sesquioxide of iron, resulting from the oxidation of the iron of the salt. It is characterized by striking a deep blue colour with the salts of sesquioxide of iron, a deep brown one with the salts of copper, and a white one with those of zinc ; the several precipitates formed being cyanurets of the respective metals. Heated with eight or ten times its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, a large quantity of pure carbonic oxide is evolved. (Fownes.) Ferrocya- nuret of potassium consists of two eqs. of cyanuret of potassium 130-3, one of cyanuret of iron 54, and three of water 27=211-3. The water present is just sufficient to convert the iron and potassium into protoxides, and the cyanogen into hydrocyanic acid. Apart from the water present, it is gene- rally considered to consist of a compound radical, called ferrocyanogen, formed of three eqs. of cyanogen and one of iron (tercyanuret of iron), united with two eqs. of potassium. Hence its officinal name. This salt is remarkably pure as it occurs in commerce. Medical Properties, fyc. From experiments, undertaken chiefly by the German physicians to determine the physiological effects of this salt, it would appear to have but little activity. Callies, as quoted by Pereira, found the commercial salt slightly poisonous, but the pure salt unproductive of harm in the dose of several ounces. It should be borne in mind that it is the commercial salt which is used medicinally. Westrumb and Hering proved that it passed with rapidity into the blood and urine. Notwithstanding the above statements, Dr. Burleigh Smart, of Kennebec, Maine, has attributed to this salt valuable medicinal powers. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xv. 362.) Its primary effect, according to him, is that of a seda- tive, diminishing the fulness and frequency of the pulse, and allaying pain and irritation. It also acts, under favourable circumstances, as a diaphoretic and astringent. Dr. Smart used it with success in a case of chronic bronchitis in a child, with the effect, in a few days, of diminishing the frequency of the pulse, and of lessening the sweating, cough, and dyspnoea. It sometimes acts as a diaphoretic, but only in cases attended with excessive vascular action and increased heat of skin. As an astringent its power is most conspicuous in the Colliquative sweats of chronic bronchitis and phthisis. The same power was evinced in several cases of leucorrhoea cured by its use. It sometimes produces ptyalism, unattended, however, by swelling of the sali- vary glands or fetor of the breath. Its properties as an anodyne and sedative render it applicable to cases of neuralgic pains and whooping cough, in which diseases, especially the latter, Dr. Smart found it useful. When given in an over-dose he states that it occasions vertigo, coldness, and numbness, with a sense of gastric sinking. 574 Potassii Ferrocyanuretum.—Prinos. part i. The form of administration which Dr. Smart prefers is that of solution, in the proportion of two drachms to the fluidounce of water. Of this the dose for an adult is from 30 to 45 drops, equivalent to from 10 to 15 grains of the salt repeated every four or six hours. Should the results of Dr. Smart be confirmed, the ferrocyanuret of potassium will form an important acquisition to the materia medica. This salt is manufactured on a large scale, chiefly for the use of the dyers and calico-printers. In pharmacy it is employed to prepare hydro- cyanic acid, Prussian blue, and cyanuret of potassium. Off. Prep. Acidum Hydrocyanicum, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Ferri Ferro- cyanuretum, U. S.; Potassii Cyanuretum. U. S. B. PRINOS. U.S. Secondary. Black Alder. " The bark of Prinos verticillatus." U. S. Prinos. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Aquifoliaceav Gen. Oh. Calyx small, six-cleft. Corolla monopetalous, subrotate, six- parted. Berry six-seeded ; seeds nuciform. Nuttall. Prinos verticillatus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 225; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 141 ; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 203. The black alder is an indigenous shrub, with a stem six or eight feet high, furnished with alternate, spreading branches, and covered with a bluish-gray bark. The leaves, which stand alternately or irregularly on short petioles, are oval, pointed, tapering at the base, acutely serrate, of a dark green colour, smooth on their upper surface, but downy on the veins beneath. The flowers are small, white, nearly ses- sile, and grow three or four together at the axils of the leaves. They are often dioecious. The calyx is persistent; the segments of the corolla obtuse; the stamens usually six in number, and furnished with oblong anthers ; the germ large, green, roundish, and surmounted by a short style, terminating in an obtuse stigma. The fruit when ripe consists of glossy, scarlet, roundish berries, about the size of a pea, containing six cells and six seeds. Several of these berries are clustered together so as to form little bunches at irregular intervals on the stem. In the latter part of autumn, after the leaves have fallen, they still remain attached to the stem, and render the shrub a striking object in the midst of the general nakedness of vegetation. Hence the plant has received the name of winter-berry, by which it is frequently designated. It grows in all parts of the United States, from Canada to Florida, fre- quenting low wet places, such as swamps, and the borders of ponds, ditches, and streams. Its flowers appear in June. The berries, which have a bitter, sweetish, somewhat acrid taste, are sometimes used medicinally for the same purposes with the bark, which is the officinal portion. The dried bark is in slender pieces, more or less rolled, brittle, greenish- white internally, and covered with a smooth epidermis, which is easily sepa- rable, and of a whitish-ash colour, alternating or mingled with brown. It has no smell. The taste is bitter and slightly astringent. Boiling water ex- tracts the virtues of the bark. Medical Properties and Uses. Black alder is usually considered tonic and astringent; and is among the remedies which have been proposed as substitutes for Peruvian bark, with which, however, it has very little analogy. It has been recommended in intermittent fever, diarrrhoea, and other diseases connected with a debilitated state of the system, especially gangrene- and mortification. It is a popular remedy in gangrenous or flabby and ill-con- PART I. Prinos.—Prunum. 575 ditioned ulcers, and in chronic cutaneous eruptions, in which it is given internally, at the same time that it is applied locally in the form of a wash or poultice. It may be used in substance or decoction. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm, to be repeated several times a day. The decoction, which is usually preferred both for internal and external use, may be prepared by boiling two ounces of the bark with three pints of water to a quart, and given in the dose of two or three fluidounces. A saturated tincture, as well of the berries as of the bark, is sometimes employed. W. PRUNUM. U.S. Prunes. " The dried fruit of Prunus domestica." U. S. Off. Syn. PRUNA. Prunus domestica. Drupae exsiccatae. Lond.; PRU- NA. Dried fruit of Prunus domestica. Ed.; PRUNUS DOMESTICA. Fructus siccatus. Dub. Pruneaux, Fr.; Pflaumen, Germ.; Pruni, Ital; Ciruelas secas, Span. Prunus. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Amygdaleae. Gen. Ch. Calyx inferior, bell-shaped, deciduous, with five obtuse, con- cave segments. Petals five, roundish, concave, spreading, larger than the segments of the calyx, into the rim of which they are inserted. Filaments awl-shaped, nearly as long as the corolla, from the rim of the calyx within the petals. Anthers short, of two round lobes. Ovary superior, roundish. Style of the length of the stamens. Stigma orbicular, peltate. Drupe roundish or elliptical. Nut hard, somewhat compressed, of one cell, and two more or less distinct sutures with an intermediate furrow. Leaves rolled up when young. (Lindley.) Prunus domestica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 995; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 520. t. 187. The cultivated prune or plum tree is so well known as to render a minute description unnecessary. We merely give the specific character. "Peduncles subsolitary ; leaves lanceolate, ovate, convolute ; branches not spiny." The varieties of the tree produced by cultivation are very nume- rous. Nearly one hundred are to be found in the British gardens. Though at present growing wild in various parts of Europe, it is thought to have been brought originally from Asia Minor and Syria. It is the dried fruit only that is officinal. . The prunes brought to our market come chiefly from the South of France, the best from the port of Bordeaux. They are derived from the variety of the tree named Juliana by Linnaeus. The fresh fruit, called Prune de Saint Julien by the French, is of an oval shape, nearly an inch in length, and of a deep violet colour. It is prepared by drying in the sun after having been exposed to the heat of an oven. The finest prunes, used on the tables in France, are prepared from the larger kinds of plums, such as the Saint Catharine and Reine-Claude or green-gage. An inferior sort is brought from Germany. Prunes have a feeble odour, and a sweet mucilaginous taste, which is generally also somewhat acid. They contain uncrystallizable sugar, malic acid, and mucilaginous matter. In Germany they obtain from this fruit a kind of brandy, which in some districts is largely consumed. Bonneberg, a German chemist, has succeeded in extracting crystallizable sugar, equal to that of the cane. Medical Properties and Uses. Prunes are laxative and nutritious, and stewed with water form an excellent diet in cases of costiveness, especially 576 Prunum.—Prunus Virginiana. part i. during convalescence from febrile and inflammatory diseases. As they im- part their laxative property to water in which they are boiled, they serve as a pleasant and useful addition to purgative decoctions. Their pulp is also used in the preparation of laxative confections. Too largely taken in a debilitated state of the digestive organs, they are apt to occasion flatulence, and griping pain in the stomach and bowels. Off. Prep. Pruni Pulpa, U. S.; Confectio Sennae, Lond. W. PRUNUS VIRGINIANA. U. S. Wild-cherry Bark. "The bark of Cerasus serotina (De Candolle), Cerasus Virginiana (Mi- chaux)." U. S. Cerasus. See LAURO-CERASUS. This genus, which is recognised by most of the recent botanical writers, includes a large number of species formerly embraced in the genus Prunus of Linnaeus. Cerasus serotina. De Cand. Prodrom. ii. 540; Torrey and Gray, Flora of N. America, i. 410.—Cerasus Virginiana. Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 205. According to Torrey and Gray, the name Prunus Virginiana, which has frequently been applied to this species, was given by Linnasus to the choke-cherry—a small tree or shrub, growing in the Northern States, and bearing a dark red, globular, astringent fruit, about as large as that of the wild-cherry. This is described in the Flora of N. America of these authors, under the name of Cerasus Virginiana. The officinal species, or wild- cherry tree, is, according to Michaux, one of the largest productions of the American forest. Individuals were seen by that botanist on the banks of the Ohio from eighty to one hundred feet high, with trunks from twelve to fifteen feet in circumference, and undivided to the height of twenty-five or thirty feet. But as usually met with in the Atlantic States, the tree is of much smaller dimensions. In the open fields it is less elevated than in forests, but sends out more numerous branches, which expand into an ele- gant oval summit. The trunk is regularly shaped, and covered with a rough blackish bark, which detaches itself semi-circularly in thick narrow plates, and by this peculiar character serves as a distinguishing mark of the tree, when the foliage is too high for inspection. The leaves are oval oblong, or lanceolate oblong, acuminate, unequally serrate, smooth on both sides, of a beautiful brilliant green, and supported alternately upon petioles, which are furnished with from two to four reddish glands. The flowers are small, white, and collected in long erect or spreading racemes. They appear in May, and are followed by globular drupes about the size of a pea, and when ripe of a shining blackish-purple colour. This tree grows throughout the Union, flourishing most in those parts where the soil is fertile and the climate temperate, and abounding in the Middle Atlantic States, and in those which border on the Ohio. In the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, it affects open situations, growing solitarily in the fields and along the fences, and seldom aggregated in woods or groves. It is highly valued by the cabinet-makers for its wood, which is compact, fine-grained, susceptible of polish, and of a light red tint, which deepens with age. The fruit has a sweetish, astringent, bitter taste; and is much employed in some parts of the country to impart flavour to spirituous liquors. The inner bark is the part employed in medicine, and is obtained indiscri- minately from all parts of the tree, though that of the roots is most active. It should be preferred recently dried, as it deteriorates by keeping. PART I. Prunus Virginiana. 577 Properties. Wild-cherry bark, as kept in the shops, is in pieces of various sizes, more or less curved laterally, usually destitute of epidermis, of a lively reddish-cinnamon colour, brittle, and puiverizable, presenting a reddish-gray fracture, and affording a fawn-coloured powder. In the fresh state, or when boiled in water, it emits an odour resembling that of peach leaves. Its taste is agreeably bitter and aromatic, with the peculiar flavour of the bitter almond. It imparts its sensible properties to water, either cold or hot, pn> ducinga clear reddish infusion, closely resembling Madeira wine in appear- ance. Its peculiar flavour as well as medical virtues are injured by boiling, in consequence partly of the volatilization of the principle upon which they depend, partly upon a chemical change effected by the heat. From an ana- lysis by Dr. Stephen Procter, it appears to contain starch, resin, tannin, gallic acid, fatty matter, lignin, red colouring matter, salts of lime and po- tassa, and iron. He obtained also a volatile oil, associated with hydrocya- nic acid, by distilling the same portion of water successively from several different portions of the bark. This oil was of a light-straw colour, and very analogous in its properties to the volatile oil of bitter almonds. In the quantity of two drops it proved fatal to a cat in less than five minutes. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., vi. 8.) Mr. William Procter proved that, as in the case of bitter almonds, the volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid do not exist ready formed in the bark, but are the result of the reaction of water upon amygdalin, which he ascertained to be one of its constituents. In order, however, that this change may take place, the agency of another prin- ciple, probably analogous to if not identical with emulsin, or the synaptase of Robiquet, is also essential; and, as this principle becomes inoperative at a boiling temperature, we can understand how decoction may interfere with the virtues of the bark. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 197.) It is not impossible that wild-cherry bark may contain also phloridzin, a bitter principle proved to exist in the bark of the apple, pear, cherry, and plum trees. (See Phlo- ridzin in the Appendix.) In this case, an easy explanation is offered of the co-existence of tonic and sedative properties in this valuable medicine, the former depending on the phloridzin, the latter on the hydrocyanic acid. Medical Properties and Uses. This bark is among the most valuable of our indigenous remedies. Uniting with a tonic power the property of calm- ing irritation and diminishing nervous excitability, it is admirably adapted to the treatment of diseases in which a debilitated condition of the stomach, or of the system, is united with general or local irritation. When largely taken it is said to diminish the action of the heart, an effect ascribable to the hydrocyanic acid which it affords. Dr. Eberle found copious draughts of the cold infusion, taken several times a day, and continued for nearly two weeks, to reduce his pulse from seventy-five to fifty strokes in the minute. The remedy is highly useful in the hectic fever of scrofula and consumption, in the treatment of which it has long been a favourite with many American practitioners. In the general debility which often succeeds inflammatory diseases, it is also advantageous, and it is well adapted to many cases of dyspepsia. It has been used successfully in intermittent fever, but in this complaint is much inferior to cinchona. It may be used in powder or infusion. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. The infusion is properly directed by our national Pharmacopoeia to be prepared with cold water. (See Infusum Pruni Vir- ginianae.) A syrup of wild-cherry bark is considerably used. It may be prepared by macerating four ounces of the powdered bark with twelve fluidounces of water for two days, putting the mixture into a displacement apparatus, returning the liquid which passes till it becomes clear, displacing 50 578 Prunus Virginiana.—Pyrethrum. part i. with an additional quantity of water until twelve fluidounces of infusion are obtained, and then dissolving in this twenty-four ounces of sugar. (Proc- ter, Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 27.) The dose of this syrup is about a fluidounce. But an objection to the syrup of wild-cherry bark is, that in order to give the requisite quantity of the medicine, so much sugar must be given at the same time as to endanger embarrassment of the digestive organs. Mr. D. S. Jones has ascertained that, in consequence of the preservative influence of hydrocyanic acid, the syrup will keep well if made with equal quantities of the infusion and sugar. This in some measure obviates the disadvantage referred to. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 162.) Off. Prep. Infusum Pruni Virginianae, U. S. W. PYRETHRUM. U.S. Secondary, Lond., Ed.,Dub. Pellitory. " The root of Anthemis Pyrethrum.", U. S. " Anthemis Pyrethrum. Radix." Lond., Dub. "Root of Anacyclus Pyrethrum." Ed. Pyrethre, Fr.: Bertram Wurzel, Germ.; Piretro, Ital; Pelitre, Span. Anthemis. See ANTHEMIS. Anthemis Pyrethrum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2184; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 50. t. 20.—Anacyclus Pyrethrum. De Cand. Prodrom. vi. 15. The root of this plant is perennial, and sends up numerous stems, which are usually trailing at the base, erect in their upper portion, eight or ten inches high, and terminated by one large flower. The leaves are doubly pinnate, with narrow nearly linear segments of a pale green colour. The florets of the disk are yellow; the rays are white on their upper surface, and reddish or purple beneath and at their edges. The plant is a native of the Levant, Barbary, and the Mediterranean coast of Europe. The root is the part used under the name of pellitory, ox pelli- tory of Spain. According to Hayne, the pellitory of the shops is derived from the Anacyclus officinarum, a plant cultivated in Thuryngia for medical purposes. This remark, however, can apply only to Germany. Properties. The dried root of the A. Pyrethrum is about the size of the little finger, cylindrical, straight or but slightly curved, wrinkled longitudi- nally, of an ash-brown colour externally, whitish within, hard and brittle, and sometimes furnished with a few radicals. It is destitute of odour, though, when fresh, of a disagreeable smell. Its taste is peculiar, slight at first, but afterwards acidulous, saline, and acrid, attended with a burning and tingling sensation over the whole mouth and throat, which continues for some time, and excites a copious flow of saliva. Its analysis by Koene gives, in 100 parts, 0-59 of a brown, very acrid substance, of a resinous appearance, and insoluble in caustic potassa; 1-60 of a dark brown, very acrid fixed oil, solu- ble in potassa; 0-35 of a yellow acrid oil, also soluble in potassa; traces of tannin; 9-40 parts of gum; inulin; 7-60 parts of sulphate and carbonate of potassa, chloride of potassium, phosphate and carbonate of lime, alumina, silica, &c; and 19-80 of lignin, besides loss. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., viii. 175, from the Journ. de Pharm.) Medical Properties and Uses. Pellitory is a powerful irritant, used almost exclusively as a sialagogue in certain forms of headache, rheumatic and neuralgic affections of the face, toothache, &c, or as a local stimulant in palsy of the tongue or throat, and in relaxation of the uvula. For these purposes it may be chewed, or employed as a gargle in decoction or vinous tincture. It is seldom prescribed by medical practitioners in this country. The dose as a masticatory is from 30 grains to a drachm. W. PART I. Quassia. 579 QUASSIA. U S., Lond., Ed. Quassia. "The wood of Quassia excelsa." U.S. "Quassia excelsa. Lignum." Lond. " Wood chiefly of Picraena excelsa (Lindley), seldom of Quassia amara." Ed. Off. Syn. QUASSIA EXCELSA, Lignum. Dub. Bois de quassie, Fr.; Quassienholtz, Germ.; Legno della quassia, Ital; Leno de quassia, Span. Quassia. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. SimarubaceaB. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five. Nectary five-leaved. Drupes five, distant, bivalve, one-seeded, inserted into a fleshy receptacle. Willd. Of the species included by Linnaeus in this genus, some, as the Quassia amara, are hermaphrodite ; others, as the Q. excelsa and Q. Simaruba, axe monoecious or polygamous. The latter have been associated together by De Candolle in a distinct genus, with the title Simaruba. This has been again divided by Lindley into Simaruba with monoecious, and Picraena with polygamous flowers. To the last-mentioned genus the proper quassia plant, the Q. excelsa of Linnasus, belongs. The medicine was formerly thought to be obtained from the Quassia amara; but more than twenty years since, Lamarck stated that, in conse- quence of the scarcity of this tree, the Quassia excelsa had been resorted to as a substitute, and the Pharmacopoeias at present agree in acknowledging the latter as the officinal plant. It is, however, the opinion of Martius, that the genuine quassia of Surinam is the Q. amara; and we shall, there- fore, give a brief description of both species. Quassia excelsa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 569.—Simaruba excelsa, De Cand. Prodrom. i. 733; Hayne, Darstel. und Beschreib., &c. ix. 16.—Picraena excelsa. Lindley, Flor Med. 208. As its name imports, this is a lofty tree, attaining sometimes not less than one hundred feet in height, with a straight, smooth, tapering trunk, which is often three feet in diameter near its base, and covered with a-smooth gray bark. The leaves are pinnate, with a naked petiole, and oblong pointed leaflets standing upon short footstalks, in opposite pairs, with a single leaflet at the end. The flowers are small, of a yellowish-green colour, and disposed in panicles. They are polygamous and pentandrous. The fruit is a small black drupe. This species inhabits Jamaica and the Caribbean islands, where it is called bitter ash. The wood is the officinal portion Quassia amara. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 567; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 574. t. 204. The bitter quassia is a small branching tree or shrub, with alternate leaves, consisting of two pairs of opposite pinnae, with an odd one at the end. The leaflets are elliptical, pointed, sessile, smooth, of a deep green colour on their upper surface, and paler on the under. The common foot- stalk is articulated, and edged on each side with a leafy membrane. The flowers, which are hermaphrodite and decandrous, have a bright red colour, and terminate the branches in long racemes. The fruit is a two-celled cap- sule, containing globular seeds. The Q. amara is a native of Surinam, and is said also to grow in some of the West India islands. Its root, bark, and wood were formerly officinal. They are all excessively bitter, as are also the leaves, flowers, and fruit, and in fact the whole plant. It is uncertain whether any of the produce of this tree reaches our markets. Quassia comes in cylindrical billets of various sizes, from, an inch to near a foot in diameter, and several feet in length. These are frequently.invested with a whitish smooth bark, brittle and but slightly adherent, and possessing 580 Quassia. PART I. in at least an equal degree the virtues of the wood. Their shape and struc- ture clearly evince that they are derived from the branches or trunk, and not, as some suppose, from the root of the tree. In the shops they are usually kept split into small pieces, or rasped. Properties. The wood is at first whitish, but becomes yellow by expo- sure. It is inodorous, and has a purely bitter taste, which is surpassed by that of few other substances in intensity and permanence. It imparts all its active properties, with its bitterness and yellow colour, to water and alcohol. Its virtues depend upon a peculiar bitter crystallizable principle, denominated quassin, which was first discovered by Winkler. It may be obtained pure by the following process of Wiggers. A filtered decoction of quassia is evapo- rated to three-quarters of the weight of the wood employed, slacked lime is added, and the mixture having been allowed to stand for a day, with occa- sional agitation, is again filtered. A considerable quantity of pectin, besides other substances, is thus separated. The clear liquor is evaporated nearly to dryness, and the resulting mass exhausted by alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-835, which leaves behind gum, common salt, nitre, &c, in large amount, and dissolves quassin with some common salt and nitre, and an organic substance of a brown colour. In order to separate the quassin from these latter prin- ciples which are soluble in water, the solution is evaporated to dryness, the resulting mass is dissolved in the least possible quantity of absolute alco- hol, a large proportion of ether is added, and the liquor, previously separated by filtration from the brown mass which the ether has thrown down, is evaporated to dryness ; and this process is repeated, till the quassin remains behind quite colourless, and affords no evidence of the presence of the above- mentioned salts. Lastly, in order to obtain it in a crystalline form, to which it is not strongly disposed, pour the alcoholic solution mixed with ether upon a little water, and allow it to evaporate spontaneously. Quassin is white, opaque, unalterable in the air, inodorous, and of an intense bitterness, which in the solutions of this principle is almost insupportable. The bitterness is pure, and resembles that of the wood. When heated, quassin melts like a resin. It is but slightly soluble in water, which at 54° dissolves only 0-45 in 100 parts, and that slowly. By the addition of salts, especially of those with which it is associated in quassia, its solubility is strikingly increased. It is also but slightly soluble in ether, but is very soluble in alcohol, more so in that liquid hot than cold, and the more so the purer it is. Quassin is perfectly neuter, though both alkalies and acids increase its solubility in water. It is precipitated by tannic acid from its aqueous solution, which is not disturbed by iodine, chlorine, corrosive sublimate, solutions of iron, sugar of lead, or even the subacetate of lead. Its ultimate constituents are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Medical Properties and Uses. Quassia has in the highest degree all the properties of the--simple bitters. It is purely tonic, invigorating the digest- ive organs, with little excitement of the circulation, or increase of animal heat. It has not been very long known as a medicine. About the middle of the last century, a negro of Surinam, named Quassi, acquired consider- able reputation in the treatment of the malignant fevers of that country, by a secret remedy, which he was induced to disclose to Mr. Rolander, a Swede, for a valuable consideration. Specimens were taken to Stockholm by this gentleman in the year 1756; and the medicine soon became popular in Europe. The name of the negro has been perpetuated in the generic title of the plant. But the quassia of Surinam is not now in use, having been superseded by the product of the Quassia excelsa, from the West Indies. This medicine is useful in all cases in which a simple tonic impression is desirable. It is particularly adapted to dyspepsia, and to that debilitated state parti. Quassia.— Quercus Alba.— Quercus Tinctoria. 581 of the digestive organs which sometimes succeeds acute disease. It may also be given with advantage in the remission of certain fevers in which tonics are demanded. No one at present would expect from it any peculiar controlling influence over malignant fevers. It is said to be largely em- ployed in England by the brewers, to impart bitterness to their liquors. It is most conveniently administered in infusion or extract. (See Extrac- tum Quassias and Infusum Quassiae.) The difficulty of reducing the wood to powder is an objection to its use in substance. It may, however, be employed in a dose varying from a scruple to a drachm, repeated three or four times a day. Off. Prep. Extractum Quassiae, U.S., Ed.; Infusum Quassias, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Quassiae, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Quassiae Composita, Ed. W. QUERCUS ALBA. U S. White-oak Bark. "The bark of Quercus alba." U.S. QUERCUS TINCTORIA. U.S. Black-oak Bark. "The bark of Quercus tinctoria." U. S. Off. Syn. QUERCUS. Quercus pedunculata. Cortex. Lond.; QUER CUS CORTEX. Bark of Quercus pedunculata. Ed.; QUERCUS ROBUR. Cortex. Dub. Ecorce de chene, Fr.; Eichenrinde, Germ.; Corteccia della quercia, Ital; Corteza de roble, Span. Quercus. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Polyandria.—Nat. Ord. Amentaceaa, Juss.; Cupuliferae, Richard; Corylaceae, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx commonly five-cleft. Corolla none. Stamens five to ten. Female. Calyx one-leafed, entire, rough. Corolla none. Styles two to five. Nut coriaceous, surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx. Willd. This extensive genus comprises not less than eighty species,*of which between thirty and forty are within the limits of the United States. Many of these are applied to important practical purposes. In the northern hemi- sphere, the oak is the most valuable, as it. is the most widely diffused of all forest trees. Notwithstanding the great number of species, few, com- paratively, have found a place in the officinal catalogues. The Q. robur or common European oak, and the Q. pedunculata or European white oak, are the only species admitted by the British Colleges. As these do not grow in the United States, and their products are not imported, it is unnecessary to treat of them particularly in this work. According to Michaux, they grow in the same countries, frequently together, constituting the greater part of the forests of Europe, and spreading over almost the whole northern section of Asia, and the northern coast of Africa. The Q. pedunculata is the com- mon British oak, celebrated as well for its majestic growth and the venerable age which it attains, as for the strength and durability of its timber. Our own Pharmacopoeia recognises only the Q. alba or white oak, and the Q. tincto- ria or black oak; but several other species afford barks which are equally useful, and perhaps as much employed. Such are the Q.falcata or Spanish oak, and Q. prinus or white chestnut oak, and the Q. montana or rock chestnut oak. The remarks which follow in relation to the white oak-bark, will apply also to that of the three last-mentioned species. The bark of the Q. tinctoria is somewhat peculiar. 50* 582 Quercus Alba.— Quercus Tinctoria. part l 1. Quercus alba. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 44S; Michaux, N.Am. Sylv. i. 17. Of all the American species, the white oak approaches nearest in the character of its foliage, and the properties of its wood and bark, to the Q. pedunculata of Great Britain. When allowed to expand freely in the open field, it divides at a short distance from the ground into numerous widely spreading branches, and attains under favourable circumstances a magnifi- cent size. Its trunk and large branches are covered with a whitish bark, which serves to distinguish it from most of the other species. The leaves are regularly and obliquely divided into oblong, obtuse, entire lobes, which are often narrowed at their base. When full grown, they are smooth and light green on their upper surface, and glaucous beneath. Some of the dried leaves remain on the tree during the whole winter. The acorns are large, ovate, contained in rough, shallow, grayish cups, and supported singly or in pairs upon peduncles nearly an inch in length. The white oak abounds in the Middle States, and extends also through the whole Union, though comparatively rare in the northern, southern, and western sections. It is the most highly valued for its timber of all the American oaks, with the exception of the live oak (Q. virens), which is preferred in ship-building. The bark is sometimes used for tanning, but that of the red and Spanish oaks is preferred for this purpose. All parts of the tree, with the exception of the epidermis, are more or less astringent, but this property predominates in the fruit and bark. Oak bark, deprived of its epidermis, is of a light brown colour, of a coarse fibrous texture, and not easily pulverized. It has a, feeble odour, and a rough, astringent, and bitterish taste. Water and alcohol extract its active properties. The chief soluble ingredients are tannin, gallic acid, and extract- ive matter. It is upon the tannin that its medical virtues, as well as its use in the preparation of leather, chiefly depend. The proportion of this in- gredient varies with the size and age of the tree, the part from which the bark is derived, and even the season when it is gathered. It is most abundant in the young bark; and the English oak is said to yield four times as much in spring as in winter. Sir H. Davy found the inner bark most abundant in tannin, the middle portion or cellular integument much less so, and the epidermis almost wholly destitute as well of this principle as of extractive. Gerber has discovered, in European oak bark, a peculiar bitter principle upon which he has conferred the name of quercin. It is obtained by boiling the bark with water acidulated with one hundredth of sulphuric acid, adding first milk of lime until the sulphuric acid is removed, and then a solution of carbonate of potassa so long as a white precipitate is produced, filtering the liquor, evaporating to the consistence of a thin extract, adding alcohol, and finally evaporating the spirituous solution down to a small volume, and allow- ing it to rest for some days. Yellow crystals form, which may be obtained colourless by repeated crystallizations. Quercin thus obtained is in small white crystals, inodorous, very bitter, readily soluble in water, less so in alco- hol containing water, insoluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine, and without acid or alkaline reaction. (Arch, der Pharm., xxxiv. 167.) 2. Quercus tinctoria. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 444; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. i. 91. The black oak is one of our largest trees, frequently attaining the height of eighty or ninety feet. Its trunk is covered with a deeply furrowed bark, of a black or dark-brown colour. The leaves are ovate oblong, pubes- cent, slightly sinuated, with oblong, obtuse, mucronate lobes.. The fructifi- cation is biennial. The acorn is globose, flattened at top, and placed in a saucer-shaped cup. Black-oak bark has a more bitter taste than that of the other species, and may be distinguished also by staining the saliva yellow when it is chewed. part i. Quercus Tinctoria.—Ranunculus. 583 Its cellular integument contains a colouring principle, capable of beino- ex- tracted by boiling water, to which it imparts a brownish-yellow colour, which is deepened by alkalies and rendered brighter by acids. Under the name of quercitron, large quantities Of this bark, deprived of its epidermis and reduced to coarse powder, are sent from the United States to Europe, where it is used for dyeing wool and silk of a yellow colour. The colouring principle is called quercitrin, or, from its property of combining with salifiable bases, quercitric acid. When quite pure it is colourless, but becomes yel- low by absorbing oxygen. It is sweetish, with a bitter after-taste, and is very soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. M. Preisser obtained it by precipitating the tannin of a decoction of the bark by means of gelatin, filtering the liquor, adding a very little hydrated oxide of lead, which produced a brown precipi- tate, decanting the golden-yellow liquid left, precipitating with an additional quantity of the hydrate, and decomposing the resulting quercitrate of lead by hydrosulphuric acid. A colourless liquid remained, which, evaporated in vacuo, yielded white needle-shaped crystals of pure quercitrin. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim.,v.2bl.) Besides this principle, the bark contains also much tannin; but it is less used in tanning than the other barks, in conse- quence of the colour which it imparts to the leather. Medical Properties and Uses. Oak bark is astringent and somewhat tonic. It has been given with advantage in intermittent fever, obstinate chronic diar- rhoea, and certain forms of passive hemorrhage; but it is not much employed as an internal remedy. Externally applied it is often productive of benefit. The decoction may be advantageously used as a bath, particularly for chil- dren, when a combined tonic and astringent effect is desirable, and the sto- mach is not disposed to receive medicines kindly. It has been employed in this way in marasmus, scrofula, intermittent fevers, chronic diarrhoea, and cholera infantum. As an injection in leucorrhoea, a wash in prolapsus ani and hemorrhoidal affections, and as a gargle in slight inflammation of the fauces, attended with prolapsed uvula, the decoction is often highly useful. It has also been recommended as an injection into dropsical cysts. Reduced to powder and made into a poultice, the bark was recommended by the late Dr. Barton as an excellent application in cases of external gangrene and mortification, and the infusion obtained from tanners' vats has been used beneficially as a wash for flabby, ill-conditioned ulcers. The bark may be given internally in the form of powder, extract, or decoction. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm, of the extract about half as much, of the decoction two fluidounces.'(See Decoctum Quercus.) Black-oak bark is considered inferior to the white oak as an internal re- medy, in consequence of being more disposed to, irritate the bowels. The fruit of the oak is sometimes used as an astringent; and a decoction made from roasted acorns has been highly recommended by Hufeland as a remedy in scrofula. Off. Prep. Decoctum Quercus, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Quercus Albas, U. S.; Extractum Quercus, Dub. W. RANUNCULUS. US. Secondary. Crowfoot. "The cormus and herb of Ranunculus bulbosus." U.S. Off Syn. RANUNCULUS ACRIS. Folia. RANUNCULUS FLAM- MULA. Herba recens. Dub. Ranunculus. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranuncu- lacea?. 584 Ranunculus. PART I. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five., having the inner side of each claw furnished with a melliferous pore. Seeds naked, numerous. Nuttall. Most of the plants belonging to this genus have the same acrid properties. Several of them grow together in our fields and pastures, and, from their close resemblance, are confounded under the common name of butter-cup, applied to them from the colour and shape of their flowers. Those which are most abundant are believed to have been introduced from Europe. Such are the R. bulbosus, R. acris, and R. repens, which, with the R. sceleratus, may be indiscriminately used. In Europe, the R. sceleratus appears to have attracted most attention; in this country, the R. bulbosus. The latter is the only one designated by our Pharmacopoeia. The R. acris and R. Flam- mula axe directed by the Dublin College. Ranunculus bulbosus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1324; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 60. This species of crowfoot is perennial, with a solid, fleshy root (cormus), which sends up annually several erect, round, and branching stems, from nine to eighteen inches high. The radical leaves, which stand on long footstalks, are ternate or quinate, with lobed and dentate leaflets. The leaves of the stem are sessile and ternate, the upper more simple. Each stem supports several solitary, bright yellow, glossy flowers, upon furrowed, angular ped a-ncles. The leaves of the calyx are refiexed, or bent downwards against the flowerstalk. The petals are obcordate, and arranged so as to repre- sent a small cup in shape. At the inside of the claw of each petal is a small cavity, which is covered with a minute wedge-shaped emarginate scale. The fruit consists of numerous naked seeds, collected in a spherical head. The stern, leaves, peduncles, and calyx are hairy. In the months of May and June our pastures are everywhere adorned with the rich yellow flowers of this species of Ranunculus. Somewhat later the R. acris and R. repens begin to bloom, and a succession of similar flowers is maintained till September. The two latter species prefer a moister ground, and are found most abundantly in meadows. The R. sceleratus is found in ponds and ditches. In all these species, the whole plant is pervaded by a volatile acrid principle, which is dissipated by. drying or by the application of heat. This principle may be separated by distillation. Dr. Bigelow found that water distilled from the fresh plant had an acrid taste, and pro- duced when swallowed a burning sensation in the stomach ; and that it retained these properties for a long time, if kept in closely stopped bottles. The plant itself when chewed excites violent irritation in the mouth and throat; inflaming and even excoriating the tongue and inside of the cheeks and lips, if not quickly discharged. Both the root and herbaceous portion of the R. bulbosus axe officinal. Medical Properties and Uses. Crowfoot, when swallowed in the fresh state, produces heat and pain in the stomach, and, if the quantity be consider- able, may excite fatal inflammation. It is, however, never used internally. The property for which it has attracted the attention of physicians is that of inflaming and vesicating the skin; and, before the introduction of the Spanish fly into use, it was much employed for this purpose. But the uncertainty and occasional violence of its action have nearly banished it from regular practice. While on some individuals it appears to produce scarcely any effect, on others it acts very speedily, exciting extensive and troublesome inflammation, which sometimes terminates in deep and obstinate ulcers. It probably varies in strength with the season; and, in the dried state, or boiled with water, it is wholly inert. The decoction, moreover, is inert in conse- quence of the escape of the acrid principle. Nevertheless, the plant has been very properly retained by the Pharmacopoeia in the catalogue of medi- cines of secondary importance; as occasions may occur when the practitioner PART I. Ranunculus.—Resina. 585 in the country may find advantage in having recourse to its powerful rube- facient and epispastic operation. W. RESINA. U.S., Lond, Ed. Resin. "The residuum after the distillation of the volatile oil from the turpentine of Pinus palustris and other species of Pinus." U. S. "Pinus sylvestris. Residuum resinae liquidae postquom terebinthinae oleum destillatum est." Lond. Residue of the distillation of the turpentines of various species of Pinus and Abies." Ed. Off. Syn. PINUS SYLVESTRIS. Resina. Dub. Resine blanche, Resine jaune, Fr.; Fichtenharz, Germ.; Ragea di pino, Ital; Resina de pino, Span. After the distillation of the volatile oil from the turpentines, (see Terebin- thina,) a resinous matter remains, which on the continent of Europe is called colophony, but in our language is commonly known by the name of rosin. It is the Resina of the U. S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, and the Resina flava or yellow resin, of the Dublin College. When this, in a state of fusion, is strongly agitated with water, it acquires a distinct appear- ance, and is now denominated Resina alba or white resin, which is also recognised by the Dublin College. Before describing these officinal sub- stances, it may be proper to enumerate the characteristic properties of the proximate principles which chemists designate by the term resins. Resins are solid, brittle, of a smooth and shining fracture, and generally of a yellowish colour and semi-transparent. When perfectly pure they are probably inodorous and often insipid, but, as usually found, they have a slight odour, and a somewhat acrid or bitterish taste. Their sp. gr. varies frorn 0-92 to 1-2. They are fusible by a moderate heat, decomposed at a higher temperature, and in the open air take fire, burning with a yellow flame and much smoke. Insoluble in water, they are dissolved by ether and the essential oils, and generally by alcohol; and their alcoholic and ethereal solutions afford precipitates upon the addition of water. With pure potassa and soda.they unite to form soaps, which are soluble in water; and the same result takes place when they are heated with the solutions of the alkaline carbonates. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves them with mutual decom- position ; and nitric acid converts them into artificial tannin. They readily unite by fusion with wax and the fixed oils. Common or yellow resin, in its purest state, is beautifully clear and pel- lucid, but much less so as commonly found in the shops. Its odour and taste are usually in a slight degree terebinthinate; its colour yellowish- brown with a tinge of olive, and more or less dark according to its purity, and the degree of heat to which it has been exposed in its preparation. It is rather heavier than water. At 276° F. it fuses, is completely liquid at 306°, begins to emit bubbles of gas at 316q, and is entirely decomposed at a red heat. Its ultimate constituents are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in variable proportions. It appears, from the researches of Unverdorben, to contain three distinct resinous bodies, two of which, denominated pinic and sylvic acids, pre-existed in the turpentine, and the third, called colophonic acid, is formed by the agency of the heat in the process of distillation. The pinic acid is dissolved by cold spirit of the sp. gr. 0-865, and is thus sepa- rated from the sylvic acid. It is obtained pure by adding to the solution a spirituous solution of acetate of copper, dissolving the precipitated pinate of copper in strong boiling alcohol, decomposing this salt with a little muriatic 586 Resina.—Rhamnus. PART I. acid, and adding water, which throws down the pinic acid in the form of a resinous powder. The sylvic acid is obtained by treating the residue of the common resin with boiling spirit of the sp. gr. 0-865, which dissolves it, and lets it fall upon cooling. Both of these resinou* acids are colourless. Pinic acid is soluble in weak cold alcohol; sylvic acid is insoluble in the same menstruum when cold, but is dissolved by it when boiling hot, and by strong alcohol at all temperatures. The salts which they form with the alka- lies are soluble, those with the earths and metallic oxides, insoluble in water. Colophonic acid differs from the others in having stronger acid properties, and in being less soluble in alcohol. It is of a brown colour, and common resin is more or less coloured in proportion to the quantity of this acid which it contains. (Kane's Chemistry.) The experiments of Unverdorben were made with European colophony. It is somewhat uncertain whether exactly the same results would be afforded by the common resin of this country, which is obtained from a different species of pine. White resin differs from the preceding only in being opaque and of a whitish colour. These properties it owes to the water with which it is incorporated, and which gradually escapes upon exposure, leaving it more or less transparent. Medical Uses. Resin is important as an ingredient of ointments and plasters, but is never used internally. Off. Prep. Ceratum Cantharidis, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Ceratum Resina, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Ceratum Resina? Compositum, U. S.; Emplas- trum Cantharidis Comp., Ed.; Emplast. Cerae, Lond., Ed.; Emplast. Ferri, Ed.; Emplast. Hydrargyri, U. S., Ed.; Emplast. Picis, Lond., Ed.; Emplast. Resinae, U. S.; Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emplast. Simplex, Ed.; Unguentum Infusi Cantharidis, Ed.; Unguent. Picis Nigrae, Lond. W. RHAMNUS. Lond. Buckthorn Berries. "Rhamnus catharticus. Baccse." Lond. Off. Syn. RHAMNI BACCSE. Fruit of Rhamnus Catharticus. Ed.; RHAMNUS CATHARTICUS. Baccaa. Dub. Baies du nerprun, Fr.; Kreutzbeeren, Germ.; Bacche del spino cervino, Ital; Bayas de ramno catartico, Span. Rhamnus. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rhamnaceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx tubular. Corolla scales defending the stamens, inserted into the calyx. Berry. Willd. Rhamnus catharticus. Willd. Sp. Plant i. 1092; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 594. t. 210. The purging buckthorn is a shrub seven or eight feet high, with branches terminating in a sharp spine. The leaves are in fascicles, on short footstalks, ovate, serrate, veined. The flowers are usually dioecious, in clusters, small, greenish, peduncled, with a four-cleft calyx, and four very small scale-like petals, placed in the male flower, behind the stamens, which equal them in number. The fruit is a four-seeded berry. The shrub is a native of Europe, and is said to have been found growing wild in this country. It was first discovered in the Highlands of'New York by Dr. Barratt. (Eaton's Manual.) It flowers in May and June, and ripens its fruit in the latter part of September. The berries are the officinal portion. When ripe they are about the size of a pea, round, somewhat flattened on the summit, black, smooth, shining, with four seeds, surrounded by a green, juicy parenchyma. Their odour is unpleasant, their taste bitterish, acrid, and nauseous. The expressed juice has the colour, odour, and taste of the part r. Rhamnus.—Rheum. 587 parenchyma. It is reddened by the acids, and from deep green is rendered light green by the alkalies. Upon standing it soon begins to ferment, and becomes red in consequence of the formation of acetic acid. Evaporated to dryness, with the addition of lime or an alkali, it forms the colour called by painters sap green. The dried berries of another species, R. infectorias, yield a rich yellow colour, for which they are much employed in the arts under the name of French berries. Vogel obtained from the juice of the berries a peculiar colouring matter, acetic acid, mucilage, sugar, and a nitrogenous substance. Hubert found green colouring matter, acetic and malic acids, brown gummy matter, and a bitter substance which he considered as the purgative principle, and sup- posed to resemble cathartin. M. Fleury obtained a peculiar crystallizable principle, which is contained both in the expressed juice and the residue remaining after expression, and for which he proposed the name of rhamnin; but he did not ascertain whether it possessed cathartic properties. (See Journ. de Pharm., xxvii. 666.) Medical Properties and Uses. Both the berries and the expressed juice are actively purgative; but, as they are apt to occasion nausea, and severe griping pain in the bowels, with much thirst and dryness of the mouth and throat, they are now little employed. They formerly enjoyed considerable reputation as a hydragogue cathartic in dropsy; and were given also in rheumatism and gout. The only shape in which they are used in this country is that of the syrup, which is sometimes, though rarely, added to hydragogue or diuretic mixtures. (See Syrupus Rhamni.) The dose of the recent berries is about a scruple, of the dried berries a drachm, and of the expressed juice a fluidounce. Under the name of cortex frangulae, the bark of the Rhamnus frangula is sometimes used in Germany as a cathartic. Off. Prep. Syrupus Rhamni. Lond., Ed., Dub. W. RHEUM. U.S., Land., Ed. Rhubarb. " The root of Rheum palmatum, and other species of Rheum." UiS. "Rheum palmatum. Radix." Lond. "Root of an undetermined species of Rheum." Ed. Off. Syn. RHEUM PALMATUM et RHEUM UNDULATUM. Radix. Dub. Rliabarbarum; Rhubarbe, Fr.; Rhabarber, Germ.; Rabarbaro, Ital; Ruibarbo, Span.; Hai-lioung, Chinese; Schara-modo, Thibet. Rheum. Sex. Syst. Enneandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Polygonaceae. Gen.Ch. Calyx petaloid, six-parted, withering. Stamens about nine, inserted into the base of the calyx. Styles three, refiexed. Stigmas peltate, entire. Achenium three-cornered, winged, with the withered calyx at the base. Embryo in the centre of the albumen. (Lindley.) Notwithstanding the length of time that rhubarb has been in use, and the attention which it has received from naturalists, the question yet remains unsettled from what precise plant it is derived. The remoteness of the region where it is collected, and the jealous care with which the monopoly of the trade in this drug is guarded, have prevented any accurate informa- tion on the subject. All that we certainly know is that it is the root of one or more species of Rheum. It is true that the Pharmacopoeias under- take to designate the particular species. Thus, the London College recog- nises the R. palmatum, the Dublin both this and the R. undulalum, and in 588 Rheum. PART I. the U. S. Pharmacopoeia the drug is referred to the R.»palmatum and other species not particularized. But the evidence in favour of either of these species is by no means unequivocal, as will appear from the following history. The terms rha and rheon, from the former of which were derived the names rhabarbarum and rhubarb, and from the latter the botanical generic title Rheum, were applied by the ancients to a root which came from beyond the Bosphorus, and which is supposed, though upon somewhat uncertain grounds, to have been the product of the Rheum Rhaponticum, growing on the banks of the Caspian Sea and the Wolga. This species was also at one time believed to be the source of the medicine now in use; but the true rhubarb has long been known to be wholly distinct from the Rhapontic, and derived from a different source. It was not till the year 1732 that any probable information was obtained as to its real origin. At that time plants were received from Russia by Jussieu in France, and Rand in England, which were said to be of the species which afforded the genuine rhubarb, and were named by Linnaeus, under this impression, Rheum Rhabarbarum, a title which has since given way to Rheum undulatum. At a subsequent period, Kauw Boerhaave obtained from a merchant, who dealt in the rhubarb of Tartary, some seeds which he said wrere those of the plant which pro- duced the root he sold. These seeds having been planted, yielded two species of Rheum, the R. undulatum, and another which Linnaeus pro- nounced to be distinct, and named R. palmatum. Seeds transmitted by Dr. Mounsey from St. Petersburgh to Dr. Hope, and planted in. the botanic garden at Edinburgh, produced the latter species; and the same was also raised at Upsal from a root received by Linnaeus from De Gorter, and was described A.D. 1767 by the younger Linnasus, two years after the appear- ance of Dr. Hope's paper in the Philosophical Transactions. Thus far the evidence appears equally in favour of the R. palmatum and R. undulatum. The claims of another species were afterwards presented. Pallas, upon exhibiting the leaves of the R. palmatum to some Bucharian merchants of whom he was making inquiries relative to the rhubarb plant, was told that the leaves of the latter were entirely different in shape; and the descrip- tion he received of them corresponded more closely with those of the R. compactum, than of any other known species. Seeds of this plant were, moreover, sent to Miller from St. Petersburgh, as those of the true Tartarian rhubarb. Within a few years, the attention of naturalists has been called to a fourth species, for which the same honour is claimed. Dr. Wallich, super- intendent of the botanical gardens at Calcutta, received seeds which were said to be those of the plant which yielded the Chinese rhubarb, growing on the Himalaya mountains and the highlands of Tartary. These produced a species not previously described, which Dr. Wallich named R. Emodi, from the native title of the plant. It is the R. australe of Mr. Don and of Cole- brooke, and has been ascertained to afford a root which, though purgative, is very unlike the officinal rhubarb. Other species have been found to grow in the Himalaya mountains, from which a kind of rhubarb used by the natives is said to be procured; but none of it reaches the markets of this country or Europe. From what has been said, it is obvious that no species yet mentioned can' be considered as the undoubted source of commercial rhubarb; the plant having, in no instance, been seen and examined by natu- ralists in its native place. Sievers, an apothecary, sent to Siberia in the reign of Catharine II., with the view of improving the cultivation of the native rhubarb, asserts, from the information given him by the Bucharians, that all the seeds procured under the name of true rhubarb are false, and pronounces " all the descriptions in the Materia Medicas to be incorrect." This asser- tion, however, has no relation to the R. australe which has been subsequently PART I. Rheum. 589 described; but it is said that the roots of that plant, dried by the medical offi- cers of the British army, differ from true rhubarb in appearance and power. Still, however, it is possible that the medicine is derived from one or more of the species alluded to; and if it should be objected that their roots, as cultivated in Europe, have not the precise qualities or composition of the Asiatic rhubarb, the answer is obvious, that the product of the same plant is often known to vary exceedingly with diversities of soil, climate, and culture. All the plants of this genus are perennial and herbaceous, with large branching roots, which send forth vigorous stems from four to eight feet or more in height, surrounded at their base with numerous very large peHolate leaves, and terminating in lengthened branching panicles, composed of small and very numerous flowers, resembling those of the Rumex or dock. Bota- nists experience some difficulty in properly arranging the species, in con- sequence of the tendency of the cultivated plants to form hybrids; and it is frequently impossible to ascertain to which of the wild types the several garden varieties are to be referred. The following descriptions are from the Flora Medica of Dr. Lindley. Rheum palmatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 489; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 358; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 662. t. 231. "Leaves roundish-cordate, half palmate; the lobes pinnatifid, acuminate, deep dull green, not wavy, but uneven and very much wrinkled on the upper side, hardly scabrous at the edge, minutely downy on the under side; sinus completely closed ; the lobes of the leaf standing forwards beyond it. Petiole pale green, marked with short purple lines, terete, obscurely channeled quite at the upper end. Flowering stems taller than those of any other species." This species is said to inhabit China in the vicinity of the great wall. It is said to be cultivated near Banbury, in England, for the sake of its root, which is gene- rally admitted to approach more nearly in odour, taste, and the arrangement of its colours, to the Asiatic rhubarb than that of any other known species. R. undulatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 489; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 357; Woodv. Med.Bot. 3d ed. v. 81. "Leaves oval, obtuse, extremely wavy, deep green, with veins purple at the base, often shorter than the petiole, distinctly and copiously downy on each side, looking as if frosted when young, scabrous at the edge; sinus open, wedge-shaped, with the lower lobes of the leaves turned upwards. Petiole downy, blood-red, semi-cylin- drical, with elevated edges to the upper side, which is narrower at the upper than the lower end." This is a native of Siberia, and probably of Tartary and China. It was cultivated by the Russian government as the true rhubarb plant; but the culture has been abandoned. It contributes to the rhubarb produced in France. R. compactum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 489; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 358; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 336. " Leaves heart-shaped, obtuse, very wavy, deep green, of a thick texture, scabrous at the margin, quite smooth on both sides, glossy and even on the upper side; sinus nearly closed by the parenchyma. Petiole green, hardly tinged with red except at the base, semi-cylindrical, a little compressed at the sides, with the upper side broad, flat, bordered by elevated edges, and of equal breadth at each end." This plant is said to be a native of Tartary and China. It is one of the garden rhubarbs, and is cultivated in France for its root. R. australe. Don, Prod. Flor. Nepal, p. 75.—R. Emodi. Wallich; Lind- ley, Flor. Med. p. 354; Hooker, Bot. Mag. t. 3508. " Leaves cordate, acute, dull green, but little wavy, flattish, very much wrinkled, distinctly rough, with coarse short hairs on each side; sinus of the base distinctly open, not wedge-shaped but diverging at an obtuse angle, with the lobes 51 590 Rheum. PART I. nearly turned upwards. Petioles very rough, rounded-angular, furrowed; with the upper side depressed, bordered by an elevated edge, and very much narrower at the upper than the lower end." The root of this species was at one time conjectured to be the source of officinal Asiatic rhubarb; but has been found to have scarcely any resemblance to it. The plant has been cultivated both in Europe and this country, and its petioles answer well for tarts, &c. , R.Rhaponticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 488; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 357; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 335. " Leaves roundish-ovate, cordate, obtle, pale green, but little wavy, very concave, even, very slightly downy on the under side, especially near the edge, and on the edge itsel ; scabrous at the margin; sinus quite open, large, and cuneate. Petiole depressed, channeled on the upper side, with the edges regularly rounded off, pale green, striated, scarcely scabrous. Panicles very compact and short, always rounded at the ends, and never lax as in the other garden species. Flowering stem about three feet high." The Rhapontic rhubarb /rows upon the banks of the Caspian Sea, in the deserts between the Wolga and the Oural, and in Siberia. It is said also to grow upon the borders of the Euxine. It is cultivated as a garden plant in Europe and this country; and large quantities of the root are produced for sale in France. It is said by Royle to be the source of the English rhubarb. Besides the species above described, the R. leucorrhizum growing in the Kirghese desert in Tartary, the R. Caspicum from the Altai mountains, and the R. Webbianum, R. speciforme, and R. Moorcraftianum, natives of the Himalaya mountains, and R. crassinervium and R. hybridum, cultivated in Europe, but of unknown origin, yield roots which have either been em- ployed as purgatives, or possess properties more or less analogous to those of officinal rhubarb, though they have not entered into general commerce. The leafstalks of the different species of Rheum have a pleasant acid taste, and are used for making tarts and pies, which are not unlike those made with gooseberries. It is for this purpose only that the plants are cul- tivated in the United States. Lindley states that the R. Rhaponticum, R. hybridum, and R. compactum, and hybrid varieties of them, are the common garden rhubarbs. . . In relation to the culture and preparation of rhubarb, our information is almost as uncertain as on the subject of its natural history. The accounts received from the Bucharian merchants are very discordant, and fewintel- lio-ent travellers have penetrated into the country where the medicine is col- lected. We shall present, however, a brief abstract of what we have been able to collect upon the subject from the authorities we have consulted. Rhubarb is produced abundantly in the elevated lands of Tartary, about the lake Koko Norr, and is said to be cultivated in the neighbouring Chinese province of Shen-see, and in that of Setchuen. From these sources it is generally supposed that our supplies of Russian and Chinese rhubarb are exclusively derived; but the root is also collected in Boutan and Thibet,on the north of the Himalaya mountains ; and it is probable that the plant per- vades the whole of Chinese Tartary. It flourishes best in a light sandy soil. We are told by Mr. Bell, who, on a journey from St. Petersburgh to Pekin, had an opportunity of observing it in a growing state, that it is not cultivated by the Tartars, but springs up spontaneously in tufts at uncertain distances, wherever the seeds have fallen upon the heaps of loose earth thrown up by the marmots. In other places the thickness of the grass pre- vents their access to the soil. The root is not considered sufficiently mature for collection till it has attained the age of six years. It is dug up twice a PART I. Rheum. 591 year in Tartary, in the spring and autumn; in China not till the winter. After removal from the ground, it is cleaned, deprived of its cortical portion and of the smaller branches, and then divided into pieces of a convenient size. These are bored with holes, and strung upon cords to dry, according to Mr. Bell, about the tents and on the horns of the sheep; according to Sievers, under sheds, by which the rays of the sun are excluded, while the air has free access. The Chinese are said first to place the pieces on a stone slab heated by fire beneath, and afterwards to complete the drying pro- cess by exposing them to the sun and air. In Boutan the roots are hung up in a kind of drying room, in which a moderate and regular heat is main- tained. Much time and attention are devoted to the preparation of the root; and Sievers states, that a year sometimes elapses from the period of its col- lection before it is ready for exportation. A very large proportion of its weight is lost in drying, according to some accounts four-fifths, to others not less than seven-eighths. It is probably in order to favour the drying that the bark is removed. The trade in rhubarb is said to centre in the Chinese town of Si-nin, where a Bucharian company or family is established, which possesses a monopoly of this trade, in consideration of a certain tribute paid to the government. To this city the rhubarb is brought from the various places of its collection, and, having been duly assorted, and undergone further preparation, is transmitted partly to Russia, partly to the coast of China; so that the drug which reaches us'through St. Petersburgh, is procured from the same neighbourhood with that imported from Canton. But it will soon be seen that there are differences between the Russian and Chinese rhubarb, which would seem to indicate a different origin, and might authorize doubts as to the entire accuracy of the above accounts. It is at least probable that the drug produced in the province of Setchuen, whence the best China rhu- barb is said to be brought, takes a more direct route to the coast than that through the town of Si-nin. Besides the two commercial varieties just men- tioned, a third occasionally comes to us from Europe, where the cultivation of rhubarb has been carried on for some time with success, especially in France, Belgium, and Great Britain. Of these three varieties we shall treat under different heads. 1. Chinese Rhubarb. India Rhubarb. Rheum Sinense vel Indicum. Much the largest propor- tion of rhubarb consumed in this country is brought from Canton. Though somewhat inferior to the Russian, its comparative cheapness gives it a decided preference in our markets; and, when of good quality, it does not disappoint the expectations of the physician. It is in cylindrical or roundish pieces, sometimes flattened on one or both sides, of a dirty brownish-yellow colour externally, appearing as if the cortical portion of the root had been removed by scraping, and the surface rendered smooth and somewhat powdery by attrition. The best pieces are heavier than the Russian rhubarb, have a texture rather close and compact, and when broken present a ragged uneven surface, variegated with inter- mingled shades of dull red, yellowish, and white, which are sometimes diversified or interrupted by darker colours. The pieces are generally per- forated with small holes, intended for convenience of suspension during the drying process; and portions of the suspending cord are not unfrequently found remaining in the holes. Chinese rhubarb has a peculiar somewhat aromatic smell, and a bitter astringent taste, is gritty when chewed, imparts a yellow colour to the saliva, and affords a yellowish powder with a reddish- 592 Rheum. PART I. brown tinge. With the pieces of good quality others often come mingled, which are defective from decay or improper preparation. These are usually lighter, and of a dark or russet colour. Like all the other varieties of rhu- barb, this is liable to be attacked by worms; and in almost every large parcel, pieces may be found which have suffered from this cause. The want of proper care in its selection by the Chinese merchants, and the ex- posure incident to a long sea-voyage, are causes which contribute to its infe- riority to the Russian rhubarb. As the whole contents of the chest imported are usually powdered together, including the worst as well as the best pieces, it follows that the powder is inferior in efficacy to the selected and sound pieces. In a former edition of this work, we noticed a variety of rhubarb imported from Canton, which was evidently prepared, before leaving China, so as to resemble the Russian, having an angular surface as if pared with a knife. The pieces were obviously selected with great care, as they were remark- ably free from defects. But in most of those which came under our notice, the small penetrating hole was observable, which characterizes the Chinese rhubarb, though it had in some instances been filled with the powdered root, so as in some measure to conceal it. Besides, the colours were not quite so bright as those of Russia rhubarb. This is undoubtedly the variety de- scribed by Pereira, under a distinct head, as the Dutch-trimmed or Bala- vian rhubarb, and considered by him as probably Bucharian or Russian rhubarb of inferior quality, sent by the way of Canton. A sufficient proof, we think, that this is not the case, is the presence in most pieces of the small penetrating hole, occasionally filled with remains of the cord, and in some pieces almost shaved away in the paring process. We have never seen such a hole in any piece of true Russian rhubarb, which does not appear to be strung up like the Chinese when dried. Under the title of Canton stick rhubarb, Pereira describes a variety of which small quantities have been imported from Canton into London. It bears much resemblance to the English stick rhubarb, and is supposed to be derived from the branches of the root of the plant which yields the true Chinese rhubarb. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 63.) 2. Russian Rhubarb. Turkey Rhubarb. Bucharian Rhubarb. Rheum Russicum vel Turci- cum. The rhubarb taken to Russia from Tartary undergoes a peculiar preparation, in conformity with the stipulations of a contract with the Bu- charian merchants who furnish the supply. The best is selected, and each piece perforated in order to ascertain whether it is sound in the centre. From Si-nin it is conveyed by the Bucharian merchants to the frontier town of Kiachta, where it undergoes a rigid inspection by an apothecary stationed at that place by the Russian government. All those pieces which do not pass examination are committed to the flames ; and the remainder is sent to St. Petersburgh. This variety is sometimes called Turkey rhubarb, from the circumstance that it was formerly derived from the Turkish ports, whi- ther it is said to have been brought from Tartary by caravans through Per- sia and Natolia. The circumstance of the identity of the Russian and Tur- key rhubarb, and their decided difference from the Chinese, would appear to indicate a distinct origin for the two varieties. Inferior parcels of the root, which will not pass the inspection of the Russian authorities, are said to enter Russia by Taschkent, and to be known to the druggists of that country by the name of Taschkent rhubarb. PART I. Rheum. 593 The pieces of Russian rhubarb are irregular, and somewhat angular, appearing as if the bark had been shaved off longitudinally by successive strokes of a knife, and a portion of the interior substance removed with each shaving. They have a cleaner and fresher appearance than the Chinese, and their colour both internally and externally, though of the same general character, is somewhat more lively. They are less compact and heavy; and are cut with less facility, owing to their giving away before the knife. Another distinction is the character of the perforations, which in the Rus- sian rhubarb are large, frequently reaching only to the centre, and evidently made for the purpose of inspection; while in the Chinese they are small, penetrate completely through the pieces, and were intended for the passage of a suspending cord. The taste and smell of the former closely resemble those of the latter, except that the Russian is rather more aromatic. There is the same crackling under the teeth, and the same yellow stain imparted to the saliva; but the colour of the powder in this variety is a bright yellow, without the brownish tinge exhibited by the Chinese. When thin slices, previously boiled in water, are examined by the microscope, they exhibit numerous clusters of minute crystals of oxalate of lime. Mr. Quekett found between 35 and 40 grains of them in 100 grains of the root. They are observed both in the Russian and Chinese rhubarb. The care which renders the Russian rhubarb so free from defects, tends greatly to enhance its price, and consequently to limit its consumption. Its great comparative value in the market has led to frequent attempts at adul- teration; and the pieces of Chinese rhubarb are sometimes cut down and prepared so as to resemble the Russian. The fraud, however, may be detected by adverting to the peculiarities in texture, colour, and weight, by which the varieties are distinguished, and to the occasional presence of the small penetrating hole or vestiges of it. We have seen a specimen in which the hole was enlarged at its two extremities, and closed by powder in the middle, with the view of imitating the larger perforations of the Russian pieces. Sometimes the worm-eaten pieces are made to resemble the sound, by filling up the holes with a mixture of pulverized rhubarb and mucilage, and covering over the surface with the powder. By removing this, the fraud is at once revealed. 3. European Rhubarb. In various parts of Europe, particularly in England, France, Belgium, and Germany, the rhubarb plants have been cultivated for many years; and considerable quantities of the root are annually brought into the market. It is imported into this country from England and France. English Rhubarb. This comes in two forms. In one the root is cut and perforated in imitation of the Russian. The pieces are of various shape and size, sometimes cylindrical, but more commonly flat, or somewhat len- ticular, and of considerable dimensions. In the other, the pieces are some- what cylindrical, five or six inches long by an inch or less in thickness, and more or less irregular upon the surface, as if they had shrunk unequally in drying. This is called stick rhubarb in England, and is the kind we have most frequently met with in our shops. English rhubarb is lighter than the Asiatic, more spongy, and often somewhat pasty under the pestle. It is of a redder colour, and when broken exhibits a more compact and regular marbling; the pinkish lines being arranged in a radiated manner from the centre towards the circumference. The powder also has a deeper reddish tint. The odour is feeble and less aromatic than that of the Asiatic 51* 594 Rheum. PART I. varieties; the taste is astringent and mucilaginous with little bitterness; and the root, when chewed, scarcely feels gritty between the teeth, and but slightly colours the saliva. Few crystals of oxalate of lime are dis- coverable by means of the microscope. The roots of the different species are not distinguishable in commerce. French Rhubarb. Rhapontic Rhubarb. Krimea Rhubarb. The rhu- barb produced in France is at present, according to Guibourt, chiefly from the R. Rhaponticum, R. undulatum, and R. compactum; that of the R. palmatum, which most closely resembles the Asiatic, having been found to degenerate so much, as not to be a profitable object of culture. Most of the French rhubarb is produced in the neighbourhood of L'Orient, in the department of Morbihan; and the spot where it grows has, from this cir- cumstance, received the name of Rheumpole. Two kinds are described by Guibourt, both under the name of Rhapontic root. One proceeds from the R. Rhaponticum, growing in the gardens in the environs of Paris; the other, from this and the two other species above mentioned, cultivated at Rheumpole. The former is in pieces of the size of the fist or smaller, lig- neous in their appearance, of a reddish-gray colour on the outside, internally marbled with red and white arranged in the form of crowded rays proceed- ing from the centre to the circumference, of an odour like that of Asiatic rhubarb, but more disagreeable, of a mucilaginous and very astringent taste, not crackling under the teeth, but tinging the saliva yellow, and affording a reddish-yellow powder. The pieces of the latter are irregularly cylin- drical, three or four inches long and from one to two or even three inches thick, less ligneous in appearance than the preceding, and externally of a pale or brownish-yellow colour less inclining to redness. In exterior aspect, this variety bears considerable resemblance to Chinese rhubarb; but may be distinguished by its more disagreeable odour, its astringent and mucila- ginous taste, its want of crackling under the teeth, and its radiating fracture, in which properties it is similar to the preceding variety. Considerable quantities of this drug have been imported into the United States from France, under the name of Krimea rhubarb; and it is sometimes employed, we fear, to adulterate the powder of the Chinese rhubarb. It appears to have displaced in France the Rhapontic root formerly imported from the Euxine. Whether from difference in species, or from the influence of soil and climate, none of the European rhubarb equals the Asiatic in purgative power.* * Besides the varieties of rhubarb above described, others are noticed by writers. Tallas speaks of a ivhite rhubarb, brought to Kiachta by the Bucharian merchants who conveyed to that place the drug for Russian commerce. It was white as milk, of a sweet taste, and equal to the best rhubarb in quality. It is supposed to be the product of the R. leucorrhizum. The Himalaya rhubarb is produced by the R. australe, and other spe- cies mentioned in the text as growing in the Himalaya mountains. According to Dr. Royle, it makes its way to the lower countries in Hindostan, where it sells for one-tenth of the price of the best rhubarb. Mr. Twining tried it in the Hospital at Calcutta, and found it superior as a tonic and astringent to Russian rhubarb, and nearly equal to it in purgative power. A variety known in Russia as Bucharian rhubarb, differing from the variety which we call Russian, and which is known in Russia as Chinese rhubarb, is im- ported into that country from Tartary, and reaches St. Petersburgh by Nishny. Parcels of it are said also to reach Vienna, by the way of Brody in Gallicia. Still another variety is that called Siberian rhubarb, which is known in Russia by the name of Siberian rha- pontic root. As these are inferior kinds, and probably never reach our markets, we have not thought it necessary to swell our pages with descriptions of them. The reader who wishes further information is referred to papers by Pereira, originally published in the London .Pharmaceutical Journal, and re-published in the Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 63, and 123. PART I. Rheum. 595 Choice of Rhubarb. In selecting good rhubarb, without reference to the commercial variety, those pieces should be preferred which are mode- rately heavy and compact, of a lively colour, brittle, presenting when broken a fresh appearance, with reddish and yellowish veins intermingled with white, of an odour decidedly aromatic, of a bitter and astringent not mucila- ginous taste, feeling gritty and staining the saliva yellow when chewed, and affording a powder either bright yellow, or yellow with but a slight reddish- brown tinge. When very light, rhubarb is usually rotten or worm-eaten; when very heavy and compact, it is of inferior species, culture, or prepara- tion. Rotten, worm-eaten, or otherwise inferior rhubarb, is often powdered and coloured yellow with turmeric; and the shavings left, when Chinese rhubarb is cut to imitate the Russian, are applied to the same purpose. Chemical Properties. Rhubarb yields all its active properties to water and alcohol. The infusion is of a dark reddish-yellow colour, with the taste and odour of rhubarb; and the residue, after sufficient maceration, is whitish, inodorous, and insipid. By long boiling the virtues of the medi- cine are diminished, in consequence probably of the evaporation of a volatile ingredient in which they partly reside. Many attempts have been made to analyze this important root, with various results. Among them, are those of the two Henrys and Caventou of Paris, Brande of London, Peretti of Rome, and Horneman and Brandes of Germany. The most recent is that of Brandes, who found in 100 parts of Chinese rhubarb, 2 of pure rhabarbaric acid, 7-5 of the same acid impure, 2-5 of gallic acid, 9-0 of tannin, 3-5 of colouring extractive, 11-0 of uncrystallizable sugar with tannin, 4-0 of starch, 14-4 of gummy extractive, 4-0 of pectic acid, 1-1 of malate and gallate of lime, 11-0 of oxalate of lime, 1-5 of sulphate of potassa and chloride of potassium, 1-0 of silica, 0-5 of phosphate of lime and oxide of iron, 25-0 of lignin, and 2-0 of water. ' Professor Dulk, of Konigsberg, has shown that the rhabarbaric acid of Brandes is for the most part formed during the process for its extraction; and believes that it results from the reaction of the atmospheric air, assisted by the reagents employed, upon another principle, which he succeeded in isolating and named rhein. That portion of the rhabarbaric acid which exists ready formed in rhubarb may be extracted by macerating the powdered root in ether, distilling off most of the ether, and allowing the remainder to evaporate spontaneously. Crystals are left, which may be purified by repeated solution and crystalli- zation in alcohol. The medical properties of rhubarb, being themselves diversified, probably depend upon different principles. Approaches seem to have been frequently made towards the discovery of the purgative prin- ciple, but not with complete success, unless the rhein of Professor Dulk be allowed this rank. The caphopicrite, or yellow colouring matter of M. Henry, has been shown to be a complex substance. The same is the case with the different matters obtained by various chemists, and described by the name of rhabarbarin. The rhabarbaric acid of Brandes, though regarded by that chemist as the active principle, can have little claim to be so con- sidered; as it has no remarkable taste, and six grains of it given to a young man produced griping, but did not purge. We may consider the rhein above mentioned to be, as asserted, the purgative principle, until proved to be other- wise. Rhein is a reddish-yellow substance, which strongly attracts moisture from the air, and is, therefore, not easily obtained crystallized. Its taste and odour are closely analogous to those of the root itself. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether,but most readily in diluted alcohol; and forms yellow or reddish- yellow solutions. It reddens litmus; when heated, melts and diffuses 596 Rheum. PART I. vapours having the odour of rhubarb; is inflammable; forms compounds with alkaline bases and especially with ammonia, having a blood-red tint; and, when treated with nitric acid,yields a yellow solution which is rendered turbid by water, and deposits a yellow powder. It was obtained by Professor Dulk in the following manner. The root was macerated with solution of ammonia, and to the red mucilaginous liquor which resulted, carbonate of baryta was added. When the red colour of the liquor ceased to be changed to green by a salt of iron, the baryta was separated from its combination with the rhein by sulphuric or fluosilicic acid, added until the liquor exhibited an acid reaction. The whole mixture was then evaporated, and the residue treated with alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-802, saturated with ammonia. The solution, which was of a blood-red colour, was filtered and evaporated nearly to dryness; when solution of ammonia was again added, and the liquid again filtered, in order to separate a yellow powder, which was the rhabarbaric acid of Brandes. The red filtered liquor was precipitated by subacetate of lead; the precipitate was washed with small quantities of water, mixed with a little ammonia, and having been dried, was treated with alcohol of 0-820, and decomposed by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution, which was very yellow, being filtered and evaporated, yielded the rhein in the form of a reddish-yellow mass, mingled with some prismatic crystals, which, by the absorption of moisture, soon lost their form. (Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 261, from Arch, der Pharm. des Apothek. Vereins in Nord-Deutschland, bd. xvii.) There are other interesting principles in rhubarb. Some have been dis- posed to ascribe its odour to a volatile oil; but this has not been isolated; and the odour probably resides in the rhein, which is volatilizable. Tannin is an important constituent. It is of that variety which precipitates the salts of sesquioxide of iron of a greenish colour. Whether there is a bitter principle distinct from the purgative has not been positively determined. The oxalate of lime is interesting from its quantity, and from the circumstance that, ex- isting in distinct crystals, it occasions the grittiness of the rhubarb between the teeth. The proportion seems to vary exceedingly in different specimens. According to Scheele and Henry, it constituted nearly one-third, and Quekett found, as already stated,between 35 and 40 per cent.; while Brandes obtained only 11, and Schrader only 4-5 parts in the hundred. Little or no difference of composition has been found between the Russian and Chinese rhubarb The European contains but a small proportion of the oxalate of lime, and is therefore less gritty when chewed. It contains, however, more tannin and starch than the Asiatic varieties. When powdered rhubarb is heated, odorous yellow fumes rise, which are probably in part the vapour of rhein. Its infusion is reddened by the alkalies, in consequence of their union with rhein and rhabarbaric acid. It yields precipitates with gelatin, the salts of sesquioxide of iron, acetate of lead, nitrate of protoxide of mercury, nitrate of silver, protochloride of tin, lime- water, and solutions of quinia. It is probable that nitric acid, which occa- sions at first a turbidness, and afterwards the deposition of a yellow preci- pitate, acts by oxidizing the rhein, and thus converting it into rhabarbaric acid, which is but very slightly soluble in water. The substances produc- ing precipitates may be considered as incompatible. Medical Properties and Uses. The medical properties of rhubarb are peculiar and valuable. Its most remarkable singularity is the union of a cathartic with an astringent power; the latter of which, however, does not interfere with the former, as the purgative effect precedes the astringent. It is also tonic and stomachic; invigorating, in small doses, the powers of diges- PART I. Rheum. 597 tion. It is not probable that these properties reside in a single proximate principle; and, as rhubarb owes its chief value to their combination, it is not to be expected that chemical analysis will be productive of the same practi- cal advantages in this, as in some other medicines, the virtues of which are concentrated in one ingredient. In its purgative operation rhubarb is mode- rate, producing fecal rather than watery discharges, and appearing to affect the muscular fibre more than the secretory vessels. It sometimes occasions griping pains in the bowels. Its colouring principle is absorbed, and may be detected in the urine. By its long-continued use, the perspiration, espe- cially that of the axilla, is said to become yellow, and the milk of nurses to acquire a purgative property. The circumstances of disease to which it is applicable may be inferred from its peculiar properties. When the stomach is enfeebled, or the bowels relaxed, at the same time that a gentle cathartic is required, rhubarb, as a general rule, is preferable to all others. Hence its use in dyspepsia attended with constipation, in diarrhoea when purging is indicated, in the secondary stages of cholera infantum, in chronic dysentery, and in almost all typhoid diseases when fecal matter has accumulated in the intestines, or the use of cathartic medicine is necessary to prevent such accumulation. When em- ployed in cases of habitual constipation, its astringent tendency should be counteracted by combining it with soap. Magnesia is also an excellent associate in disorders of the stomach and bowels. By combination with other cathartics, rhubarb frequently acquires additional activity, while it gives increased efficiency to the substance with which it is associated. A mixture of calomel and rhubarb is a brisk and powerful cathartic, much used in the commencement of our bilious fevers. As a generaljule, rhu- barb is not applicable to cases attended with much inflammatory action. Its griping effect may be counteracted by combining it with aromatics. The dose of rhubarb as a purgative is from twenty to thirty grains, as a laxative and stomachic from five to ten grains. European rhubarb must be given in double or treble the dose to produce an equal effect. Few medicines are used in a greater variety of forms. It is most effectual in substance. It is frequently given in the shape of pill, combined with an equal proportion of soap, when its laxative effect is desired. The infusion is much used in cases of delicate stomach, and is peculiarly adapted to children. The syrup and tincture are also highly useful preparations. They are all officinal. By the roasting of rhubarb its purgative property is diminished, probably by the volatilization of the rhein, while its astringency remains unaffected. This mode of treatment has, therefore, been sometimes resorted to in cases of diarrhcea. By long boiling the same effect is said to be produced. Powdered rhubarb has been usefully applied to indolent and sloughing ulcers. It is said to have proved purgative when sprinkled over a large ulcerated surface; and the same effect is asserted to have been produced by rubbing it, mingled with saliva, over the abdomen. Off. Prep. Extractum Rhei, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Rhei, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulae Rhei, U. S., Ed.; Pil. Rhei Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed.; Pulvis Rhei Comp., Ed.; Syrupus Rhei, U. S.; Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus, U. S.; Tinctura Rhei, U. S., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei et Aloe's, U. S., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei et Gentianae, U. S., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennas, U. S.; Vinum Rhei, U. S.,Ed. W. 598 Rhceas.—Rhus Gldbrum. PART I. RHCEAS. Lond., Ed. Red Poppy. "Papaver Rhceas. Petala." Lond. "Petals of Papaver Rhoeas." Ed. Off. Syn. PAPAVER RHCEAS. Petala. Dub. Coquelicot, Fr.; Wilder Mohn, Klapperrose, Germ.; Rosolaccio, Ital; Amapola, Span. Papaver. See OPIUM. Papaver Rhceas. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1146; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 387. t. 139. The red or corn poppy is distinguished by its hairy stem, which is branched and rises about a foot in height, by its incised pinnatifid leaves, by its urn-shaped capsule, and by the full, bright, scarlet colour of its petals. It is a native of Europe, where it grows wild in great abundance, adorning especially the fields of grain with its brilliant flower. It has been intro- duced and naturalized in this country. Its capsules contain the same kind of milky juice as that found in the P. somniferum, and an extract has been prepared from them having the properties of opium; but the quantity is too small to repay the trouble of its preparation. M. Tilhoi has shown that the extract contains morphia, but in a proportion exceedingly minute compared with that in which the same principle exists in opium. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim.,3e ser., ii.513.) The petals are the officinal portion. They have a narcotic smell, and a mucilaginous, slightly bitter taste. By drying, they lose their odour, and assume a violet-red colour. Chevallier detected a very minute proportion of morphia in an extract obtained from them (Diet, des Drogues); but their operation on the system is exceedingly feeble, and they are valued more for their beautiful scarlet colour, which they communicate to water, than for their medical virtues. According to Leo Meier, the colouring principles of the flowers are two acids, which he denominates rhaadic and papaveric acids. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 211.) A syrup is prepared from them, which was formerly prescribed as an anodyne in catarrhal affections; but is now little esteemed, except for its fine colour. Off. Prep. Syrupus Rhceados, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. RHUS GLABRUM. US. Secondary. Sumach. "The fruit of Rhus glabrum." U. S. Rhus. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Anacardiaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Petals five. Berry small, with one nuci- form seed. Nuttall. Of this genus there are several species which possess poisonous proper- ties, and should be carefully distinguished from that here described. For an account of them the reader is referred to the article Toxicodendron. Rhus glabrum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1478. This species of Rhus, called variously smooth sumach, Pennsylvania sumach, and upland sumach, is an indigenous shrub from four to twelve feet high, with a stem usually more or less bent, and divided into straggling branches, covered with a smooth light gray or somewhat reddish bark. The leaves are upon smooth petioles, and consist of many pairs of opposite leaflets, with an odd one at the ex- tremity, all of which are lanceolate, acuminate, acutely serrate, glabrous, green on their upper surface, and whitish beneath. In the autumn their part i. Rhus Glabrum.—Rosa Canina. 599 colour changes to a beautiful red. The flowers are greenish-red, and dis- posed in large, erect, terminal, compound thyrses, which are succeeded by clusters of small crimson berries covered with a silky down. The shrub is found in almost all parts of the United States, growing in old neglected fields, along fences, and on the borders of woods. The flowers appear in July, and the fruit ripens in the early part of autumn. The bark and leaves are astringent, and said to be used in tanning leather and in dyeing. Excrescences are produced under the leaves resembling galls in character, and containing large quantities of tannin and gallic acid. These have been used as a substitute for the imported galls by Dr. Walters' of New York, who thought them, in every respect, preferable. They may be collected at little expense, as they are produced very abundantly, espe- cially in the Western States. (A. W. Ives'edition of Paris's Pharmacologia.) The only officinal part of the plant is the berries. These have a sour, astringent, not unpleasant taste, and are often eaten by the country people with impunity. According to Mr. Cozzens, of New ^ork, the acid to which they owe their sourness is the malic, and is con- tained in the pubescence which covers their surface ; as, when it is washed away by warm water, the berries are wholly free from acidity. Professor W. B. Rogers, of Virginia, found the acid combined with lime, in the state of bimalate. Medical Properties and Uses. Sumach berries are astringent and refri- gerant; and their infusion has been recommended as a cooling drink in febrile complaints, and a pleasant gargle in inflammation and ulceration of the throat. By Dr. Fahnestock an infusion of the inner bark of the root, employed as a gargle, is considered almost as a specific in the sore mouth attending inordinate mercurial salivation. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences, v. 61.) W- ROSA CANINA. Lond Dog Rose. " Rosa canina. Fructus pulpa." Lond. Off. Syn. ROS.E FRUCTUS. Hip of Rosa canina and of several allied species deprived of the carpels. Hips. Ed.; ROSA CANINA. Fructus Dub. Rose sauvago, Fr.; Hundsrose, Germ. Rosa. See ROSA CENTIFOLIA. Rosa canina. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1077; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 493. t. 177. The dog rose, wild briar, or heptree, is a native of Europe, distin- guished as a species by its glabrous ovate germs, its smooth peduncles, its prickly stem and petioles, and its ovate, smooth, rigid leaves. It rises eight or ten feet in height, and bears white or pale red flowers, having usually five obcordate fragrant petals. The plant has been introduced into this country, but is not much cultivated. The fruit is fleshy, smooth, oval, red, and of a pleasant, sweet, acidulous taste; and contains sugar, and uncombined citric and malic acids. The pulp, separated from the seeds and the silky bristles in which they are embedded, is employed in Europe for the preparation of a confection intended chiefly as an agreeable vehicle for other medicines. Off. Prep. Confectio Rosas Caninse, Lond., Ed. W. 600 Rosa Centifolia.—Rosa Gallica. part i. ROSA CENTIFOLIA. U. S., Lond., Ed.f Dub. Hundred-leaved Roses. " The petals of Rosa centifolia." U. S., Ed. " Rosa centifolia. Petala." Lond., Dub. Roses a cent feuilles, Fr.; Hundertblatterige Rose, Germ.; Rosa pallida, Ital; Rosa de Alexandria, Span. Rosa. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae. Gen. Ch. Petals five. Calyx urceolate, five-cleft, fleshy, contracted at the neck. Seeds numerous, hispid, attached to the inner side of the calyx. Willd. Rosa centifolia. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1071; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 495. t. 178. This species of rose has prickly stems, which usually rise from three to six feet in height. The leaves consist of two or three pairs of leaflets, with an odd one at the end, closely attached to the common foot- stalk, which is rough, but without spines. The leaflets are ovate, broad, serrate, pointed, and hairy on the under surface. The flowers are large, with many petals, usually of a pale red colour, and supported upon pedun- cles beset with short bristly hairs. The germ is ovate, and the segments of the calyx semi-pinnate. The varieties of the R. centifolia are very numerous, but may be indiscriminately employed. The plant is now culti- vated in gardens all over the world; but its original country is not certainly known. It has sometimes been mistaken for the damask rose, which is a distinct species. The petals are the officinal portion. They are extremely fragrant, and have a sweetish, slightly acidulous, somewhat bitterish taste. Their .odour is said to be increased by iodine. It depends on a volatile oil, which may be separated by distillation with water. (See Oleum Rosas.) They should be collected when the flower is fully expanded, but has not begun to fall. Their fragrance is impaired but not lost by drying. They may be pre- served fresh, for a considerable time, by compressing them with alternate layers of common salt in a well-closed vessel, or beating them with twice their weight of that substance. The petals are slightly laxative, and are sometimes administered in the form of syrup combined with cathartic medicines; but their chief use is in the preparation of rose-water. (See Aqua Rosae.) Off. Prep. Aqua Rosae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rosae, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillae Compositus, U. S. W. ROSA GALLICA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Red Roses. " The petals of Rosa Gallica." U. S., Ed. " Rosa gallica. Petala." Lond., Dub. Roses rouges, Fr.; Franzosiche Rose, Essig-rosen, Germ.; Rosa domestica, Ital; Rosa rubra o Castillara, Span. Rosa. See ROSA CENTIFOLIA. Rosa Gallica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1071; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 498. t. 179. This species is smaller than the R. centifolia, but resembles it in the character of its foliage. The stem is beset with short bristly prickles. The flowers are very large, with obcordate widely spreading petals, which are PART I. Rosa Gallica.—Rosmarinus. 601 of a rich crimson colour, and less numerous than in the preceding species. In the centre is a crowd of yellow anthers on thread-like filaments, and as many villose styles bearing papillary stigmas. The fruit is oval, shining, and of a firm consistence. The red rose is a native of the South of Europe, and is cultivated in gardens throughout the United States. The petals, which are the part employed, should be gathered before the flower has blown, separated from their claws, dried in a warm sun or by the fire, and kept in a dry place. Their odour, which is less fragrant than that of the R. centifolia, is improved by drying. They have a velvety appear- ance, a purplish-red colour, and a pleasantly astringent and bitterish taste. Their constituents, according to M. Cartier, are tannin, gallic acid, colour- ing matter, a volatile oil, a fixed oil, albumen, soluble salts of potassa, inso- luble salts of lime, silica, and oxide of iron. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 531.) Their sensible properties and medical virtues are extracted by boiling water. Their infusion is of a pale reddish colour, which becomes bright red on the addition of sulphuric acid. As their colour is impaired by exposure to light and air, they should be kept in opaque well-closed bottles or canisters. Medical Properties and Uses. Red roses are slightly astringent and tonic, and were formerly thought to possess peculiar virtues. They are at present chiefly employed in infusion, as an elegant vehicle for tonic and astringent medicines. Off. Prep. Confectio Rosas, U. S., L^ond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Rosas Compositum, U. S., Lond.,Ed., Dub.; Mel Rosae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Rosas Gallicae, Ed. W. ROSMARINUS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Rosemary. "The tops of Rosmarinus officinalis." U.S., Ed. "Rosmarinus offici- nalis. Cacumina." Lond. Off. Syn. ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS. Cacumina. Dub. Romarin, Fr.; Rosmarin, Germ.; Rosmarino, Ital; Romero, Span. Rosmarinus. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiaceaeor Labiatae. Gen. Ch. Corolla unequal, with the upper lip two-parted. Filaments long, curved, simple, with a tooth. Willd. Rosmarinus officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 126; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 329. t. 117. Rosemary is an evergreen shrub, three or four feet high, with an erect stem, divided into many long, slender, ash-coloured branches. The leaves are numerous, sessile, opposite, more than an inch long, about one- sixth of an inch broad, linear, entire, obtuse at the summit, turned backward at the edges, of a firm consistence, smooth and green on the upper surface, whitish and somewhat downy beneath. The flowers are pale-blue or white, of considerable size, and placed in opposite groups at the axils of the leaves, towards the ends of the branches. The seeds are four in number, of an ob- long shape, and naked in the bottom of the calyx. The plant grows spontaneously in the countries which border on the Mediterranean, and is cultivated in the gardens of Europe and this country. The flowering summits are the officinal portion. These have a strong balsamic odour, which is possessed, though in a less degree, by all parts of the plant. Their taste is bitter and camphorous. These properties are imparted partially to water, completely to alcohol, and '■ depend on a volatile oil which may be obtained by distillation. (See Oleum 52 602 Rosmarinus.—Rubia. part i. Rosmarini.) The tops lose a portion of their sensible properties by drying, and become inodorous by age. Medical Properties and Uses. Rosemary is gently stimulant, and has been considered emmenagogue. In the practice of this country it is scarcely used; but in Europe, especially on the continent, it enters into the composi- tion of several syrups, tinctures, &c, to which it imparts its agreeable odour and excitant property. It is sometimes added to sternutatory powders, and is used externally in connexion with other aromatics in the form of fomentation. In some countries it is employed as a condiment; and its flowers, which are much sought after by the bees, impart their peculiar flavour to the honey of the districts in which the plant abounds. Off. Prep. Oleum Rosmarini, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Spiritus Ros- marini, Ed., Dub. W. RUBIA. U.S. Secondary. Madder. "The root of Rubia tinctorum." U. S. Off. Syn. RUBIA TINCTORUM. Radix. Dub. Garance, Fr.; Krappwurzel, Germ.; Robbia. Ital; Rubia de tintoreros, Granza, Span Rubia. Sex. Syst. Tetrandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae. Juss. Gen. Ch. Corolla one-petaled, bell-shaped. Berries two, one-seeded. Willd. Rubia tinctorum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 603; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 173. t. 67. The root of the dyers' madder is perennial, and consists of numerous long, succulent fibres, varying in thickness from the size of a quill to that of the little finger, and uniting at top in a common head, from which also pro- ceed side-roots that run near the surface of the ground, and send up many annual stems. These are slender, quadrangular, jointed, procumbent, and furnished with short prickles by which they adhere to the neighbouring plants upon which they climb. The leaves are elliptical, pointed, rough, firm, about three inches long and nearly one inch broad, having rough points on their edges and midrib, and standing at the joints of the stem in whorls of four, five, or six together. The branches rise in pairs from the same joints, and bear small yellow flowers at the summit of each of their subdivisions. The fruit is a round, shining, black berry. The plant is a native of the South of Europe, and is cultivated in France and Holland. It is from the latter country that commerce derives its chief supply. The root, which is the part used, is dug up in the third summer, and having been deprived of its cuticle, is dried by artificial heat, and then reduced to a coarse powder. In this state it is packed in barrels, and sent into the market. The root consists of a reddish-brown bark, and a ligneous portion within. The latter is yellow in the recent state, but becomes red when dried. The powder, as kept in the shops, is reddish-brown. Madder has a weak peculiar odour, and a bitterish astringent taste ; and imparts these properties, as well as a red colour, to water and alcohol. It contains, according to M. Runge, five distinct colouring substances; a red, a purple, an orange, a yellow, and a brown. According to M. De- caisne, only yellow colouring matter is found in the recent root; and it is under the influence of atmospheric air that this changes to red. The most interesting of the colouring substances is the alizarin of Robiquet and Collin. This is of an orange-red colour, inodorous, insipid, crystallizable, part i. Rubia.—Rubus Trivialis.—Rubus Villosus. 603 capable of being sublimed without change, scarcely soluble in cold water, soluble in boiling water, and very readily so in alcohol, ether, the fixed oils, and liquid alkalies. The alcoholic and watery solutions are rose-colouTed; the ethereal, golden-yellow; the alkaline, violet and blue when concentrated, but violet-red when sufficiently diluted. A beautiful rose-coloured lake is produced by precipitating a mixture of the solutions of alizarin and alum. Madder also contains sugar; and Dobereiner succeeded in obtaining alcohol from it by fermentation and distillation, without affecting its colouring pro- perties. It is much used by the dyers. Medical Properties and Uses. Madder was formerly thought to be em- menagogue and diuretic; and was used in amenorrhoea, dropsy, jaundice, and visceral obstructions. It is still occasionally prescribed in suppressed menstruation; but physicians generally have no confidence in its efficacy in this or any other complaint. When taken into the stomach it imparts a red colour to the milk and urine, and to the bones of animals, without sensibly affecting any other tissue. The effect is observable most quickly in the bones of young animals, and in those nearest the heart. Under the impres- sion that it might effect some change in the osseous system, it has been pre- scribed in rachitis, but without any favourable result. The dose is about half a drachm, repeated three or four times a day. W. RUBUS TRIVIALIS. U.S. Secondary. Dewberry-root. " The root of Rubus trivialis." U. S. RUBUS VILLOSUS. U. S. Secondary. Blackberry-root. "The root of Rubus villosus." U. S. Rubus. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five. Berry compound, with one- seeded acini. Willd. Of this extensive genus not less than twenty species are indigenous in the United States, where they are called by the various names of raspberry,black- berry, dewberry, cloudberry, SfC. Most of them are shrubby or suffruticose briers, with astringent roots and edible berries; some have annual stems without prickles. The only officinal species are the R. trivialis and R. vil- losus, which, so far as relates to their medical properties, are so closely alike as not to require a separate description. 1. Rubus trivialis. Michaux, Flor. Americ. i. 296. The dewberry, sometimes also called low blackberry, or creeping blackberry, has a slender, prickly Stem, which runs along the ground, and occasionally puts forth roots. The leaves are petiolate, and composed of three or five leaflets, which are oblong oval,acute, unequally serrate, and somewhat pubescent. The stipules are awl-shaped. The flowers are large, white, and nearly solitary, with elongated pedicles, and peduncles which, like the leafstalks, are armed with recurved, hispid prickles. The petals are generally obovate, and three times longer than the calyx. In one variety they are orbicular. The plant grows abundantly in old fields and neglected grounds in the Middle and Southern States. Its fruit is large, black, of a very pleasant flavour, and ripens some- what earlier than that of the R. villosus. According to Torrey and Gray, the 604 Rubus Trivialis.—Rubus Villosus. part i. dewberry of the Northern States is the Rubus Canadensis of Linn., or R. trivialis of Pursh. (Flor. of N. Am. i. 455.) 2. R. villosus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1085; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 160; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 151. The stem of the blackberry is somewhat shrubby, from three to seven feet high, branching, more or less furrowed and angular, and armed with strong prickles. The smaller branches and young shoots are herbaceous. The leaves are ternate or quinate; the leaflets ovate, acuminate, unequally and sharply serrate, and pubescent on both sides ; the footstalk and midrib usually armed with short recurved prickles. The flowers are large, white, and in erect racemes, with a hairy, prickly stalk. The calyx is short, with acuminate segments. The fruit is first green, then red, and, when perfectly ripe, of a shining black colour and very pleasant taste. It is a compound berry, consisting of numerous pulpy one-seeded globules or acini attached to the receptacle. This species of Rubus is, perhaps, the most abundant of those indigenous in the United States, growing in neglected fields, along fences, on the borders of woods, in forest glades, and wherever tillage or too much shade and moisture does not interfere with it. Its flowers appear from May to July, and its fruit is ripe in August. The berries of both of these species of Rubus are much used as food ; and a jelly made from them is in great esteem as an article of diet, and even as a remedy in dysenteric affections. The roots only are officinal. The blackberry root is branching, cylindrical, of various dimensions, from nearly an inch in thickness down to the size of a straw, ligneous, and covered with a thin bark, which is externally of a light-brownish or reddish- brown colour, and in the dried root is wrinkled longitudinally. The dew- berry root is usually smaller, without the longitudinal wrinkles, but with transverse fissures through the epidermis, and of a dark-ash colour, without any reddish tinge. Both are inodorous. The bark in both has a bitterish strongly astringent taste, and the ligneous portion is nearly insipid, and com- paratively inert. The smaller roots, therefore, should be selected for use ; or, if the thicker pieces are employed, the cortical part should be separated, and the wood rejected. Their virtues are extracted by boiling water, and by diluted alcohol, and depend chiefly, if not exclusively, upon tannin, which experiment has proved to be an abundant constituent. Medical Properties and Uses. Dewberry and blackberry roots are tonic and strongly astringent. They have long been a favourite domestic remedy in bowel affections; and from popular favour have passed into regular medi- cal use. Given in the form of decoction, they are usually acceptable to the stomach, without being offensive to the taste ; and may be employed with great advantage in cases of diarrhoea from relaxation of the bowels, whether in children or adults. We can add our own decided testimony to that of others who have spoken favourably of their use in this complaint; and there is no doubt that they are applicable to all other cases in which the vegetable astringents are found serviceable. The decoction may be prepared by boil- ing an ounce of the smaller roots, or of the bark of the larger, in a pint and a half of water down to a pint; of which from one to two fluidounces may be given to an adult three or four times, or more frequently, during the twenty-four hours. The dose of the powdered root is twenty or thirty grains. W. part i. Rumex.—Rumex Aquaticus.—R. Britannica. 605 RUMEX. Lond. Sorrel. " Rurnex acetosa. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. RUMEX ACETOSA. Folia. Dub. Oseille des jardins Fr.; Sauerampfer. Germ.; Acetosa, Ital; Azedera, Span. Rumex. See RUMEX AQUATICUS. Several species of Rumex have acid leaves, and are distinguished by the common name of sorrel from the others which are called dock. Two only deserve particular notice, the R. Acetosa, or common English sorrel, which is sometimes cultivated in our gardens, and the R. Acetosella, or common sorrel of our fields. Rumex Acetosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii.260; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 660. t. 230. This is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a striated leafy stem, branching at top, and rising one or two feet in height. The radical leaves are narrow, oblong, arrow-shaped, and supported on long footstalks ; those attached to the stem are alternate, pointed, and clasping. The flowers are dioecious, in terminal panicles, and partly tinged of a red colour. R. Acetosella. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 260; Eng. Bot. 1574. The com- mon field sorrel is also an herbaceous perennial, with a stem from four to twelve inches high, and lanceolate-hastate leaves, having the lobes spreading or recurved. The male and female flowers are on separate plants. The valves are without grains. The flowers appear in May, June, and July. Though abundant in the light sandy or gravelly soils of this country, it is supposed by some botanists to have been introduced from Europe. Sorrel leaves are agreeably sour, and without odour. Their acidity is dependent on the presence of binoxalate of potassa, with a small proportion of tartaric acid. Starch and mucilage are also among their constituents. Their taste is almost entirely destroyed by drying. They are refrigerant and diuretic, and may be used with great advantage, as an article of diet, in scorbutic complaints. They are prepared in the form of salad, or boiled like spinage. The juice of the fresh leaves forms with water a pleasant acidulous drink, sometimes given in fevers. W. RUMEX AQUATICUS. Radix. Dub. Water Dock Root. RUMEX BRITANNICA. U. S. Secondary. Water Dock. " The root of Rumex Britannica." U. S. RUMEX OBTUSIFOLIUS. U.S. Secondary. Blunt-leaved Dock. " The root of Rumex obtusifolius." U. S. Rumex. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Trigynia.—Nat. Ord. Polygonaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals three, converging. Seed one, three- sided. Willd. Calyx six-parted, persistent, the three interior divisions peta- 52* 606 Rumex Aquaticus.—R. Britannica. part i. loid, connivent. Seed one, three-sided, superior, naked. Stigmata multifid. Nuttall. We have placed together the three officinal species of dock, because their virtues are so nearly alike that a separate consideration would lead to unne- cessary repetition. The roots of several other species have been medicinally employed. Those of the R. Patientia, and R. alpinus, European plants, and of the R. crispus, R. acutus, and R. sanguineus, which belong both to Europe and the United States, may be used indiscriminately with those which are considered officinal. Several species of Rumex have acid leaves, which are sometimes used in medicine. Such are the R. Acetosa, R. Acetosella, and R. scutatus. These are more particularly noticed under the head of Rumex. The docks are herbaceous plants with perennial roots. Their flowers are in terminal or axillary panicles. Some of the species are dioecious ; but all those here described have perfect flowers. 1. Rumex aquaticus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 255; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 658. t. 229. The water dock has a large thick root, externally black, inter- nally whitish, with an erect stem from three to five feet high, furnished with smooth, lanceolate, pointed leaves, of which the lower are cordate at their base. The three petals, or, as some botanists consider them, the three in- terior divisions of the calyx, approach each other so as to assume a triangular shape, and in this state are called valves. These are large, ovate, entire, and are each furnished with a small, linear, often obscure grain, extending down the middle. The plant is a native of Europe, but naturalized in America. It grows in this country in small ponds and ditches, and flowers in July and August. It is thought to be the Herba Britannica of the an- cients, celebrated for the cure of scurvy and diseases of the skin. 2. R. Britannica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 250. This species is distinguished in the vernacular language by the name of yellow-rooted water dock. The root is large, dark on the outside, and yellow within. The stem is two or three feet high, and bears broad lanceolate, smooth, flat leaves, with the sheathing stipules slightly torn. The spikes of the panicle are leafless; the valves entire and all graniferous. The plant is indigenous, inhabiting low, wet places, and flowering in June and July. 3. R.obtusifolius. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii.254; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 293. The root of the blunt-leaved dock is externally brown, internally yellow ; the stem two or three feet high and somewhat rough; the radical leaves ovate cordate, obtuse, and very large ; the valves dentate, and one of them conspicuously graniferous. It is a common weed: in our rich grounds and pastures, but is supposed to have been introduced from Europe. Its flowers appear in June and July. 4. R. crispus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 251 - This common species, though not officinal, is perhaps equally entitled to notice with those which are so. It has a yellow, spindle-shaped root, with a smooth furrowed stem two or three feet high, and lanceolate, waved, pointed leaves. The valves are ovate, entire, and all graniferous. It is a native of Europe, and grows wild in this country. It is common in our dry fields and pastures, and about barn- yards, and flowers in June and July. Dock-root, from whatever species derived, has an astringent, bitter taste, with little or no smell. It readily yields its virtues to water by decoction. According to Riegel, the root of the 7?. obtusifolius contains a peculiar prin- ciple called rumicin, resin, extractive matter resembling tannin, starch, mucilage, albumen, lignin, sulphur, and various salts, among which are the phosphate of lime, and different acetates and malates. Rumicin is said to PART I. Ruta. 607 bear a close resemblance to the active principle of rhubarb. (Journ. de Pharm. 3e serie, i. 410.) The leaves of most of the species are edible and are occasionally used as spinage. They are somewhat laxative, and form an excellent diet in scorbutic cases. The roots are used to dye a yellow colour. Medical Properties and Uses. The medical properties of dock-root are those of an astringent and mild tonic. It is also supposed to possess an alterative property, which renders it useful in scorbutic disorders, and cuta- neous eruptions, particularly the itch, in the cure of which it enjoyed at one time considerable reputation. It is said to have proved useful also in syphilis. Dr. Thomson found a decoction of the root of the R. Patientia very effica- cious in obstinate ichthyosis. (London Dispensatory.) The R. aquaticus, and R. Britannica, are the most astringent. The roots of some species unite a laxative with the tonic and astringent property, resembling rhubarb somewhat in their operation. Such are those of the R. crispus and R. obtusifolius; and the R. alpinus has in some parts of Europe the common name of mountain rhubarb. This resemblance of properties is not sin- gular, as the two genera belong to the same natural family. Dock root is given in powder or decoction. Two ounces of the fresh root bruised, or one ounce of the dried, may be boiled in a pint of water, of which two fluidounces may be given at a dose, and repeated as the stomach will bear it. The root has often been applied externally in the shape of ointment, cataplasm, and decoction, to the various cutaneous eruptions and ulcerations for which its internal use is recommended. The powdered root is recom- mended as a dentifrice, especially when the gums are spongy. W. RUTA. U. S. Secondary, Lond., Ed. Rue. " The leaves of Ruta graveolens." U. S. " Ruta graveolens. Folia." Lond. " Leaves and unripe fruit of Ruta graveolens." Ed. Off. Syn. RUTA GRAVEOLENS. Folia. Dub. Rue odorante, Fr.; Garten-Raute, Germ.; Ruta, Ital; Ruda, Span. Ruta. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Rutaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Petals concave. Receptacle surrounded by ten melliferous points. Capsule lobed. Willd. Ruta graveolens. Willd. Sp.Plant, ii. 542; Woodv. Med. Bot., p. 487. t. 174. Common rue is a perennial plant, usually two or three feet high, with several shrubby branching stems, which, near the base, are woody and covered with a rough bark, but in their ultimate ramifications are smooth, green, and herbaceous. The leaves are doubly pinnate, glaucous, with obo- vate, sessile, obscurely Crenate, somewhat thick and fleshy leaflets. The flowers are yellow, and disposed in a terminal branched corymb upon sub- dividing peduncles. The calyx is persistent, with four or five acute seg- ments ; the corolla consists of four or five concave petals somewhat sinuate at the margin. The stamens are usually ten, but sometimes only eight in number. The plant is a native of the South of Europe, but cultivated in our gardens. It flowers from June to September. The whole herbaceous part is active ; but the leaves are usually employed. These have a strong disagreeable odour, especially when rubbed. Their taste is bitter, hot, and acrid. In the recent state, and in full vigour, they have so much acrimony as to inflame and even blister the skin, if much handled; but the acrimony is diminished by drying. Their virtues depend chiefly on a volatile oil, which is very abundant, and is contained in glandular 608 Ruta.—Sabadilla. PART I. vesicles, apparent over the whole surface of the plant. (See Oleum Rutae.) Besides volatile oil, they contain, according to Mahl, chlorophylle, albumen, an azotized substance, extractive, gum, starch or inulin, malic acid, and lignin; and, according to Borntrager,a peculiar acid which he calls rutinic acid. (See Chem. Gazette, Sept., 1845, p. 385.) Both alcohol and water extract their active properties. Medical Properties and Uses. Rue is stimulant and antispasmodic, and, like most other substances which excite the circulation, occasionally increases the secretions, especially when they are deficient from debility. It appears to have a tendency to act upon the uterus; in moderate doses proving emme- nagogue, and in larger doses producing a degree of irritation in that organ which sometimes determines abortion. Taken in very large quantities, it acts as an acrid narcotic poison. Three cases are recorded by Dr. Helie in which it was taken by pregnant women, with the effect of producing dan- gerous symptoms of gastro-intestinal inflammation and cerebral derange- ment, which continued for several days, but from which the patients ulti- mately recovered. In each of these cases miscarriage resulted. Great de- pression and slowness of the pulse attended the narcotic action of the poison. (Ann. d'Hyg. Pub. et de Med. Leg., xx. 180.) Rue is sometimes used in hysterical affections, flatulent colic, and amenorrhoea, particularly in the last complaint. It has also been given in worms. The ancients employed it as a condiment, and believed it to possess, besides other valuable properties, that of resisting the action of poisons. Its excitant and irritating properties require that it should be used with caution. The dose of the powder is from fifteen to thirty grains two or three times a day. The medicine is also given in infusion and extract. In one of the cases of poisoning above mentioned, three fresh roots of the size of the finger were taken in the form of decoction. Off. Prep. Confeclio Rutas, Lond., Dub.; Extractum Rutas, Dub.; Ole- um Rutae, Ed., Dub. W. SABADILLA. U S., Lond., Ed. Cevadilla. " The seeds of Veratrum Sabadilla." U. S. " Helonias officinalis. Semi- na." Lond. " Fruit of Veratrum Sabadilla, Helonias officinalis, and pro- bably of other Melanthaceas." Ed. Cevadille, Fr.; Sabadillsame, Germ.; Cebadflla, Span. There has been much uncertainty in relation to the botanical origin of cevadilla. For some time after it began to attract attention as the source of veratria, it was generally believed to be derived from the Veratrum Saba- dilla, which is recognised by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. But Schiede, during his travels in Mexico, ascertained that it was, in part at least, collected from a different plant, of the same natural order of Melanthaceas, growing upon the eastern declivity of the Mexican Andes. This was considered by Schlechtendahl as a different species of the same genus Veratrum, by Don as a Helonias, and by Lindley as belonging to a new genus which he named Asagrasa. Hence it has been variously denominated Veratrum offi- cinale, Helonias officinalis, and Asagraea officinalis. The London Col- lege refers cevadilla to this plant, with Don's title of Helonias officinalis; while the Edinburgh College recognises both this, and the Veratrum Saba- dilla, and admits other plants of the same order as probable sources of the drug. More exact information, however, is wanted before we can deter- mine its precise origin. It has been adopted in the Pharmacopoeias solely PART I. Sabadilla. 609 on account of its employment in the preparation of veratria. It is brought from Vera Cruz.* The cevadilla seeds usually occur in commerce mixed with the fruit of the plant. This consists of three coalescing capsules or follicles, which open above, and present the appearance of a single capsule with three cells. It is three or four lines long and a line and a half in thickness, obtuse at the base, light-brown or yellowish, smooth, and in each capsule contains one or two seeds. A resemblance existing or supposed between this fruit and that of barley, is said to have given rise to the Spanish name cevadilla, which is a diminutive of barley. The seeds are elongated, pointed at each end, flat on one side and convex on the other, somewhat curved, two or three lines long, wrinkled, slightly winged, black or dark-brown on the outside, whitish within, hard, inodorous, and of an exceedingly acrid, burning, and durable taste. Cevadilla was found by Pelletier and Caventou to contain a peculiar organic alkali which they named veratria, combined with gallic acid ; fatty matter, consisting of olein, stearin, and a peculiar volatile fatty acid deno- minated cevadic or sabadillic acid; wax; yellow colouring matter; gum; lignin; and salts of potassa and of lime, with a little silica. From 100 parts of the seeds, separated from their capsules, Meissner obtained 0-58 of vera- tria. Besides the principles above mentioned, M. Couerbe discovered ano- ther organic alkali (sabadillia), a resinous substance (veratrin), and a resi- noid substance which he called resini-gum of sabadillia. A peculiar acid was also discovered by Merck, called veratric acid, which is in colourless crystals, fusible and volatilizable without decomposition, but slightly soluble in cold water, more soluble in hdt water, soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether, having the properties of reddening litmus paper, and forming soluble salts with the alkalies. The following process is recommended by M. Couerbe for obtaining veratria. An extract of cevadilla, obtained by treating this substance with boiling alcohol and evaporating the tincture, is to be boiled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid until the liquid ceases to receive colour, or till a mineral alkali introduced into it no longer occasions any sign of pre- * Until more definitive information is obtained on the subject, we give in a note a brief description of the two plants above referred to. Veratrum Sabadilla. Retzius, Obs. i. 31; Descourtilz, Ann. Soc. Lin. Par., A.D. 1824, 167. See Veratrum Album. The leaves of this plant are numerous, ovate oblong, ob- tuse, with from eight to fourteen ribs, glaucous beneath, and all radical. The flower-stem is erect, simple, and round, rises three or four feet in height, and bears a spreading, sim- ple, or but slightly branched panicle of somewhat nodding flowers, supported upon very short pedicels. The flowers, which are of a blackish-purple colour, approximate in twos and threes, the fertile turning at length to one side, and the sterile falling off. The seg- ments of the corolla are ovate lanceolate, and without veins. The capsules occupy only one side of the stem. This plant grows in Mexico and the West Indies, and was culti- vated by Descourtilz at San Domingo, from seeds obtained in Mexico. Asagrcea officinalis. Lindley, Botan. Reg., June, 1839. •— Veratrum officinale. Schlech- tendahl, Linncea, vi. 45.—Helonias officinalis. Don, Ed. New Phil. Journ., Octob., 1832, p. 234. The following is the generic character given by Lindley. "Flowers polygamous, racemose, naked. Paianth six-partite; segments linear, veinless, almost equal, with a nectariferous excavation at the base, equal to the stamens. Stamens alternately shorter; anthers cordate, as if unilocular, after dehiscence, shield-shaped. Ovaries three, quite simple, attenuated into an obscure stigma. Follicles three, acuminate, papery; seeds scimetar-shaped, corrugated, winged. Bulbous herbs, with grass-like leaves', and small, pale, and densely racemed flowers." The A. officinalis, which is the only known species, has linear, acuminate, subcarinate leaves, roughish at the margin, and four feet in length by three lines in breadth, and a round flower stem, about six feet high, terminating in a very dense, straight, spike-like raceme, eighteen inches long. The flowers are white, with yellow anthers. 610 Sabadilla. PART I. cipitation. To the solution of impure sulphate of veratria thus obtained, a solution of potassa or ammonia is to be added, and the resulting precipitate is to be treated with boiling alcohol and animal charcoal. The alcoholic solution, being filtered and evaporated, will yield the veratria sufficiently pure for medical use. A drachm of it, in this state, may be procured from a pound of cevadilla. But besides veratria, M. Couerbe has shown that the principles, called respectively sabadillia and veratrin, axe also contained in this product. These are separated in the following manner. Into the solu- tion of impure sulphate of veratria obtained in the above process, nitric acid is to be introduced by drops. This occasions an abundant precipitate, from which the clear liquor is to be decanted. A weak solution of potassa is then to be added to the liquor, and the precipitate which it produces is to be washed with cold water, and treated with boiling alcohol. The substance obtained by evaporating the alcohol yields the sabadillia to boiling water, which deposits it upon cooling; a substance called by M. Couerbe resini- g'um of sabadillia, remaining in solution. If the residue of the substance, treated as just mentioned with boiling water, be submitted to the action of ether, it yields to this liquid the proper veratria, which may be obtained entirely pure by the spontaneous evaporation of the ether. The matter remaining undissolved is the resinous substance which M. Couerbe calls veratrin. Veratria, when pure, is white, pulverulent, uncrystallizable, inodorous, extremely acrid, fusible by heat, scarcely soluble in cold water, soluble in a thousand parts of boiling water which it renders sensibly acrid, dissolved freely by alcohol, less so by ether, and capable of neutralizing the acids, with several of which, particularly the sulphuric and muriatic, it forms crys- tallizable salts. For a further account of veratria, with its effects upon the system, and its remedial applications, see the article Veratria in the second part of this work. Sabadillia is white, crystallizable, insupportably acrid, fusible by heat, readily soluble in hot water, which deposits it upon cooling, very soluble in alcohol, and wholly insoluble in ether. It is capable of saturating the acids. According to Simon, sabadillia is a compound of resinate of soda and resinate of veratria. For practical purposes it is unnecessary to obtain these two principles in a separate state ; the impure veratria, procured by the process above de- scribed, being the preparation usually employed in medicine. (Journ. de Pharm., xix. 527.) Medical Properties and Uses. Cevadilla is an acrid drastric emeto-cathar- tic, operating occasionally with great violence, and in over-doses capable of producing fatal effects. It was made known as a medicine in Europe so early as the year 1572; but has never been much employed. It has been chiefly used as an anthelmintic, especially in cases of tasnia, in which it has been given in doses varying from five to thirty grains. It has also been given in different nervous affections. It is"the principal ingredient of the pulvis Capucinorum, sometimes used in Europe for the destruction of ver- min in the hair. It is considered by the natives of Mexico useful in hydrophobia, and was employed by M. Fouilhoux, of Lyons, in a supposed case of that disease, in the dose of about nine grains, with asserted success. Externally applied, it is highly irritating, and is even said to be corrosive. Its chief employment at present is for the preparation of veratria. Off. Prep. Veratria, U. S., Lond., Ed. W. PART I. Sabbatia. 611 SABBATIA. U.S. American Centaury. " The herb of Sabbatia angularis." U. S. Sabbatia. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianaceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx five to twelve-parted. Corolla rotate, five to twelve-parted. Stigmas two, spiral. Anthers at length revolute. Capsule one celled, two- valved, many seeded. Nuttall. Sabbatia angularis. Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. 137; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 147; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 255.—Chironia angularis. Linn. The American centaury is an annual or biennial herbaceous plant, with a fibrous root, and an erect, smooth, four-sided stem, winged at the angles, simple below, sending off opposite axillary branches above, and rising one or two feet in height. The leaves, which vary considerably in length and width, are ovate, entire, acute, nerved, smooth, opposite, and sessile, embracing half the circumference of the stem at their base. The flowers are numerous, growing on the ends of the branches, and forming altogether a large terminal corymb. The calyx is divided into five lanceolate segments, considerably shorter than the corolla. This is deeply five-parted, with obovate segments of a beautiful delicate, rose-colour, which is paler and almost white in the middle of their under surface. The anthers are yellow, and after shedding their pollen, become revolute. The style, which is bent downward, and is longer than the stamens, terminates in two linear stigmas, which become spirally twisted together. The plant is widely diffused through the Middle and Southern States, growing in low meadow grounds, and in wet seasons upon uplands, in woods and neglected fields. It flowers in July and August. In its general aspect as well as medical properties, it bears a close resemblance to the Erythraea, formerly Chironia Centaurium, or European centaury, for which it was mistaken by the earlier settlers. The whole herb is employed, and should be collected when in flower. All parts of it have a strongly bitter taste, without any admixture of astrin- gency, or other peculiar flavour. Both alcohol and water extract its bitter- ness, together with its medical virtues. Medical Properties and Uses. American centaury has the tonic proper- ties of the simple bitters, and is very analogous in its action to the other plants belonging to the same natural family. It has long been popularly employed as a prophylactic and remedy in our autumnal intermittent and remittent fevers; and has found much favour with the medical profession in the latter of these complaints. The state of the fever to which it is particularly ap- plicable, is that which exists in the intervals between the paroxysms, when the remission is such as to call for the use of tonics, but is not sufficiently decided to justify a resort to the preparations of Peruvian bark. It is also occasionally useful during the progress of a slow convalescence, by pro- moting appetite and invigorating the digestive function; and may be em- ployed for the same purpose in dyspepsia and diseases of debility. The most convenient form for administration is that of infusion. A pint of boiling water poured on an ounce of the herb and allowed to cool, may be given in the dose of two fluidounces, repeated every hour or two during the remission of fevers, and less freqtfently in chronic affections. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. The decoction, extract, and tincture are also efficient preparations. W. 612 Sabina. PART I. SABINA. U.S., Lond, Ed. Savine. "The tops of Juniperus Sabina." U. S., Ed, "Juniperus Sabina. Ca- cumina recentia et exsiccata." Lond. Off. Syn. JUNIPERUS SABINA. Folia. Dub. Sabine, Fr.; Sevenbaum, Germ.; Sabina, Ital, Span. Juniperus. See JUNIPERUS. Juniperus Sabina. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 852; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 10. t. 5. This is an evergreen shrub, rising from three or four feet to fifteen feet in height, with numerous erect, pliant branches, very much subdivided. The bark of the young branches is light green, that of the trunk rough and reddish-brown. The leaves, which completely invest the younger branches, are numerous, small, erect, firm, smooth, pointed, of a dark green colour, glandular in the middle, opposite, and imbricated in four rows. The flowers are male and female on different trees. The fruit is a blackish-purple berry, of an ovoid shape, marked with tubercles, the remains of the calyx and petals, and containing three seeds. The savine is a native of the South of Europe and the Levant. It is said also to grow wild in the neighbourhood of our Northwestern lakes. The ends of the branches, and the leaves by which they are invested, are collected for medical use in the spring. When dried they fade very much in colour. There is reason to believe that the Juniperus Virginiana, or common red cedar, is sometimes substituted in the shops for the savine, to which it bears so close a resemblance as to be with difficulty distinguished. The two species, however, differ in their taste and smell. In the J. Virginiana, moreover, the leaves are sometimes ternate. The tops and leaves of savine have a strong, heavy, disagreeable odour, and a bitter, acrid taste. These properties, which are less striking in the dried than in the recent leaves, are owing to a volatile oil, which is obtained by distillation with water. (See Oleum Sabinae.) The leaves impart their virtues to alcohol and water. From an imperfect analysis by Mr. C. H. Needles, they appear to contain volatile oil, gum, tannin or gallic acid, resin, chlorophylle, fixed oil, bitter extractive, lime, and salts of potassa. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 15.) Medical Properties and Uses. Savine is highly stimulant, increasing most of the secretions, especially those of the skin and uterus, to the latter of which organs it is supposed to have a peculiar direction. It has been much used in amenorrhoea, and occasionally as a remedy for worms. Dr. Chapman strongly recommends it in chronic rheumatism. In over-doses it is capable of producing dangerous gastro-intestinal inflammation, and should therefore be used with caution. In no case should it be employed when much general or local excitement exists. In pregnancy it should always be given with much caution; though it has recently been recommended as an effective remedy in certain forms of menorrhagia, and is asserted to prove occasionally useful in preventing threatened abortion. (See Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., N. S., viii. 475.) It is most conveniently administered in the form of powder, of which the dose is from five to fifteen grains, repeated three or four times a day. As an external irritant it is very useful, in the form of cerate, for main- taining a discharge from blistered surfaces ; but as the preparation sold in PART I. Sabina.—Saccharum. 613 this country under the name of savine ointment is often deficient in power, either from the age of the drug or the substitution of red cedar, it has in some measure fallen into disrepute. (See Ceratum Sabinae.) In the state of powder or infusion, savine is used in Europe as an application to warts, indolent, carious, and gangrenous ulcers, psora, and tinea capitis ; and the expressed juice of the fresh leaves, diluted with water, is sometimes applied to similar purposes. Off. Prep. Ceratum Sabinas, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Oleum Sabinae, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Sabinas, Dub. W. SACCHARUM. U.S., Lond. Sugar. "The sugar of Saccharum officinarum, refined." U. S. Off. Syn. SACCHARUM PURUM. Ed.; SACCHARUM OFFICI- NARUM. Succus concretus purificatus. Dub. White sugar; Sucre pur, Sucre en pains, Fr.; Weisser Zucker, Germ.; Zucchero en pane, Ital; Azucar de pilon, Azucar refinado, Span. SACCHARUM COMMUNE. Ed. Brown Sugar. "Impure sugar, from Saccharum officinarum." Ed. Off. Syn. SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM. Succus concretus non purificatus. Dub. Raw or muscovado sugar; Sucre brut, Cassonade rouge, Moscouade, Fr.; Gemeiner Zucker, Germ.; Zucchero brutto, Ital; Azucar negro, Span. SYRUPUS EMPYREUMATICUS. Dub. Molasses. Off. Syn. SACCHARI F^EX. Lond., Ed. Treacle; Melasse, Fr.; Zuckersatz, Zuckersyrup, Germ.; Melazzo, Ital; Melaca,Span. The saccharine principles distinguished by the chemist are cane sugar, or sugar properly so called, derived frOm the sugar cane, the beet, and the sugar maple; glucose or grape sugar, with which the crystallizable sugar of honey, starch sugar, and diabetic sugar are identical; uncrystallizable sugar, or fruit sugar, called by Soubeiran chulariose (from xVKapiov,syrup); Iactinor sugar of milk ; sugar of ergot, improperly called mushroom sugar; mannite; and glycerin. Glucose or grape sugar is less sweet than cane sugar. It is also less soluble in water, and much more soluble in alcohol. It has the sp.gr. of 1-386. Obtained from a concentrated aqueous solution, it forms crystalline grains. Strong mineral acids hardly act on grape sugar, but destroy cane sugar with facility. On the other hand, grape sugar is de- stroyed by alkalies, with several of which cane sugar forms definite com- pounds. Dissolved in water and subjected to prolonged ebullition, grape sugar undergoes very little alteration. Its solution rotates the plane of polarization of polarized light to the right, and is capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation directly, without passing through any intermediate state. Uncrystallizable sugar exists in honey and in the juice of fruits, and is generated from cane sugar by solution in water or weak acids, and long boiling. Hence it is present in molasses. The view of Liebig that 53 614 Saccharum. PART I. uncrystallizable sugar, whether derived from fruits, or generated by weak acids, is really a combination of ordinary sugar with an acid, has been dis- proved by Soubeiran, who obtained it exempt from acid, and, therefore, con- siders it a distinct kind of sugar. An aqueous solution of this sugar turns the plane of polarization to the left, and, like grape sugar, is susceptible of the vinous fermentation without an intermediate change. Uncrystallizable sugar is transformed into grape sugar, when it is made to assume a crystal- line structure, but not by mere solidification. (Soubeiran.) A solution of cane sugar, like that of grape sugar, has a rotating power to the right. When. it ferments, it is not, as is generally supposed, first converted into grape sugar. It is found both by Mitscherlich and Soubeiran to be first changed into uncrystallizable sugar; and, as the change proceeds, the rotating power to the right of the cane sugar gradually lessens and disappears, and is re- placed by the rotating power to the left of the uncrystallizable sugar formed. Lactin or sugar of milk is a white, crystalline, semi-transparent substance, obtained from the whey of milk, permanent in the air, soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol and ether. By the action of nitric acid it is converted into mueic (saclactic) acid. Mannite is described under manna, and gly- cerin under soap. (See Manna and Sapo.) Cane sugar is manufactured extensively in France from the beet, and in considerable quantities in the north-western parts of the United States as well as in Canada, from the sap of the sugar maple. (Acer Saccharinum). It may also be obtained from cornstalks. (H. L. Ellsworth.) In India, at present, cane sugar is made from the sap of different species of palm. In 1844, more than 6000 tons of crude palm sugar, or jaggary, were manufactured. It is more easily refined, and at less cost than the true cane sugar. (Stevens.) But the sup- ply of sugar from these sources is insignificant when compared with that obtained from the sugar cane itself, which is extensively cultivated in the East and West Indies, Brazil, and some of our Southern States, particularly Louisiana. This plant is the Saccharum officinarum of botanists, and is the source of the officinal sugars of the Pharmacopoeias. Saccharum. Sex. Syst. Triandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Graminaceas. Gen.Ch. Calyx two-valved, involucred, with long down. Corolla two- valved. Willd. Saccharum officinarum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 321; Phil.Trans, lxix.207. The sugar cane is an herbaceous plant, possessing a jointed, succulent root, from which arise several shining, jointed, solid stems from an inch to two inches in diameter, and from six to twelve feet high, and containing a white and juicy pith. The colour of the stem is yellow, greenish-yellow, purple, or striped. The joints are about three inches apart, and give origin to the leaves, which embrace the stem at their base, are three or four feet long and about an inch wide, flat, acuminate, longitudinally striated, furnished with a white midrib, glabrous, finely dentate, and of a green colour inclining to yellow. The flowers are pinkish, surrounded by a long silky down, and disposed in a large, terminal, nearly pyramidal panicle, composed of sub- divided spikes, and two or three feet in length. The plant has a general resemblance to the Indian corn. Four varieties are mentioned; 1. the com- mon, with a yellow stem ; 2. thepurple, with a purple stem and richer juice; 3. the gigantic, with a very large light-coloured stem; and 4. the Otaheitan, which was introduced into the West Indies from the island of Tahiti (Ota- heite) by Bougainville and Bligh, andis distinguished by its greater height, the longer, intervals between its joints, and by the greater length of the hairs which surround the flowers. The sugar cane is cultivated by cuttings, which are planted in rows, and which, by giving rise to successive shoots, furnish five or six crops before PART I. Saccharum. 615 the plants require to be renewed. At the end of a year the plant generally flowers, and in four or five months afterwards the canes are completely ripe, at which time they have a yellowish colour, and contain a sweet viscid juice. The quantity of sugar which they yield is variable. According to Avequin, of New Orleans, the proportion of cane sugar in the recent stalk is about 10 per cent., of uncrystallizable sugar from 3| to 4 per cent. Preparation and Purification. The canes being ripe, are cut down close to the earth, topped, and stripped of their leaves, and then crushed between iron rollers in a kind of mill. The juice is of a pale-greenish colour, sweet taste, and balsamic odour, and has a sp. gr. varying from 1-033 to 1-106. As it runs out it is received in suitable vessels, and, being quickly removed, is immediately mixed with lime in the proportion of one part to eight hundred of the juice, and heated in a boiler to 140°. The gluten and albumen rise to the top, and form a thick scum, from underneath which the liquid is drawn off by a cock into a copper boiler, where it is concentrated by ebullition, the froth being carefully skimmed off as it forms. When sufficiently concentrated, it is transferred to shallow vessels called coolers, from which, before it cools, it is drawn off into wooden vessels, with perforated bottoms, the holes in which are temporarily plugged. At the end of twenty-four hours, the liquid is strongly agitated with wooden stir- rers, in order to accelerate the granulation of the sugar, which is completed in six hours. The stoppers are now removed, and the syrup is allowed to drain off from the sugar, which in this state is granular, of a yellowish co- lour, and moist. It is next dried in the sun, and, being introduced into hogsheads, forms the brown sugar of commerce. The syrup, by a new evaporation, furnishes an additional portion of sugar ; and the portion which finally remains, incapable of yielding more sugar with advantage, is the liquid called molasses. Eight pounds of the juice yield, on an average, one pound of brown sugar. In the process of extraction, it is important that the juice should be concentrated by a moderate heat, which prevents the cane sugar from being converted into uncrystallizable sugar, and, therefore, lessens the amount of the molasses. Sometimes the brown sugar undergoes an additional preparation, consisting in boiling it with lime-water, and, after sufficient concentration, allowing the syrup to crystallize in large inverted conical vessels, pierced at the apex and plugged. The surface of the crys- talline mass being covered with a thin mixture of clay and water, the plug is removed, and the water from the clay, penetrating the mass, removes the coloured syrup, which flows out at the hole. The sugar, as thus prepared, approaches to the white state, and constitutes the clayed sugar of commerce, usually called in this country Havana sugar. The refining of brown sugar forms a distinct branch of business, and the methods pursued have undergone many changes and improvements. By the priginal process, the sugar was boiled with lime-water, and clarified by heating it with bullocks' blood. The clarified syrup was then strained through a woollen cloth, whereby it was rendered limpid. It was next transferred to a boiler, where it was subjected to ebullition, until it was brought to a proper concentration, when it was allowed to cool in conical moulds, and to drain for the separation of the molasses. This last boiling required to be continued so long, that the action of the fire and air frequently decomposed the sugar to such an extent, as to cause a loss of twenty-five per cent, in molasses. This disadvantage has led to the abandonment of prolonged boiling; and now the sugar refiners boil the syrup in shallow boilers, which are suspended in such a way as to admit of their being emptied with the greatest quickness, without putting out the fire. 616 Saccharum. PART I. The process of refining has been still further improved by Messrs. Philip Taylor and Howard. The former introduced the improvement of heating the syrup with great rapidity by means of steam, made to pass through a series of tubes traversing the boiler; and the latter devised the plan of caus- ing the syrup to boil under a diminished pressure, created by a suction pump, set in motion by a steam engine, while it was heated by steam cir- culating round the boiler. In this way, the syrup was made to boil at a lower temperature, and with a diminished contact with the air; and the loss of the cane sugar, by conversion into uncrystallizable sugar, was in a great measure avoided. After the syrup is sufficiently concentrated by any one of these methods, it is transferred to coolers, where it is agitated to cause it to granulate. In this state it is poured into unglazed earthenware moulds of a conical shape, with a hole in the apex, which is stopped with a paper plug. The moulds are placed, with the apex downwards, above stone-ware pots, intended to receive the uncrystallizable syrup. When the mass has completely con- creted, the moulds are unstopped, to allow the coloured syrup to drain off. To remove the remains of this syrup, the operation called claying is per- formed. This consists in removing from the base of the loaf a layer of the sugar, about an inch thick, and replacing it with pure sugar in powder, which is covered with a mixture of pipe clay and water, of about the con- sistence of cream. The water gradually leaves the clay, dissolves the pure sugar, and percolates the mass as a pure syrup, removing in its progress the coloured syrup. Sometimes the purification is performed without the use of clay, by allowing a saturated solution of pure sugar to percolate the loaf. When all the coloured syrup is removed, the loaf is taken out of the mould and placed in stoves to dry. It now constitutes white ox purified sugar. The syrup which drains from the loaves contains a considerable quantity of cane sugar, and is used in subsequent operations. The syrups of lowest quality are employed in forming inferior white sugar, from which a syrup finally drains, containing so little cane sugar as not to repay the expense of extracting it. This constitutes sugar house molasses. Good brown sugar, in the process of refining, yields about 70 per cent, of white sugar. After the clarification by bullocks' blood, the syrup is decolorized by allowing it to filter through a bed of coarse-grained animal charcoal, nearly three feet thick. Of the several forms of sugar above indicated, as resulting from the various steps in its preparation from the cane, three only, white and brown sugar, and molasses, are officinal in the British and United States Pharmacopoeias, and these are designated by the Latin names placed at the head of this arti- cle. The United States Pharmacopoeia recognises refined sugar only, giving it the name of Saccharum; the use of brown sugar and molasses b$ing replaced by the employment of a prepared syrup of known strength. (See Syrupus.) The London Pharmacopoeia also recognises refined sugar under the name of Saccharum; but in the last edition of that work (1836) brown sugar has been omitted, and molasses ■ inserted. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, besides recognising refined sugar, also admit brown sugar and molasses. Commercial History. Sugar has been known from the earliest ages, and was originally obtained from Asia. About the period of the Crusades, the Venetians brought it to Europe ; but at that time it was so scarce as to be used exclusively as a medicine. Upon the discovery of the Cape of Good- Hope and the maritime route to the East Indies, the commerce in sugar passed into the hands of the Portuguese. Subsequently, the cultivation of PART I. Saccharum. 617 the cane was extended to Arabia, Egypt, Sicily, Spain, and the Canaries, and finally, upon the discovery of the new world, to America, where it was pursued with the greatest success, and continues to be so up to the present day. After this time, sugar became comparatively so cheap and abundant, that, from being viewed as a medicine and costly luxury, it came into almost universal use among civilized nations as an article of food. In America it is produced most abundantly in the West Indies, which,supply the greater part of the consumption of Europe, little comparatively being taken thither from Brazil or the East Indies. The consumption of the United States is more than half supplied by Louisiana and some of the neighbouring states. Within a few years, our planters have introduced into Louisiana the variety of cane called the Otaheite cane, which is hardier and more productive than the common cane, and better suited to the climate of our Southern States. Properties. Sugar, in a pure state, is a solid of a peculiar grateful taste, permanent in the air, phosphorescent by friction, and of the sp. gr. 1-6. It dissolves readily in half its weight of cold water, and to almost an unlimited extent in boiling water. The solution, when thick and ropy, is called syrup. When a concentrated syrup is gently heated, and spirit added to it, the liquid, on cooling, forms white semi-transparent crystals of hydrated sugar, having the shape of oblique four-sided prisms, and called sugar candy. Sugar is nearly insoluble in absolute alcohol, but dissolves in four times its weight of boiling alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-83. When heated to 365°, it melts into a viscid, colourless liquid, which, on being suddenly cooled, forms a transparent amorphous mass, called barley sugar. At a higher temperature (between 400° and 420°) it loses two eqs. of water, and is converted into a black porous mass, having a high lustre like anthracite, called caramel. At a still higher heat, it yields combustible gases, carbonic acid, empyreumatic oil, and acetic acid; and there remains one-fourth of its weight of charcoal, which burns without residue. Sugar renders the fixed and volatile oils to a certain extent miscible with water, and forms with the latter an imperfect combination, called in pharmacy oleosaccharum. When in solution, it is not precipitated by subacetate of lead, a negative property by taking advantage of which it may be separated from most other organic principles. Action of Acids and Alkalies, SfC. The mineral acids act differently on cane sugar, according as they are concentrated or dilute. Strong nitric acid, with the assistance of heat, converts it into oxalic acid. (See Oxalic Acid, in the Appendix.) The same acid, when weak, converts it into saccharic acid, confounded by Scheele with malic acid. Concentrated muriatic or sulphuric acid chars it. Diluted muriatic acid, when boiled with cane sugar, converts it into a solid, brown, gelatinous mass. Weak sul- phuric acid, by a prolonged action at a high temperature, converts cane sugar, first into uncrystallizable sugar, afterwards into grape sugar, and finally into two substances, analogous to ulmin and ulmic acid, called sac- chulmin and sacchulmic acid. Vegetable acids are supposed to act in a similar way. If the boiling be prolonged for several days in open vessels, oxygen is absorbed, and, besides these two substances, formic acid is formed. Soubeiran admits the change of the uncrystallizable into grape sugar, but attributes it to a molecular transformation of the sugar, independently of the action of the acid; as, according to his observations, the conversion takes place only after rest. In confirmation of his views, this chemist states that he found the same changes to be produced by boiling sugar with water alone. Cane sugar unites with the alkalies and some of the alkaline earths, form- ing combinations which render the sugar less liable to change. It also unites 53* 618 Saccharum. PART I. with protoxide of lead. Boiled for a long time with aqueous solutions of potassa, lime, or baryta, the liquid becomes brown, formic acid is produced, and two new acids are generated, discovered by Peligot; one brown or black and insoluble in water, called melassic acid, the other colourless and very soluble, named glucic acid. It is supposed that the cane sugar is converted into grape sugar before these acids are formed. The account above given of the action of acids and alkalies on sugar ex- plains the way in which lime acts in the manufacture and refining of sugar. The acids, naturally existing in the saccharine juice, have the effect of con- verting the cane sugar into uncrystallizable sugar, by which a loss of the former is sustained. The use of lime, by neutralizing these acids, prevents this result. -The change in the sugar which precedes fermentation points to the necessity of operating before this process sets in ; and hence the advan- tage of grinding the canes immediately after they are cut, and boiling the juice with the least possible delay. From these general remarks on the different varieties of sugar, and the action of chemical agents, we pass to the description of the several forms of officinal sugar. Purified or white sugar, as obtained on a large scale, is in concrete, somewhat porous masses, called loaves, consisting of an aggregate of small crystalline grains. When carefully refined, it is brittle and pulverulent, perfectly white, inodorous, and posessed of the pure saccharine taste. Unpurified or brown sugar, is in the form of a coarse powder, more or less moist and sticky, consisting of shining crystalline grains, intermixed with lumps, having an orange-yellow colour, more or less deep, a sweet, cloying taste, and a heavy peculiar smell. It varies very much in quality. The best sort is nearly dry, in large sparkling grains of a clear yellow colour, and possesses much less smell than the inferior kinds. It consists of cane sugar, associated with variable quantities of gUmmy and colouring matter,- and a small proportion of lime and tannic acid. By keeping, it becomes soft and gummy, and less sweet; a change attributed to the lime. Molasses is of two kinds, the West India and sugar house. West India molasses is a black ropy liquid, of a peculiar odour, and sweet empyreuma- tic taste. When mixed with water and the skimmings of the vessels used in the manufacture of sugar, it forms a liquor, which, when fermented and distilled, yields rum. Sugar house molasses has the same general appear- ance as the West India. It is, however, thicker, and has a different flavour. Its sp. gr. is about 1-4, and it contains about 75 per cent, of solid matter. It is the officinal molasses of the British Colleges. Both kinds of molasses consist of uncrystallizable sugar, more or less cane sugar which has escaped separation in the process of manufacture or refining, and gummy and colouring matter. Composition. The following formulas express the composition of the different varieties of sugar, as far as known. Cane sugar, C^HhOji- Cane sugar, as it exists in combination with two eqs. of protoxide of lead (cara- mel? anhydrous sugar?), ClaH909. Grape sugar,C12H]4014. Grape sugar, heated to 212°, C12H12012. Lactin or sugar of milk, C^Ar Uncrys- tallizable sugar has not been analyzed. The theory of the conversion of sugar, during the vinous fermentation, into carbonic acid and alcohol, has been explained at page 63. If the views of Mitscheriich and Soubeiran are correct, it is not grape sugar, but uncrystallizable sugar, which is the immediate subject-matter of the change. Med. and Pharm. Uses, fyc. The uses of sugar as an aliment and con- diment are numerous. It is nutritious, but, judging from the results of the PART I. Saccharum.—Sagapenum. 619 experiments of Magendie, not capable of supporting life when taken exclu- sively as aliment, on account of the absence of nitrogen in its composition. It is a powerful antiseptic, and is beginning to be used for preserving meat and fish ; for which purpose it possesses the advantage of acting in a much less quantity than is requisite of common salt, and of not altering the taste, nor impairing the nutritious qualities of the aliment. The medical properties of sugar axe those of a demulcent, and as such it is much used in catarrhal affections, attended with irritation of the larynx and fauces, in the form of candy, syrup, &c. In pharmacy it is employed to render oils miscible with water, to cover the taste of medicines, to give them consistency, to preserve them from change, and to protect from oxi- dation certain ferruginous preparations. Accordingly it enters into the composition of several infusions and mixtures, and of nearly all the syrups, confections, and troches. It is used by the Edinburgh College for purifying the commercial sulphuric acid from nitrous acid. Brown sugar is used in the Dublin compound pills of iron, and in the Dublin and Edinburgh in- fusion of senna with tamarinds; and molasses, in preparing the London compound pills of iron, the London and Dublin compound pills of chloride of mercury, the Edinburgh syrup of senna, and the Dublin compound pills of colocynth, compound pills of galbanum, and electuary of senna. Molasses is well fitted for forming pills, preserving them soft and free from mouldi- ness, on account of its retentiveness of moisture and its antiseptic qualities. Off. Prep, of Saccharum. Syrupus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. B. SAGAPENUM. Lond, Dub. Sagapenum. "Ferulae species incerta. Gummi-resina." Lond. Sagapenum, Fr.; Sagapen, Germ.; Sagapeno, Ital, Span.; Sugbeenuj, Arab. All that is known in relation to the source of this gum-resin is, that it is the concrete juice of a plant, probably belonging to the family of the Um- belliferas, growing in Persia. The plant is conjectured to be a species of Ferula, and Willdenow supposes it to be the F. Persica, but without suf- ficient evidence.. The drug is brought from Alexandria, Smyrna, and other ports of the Levant. It is in irregular masses, composed of agglutinated fragments, slightly translucent, of a brownish-yellow, olive, or reddish-yellow colour externally, paler internally, brittle, of a consistence somewhat resembling that of wax, and often mixed with impurities, especially with seeds more or less entire. An inferior variety is soft, tough, and of uniform consistence. It has an alliaceous odour, less disagreeable than that of assafetida, and a hot, nau- seous, bitterish taste. It softens and becomes tenacious by the heat of the hand. The effect of time and exposure is to harden and render it darker. It is inflammable, burning with a white flame and much smoke, and leav- ing a light spongy charcoal. Pure alcohol and water dissolve it partially, diluted alcohol almost entirely. Distilled with water it affords a small quantity of volatile oil; and the water is strongly impregnated with its flavour. According to Pelletier, it contains, in 100 parts, 54-26 of resin, 31-94 of gunk, 1-0 of bassorin, 0-60 of a peculiar substance, 0-40 of acidu- lous malate of lime, and 11-80 of volatile oil including loss. Brandes found 3-73 per cent, of volatile oil. This is of a pale yellow colour, very fluid, lighter than water, and of a very disagreeable alliaceous odour. Medical Properties and Uses. Sagapenum is a moderate stimulant, 620 Sagapenum.—Sago. PART I. similar to assafetida in its properties, but much inferior, and usually con- sidered as holding a middle station between that gum-resin and galbanum. It has been given as an emmenagogue and antispasmodic in amenorrhcoa, hysteria, chlorosis, &c, but is now seldom used. The ancients were acquainted with it; and Dioscorides speaks of it as being derived from Media. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, and may be administered in pill or emulsion. Sagapenum is also considered discutient, and has been occasionally applied externally, in the form of plaster, to indolent tumours. Off. Prep. Confectio Rutas, Lond., Dub.; Pilulas Galbani Compositas, Lond.; Pil. Sagapeni Comp., Lond. W. SAGO. U.S.,Lond.,Ed. Sago. "The prepared fecula of the pith of Sagus Rumphii." U.S. "Sagus Rumphii. Medullas Faecula." Lond. "Farina from the interior of the trunk of various Palmaceas and species of Cycas." Ed. Sagou, Fr.; Sago, Gei'm., Ital; Sagu, Span. Numerous trees, inhabiting the islands and coasts of the Indian Ocean, contain a farinaceous pith, which is applied to the purposes of nutriment by the natives. Such are the Sagus Rumphii, Sagus Isevis, Sagus Ruffia, Saguerus Rumphii, and Phoenix farinifera, belonging to the family of Pulms; and the Cycas circinalis, Cycas revoluta, and Zamia lanuginosa, belonging to the Cycadaceae. Of these the Sagus Rumphii, Sagus Ixvis, and Saguerus Rumphii probably contribute to furnish the sago of commerce. Crawford, in his History of the Indian Archipelago, states that it is derived exclusively from the Metroxylon Sagu, identical with the Sagus Rumphii; but Roxburgh ascribes the granulated Sago to S. laevis, and one of the finest kinds is said by Dr. Hamilton to be produced by the Saguerus Rumphii of Roxburgh. The farinaceous product of the different species of Cycas, sometimes called Japan SagOi does not enter into general commerce. Sagus. Sex. Syst. Moncecia Hexandria.—Nat. Ord. Palmaceas. Gen. Ch. Common spathe one-valved. Spadix branched. Male. Calyx three-leaved. Corolla none. Filaments dilated. Female. Calyx three-leaved, with two of the leaflets bifid. Corolla none. Style very short. Stigma sim- ple. Nut tessellated-imbricated, one-seeded. Willd. Sagus Rumphii. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 404; Loudon's Encyc. of Plants, p. 789. The sago palm is one of the smallest trees of the family to which it belongs. Its extreme height seldom exceeds thirty feet. The trunk is proportionably very thick, quite erect, cylindrical, covered with the remains of the old leafstalks, and surrounded by a beautiful crown of foliage, con- sisting of numerous very large, pinnate leaves, extending in every direction from the summit, and curving gracefully downwards. From the basis of the leaves proceed long, divided and subdivided flower and fruit-bearing spadices, the branches of which are smooth. The fruit is a roundish nut, covered with a checkered imbricated coat, and containing a single seed. The tree is a native of the East India islands, growing in the Peninsula of Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, and a part of New Guinea. It flourishes best in low and moist situations. Before attaining maturity, the stem consists of a shell usually about two inches thick, filled with an enormous volume of spongy medullary matter like that of elder. This is gradually absorbed after the appearance of fruit, and the stem ulti- mately becomes hollow. The greatest age of the tree is not more than PART I. Sago. 621 thirty years. At the proper period of its growth, when the medullary matter is fully developed, and has not yet begun to diminish, the tree is felled, and the trunk cut into billets six or seven feet long, which are split in order to facilitate the extraction of the pith. This is obtained in the state of a coarse powder, which is mixed with water in a trough, having a sieve at the end. The water, loaded with farina, passes through the sieve, and is received in convenient vessels, where it is allowed to stand till the insoluble matter has subsided. It is then strained off; and the farina which is left may be dried into a kind of meal, or moulded into whatever shape may be desired. For the consumption of the natives it is usually formed into cakes of various sizes, which are dried, and extensively sold in the islands. The commercial sago is prepared by forming the meal into a paste with water, and rubbing it into grains. It is produced in the greatest abundance in the Moluccas, but of the finest quality on the eastern coast of Sumatra. The Chinese of Malacca refine it so as to give the grains a fine pearly lustre. Malcolm states that it is also refined in large quantities at Singapore. In this state it is called pearl sago, and is in great repute. It is said that not less than five or six hundred pounds of sago are procured from a single tree. (Crawford.) Pearl sago is that which is now generally used. It is in small grains, about the size of a pin's head, hard, whitish, of a light-brown colour, in some instances translucent, inodorous, and with little taste. It may be ren- dered perfectly White by a solution of chloride of lime. Common sago is in larger and browner grains, of more unequal size, of a duller aspect, and frequently mixed with more or less of a dirty-looking powder. Sago meal is imported into England from the East Indies ; but we have met with none in the markets of this country. It is in the form of a fine amylaceous powder, of a whitish colour, with a yellowish or reddish tint, and of a faint but somewhat musty odour. Common sago is insoluble in cold water, but by long boiling unites with that liquid, becoming at first soft and transparent, and ultimately forming a gelatinous solution. Pearl sago is partially dissolved by cold water, pro- bably owing to heat used in its preparation. Chemically considered, it has the characters of starch. Under the microscope the granules of sago meal appear oval or ovate, and often truncated so as to be more or less mullar- shaped. Many of them are broken, and in most, the surface is irregular or tuberculated. They exhibit upon their surface concentric rings, which, however, are much less distinct than in potato starch. The hilum is cir- cular when perfect, and cracks either with a single slit, or a cross, or in a stellate manner. The granules of pearl sago are of the same form, but are all ruptured, and exhibit only indistinct traces of the annular lines, having been altered in the process employed in preparing them. Those of the com- mon sago are very similar to the particles of sago meal, except that they are perhaps rather less regular and more broken. (Pereira.) Potato starch is sometimes prepared in Europe so as to resemble bleached pearl sago, for which it is sold. But, when examined under the microscope, it exhibits larger granules, which are also more 'regularly oval or ovate, smoother, less broken and more distinctly marked with the annular rugas than those of sago; and the circular hilum often cracks with two slightly diverging slits. Sago is used exclusively as an article of diet, having no medicinal qualities which adapt it to the treatment of disease. Being nutritive, easily digestible, and wholly destitute of irritating properties, it is frequently employed in febrile cases, and in convalescence from acute disorders, in the place of 622 Sago.—Salix. PART I. richer and less innocent food. It is given in the liquid state, and in its pre- paration care should be taken to boil it long in water, and stir it diligently, in order that the grains may be thoroughly dissolved. Should any portion remain undissolved, it should be separated by straining; as it might offend a delicate stomach. A tablespoonful to the pint of water is sufficient for ordi- nary purposes. The solution may be seasoned with sugar and nutmeg or other spice, and with wine, where these are not contra-indicated. W. SALIX. U. S. Secondary. Willow. " The bark of Salix alba." U. S. Off. Syn. SALICIS CORTEX. Bark of Salix Caprea. Ed.; SALIX ALBA. SALIX FRAGILIS. SALIX CAPREA. Cortex. Dub. Ecorce de saule, Fr.; Weidenrinde, Germ.; Corteccia di salcio, Ital; Corteza de sauce, Span. Salix. Sex. Syst. Dicecia Diandria.—Nat. Ord. Salicaceas. Gen. Ch, Male. Amentum cylindrical. Calyx a scale. Corolla none. Glands of the base nectariferous. Female. Amentum cylindrical. Calyx a scale. Corolla none. Style two-cleft. Capsule one-celled, two-valved. Seeds downy. Willd. This is a very extensive genus, comprising, according to Nuttall, not less than one hundred and thirty species, which, with very few exceptions, are natives of Europe, and of the northern and temperate parts of North Ame- rica. Though most of them are probably possessed of similar medical pro- perties, only three have been admitted to the rank of officinal plants by the British Colleges; viz., S. alba, S. caprea, and S.fragilis. Of these species, the Salix alba is the only one which has been introduced into this country. The S. Russelliana, which has been introduced from Europe, is said by Sir James Smith to be the most valuable species. The S. purpurea, which is a European species, is said by Lindley to be the most bitter, and the S. pen- tandra is preferred by Nees von Esenbeck. Many native species are in all probability equally active with the foreign; but they have not been sufficiently tried in regular practice to admit of a positive decision. The younger Michaux speaks of the S. nigra or black willow, as affording in its root a strong bitter, used in the country as a preventive and cure of in- termittents. In consequence of the pliability.of the young branches or twigs, the willow is admirably adapted for the manufacture of baskets and other kinds of wicker-work, and several species, as well native as introduced, are employed for this purpose in the United States. The S. Babylonica or weeping willow is a favourite ornamental tree. The degree of bitterness in the bark is probably the best criterion of the value of the different species. Salix alba. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 710; Smith, Flor. Brit. 1071. The common European or white willow is a tree twenty-five or thirty feet in height, with numerous round spreading branches, the younger of which are silky. The bark of the trunk is cracked and brown, that of the smaller branches smooth and greenish. The leaves are alternate, upon short peti- oles, lanceolate, pointed, acutely serrate with the lower serratures glandu- lar, pubescent on both sides, and silky beneath. There are no stipules. The flowers appear at the same time with the leaves. The amenta are terminal, cylindrical, and elongated, with elliptical, lanceolate, brown, pubescent scales. The stamens are two in number, yellow, and somewhat longer than the PART I. Salix. 623 scales; the style is short; the stigmas two-parted and thick. The capsule is nearly sessile, ovate, and smooth. The white willow has been introduced into this country from Europe, and is now very common. It flowers in April and May; and the bark is easily separable throughout the summer. That obtained from the branches rolls up when dried into the form of a quill, has a brown epidermis, is flexible, fibrous, and of difficult pulveriza- tion. Willow bark has a feebly aromatic odour, and a peculiar bitter astrin- gent taste. It yields its active properties to water, with which it forms a reddish-brown decoction. Pelletier and Caventou found among its ingre- dients tannin, resin, a bitter yellow colouring matter, a green fatty matter, gum, wax, lignin, and an organic acid combined with magnesia. The pro- portion of tannin is so considerable that the bark has been used for tanning leather. A crystalline principle has also been obtained from it, which, having the medical virtues of the willow, has received the name of salicin. When pure, it is in white, shining, slender crystals, inodorous, but very bitter, with the peculiar flavour of the bark. It is soluble in cold water, much more so in boiling water, soluble in alcohol, and insoluble in ether and the oil of turpentine. It neutralizes neither acids nor salifiable bases; and is not precipitated by any reagent. Concentrated sulphuric acid decom- poses it, receiving from it an intense and permanent bright red colour, and producing a new compound called rutulin. Muriatic and dilute sulphuric acid convert it into grape-sugar, and a white, tasteless, insoluble powder named saliretin. Distilled with bichromate of potassa and sulphuric acid, it yields, among other products, a volatile oleaginous fluid, identical with one of the components of oil of spirasa, and, from its acid properties, denominated saliculous acid. This is considered by Dumas as consisting of a peculiar compound radical called salicule and hydrogen. The formula of salicin is C42H29022. (Turner's Chemistry.) The honour of its discovery is claimed by Buchner, of Germany, and Fontana and Rigatelli, of Italy; but M. Leroux, of France, deserves the credit of having first accurately inves- tigated its properties. Braconnot procured it by adding subacetate of lead to a decoction of the bark, precipitating the excess of lead by sulphuric acid, evaporating the colourless liquid which remains, adding near the end of the process a little animal charcoal previously washed, and filtering the liquor while hot. Upon cooling it deposits the salicin in a crystalline form. (Journ. de Chimie Medicale, Janv., 1831.) The following is the process of Merck. A boiling concentrated decoction of the bark is treated with litharge until it becomes nearly colourless. Gum, tannin, and extractive matter, which would impede the crystallization of the salicin, are thus re- moved from the liquid, while a portion of the oxide is dissolved in union probably with the salicin. To separate this portion of oxide, sulphuric acid is first added and then sulphuret of barium, and the liquor is filtered and evaporated. Salicin is deposited, and may be purified by repeated solution and crystallization. (Turner's Chemistry.) Erdmann has given another process. Sixteen ounces of the bark are macerated for twenty-four hours in four quarts of water mixed with two ounces of lime, and the whole is then boiled for half an hour. The process is repeated with the residue. The decoctions having been mixed, and allowed to become clear by sub- sidence, the liquor is poured off, concentrated to a quart, then digested with eight ounces of ivory-black, filtered, and evaporated to dryness. The ex- tract is exhausted by spirit containing 2S per cent, of alcohol, and the tinc- ture evaporated so that the salicin may crystallize. This is purified by again dissolving, treating with ivory-black, and crystallizing. (Christison's 624 Salix.—Salvia. PART I. Dispensatory.) Merck obtained 251 grains from 16 ounces of the bark and young twigs of Salix helix, and Erdmann 300'grains from the same quantity of the bark of Salix pentandra. It may probably be obtained from any of the willow barks having a bitter taste. Braconnot procured it from various species of Populus, particularly the P. tremula or European aspen. Medical Properties and Uses. The bark of the willow is tonic and astringent, and has been employed as a substitute for Peruvian bark, par- ticularly in intermittent fever." It has attracted much attention from the asserted efficacy of salicin in the cure of this complaint. There seems to be no room to doubt, from the testimony of numerous practitioners in France, Italy, and Germany, that this principle has the property of arresting inter- mittents ; though the ascription to it of equal efficacy with the sulphate of quinia was certainly premature. The bark may be employed in substance or decoction, in the same doses and with the same mode of preparation as cinchona. The dose of salicin is from two to eight grains, to be so repeated, that from twenty to forty grains may be taken daily, or in the interval be- tween the paroxysms of an intermittent. Magendie has seen fevers cut short in one day by three doses of six grains each. The decoction of willow has been found beneficial as an external application in foul and indolent ulcers. W. SALVIA. U. S. Secondary. Sage. " The leaves of Salvia officinalis." U. S. Sauge, Fr.; Salbey, Germ.; Salvia, Ital, Span. Salvia. Sex. Syst. Diandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lamiaceae or Labiatas. Gen. Ch. Corolla unequal. Filaments affixed transversely to a pedicel. Willd. Salvia officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 129; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 352. 1.127. The common garden sage is a perennial plant, about two feet high, with a quadrangular, pubescent, branching, shrubby stem, furnished with opposite, petiolate, ovate lanceolate, crenulate, wrinkled leaves, of a grayish- green colour, sometimes tinged with red or purple. The flowers are blue, variegated with white and purple; and are disposed on long terminal spikes in distant whorls, each composed of few flowers, and accompanied with ovate, acute, deciduous bractes. The calyx is tubular and striated, with two lips, of which the upper has three acute teeth, the under two. The corolla is tubular, bilabiate, ringent, with the upper lip concave, the lower divided into three rounded lobes, of which the middle is the largest. The filaments are supported upon short pedicels, to which they are affixed trans- versely at the middle. Sage grows spontaneously in the South of Europe, and is cultivated abundantly in our gardens. There are several varieties, differing in the size and colour of their flowers, but all possessed of the same medical pro- perties. The flowering period is in June, at which time the plant should be cut and dried in a shady place. The leaves are the officinal portion. Both these and the flowering summits have a strong, fragrant odour, and a warm, bitterish, aromatic, somewhat astringent taste. They abound in a volatile oil, which may be obtained separate by distillation with water, and contains a considerable proportion of camphor. Sulphate of iron strikes a black colour with their infusion. PART I. Salvia.—Sambucus. 625 Medical Properties and Uses. Sage unites a slight degree of tonic power and astringency with the properties common to the aromatics. By the an- cients it was very highly esteemed; but it is at present little used internally, except as a condiment. In the state of infusion it may be given in debili- tated conditions of the stomach attended with flatulence, and is said to have been useful in checking the exhausting sweats of hectic fever. But its most useful application is as a gargle in inflammation of the throat, and re- laxation of the uvula. For this purpose it is usually employed in infusion, with honey and alum, or vinegar. From twenty to thirty grains of the powdered leaves may be given for a dose. The infusion is prepared by macerating an ounce of the leaves in a pint of boiling water, of which two fluidounces may be administered at once. When intended to be used merely as a pleasant drink in febrile complaints, or to allay nausea, the maceration should continue but a very short time, so that all the bitterness of the leaves may not be extracted. Two other species of Salvia—the S. pratensis and S. Sclarea—are ranked among the officinal plants in Europe. The latter, which is com- monly called clarry, has been introduced into our gardens. Their medical properties are essentially the same as those of the common sage; but they are less agreeable, and are not much used. In Europe, the leaves of the S. Sclarea are said to be introduced into wine in order to impart to it a mus- cadel taste. W. SAMBUCUS. U.S. Secondary, Lond., Ed. Elder Flowers. " The flowers of Sambucus Canadensis." U. S. " Sambucus nigra. Flores." Lond. " Flowers of Sambucus nigra." Ed. Off. Syn. SAMBUCUS NIGRA. Flores. Baccas. Cortex interior. Dub. Sureau, Fr.; Hollunder, Germ.; Sambuco, Ital; Sauco, Span. Sambucus. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Trigynia.—Nut. Ord. Caprifoliaceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla five-cleft. Berry three-seeded. Willd. Sambucus Canadensis. Willd. Sp.Plant, i. 1494. Our indigenous com- mon elder is a shrub from six to ten feet high, with a branching stem, which is covered with a rough gray bark, and contains a large spongy pith. The small branches and the leafstalks are very smooth. The leaves are oppo- site, pinnate, sometimes bipinnate, and composed usually of three or four pairs of oblong oval, acuminate, smooth, shining, deep-green leaflets, the midribs of which are somewhat pubescent. The flowers are small, white, and disposed in loose cymes, having about five divisions. The berries are small, globular, and when ripe of a deep purple colour. The shrub grows in low moist grounds, along fences, and on the borders of small streams, in all parts of the United States, from Canada to Carolina. It flowers from May to July, and ripens its berries early in the autumn. The flowers, which are the officinal portion, have a somewhat aromatic, though rather heavy odour. The berries as well as other parts of the plant are employed in domestic practice, and have been found to answer the same purposes with the corresponding parts of the European elder, to which this species bears a very close affinity. Sambucus nigra. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1495; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 596. t. 211. The common elder of Europe differs from the American most obviously in its size, which approaches to that of a small tree. The stem 54 626 Sambucus.—Sanguinaria. PART I. is much branched towards the top, and has a rough whitish bark. The leaves are pinnate, consisting usually of five oval, pointed, serrate leaflets, four of which are in opposite pairs, and the fifth terminal. The flowers are small, whitish, and in five parted cymes. The berries are globular, and of a blackish-purple colour when ripe. The flowers have a peculiar sweetish odour, which is strong in their recent state, but becomes feeble by drying. Their taste is bitterish. They yield their active properties to water by infusion, and when distilled give over a small proportion of volatile oil, which on cooling assumes a butyraceous consistence. Water distilled from them contains an appreciable portion of ammonia. The berries are nearly inodorous, but have a sweetish acidulous taste, dependent on the saccharine matter and malic acid which they contain. Their expressed juice is susceptible of fermentation, and forms a vinous liquor used in the North of Europe. It is coloured violet by alkalies, and bright red by acids; and the colouring matter is precipitated blue by acetate of lead. The inner bark is without smell. Its taste is at first sweetish, after- wards slightly bitter, acrid, and nauseous. Both water and alcohol extract its virtues, which are said to reside especially in the green layer between the liber and epidermis. According to Simon, the active principle of the inner bark of the root is a soft resin, which may be obtained by exhausting the powdered bark with alcohol, filtering the tincture, evaporating to the con- sistence of syrup, then adding ether, which dissolves the active matter, and finally evaporating to the consistence of a thick extract. Of this, twenty grains produce brisk vomiting and purging. (Annal. der Pharm., xxxi. 262.) The bark, analyzed by Kramer, yielded an acid called by him viburnic acid, but which has proved to be the valerianic, traces of volatile oil, albumen, resin, an acid sulphurous fat, wax, chlorophylle, tannic acid, grape-sugar, gum, extractive, starch, pectin, and various alkaline and earthy salts. (Chem. Gaz., May, 1846, from Archiv. der Pharm.) Medical Properties and Uses. The flowers are gently excitant and sudor- ific, but are seldom used except externally as a discutient in the form of poultice, fomentation, or ointment. The berries are diaphoretic and ape- rient ; and their inspissated juice has enjoyed some reputation as a remedy in rheumatic, gouty, eruptive, and syphilitic affections. Its dose as an alterative diaphoretic is one or two drachms, as a laxative half an ounce or more. The inner bark is a hydragogue cathartic, acting also as an emetic in large doses. It has been employed in dropsy, and as an alterative in various chronic diseases. An ounce may be boiled with two pints of water to a pint, and four fluidounces of the decoction given for a dose. It is also sometimes used in vinous infusion. The leaves are not without activity, and the young leaf-buds are said to be a violent and even unsafe purgative. The juice of the root has been used as a diuretic in dropsy. Off. Prep. Aqua Sambuci, Lond., Ed.; Oleum Sambuci, Lond.; Succus Spissatus Sambuci, Dub.; Unguentum Sambuci, Lond., Dub. W. SANGUINARIA. 17. S. Bloodroot. " The rhizoma of Sanguinaria Canadensis." U. S. Sanguinaria. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Papaver- aceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx two-leaved. Petals eight. Stigma sessile, two-grooved. Capsule superior, oblong, one-celled, two-valved, apex attenuated. Recepta- cles two, filiform, marginal. Nuttall. PART I. Sanguinaria. 627 Sanguinaria Canadensis. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1140; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 75; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 31. The bloodroot, or, as it is sometimes called, puccoon, is an herbaceous perennial plant. The root (rhizoma) is horizontal, abrupt, often contorted, about as thick as the finger, two or three inches long, fleshy, of a reddish-brown colour on the outside, and brighter red within. It is furnished with numerous slender radicles, and makes offsets from the sides, which succeed the old plant. From the end of the root arise the scape and leafstalks, surrounded by the large sheaths of the bud. These spring up together, the folded leaf enveloping the flower- bud, and rolling back as the latter expands. The leaf, which stands upon a long channeled petiole, is reniform, somewhat heart-shaped, deeply lobed, smooth, yellowish-green on the upper surface, paler or glaucous on the under, and strongly marked by orange-coloured veins. The scape is erect, round, and smooth, rising from a few inches to a foot in height, and termi- nating in a single flower. The calyx is two-leaved and deciduous. The petals, varying from seven to fourteen, but usually about eight in number, are spreading, ovate, obtuse, concave, mostly white, but sometimes slightly tinged with rose or purple. The stamens are numerous, with yellow fila- ments shorter than the corolla, and orange oblong anthers. The germ is oblong and compressed, and supports a sessile, persistent stigma. The cap- sule is oblong, acute at both ends, two-valved, and contains numerous oval, reddish-brown seeds. The whole plant is pervaded by an orange-coloured sap, which flows from every part when broken, but is of the deepest colour in the root. The bloodroot is one of the earliest and most beautiful spring flowers of North America. It grows abundantly throughout the whole United States, delighting in loose rich soils, and shady situations, and flowering in March and April. After the fall of the flower, the leaves continue to increase in size, and, by the middle of summer, have become so large as to give the plant an entirely different aspect. All parts of the plant are active, but the root only is officinal. This, when dried, is in pieces from one to three inches long, from a quarter to half an inch or more in thickness, flattened, much wrinkled and twisted, often furnished with abrupt offsets and numerous short fibres, of a reddish-brown colour externally, with a spongy uneven fracture, the surface of which is at first bright orange, but becomes of a dull brown by long ex- posure. The colour of the powder is a brownish orange-red. Sanguinaria has a faint narcotic odour, and a bitterish very acrid taste, the pungency of which remains long in the mouth and fauces. It yields its virtues to water and alcohol. The late Dr. Dana, of New York, obtained from it a peculiar alkaline principle, denominated by him sanguinarina, upon which the acrimony, and perhaps the medical virtues of the root depend. It may be procured, according to Dana, by infusing the finely powdered root in hot water or diluted muriatic or acetic acid, precipitating with water of ammo- nia, collecting the precipitated matter, boiling it in water with pure animal charcoal, filtering off the water, exposing the residue left upon the filter to the action of alcohol, and finally evaporating the alcoholic solution. (Ann. Lye. of Nat. Hist., Neiv Fork, ii. 250.) Sanguinarina, thus obtained, is a white pearly substance, of an acrid taste, very sparingly soluble in water, soluble in ether, and very soluble in alcohol. With the acids it forms salts soluble in water, all of which have some shade of red, crimson, or scarlet, and form beautiful red solutions. They are acrid and pungent to the taste, particularly the muriate and acetate. From these facts it would appear, that the red colour and acrid properties of the bloodroot may be owing to the 628 Sanguinaria.—Santalum. PART I. presence of some native salt of sanguinarina, which is decomposed by am- monia in the process of separating the vegetable alkali. The virtues of the root are said to be rapidly deteriorated by time. Medical Properties and Uses. Sanguinaria is an acrid emetic, with stimulant and narcotic powers. In small doses it excites the stomach, and accelerates the circulation ; more largely given, it produces nausea and con- sequent depression of the pulse ; and in the full dose occasions active vomit- ing. The effects of an over-dose are violent emesis, a burning sensation in the stomach, tormenting thirst, faintness, vertigo, dimness of vision, and alarming prostration. Four persons lost their lives at Bellevue Hospital, New York, in consequence of drinking largely of tincture of bloodroot, which they mistook for ardent spirit. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., N. S., ii. 506.) Snuffed up the nostrils, bloodroot excites much irritation, attended with sneezing. Upon fungous surfaces it acts as an escharotic. It has been given in typhoid pneumonia, catarrh, pertussis, croup, phthisis pul- monalis, rheumatism, jaundice, hydrothorax, and some other affections, either as an emetic, nauseant, or alterative; and its virtues are highly praised by many judicious practitioners. The dose with a view to its emetic operation is from ten to twenty grains, given in powder or pill. The latter form is preferable in consequence of the great irritation of throat produced by the powder when swallowed. For other purposes the dose is from one to five grains, repeated more or less frequently according to the effect desired. The medicine is sometimes given in infusion or decoction, in the proportion of half an ounce to the pint. The emetic dose of this preparation is from half a fluidounce to a fluidounce. The tincture is officinal. An infusion in vinegar has been employed advantageously, as a local application, in obstinate cutaneous affections. Off. Prep. Tinctura Sanguinarias, U. S. W. SANTALUM. U.S. Red Saunders. " The wood of Pterocarpus santalinus." U. S. Off. Syn. PTEROCARPUS. Pterocarpus santalinus. Lignum. Lond.; PTEROCARPUS. Wood of Pterocarpus santalinus. Ed.; SANTALUM RUBRUM. PTEROCARPUS SANTALINUS. Lignum. Dub. Santal rouge, Fr.; Santelholz, Germ. Pterocarpus. Sex. Syst. Diadelphia Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Fabaceas or Leguminosas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Legume falcated, leafy, varicose, girted by a wing, not gaping. Seeds solitary. Willd. Pterocarpus santalinus. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 906 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 430. t. 156. This is a large tree with alternate branches, and petiolate ternate leaves, each simple leaf being ovate, blunt, somewhat notched at the apex, entire, veined, smooth on the upper surface, and hoary beneath. The flowers are yellow, in axillary spikes, and have a papilionaceous corolla, of which the vexillum is obcordate, erect, somewhat'refiexed at the sides, toothed and waved, the alae spreading with their edges apparently toothed, and the carina oblong, short, and somewhat inflated. The tree is a native of India, attaining the highest perfection in mountainous districts, and in- habiting especially the mountains of Coromandel and Ceylon. Its wood is the true officinal red saunders, though there is reason to believe that the product of other trees is sold by the same name. PART I. Santalum.—Sapo. 629 The wood comes in roundish or angular billets, internally of a blood-red colour, externally brown from exposure to the air,compact,heavy, and of a fibrous texture. It is kept in the shops in the state of small chips, rasp- ings, or coarse powder. Red saunders has little smell or taste. It imparts a red colour to alcohol, ether, and alkaline solutions, but not to water; and a test is thus afforded by which it may be distinguished from some other colouring woods. The alcoholic tincture produces a deep violet precipitate with the sulphate of iron, a scarlet with the bichloride of mercury, and a violet with the soluble salts of lead. The colouring principle, which was separated by Pelletier, and called by him santalin, is of a resinous character, scarcely soluble in cold water, more so in boiling water, very soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and alkaline solutions, but slightly in the fixed and volatile oils, with the exception of those of lavender and rosemary, which readily dissolve it. It is precipitated when acids are added to the infusion of the wood pre- pared with an alkaline solution. The wood has no medical virtues, and is employed solely for the purpose of imparting colour. Off. Prep. Spiritus Lavandulas Compositus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinchonas Composita, U. S.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennas, U. S. W. SAPO. U.S., Lond. Soap. " Soap made with soda and olive oil," U. S. " Sapo, ex Olivas oleo et Soda confectus." Lond. Off. Syn. SAPO DURUS, Ed., Dub.; "Spanish or Castile soap, made with olive oil and soda." Ed. Savon blanc, Fr.; Oel-sodaseife, Germ.; Sapone duro, Ital; Xabon, Span. SAPO VULGARIS. U.S. Common Soap. " Soap made with soda and animal oil." U. S. Savon de suil', Savon de graisse, Fr.; Talgseife, Germ. SAPO MOLLIS. Lond., Ed., Dub. Soft Soap. " Sapo, ex Olivas oleo et Potassa confectus." Lond. "Soft soap, made with olive oil and potash." Ed. Savon mou, Savon vert, Savon & base de potasse, Fr.; Schmierseife, Kaliseife, Germ. Soaps, in the most extended signification of the term, embrace all those compounds which result from the reaction of salifiable bases on oils and fats. Oils and fats, as has been explained under the titles Olea and Adeps, consist of three principles, two solid, differing in fusibility, called stearin and margarin, and one liquid, called olein, of which there are two varieties. Stearin characterizes the fats which are firm and solid, as tallow; margarin, those that are soft like lard; and olein the oils. When the oils and fats undergo saponification by reaction with a salifiable base, these three princi- 54* 630 Sapo. PART I. pies are decomposed into oily acids peculiar to each, discovered by Chev- reul, and called stearic, margaric, and oleic acids, which unite with the base to form the soap, and into a sweet principle not saponifiable, called glycerin, which is set free. Hence it is inferred that stearin is a stearate, margarin a margarate, and olein an oleate of glycerin, and that the oils and fats are mixtures of these three oily salts. Hence, also, it is obvious that soaps are mixed stearates, margarates, and oleates of various bases. Stearic acid is a firm white solid, fusible at 167°, greasy to the touch, puiverizable, soluble in alcohol, very soluble in ether, but insoluble in water. In the impure state it is used, as a substitute for wax, for making candles. Margaric acidhas the appearance of fat, and is fusible at 140°. Oleic acid is an oily liquid, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, lighter than water, crystal- lizable in needles a little below 32°, and having a slight smell and pungent taste. Glycerin, or the sweet principle of oils (oxide of glycerule), is a colourless, volatile, inflammable, syrupy liquid, without odour, having a very sweet taste, uniting in all proportions with water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether, and having a sp. gr. varying from 1-25 to 1-27. Soaps are divided into the soluble and insoluble. The soluble soaps are combinations of the oily acids with soda, potassa, and ammonia; the insolu- ble consist of the same acids united with earths and metallic oxides. It is the soluble soaps only that are detergent, and it is to these that the name soap is generally applied. Several of the insoluble soaps are employed in pharmacy ; as, for example, the soap of the protoxide of lead, or lead plaster, and the soap of lime. (See Emplastrum Plumbi and Linimentum Calcis.) The consistency of the fixed alkaline soaps depends partly on the nature of the oil or fat, and partly on the alkali present. Soaps are harder the more stearate and margarate they contain, and softer when the oleate predomi- nates ; and, as it respects the alkali present, they are harder when formed with soda, and softer when containing potassa. Hence it is that of pure soaps, considered as salts, stearate of soda is the hardest and least soluble, and oleate of potassa the softest and most soluble. The officinal soaps, here described, embrace three varieties; namely, two soda soaps, one made with olive oil (Castile soap), the other with animal oil (common soap); and one potassa soap (soft soap). The soap of ammonia is noticed under another head. (See Linimentum Ammoniae.) Preparation. The following is an outline of the process for making soap. The oil or fat is boiled with a solution of caustic alkali, until the whole forms a thick mass, which can be drawn out into long clear threads. After the soap is completely formed, the next step is to separate it from the excess of alkali, the glycerin, and redundant water. This is effected by adding common salt, or a very strong alkaline lye, in either of which the soap is insoluble. The same end may be attained by boiling down the solution, until the excess of alkali forms a strong alkaline solution, which acts the same part in separating the soap as the addition of a similar solution. As soon as the soap is completely separated, it rises to the surface, and, when it has ceased to froth in boiling, is ladled out into wooden frames to congeal, after which it is cut into bars by means of a wire. The soap, as first separated, is called grain soap. It may be purified by dissolving it in an alkaline lye, and separating it by common salt. During this process the impurities subside, and the soap combines with more water; and hence it becomes weaker, although purer and whiter. If the grain soap be not purified it forms marbled soap, the streaks arising principally from an in- soluble soap of oxide of iron. Sometimes the marbled appearance is pro- PART I. Sapo. 631 duced by adding to the soap, as soon as it is completely separated, a fresh portion of lye, and immediately afterwards a solution of sulphate of iron. The black oxide of iron is precipitated, and gives rise to dark-coloured streaks, which, by exposure to the air, become red, in consequence of the conversion of the black into the sesquioxide of iron. The officinal "soap" of the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias is an olive oil soda soap, made on the same general plan as that just explained. It is the Sapo Durus of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges. Common soap (Sapo Vulgaris, U. S.) is also a soda soap ; but instead of olive, it contains concrete animal oil. This soap corresponds with the white soap of Northern European countries and of the United States, and is formed usually from barilla and tallow. In Scotland it is manufactured from kelp and tallow. It was introduced into the list of the U.S. Pharma- copoeia as the only proper soap for making Opodeldoc. (See Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum.) Soft soap (Sapo Mollis) is prepared on the same general principles as hard soap; potash being employed as the alkali, and a fatty matter, rich in olein, as the oil. The French soft soap is made with the seed oils, such as rape seed, hemp seed, &c; the Scotch and Irish, with fish oil and some tallow; and our own with refuse fat and grease. A lye of wood-ashes is the form of potash usually employed. In forming this soap it is necessary that it should continue dissolved in the alkaline solution, instead of being separated from it. Hence soft soap is a soap of potassa, completely dis- solved in the solution of its alkali, which is consequently present in excess. A soap of potassa is sometimes made with a view to its conversion into a soda soap. This conversion is effected by the addition of common salt, which, by double decomposition, generates a soap of soda, and chloride of potassium in solution. After this change is effected, the addition of a fur- ther portion of salt separates the soda soap formed. It is evident that here the common salt performs a double office, and must be added in larger amount than when it is merely used as a separating agent. Besides the officinal soaps of the United States and British Pharmaco- poeias, there are many other varieties, more or less used for medicinal or economical purposes. The officinal soap of the French Codex, called amygdaline soap (almond oil soap), is formed of caustic soda and almond oil, and is directed to be kept for two months exposed to the air, before being used. Starkey's soap, also officinal in the Codex, is prepared by uniting, by trituration, equal parts of carbonate of potassa, oil of turpentine, and Venice turpentine. Beef's marrow soap is a fine animal oil soap, also included in the French standard of pharmacy. Windsor soap is a scented soda soap, made of one part of olive oil and nine parts of tallow. Eau de luce (aqua luciae) is a kind of liquid-soap, formed by mixing a tincture of oil of amber and balsam of Gilead with water of ammonia. Transparent soap is prepared by saponifying kidney fat with soda free from foreign salts, drying the resulting soap, dissolving it in alcohol, filtering and evapo- rating the solution, and running it into moulds when sufficiently concentrated. The soap is yellow or yellowish-brown, and preserves its transparency after desiccation. Palm soap is prepared from palm oil and soda, to which tal- low is added to increase its firmness. If it be wanted white, the palm oil must be bleached by exposure to the sun, by sulphuric acid, or by chlorine. This soap has a yellowish colour, and an agreeable odour of violets, derived from the oil. Soap balls are prepared by dissolving soap in a small quan- tity of water, and then forming them with starch into a mass of the proper consistence. Common yellow soap (rosin soap) derives its peculiarities 632 Sapo. PART I. from an admixture of rosin and a little palm oil with the tallow employed; the oil being added to improve its colour. All the varieties of soap, except a few of the fancy sort, and the olive oil soaps, are manufactured in the United States. The latter, which are chiefly used for medicinal purposes, are imported in largest quantity from France. Properties. Soap, whatever may be its variety, has the same general properties. Its aspect and consistence are familiar to every one. Its smell is peculiar, and taste slightly alkaline. It is somewhat heavier than water, and therefore sinks in that liquid. Exposed to heat it quickly fuses, swells up, and is decomposed. It is soluble in water, and more readily in hot than in cold. Potassa soaps and those containing oleic acid are far more soluble than the soda soaps, especially those in which the stearates and margarates predominate. Acids, added to an aqueous solution of soap, combine with the alkali, and set free the oily acids, which, being diffused through the water, give it a milky appearance. Its decomposition is also produced by metallic salts, which invariably give rise to insoluble soaps. Soap is soluble in cold, and abundantly in boiling alcohol. This solution constitutes the tincture of soap, and forms a very convenient test for dis- covering earthy salts in mineral waters. The efficacy of soap as a detergent depends upon its power of rendering grease and other soiling substances soluble in water, and, therefore, capable of being removed by washing. Sometimes soap is adulterated with lime, gypsum, or pipe-clay, in which case it will not be entirely soluble in alcohol. Olive oil soda soap (Sapo, U. S., Lond.), otherwise called Castile or Spanish soap, is a hard soap, and is presented under two principal varie- ties, the white and the marbled. White Castile soap, when good, is of a pale grayish-white colour, incapable of giving an oily stain to paper, devoid of rancid odour or strong alkaline qualities, and entirely soluble both in water and alcohol. It should not feel greasy, nor grow moist, but, on the contrary, should become dry by exposure to the air, without exhibiting any saline efflorescence. This variety of soap contains about twenty-one per cent, of water. Sometimes it contains a larger proportion of water, with which the soap is made to combine by the manufacturer, with the fraudu- lent intention of increasing its weight. Soap, thus adulterated, is known by its unusual whiteness, and by its suffering a great loss of weight in a dry air. Marbled Castile soap is harder, more alkaline, and more constant in its proportions than the other variety. It contains about fourteen per cent, of water. Containing less water than the white Castile, it is a stronger and more economical soap; but at the same time less pure. The impurity arises from the veins of marbling, which consist of ferruginous matter, as already explained. Animal oil soda soap (Sapo Vulgaris, U. S.) is a hard soap, of a white colour, inclining to yellow. It is made from tallow and caustic soda. This soap possesses the same general properties as the olive oil soda soap. Soft soap, as made in this country, is a semi-fluid slippery mass, capable of being poured from one vessel to another, and of a dirty yellow colour. This soap always contains an excess of alkali, which causes it to act more powerfully as a detergent than hard soap. The London and Edinburgh Colleges direct it to be made from olive oil and potash; but Dr. Pereira states that he has not been able to meet with it in England. That which is made in France has a greenish colour and the consistence of soft oint- ment, and is obtained from potash and hemp-seed oil. It is called in the French Codex, savon vert. Sometimes it is manufactured from the dregs of olive oil. PART I. Sapo. 633 Incompatibles. Soap is decomposed by all the acids, earths, and earthy and metallic salts. Acids combine with the alkali, and set free the oily acids of the soap; the earths unite with the oily acids and separate the alkali; while the salts mentioned give rise, by double decomposition, to an insoluble soap of their base, and a saline combination between their acid and the alkali of the soap. Hard waters, in consequence of their containing salts of lime, decompose and curdle soap. They may be rendered soft and fit for washing, by adding sufficient carbonate of soda, or carbonate of potassa, to precipitate all the lime. Composition. It has been already explained that soap consists of certain oily acids, united with an alkali. As olive oil is a compound of maro-arin and olein, so the officinal "soap" is a mixed margarate and oleate of soda. The officinal "common soap" is principally a stearate of soda, and "soft soap," as defined by the London and Edinburgh Colleges, is a mixed mar- garate and oleate of potassa. The most important soaps have the following composition in the hundred parts. Marseilles white soap, soda 10-24, mar- garic acid 9-20, oleic acid 59-20, water 21-36. (Braconnot.) Castile soap, very dry, soda 9-0, oily acids 76-5, water 14-5. (Ure.) Glasgow soft soap, potassa 9-0, oily acids 43-7, water 47-3. (Ure.) French soft soap, potassa 9-5, oily acids 44, water 46-5. (Thenard.) Most soaps, it is perceived, con- tain a large proportion of water. Medical Properties. Soap possesses the properties of a laxative, antacid, and antilithic. It is seldom given alone, but frequently in combination with rhubarb, the astringency of which it has a tendency to correct. Thus com- bined, it is frequently administered in dyspepsia, attended with constipation and torpor of the liver. As it is readily decomposed by the weakest acids, which combine with the alkali, it has proved useful in acidity of the stomach, and has been recommended as a remedy in the uric acid diathesis; but it possesses no power to dissolve calculi, as was once supposed. Externally, soap is a stimulating discutient, and as such has been used, by friction, in sprains and. bruises. Dr. A. T. Thomson has seen much benefit derived from rubbing the tumid abdomen of children in mesenteric fever, morning and evening, with a strong lather of soap. In constipation of the bowels, particularly when arising from hardened feces in the rectum, a strong solution of soap, especially of soft soap, forms a useful enema. When the latter is employed, two tablespoonfuls may be dissolved in a pint of warm water. In pharmacy, soap is frequently employed for the purpose of giving a proper consistence to pills; but care must be taken not to associate it with a substance which may be decomposed by it. It is also an ingredient in some liniments and plasters. In toxicology it is used as a counterpoison for the mineral acids, and should always be resorted to in poisoning by these agents without a moment's delay, and its use continued until magnesia, chalk, or the bicar- bonate of soda or of potassa can be obtained. The mode of administration, in these cases, is to give a teacupful of a solution of soap, made by dissolving it in four times its weight of water, every three or four minutes, until the patient has taken as much as he can swallow. The dose of soap is from five grains to half a drachm, given in the form of pill. Off. Prep, of Soap. Ceratum Saponis, U. S. Lond.; Emplastrum Sapo- nis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Linimentum Opii, Ed.; Pilulas Aloe's, U. S., Ed.; Pil. Aloe's et Assafoetidae, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Pil. Assafoetidae, U. S.; Pil. Colocynthidis Comp., Dub.; Pil. Gambogias Comp., Dub., Lond., Ed.; Pil. Opii, U. S.; Pil. Rhei, U. S.; Pil. Rhei Comp., Lond., Ed.; Pil. Saponis Coinp., U. S. Lond., Dub.; Pil. Scillas Comp., U. S., Lond.,Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Saponis Camphorata, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. 634 Sapo.—Sarsaparilla. PART I. Off. Prep, of Common Soap. Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum, U. S. Off. Prep, of Soft Soap. Enema Colocynthidis, Lond.; Linimentum Terebinthinas, Lond.; Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, Lond. B. SARSAPARILLA. U. S., Dub. Sarsaparilla. " The root of Smilax officinalis and of other species of Smilax." U. S. " Smilax Sarsaparilla. Radix." Dub. Off. Syn. SARZA. Smilax officinalis. Radix. Lond.; SARZA. Root of Smilax officinalis, and probably other species. Ed. Salsepareille, Fr.; Sarsaparille, Germ.; Salsa pari glia, Ital; Zarzaparrilla, Span. Smilax. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Hexandria.—Nat. Ord. Smilaceas. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx six-leaved. Corolla none. Female. Calyx six- leaved. Corolla none. Styles three. Berry three-celled. Seeds two. Willd. Until recently, the Smilax Sarsaparilla was admitted by most of the standard authorities as the source of this drug; but it is doubtful whether any of the sarsaparilla of the shops was ever obtained from that species. The S. Sarsaparilla is a native of the United States, and its root would certainly have been dug up and brought into the market, had it been found to possess the same properties with the imported medicine. It is not among the eleven species of £Vm/a# described by Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth, who indicate the S. officinalis, S. syphilitica, and S. Cumanensis, especially the first, as the probable sources of the sarsaparilla exported from Mexico and the Spanish Main. In the present state of our knowledge on the subject, it is impossible to decide with certainty from what species the several commercial varieties of the drug are respectively derived. This much is certain, that they do not proceed from the same plant. Of the great number of species belonging to this genus, very few possess any useful medicinal power; and Hancock states that of the six or eight which he found growing in the woods of Guiana, only one presented in any degree the sensible properties of the genuine sarsapa- rilla, the rest being insipid and inert. The root (rhizoma) of the Smilax China, a native of China and Japan, has been employed under the name of China root for similar purposes with the officinal sarsaparilla. As it occurs in commerce, it is in pieces from three to eight inches long and an inch or two thick, usually somewhat flattened, more or less knotty, often branched, of a brownish or grayish-brown colour externally, whitish or of a light flesh- colour internally, without odour, and of a taste flat at first, but afterwards very slightly bitterish and somewhat acrid like that of sarsaparilla. The root of the Smilax aspera is said to be employed in the South of Europe as a substitute for sarsaparilla; but it has little reputation. The East India sarsaparilla, which was at one time supposed to be the product of this species of Smilax, is derived from a wholly different plant, named Hemidesmus Indicus. We shall briefly describe the S. Sarsaparilla, on account of its former officinal rank, and afterwards such other species as are believed to yield any portion of the drug. All of these species are climbing or trailing plants, with prickly stems; a character expressed in the name of the medi- cine, which is derived from two Spanish words (zarza and parilla) signi- fying a small thorny vine. Smilax Sarsaparilla. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 776 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 161. t. 62. The stem of this plant is long, slender, shrubby, angular, and beset with prickles. The leaves are unarmed, ovate lanceolate, with about PART I. Sarsaparilla. 635 five nerves, somewhat glaucous beneath, and supported alternately upon footstalks, at the bases of which are long tendrils. The flowers usually stand three or four together, upon a common peduncle, which is longer than the leafstalk. This species is indigenous, growing in swamps and hedges in the Middle and Southern States. S. officinalis. Humb. and Bonpl. Plant AZquinoct. i. 271. In this species the stem is twining, angular, smooth, and prickly ; the young shoots are unarmed; and the leaves ovate oblong, acute, cordiform, five or seven- nerved, coriaceous, smooth, tweJve inches long and four or five broad, with footstalks an inch long, smooth, and furnished with tendrils. The youno- leaves are lanceolate oblong, acuminate, and three-nerved. According to Humboldt, the plant abounds on the river Magdalena, in New Granada, where it is called zarzaparilla by the natives. Large quantities of the root are sent down the river to Mompox and Carthagena. S. syphilitica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 780. The stem is round and smooth; armed at the joints with from two to four thick, straight prickles; and fur- nished with oblong lanceolate, acuminate, three-nerved, coriaceous, shining leaves, which are a foot in length, and terminate by a long point. The plant was seen by Humboldt and Bonpland in New Granada, upon the banks of the river Cassiquiare, and by Martius in Brazil, at Yupura and near the Rio Negro. It has been supposed to yield the Brazilian sarsaparilla. S. papyracea. Poiret, Encyc. Meth. iv. 467. This is an under-shrub with a compressed stem, angular below, and furnished with spines at the angles. Its leaves are elliptical, acuminate, and three-nerved. It inhabits Brazil, chiefly upon the banks of the Amazon and its tributaries, and is thought to yield the variety of sarsaparilla denominated Brazilian. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 277, from Journ. de Chim. Med.) S. medica. Schlechtendahl, in Linnaea, vi. 47. This species has an angu- lar stem, armed with straight prickles at the joints, and a few hooked ones in the intervals. The leaves are smooth, bright green on both sides, shortly acuminate, five-nerved, with the veins prominent beneath. They vary much in form, the lower being cordate, auriculate-hastate; the upper cordate-ovate. In the old leaves, the petiole and midrib are armed with straight subulate prickles. The inflorescence is an umbel of from eight to twelve flowers, with a smooth axillary peduncle, and pedicels about three lines long. Shiede found this plant on the eastern declivity of the Mexican Andes, where the root is collected to be taken to Vera Cruz. The medicinal species of Smilax grow in Mexico, Guatemala, and the warm latitudes of South America. The roots are very Jong and slender, and originate in great numbers from a common head or rhizoma, from which the stems of the plant rise. The whole root with the rhizoma is usually dug up, and as brought into market exhibits not unfrequently por- tions of the stems attached, sometimes several inches in length. The sar- saparilla of commerce comes from different sources, and is divided into varieties according to the place of collection or shipment. Honduras Sarsaparilla is the variety most used in this country. It is brought from the bay of Honduras, and comes in bundles two or three feet long, composed of several roots folded lengthwise, and secured in a compact form by a few circular turns. These are packed in bales imperfectly covered with skins, each bale containing one hundred pounds or more. The roots are usually connected at one extremity in large numbers in a common head, to which portions of the stems are also attached. In some bundles are many small fibres either lying loose, or still adhering to the roots. The colour of the roots externally is a dirty grayish or reddish-brown; and the cortical portion beneath the epidermis often appears amylaceous when broken. 636 Sarsaparilla. part i. The Jamaica or red sarsaparilla of foreign writers is little known by that name in the United States. The island of Jamaica is merely its chan- nel of exportation to Europe, and it is probably derived originally from Honduras. It does not materially differ in properties from Honduras sar- saparilla; its chief peculiarity being the reddish colour of the epidermis, which is also sometimes found in that variety. It is said also to yield a larger proportion of extract, and to contain less starch. As found in com- merce, it is in bundles twelve or eighteen inches long, by four or five in thickness, consisting of long slender roots folded up, with numerous radical fibres attached. Considerable quantities of the drug are imported from the Mexican ports of Vera Cruz and Tampico. The Vera Cruz sarsaparilla comes in large, rather loose bales, weighing about two hundred pounds, bound with cords or leather thongs, and usually containing the roots folded upon themselves, and separately packed. These, as in the Honduras sarsaparilla, consist of a head or caudex with numerous long radicles, which, however, are some- what smaller than in that variety, and have a thinner bark. They are often also much soiled with earth. This variety is not highly esteemed; but from the acrid taste Avhich it possesses, it is probably not inferior in real virtues to the other kinds. It is probably derived from the Smilax medica. Another variety is the Caracas sarsaparilla, brought in large quantities from La Guayra. It is in oblong packages, of about one hundred pounds, surrounded with broad strips of hide, which are connected laterally with thongs of the same material, and leave much of the root exposed. The roots, as in the last variety, are separately packed, but more closely and with greater care. The radicles are often very amylaceous internally, in this respect resembling the following. The Brazilian, or, as it is sometimes called in Europe, the Lisbon sarsaparilla, is less used in the United States than in Europe, where it has commanded a higher price. It has recently, however, been imported in considerable quantities. It comes from the ports of Para and Maranham, in cylindrical bundles of from three to five feet in length, by about a foot in thickness, bound about by close circular turns of a very flexible stem, and consisting of unfolded roots, destitute of caudex (rhizoma) and stems, and having few radical fibres. It is the variety of which Hancock speaks as celebrated throughout South America by the name of sarsa of the Rio Negro, and is considered as the most valuable variety of the drug. It is distinguished by the amylaceous character of its interior structure, and has considerable acrimony. It was said by Martius to be derived from the Smilax syphilitica ; but Dr. Hancock considers that portion of it which comes from the Rio Negro, and is shipped at Para, as the product of an undescribed species, certainly not the S. syphilitica. According to Richard, it has been ascertained to be the product of the S. papyracea of Poiret. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 277.) Much sarsaparilla has been imported into England from Lima, Valparaiso, and other places on the Pacific coast of South America. It is described by Pereira as bearing a close resemblance to Jamaica sarsaparilla, but yielding a smaller proportion of extract. It is in bundles of about three feet long and nine inches thick, consisting of the roots folded with their heads or rhizoma attached. The epidermis is brown or grayish-brown. Sometimes roots of a light clay colour are found in the bundles. Properties. The dried sarsaparilla roots are several feet in length, about the thickness of a goose-quill, cylindrical, more or less wrinkled longitudi- nally, flexible, and composed of a thick exterior cortical portion, covered with PART I. Sarsaparilla. 637 a thin easily separable epidermis, of an inner layer of ligneous fibre, and of a central pith. The epidermis is of various colours, generally ash-coloured grayish-brown, or reddish-brown, and sometimes very dark. The cortical portion is in some specimens whitish, in others brown, and not unfrequently of a pink or rosy hue. It is occasionally white, brittle, and almost powdery like starch. The woody part is usually very thin, and composed of longitu- dinal fibres, which allow the root to be split with facility through its whole length. The central medulla often abounds in starch. Sarsaparilla in its ordinary state is nearly or quite inodorous, but in decoc- tion acquires a decided and peculiar smell. To the taste it is mucilaginous and very slightly bitter, and, when chewed for some time, produces a dis- agreeable acrid impression which remains long in the mouth and fauces. The root is efficient in proportion as it possesses this acrimony, which is said by some authors to be confined to the cortical portion, while the ligneous fibre and medullary matter are insipid and inert. Hancock avers that all parts are equally acrid and efficacious. The truth is probably between the two extremes; and, as in most medicinal roots, it must be admitted that the bark is more powerful than the interior portions, while these are not wholly in- active. The virtues of the root are communicated to water cold or hot, but are impaired by long boiling. (See Decoctum Sarsaparillae). They are extracted also by diluted alcohol. According to Hancock, the whole of the active principle is not extracted by water. He observes in his paper upon sarsaparilla, published in the London Medico-Botanical Transactions, when speaking of the sarsaparilla from Para and the Rio Negro, "after exhausting half a pound of this sort by two digestions, boiling and pressure, I added to the dregs half a pint of proof spirit, and digested this with a gentle heat for a few hours in a close vessel, then affusing hot water to the amount of that taken off from the first boiling, and pressing again, I procured by the last operation about four pints of an infusion which possessed the acrid proper- ties of the sarsa in a much higher degree even than that obtained by the first decoction with simple water." It appears that in South America it is the custom to prepare sarsaparilla by digestion in wine or spirit, or by infusion in water with additions which may produce the vinous fermentation, and thus add alcohol to the menstruum. The same result, as to the superior efficacy of alcohol as a solvent of the acrid principle of sarsaparilla, has been obtained by the French experimentalists. (Soubeiran, Journ. de Pharm., xvi. 38.) According to M. Thubeuf, sarsaparilla contains, 1. a peculiar crystalline substance, which is probably the active principle of the root, 2. a colouring substance, 3. resin, 4. starch, 5. lignin, 6. a thick, aromatic fixed oil, 7. a waxy substance, and 8. chloride of potassium and nitrate of potassa. It is said also to contain a minute proportion of volatile oil, and Batka found gum, bassorin, albumen, gluten and gliadine, lactic and acetic acids, and various salts. The proportion of starch is large. Sarsaparillin. (Smilacin. Pariglin. Salseparine. Parillinic acid.) The crystalline principle in which the virtues of sarsaparilla reside should be called sarsaparillin. It was first discovered by Dr. Palotta, who described it in 1824 under the name of pariglin. Subsequently, M. Folchi supposed that he hadfound another principle which he called smilacin. In 1831, M.Thubeuf announced the discovery of a new substance in sarsaparilla which he named salseparine, from the French name of the root. Finally, Batka, a German chemist, towards the end of 1833, published an account of a principle which he had discovered in the root, and which, under the impression that it pos- sessed acid properties, he called parillinic acid. M. Poggiale, however, has 55 638 Sarsaparilla. PART I. shown that these substances are identical, though procured by different pro- cesses. The process of M. Thubeuf, which is decidedly preferable to the others, is the following. The root is treated with hot alcohol till deprived of taste. The tincture thus obtained is submitted to distillation, and seven- eighths of the alcohol drawn off. The remainder is treated with animal char- coal, and filtered at the end of twenty-four or forty-eight hours. The sarsa- parillin is deposited in the form of a granular powder. This is dissolved in a fresh portion of alcohol and crystallized. The alcoholic mother liquors may be deprived of that portion of the principle which they retain by evapo- rating to dryness, dissolving the product in water, filtering,again evaporating to dryness, redissolving in alcohol, and crystallizing. Sarsaparillin is white, inodorous, almost tasteless in the solid state, but of a bitter, acrid, nauseous taste, when dissolved in alcohol or water. It is very slightly soluble in cold water, but is more readily dissolved by boiling water which deposits it on cooling. It is very soluble in alcohol, especially at a boiling temperature. Ether and the volatile oils also dissolve it. Water which holds it in solution has the property of frothing very much by agitation. M. Beral states that he has procured it pure by distilling, by means of a salt-water bath, a tincture of sarsaparilla prepared with very dilute alcohol. In that case it must be con- sidered volatile, and we can readily understand why sarsaparilla suffers in decoction. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xii. 245, from Journ. de Chim. Med.) The solutions of sarsaparillin are without acid or alkaline reaction. Batka erred in considering it an acid. M. Poggiale found it both in the cortical and medullary part of the root, but most largely in the former. Palotta gave it internally in doses varying from two to thirteen grains, and found it to produce nausea, and to diminish the force of the circulation. It is proba- bly the principle upon which sarsaparilla depends chiefly, if not exclusively, for its remedial powers. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 553 and 679.) The sarsaparilla of the shops is very apt to be nearly if not quite inert, either from age, or from having been obtained from an inferior species of Smilax. This inequality of the medicine, together with the improper modes of preparing it which have been long in vogue, has probably contributed to its variable reputation. The only criterion of good sarsaparilla which can be relied on is the taste. If it leave a decidedly acrid impression in the mouth after having been chewed for a short time, it may be considered efficient; if otherwise, it is probably inert. Medical Properties and Uses. Few medicines have undergone greater changes of reputation. About the middle of the sixteenth century it was introduced into Europe as a remedy for the venereal complaint, in the treat- ment of which it had been found very useful in the recent Spanish settle- ments in the West Indies. After a time it fell into disrepute, and was little employed till about a century ago, when it was again brought into notice by Sir William Fordyce and others, as a useful adjuvant and corrigent of mercury in lues venerea. Since that period very different opinions have been entertained of its efficacy. Some, among whom was Dr. Cullen, considered it wholly inert; others, on the contrary, have had the most unbounded confidence in its powers. The probable cause of much of this discrepancy has been already mentioned. Experience, both among regular practitioners and empirics, would seem to have placed its efficiency beyond reasonable doubt. Its most extensive and useful application is to the treat- ment of secondary syphilis and syphiloid diseases, and that shattered state of the system which sometimes follows the imprudent use of mercury in these affections. It is also employed, though with less obvious benefit, in chronic rheumatism, scrofulous affections, certain cutaneous diseases, and part i. Sassafras Medulla.—Sassafras Radicis Cortex. 639 other depraved conditions of the general health, to which the physician may find it difficult to apply a name. Its mode of action is less evident than its ultimate effects. It is said to increase the perspiration and urine ; but allow- ing it to possess this power, the amount of effect is too trifling to explain its influence over disease ; and the diaphoretic and diuretic action which it appears to evince, may perhaps be as justly ascribed to the medicines with which it is generally associated, or the liquid in which it is exhibited. In this ignorance of its precise modus operandi we may call it an alterative, as we call all those medicines which change existing morbid actions, without obvious influence over any of the functions. Sarsaparilla may be given in powder, in the dose of half a drachm three or four times a day. Dr. Hewson, of Philadelphia, stated to us, as the result of his observation, that few stomachs would bear comfortably more than this quantity of the powder. The medicine, however, is more conveniently administered in the form of infusion, decoction, syrup, or extract. (See the several officinal preparations in Part II.) A beer made by fermenting an infusion of the drug with molasses, is said to be a popular remedy in South America.* Off.Prep. Decoctum Sarsaparillas Compositum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Decoctum Sarzas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Sarsaparillas, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Extractum Sarsaparillas Fluidum. Dub., Ed.; Infusum Sarsa- parillas, U. S.; Infusum Sarsaparillas Comp., Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillas, Dub., Lond., Ed.; Syrupus Sarsaparillas Comp., U. S. W. SASSAFRAS MEDULLA. U.S. Sassafras Pith. "The pith of the stems of Laurus Sassafras." U. S. SASSAFRAS RADICIS CORTEX. U.S. Bark of Sassafras Root. " The bark of the root of Laurus Sassafras." U. S. Off. Syn. SASSAFRAS. Laurus Sassafras. Radix. Lond.; SASSA FRAS. Root of Sassafras officinale. Ed.; SASSAFRAS. LAURUS SAS- SAFRAS.'Lignum. Radix. Dub. Sassafras, Fr., Germ.; Sassafras, Sassafrasso, Ital; Sasafras, Span. In the new distribution of the species composing the genus Laurus of Lin- nasus, the sassafras tree has been made the type of a new genus, denomi- nated Sassafras, which should have been admitted in our Pharmacopoeia; as the new arrangement was recognised in the adoption of the genus Cinna- momum. Sassafras. Sex. Syst. Enneandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Lauraceas. Gen. Ch. Dioecious. Calyx six-parted, membranous; segments equal, * The following is a formula recommended by Hancock. " Take of Rio Negro sarsa, bruised, 21b.; bark of guaiac, powdered, 8oz.; raspings of guaiac wood, anise seeds, and liquorice root, each 4oz.; mezereon, bark of the root, 2oz.; treacle [molasses] 21b.; and a dozen bruised cloves; pour upon these ingredients about four gallons of boiling water, and shake the vessel tbrice a day. When fermentation has well begun, it is fit for use, and may be taken in the dose of a small tumblerful twice or thrice a day." This formula is worthy of attention; but the bark of guaiacum, which is not kept in the shops, might be omitted, or replaced by the wood. 640 Sassafras Radicis Cortex. PART I. permanent at the base. Males. Fertile stamens nine, in three rows, the three inner with double stalked distinct glands at the base. Anthers linear, four-celled, all looking inwards. Females, with as many sterile stamens as the males or fewer; the inner often confluent. Fruit succulent, placed on the thick fleshy apex of the peduncle, and seated in the torn unchano-ed calyx. (Lindley.) Sassafras officinale. Nees, Laurin. 488.—Laurus Sassafras. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 485; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 142; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. ii. 144. This is an indigenous tree of middling size, rising in favourable situations from thirty to fifty feet in height, with a trunk about a foot in diameter. In the Southern States it is sometimes larger, and in the northern parts of New England is little more than a shrub. The bark which covers the stem and large branches is rough, deeply furrowed, and grayish; that of the extreme branches or twigs is smooth and beautifully green. The leaves which are alternate, petiolate, and downy when young, vary much in their form and size even upon the same tree. Some are oval and entire, others have a lobe on one side; but the greater number are three-lobed. Their mean length is four or five inches. The flowers, which are frequently dioe- cious, and appear before the leaves, are small, of a pale yellowish-green colour, and disposed in racemes which spring from the branches below the leaves, and have linear bractes at their base. The corolla is divided into six oblong segments. The male flowers have nincstamens ; the hermaphrodite, which are on a different plant, have only six, with a simple style. The fruit is an oval drupe, about as large as a pea, of a deep blue colour when ripe, and supported on a red pedicel, which enlarges at the extremity into a cup for its reception. The sassafras is common throughout the United States, and extends into Mexico. It is said also to grow in Brazil and Cochin-China; but the plants observed in these places were probably not of the same species. In this country the sassafras is found both in woods and open places, and is apt to spring up in the neighbourhood of cultivation, and in neglected or abandoned fields. In Pennsylvania and New York, it blooms in the beginning of May; but much earlier at the South. The fresh flowers have a slightly fragrant odour, and almost all parts of the plant are more or less aromatic. The wood and root are directed by the British Pharmacopoeias, the bark of the root, and the pith of the twigs or extreme branches, by that of the United States. The wood is porous, light, fragile, whitish in the young tree, red- dish in the old, and but feebly endowed with aromatic properties. It is sent to Europe in billets invested with the bark; but is not employed in this country. The root is more commonly exported, and is the part chiefly used in British pharmacy. It consists of a brownish-white wood, covered with a spongy bark divisible into layers. The latter portion is by far the most active, and is usually kept in our shops in a separate state. 1. Sassafras Pith. This is in slender cylindrical pieces, very light and fPorigy> with a mucilaginous taste, having in a slight degree the character- istic flavour of the sassafras. It abounds in a gummy matter which it readily imparts to water, forming a limpid mucilage, which, though ropy and viscid, has much less tenacity than that of gum Arabic, and will not answer as a substitute in the suspension of insoluble substances. It differs also from solutions of ordinary gum, in remaining perfectly limpid when added to alcohol. This mucilage is much employed as a mild and soothing applica- tion in inflammation of the eyes ; and forms a pleasant and useful drink in dysenteric, catarrhal, and nephritic diseases. It may be prepared by adding a drachm of the pith to a pint of boiling water. part i. Sassafras Radicis Cortex.—Scammonium. 641 2. Bark of Sassafras Root. As found in the shops, this is usually in small irregular fragments, sometimes invested with a brownish epidermis, sometimes partially or wholly freed from it, of a reddish or rusty cinnamon hue, very brittle, and presenting when freshly broken a lighter colour than that of the exposed surfaces. Its odour is highly fragrant, its taste sweetish, and gratefully aromatic. These properties are extracted by water and alcohol. They reside in a volatile oil which may be obtained separate by distillation with water. (See Oleum Sassafras.) According to Dr. Reinsch, the bark contains a heavy and light volatile oil, camphorous matter, fatty matter, resin, wax, a peculiar principle resembling tannic acid, called sassafrid, tannic acid, gum, albumen, starch, red colouring matter, lignin, and salts. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 159, from Buchner's Repertorium.) Medical Properties and Uses. The bark of sassafras root is stimulant, and perhaps diaphoretic, though its possession of. any peculiar tendency to the skin, independently of its mere excitant property, is quite doubtful. It is used almost exclusively as an adjuvant to other more efficient medicines, the flavour of which it improves,- while it renders them more cordial to the stomach. The complaints for which it has been particularly recommended, are chronic rheumatism, cutaneous eruptions, and scorbutic and syphiloid affections. As a remedy in lues venerea, in which it formerly had a high reputation, it is now universally considered as in itself wholly inefficient. It is most conveniently administered in the form of infusion. The oil may also be given. As the active principle is volatile, the decoction and extract are useless preparations. Off. Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Decoctum Guaiaci Composi- tum, Dub., Ed.; Decoctum Sarsaparillas Compositum, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oleum Sassafras, U.S., Ed., Dub. W. SCAMMONIUM. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Scammony. "The concrete juice of the root of Convolvulus Scammonia." U.S. "Convolvulus Scammonea. Gummi-resina." Lond., Dub. "Gummy- resinous exudation from incisions into the root of Convolvulus Scammo- nia." Ed. Scammonee, Fr.; Scammonium, Germ.: Scamonea, Ital; Escamonea, Span. Convolvulus. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Convol- vulaceae. Gen. Ch. Corolla campanulate. Style one. Stigmas two, linear-cylin- drical, often revolute. Ovary two-celled, four-seeded. Capsule two-celled. (Lindley.) Convolvulus Scammonia. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 845; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 243. t. 86. This species of Convolvulus has a perennial, tapering root, from three to four feet long, from nine to twelve inches in circumference, branching towards its lower extremity, covered with a light-gray bark, and containing a milky juice. The stems are numerous, slender, and twining, extending sometimes to the distance of fifteen or twenty feet upon the ground, or on neighbouring plants, and furnished with smooth, bright green, arrow-shaped leaves, which stand alternately upon long footstalks. The flowers are placed in pairs, or three together upon the peduncles, which are round, axillary, solitary, and of nearly twice the length of the leaf. The plant is a native of Syria and the neighbouring countries. No part is medicinal except the root, which, when dried, was found by Dr. Russel 55* 642 Scammonium. PART I. to be a mild cathartic. Scammony is the concrete juice of the fresh root, and is collected, according to Russel, in the following manner. In the month of June, the earth is cleared away from about the root, the top of which is cut off obliquely about two inches from the origin of the stems. The milkv juice which exudes is collected in shells, or other convenient receptacle, placed at the most depending part of the cut surface. A few drachms only are collected from each root. The juice from several plants is put into any convenient vessel, and concretes by time. In this state it constitutes genuine scammony, but is very seldom exported. It is generally prepared for the market by admixture, while it is yet soft, with the expressed juice of the stalks and leaves, with wheat flour, ashes, fine sand, &c; and it has been supposed that scammony sometimes consists wholly or in great part of the expressed juice of the root, evaporated to dryness by exposure to the sun, or by artificial heat. The drug is exported chiefly from Smyrna, though small quantities are said to be sent out of the country at Alexandretta, the sea- port of Aleppo. Dr. Pereira was informed by a merchant who had re- sided in Smyrna, that it is brought upon camels in a soft state into that city, and afterwards adulterated by a set of individuals called scammony makers. The adulteration appears to be conducted in conformity with a certain understood scale, more or less foreign matter being added accord- ing to the price. The materials employed are chiefly chalk and some kind of flour or meal. Very little comparatively is exported perfectly pure. We obtain scammony either directly from Smyrna, or indirectly, through some of the Mediterranean ports. The name of Aleppo scammony was formerly given to the better kinds of the drug, and of Smyrna scammony to those of inferior quality ; the dis- tinction having probably originated in some difference in the character of the scammony obtained at these two places. But no such difference now exists ; as scammony is brought from Smyrna of every degree of purity. It is customary in this country to designate the genuine drug of whatever quality as Aleppo scammony; while the name of Smyrna scammony is given to a spurious article manufactured in the South of France, and to other factitious substitutes. It is quite time that these terms should be alto- gether abandoned. We shall treat of the drug under the heads of genuine and factitious scammony. Genuine Scammony. This is sent into commerce in drums or boxes, and is either in irregular lumps, in large solid masses of the shape of the containing vessel, into which it appears to have been introduced while yet soft, or in circular, flattish or plano-convex cakes. It seldom reaches us in an unmixed state. Formerly small portions of pure scammony were occa- sionally to be met with in Europe, contained in the shells in which the juice was collected and dried. This variety, denominated scammony in shells, is now scarcely to be found. The pure drug, as at present known in the shops of London, and occasionally brought to this country, is called virgin scam- mony. It is in irregular pieces, probably the fragments of larger and round- ish masses, often covered with a whitish-gray powder, friable and easily broken into small fragments between the fingers, with a shining grayish- green fracture soon passing into greenish-black, and exhibiting under the microscope minute air cells, and numerous gray semi-transparent splinters. It is easily pulverized, affording a pale ash-gray powder. When rubbed with water it readily forms a milky emulsion. It has a rather strong, peculiar odour, which has been compared to that of old cheese. The taste is feeble at first, and afterwards somewhat acrid, but without bitterness. It gives no evidence, when the requisite tests are applied, of the presence of PART I. Scammonium. 643 starch or carbonate of lime, leaves but a slight residue when burned, and yields about.80 per cent, of its weight to sulphuric ether. The form of scammony at present almost exclusively found in our mar- kets is that in circular cakes. These are sometimes flattish on both sides, but generally somewhat convex on one side and flat on the other, as if dried in a saucer, or other shallow vessel. They are five or six inches in diame- ter, and from half an inch to an inch and a half, or even two inches thick in the centre. As found in the retail shops, they are usually in fragments. They are hard and heavy, with a faintly shining roughish fracture; and when broken exhibit in general a structure very finely porous, sometimes almost compact, and in a very few instances cavernous. Their colour ex- ternally is a dark ash or dark olive, or slate colour approaching to black; internally somewhat lighter, and grayish, with an occasional tinge of green or yellow, but deepening by exposure. The small fragments are sometimes slightly translucent at the edges. The mass, though hard, is puiverizable without great difficulty, and affords a light gray powder. It imparts to water with which it is triturated a greenish milky appearance. The smell is rather disagreeable, and similar to that of the pure drug. The taste, very slight at first, becomes feebly bitterish and acrid. This kind of scammony is never quite pure, and much of it is considerably adulterated. One of the finest specimens effervesced strongly with muriatic acid, in cold filtered decoction struck a deep blue with iodine, and afforded upon incineration 15 per cent. of ashes, which were dissolved by muriatic acid, and precipitated by sul- phuric acid as sulphate of lime. In some of the cakes carbonate of lime is the chief impurity; in others the adulterating substance is probably meal, as evi- dences of the presence of starch and lignin are afforded; and in others again both these substances are found. Christison discovered in the chalky speci- mens a proportion of carbonate of lime varying from 15 to 38 per cent.; in the amylaceous, from 13 to 42 per cent, of impurity. It was probably to the flat, dark-coloured, compact, difficultly puiverizable, and more impure cakes that the name of Smyrna scammony was formerly given. These have been considered by some, without sufficient grounds, to be the product of the Periploca Secamone, a plant growing in Egypt.* * Dr. Pereira, in his work on Materia Medica, describes the varieties of scammony as they exist in the London market. As these have interest for the druggist, we introduce a notice of them. 1. Virgin Scammony. Pure Scammony. Lachryma Scammony. The description of this corresponds with that of pure scammony given in the text. In addition, the following particulars may be mentioned. The whitish powder often found upon the surface effer- vesces with muriatic acid, and consists of chalk, in which the lumps have probably been rolled. The sp. gr. of the masses is 1-210. In the same piece it sometimes happens that certain portions are shining and black, while others are dull-grayish. Virgin scam- mony readily takes fire, and burns with a yellowish flame. This variety is now much more abundant in the shops of London than formerly. 2. Scammony of second quality. This is called seconds in commerce. It is in two forms. 1. In irregular pieces. This, in external appearance, brittleness, odour, and taste, resembles virgin scammony; but is distinguished by its greater sp. gr., which is 1*463, by its dull, very slightly shining fracture, and its grayish colour. The freshly broken surface effervesces with muriatic acid, but the cold decoction does not give a blue colour with iodine. It, therefore, contains chalk, but not fecula. 2. In large regular masses. This has the form of the drum or box in which it was imported, and into which it was probably introduced while soft. It has a dull grayish fracture, and the sp. gr. 1-359. It exhibits, with the appropriate tests, evidence of the presence both of chalk and fecula. It is sometimes found of a soft or cheesy consistence. 3. Scammony of third quality. This is called thirds in commerce. It is in circular flat cakes, about five inches in diameter and one inch thick. The cakes are dense, heavy, and more difficult to break than the preceding varieties. The fracture is sometimes 644 Scammonium. PART I. Scammony is ranked among the gum-resins. It is partially dissolved by water, much more largely by alcohol and ether, and almost entirely, when pure, by boiling diluted alcohol. Its active ingredient is resin, which con- stitutes about 80 per cent, of pure dry scammony. The gum-resin has been analyzed by various chemists, but the results are somewhat uncertain; as the character of the specimens examined is insufficiently determined by the terms Aleppo and Smyrna scammony, employed to designate them. Thus, Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel obtained, from 100 parts of Aleppo scammony, 60 of resin, 3 of gum, 2 of extractive, and 35 of insoluble matter; from the same quantity of Smyrna scammony, 29 parts of resin, 8 of gum, 5 of ex- tractive, and 58 of vegetable remains and earthy substances. It is obvious that both the specimens upon which they operated were very impure. Mar- quart found in pure scammony (scammony in shells) 81*25 per cent, of resin, 3*00 of gum with salts, 0*75 of wax, 4*50 of extractive, 1*75 of starchy envelopes, bassorin, and gluten, 1*50 of albumen and lignin, 3*75 of ferrugi- nous alumina, chalk,and carbonate of magnesia, and 3*50 of sand. Christison found different specimens of pure scammony to contain, in 100 parts, from 77 to 83 parts of resin, from 6 to 8 of gum, from 3*2 to 5 of lignin and sand, and from 7*2 to 12*6 of water, with occasionally a little starch, probably derived accidentally from the root, and not in sufficient quantity to cause a cold decoction of the gum-resin to give a blue colour with iodine. For the character of the resin, see Extractum sive Resina Scammonii. As already stated, scammony is seldom or never quite pure as found in our shops. Much of it contains not more than 50 per cent, of the resin, and some not more than 42 per cent.* The Edinburgh College gives the following signs of pure scammony. "Fracture glistening, almost resinous, if the specimen be old and dry; muriatic acid does not cause effervescence on its surface ; the decoction of its powder, filtered and cooled, is not rendered blue by tincture of iodine. Sulphuric ether separates at least eighty per cent, of resin dried at 280°." Effervescence with muriatic acid indicates the presence of chalk, a blue colour with iodine that of starch in the form of flour. Factitious Scammony. Montpellier Scammony. Much spurious scam- mony is manufactured, in the South of France, from the expressed juice of the Cynanchum Monspeliacum, incorporated with various resins, and other purgative substances. It is occasionally imported into the United States, resinous and shining, sometimes dull, and exhibits air cavities, and numerous white specks, which consist of chalk. The colour is grayish, or grayish-black. . The sp. gr. varies from 1-276 to 1-543. Both chalk and flour are detected'by tests. In five different cakes, the-quantity of chalk employed in the adulteration was stated by the importer to be, in 100 parts of the cakes respectively, 13-07, 23-1, 25-0, 31*05, and 37-54, numbers which correspond very closely, in the two extremes, with the results obtained by, Christi- son. This is the variety of scammony referred to in the text as the one chiefly used in the United States. * The following table is given by Dr. Christison as the result of his examination of different specimens of impure commercial scammony. Calcareoi is. Amylaceous. Calcareo-amylaceous. Resin, 64-6 56-6 43-3 37-0 62-0 , 42-4 Gum, 6-8 5-0 8-2 9-0 7-2 7-8 Chalk, 17-G 25-0 31-6 _ ^_ 18-6 Fecula, — 1-4 4-0 20-0 10-4 13-2 Lignin and sand, 5-2 7-1 7-8 22-2 13-4 9-4 Water, 6-4 5-2 6-4 12-0 7-5 10-4 --- --. ,___ __ ___ 1 100-6 100-3 101-3 100-2 100-5 101-8 PART I. Scammonium.—Scilla. 645 and sold as Smyrna scammony. It is usually in flat semicircular cakes, four or five inches in diameter, and six or eight lines thick, blackish both externally and within, very hard, compact, rather heavy, of a somewhat shining and resinous fracture, a feeble balsamic odour wholly different from that of genuine scammony, and a very bitter nauseous taste. When rubbed with the moistened finger it becomes dark-gray, unctuous, and tenacious. We have seen another substance sold as Smyrna scammony, which was obviously spurious, consisting of blackish, circular, flat cakes, or fragments of such cakes, rather more than half an inch thick, very light, penetrated with small holes as if worm-eaten, and when broken exhibiting an irregular, cellular, spongy texture. There is very little, if any, of this now in the market. Dr. Pereira describes another factitious scammony sold as Smyrna scammony, which is in circular flat cakes, about half an inch thick, blackish, and of a slaty aspect, breaking with difficulty, of a dull black fracture, and of the sp. gr. 1-412. Moistened and rubbed it has the smell of guaiac, which may also be detected by chemical tests. Medical Properties and Uses. Scammony is an energetic cathartic, apt to occasion griping, and sometimes operating with harshness. ' It was known to the ancient Greek physicians, and was much employed by the Arabians, who not only gave it as a purgative, but also applied it externally for the cure of various cutaneous diseases. It may be used in all cases of torpid bowels, when a powerful impression is desired; but on account of its occasional vio- lence is seldom administered, except in combination with other cathartics, the action of which it promotes, while its own harshness is mitigated. It should be given in emulsion with mucilage, sugar, almonds, liquorice, or other demulcent; and its disposition to gripe may be counteracted by the addition of an aromatic. The dose is from five to fifteen grains of pure scammony, from ten to twenty of that commonly found in the market. Off. Prep. Confectio Scammonii, Lond., Dub.; Extractum Colocyn- thidis Compositum, U. S., Lond.; Extractum sive Resina Scammonii, Ed.; Pilulas Colocynthidis Comp.,Dub., Ed.; Pulvis Scammonii Comp.,Lond., Ed., Dub. W. SCILLA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Squill. "The bulb of Scilla maritima." U.S., Ed. "Scilla maritima. Bulbus tbcbtis Loyxclm Off Syn. SCILLA MARITIMA. Bulbus. Dub. Scille, Fr.; Meerzvviebel, Germ.; Scilla, Ital; Cebolla albarrana, Span. Scilla. Sex. Syst. Hexandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Liliaceas. Gin. Ch. Corolla six-petaled, spreading, deciduous. Filaments thread- like. Willd. Scilla maritima. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 125; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 745. t. 255.—Squilla maritima. Steinheil; Lindley. Flor. Med. p. 591. This is a perennial plant, with fibrous roots proceeding from the bottom of a large bulb, which sends forth several long, lanceolate, pointed, somewhat undu- lated, shining, deep-green leaves. From the midst of the leaves a round, smooth, succulent flower-stem rises, from one to three feet high, terminating in a long, close spike of whitish flowers. These are destitute of calyx, and stand on purplish peduncles, at the base of each of which is a linear, twisted, deciduous floral leaf. The squill grows on the seacoast of Spain, France,Italy, Greece, and the 646 Scilla. PART I. other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The bulb is the officinal portion. It is generally dried for use; but is sometimes imported into this country in the recent state packed in sand. Properties. The fresh bulb is pear-shaped, usually larger than a man's fist, sometimes as large as the head of a child, and consisting of fleshy scales attenuated at their edges, closely applied over each other, and invested by exterior scales so thin and dry as to appear to constitute a membranous coat. There are two varieties, distinguished as the red and white squill. In the former, the exterior coating is of a deep reddish-brown colour, and the inner scales have a whitish rosy or very light pink epidermis, with a yellowish- white parenchyma; in the latter, the whole bulb is white. They do not differ in their medicinal virtues. The bulb abounds in a viscid, very acrid juice, which causes it to inflame and even excoriate the skin when much handled. By drying, this acrimony is very much diminished, with little loss of medicinal power. The bulb loses about four-fifths of its weight in the process. Vogel found 100 parts of fresh squill to be reduced to 18 by desiccation. The process is somewhat difficult, in consequence of the abundance and viscid character of the juice. The bulb is cut into thin trans- verse slices, and the pieces dried separately by artificial or solar heat. The outer and central scales are rejected, the former being dry.and destitute of the active principle, the latter too fleshy and mucilaginous^ The London College gives directions for the slicing and drying of the recent bulb. Dried squill, as found in our shops, is in irregular oblong pieces, often more or less contorted, of a dull yellowish-white colour with a reddish or rosy tint, sometimes entirely white, slightly diaphanous, brittle and puiver- izable when perfectly dry, but often flexible from the presence of moisture, for which they have a great affinity. Occasionally a parcel will be found consisting of vertical slices, some of which adhere together at their base. The odour is very feeble, the taste bitter, nauseous, and acrid. The virtues of squill are extracted by water, alcohol, and vinegar. Ac- cording to Vogel, it contains a peculiar very bitter principle named by him scillitin, gum, tannin, traces of citrate of lime and saccharine matter, lignin, and an acrid principle which he was unable to isolate. Water distilled from it had neither taste nor smell, and was drunk by Vogel to the amount of six ounces without producing any effect. From the experiments of Duncan and Buchner it appears that tannin, if it exists in squill, is in very small proportion. The scillitin of Vogel is soluble in water, alcohol, and vinegar; but it is considered by M. Tilloy, of Dijon, whose analysis is more recent, to be a compound of the proper active principle of squill with gum and uncrys- tallizable sugar. The scillitin, obtained by the latter experimenter, was in- soluble in water and dilute acids, soluble in alcohol, exceedingly acrid and bitter to the taste, and very powerful in its influence on the animal system. A single grain produced the death of a strong dog. The following is the process of M. Tilloy. Dried squill is macerated in alcohol of 33° Baume, the resulting tincture evaporated to the consistence of syrup, and the extract treated with alcohol of 35°. The alcoholic solution is evaporated, and the residue treated first with ether and subsequently with water. The aqueous solution, filtered and evaporated, yields a substance analogous to the scillitin of Vogel. To obtain the principle pure, the aqueous solution is treated with animal charcoal before evaporation. The matter obtained is dissolved in alcohol, ether is added to precipitate the sugar, and the active principle remains in the mixed liquor, from which it may be obtained by evaporation. According to M. Tilloy, this proceeding should be repeated several times. (Diet, des Drogues.) M. Chevallier thinks that the active principle of PART I. Scilla.—Scoparius. 647 squill has not yet been entirely isolated. Landerer obtained a crystalline principle from fresh squill, by treating the bruised bulb with dilute sulphuric acid, concentrating the solution, neutralizing it with lime, drying the pre- cipitate, exhausting this with alcohol, and evaporating the tincture, which, on cooling, deposited the substance in question in prismatic crystals. It is bitter, but not acrid, insoluble in water or the volatile oils, slightly soluble in alcohol, and, according to Landerer, capable of neutralizing the acids. (Christison's Dispensatory.) When kept in a dry place, squill retains its virtues for a long time ; but if exposed to moisture it soon becomes mouldy. Medical Properties and Uses. Squill is expectorant, diuretic, and in large doses emetic and purgative. In over-doses it has been known to occasion hypercatharsis, strangury, bloody urine, and fatal inflammation of the stomach and bowels. The Greek physicians employed it as a medi- cine; and it has retained to the present period a deserved popularity. As an expectorant, it is used both in cases of deficient and of superabundant secretion from the bronchial mucous membrane; in the former case usually combined with tartar emetic or ipecacuanha, in the latter frequently with the stimulant expectorants. In both instances, it operates by stimulating the vessels of the lungs; and, where the inflammatory action in this organ is considerable, as in pneumonia and severe catarrh, the use of squill should be preceded by the lancet. In dropsical diseases it is very much employed, especially in connexion with calomel, which is supposed to excite the ab- sorbents, while the squill increases the secretory action of the kidneys. It is thought to succeed best, in these complaints, in the absence of general inflammatory excitement. On account of its great uncertainty and occa- sional harshness, it is very seldom prescribed as an emetic, except in infantile croup or catarrh, in which it is usually given in the form of syrup or oxymel. When given in substance, it is most conveniently administered in the form of pill. The dose, as a diuretic or expectorant, is one grain repeated two or three times a day, and gradually increased till it produces slight nausea, or evinces its action upon the kidneys or lungs. From six to twelve grains will generally vomit. Off. Prep. Acetum Scillae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pilulae Digitalis et Scillas, Ed.; Pil. Ipecacuanhas Compositas, Lond.; Pil. Scillas Comp., U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Scillae, U. S.. Ed.; Syrupus Scillae Comp., U. S.; Tinctura Scillas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. SCOPARIUS. U. S, Secondary, Lond. Broom. "The fresh tops of Cytisus Scoparius." U. S. "Cytisus Scoparius. Ca- cumina recentia." Lond. Off. Syn. SCOPARIUM. Tops of Cytisus Scoparius. Ed.; SPARTI- UM SCOPARIUM. Cacumina. Dub. Genet a barais, Fr.; Gemeine Besenginster, Germ.; Scoparia, Ital; Retama, Span. Cytisus. Sex. Syst. Diadelphia Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Fabaceas or Leguminosas. Gen. Ch. Calyx bilabiate, upper lip generally entire, lower somewhat three-toothed. Vexillum ovate, broad. Carina very obtuse, enclosing the stamens and pistils. Stamens monadelphous. Legume piano-compressed, many-seeded, not glandular. (De Cand.) Cytisus Scoparius. DeCand. Prodrom. ii. 154.—Spartium Scoparium. 648 Scoparius.—Scrophularia Nodosa. part i. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 933; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 413. t. 150. This is a common European shrub, cultivated in our gardens, from three to eight feet high, with numerous straight, pentangular, bright-green, very flexible branches, and small, oblong, downy leaves, which are usually ternate, but on the upper part of the plant are sometimes simple. The flowers are numerous, papilionaceous, large, showy, of a golden-yellow colour, and supported solitarily upon short axillary peduncles. The seeds are con- tained in a compressed legume, which is hairy at the sutures. The whole plant has a bitter nauseous taste, and, when bruised, a strong peculiar odour. The tops of the branches are the officinal portion; but the seeds are also used, and, while they possess similar virtues, have the ad- vantage of keeping better. Water and alcohol extract their active properties. Medical Properties and Uses. Broom is diuretic and cathartic, and in large doses emetic, and has been employed with great asserted advantage in dropsical complaints, in which it was recommended by Mead, Cullen, and others. Cullen prescribed it in the form of decoction made by boiling half an ounce of the fresh tops in a pint of water down to half a pint, of which he gave a fluidounce every hour till it operated by stool or urine. It is a domestic remedy in Great Britain, but is seldom used in this country. The seeds may be given in powder, in the dose of ten or fifteen grains. Off. Prep. Decoctum Scoparii Compositum, Lond., Ed.; Extractum Spartii Scoparii, Dub.; Infusum Scoparii, Lond. W. SCROPHULARIA NODOSA. Folia. Dub. Figwort Leaves. Scrophulaire noueuse, Fr.; Braunwurzel, Germ.; Scrofolaria nodosa, Ital; Escrofula- ria, Span. Scrophularia. Sex. Syst. Didynamia Angiospermia.—Nat. Ord. Scro- phulariaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla subglobular, resupine. Capsule two- celled. Willd. Scrophularia nodosa. Willd. Sp.Plant, iii. 270; Smith, Flor.Brit. 663. The root of the knotty rooted figwort is perennial, tuberous, and knotty; the stem is herbaceous, erect, quadrangular, smooth, branching, and from two to three feet high; the leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate cordate, pointed, sharply toothed, veined, and of a deep-green colour; the flowers are small, dark purple, slightly drooping, and borne on branching pedun- cles in erect terminal bunches. The plant is a native of Europe, where it grows in shady and moist places, and flowers in July. The leaves, which are the part used, have when fresh a rank fetid odour, and a bitter somewhat acrid taste; but these properties are diminished by drying. Water extracts their virtues, forming a reddish infusion, which is blackened by the sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. Medical Properties and Uses. Figwort leaves are said to be anodyne and diuretic, and to have repellent properties when externally applied. They were formerly considered tonic, diaphoretic, discutient, anthelmintic, &c; and were thought to be useful in scrofula. They are at present very little employed, and never in this country. In Europe they are sometimes applied in the form of ointment or fomentation to piles, painful tumours and ulcers, and cutaneous eruptions. Off. Prep. Unguentum Scrophularias, Dub. W. PART I. Senega. 649 SENEGA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Seneka. " The root of Polygala Senega." U. S., Ed. " Polygala Senega. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. POLYGALA SENEGA. Radix. Dub. Polygalo de Virginie, Fr.; Klapperschlangenwurzel, Germ.; Poligala Virginiana, Ital Polygala. Sex. Syst. Diadelphia Octandria.—Nat. Ord. Polygalaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved, with two leaflets wing-shaped, and coloured. Legume obcordate, two-celled. Willd. Besides the P. Senega, two other species have attracted some attention in Europe—the P. amara and P. vulgaris—as remedies in chronic pectoral affections; but as they are not natives of this country, and are never used by practitioners here, they do not merit particular notice. Polygala Senega. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 894; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 97; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 111. This unostentatious plant has a peren- nial branching root, from which several erect, simple, smooth, round, leafy stems annually rise, from nine inches to a foot in height. The stems are occasionally tinged with red or purple in their lower portion, but are green near the top. The leaves are alternate or scattered, lanceolate, pointed, smooth, bright green on the upper surface, paler beneath, and sessile or supported on very short footstalks. The flowers are small, white, and arranged in a close spike at the summit of the stem. The calyx is their most conspicuous part. It consists of five leaflets, two of which are wing-shaped, white, and larger than the others. The corolla is small and closed. The capsules are small, much compressed, obcordate, two-valved, two-celled, and contain two oblong ovate, blackish seeds, pointed at one end. This species of Polygala, commonly called Seneka snakeroot, grows wild in all parts of the United States, but most abundantly in the southern and western sections, where the root is collected in great quantities for sale. It is brought into market in bales weighing from fifty to four hundred pounds. Properties. As the root occurs in commerce, it is of various sizes, from that of a straw to that of the little finger, presenting a thick knotty head, which exhibits traces of the numerous stems. It is tapering, branched, variously twisted, often marked with crowded annular protuberances, and with a projecting keel-like line, extending along its whole length. The epidermis is corrugated, transversely cracked, of a yellowish-brown colour in the young roots, and brownish-gray in the old. In the smaller branches the colour is a lighter yellow. The bark is hard and resinous, and con- tains the active principles of the root. The central portion is ligneous, white, and quite inert, and should be rejected in the preparation of the powder. The colour of this is gray. The odour of seneka is peculiar, strong in the fresh root, but faint in the dried. The taste is at first sweetish and mucilaginous, but after chewing becomes somewhat pungent and acrid, leaving a peculiar irritating sensation in the fauces. These properties, as well as the medical virtues of the root, are extracted by boiling water, and by alcohol. Diluted alcohol is an excellent solvent. The root has been ana- lyzed by Gehlen, Peschier of Geneva, Feneulle of Cambray,Dulong D'Asta- fort, Foichi, and Trommsdorff, and more recently by M. Quevenne. Gehlen was supposed to have found the active principle in the substance left behind, when the alcoholic extract is treated successively with ether and water; and the name of senegin was accordingly conferred upon it. But it does not seem to have any just claim to the rank assigned to it, though it proba- 56 650 Senega. PART I. bly contains the active principle among its constituents. From a compari- son of the results obtained by the above-mentioned chemists, it would appear that seneka contains, 1. a peculiar acrid principle, which M. Gluevenne considers to be an acid, and has named polygalic acid; 2. a yellow colouring matter, of a bitter taste, insoluble or nearly so in water, but soluble in ether and alcohol; 3. a volatile principle, considered by some as an essential oil, but thought by Gluevenne to possess acid properties, and named by him virgineic acid; 4. pectic acid or pectin; 5. tannic acid of the variety which precipitates iron green; 6. gum ; 7. albumen ; 8. cerin ; 9. fixed oil; 10. woody fibre; and 11. saline and earthy substances, as the carbonates, sulphates, and phosphates of. lime and potassa, chloride of pot- assium, alumina, magnesia, silica, and iron. The virtues of seneka ap- pear to reside chiefly, if not exclusively, in the acrid principle which M. Gluevenne called polygalic acid, and which he considered closely analogous to saponin. He obtained it pure by the following process. Powdered seneka is exhausted by alcohol of 33°, and so much of the alcohol is dis- tilled off as to bring the resulting tincture to the consistence of syrup. The residue is treated with ether, in order to remove the fatty matter. The liquid upon standing deposits a precipitate, which is separated by fil- tration, and is then mixed with water. To the turbid solution thus formed alcohol is added, which facilitates the production of a white precipitate, consisting chiefly of polygalic acid. The liquid is allowed to stand for several days, that the precipitate may be fully formed. The supernatant liquid being decanted, the precipitate is drained upon a filter, and, being removed while yet moist, is dissolved by the aid of heat jn alcohol of 36°. The solution is boiled with purified animal charcoal, and filtered while hot. Upon cooling it deposits the principle in question in a state of purity. Thus obtained, polygalic acid is a white powder, inodorous, and of a taste at first slight, but soon becoming pungent and acrid, and producing a very painful sensation in the throat. It is fixed, unalterable in the air, inflam- mable, soluble in water slowly when cold and rapidly with the aid of heat, soluble in all proportions in boiling absolute alcohol, which deposits most of it on cooling, quite insoluble in ether and in the fixed and volatile oils, and possessed of the properties of reddening litmus and neutralizing the alkalies. Its constituents are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. M. Glue- venne found it, when given to dogs, to occasion vomiting and much em- barrassment in respiration, and in large quantities to destroy life. Dissec- tion exhibited evidences of inflammation of the lungs; and frothy mucus was found in the stomach, oesophagus, and superior portion of the trachea, showing the tendency of this substance to increase the mucous secretion, and explaining in part the beneficial influence of seneka in croup. (Journ. de Pharm., xxii. 449, and xxiii. 227.) From the experiments of M. Gluevenne it also appears, that seneka yields its virtues to water, cold or hot, and to boiling alcohol; and that the extracts obtained by means of these liquids have, the sensible properties of the root. But, under the influence of heat, a portion of the acrid principle unites with the colouring matter and coagulated albumen, and thus becomes insolu- ble in water; and the decoction, therefore, is not so strong as the infusion, if time is allowed, in the formation of the latter, for the full action of the men- struum. If it be desirable to obtain the virtues of the root in the form of an extract, the infusion should be prepared on the principle of displacement; as it is thus most concentrated, and consequently requires less heat in its evapo- ration. In forming an infusion of seneka, the temperature of the water, according to M. Gluevenne, should not exceed 104° F. (Ibid.) The roots of the Panax quinquefolium or ginseng are frequently mixed PART I. Senega.—Senna. 651 with the seneka, but are easily distinguishable by their shape and taste. Another root has been occasionally observed in parcels of seneka, supposed to be that of the Gillenia trifoliata. This would be readily distinguished by its colour and shape (see Gillenia), and by its bitter taste without acrimony. Medical Properties and Uses. Seneka is a stimulating expectorant and diuretic, and in large doses proves emetic and cathartic. It appears indeed to excite more or less all the secretions, proving occasionally diaphoretic and emmenagogue, and increasing the flow of saliva. Its action, however, is more especially directed to the lungs; and its expectorant virtues are those for which it is chiefly employed. It was introduced into practice about a century ago by Dr. Tennant, of Virginia, who recommended it as a cure for the bite of the rattlesnake, and in various pectoral complaints. As an expec- torant it is employed in cases not attended with inflammatory action, or in which the inflammation has been in great measure subdued. It is peculiarly useful in chronic catarrh, humoral asthma, the secondary stages of croup, and in peripneumonia notha after sufficient depletion. By Dr. Archer, of Maryland, it was recommended in the early stages of croup; but under these circumstances it is now seldom given, unless in combination with squill and an antimoniai, as in the Syrupus Scillae Compositus. Employed so as to purge and vOmit, it has proved useful in rheumatism; and some cases of dropsy are said to have been cured by it. Amenorrhoea also is among the complaints for which it has been recommended. The dose of powdered seneka is from ten to twenty grains; but the medi- cine is more frequently administered in decoction. (See Decoctum Senegae.) There is, an officinal syrup; and an extract and tincture may be prepared, though neither is much employed. Polygalic acid may be employed in the dose of from the fourth to the half of a grain, dissolved in hot water, with the addition of gum and sugar. Off. Prep. Decoctum Senegas, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Electuarium Opii, Ed.; Infusum Senegas, Ed.; Syrupus Scillas Compositus, U. S.; Syrupus Senegas, U. S. W. SENNA. U. S., Lond., Dub. Senna. " The leaves of Cassia acutifolia (Delile), Cassia obovata (De Candolle), and Cassia elongata (Lemaire)." U.S. "Cassia lanceolata. Folia. Cassia obovata. Folia." Lond. " Cassia Senna. Folia." Dub. Off. Syn. SENNA ALEXANDRINA. Leaves of various species of Cas- sia, probably of C. lanceolata, C. acutifolia, and C obovata. SENNA IN- DICA. Leaves of Cassia elongata. Ed. Scne, Fr.; Sennesblatter, Germ.; Senna, Ital, Port.; Sen, Span. Cassia. See CASSIA FISTULA. The plants which yield senna belong to the genus Cassia, of which seve- ral species contribute to furnish the drug. These were confounded together by Linnasus in a single species, which, he named Cassia Senna. Since his time the subject has been more thoroughly, investigated, especially by Delile, who accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, and had an opportunity of examining the plant in its native country. Botanists at present distin- guish at least three species, the C. acutifolia, C. obovata, and C. elongata, as the sources of commercial senna; and it is probable that two others, the C. lanceolata of Forskhal and C. Mthiopica of Guibourt, contribute towards it. The first three are recognised by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 1. Cassia acutifolia. Delile, Flore d'Egypte. lxxv. tab. 27. f. 1—C. lan- ceolata. De Cand.; Lond. Col. This is described as a small undershrub, 652 Senna. PART I. two or three feet high, with a straight, woody, branching, whitish stem; but, according to M. Landerer, the senna plant attains the height of eight or ten feet in the African deserts, and affords the natives shelter from the sun. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 174, from Repert. fur die Pharm., xxxvii., heft 2.) The leaves are alternate and pinnate, with glandless foot- stalks, and two small narrow pointed stipules at the base. The leaflets, of which from four to six pairs belong to each leaf, are almost sessile, oval lanceolate, acute, oblique at their base, nerved, from half an inch to an inch long, and of a yellowish-green colour. The flowers are yellow, and in ax- illary spikes. The fruit is a flat, elliptical, obtuse, membranous, smooth, grayish-brown, bivalvular legume, about an inch long and half an inch broad, scarcely if at all curved, and divided into six or seven cells, each containing a hard, heart-shaped, ash-coloured seed. The C. acutifolia grows wild in great abundance in Upper Egypt near Sienne, in Nubia, Sennaar, and probably in other parts of Africa, having similar qualities of soil and climate. This species furnishes the greater part of that variety of senna, known in commerce by the title of Alexandria senna. 2. Cassia obovata. Colladon, Monographic des Casses, p. 92. tab. 15. fig. a.; De Cand., Prodrom., ii. 492. The stem of this species is rather shorter than that of the C acutifolia, rising to the height of only a foot and a half. The leaves have from five to seven pairs of leaflets, which are obovate, very obtuse, sometimes mucronate, in other respects*similar to those of the preceding species. The flowers are in axillary spikes, of which the pedun- cles are longer than the leaves of the plant. The legumes are very much compressed, curved almost into the kidney form, of a greenish-brown colour, and covered with a very short down, which is perceptible only by the aid of a magnifying glass. They contain from eight to ten seeds. The C. ob- tusata of Hayne, with obovate, truncated emarginate leaflets, is probably a mere variety of this species. The plant, which according to Merat is annual, grows wild in Syria, Egypt, and Senegambia; and is said to have been cultivated successfully in Italy, Spain, and the West Indies. It yields the variety of senna called in Europe Aleppo senna, and contributes to the pack- ages of the Alexandrian. 3. Cassia elongata. Lemaire, Journ. de Pharm., vii. 345; Fee, Journ. de Chim. Med., vi. 232. This name was conferred by M. Lemaire upon the plant from which the India senna of commerce is derived. The botanical description was completed by M. Fee, from dried specimens of the leaves and fruit found by him in unassorted parcels of this variety of senna. Dr. Wallich has subsequently succeeded in raising the plant from seeds found in a parcel of senna taken to Calcutta from Arabia; and it has been described by Dr. Royle, Wight & Arnott, and Dr. Lindley. As usually grown, it is annual; but with care it may be made to live through the year, and then assumes the character of an undershrub. It has an erect, smooth stem, and pinnate leaves, with from four to eight pairs of leaflets. These are nearly sessile, lanceolate, obscurely mucronate, oblique at the base, smooth above and somewhat downy beneath, with the veins turned inwards so as to form a wavy line immediately within the edge of the leaflet. The most striking character of the leaflet is its length, which varies from an inch to twenty lines. The petioles are without glands; the stipules minute, spreading, and semi-hastate. The flowers are bright yellow, and arranged in axillary and terminal racemes, rather longer than the leaves. The legume is oblong, membranous, tapering abruptly at the base, rounded at the apex, and an inch and a half long by somewhat more than half an inch broad. It is inferred, from the sources whence the variety of senna which this plant furnishes is brought, that it grows in the southern parts of Arabia. It is PART I. Senna. 653 said also to grow in the interior of India, and is at present cultivated at Tinnevelly for medical use. Besides the three officinal species above described, the C. lanceolata of Forskhal, found by that author growing in the deserts of Arabia, is admitted by Lindley and others as a distinct species. Some difference, however, of opinion exists as to the justice of its claims to this rank. De Candolle con- sidered it only a variety of the C. acutifolia, of Delile, from the ordinary form of which it differs chiefly in having leaflets with glandular petioles; and, as Forskhal's description was prior to that of Delile, he designates the species by the name of C. lanceolata; and his example was followed by the London College. Forskhal's plant has been supposed by some to be the source of the India and Mocha senna; but the leaflets in this variety are much longer thati those of the C. lanceolata,from which the plant differs also in having no gland on the petiole. Niebuhr informs us that he found the Alexandria senna growing in the Arabian territory of Abuarish, whence it is taken by the Arabs to Mecca and Jedda. This is probably the C. lanceolata of Forskhal. The Cassia Mthiopica of Guibourt (C. ovata of Merat), formerly con- founded with the C. acutifolia, is considered by Dr. Lindley as undoubtedly a distinct species. It grows in Nubia, Fezzan to the south of Tripoli, and probably, according to Guibourt, throughout Ethiopia. It is from this plant that the Tripoli senna of commerce is derived.* Commercial History.. Several varieties of this valuable drug are known in commerce. Of these three only have until recently been received in Ame- rica, the Alexandria, the Tripoli, and the India senna. To these the Mecca senna may now be added. 1. Alexandria Senna. Though the name of this variety is derived from the Egyptian port at which it is shipped, it is in faqt gathered very far in the interior of the country. The Alexandria senna does not. consist exclu- sively of the product of one species of Cassia. The history of its prepara- tion is not destitute of interest. The senna plants of Upper Egypt yield two crops annually, one in spring and the other in autumn. They are gathered chiefly in the country beyond Sienne. The natives cut the plants, and, having dried them in the sun, strip off the leaves and pods, which they pack, in bales, and send to Boulac, in the vicinity of Cairo, the great entrepot for this article of Egyptian commerce. This senna from Upper Egypt, consisting chiefly though not exclusively of the product of the C. acutifolia, is here mixed with the leaflets of the C. obovata, brought from other parts of Egypt, and even from Syria, with the leaves of the Cynanchum olesefolium (C. Argel of Delile), known commonly by the name of argel or arguel, and sometimes with those of the TephrosiaApollinea of De Candolle, a legu- minous plant growing in Egypt and Nubia. According to M. Royer, the * The following is the botanical description of the two species last mentioned, not hitherto oflicinally recognised. 1. C. lanceolata. Forskhal; Lindley, Flor.Med. p. 259. "Leaflets in four or five pairs, never more; oblong, and either acute or obtuse, not at all ovate or lanceolate, and per- fectly free from downiness even when young; the petioles have constantly a small round brown gland a little above the base. The pods are erect, oblong, tapering to the base, obtuse, turgid, mucronate, rather falcate, especially when young, at which time they are sparingly covered with coarse scattered hairs." (Lindley.) 2. C. JElhiopica. Guibourt, Hist. Ab. des Drogues, fyc. ii. 219; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 259. The plant is about eighteen inches high. The footstalks have a gland at the base, and another between each pair of leaflets. There are from three to five pairs of leaflets, which are pubescent, oval lanceolate, from seven to nine inches in length and three or four in breadth, rather shorter and less acute than those of C. acutifolia. The leguihe is flat, smooth, not reniform, rounded, from eleven to fifteen lines long, with from three to five seeds. 56* 654 Senna. PART I. proportions in which the three chief constituents of this mixture are added together, are five parts of the C. acutifolia, three of the C. obovata, and two of Cynanchum. Thus prepared, the senna is again packed in bales, and transmitted to Alexandria. This commercial variety of senna is often called in the French pharmaceutic works sine de lapalthe, a name derived from an impost formerly laid upon it by the Ottoman Porte. If a parcel of Alexandria senna be carefully examined, it will be found to consist of the following ingredients:—1. The leaflets of the C. acutifolia, characterized by their acute form, and their length almost always less than an inch; 2. the leaflets of the C. obovata, known by their rounded very obtuse summit, which is sometimes furnished with a small projecting point, and by their gradual diminution in breadth towards their base; 3. the pods, broken leafstalks, flowers, and fine fragments of other parts of one or both of these species ; 4. the leaves of the Cynanchum oleasfolium, which are distinguishable by their length, almost always more than an inch, their greater thickness and firmness, the absence of any visible lateral nerves on their under surface, their somewhat lighter colour, and the regularity of their base. In this last character they strikingly differ from the genuine senna leaflets, which, from whatever species derived, are always marked by obliquity at their base, one side being inserted in the petiole at a point somewhat lower than the other, and at a different angle. The discrimina- tion between this and the other ingredients is a matter of some conse- quence, as the cynanchum must be considered an adulteration. It is said by the French writers to occasion hypercatharsis and much irritation of the bowels; but was found by Christison and Mayer to occasion griping, and severe protracted nausea, with little purgation. The flowers and fruit of the Cynanchum are also often present, the former of a white colour, and in small corymbs, the latter an ovoid follicle rather larger than an orange seed. Be- sides the above constituents of Alexandria senna, it occasionally contains leaflets of genuine senna, much longer than those of the acutifolia or obo- vata, equalling in this respect the cynanchum, which they also somewhat resemble in form. They may be distinguished, however, by their greater thinness, the distinctness of their lateral nerves, and the irregularity of their base. The leaflets and fruit of Tephrosia Apollinea, which are an occa- sional impurity in this variety of senna, may be distinguished, the former by their downy surface, their obovate-oblong, emarginate shape, their pa- rallel unbranched lateral nerves, and by being usually folded longitudinally; the latter, by its dimensions, being from an inch to an inch and a half long and only two lines broad. The Alexandria senna sometimes comes to our market with very few leaves of the obovate senna and Cynanchum, and is then probably a portion of the product brought directly to Alexandria from Upper Egypt, without having undergone any intermixture at Boulac or other intervening place. In Europe, this senna is said to have been some- times adulterated with the leaflets of the Colutea arborescens or bladder senna, and the leaves of Coriaria myrtifolia, a plant of Southern Europe, said to be astringent and even poisonous. An account of the former of these plants is given in the Appendix. The leaflets of the Coriaria are ovate lanceolate, grayish-green with a bluish tint, and are readily known, when not too much broken up, by their strongly-marked midrib, and two lateral nerves running from the base nearly to the summit. They are chemically distinguished by giving a whitish precipitate with solution of gelatin, and a bluish-black one with the salts of sesquioxide of iron, proving the presence of tannin. Their poisonous properties are denied by Peschier. According to Bouchardat, they are closely analogous to strychnia in their effect upon the system. (Ann. de Therap., 1843, p. 55.) PART I. Senna. 655 2. Tripoli Senna. Genuine Tripoli senna consists in general exclusively of the leaflets of one species of Cassia, which was formerly considered as a variety of the C. acutifolia, but is now admitted to be distinct, and named C. ASthiopica. The leaflets, however, are much broken up; and it is pro- bably on this account that the variety is usually less esteemed than the Alex- andrian. The aspect given to it by this state of comminution, and by the uniformity of its constitution, enables the eye at once to distinguish it from the other varieties of senna. The leaflets, moreover, are shorter, less acute, thinner, and more fragile than those of the C. acutifolia in Alexandria senna; and their nerves are much less distinct. The general opinion at one time was, that it was brought from Sennaar and Nubia to Tripoli in caravans; but it is reasonably asked by M. Fee, how it could be afforded at a cheaper price than the Alexandrian, if thus brought on the backs of camels a distance of eight hundred leagues through the desert. It is probably collected in Fezzan, immediately south of Tripoli, and brought to that town for exportation. 3. India Senna. This variety is in Europe sometimes called Mocha Senna, probably because obtained originally from that port. It derives its name of India senna from the route by which it reaches us. Though pro- duced in Arabia, it is brought to this country and Europe from Calcutta, Bombay, and possibly other ports of Hindostan. It consists of the leaflets of the Cassia elongata, with some of the leafstalks and pods intermixed. The eye is at once struck by the great length and comparative narrowness of the leaflets, so that no difficulty can be experienced in distinguishing this variety. The pike-like shape of the leaflet has given rise to the name of sine de la pique, by which it is known in French pharmacy. Many of the leaflets have a yellowish, dark-brown, or blackish colour, probably in con- sequence of exposure after collection; and this variety has in mass a dull tawny hue which is not found in the others. It is generally considered inferior in purgative power. A variety of India senna has been introduced into England, and has recently reached this country, which is the produce of Hindostan, being cultivated at Tinnevelly, and probably other places in the South of the Peninsula. The plant was originally raised from seeds obtained from the Red Sea, and is believed to be the same as that from which the common India senna is derived. The drug is exported from Madras to England, where it is known by the name of Tinnevelly senna. It is a very fine, unmixed variety, consisting of unbroken leaflets, from one to two or more inches in length, and sometimes half an inch in their greatest breadth, thin, flexible, and of a fine green colour. 4. Mecca Senna. Since the publication of the fifth edition of this Dispen- satory, a variety of senna has been imported under the same of Mecca Senna, consisting of the leaflets, pods, broken stems, and petioles of a single species of Cassia. The leaflets are oblong lanceolate, on the average longer and narrower than those of the C. acutifolia, and shorter than those of the C. elongata. The variety in mass has a yellowish or tawny hue, more like that of India than of Alexandria senna. May it not be the product of the C. lanceolata of Forskhal? M. Landerer, however, speaks of a valuable variety of senna, characterized by the large size of the leaflets, and sold under the name of Mecca senna, which he says comes from the interior of Africa. Commercial senna is prepared for use by picking out the leaflets, and rejecting the leafstalks, the small fragments, and the leaves of other plants. The pods are also rejected by some apothecaries; but they possess conside- rable cathartic power, though said to be milder than the leaves. Properties. The odour of senna is faint and sickly; the taste slightly bitter, 656 Senna. PART I. sweetish, and nauseous. Water and alcohol extract its active principles. The leaves are said to yield about one-third of their weight to boiling water. The infusion is of a deep reddish-brown colour, and preserves the odour and taste of the leaves. When exposed to the air for a,short time, it deposits a yel- lowish insoluble precipitate, supposed to result from the union of extractive matter with oxygen. The nature of this precipitate, however, is not well understood. Decoction also produces some change in the principles of senna, by which its medicinal virtues are impaired. To diluted alcohol it imparts the same reddish-brown colour as to water; but rectified alcohol and ether digested upon the powdered leaves become of a deep olive-green. The analysis of senna by MM. Lassaigne and Feneulle furnished the following results. The leaves contain—1. a peculiar principle called cathartin, 2. chlo- rophylle or the green colouring matter of leaves; 3. a fixed oil; 4. a small quantity of volatile oil; 5. albumen; 6. a yellow colouring matter; 7. muci- lage ; 8. salts of the vegetable acids, viz. malate and tartrate of lime and acetate of potassa; and 9. mineral salts. The pods are composed of the same princi- ples, with the exception of the chlorophylle, the place of which is supplied by a peculiar colouring matter. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 548, and ix. 58.) Of these constituents, the most interesting and important is the cathartin, which is said to be the active principle Of senna, and derived its name from this circumstance. It is an uncrystallizable substance, having a peculiar smell, a bitter, nauseous taste, and a reddish-yellow colour; is soluble in every proportion in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether; and in its dry state attracts moisture from the air. It is prepared in the following manner. To a filtered decoction of senna the solution of acetate of lead is added; and the precipitate which forms is separated. A stream of hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen) is then made to pass through the liquor in order to precipitate the lead, and the sulphuret produced is removed by filtration. The liquid is now evaporated to the consistence of an extract; the product is treated with rectified alcohol; and the alcoholic solution is evaporated. To the extract thus obtained sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol is added, in order to decompose the acetate of potassa which it contains; the sulphate of potassa is separated by filtration; the excess of sulphuric acid by acetate of lead; the excess of acetate of lead by hydrosulphuric acid; and the sul- phuret of lead by another filtration. The liquid being now evaporated yields cathartin. The claims of this substance to be considered the purgative prin- ciple of senna are not universally admitted. Christison states, that what he obtained on applying the process to carefully picked Alexandria senna, had no effect on a healthy adult. Heerlein not only denies the purgative property of the cathartin of Lassaigne and Feneulle, but has convinced himself that it is a complex body. (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1844, p. 110.) Incompatibles. Many substances afford precipitates with the infusion of senna; but it by no means follows that they are all medicinally incompatible; as they may remove ingredients which have no influence upon the system, and leave the active principles unaffected. Cathartin is precipitated by the infusion of galls and probably other astringents, and by the solution of sub- acetate of lead. Acetate of lead and tartarized antimony, which disturb the infusion of senna, have no effect upon the solution of this principle. Medical Properties and Uses. Senna was first used as a medicine by the Arabians. It was noticed in their writings so early as the ninth century; and the name itself is Arabic. It is a prompt, efficient, and very safe purga- tive, well calculated for fevers and febrile complaints, and other cases in which a decided but not violent impression is desired. An objection some- times urged against it is that it is apt to produce severe griping pain. This effect, however, maybe obviated by combining with the senna some aromatic, PART I. Senna.—Serpentaria. 657 and some one of the alkaline salts, epecially the bitartrate of potassa, tar- trate of potassa, or sulphate of magnesia. The explanation which attributes the griping property to the oxidized extractive, and its prevention by the sa- line substances to their influence in promoting the solubility of that principle, is not entirely satisfactory. The purgative effect of senna is considerably increased by combination with bitters; a fact which was noticed by Cullen, and has been abundantly confirmed by the experience of others. The de- coction of guaiac is said to exert a similar influence. The dose of senna in powder is from half a drachm to two drachms; but its bulk renders it of inconvenient administration; and it is not often prescribed in this state. Besides, the powder is said to undergo decomposition, and to become mouldy on exposure to a damp air. The form of infusion is almost universally pre- ferred. (See Infusum Sennae.) The medicine is also used in the forms of confection, tincture, and syrup; and a fluid extract, though not officinal, is sometimes employed in this city. A formula for the fluid extract will be given under Syrupus Sennse,.in the second part of this work. Senna taken by nurses is said to purge suckling infants, and an infusion injected into the veins operates as a cathartic. Off. Prep. Confectio Sennas, U. S.,Lond., Ed., Dub.; Enema Cathar- ticum, Ed.; Infusum Sennas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Infusum Sennas Compositum, Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Sarsaparillas Comp., U. S.; Syrupus Sennae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennae, U. S.; Tinc- tura Sennas Comp., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Sennas et Jalapas, U. S. W. SERPENTARIA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Virginia Snakeroot. "The root of Aristolochia Serpentaria." U.S., Ed. " Aristolochia Ser- pentaria. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. ARISTOLOCHIA SERPENTARIA. Radix. Dub. Serpenta-ire de Yirginie, Fr.; Virginianische Schlangenwurzel, Germ.; Serpentaria Virginiana, Ital, Span. Aristolochia. Sex. Syst. Gynandria Hexandria.—Nat. Ord. Aristolo- chiaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla one-petaled, h'gulate, ventricose at the base. Capsule six-celled, many-seeded, inferior. Willd. Numerous species of Aristolochia have been employed in medicine. The roots of all of them are tonic and stimulant, and, from their supposed pos- session of emmenagogue properties, have given origin to the name of the genus. The A. C/ematitis, A. longa, A. rotunda, and A. Pistolochia axe still retained in many officinal catalogues of the continent of Europe, where they are indigenous. The root of the A. Clematitis is very long, cylin- drical, as thick as a goose-quill or thicker, variously contorted, beset with the remains of the stems and radicles, of a grayish-brown colour, a strong peculiar odour, and an acrid bitter taste; that of the A. longa is spindle- shaped, from a few inches to a foot in length, of the thickness of the thumb or more, fleshy, very brittle, grayish externally, brownish-yellow within, bitter, and of a strong disagreeable odour when fresh ; that of the A. rotunda is tuberous, roundish, heavy, fleshy, brownish on the exterior, grayish- yellow internally, and similar to the preceding in odour and taste; that of the A. Pistolochia consists of numerous slender yellowish or brownish fibres attached to a common head, and possessed of an agreeable aromatic odour, with a taste bitter and somewhat acrid. Many species of Aristo- lochia growing in the West Indies, Mexico, and South America, have 658 Serpentaria. PART I. attracted attention for their medicinal properties, and some, like our own snakeroot, have acquired the reputation of antidotes for the bites of serpents. In the East Indies, the A. Indica is employed for similar purposes with the European and American species; and the Arabians are said by Forskhal to use the leaves of the A. sempervirens as a counter-poison. We have in the United States six species, of which four—the A. Serpentaria, A. hirsuta, A. hastata, and A. reticulata—contribute to furnish the snake- root of the shops, though one only, the A. Serpentaria, is admitted into the U. S. and British Pharmacopoeias. Aristolochia Serpentaria. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 159; Bigelow, Am.Med. Bot., iii. 82; Barton, Med. Bot., ii. 41. This species of Aristolochia is an herbaceous plant with a perennial root, which consists of numerous slender fibres proceeding from a short horizontal caudex. Several stems often rise fr,om the same root. They are about eight or ten inches in height, slender, round, flexuose, jointed at irregular distances, and frequently of a reddish or purple colour at the base. The leaves are oblong cordate, acuminate, entire, of a pale yellowish-green colour, and supported on short petioles at the joints of the stem. The flowers proceed from the joints near the root, and stand singly on long, slender, round, jointed peduncles, which are sometimes furnished with one or two small scales, and bend downwards so as nearly to bury the flower in the earth or decayed leaves. There is no calyx. The corolla is of a purple colour, monopetalous tubular swelling at the base, contracted and curved in the middle, and terminating in a labi- ate border with lanceolate lips. The anthers—six or twelve in number— are sessile, attached to the under part of the stigma, which is roundish, divided into six parts, and supported by a short fleshy style upon an oblong, angular, hairy, inferior germ. The fruit is a hexangular, six-celled cap- sule, containing several small flat seeds. The plant grows in rich, shady woods, throughout the Middle, Southern, and Western States, abounding in the valley of the Ohio, and in the moun- tainous regions of our interior. It flowers in May "and June. The root is collected in Western Pennsylvania and Virginia, in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, and is brought to the eastern markets chiefly by the route of Wheeling and Pittsburgh. As it reaches Philadelphia, it is usually in bales containing about one hundred pounds, and is often mixed with the leaves and stems of the plant, and with dirt from which it has not been properly cleansed at the time of collection. A. hirsuta. Muhlenberg, Catalogue, p. 81; Bridges, Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 121. In Muhlenberg's Catalogue this species was named without being described; and botanists, supposing from the name that it was identical with the A. tomentosa, have generally confounded the two plants. But they are entirely distinct. A description of the A. hirsuta in the handwriting of Muhlenberg, and a labeled specimen of the plant, in the possession of the Academy of Natural Sciences of this city, have been found to correspond with a dried specimen received by one of the authors of this work from Virginia. The A. tomentosa is a climbing plant, grow- ing in Louisiana on the banks of the Mississippi, ascending to the summit of the highest trees. A plant in the garden of the author has a thick creep- ing root, entirely different in shape from that of the officinal species, though possessed of an analogous odour. The A. hirsuta has a root like that of the A. Serpentaria, consisting of a knotty caudex, sending out numerous slender simple fibres, sometimes as muchas six inches in length. From this arise several jointed, flexuose, pubescent stems, less than a foot high, with one or two pubescent bractes, and several large roundish cordate leaves, of which the lower are.obtuse, the upper abruptly acuminate, and part i. Serpentaria. 659 all pubescent on both sides and at the margin. From the joints near the root originate from one to three solitary peduncles, each bearing three or four leafy bractes and one flower. The peduncles, bractes, and corolla are all hairy. This species grows in Virginia, and probably other parts of the Western and Southern States. There is reason to believe that it contributes to afford the serpentaria of commerce, as its leaves, at one time mistaken for those of A. tomentosa, have been found in bales of the drug. A. hastata. Nuttall, Gen. of N. Am. Plants, p. 200.—A. sagittata. Muhl. Catal. This species, if indeed it can be considered a distinct species, differs from the A. Serpentaria in having hastate, acute, somewhat cordate leaves, and the lip of the corolla ovate. It flourishes on the banks of the Mississippi, in Carolina, and elsewhere. Its root scarcely differs from that of the officinal plant, and is frequently mixed with it, as proved by the pre- sence of the characteristic leaves of the A. hastata in the parcels brought into market. (See Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., i. 264.) A. reticulata. Nuttall; Bridges, Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 118. This plant was probably first observed by Mr. Nuttall; as a specimen labelled "A. reticulata, Red river," in the handwriting of that botanist, is contained in the Herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. From this specimen, as well as from others found in sufficient perfection in parcels of the drug recently brought into market, a description was drawn up and published by Dr. Robert Bridges in the American Journal of Pharmacy. From a root, similar to that of the A. Serpentaria, numerous short, slender, round, flexuose, jointed stems arise, usually simple but sometimes branched near the root. The older stems are slightly villous, the young densely pubescent. The leaves, which stand on very short villous petioles, are round or oblong cordate, obtuse, reticulate, very prominently veined, and villose on both sides, especially upon the veins. From the lower joints of the stem four or five hairy, jointed peduncles proceed, which bear small leafy villous bractes at the joints, and several flowers on short pedicels. The flowers are small, purplish, and densely pubescent, especially at the base and on the germ. The hexangular capsule is deeply sulcate. This species grows in Louisiana, Arkansas, and probably in the Indian Territory to the west of that state; but its geographical range has not been ascertained. Bales of a new variety of serpentaria have within a few years been brought to Philadelphia,which is certainly the product of this species; as specimens of all parts of the plant have been found in the bales, and the roots, which differ somewhat from those before known, are homogeneous in character. One of these bales was brought from New Orleans, and was said to have come down the Red river, and to have been collected by the Indians. The chief difference between this and ordinary Virginia snakeroot is in the size of the radicles, which are much thicker and less interlaced in the new variety. Each root has usually a considerable portion of one or more stems attached to the caudex. The colour is yellowish. The odour and taste are scarcely, if at all distinguishable from those of common serpentaria; and there can be little doubt that the root will be found equally effectual as a medicine. From a chemical examination by Mr. Thomas S. Wiegand, it appears to have the same constituents, and to differ only in containing a somewhat larger propor- tion of gum, extractive, and volatile oil. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 16.) Properties. Virginia snakeroot, as found in the shops, is in tufts of long, slender, frequently interlaced, and brittle fibres, attached to a short, contorted, knotty head or caudex. The colour, which in the recent state is yellowish, becomes brown by time. That of the powder is grayish. The smell is strong, aromatic, and camphorous; the taste warm, very bitter, and also 660 Serpentaria.—Sesamum.— Oleum Sesami. part i. camphorous. The root yields all its virtues to water and alcohol, producing with the former a yellowish-brown infusion, with the latter a bright greenish tincture, which is rendered turbid by the addition of water. Chevallier found in the root volatile oil, a yellow bitter principle soluble in water and alcohol, resin, gum, starch, albumen, lignin, and various salts. Buchholz obtained from 1000 parts, 5 of a green, fragrant volatile oil, 28*5 of a yellowish-green resin, 17 of extractive matter, 181 of gummy extract, 624 of lignin, and 144*5 of water. The active ingredients are probably the volatile oil, and the yellow bitter principle of Chevallier, which that chemist considers analo- gous to the bitter principle of quassia. The volatile oil passes over with water in distillation, rendering the liquid milky, and impregnating it with the peculiar odour of the root. Dr. Bigelow states that the liquid on stand- ing deposits around the edges of its surface small crystals of camphor. The roots of the Spigelia Marilandica are sometimes found associated with the serpentaria. They may be distinguished by the absence of the bitter taste, and, when the stem and foliage are attached, by the peculiar character of these parts of the plant. (See Spigelia.) Medical Properties and Uses. Serpentaria is a stimulant tonic, acting also as a diaphoretic or diuretic, according to the mode of its application. Too largely taken, it occasions nausea, griping pains in the bowels, some- times vomiting and dysenteric tenesmus. It is admirably adapted to the treatment of typhoid fevers, whether idiopathic or symptomatic, when the system begins to feel the necessity for support, but is unable to bear active stimulation. In exanthematous diseases in which the eruption is tardy or has receded, and the grade of action is low, it is thought to be useful by promoting the cutaneous affection. It has also been highly recommended in intermittent fevers; and,'though itself generally inadequate to the cure of the complaint, often proves serviceable as an adjunct to Peruvian bark or the sulphate of quinia. With the same remedies it is frequently associated in the treatment of typhous diseases. It is sometimes given in dyspepsia, and is employed as a gargle in malignant sorethroat. The dose of the powdered root is from ten to thirty grains; but the infu- sion is almost always preferred. (See Infusum Serpentariae.) The decoc- tion or extract would be an improper form; as the volatile oil, upon which the virtues of the medicine partly depend, is dissipated by boiling. Off. Prep. Infusum Serpentariae, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Cinchonas Composita, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Serpentariae, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. SESAMUM. U.S. Secondary. Benne. " The leaves of Sesamum orientale." U. S. OLEUM SESAMI. U.S. Secondary. Benne Oil. " The oil of the seeds of Sesamum orientale." U. S. Sesame, Fr.; Sesam, Germ.; Sesamo, Ital; Anjonjoli, Span. Sesamum. Sex. Syst. Didynamia Angiospermia.—Nat. Ord. Bignonias, Juss.; Pedaliaceas, R. Brown, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla bell-shaped, five-cleft, with the PART I. Sesamum.— Oleum Sesami. 661 lower lobe largest. Stamens five, the fifth a rudiment. Stigma lanceolate. Capsule four celled. Willd. Though the Sesamum orientale has been indicated by the United States Pharmacopoeia as the medicinal plant, there is reason to believe that the S. Indicum is the one cultivated in our Southern States. At least we have found plants, raised in Philadelphia from seeds obtained from Georgia, to have the specific character of the latter, as given by Willdenow. Sesamum orientale. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 358; Rheed. Hort. Malab. ix. 54. " Leaves ovate, oblong, entire." Sesamum Indicum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 359 ; Curtis, Bot. Mag. vol. xli. t. 1688. "Leaves ovate-lanceolate, the inferior three-lobed, the superior undivided. Stem erect." The benne plant of our Southern States is annual, with a branching stem, which rises four or five feet in height, and bears opposite, petiolate leaves, varying considerably in their shape. Those on the upper part of the plant are ovate-lanceolate, irregularly serrate, and pointed; those near the base three-lobed and sometimes ternate; and lobed leaves are not uncommon at all distances from the ground. The flowers are of a reddish-white colour, and stand solitarily upon short peduncles in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is an oblong capsule, containing small, oval, yellowish seeds. These two species of Sesamum are natives of the East Indies, and have been cultivated from time immemorial in various parts of Asia and Africa. From the latter continent it is supposed that seeds were brought by the Ne- groes to our Southern States, where, as well as in the West Indies, one or both species are now cultivated to a considerable extent. It has been found that the plant above described will grow vigorously in the gardens so far north as Philadelphia. The seeds are employed as food by the negroes, who parch them over the fire, boil them in broths, make them into puddings, and prepare them in various other modes. By expression they yield a fixed oil, which, as well as the leaves of the plant, has been introduced into the secondary ca- talogue of our national Pharmacopoeia. 1. Oil of Benne. This is inodorous, of a bland, sweetish taste, and will keep very long without becoming rancid. It bears some resemblance to olive oil in its properties, and may be used for similar purposes. It was known to the ancient Persians and Egyptians, and is highly esteemed by the modern Arabs and other people of the East, both as food, and as an external application to promote softness of the skin. Like olive oil, it is laxative in large doses. 2. Leaves. These abound in a gummy matter, which they readily impart to water, forming a rich, bland mucilage, much used in the Southern States as a drink in various complaints to which demulcents are applicable, as in cholera infantum, diarrhoea, dysentery, catarrh, and affections of the urinary passages. The remedy has attracted some attention further northward, and has been employed with favourable results by physicians in Philadelphia. One or two fresh leaves of full size, stirred about in half a pint of cool water, will soon render it sufficiently viscid. In their dried state they should be introduced into hot water. The leaves also serve for the prepa- ration of emollient cataplasms. W. 57 662 Sevum.—Simaruba. PART I. SEVUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Suet. "The prepared suet of 0vis Aries." U.S. "Ovis Aries. Sevum." Lond. "Fat of Ovis Aries." Ed. Off Syn. ADEPS OVILLUS PR^PARATUS. Dub. Suif, Graisse de mouton, Fr.; Hammelstalg, Germ.; Grasse duro, Ital; Sebo, Span. Suet is the fat of the sheep, taken chiefly from about the kidneys. It is prepared by cutting the fat into pieces, melting it with a moderate heat, and straining it through linen or flannel. In order to avoid too great a heat, the crude suet is sometimes purified by boiling it in a little water. Mutton suet is of a firmer consistence, and requires a higher tempera- ture for its fusion than any other animal fat. It is very white, sometimes brittle, inodorous, of a bland taste, insoluble in water, and nearly so in alco- hol. Boiling alcohol, however, dissolves it, and deposits it upon cooling. It consists, according to Chevreul, of stearin, olein, and a small proportion of hircin. For an account of the two first-mentioned principles, the reader is referred to the article Adeps. Hircin is a liquid like olein, from which it differs in being much more soluble in alcohol, and in yielding hircic acid by saponification. Suet acquires by time an unpleasant smell, and becomes unfit for phar- maceutic purposes. It is employed to give a proper consistence to oint- ments and plasters, and sometimes as a dressing to blisters. W. SIMARUBA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Simaruba. " The bark of the root of Simaruba officinalis." U. S. " Simaruba offi- cinalis. Radicis cortex." Lond. " Root-bark of Simaruba amara." Ed. Off. Syn. QUASSIA SIMARUBA. Cortex radicis. Dub. Ecorce de simarouba, Fr.; Simarubarinde, Germ.; Corteccia di simaruba, Ital; Cor- teza de simaruba, Span. Quassia. See QUASSIA. Quassia Simaruba. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 568; Woodv. Med. Bot. v. 569. t. 203.—Simaruba officinalis. DeCand. Prodrom. i. 733.—S. amara. Aublet; Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 207. As this plant is unisexual, it belongs to the genus Simaruba of De Candolle and Lindley, those only being placed by these botanists in the genus Quassia which are hermaphrodite. But as the Linnasan arrangement was adhered to in the case of the Quassia excelsa, we continue to adhere to it in relation to this plant. (See Quassia.) It is a tree of considerable height and thickness, having alternate branches, with a bark which in the old tree is black and somewhat furrowed, in the young is smooth, gray, and marked here and there with broad yellow spots. The leaves are alternate and abruptly pinnate, with a naked petiole to which the leaflets are alternately attached by short footstalks. The leaflets are nearly elliptical, on the upper surface smooth and of a deep green colour, on the under whitish. The flowers are of a yellow colour, and are disposed in long axillary pani- cles. In some descriptions they are stated to be monoecious, in others dioecious. According to Dr. Wright, the female flowers are never found in Jamaica on the same tree with the male. The number of stamens is ten. The tree is found in the West Indies and Guyana. In Jamaica it is called the mountain damson. The Simaruba amara of Aublet, which grows in Guyana, and has generally been considered identical with the Q. simaruba, PART I. Simaruba.—Sinapis. 663 is believed by Hayne to be a distinct species, the Jamaica plant having dioecious, while this has monoecious flowers. The bark of the root is the part employed, the wood itself being nearly tasteless and inert. Simaruba bark is in long pieces, some inches in breadth, folded length- wise, light, flexible, tenacious, very fibrous, externally of a light brownish- yellow colour, rough, warty, and marked with transverse ridges, internally of a pale yellow. It is without smell, and of a bitter taste. It readily im- parts its virtues, at ordinary temperatures, to water and alcohol. The infu- sion is at least equally bitter with the decoction, which becomes turbid as it cools. Its constituents, according to M. Morin, are a bitter principle, sup- posed by him to be identical with quassin, a resinous matter, a volatile oil having the odour of benzoin, malic acid, gallic acid in very minute propor- tion, an ammoniacal salt, malate and oxalate of lime, some mineral salts, oxide of iron, silica, ulmin, and lignin. Medical Properties and Uses. Simaruba possesses the same tonic pro- perties as other simple bitters, and may be employed for the same purposes. In large doses it is said to purge and vomit. It was introduced into France in the year 1713 from Guyana, where it had previously been used as a remedy for dysentery. In the treatment of this disease and of obstinate diarrhoea it afterwards obtained much credit in Europe; but Cullen was right in denying to it any specific control over these complaints. It operates simply as a tonic; and, though it may be occasionally beneficial in relaxed and debilitated states of the alimentary canal, it would do much harm if in- discriminately prescribed in dysenteric cases. On account of its difficult pulverization, it is seldom given in substance. The best mode of adminis- tration is by infusion. The dose is from a scruple to a drachm. Off. Prep. Infusum Simarubas, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. SINAPIS. U.S., Lond. Mustard. " The seeds of Sinapis nigra and Sinapis alba." U. S. " Sinapis nigra. Semina." Lond. Off. Syn. SINAPI. Flour of the seeds of Sinapis nigra, generally mixed with those of Sinapis alba, and deprived of fixed oil by expression. Ed.; SINAPIS ALBA. Semina. SINAPIS NIGRA. Seminum pulvis. Dub. Moutarde, Fr.; Senfsamen, Germ.; Senapa, Ital; Mostaza, Span. Sinapis. Sex. Syst. Tetradynamia Siliquosa.—Nat. Ord. Brasicaceas or Cruciferas. Gen. Ch. Calyx spreading. Corolla with straight claws. Glands between the shorter stamens and pistil, and between the longer stamens and calyx. Willd. Sinapis nigra. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 555; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 403. t. 146. Common or black mustard is an annual plant, with a stem three or four feet in height, divided and subdivided into numerous spreading branches. The leaves are petiolate, and variously shaped. Those near the root are large, rough, lyrate-pinnate, and unequally toothed; those higher on the stem are smooth and less lobed; and the uppermost are entire, narrow, smooth, and dependent. The flowers are small, yellow, with a coloured calyx, and stand closely together upon peduncles at the upper part of the branches. The pods are smooth, erect, nearly parallel with the branches, quadrangular, furnished with a short beak, and occupied by numerous seeds. Sinapis alba. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 555; Smith, Flor. Brit. 721. The white mustard is also an annual plant. It is rather smaller than the preceding 664 Sinapis. PART I. species. The lower leaves are deeply pinnatifid, the upper sublyrate, and all irregularly toothed, rugged, with stiff hairs on both sides, and of a pale green colour. The flowers are in racemes, with yellow petals, and linear, green, calycine leaflets. The pods are spreading, bristly, rugged, roundish, swelling in the position of the seeds, ribbed, and provided with a very lono- ensiform beak. Both plants are natives of Europe and cultivated in our gardens; and the S. nigra has become naturalized in some parts of this country. Their flowers appear in June. The seeds are kept in the shops both whole and in the state of very fine powder, as prepared by the manufacturers for the table. The black mustard seeds are small, globular, of a deep brown colour, slightly rugose on the surface, and internally yellow. In the entire state they are inodorous, but have a distinct smell in powder, and when rubbed with water or vinegar exhale a strong pungent odour, sufficient in some in- stances to excite a flow of tears. Their taste is bitterish, hot, and pungent, but not permanent. The seeds of the white mustard are much larger, of a yellowish colour, and less pungent taste. Both afford a yellow powder, which has a somewhat unctuous appearance, and cakes when, compressed. This is commonly called four of mustard, or simply mustard, and is pre- pared by crushing and pounding the seeds, and then sifting them; the purest flour being obtained by a second sifting. Both the black and the white seeds are used in its preparation. It is often adulterated with wheat flour coloured by turmeric, to which red pepper is added to render the mixture sufficiently hot. The skin of white mustard seeds contains a mucilaginous substance,, which is extracted by boiling water. When bruised or powdered, both kinds impart their active properties wholly to water, but in a very slight degree to alcohol. They yield upon pressure a fixed oil, called oil of mustard, of a greenish-yellow colour, little smell, and a mild not unpleasant taste; and the portion which remains is even more pungent than the unpressed seed. It has been long known that black mustard seeds yield by distillation with water a very pungent volatile oil, having sulphur among its constituents. Guibourt conjectured, and Robiquet and Boutron proved, that this oil does not pre-exist in the seeds, but is produced by the action of water. Hence the absence or very slight degree of odour in the seeds when bruised in a dry state, and their great pungency when water is added. It seemed very reasonable to suppose that the reaction in this case was similar to that exercised by water upon bitter almonds (see Amygdala Amara); and this has been proved to be the fact by the experiments of Simon, Bussy, Boutron, and Fremy. According to M. Bussy, there are two peculiar principles jn black mustard seeds, one named by him myronic acid, which exists in the seeds in the state of myronate of potassa;. the other named myrosyne, closely analogous in character to the albuminous constituent of almonds called emulsin. When water is added to black mustard seed, the myro- syne, acting the part of a ferment, determines a reaction between the water and myronate of potassa, which results in the production of the volatile oil. The same thing happens when any one of the myronates is brought into contact with water and myrosyne. The presence of the last-mentioned principle is essential. Like emulsin, it becomes inoperative when coagu- lated by heat, alcohol, or the acids; and if black mustard seeds be subjected to either of these agencies previously to the addition of water, they will yield no volatile oil. The myrosyne, however, sometimes partially recovers its power by continued contact with water. This substance is found also in white mustard seeds, but without the myronate of potassa. If, therefore, white mustard seeds be added to the black in which the myrosyne has been coagulated, the volatile oil will be generated on the application of water. PART I. Sinapis. 665 Though closely analogous to emulsin, myrosyne is yet a distinct principle, as its place cannot be supplied by emulsin with the same effect. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 39.) Simon obtained results somewhat different from those of M. Bussy. The former chemist succeeded in procuring a peculiar crys- talline principle from the seeds which he called sinapisin, and which, upon contact with water and the albuminous principle of the seeds, emitted the odour of the oil of mustard. According to Simon, the emulsin of almonds does not answer the same purpose, because it contains no sulphur, which is an essential constituent of the oil of mustard. The whole subject requires further investigation. The volatile oil of mustard is usually obtained from seeds which have been deprived of their fixed oil by pressure. It is a colourless or pale yel- low liquid, rather heavier than water, of an exceedingly pungent odour, and an acrid burning taste. It boils at about 298°; is slightly soluble in water, and readily so in alcohol and ether; with alkaline solutions yields sulphocyanurets; and consists, according to M. Lowig and Dr. Will, of nitrogen,carbon, hydrogen,and sulphur, without oxygen; its formula being NC8H5S2. Dr. Will considers it a sulphocyanuret of allyle (C6H5), the compound radical of oil of garlic, which is considered a sulphuret of allyle. (Chem. Gazette, No. 62 and 64.) It is the principle upon which black mustard seeds depend for their activity. White mustard seeds do not yield volatile oil when treated with water; but an acrid fixed principle is developed, which renders these seeds appli- cable to the same purposes as the other variety. MM. Robiquet and Bou- tron, who ascertained this fact; concluded that the acrid principle resulted from the reaction of water upon sulpho-sinapisin, discovered in these seeds by MM. Henry, Jun., and Garot. Their reason for this belief was that mustard, which had been deprived of this ingredient, was incapable of de- veloping the acrid principle. The myrosyne or emulsin is equally essen- tial to the change here, as to that which occurs in black mustard; and the reaction equally fails, if this principle be previously rendered inert by heat, alcohol, or the acids. MM. Boutron and Fremy state that not only the acrid principle of white mustard, but hydrosulphocyanic acid also results from the reaction above explained; and this observation renders still closer the analogy between the changes that take place, upon contact with water, in mustard seeds and bitter almonds. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 50.)* * As some may desire to push these investigations further, we give the properties of these newly-discovered principles, and the modes of procuring them. Myronic acid is a fixed inodorous substance, of a bitter and sour taste, and acid reac- tion. When obtained separate from its bases, it forms a colourless solution, which by evaporation becomes of a thick consistence like molasses, without crystallizing. It is soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether; and forms soluble salts with the alkalies, baryta, lime, and the oxides of lead and silver, all of which yield volatile oil of mustard, when mixed with an aqueous solution of myrosyne. It contains sulphur, besides nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is obtained from the myronate of potassa by adding to 100 parts of that salt 38 parts of crystallized tartaric acid, concentrating the solution by evaporation, and then adding weak alcohol, which precipitates the bitartrate of potassa, and retains the myronic acid in solution. To obtain myronate of potassa from black mustard seeds, the powder, having been dried at 212°, and deprived of its fixed oil by pressure, is treated with strong alcohol in a displacement apparatus, and when thus nearly exhausted of everything soluble in that liquid, is pressed and treated with water. The aqueous solution is evaporated, and, before it is too much concentrated, weak alcohol is added, which precipitates a glutinous matter. The solution, being then carefully evapo- rated, deposits crystals of myronate of potassa, which may be obtained very pure and white by washing the mass with diluted alcohol.' This salt is easily crystallizable in fine large, transparent crystals, is unalterable in the air, very soluble in water, insoluble in pure alcohol, and of a bitter taste. 57* 666 Sinapis. PART I. From the above account of the chemical relations of mustard, it is obvious that admixture with alcohol or the acids, or the application of a boiling heat, can only have the effect of impairing its medical virtues, and that the best vehicle, whether for external or internal use, is water at common tem- peratures. Medical Properties and Uses. Mustard seeds swallowed whole operate as a laxative, and have acquired some reputation as a remedy in dys- pepsia, and in other complaints attended with torpid bowels and deficient excitement. The white seeds are preferred, and are taken in the dose of a tablespoonful once or twice a day, mixed with molasses, or previously soft- ened and rendered mucilaginous by immersion in hot water. They pro- bably act in some measure by mechanically stimulating the bowels. The bruised seeds or powder, in the quantity of a large teaspoonful, operate as an emetic. Mustard in this state is applicable to cases of great torpor of stomach, especially that resulting from narcotic poisons. It rouses the gastric susceptibility, and facilitates the action of other emetics. In smaller quantities it is useful as a safe stimulant of the digestive organs; and, as it is frequently determined to the kidneys, has been beneficially employed in dropsy. Whey, made by boiling half an ounce of the bruised seeds or powder in a pint of milk and straining, is a convenient form for administra- tion. It may be given in the dose of a wineglassful repeated several times a day. But mustard is most valuable as a rubefacient. Mixed with water in the form of a cataplasm, and applied to the skin, it very soon produces redness with a burning pain, which in less than an hour usually becomes insupportable. When a speedy impression is not desired, especially when the sinapism is applied to the extremities, the powder should be diluted with an equal portion of rye meal or wheat flour. Care should be taken not to allow the application to continue too long, as vesication with obstinate ulceration, and even sphacelus may result. This caution is particularly necessary in cases where the patient is insensible, and the degree of pain can afford no criterion of the sufficiency of the action. The volatile oil, which is powerfully rubefacient, and capable of producing speedy vesica- Myrosyne, when dry, has the character of an albuminous substance. It is soluble in water, forming a Viscid solution, which froths when agitated, and is coagulated by heat, alcohol, and the acids. It is obtained by treating white mustard seed with cold water, filtering the solution, evaporating it by a heat not exceeding 100°, and, when it is of the consistence of syrup, carefully adding alcohol, which causes a precipitate easily separable by decantation. If this be dissolved in water, and the solution evaporated as before, myrosyne is obtained, though not entirely pure. {Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 39.) The sinapisin of Simon is in brilliant, white, scaly crystals, sublimable by heat, soluble in alcohol, ether, and the fixed and volatile oils, but insoluble, in acids and alkalies. To obtain it he exhausted black mustard seed with strong alcohol, distilled off the greater part of the alcohol, treated the residue several times with four or five times its weight of ether, from the ethereal solutions distilled off all the ether, treated the extract again with a smaller quantity of ether so as to leave behind insoluble substances, and repeated this process until the extract formed a perfectly clear solution without residue. The ex- tract was then dissolved in cold strong alcohol, and the solution, having been decolorized with animal charcoal, was allowed to evaporate in the air. Simon obtained from 55 pounds of the seeds only 80 grains of crystallized sinapisin. {Annal der Pharm., xxviii. 291.) Sidpho-sinapisin, the peculiar ingredient of white mustard seed, is white, crystallizable, inodorous, bitter, and soluble in alcohol and water, forming a yellow solution." It was at first thought by MM. Henry and Garot to be an acid, but they afterwards ascertained that it was neuter. It consists of sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It may be obtained from white mustard seeds, from which the fixed oil has previously been expressed, by boiling them in water, evaporating the decoction to the consistence of honey, mixing the residue with 6 or 8 times its volume of anhydrous alcohol which precipitates various substances, then distilling off the alcohol, and setting aside the syrupy residue to crystallize. The crystals may be purified by repeated solution and crystalli- zation in alcohol. (Berzelius, Traite de Chimie.} PART I. Sinapis.—So dium. 667 tion, has been considerably used in Germany. For external application as a rubefacient, 30 drops may be dissolved in a fluidounce of alcohol, or 6 oi 8 drops in a fluidrachm of almond or olive oil. It has been given in- ternally in colic, two drops being incorporated with a six ounce mixture, and half a fluidounce given for a dose. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xi. 9.) In overdoses it is highly poisonous, producing gastro-enteritic inflammation, and probably perverting the vital processes by pervading the whole system. Its odour is perceptible in the blood, and it is said to impart the smell of horseradish to the urine. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Sinapis, Lond., Dub.; Emplastrum Cantharidis Compositum, Ed.; Infusum Armoracias, U. S., Lond., Dub. W. SODIUM. Sodium. Sodium, Fr.; Natronmetall; Natrium, Germ.; Sodio, Ital, Span. Sodium is a peculiar elementary body of a metallic nature, forming the radical of the alkali soda. It was discovered by Sir H. Davy in 1807, who obtained it in minute quantity by decomposing the alkali by the agency of galvanic electricity. It was afterwards procured in much larger quantities by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, by bringing the alkali in contact with iron turnings heated to whiteness. The iron became oxidized, and the metallic radical of the soda was liberated. It is now obtained by the cheaper pro- cess of Schosdler, which consists in converting, by ignition, the commercial acetate of soda into carbonate and charcoal, and heating the product to whiteness in an iron mercury-bottle, mixed with an additional portion of charcoal. Sodium is a soft, malleable, sectile solid, of a silver-white colour. It pos- sesses the metallic lustre in a high degree when protected from the action of the air, by which it is quickly tarnished and oxidized. Its sp. gr. is 0*97, fusing point about 200°, equivalent number 23*3, and symbol Na. Its chemical affinities resemble those of potassium, but are not so energetic. Like potassium it has a strong attraction for oxygen. When thrown upon cold water it instantly fuses into a globule without inflaming, and traverses the surface in different directions with rapidity; on hot water it inflames. In both cases the water is decomposed, hydrogen is liberated, and a solu- tion of soda generated. It combines also with a larger proportion of oxygen than exists in soda, forming a sesquioxide. This oxide is always formed when the metal is burnt in the open air. Sodium is present in a number of important medicinal preparations, and is briefly described'in this place as an introduction to these compounds. Its protoxide only is salifiable, constituting the alkali soda, which, united to acids, gives rise to a numerous class of compounds, called salts of soda. These are characterized by being all soluble in water and not precipitable by any reagent, and by their communicating to the blowpipe flame a rich yellow colour. Protoxide of sodium consists of one eq. of sodium 23*3, and one of oxygen 8=31*3. United with one eq. of water 9, it forms hydrate of soda (caustic soda), weighing 40*3. The officinal combinations containing sodium are chloride of sodium, the solution of chlorinated soda, the acetate, borate, carbonate, bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of soda, and the tartrate of potassa and soda. The description of most of these combinations will immediately follow; while the remainder, being included among the "Preparations," will be noticed under their respective titles, in the second part of this work. B. 668 Sodce Acetas. PART I. SODvE ACETAS. U.S., Lond, Dub. Acetate of Soda. Terra foliata tartari, Lat.; Acetate de soude, Fr.; Essigsaures Natron, Germ.; Acetato di soda, Ital. Acetate of soda is included among the " Preparations" in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia; but, as it is obtained on a large scale by the manufacturing chemist, it is more properly placed in the catalogue of the Materia Medica in those of London and the United States. Preparation. The Dublin College obtains this salt by saturating carbon- ate of soda with distilled vinegar, and evaporating the filtered solution until it attains the sp. gr. 1*276. As the solution cools crystals will form, which must be cautiously dried, and kept in well stopped bottles. In conducting the process, the crystallized carbonate of soda will be found to require about eleven times its weight of distilled vinegar for saturation. Acetate of soda is prepared by the manufacturer of pyroligneous acid, for the purpose of being decomposed so as to yield strong acetic acid by the action of sulphuric acid. (See Acidum Pyroligneum, and Acidum Ace- ticum.) The first step is to add to the impure acid sufficient cream of lime to saturate it. During the saturation a quantity of blackish scum rises, which must be carefully removed. In this way an acetate of lime is formed, which must be decomposed by a strong solution of sulphate of soda. By double decomposition there are formed acetate of soda which remains in solution, and sulphate of lime which precipitates, carrying down with it more or less of the tarry impurities. After the sulphate of lime has com- pletely subsided, the solution of acetate of soda is decanted, and concen- trated to a pellicle ; when it is transferred to crystallizers, in which it cools and crystallizes in mass. The acetate in this state is very impure, being black and impregnated with much tar. It is purified by drying, igneous fusion, solution in water, filtration, and repeated crystallizations. Some- times animal charcoal is used to free the crystals from colour. Properties, fyc. Acetate of soda is a white salt, occurring in amorphous foliated masses, or crystallized in long striated prisms, and possessing a sharp, bitterish, not disagreeable taste. Exposed to the air it effloresces slowly, and loses about forty per cent, of its weight. It is soluble in about three parts of cold water, and in twenty-four of alcohol. The London Col- lege is inaccurate in stating that this salt is insoluble in alcohol. Subjected to heat, it undergoes first the aqueous and then the igneous fusion, and is finally decomposed ; the residue being a mixture of carbonate of soda and charcoal. By the affusion of sulphuric acid it is decomposed, the acetic acid being liberated, known by its acetous odour, and sulphate of soda formed. The salt should be perfectly neutral to test paper, and not precipitated by chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, or chloride of platinum. The non-action of these tests proves the absence of sulphates, chlorides, and salts of potassa. It consists, when crystallized, of one .eq. of acetic acid 51, one of soda 31*3, and six of water 54= 136*3. Medical Properties and Uses. Acetate of soda is diuretic, and possesses generally the same medical properties as the acetate of potassa, to which article the reader is referred. It is, however, more convenient for exhibition than the latter salt, as it is not deliquescent. The dose is from a scruple to two drachms. Its only pharmaceutical use is to yield acetic acid by the action of sulphuric acid, and for this purpose it is employed in the London and United States Pharmacopoeias. Off. Prep. Acidum Aceticum, U. S., Lond. B. PART I. Sodce Boras. 669 SODiE BORAS. U.S. Borate of Soda. Off. Syn. BORAX. Lond., Ed.; SOD.E BORAS. BORAX. Dub. Borate de .soude, Borax, Fr.; Boraxsaures Natron, Borax, Germ.; Borace, Ital; Borrax, Span.; Boorak, Arab. Borax was known to the ancients, but its chemical nature was first ascer- tained by Geoffroy in 1732. It exists native, and may be obtained by arti- ficial means. It occurs in small quantities in several localities in Europe, and in Peru in South America; but is found abundantly in certain lakes of Thibet and Persia, from which it is obtained by spontaneous evaporation. The impure borax concretes on the margins of these lakes, and is dug up in lumps, called in commerce tincal or crude borax. In this state it is in the form of crystalline masses, which are sometimes colourless, sometimes yel- lowish or greenish, and always covered with an earthy coating, greasy to the touch, and having the odour of soap. The greasy appearance is de- rived from a fatty matter, saponified by soda. The tincal thus obtained in the interior is transferred to the seaports of India, especially Calcutta, from which it is exported to this country packed in chests. Besides Indian tincal, there is another commercial variety of borax which comes from China, and which is partially refined. Both varieties require to be purified before being used in medicine or the arts. Purification. The method of refining borax was originally possessed as a secret by the Venetians and Dutch, but is now practised in several Euro- pean countries. The process pursued in France, as reported by Robiquet and Marchand, is as follows. The tincal is placed in a large wooden vessel, and covered to the depth of three or four inches with water; in which state it is allowed to remain for five or six hours, being agitated from time to time. Slaked lime is now added,in the proportion of one part to four hundred of the impure salt; and the whole being thoroughly mixed, is allowed to remain at rest till the .succeeding day. The salt is next separated by means of a sieve, the crystals being crumbled between the hands, and placed so as to drain. The object of this treatment is to separate the soapy matter, with which the lime forms an insoluble soap; and at the same time sulphate of soda and chloride of sodium are removed, with only a minute loss of the borax. The borax being drained is next dissolved, by the assistance of heat, in two and a half times its weight of water, and the solution treated with one-fiftieth of its weight of chloride of calcium, and allowed to strain through a coarse bag. The filtration being completed, the liquor is concen- trated by heat, and then run into wooden vessels, lined with lead, having the shape of an inverted quadrangular pyramid. If care be taken that the cooling proceeds very gradually, distinct crystals will be obtained, such as are found in commerce; otherwise, crystalline crusts will be formed. The Chinese borax is purified in a similar manner, but, being less impure than the common tincal, does not require to be washed. Preparation of Artificial Borax. Large quantities of borax are now made by the direct combination of native boracic acid with soda. The acid is obtained from certain lagoons in Tuscany, which are spread over a surface of about thirty miles. At present, from these lagoons the enormous quantity of 2,400,000 pounds are annually manufactured. As thus procured, the acid contains from 17 to 20 per cent, of impurities, consisting principally of the sulphates of ammonia, magnesia, lime, and alumina, muriate of ammonia, chloride of iron, and clay, sand, and sulphur. It is added to saturation to a 670 Sodce Boras. PART I. solution of carbonate of soda, heated by steam, and the liquor, after boiling, is allowed to stand for ten or twelve hours. It is then drawn off into wooden vessels lined with lead, where it crystallizes. The crystals are impure, and are refined by dissolving them in water heated by steam, adding carbonate of soda to the solution, and crystallizing. The merit of introducing the process for obtaining artificial borax belongs to Cartier and Payen, who suc- ceeded in establishing its manufacture in France, notwithstanding the strong prejudice felt against the use of the artificial salt. In the process for arti- ficial borax of M. Koehnke, a solution of caustic soda is used, extempora- neously obtained by the action of lime. See the details of his process, in the Chem. Gaz., No. 58, p. 131, copied into the Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 111. Properties. Borax is a white salt, generally crystallized in flattened hexa- hedral prisms, terminated by triangular pyramids, and possessing a sweetish, feebly alkaline taste, and an alkaline reaction. It dissolves in twelve times its weight of cold, and twice its weight of boiling water. Exposed to the air it effloresces slowly, and the surface of the crystals becomes covered with a white powder. Subjected to a moderate heat it undergoes the aqueous fusion, swells considerably, and finally becomes a dry porous mass, with loss of half its weight. Above a red heat it melts into a limpid liquid, and, after cooling, concretes into a transparent solid, called glass of borax, much used as a flux in assays with the blowpipe. Sulphuric acid, added to a saturated solution of the salt, unites with the soda, and precipitates the boracic acid in white, shining, scaly crystals, possessing the property of im- parting a green colour to the flame of burning alcohol. This acid consists of one eq. of boron 10*9, and three of oxygen 24=34*9. Borax has the property of rendering cream of tartar very soluble in water, and forms a combination with it called soluble cream of tartar, which is sometimes used in medicine. This preparation is made by boiling six parts of cream of tartar and two of borax in sixteen of water for five minutes, allowing the solution to cool, and then filtering to separate some tartrate of lime. Soluble cream of tartar attracts moisture from the air, and is soluble in its own weight of cold, and half its weight of boiling water. A similar preparation may be made by substituting boracic acid for the borax, the pro- portions being four parts of cream of tartar to one of the acid. This combi- nation is even more soluble than the other. It has not been well ascertained what is the nature of these compounds. Thenard has thrown out the sug- gestion, that the former consists of two double salts, tartrate of potassa and soda (Rochelle salt), and tartrate of potassa and boracic acid; the boracic acid acting the part of a base; and Berzelius inclines to the opinion that the lat- ter is a double tartrate of potassa and boracic acid. According to the formula of the Paris Codex, soluble cream of tartar is made with boracic acid. One hundred parts of the acid and 400 of cream of tartar are dissolved in a silver basin, at the temperature of ebullition, in 2400 parts of water. The solution is kept boiling until the greater part of the water is consumed. The fire is then moderated, and the solution continually stirred while the evaporation proceeds. When the matter has become very thick, it is removed by por- tions, which are flattened in the hand, completely dried by the heat of a stove, reduced to powder, and kept in well stopped bottles. Composition. Borax consists of two eqs. of boracic acid 69*8, and one of soda 31*3=101*1. As ordinarily crystallized it-contains ten eqs. of water; but a variety of the salt exists, which crystallizes in octahedrons, and which contains only five eqs. of water. This is obtained in the artificial production of borax, by crystallizing from a concentrated solution at a tem- perature between 174° and 133°. From the composition of borax in equi- part i. Sodce Boras.—Sodce Carbonas Impura. 671 valents, it is evidently a biborate, though generally called a subborate on account of its possessing an alkaline reaction. This latter property arises from the feeble neutralizing power of boracic acid, which is inadequate to overcome the alkaline nature of so strong a base as soda. Medical Properties and Uses. Borax is a mild refrigerant and diuretic. It is supposed also to exercise a specific influence over the uterus, promoting menstruation, facilitating parturition, and favouring the expulsion of the pla- centa. (Vogt's Pharmakodynamik, quoted by Pereira, Elem. Mat. Med.) It is strongly recommended by Dr. Daniel Stahl, of Indiana, in dysmenorrhoea occurring in sanguineous constitutions, venesection being premised. He gives it in doses of about nine grains every two hours in a tablespoonful of flaxseed tea, for two days before the time of the expected return of the menses. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci.,xx. 536, from Western Journ. of Med. and Phys. Sci.) Dr. Duncan quotes Wurzerfor asserting that it is the best remedy that can be used in nephritic and calculous complaints, dependent on an excess of uric acid. It probably acts in such cases as an alkali, the soda of the salt neutralizing the acid met with in the stomach or urinary passages, and the boracic acid being set free. The dose is from thirty to forty grains. Cream of tartar, rendered soluble by borax or boracic acid, is a convenient preparation, where it is desirable to administer Iairge quan- tities of the former salt. Externally its solution is used as a wash in scaly cutaneous eruptions. A solution formed by dissolving a drachm of the salt in two fluidounces of distilled vinegar has been found, both by Dr. Aber- crombie and Dr. Christison, an excellent lotion for ringworm of the scalp. Borax is very much used as a detergent in aphthous affections of the mouth in children. When employed for this purpose, it is generally applied in powder, either mixed with sugar in the proportion of one part to seven, or rubbed up with honey. (See Mel Boracis.) Off.Prep. Mel Boracis, Lond., Ed., Dub. B. SOD.E CARBONAS IMPURA. Lond. Impure Carbonate of Soda. Off. Syn. SODiE CARBONAS VENALE. BARILLA. Dub. Commercial carbonate of soda; Soude de commerce, Fr.; Rohe Soda, Germ.; Soda impura, Ital; Barilla, Span. The impure carbonate of soda, intended by the London College, is the artifi- cial carbonate, obtained on a large scale by the manufacturing chemist, which the College does not deem to be sufficiently pure for medicinal use. The corresponding preparation of the Dublin College is the impure carbonate obtained by incinerating maritime plants, to which the name barilla strictly belongs. The Edinburgh College has very properly dismissed barilla, as the source from which the apothecary is to obtain the medicinal carbonate by a process of purification ; deeming the alkali as manufacturedon a large scale to be sufficiently pure. Influenced by the same views the framers of our national Pharmacopoeia have never admitted barilla on the officinal list. Although the officinal names at the head of this article only indicate the artificial carbonate of soda, and barilla, yet we shall not confine our remarks to these substances, but notice, generally, the sources of the alkali. Carbonated soda exists as a mineral, called native soda, and is obtained by incinerating certain plants, and by decomposing sulphate of soda. Native soda is found chiefly in Egypt, Hungary, and near Merida in South America. It exists in these localities in solution in small lakes, from 672 Sodce Carbonas Impura. PART I. which it is extracted by taking advantage of the drying up of the water dur- ing the heats of summer. Native soda is called natron, and was formerly imported from Egypt for use in the arts; but for a number of years, the demands of commerce for this alkali have been supplied from other sources. The native soda of Egypt, called trona by the natives, is a sesquicarbonate; while the South American in the proportion of its acid, is intermediate be- tween the Egyptian and artificial carbonate. The native sodas are not im- portant to the American chemist or druggist, as they are never imported into this country. Soda of vegetable origin is derived from certain plants which grow on the surface or borders of the sea, and is denominated either barilla or kelp, according to the particular character of the marine plants from which it is derived. Barilla is obtained from several vegetables, principally belonging to the genera Salsola, Salicornia, and Chenopodium. In Spain, Sicily, and some other countries, the plants are regularly cultivated for the purpose of yielding soda by their combustion. When ripe, they are-cut down, dried, and burnt in heaps. The ashes form a semi-fused, hard, and compact saline mass, which is broken up into fragments by means of pickaxes, and thrown into commerce. Kelp is procured by the incineration of various kinds of sea-weeds, principally the algas and fuci, which grow on the rocky coasts of many countries. The Orkneys and Hebrides, and the rocky coasts of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, furnish large quantities of these weeds. The plants are allowed to ferment in heaps, then dried, and after- wards burnt to ashes in ovens, roughly made with brick or stone, and built in the ground. The alkali in the ashes melts, and forms the whole into one solid mass. When cold, it is broken up with iron instruments into large heavy masses, in which state it is found in commerce. About twenty-four tons of sea-weeds are required to produce one of kelp. Large quantities of this substance were formerly manufactured in Great Britain ; but its demand and production have greatly diminished since the introduction of artificial soda at a comparatively low price. At present it is used principally for the manufacture of iodine. An impure soda is obtained in a similar manner in France, under the name of vareck. Artificial Soda of Commerce. At present this is obtained by decom- posing sulphate of soda, which is procured from the manufacturers of chlo- rinated lime (bleaching salt), or, what is more usualon account of the in- sufficient supply from this source, is made expressly for the purpose, by decomposing common salt (chloride of sodium) by sulphuric acid. The dried sulphate is mixed with its own weight of ground chalk, and half its weight of small coal, ground and sifted, and the whole is heated in a rever- beratory furnace, where it fuses and forms a black mass, called black ash or British barilla. The coal, at the temperature employed, converts the sul- phate of soda into sulphuret of sodium. This reacts with the chalk, so as to form sulphuret of calcium and carbonate of soda (NaS and CaO,C02 = CaS and NaO,C02). Black ash contains only about 22 per cent, of alkali, imperfectly carbonated on account of the high heat used; the remainder being sulphuret of calcium and coaly matter. It is next digested in warm water, which takes up the alkali and leaves the impurities. The solution is evaporated to dryness, and the mass obtained is calcined with one-fourth of its weight of sawdust, in order to convert the alkali fully into carbonate, by means of the carbonic acid resulting from the combustion of the sawdust. The product is redissolved in water, and the solution evaporated to dryness. The alkali, in this stage of its purification, contains about 50 per cent, of carbonate of soda, and is called soda-ash. It is brought to the state of crys- part i. Sodce Carbonas Impura.—Sodce Carbonas. 673 tallized carbonate of soda, by dissolving it in water, straining the solution, evaporating it to a pellicle, and setting it aside to crystallize. The chemical process just described for obtaining carbonated soda, is at present pursued on an immense scale in Great Britain, especially at Liver- pool and Glasgow; and its product is so cheap that its use has nearly super- seded that of barilla and kelp as sources of soda. It was calculated by Mr. Musprat that, in 1838, there were manufactured, in Great Britain alone, 50,000 tons of soda-ash, and 20,000 tons of the crystallized carbonate, and the manufacture is steadily on the increase. Barilla, when of good quality, is in hard, dry, porous, sonorous, grayish- blue masses, which become covered with a saline efflorescence after ex- posure to the air. It possesses an alkaline taste and peculiar odour. It contains from twenty-five to forty per cent, of real carbonated alkali; the residue being made up of sulphate of soda, sulphuret and chloride of sodium, carbonate of lime, alumina, silica, oxidized iron, and a small portion of charcoal which has escaped combustion. Kelp is in hard, vesicular masses, of a dark-gray, bluish, or greenish colour, sulphureous odour, and acrid, caustic taste. It is still less pure than barilla, containing from five to eight per cent, of carbonated soda; the rest being made up of a large proportion of the sulphates of soda and potassa, and the chlorides of potassium and sodium, a small quantity of iodide of sodium, and insoluble and colouring matters. It is from kelp that iodine is obtained. (See Iodinum.) British barilla, the name given to artificial soda in its lowest degree of purity, is of a blackish-brown colour, becoming darker by exposure to the air. When broken it exhibits an imperfect metallic lustre, and a close striated texture. Its taste is caustic and hepatic. By exposure to a moist atmosphere, it becomes covered with a yellow efflorescence, and quickly falls to powder, with disengagement of heat and sulphuretted hydrogen; at the same time increasing in weight by the absorption of carbonic acid and water. Soda-ash is in white or gray compact masses. The different kinds of impure carbonate of soda, whether barilla, kelp, or soda-ash, being exceedingly variable in composition, it is important to have a ready method of determining the quantity of real carbonated alkali which they contain. The mode in which this is done, by means of an instrument called an alkalimeter, has been already explained. (See page 564.) Pharmaceutical Uses, ey*c. The impure carbonate of soda, in the form of commercial carbonate, is employed by the London College for obtaining the pure carbonate; and barilla is used for the same purpose by the Dublin College. The various forms of impure carbonate are largely consumed in the manufacture of soap and glass, and in dyeing and bleaching. Off. Prep. Sodas Carbonas, Lond., Dub. B. SOD^E CARBONAS. U.S., Lond., Ed, Dub. Carbonate of Soda. Carbonate de soude, Fr.; Einfach Kohlensaures Natron, Germ.; Carbonato di soda, Ital; Carbonato de soda. Span. In the U.S. Pharmacopoeia this salt has been always placed in the list of the Materia Medica; the crystallized carbonate of soda, obtained on a large scale by the manufacturing chemist, being a pure salt, and that which is sold in the shops of our apothecaries. The Edinburgh College, in the last revision of its Pharmacopoeia, has given the same position to this salt, having 58 674 Sodce Carbonas. part i. abandoned the process previously prescribed for preparing it from barilla. The London and Dublin Colleges give processes for its preparation. The London College takes two pounds of the " impure carbonate of soda" (commercial carbonate), boils it with four pints (Imperial measure) of dis- tilled water, strains the solution while hot, and sets it by that crystals may form. The Dublin College exhausts "barilla," by boiling it with twice its weight of water for two or three successive times, and, having mixed the several solutions, evaporates to dryness. The dry mass is then dissolved in boiling water, and the solution evaporated until it acquires the sp. gr. 1*22, when it is .exposed to a temperature about freezing, in order that it may crystallize. The crystals are then dried and kept in close bottles. These processes for obtaining carbonate of soda on a small scale are entirely superfluous, on account of the perfection to which the artificial carbonate has been brought by the manufacturing chemist. The officinal carbonate of soda of the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias may be con- sidered as the artificial carbonate, in the highest state of purity in which it is manufactured on the large scale. The process by which it is made is described in the preceding article. (See Sodae Carbonas Impura.) Properties. Carbonate of soda is a colourless salt, possessing an alkaline and disagreeable taste, and crystallizing usually in large oblique rhombic prisms, which speedily effloresce and fall into powder when exposed to the air. It is soluble in twice its weight of cold water, but insoluble in alco- hol, and displays an alkaline reaction with tests. When heated it under- goes the aqueous fusion; and, if the heat be continued, it dries and finally suffers the igneous fusion. The most usual impurities are sulphate of soda and common salt, which may be detected by converting the salt into a nitrate, and testing separate portions of this severally with the chloride of barium and nitrate of silver. Common salt is seldom entirely absent, but good specimens are free from sulphate of soda. According to the late Dr. W. R. Fisher, it is liable to contain, when badly prepared, a portion of sulphuret of sodium, which may be detected by the production of the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen upon dissolving the salt in water. (Amer. Journ. of Pharm., viii. 108.) Carbonate of soda is incompatible with acids, acidulous salts, lime-water, muriate of ammonia, and earthy and metallic salts. It consists of one eq. of carbonic acid 22, and one of soda 31*3=53*3. When fully crystallized it contains ten eqs. of water 90, giving as the number representing the crystallized salt 143-3. It is thus perceived that this salt, when perfectly crystallized, contains nearly two- thirds of its weight of water; but the quantity actually present in it, as found in the shops, is variable, being dependent on the extent to which it may have undergone efflorescence. Medical Properties and Uses. Carbonate of soda is antacid, antilithic, and resolvent. It is given principally in diseases attended with acidity of the stomach; such as gout,uric acid gravel, and certain forms of dyspepsia. It is more frequently exhibited than carbonate of potassa, as it is more easily taken, its taste being less acrid. It has also been recommended in hooping- cough, scrofula, and bronchocele. In the latter disease, Dr. Peschier, of Geneva, considers it more efficacious than iodine. It is given in doses of from ten grains to half a drachm, either in powder, or in solution in some bitter infusion. In consequence of the variable state in which it exists in the shops, as to the amount of water of crystallization which it contains, the dose cannot be indicated with precision. It is on this account that the salt is most conveniently administered in the dried state. (See Sodae Carbonas Exsiccatus.) When taken in an over-dose it acts as a corrosive part i. Sodce Carbonas.—Sodce Sulphas. 675 and irritant poison. The best antidotes are fixed oils, acetia acid, and lemon juice. This salt is used as a chemical agent in prepa^ftng Quinias Sulphas, Ed., and Antimonii Oxidum, Ed. Off. Prep. Aqua Carbonatis Sodas Acidula, Dub.; Ferri Carbonas Sac- charatum, Ed.; Ferri Subcarbonas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Sodas Chlorinatae, U. S., Lond.; Magnesias Carbonas, Lond., Ed.; Pilulas Ferri Carbonatis, U. S.; Pil. Ferri Compositas, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Sodas Bicar- bonas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Sodas Carbonas ExsiccatusJ^S'., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Sodas et Potassae Tartras, U. S., Lond., Ed/, Dub.; Sodae Phosphas, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Sodae Sulphas, Lond. / % B. SOD^E SULPHAS. U S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Sulphate of Soda. ^^*f Vitriolated soda, Glauber's salt; Sulfate de soude, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Natron, Glau- bersalz, Germ.; Solfato di soda, Ital; Sulfato de soda, Sal de Glaubero, Span. This salt is included among the Preparations by the three British Col- leges, a formula for obtaining it being given; but in the United States Phar- macopoeia it is inserted only in the Materia Medica list, where it properly/ stands as a substance obtained on a large scale. ■■"•'■ » 4 Sulphate of soda, in small quantities, is extensively diffused*:jfk nature, and is obtained artificially in several chemical operations. It exists in solution in many mineral springs, among which may be mentioned those of Chelten- ham and Carlsbad; its ingredients are present in sea-water; and it is found combined with sulphate of lime, constituting a distinct mineral. As an arti- ficial product, it is formed in the processes for obtaining muriatic acid and chlorine, and in the preparation of muriate of ammonia from sulphate of ammonia and common salt. It may also be procured from sea-water. Preparation. The British Colleges agree in obtaining sulphate of soda from the salt left after the distillation of muriatic a^id. This residuary salt, as is explained under muriatic acid, is sulphate of soda; but it generally con- tains an excess of sulphuric acid, which must be neutralized Vith sjoda or removed. The London College dissolves two pounds of the salt in tw6tpints (Imperial measure) of boiling water, and saturates the excess of acid with carbonate of soda. The solution is then evaporated to a pellicle, strained, and set aside to crystallize. The supernatant liquor being poured off, the crystals are dried. The Edinburgh College dissolves two pounds of the salt in three pints (Imp. meas.) of boiling water, saturates the excess of acid with powdered white marble, boils the liquid, and when neutral filters it, washes the insoluble matter with boiling water, which is added to the ori- ginal liquid, concentrates the solution to a pellicle, and sets it aside to cool and crystallize. In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, the salt is directed to be dis- solved in a sufficient quantity of boiling water, and the solution, after filtra- tion and due evaporation, is allowed to crystallize by slow cooling'. In the above processes, the London College converts the excess of acid in the residuary salt into an additional portion of sulphate of soda; while the Edinburgh College gets rid of the excess, by cdnverting it into the insoluble sulphate of lime. The Dublin process makes no provision for removing the excess of acid. Immense quantities of sulphate of soda are now made in Gr^t Britain and France by the process of decomposing common salt by sulphuric acid, for the purpose of being manufactured into soda-ash and carbonate of soda ; and, so far from the generated muriatic acid being a product of value, its 676 Sodce Sulphas. part i. absorption in a convenient way, so as to avoid the nuisance of its escape into the atmosphere in a gaseous state, is an object of importance to the manufacturer. (See Acidum Muriaticum.) The residuum of the process for obtaining chlorine by the action of sul- phuric acid, water, and deutoxide of manganese on common salt, is a mix- ture of sulphate of soda and sulphate of protoxide, of manganese. (See Aqua Chlorinii.) Large quantities of this residuum are formed in manufacturing chlorinated lime (bleaching salt), and the sulphate of soda in it, roughly purified, supplies a small part of the consumption of this salt in making soda- ash and carbonate of soda. (See Sodae Carbonas Impura.) In the process for obtaining muriate of ammonia from sulphate of ammo- nia and common salt, water is decomposed, and a double decomposition takes place, resulting in the formation of sulphate of soda and muriate of ammonia. By exposing the mixed salts to heat, the muriate of ammonia sublimes, and the sulphate of soda remains behind as a fixed residue. (See Ammoniae Murias.) In some of our Northern States, particularly Massachusetts, a portion of Glauber's salt is procured from sea-water in the winter season. The cir- cumstances under which it is formed have been explained in a paper " On the Preparation of Glauber's and Epsom Salt and Magnesia from Sea- water," by Mr. Daniel B. Smith, published in the fourth volume of the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. The constituents of a number of salts exist in sea-water; and the binary order in which these constituents will precipitate during evaporation, depends on the tempera- ture. During the prevalence of rigorous cold, sulphate of soda is the least soluble salt which can be formed out of the acids and bases present, and consequently separates in the form of crystals. Properties. Sulphate of soda is a colourless salt, possessing a cooling, nauseous, very bitter taste, and crystallizing with great facility in six-sided striated prisms. When recently prepared, it is beautifully transparent; but by exposure to the air it effloresces, and the crystals become covered with an opaque white powder. By long exposure it undergoes complete efflo- rescence, and falls to powder with loss of more than half its weight. It is soluble in three times its weight of cold water, and in its own weight of boiling water, but is insoluble in alcohol. Subjected to heat, it dissolves in its water of crystallization, then dries, and afterward;;, by the application of a red heat, melts, with the loss of 55£ per cent, of its weight. Occasionally it contains an excess of acid or alkali, which may be discovered by litmus or turmeric paper. The presence of common salt may be detected by sulphate of silver; that of iron by ferrocyanuret of potassium or tincture of galls. This salt is not subject to adulteration. It is incompatible with carbonate of potassa, chloride of calcium, the salts of baryta, nitrate of silver if the solutions be strong, and acetate and subacetate of lead. It consists of one eq. of sulphuric acid 40, one of soda 31*3, and ten of water 90=161*3. Medical Properties and Uses. Sulphate of soda, in doses of from half an ounce to an ounce, is an efficient cathartic; in smaller doses largely diluted, an aperient and diuretic. When in an effloresced state, the dose must be reduced one-half. It is much less used than formerly, having been almost entirely superseded by sulphate of magnesia, which is less disagreeable to the paiate. Its nauseous taste, however, may be readily disguised by the admixture of a little lemon-juice or cream of tartar, or the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid. Sulphate of soda is an ingredient in the artificial Cheltenham salt. (See Appendix.) The only use of sulphate of soda in the arts is to make carbonate of soda, and as an ingredient in some kinds of glass. It has no officinal preparations. B. PART I. Sodii Chloridum. 677 SODII CHLORIDUM. U. S., Lond. Chloride of Sodium. Off. Syn. SODiE MURIAS. Ed., Dub. Muriate of soda, Sea salt, Common salt; Chlorure de sodium, Hydro-chlorate de soude, Sel marin, Fr.; Chlornatrium, Kochsalz, Germ.; Salt, Dan., Swed.; Chloruro di sodio, Sal commune, Ital; Sal, Span. This mineral production, so necessary to» mankind, is universally distri- buted over the globe, and is the most abundant of the native soluble salts. Most animals have an instinctive relish for it; and, from its frequent presence in the solids and fluids of the animal economy, it may be supposed to per- form an important part in nutrition and assimilation. Natural State. Common salt exists in nature, either in the solid state or in solution. In the solid state, called rock salt, fossil salt, and sal gemmae, it is often found forming extensive beds, and even entire mountains, from which it is extracted in blocks or masses by mining operations. Its geolo- gical position is very constant, occurring almost invariably in secondary formations, associated with clay and gypsum. In solution it occurs in cer- tain springs and lakes, and in the waters of the ocean. The principal salt mines are found in Poland, Hungary, and Russia; in various parts of Germany, particularly the Tyrol; in England in the county of Cheshire; in Spain; in various parts of Asia and Africa; and in Peru, and other coun- tries of South America. In the United States there are no salt mines, but numerous saline springs, which either flow naturally, or are produced artifi- cially by sinking shafts to various depths in places where salt is known to exist. These are found principally in Missouri, Kentucky, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and New York. In the last-mentioned State the springs are the most productive; the chief ones being situated at Salina, Montezuma, and Galen. In Virginia an important salt region exists, extend- ing fifteen miles on both sides of the great Kenhawa river. Rock salt is always transparent or translucent; but it often exhibits various colours, such as red, yellow, brown, violet, blue, &c, which are supposed to be derived from iron and manganese. Extraction. Mines of salt are worked in two ways. When the salt is pure it is merely dug out in blocks and thrown into commerce. When impure it is dissolved in water, and extracted afterwards from the solution by evaporation. When the salt is naturally in solution, the mode of extraction depends upon the strength of the brine, and the temperature of the place where it is found. When the water contains from fourteen to fifteen per cent, of salt, it is extracted by evaporation in large iron boilers. If, how- ever, it contains only two, three, four, or five per cent., the salt is obtained in a different manner. If the climate be warm it is procured by spontaneous evaporation, effected by the heat of the sun; if temperate, by a peculiar mode of spontaneous evaporation to be mentioned presently, and the subsequent application of artificial heat. Sea-water is a weak saline solution, containing 2*7 per cent, of salt, which is extracted by the agency of solar heat in warm countries. Salt thus ob- tained is called bay salt. The extraction ig conducted in Europe princi- pally on the shores of the Mediterranean, the waters of which are Salter than those of the open ocean. The mode in which it is performed is by letting the sea-water into shallow dikes, lined with clay, and capable, after being filled, of being shut off from the sea. In this situation the heat 58* 678 Sodii Chloridum. PART I. of the sun gradually concentrates the water, and the salt is deposited. In temperate climates, weak brines are first concentrated in buildings, called graduation houses. These are rough wooden structures open on the sides, ten or eleven yards high, five or six wide, and three or four hundred long, and containing an oblong pile of brushwood somewhat smaller than the building itself. The brine is pumped up into troughs full of holes, placed above the fagots, upon which it is allowed to fall; and in its descent it becomes minutely divided. This operation, by greatly increasing the surface of the brine, promotes its evaporation; and being repeated several times, the solution is at last broughtto the requisite degree of strength to permit of its final concentration in iron boilers by artificial heat. Sometimes, to save fuel, the last concentration is performed by allowing the brine to trickle down a number of vertical ropes, on the surface of which the salt is depo- sited in the form of a crust. Properties. Chloride of sodium is white, without odour, and of a pecu- liar taste called saline. It is usually crystallized in cubes; but by hasty evaporation it often assumes the .form of hollow quadrangular pyramids. When pure it undergoes no change in the air; but when contaminated with chloride of magnesium, as not unfrequently happens, it is deliquescent. It dissolves in somewhat less than three times its weight of cold water, and is scarcely more soluble in boiling water. In weak alcohol it is very soluble, but sparingly so in absolute alcohol. Exposed to a gradually increasing heat, it first decrepitates from the presence of interstitial moisture, next melts, and finally volatilizes in white fumes without decomposition. It is decomposed by several of the acids, particularly the sulphuric and nitric, which disen- gage vapours of muriatic acid; by carbonate of potassa with the assistance of heat; and by the nitrates of silver and of the protoxide of mercury. Several varieties of common salt are distinguished in commerce ; as stoved salt, fishery salt, bay salt, &c; but they are characterized by modifications in the size and compactness of the grains, rather than by any essential dif- ference in composition. Composition. Common salt, in its pure state, consists of one eq. of chlorine 35*42, and one of sodium 23*3=58*72. It contains no water of crystallization. When in solution it is by some supposed to become the muriate of soda in consequence of the decomposition of water, the hydrogen and oxygen of which are alleged to convert the chlorine and sodium into muri- atic acid and soda. The common salt of commerce, besides pure chloride of sodium, contains, generally speaking, insoluble matter, and usually more or less of the sulphates of lime and magnesia, and chlorides of calcium and magnesium. When pure it is not precipitated by carbonate of soda, chlo- ride of barium, or ferrocyanuret of potassium. Chloride of calcium is generally present in very small amount; but the chloride of magnesium sometimes amounts to 28 parts in 1000. Sulphate of lime is usually pre- sent, constituting variously from 1 part to 23£ in 1000; and sulphate of mag- nesia is sometimes present and sometimes absent. To separate the earths, a boiling solution of carbonate of soda must be added, as long as any preci- pitate is formed. The earths will fall as carbonates, and must be separated by filtration, and sulphate of soda and chloride of sodium will remain in solution. The sulphate of soda may then be decomposed by the cautious addition of chloride of barium, which will generate chloride of sodium and insoluble sulphate of baryta. Medical Properties and Uses. Chloride of sodium, in small doses, acts as a stimulant tonic and anthelmintic; in larger ones as a purgative and emetic. It certainly promotes digestion, and the almost universal animal part i. Sodii Chloridum.—Solidago. 679 appetency for it, proves it to be a salutary stimulus in health. When taken in larger quantities than usual with food, it is useful in some forms of dyspepsia, and, by giving greater tone to the digestive organs in weakly children, may correct the disposition to generate worms. On the sudden occurrence of haemoptysis, it is usefully resorted to as a styptic, in the dose of a tea- spoonful, taken dry, and often proves successful in stopping the flow of blood. Externally applied in solution, it is stimulant, and may be used either locally or generally. Locally, it is sometimes employed as a fomentation in sprains and bruises; and as a general external application, it forms the salt-water bath* a valuable remedy as a tonic and excitant in depraved conditions of the system, occurring especially in children, and supposed to be dependent on the scrofulous diathesis. A pound of salt dissolved in four gallons of water, forms a solution of about the strength of sea-water, and suitable for a bath. It is frequently used as an ingredient in stimulating enemata. The dose, as a tonic, is from ten grains to a drachm; as a cathartic, though seldom used for that purpose, from two drachms to half an ounce. In doses of from half an ounce to an ounce, dissolved in four or five times its weight of water, it frequently proves a prompt and efficient emetic, invigorating rather than depressing the powers of the system. When employed as a clyster, it may be used in the amount of from one to two tablespoonfuls dissolved in a pint of water. The uses of common salt in domestic economy as a condiment and anti- septic are well known. In agriculture it is sometimes employed as a manure, and in the arts to prepare muriate of ammonia, as also to form sul- phate of soda, with a view to its conversion afterwards into carbonate of soda. It is used as a chemical agent in preparing the biniodide of mercury of the Edinburgh College. Off. Prep. Acidum Muriaticum, Dub., Lond.; Acidum Muriaticum Purum, Ed.; Aqua Chlorinii, Dub., Ed.; Hydrargyri Chloridum Corro- sivum, U. S., Lond.,Ed., Dub.; Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Liquor Sodas Chlorinates, Lond.; Plumbi Chloridum, Lond.; Pulvis Salinus Compositus, Dub.; Sodae Murias Purum, Ed.; Sodae Sulphas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Calomelas Prascipitatum, Dub. B. SOLIDAGO. U.S. Secondary. Golden-rod. " The leaves of Solidago odora." U. S. Solidago. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Compositas Asteroideas, De Candolle; Asteraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx imbricated, scales closed. Radical florets about five, yellow. Receptacle naked, punctate. Pappus simple pilose. Nuttall. This is a very abundant genus, including, according to Eaton's enumera- tion, upwards of sixty species belonging to this country. Of these the S. odora only is officinal. The S. Virgaurea, which is common to the United States and Europe, was formerly directed by the Dublin College; but was omitted in the last edition of their Pharmacopoeia. It is astringent, and has been supposed to possess lithontriptic virtues. Solidago odora. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2061; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 187. The sweet-scented golden-rod has a perennial creeping root, and a slender, erect, pubescent stem, which rises two or three feet in height. The leaves are sessile, linear lanceolate, entire, acute, rough at the margin, else- where smooth, and, according to Bigelow, covered with pellucid dots. The 680 Solidago.—Spigelia. PART I. flowers are of a deep golden-yellow colour, and are arranged in a terminal, compound, panicled raceme, the branches of which spread almost horizon- tally, are each accompanied by a small leaf, and support the flowers on downy pedicels, which put forth from the upper side of the peduncle, and have small linear bractes at their base. The florets of the ray are ligulate, oblong, and obtuse; those of the disk, funnel-shaped, with acute segments. The plant grows in woods and fields throughout the United States, and is in flower from August to October. The leaves, which are the officinal portion, have a fragrant odour, and a warm, aromatic, agreeable taste. These properties depend on a volatile oil, which may be separated by distillation with water. It is of a pale greenish-yellow colour, and lighter than water. Medical Properties and Uses. Golden-rod is aromatic, moderately stimu- lant and carminative, and, like other substances of the same class, diaphoretic when given in warm infusion. It may be used to relieve pain arising from. flatulence, to allay nausea, and to cover the taste or correct the operation of unpleasant or irritating medicines. For these purposes it may be given in infusion. The volatile oil dissolved in alcohol is employed in the Eastern States. According to Pursh, the dried flowers are used as a pleasant and wholesome substitute for common tea. W. SPIGELIA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Pinkroot. "The root of Spigelia Marilandica.' 'U.S., Ed. " Spigelia Marilandica. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. SPIGELIA MARILANDICA. Radix, Dub. Spigelie du Maryland, Fr.; Spigelie, Germ.; Spigelia, Ital. Spigelia. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Gentianae, Juss.; Spigeliaceas, Martius, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla funnel-shaped, border five-cleft, equal. Capsule didymous, two-celled, four-valved, many-seeded. Nuttall. There are two species of Spigelia which have attracted attention as an- thelmintics, the S. anthelmintica of South America and the West Indies, and the S. Marilandica of this country. The former is an annual plant, used only in the countries where it grows, the latter is much employed both in this country and in Europe. Spigelia Marilandica. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 825; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 142; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 75. The Carolina pink is an herbaceous plant with a perennial root, which sends off numerous fibrous branches. The stems, several of which rise from the same root, are simple, erect, four- sided, nearly smooth, and from twelve to twenty inches high. The leaves are opposite, sessile, ovate lanceolate, acuminate, entire, and smooth, with the veins and margins slightly pubescent. Each stem terminates in a spike, which leans to one side, and supports from four to twelve flowers with very short peduncles. The calyx is persistent, with five long, subulate, slightly serrate leaves, refiexed in the ripe fruit. The corolla is funnel-shaped, and much longer than the calyx, with the tube inflated in the middle, and the border divided into five acute, spreading segments. It is of a rich carmine colour externally, becoming paler at the base, and orange-yellow within. The edges of the segments are slightly tinged with green. The stamens, though apparently very short, and inserted into the upper part of the tube between the segments, may be traced down its internal surface to the base. The anthers are oblong, heart-shaped; the germ superior, ovate; the style PART I. Spigelia. 681 about the length of the corolla, and terminating in a linear fringed stigma projecting considerably beyond it. The capsule is double, consisting of two cohering, globular, one-celled portions, and containing many seeds. The plant is a native of our Southern and South-western States, being seldom if ever found north of the Potomac. It grows in rich soils on the borders of woods, and flowers from May to July. The root is the part recognised as officinal in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The drug was formerly collected in Georgia and the neighbouring States by the Creek and Cherokee Indians, who disposed of it to the white traders. The whole plant was gathered and dried, and came to us in bales or casks. After the emigration of the Indians, the supply of spigelia from this source very much diminished, and has now nearly if not entirely failed. The conse- quence was for a time a great scarcity and increase in the price of the drug : but a new source of supply was opened from the Western and South-western States, and it is now again plentiful. As we receive spigelia at present, it is chiefly if not exclusively in the root, without the stem and leaves. We have been informed that most of it comes in casks or bales from St. Louis, by the way of New Orleans. That contained in casks is to be preferred, as less liable to be damp and mouldy. Properties. Pinkroot consists of numerous slender, branching, crooked, wrinkled fibres, from three to six inches long, attached to a knotty head or caudex, which exhibits traces of the stems of former years. It is of a brown- ish or yellowish-brown colour externally, of a faint smell, and a sweetish, slightly bitter, not very disagreeable taste. Its virtues are extracted by boil- ing water. The root, analyzed by M. Feneulle, yielded a fixed and vola- tile oil, a small quantity of resin, a bitter substance supposed to be the active principle, a mucilaginous saccharine matter, albumen, gallic acid, the ma- lates of potassa and lime, &c, and woody fibre. The principle upon which the virtues of the root are thought to depend, is brown, of a bitter nauseous taste, like that of the purgative matter of the leguminous plants, and, when taken internally, produces vertigo and a kind of intoxication. The stalks of the dried plant are oval below the first pair of leaves, and. then become obscurely four-sided. The leaves, when good, have a fresh greenish colour, and an odour somewhat like that of tea. In taste they resemble the root, and afforded to M. Feneulle nearly the same principles. The quantity, however, of the bitter substance was less, corresponding with their inferior efficacy. This circumstance should cause their rejection from the shops; as the inequality in power of the two portions of the plant would lead to uncertainty in the result, when they are both employed. The root alone is wisely directed by the Pharmacopoeias. The roots are sometimes mixed with those of other plants, particularly of a small vine which twines round the stem of the Spigelia. These are long, slender, crooked, yellowish, thickly set with short capillary fibres, and much smaller and lighter-coloured than the pinkroot. They should be separated before the latter is used. The activity of spigelia is somewhat diminished by time. Medical Properties and Uses. Pinkroot is generally considered among the most powerful anthelmintics. In the ordinary dose it usually produces little sensible effect on the system; more largely given it acts as a cathartic, though unequal and uncertain in its operation; in over-doses it excites the circulation, and determines to the brain, giving rise to vertigo, dimness of vision, dilated pupils, spasms of the facial muscles, and sometimes even to general convulsions. Spasmodic movements of the eyelids have been ob- served among the most common attendants of its narcotic action. The death of two children, who expired in convulsions, was attributed by Dr. Chalmers 682 Spigelia.—Spircea. part i. to the influence of spigelia. The narcotic effects are said to be less apt to occur when the medicine purges, and to be altogether obviated by combining it with cathartics. The danger from its employment cannot be great; as it is in very general use in the United States, both in regular and domestic prac- tice, and we never hear at present of serious consequences. Its effects upon the nervous system have been erroneously conjectured to depend on other roots sometimes mixed with the genuine. The vermifuge properties of spi- gelia were first learned from the Cherokee Indians. They were made known to the medical profession by Drs. Lining, Garden, and Chalmers of South Carolina. The remedy stands at present in this country at the head of the anthelmintics. It has also been recommended in infantile remittents and other febrile diseases ; but it is entitled to little confidence in these complaints. It may be given in substance or infusion. The dose of the powdered root for a child three or four years old, is from ten to twenty grains, for an adult from one to two drachms, to be repeated morning and evening for several days successively, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. The practice of preceding its use by an emetic has been generally abandoned. It is frequently given in combination with calomel. The infusion, however, is the most common form of administration. (See Infusum Spigelian) It is usually combined with senna or some other cathartic, to ensure its action on the bowels. A preparation generally kept in the shops and much pre- scribed by physicians, under the name of worm tea, consists of pinkroot, senna, manna, and savine, mixed together, in various proportions, to suit the views of different individuals. Spigelia may also be given in the form of extract. Off. Prep. Infusum Spigelias, U. S. W. SPIRAEA. U. S. Secondary. Hardhack. "The root of Spiraea tomentosa." U. S. Spir^a. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Rosaceae. Gen. Ch. Calyx spreading, five-cleft, inferior. Petals five, equal, round- ish. Stamens numerous, exserted. Capsules three to twelve, internally bivalve, each one to three-seeded. Nuttall. Spiraea tomentosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1056; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. vol. ii. This is an indigenous shrub, two or three feet high, with numerous simple, erect, round, downy, and purplish stems, furnished with alternate leaves closely set upon very short footstalks. The leaves are ovate lanceo- late, unequally serrate, somewhat pointed at both ends, dark green on their upper surface, whitish and tomentose beneath. The flowers are of a beau- tiful red or purple colour, and disposed in terminal, compound, crowded spikes or racemes. The hardhack flourishes in low grounds, from New England to Carolina, but is most abundant in the Northern States. It flowers in July and August. All parts of it are medicinal. The root, though designated in the Pharma- copoeia, is, according to Dr. A. W. Ives, the least valuable portion. The taste of the plant is bitter and powerfully astringent. Among its constitu- ents are tannin, gallic acid, and bitter extractive. Water extracts its sensible properties and medicinal virtues. Medical Properties and Uses. Spiraea is tonic and astringent, and may be used in diarrhoea, cholera infantum, and other complaintsin which astring- ents are indicated. In consequence of its tonic powers it is peculiarly PART I. Spircea.—Spongia. 683 adapted to cases of debility; and, from the same cause, should not be given during the existence of inflammatory action, or febrile excitement. It is said to have been employed by the aborigines of our country ; but was first brought to the notice of the medical profession by Dr. Cogswell, of Hartford, in Connecticut. It is said to be less apt to disagree with the stomach than most other astringents. The form in which it is best administered is that of an extract, prepared by evaporating the decoction of the leaves, stems, or root. The dose is from five to fifteen grains, repeated several times a day. A decoction, prepared by boiling an ounce of the plant in a pint of water, may be given in the dose of one or two fluidounces. W. SPONGIA. U.S., Ed. Sponge. " Spongia officinalis." U. S., Ed. Off. Syn. SPONGIA OFFICINALIS. Dub. Eponge, Fr.; Badeschwamm, Germ.; Spugna, Ital; Esponja, Span., Portug.; Isfung, Arab. The sponge is now generally admitted to be an animal. It is charac- terized as "a flexile, fixed, torpid, polymorphous animal, composed either of reticulate fibres, or masses of small spires interwoven together, and clothed with a gelatinous flesh full of small mouths on its surface, by which it absorbs and ejects water." More than two hundred and fifty species have been described by naturalists, of which several are probably employed, though the Spongia officinalis is the only one designated in the Pharmaco- poeias. They inhabit the bottom of the sea, where they are fixed to rocks or other solid bodies; and are most abundant within the tropics. They are collected chiefly in the Mediterranean and Red Seas, and in those of the East and West Indies. In the Grecian Archipelago many persons derive their support altogether from diving for sponges. When first collected they are enveloped in a gelatinous coating, which forms part of the animal, and is separated by washing with water. Large quantities of the coarser kinds are imported from the Bahamas; but the finest and most esteemed are brought from the Mediterranean. Sponge, as found in commerce, is in yellowish-brown masses of various shape and size, light, porous, elastic, and composed of fine, flexible, tena- cious fibres, interwoven in the form of cells and meshes. It usually contains numerous minute fragments of coral or stone, or small shells, from which it must be freed before it can be used for ordinary purposes. Sponge is pre- pared by macerating it for several days in cold water, beating it in order to break up the concretions which it contains, and dissolving what cannot thus be separated of the calcareous matter by muriatic acid diluted with thirty parts of water. By this process, it is rendered perfectly soft, and fit for surgical use. It may be bleached by steeping it in water impregnated with sulphurous acid, or by exposure in a moist state to the action of chlorine. When intended for surgical purposes, the softest, finest, and most elastic sponges should be selected; for forming burnt sponge, the coarser will answer equally well. According to Mr. Hatchett, the chemical constituents of sponge are gelatin, coagulated albumen, common salt, and carbonate of lime. The presence of magnesia, silica, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus has also been detected; and iodine and bromine combined with sodium and potassium are among the 684 Spongia.—Stannum. PART I. ingredients. From the experiments of Mr. Croockewit, it would appear that sponge is closely analogous to, if not identical with the fibroin of Mulder, differing from it only in containing iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus. (Annal. der Chem. und Pharm., xlviii. 43.) Fibroin is an animal principle found by Mulder in the interior of the fibres of silk. Medical Properties and Uses. Sponge, in its unaltered state, is not employed as a medicine; but, in consequence of its softness, porosity, and property of imbibing liquids, it is very useful in surgical operations. From the same qualities it may be advantageously applied over certain ulcers, the irritating sanies from which it removes by absorption. Compressed upon a bleeding vessel, it is sometimes useful for promoting the coagulation of the blood, especially in hemorrhage from the nostrils. In the shape of sponge tent it is also useful for dilating sinuses. This is prepared by dipping sponge into melted wax, compressing it between two flat surfaces till the wax hardens, and then cutting it into pieces of a proper form and size. By the heat of the body the wax becomes soft, and the sponge, expanding by the imbibition of moisture, gradually dilates the wound or ulcer in which it may be placed. Reduced to the state of charcoal by heat, sponge has long been used as a remedy in goitre. (See Spongia Usta.) Its efficacy in this complaint, which was formerly considered very doubtful by many physicians, has been gene- rally admitted since the discovery of iodine. Off. Prep. Spongia Usta, U. S., Dub. W. STANNUM. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tin. Etain, Fr.; Zinn, Germ.; Stagno, Ital; Estanno, Span. Tin is one of those metals which have been known from the earliest ages. It exists generally as an oxide (tin stone and wood tin), rarely as a sulphuret (tin pyrites), and is by no means generally diffused. It is found in Eng- land, Spain, Germany, Bohemia, and Hungary, in Europe; in the island of Banca and the peninsula of Malacca in Asia; and in Chili and Mexico. Tin mines are particularly abundant and rich in the Tenasserim provinces of British India. (Dr. Royle.) A valuable tin ore has been discovered in the United States, at Jackson, New Hampshire. The Cornwall mines are the most productive, but those of Asia furnish the purest tin. The metal is extracted from the native oxide. When this occurs in its purest stale, in detached roundish grains, called stream tin, the reduction is effected by heating with charcoal. When the oxide is extracted from mines, called mine tin, it requires to be freed, by pounding and washing, from the ad- hering gangue; after which it is roasted to drive off sulphur, arsenic, and antimony, and finally reduced in furnaces by means of stone coal. The metal, as thus obtained, is not pure. To render it so, it requires to be sub- jected to a gentle heat, whereby the pure tin enters first into fusion, and is thus separated from the impurities, which consist of tin united with copper, arsenic, iron, and antimony. The pure metal, thus obtained, is called grain-tin; while the impure residue, after being fused, constitutes block-tin. Properties. Tin is a malleable, rather soft metal, of a silver-white colour. It may be beaten out into thin leaves, called tin-foil. It undergoes but a superficial tarnish in the air. Its taste is slight, and, when rubbed, it ex- hales a peculiar smell. Its ductility and tenacity are small, and, when bent to and fro, it emits a crackling noise, which is characteristic of this metal. Its sp. gr. is 7*29, melting point 442°, equivalent number 58-9, PART I. Stannum.—Staphisagria. 685 and symbol Sn. It forms three oxides, a protoxide, sesquioxide, and deut- oxide. The protoxide is of a grayish-black colour, and consists of one eq. of tin 58*9, and one of oxygen 8=66*9. When perfectly pure it has, according to Dr. Roth, a red colour. The sesquioxide is gray, and is com- posed of two eqs. of tin 117*8, and three of oxygen 24=141*8. The deutoxide (stannic acid) is of a white colour, and constitutes the native oxide. It consists of one eq. of tin 58*9, and two of oxygen 16 = 74*9. The tin of commerce is often impure, being contaminated with other metals, introduced by fraud, or present in consequence of the mode of ex- traction from the ore. A high specific gravity is an indication of impurity. When its colour has a bluish or grayish cast, the presence of copper, lead, iron, or antimony may be suspected. Arsenic renders it whiter, but at the same time harder; and lead, copper, and iron cause it to become brittle. Pure tin is converted by nitric acid into a Avhite powder (deutoxide), with- out being dissolved. Boiled with muriatic acid, it forms a solution which gives a white precipitate with ferrocyanuret of potassium. A blue precipi- tate with this test indicates iron; a brown one, copper; and a violet-blue one, both iron and copper. If lead be present, a precipitate will be pro- duced by sulphate of magnesia. The Malacca and Banca tin, and the English grain-tin are the purest kinds found in commerce. Block tin and the metal obtained from Germany are always of inferior quality. Uses. Tin enters into the composition of bronze, bell-metal, pewter, and plumbers' solder. It is used also in making tin-plate, in silvering looking-glasses, and in forming the solution of bichloride of tin, a combina- tion essential to the perfection of the scarlet dye. It js employed in fabri- cating various vessels and instruments, useful in domestic economy and the arts. Being unaffected by weak acids, it forms a good material for vessels intended for boiling operations in pharmacy. For its medical properties, see Pulvis Stanni. Off. Prep. Pulvis«Stanni, U. S., Ed., Dub. B. STAPHISAGRIA. Lond., Ed. Stavesacre. "Delphinium Staphisagria. Semina." Lond. "Seeds of Delphinium Staphisagria." Ed. Off. Syn. DELPHINIUM STAPHISAGRIA. Semina. Dub. Staphisaigre, Fr.; Stephanskraut, Lausekraut, Germ.; Stafisagria, Ital; Abarraz, Span. Delphinium. See DELPHINIUM. Delphinium Staphisagria. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1231; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 471. t. 168. Stavesacre is a handsome annual or biennial plant, one or two feet high, with a simple, erect, downy stem, and palmate, five or seven-lobed leaves, supported on hairy footstalks. The flowers are bluish or purple, in terminal racemes, with pedicels twice as long as the flower, and bracteoles inserted at the base of the pedicel. The nectary is four-leaved and shorter than the petals, which are five in number, the uppermost projected backward so as to form a spur, which encloses two spurs of the upper leaflets of the nectary. The seeds are contained in straight, oblong capsules. The plant is a native of the South of Europe. Properties. Stavesacre seeds are large, irregularly triangular, wrinkled, externally brown, internally whitish and oily. They have a slight but dis- agreeable odour, and an extremely acrid, bitter, hot, nauseous taste. Their virtues are extracted by water and alcohol. Analyzed by MM. Lassaigne 59 686 Staphisagria.—Statice. PART I. and Feneulle, they yielded a brown and a yellow bitter principle, a volatile oil, a fixed oil, albumen, an azotized substance, a mucilaginous saccharine matter, mineral salts, and a peculiar vegetable alkali called delphine or delphinia, which exists in the seeds combined with an excess of malic acid. It is white, pulverulent, inodorous, of a bitter acrid taste, fusible by heat and becoming hard and brittle upon cooling, slightly soluble in cold water, very soluble in alcohol and ether, and capable of forming salts with the acids. It is obtained by boiling a decoction of the seeds with mag- nesia, collecting the precipitate, and treating it with alcohol, which dissolves the delphinia and yields it upon evaporation. According to M. Couerbe, it is impure as thus obtained, consisting of three distinct principles—one of a resinous nature separated from its solution in diluted sulphuric acid by the addition of nitric acid, another distinguished by its insolubility in ether, and named by M. Couerbe staphisain, and the third soluble both in alcohol and ether, and deserving to be considered as pure delphinia. (Journ. de Pharm., xix. 519.) Medical Properties and Uses. The seeds were formerly used as an emetic and cathartic, but have been abandoned in consequence of the vio- lence of their action. Powdered and mixed with lard they are employed in some cutaneous diseases, and to destroy lice in the hair. An infusion in vinegar has been applied to the same purpose. Dr. Turnbull states that he has employed a strong tincture with advantage as an embrocation in rheumatic affections. In some countries the seeds are used to intoxicate fish in the same manner as the Cocculus Indicus. Delphinia is highly poisonous in small doses, exerting its effects chiefly on the nervous system. This, at least, was the statement made in relation to it before the appear- ance of Dr. Turnbull's work, " On the Medical Properties of the Ranuncu- lacese." According to this author, pure delphinia maybe given to the extent of three or four grains a day, in doses of half a grain each, without exciting vomiting, and without producing much intestinal irritation, though it sometimes purges. In most instances it proves diuretic, and gives rise to sensations of heat and tingling in various parts of the body. Externally employed, it acts like veratria, and is applicable to the same complaints; but, according to Dr. Turnbull, produces more redness and burning, and less tingling than that substance. He has employed it in neuralgia, rheu- matism, and paralysis, and in the last complaint considers it preferable to veratria. It may be applied by friction, in the form of ointment or alcoholic solution, in proportions varying from ten to thirty grains of the alkali to an ounce of the vehicle; and the friction should be continued till a pungent sensation is produced. W. STATICE. U.S. Secondary. Marsh Rosemary. "The root of Statice Caroliniana." U. S. Statice. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Pentagynia.—Nat. Ord. Plumbagi- naceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx one-leaved, entire, plaited, scariose. Petals five. Seed one, superior. Nuttall. Statice Caroliniana. Walter, Flor. Car. 118; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 51. This is considered by Nuttall, Torrey, and some other botanists,as a mere variety of the Statice Limonium of Europe. Pursh, Bigelow, and PART I. Statice.—Stillingia. 687 others follow Walter in considering it as a distinct species. It is an indi- genous maritime plant with a perennial root, sending up annually tufts of leaves, which are obovate or cuneiform, entire, obtuse, mucronate, smooth, and supported on long footstalks. They differ from the leaves of the S. Limonium in being perfectly flat on the margin, while the latter are undu- lated. The flower-stem is round, smooth, from a few inches to a foot or more in height, sending off near its summit numerous alternate subdividing branches, which terminate in spikes, and form altogether a loose panicle. The flowers are small, bluish-purple, erect, upon one side only of the com- mon peduncle, with a mucronate scaly bracte at the base of each, a five- angled, five-toothed calyx, and spatulate, obtuse petals. Marsh rosemary grows in the salt marshes along the seacoast, from New England to Florida, and flowers in August and September. The root, which is the officinal portion, is large, spindle-shaped, or branched, fleshy, compact, rough, and of a purplish-brown colour. It is bitter and extremely astringent to the taste, but without odour. Mr. Edward Parrish, of Phila- delphia, found it to contain tannic acid, gum, extractive, albumen, volatile oil, resin, caoutchouc,colouring matter, lignin, and various salts, among which were common salt and the sulphates of soda and magnesia. The proportion of tannic acid was 12*4 per cent. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 116.) Medical Properties and Uses. Statice is powerfully astringent, and in some parts of the United States, particularly in New England, is much em- ployed. It may be used for all the purposes for which kino and catechu are given; but its chief popular application is to aphthous and ulcerative affections of the mouth and fauces. Dr. Baylies, of Massachusetts, found it highly useful in cynanche maligna, both as an internal and local remedy. It is employed in the form of infusion or decoction. W. STILLINGIA. U.S. Secondary. Queen's-root. " The root of Stillingia sylvatica." U. S. Stillingia. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbi- aceac. Gen. Ch. Male. Involucre hemispherical, many-flowered, or wanting. Calyx tubular, eroded. Stamens two and three, exserted. Female. Calyx one-flowered, inferior. Style trifid. Capsule three-grained. Nuttall. Stillingia sylvatica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 588. This is an indigenous perennial plant, with herbaceous stems, and alternate, sessile, oblong, or lanceolate oblong, obtuse, serrulate leaves, tapering at the base, and accom- panied with stipules. The male and female flowers are distinct upon the same plant. They are yellow, and arranged in the form of a spike, of which the upper part is occupied by the male, the lower by the female flowers. The male florets are scarcely longer than the bracteal scales. The plant grows in pine barrens, from Arirginia to Florida, flowering in May and June. When wounded, it emits a milky juice. The root, which is the part used, is large, thick, and woody. We are not acquainted with its precise properties ; but understand that it is much employed in the Southern States. It is said to be purgative and alterative; and probably possesses more or less of the acrid quality common to the Euphorbiaceas. It is used in lues venerea, obstinate cutaneous affections, and other complaints which are usually treated with sarsaparilla. W. 688 Stramonii Folia.—S. Radix.—S. Semen. part i. STRAMONII FOLIA. U.S., Lond. Stramonium Leaves. " The leaves of Datura Stramonium." U. S. " Datura Stramonium. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. STRAMONIUM. Herb of Datura Stramonium. Thornapple, Ed.; STRAMONIUM. DATURA STRAMONIUM. Herba. Dub. STRAMONII RADIX. U. S. Stramonium Root. " The root of Datura Stramonium." U. S. STRAMONII SEMEN. U.S. Stramonium Seed. " The seeds of Datura Stramonium." U. S. Off. Syn. STRAMONII SEMINA. Datura Stramonium. Semina. Lond. STRAMONIUM. DATURA STRAMONIUM. Semina. Dub. Thornapple; Stramoine, Pomme epineuse, Fr.; Stechapfel, Germ.; Stramonio, Ital; Estramonio, Span. Datura. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped, plaited. Calyx tubular, angular, deci- duous. Capsule four-valved. Willd. Datura Stramonium. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1008; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 17; Woodv. Med. Bot. to. 197. t. 74. The thornapple is an annual plant, of rank and vigorous growth, usually about three feet high, but in a very rich soil sometimes rising six feet or more. The root is large, whitish, and furnished with numerous fibres. The stem is erect, round, smooth, somewhat shining, simple below, dichotomous above, With numerous spread- ing branches. The leaves, which stand on short round footstalks in the forks of the stem, are five or six inches long, of an ovate triangular form, irregularly sinuated and toothed at the edges, unequal at the base, of a dark- green colour on the upper surface, and pale beneath. The flowers are large, axillary, solitary, and peduncled; having a tubular, pentangular, five-toothed calyx, and a funnel-shaped corolla with a long tube, and a waved plaited border, terminating in five acuminate teeth. The upper portion of the calyx falls with the deciduous parts of the flower, leaving its base, which becomes refiexed and remains attached to the fruit. This is a large, fleshy, roundish ovate, four-valved, four-celled capsule, thickly covered with sharp spines, and containing numerous seeds attached to a longitudinal receptacle in the centre of each cell. It opens at the summit. Dr. Bigelow describes two varieties of this species of Stramonium, one with green stems and white flowers; the other with a dark-reddish stem, minutely dotted with green, and purplish flowers striped with deep purple on the inside. The latter variety, however, is considered by most botanists as a distinct species, being the D. Tatula of Linn. The properties of both are the same. It is doubtful to what country this plant originally belonged. Many European botanists refer it to North America, while we in return trace it to the old continent. Nuttall considers it as having originated in South Ame- part i. Stramonii Folia.—S. Radix.—S. Semen. 689 rica or Asia ; and it is probable that its native country is to be found in some portion of the East. Its seeds, being retentive of life, and easily germinat- ing, are taken in the earth put on shipboard for ballast from one country to another, not unfrequently springing up upon the passage, and thus propagat- ing the plant in all regions which have any commercial connexion. In the United States it is found every where in the vicinity of cultivation, frequent- ing dung-heaps, the road-sides and commons, and other places where a rank soil is created by the deposited refuse of towns and villages. Its flowers appear from May to July or August, according to the latitude. Where the plant grows abundantly, its vicinity may be detected by the rank odour which it diffuses to some distance around. All parts of it possess medicinal pro- perties. The herbaceous portion is directed by the Edinburgh College; the herb and seeds by that of Dublin; the leaves and seeds by the London Col- lege ; and the leaves, root, and seeds by the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. The leaves may be gathered at any time from the appearance of the flowers till the autumnal frost. In the common language of this country, the plant is most known by the name of Jamestown weed, derived proba- bly from its having been first observed in the neighbourhood of that old set- tlement in Virginia. In Great Britain it is called thornapple. 1. The fresh leaves when bruised emit a fetid narcotic odour, which they lose upon drying. Their taste is bitter and nauseous. These properties, together with their medical virtues, are imparted to water and alcohol. Water distilled from them, though possessed of their odour in a slight degree, is destitute of their active properties. They contain, according to Promnitz, 0*58 per cent, of gum, 0*6 of extractive, 0*64 of green starch, 0*15 of albumen, 0*12 of resin, 0*23 of saline matters, 5*15 of lignin, and 91*25 of water. The leaves, if carefully dried, though they lose their odour, retain their bitter taste. 2. The seeds are small, kidney-shaped, flattened on the sides, of a dark brown almost black colour, inodorous, and of the bitter nauseous taste of the leaves, with some degree of acrimony. They were minutely analyzed by Brandes, who found, besides a peculiar alkaline principle called daturia, a glutinous matter, albumen, gum, a butyraceous substance, green wax, resin insoluble in ether, fixed oil, bassorin, sugar, gummy extractive, orange- coloured extractive, and various saline and earth)^ substances. According to Brandes, daturia exists in the seeds combined with an excess of malic acid. Chemists, however, have failed in obtaining such a principle by the process given by Brandes; and Berzelius states that the daturia of Brandes has been ascertained, even by that chemist himself, to be nothing more than phos- phate of magnesia. (Traite de Chimie, vi. 319.) But Geiger and Hesse succeeded in isolating an alkaline principle, to which the same name has been given, and which Trommsdorff has repeatedly procured by their pro- cess. As described by Geiger and Hesse, daturia crystallizes in colourless, inodorous, shining prisms, which, when first applied to the tongue, are bitter- ish, but ultimately have a flavour like that of tobacco. It is dissolved by 280 parts of eold, and 72 of boiling water, is very soluble in alcohol, and less so in ether. It has been shown to have a poisonous action upon ani- mals, and strongly dilates the pupil. It was procured from the seeds in the same manner as hyoscyamia from those of Hyoscyamus niger. (See Hyos- cyamus.) The product is exceedingly small. In the most favourable case, Trommsdorff got only —§ of one per cent. (Annal. der Pharm., xxxii. 275.) Mr. Morries obtained a poisonous empyreumatic oil by the destructive distillation of stramonium. 59* ggO Stramonii Folia.—S. Radix.—& Semen. part i. Medical Properties and Uses. Stramonium is a powerful narcotic. When taken in quantities sufficient to affect the system moderately,it usually produces more or less, cerebral disturbance, indicated by vertigo, headache, dimness or perversion of vision, and confusion of thought, sometimes amount- ing to slight delirium or a species of intoxication. At the same time pecu- liar deranged sensations are experienced about the fauces, oesophagus, and trachea, increased occasionally to a feeling of suffocation, and often attended with nausea. A disposition to sleep is sometimes but not uniformly pro- duced. The pulse is not materially affected. The bowels are rather relaxed than confined, and the secretions from the skin an&kidneys not unfrequently augmented. These effects pass off in five or six hours, or in a shorter period, and rro inconvenience is subsequently experienced. (Marcet. Greeting, 8?c.) Taken in poisonous doses, this narcotic produces cardialgia, excessive thirst, nausea and vomiting, a sense of strangulation, anxiety and faintness, partial or complete blindness with dilatation of the pupil, vertigo, delirium some- times of a furious, sometimes of a whimsical character, tremors of the limbs, palsy, and ultimately stupor and convulsions. From all these symptoms the patient may recover; but in numerous instances they have terminated in death. To evacuate the stomach by emetics or the stomach pump is the most effectual means of affording relief. Though long known as a poisonous and intoxicating herb,.stramonium was first introduced into regular practice by Baron Storck, of Vienna, who found some advantage from its use in mania and epilepsy. Subsequent ob- servation has confirmed his estimate of the remedy; and numerous cases are on record in which benefit has accrued from it in these complaints. It can be of use, however, only in those cases which depend solely on irregular nervous action. Other diseases in which it has been found beneficial are neuralgic and rheumatic affections, dysmenorrhoea, syphilitic pains, cancer- ous sores, and spasmodic asthma. In the last complaint it has acquired con- siderable reputation. It is employed only during the paroxysm, which it very often greatly alleviates or altogether subverts. The practice was intro- duced into Great" Britain from the East Indies, where the natives are in the habit of smoking the dried root and lower part of the stem of the Datura ferox, in the paroxysms of this distressing complaint. The same parts of the D-. Stramonium were substituted, and found equally effectual. To prepare the roots for use, they are quickly dried, cut into pieces, and beat so as to loosen the texture. The dried leaves answer the same purpose. They are smoked by means of a common tobacco-pipe. These ■ and other narcotic leaves have also been used in the shape of cigars. The smoke produces a sense of heat in the lungs, followed by copious expectoration, and attended frequently with temporary vertigo or drowsiness, and sometimes with nausea. The remedy should never be used in plethoric cases, unless pre- ceded by ample depletion, and in no case where there is a-determination to the head. Dangerous and even fatal consequences are said to have resulted from its incautious or improper use; and General Gent, who was instrumental in introducing the practice into England, is said at last to have fallen a vic- tim to it. (Pereira's Mat. Med.) Stramonium has sometimes been given by the stomach in the same complaint. It is used by Dr. H. D. W. Pawl- ing in the treatment of delirium tremens, and, as represented in the inaugural dissertation of his pupil Dr. G. W. Holstein, with great success. Dr. Pawl- ing employs a decoction of the leaves. Externally the medicine is used advantageously as an ointment or cata- plasm in irritable ulcers, inflamed tumours, swelling of the mammas, and painful hemorrhoidal affections. Dr. J. Y. Dortch, of N. Carolina, has found part i. Stramonii Folia.—S. Radix.—S. Semen.—Styrax. 691 it very useful in tinea capitis. (Thesis, Feb. 1846.) By American surgeons it is very frequently applied to the eye, in order to produce dilatation of the pupil, previously to the operation for cataract; and is found equally effica- cious with belladonna. For this purpose the extract, mixed with lard, is generally rubbed over the eyelid, or a solution of it dropped into the eye. Of the parts of the plant employed, the seeds are the most powerful. They may be given in the dose of a grain twice a day; and an extract made by evaporating the decoction, in one quarter or half the quantity. The dose of the powdered leaves is two or three grains. The inspissated juice of the fresh leaves, which is the officinal extract, is more commonly pre- scribed than any other preparation, and may be administered in the quantity of one grain. (See Extractum Stramonii.) There is also an officinal tincture to which the reader is referred. Whatever preparation is used, the dose should be gradually increased till the narcotic operation becomes evident, or relief from the symptoms of the disease is obtained. The quantity of fifteen or twenty grains of the powdered leaves, and a propor- tionate amount of the other preparations, have often been given daily with- out unpleasant effects. Off. Prep, of the Leaves. Extractum Stramonii Folioriim, U. S., Dub.; Unguentum Stramonii, U.S. Off. Prep, of the Seeds. Extractum Stramonii Seminis, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Stramonii, U. S. W. STYRAX. U.S., Lond., Ed. Storax. "The concrete juice of Styrax officinale." U.S. "Styrax officinale. Balsamum." Lond. " Balsamic exudation of Styrax officinale." Ed. Off. Syn. STYRAX OFFICINALE. Resina. Dub. Storax, Fr., Germ.; Storace, Iial.; Estoraque, Span. Styrax. See BENZOINUM. Styrax officinale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 623; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 291. t. 101. This species of Styrax is a tree which rises from fifteen to twenty- five feet in height, sends off many branches, and is covered with a rough gray bark. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, entire, oval, pointed, bright- green on their upper surface, white with a cotton-like down upon the under, about two inches in length, and an inch and a half in breadth. The flowers are united in clusters of three or four at the extremities of the branches. They are white, and bear considerable resemblance to those of the orange. This tree is a native of Syria and other parts of the Levant, and has be- come naturalized in Italy, Spain, and the South of France, where, however, it does not yield balsam. This circumstance has induced some naturalists to doubt whether the Styrax officinale is the real source of storax; and, as the Liquidambar styraciflua of this country affords a balsam closely analogous to that under consideration, Bernard de Jussieu conjectured that the latter might be derived from another species of the same genus, the L. orientale of Lamarck, which is more abundant in Syria than the Styrax. Storax is obtained in Asiatic Turkey by making incisions into the trunk of the tree. Several kinds are mentioned in the books. The purest is the storax in grains, which is in whitish, yellowish-white, or reddish-yellow tears, about the size of a pea, opaque, soft, adhesive, and capable of uniting so as to form a mass. Another variety, formerly called styrax calamita, from the circumstance, as is supposed, that it was brought wrapped in the leaves 692 Styrax. PART I. of a kind of reed, consists of dry and brittle masses, formed of yellowish agglutinated tears, in the interstices of which is a brown or reddish matter. The French writers call it storax amygdaloide. Both this and the pre- ceding variety have a very pleasant odour like that of vanilla. Neither of them, however, is brought to our markets. A third variety, which is sometimes sold as the styrax calamita, is in brown or reddish-brown masses of various shapes, light, friable, yet pos- sessing a certain degree of tenacity, and softening under the teeth. Upon exposure, it becomes covered upon the surface with a white efflorescence of benzoic acid. It evidently consists of saw-dust, united either with a portion of the balsam, or with other analogous substances. As found in the shops of this country, it is usually in the state of a coarse, soft, dark*coloured powder, mingled with occasional light friable lumps of various magnitude, and containing very little of the balsam. - When good, it should yield, upon pressure between hot plates, a brown resinous fluid, having the odour of storax. Another variety, found in our market, is a semi-fluid adhesive matter, called liquid storax, which is brown or almost black upon the surface exposed to the air, but of a slightly greenish-gray colour within, and of an odour somewhat like that of the Peruvian balsam, though less agreeable. It is kept in jars, and is the most employed. What is the source of liquid storax is not certainly known. Some suppose it to be derived by decoction from the young branches of the Liquidambar styracifiua; but some of the genuine juice of this plant, brought from New Orleans, which we have had an opportunity of inspecting, has an odour entirely distinct from that of the substance under consideration. According to Landerer, who resides in Greece, liquid storax is obtained, in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, from the bark and young twigs of the Styrax officinale, by subjecting them to pres- sure. The plant, according to the same authority, grows also on the main- land of Greece, but in that situation does not yield balsam. General Properties. Storax has a fragrant odour and aromatic taste. It melts with a moderate heat, and when the temperature is raised takes fire and burns with a white flame, leaving a light spongy carbonaceous residue. It imparts its odour to water, which it renders yellow and milky. Its active constituents are dissolved by alcohol and ether. Newmann obtained from 480 grains of storax 120 of watery extract; and from an equal quantity 360 grains of alcoholic extract. Containing volatile oil and resin, and yielding benzoic acid by distillation, it is entitled to be ranked as a balsam. Besides these ingredients, Reinsch found in styrax calamita, gum, extractive, lignin, a matter extracted by potassa, water, and traces of ammonia. Simon found, in liquid storax, cinnamic acid, and a resinous substance which he con- sidered identical with the styracine of Bonastre. Medical Properties and Uses. This balsam is a stimulating expectorant, and was formerly recommended in phthisis, chronic catarrh, asthma, and amenorrhoea: but it is very seldom used at present, except as a constituent of the compound tincture of benzoin. Liquid storax has been recommended in gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea as equally effectual with copaiba, and less disagreeable. From ten to twenty grains may be given twice a day, and the dose gradually increased. Off. Prep. Extractum Styracis, Ed.; Styrax Purificata, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Benzoini Composita, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PART I. Succinum. 693 SUCCINUM. U. S., Lond., Dub. Amber. Succin, Ambre jaune, Karabe, Fr.; Bernstein, Germ.; Ambra gialla, Succino, Ital; Succino, Span. Amber is a kind of fossil resin, derived, probably, from extinct coniferas, occurring generally in small detached masses, in alluvial deposits, in dif- ferent parts of the world. It is found chiefly in Prussia, either on the sea- shore, where it is thrown up by the Baltic, or underneath the surface, in the alluvial formations along the coast. It occurs also in considerable quan- tities near Catania, in Sicily. It is most frequently associated with lignite, and sometimes encloses insects and parts of vegetables. In the United States, it was found in Maryland, at Cape Sable, near Magothy river, by Dr. Troost. In this locality it is associated with iron pyrites and lignite. It has also been discovered in New Jersey. The amber consumed in this country, however, is brought from the ports of the Baltic. Properties. Amber is a brittle solid, generally in small irregular masses, permanent in the air, having a homogeneous texture and vitreous fracture, and susceptible of a fine polish. It becomes negatively electric by friction. Its colour is generally yellow, either light or deep; but occasionally it is reddish-brown or even deep-brown. It has no taste, and is, inodorous unless when heated, when it exhales a peculiar, aromatic, not unpleasant smell. It is usually translucent, though occasionally transparent or opaque. Its sp.gr. is about 1*07. Water and alcohol scarcely act on it. When heated in the open air, it softens, melts at 548°, swells, and at last inflames, leaving, after combustion, a small portion of ashes. Subjected |o distilla- tion in a retort furnished with a tubulated receiver, it yields, first, a yellow acid liquor; and afterwards a thin yellowish oil, with a yellow waxy sub- stance, which is deposited in the neck of the retort and the upper part of the receiver. This waxy substance, exhausted by cold ether of the part soluble in that menstruum, is reduced to a yellow micaceous substance, identical with the chrysene of Laurent. A white crystalline substance, identical with the idrialine of Dumas, may be separated from the micace- ous substance by boiling alcohol. Both chrysene and idrialine are carbo- hydrogens. (Pelletier and Walter, Journ. de Pharm., v. 60.) As the distillation proceeds, a considerable quantity of combustible gas is given off, which must be allowed to escape from the tubulure of the receiver. By continuing the heat the oil gradually deepens in colour, until, towards the end of the distillation, it becomes black and of the consistence of pitch. The oil obtained is called oil of amber, and the acid liquor is a solution of im- pure succinic acid. When amber is distilled repeatedly from nitric acid, it yields an acid liquor, from which, after it has been neutralized with caustic potassa, ether separates pure camphor. (Doepping, Journ. de Plmrm., vi. 168.) Composition. According to Berzelius, amber consists of 1. a volatile oil of an agreeable odour in small quantity; 2. a yellow resin, intimately united with a volatile oil, very soluble in alcohol, ether, and the alkalies, easily fusible, and resembling ordinary resins; 3. another resin, also combined with volatile oil, soluble in ether and the alkalies, sparingly soluble in cold, but more soluble in boiling alcohol; 4. succinic acid; 5. a bituminous prin- ciple insoluble in alcohol, ether, and the alkalies, having some analogy to the lac resin of John, and constituting more than four-fifths of the amber. It also contains a strongly odorous, bright yellow substance, which hardens 694 Succinum.—Sulphur. PART I. by time, but preserves in part its odour. The ultimate constituents of amber are carbon 80*59, hydrogen 7*31, oxygen 6*73, ashes (silica, lime, and alumina), 3*27=97*90. (Drassier, quoted in Pereira's Elem. of Mai. Med.) Pharmaceutical Uses, 8rc. Amber was held in high estimation by the ancients as a medicine ; but at present is employed only in pharmacy arid the arts. In pharmacy it is used to prepare succinic acid and oil of amber. (See Acidum Succinicum and Oleum Succini.) In the arts it is made into ornaments and employed in preparing varnishes. When put to the latter use it requires to be first subjected to roasting, whereby it is rendered soluble in a mixture of linseed oil and oil of turpentine. This solution forms amber varnish. Off.Prep. Acidum Succinicum, Dub.; Oleum Succini, U.S., Lond., Dub. B. SULPHUR. U.S., Lond.,Ed. Sulphur. "Sublimed sulphur." U. S. "Sulphur (sublimatum)." Lond. Off. Syn. SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM. Dub. SULPHUR LOTUM. U.S., Dub. Washed Sulphur. "Sublimed sulphur thoroughly washed with water." U. S. Off. Syn. SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM. Ed. Brimstone; Soufre, Fr.; Schwefel, Germ.; Zolfo, Ital; Azufre, Span. The officinal forms of sulphur are the sublimed, the washed, and the pre- cipitated. The sublimed sulphur is designated in the United States and London Pharmacopoeias by the single word Sulphur; the washed sulphur, in the United States and Dublin nomenclature, as Sulphur Lotum. The London College has dismissed washed sulphur as an officinal preparatibn, and the Edinburgh College, adopting a faulty and confused nomenclature, recognises only the washed sulphur; calling it "Sulphur Sublimatum" under the Preparations, and " Sulphur" in the Materia Medica list. Sub- limed and washed sulphur will be noticed in this place; the precipitated sulphur in Part II, under the "Preparations." Natural States. Sulphur is very generally disseminated throughout the mineral kingdom, and is almost always present, in minute quantity, in ani- mal and vegetable matter. Among vegetables, it is particularly abundant in the cruciform plants, as for example in mustard. It occurs in the earth, either native or in combination. When native it is found in masses, trans- lucent or opaque, or in the powdery form mixed with various earthy im- purities. In combination it is usually united with certain metals, as iron, lead, mercury, antimony, copper, and zinc, forming compounds called sul- phurets. Native sulphur is most abundant in volcanic countries, and is hence called volcanic sulphur. The most celebrated mines of native sul- phur are found at Solfatara in the kingdom of Naples, in Sicily, and in the Roman States. It occurs also, in small quantities, in different localities in the United States. Extraction, §*c. Sulphur is obtained either from sulphur earths, or from the native sulphurets of iron and copper, called iron and copper pyrites. The sulphur earths are placed in earthen pots, set in oblong furnaces of brick-work. From the upper and lateral part of each pot proceeds a tube, PART I. Sulphur. 695 which communicates with the upper part of another pot, placed outside the furnace, and perforated near its bottom to allow the melted sulphur to flow out into a vessel containing water, placed beneath. Fire being applied, the sulphur rises in vapour, leaving the impurities behind, and, being con- densed again, flows from the perforated pot into the vessel containing the water. Sulphur, as thus obtained, is called crude sulphur, and contains about one-twelfth of its weight of earthy matter. For purification, it is generally melted in a cast iron vessel. When the fusion is complete, the impurities subside, and the purer sulphur is dipped out and poured into cylindrical wooden moulds, which give it the form of solid cylinders, about an inch in diameter, called in commerce roll sulphur or cane brimstone. The dregs of this process constitute a very impure kind of sulphur, known by the name of sulphur vivum in the shops. The above process purifies the sulphur but imperfectly. At the same time it causes a considerable loss; as the dregs just mentioned contain a large proportion of sulphur. A more eligible mode of purification consists in distilling the crude sulphur from a large cast iron still, set inbrick-wOrk over a furnace, and furnished with an iron head. The head has two lateral communications, one with a chamber of brick-work, the other with an iron receiver, immersed in water, which is constantly renewed to cool it suffi- ciently to cause the sulphur to condense in the liquid form. When the tube between the still and receiver is shut, and that commu nicating with the cham- ber is open, the sulphur condenses on its walls in the form of an impalpable powder, and constitutes sublimed sulphur or jioivers of sulphur. If, on the other hand, the communication with the chamber be closed and that with the receiver opened, the sulphur condenses in the latter in the fused state, and, when cast in cylindrical moulds, forms the roll sulphur of commerce. The extraction of sulphur from the bisulphuret of iron (iron pyrites) is performed by distilling it in stone-ware cylinders. Half the sulphur con- tained in the bisulphuret is volatilized by the heat, and conducted, by means of an adopter, into vessels containing water, where it condenses. The residue of the mineral is employed for making sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, by exposure to air and moisture. In the island of Anglesea, large quantities of sulphur are obtained from copper pyrites in the process for extracting that metal. The furnaces in which the ore is roasted are con- nected by horizontal flues with chambers, in which the volatilized sulphur is condensed. Each chamber is furnished with a door, through which the sulphur is withdrawn once in six weeks. According to Berzelius, a very economical method of extracting sulphur from iron pyrites is practised in Sweden, which saves the expenditure of fuel. The pyrites is introduced into furnaces with long horizontal chim- neys, of which the part next to the furnace is of brick-work, while the rest is formed of wood. The pyrites is kindled below, and continues to burn of itself; and the heat generated causes the stratum immediately above the part kindled to give off half its sulphur, which becomes condensed in flowers in the wooden chimney. As the fire advances, the iron and the other half of the sulphur enter into combustion, and, by the increase of heat thus generated, cause the volatilization of a fresh portion of sulphur. In this manner, the process continues until the whole of the pyrites is con- sumed. The sulphur thus obtained is pulverulent and very impure, and requires to be purified by distillation from iron vessels. Crude sulphur is employed by the manufacturers of sulphuric acid, and, as it is very variable in quality, it becomes important to ascertain its exact value. This may be done by drying a given weight of it, and submitting 696 Sulphur. PART I. it to combustion. The weight of the incombustible residue, added to that lost by desiccation, gives the amount of impurity. Crude sulphur comes to this country principally from Trieste, Messina in Sicily, and the ports of Italy, being imported for the use of the sulphuric acid manufacturers. Roll sulphur and the flowers are usually brought from Marseilles. Properties. Sulphur is an elementary non-metallic brittle solid, of a pale yellow colour, permanent in the air, and exhibiting a crystalline texture and shining fracture. It has a slight taste, and a perceptible smell when rubbed. When pure, its sp. gr. is about 2; but occasionally, from impurity, it is as high as 2*35. Its equivalent number is 16, and symbol S. It is a bad con- ductor of heat, and becomes negatively electric by friction. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alkaline solutions, petroleum, the fixed and volatile oils, and, provided it be in a finely divided state, in alcohol and ether. Upon being heated, it begins to volatilize at about 180°, when its peculiar odour is per- ceived ; it melts at 225°, and, at 600°, in close vessels, boils and rises in the form of a yellow vapour, which may be condensed again, either in the liquid or pulverulent state, according as the temperature of the recipient is above or below the melting point of the sulphur. If'heated in open vessels, sul- phur takes fire at about the temperature of 300°, and burns with a blue flame, combining with the oxygen of the air, and giving rise to a peculiar gaseous acid, called sulphurous acid. The combinations of sulphur are numerous,, and among the most powerful agents of. chemistry. With oxygen it forms four principal acids, the hypo sulphurous, sulphurous, hy- posulphuric, and sulphuric, with hydrogen, sulphohydric acid (hydrosul- phuric acid or sulphuretted hydrogen), and with the metals, various sulphur- ets. Some of the sulphurets are analogous to acids, others to bases, and these different sulphurets, by combining with each other, form compounds analogous to salts, and hence called by Berzelius sulpho-salts. Sulphur, when obtained by roasting the native sulphurets, sometimes con- tains arsenic, and is thereby rendered poisonous. Volcanic sulphur is not subject to this impurity. The common English roll sulphur is sometimes made from iron pyrites, and is then apt to contain orpiment (tersulphuret of arsenic). This impurity may be detected by heating the suspected sulphur with nitric acid. The arsenic, if present, will be converted into arsenic acid ; and the nitric solution, diluted with water, neutralized with carbonate of soda, and acidulated with muriatic acid, will give a yellow precipitate of quintosulphuret of arsenic with a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen. Sul- phur, when perfectly pure, is wholly volatilized > by heat, and soluble without residue in oil of turpentine. The above remarks apply to sulphur generally; but, in its pharmaceutical states of sublimed and washed sulphur, it-presents modifications which re- "quire to be noticed. Sublimed sulphur, usually called flowers of sulphur (flores sulphuris), is in the form of a crystalline powder of a fine yellow colour. It is always contaminated with a little sulphuric acid, which is formed during its sub- limation, at the expense of the oxygen of the air contained in the subliming chambers. It is on this account that this form of sulphur always reddens litmus; and, if the acid be present in considerable quantity, it sometimes cakes. It may be freed from all acidity by careful ablution with hot water, when it becomes washed sulphur. Washed sulphur is placed in"the list of the Materia Medica in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, with an explanatory note, that it is sublimed sulphur tho- roughly washed with water. The Dublin and Edinburgh Colleges include it among the Preparations. The process of the Dublin College is to pour part i. Sulphur.— Tdbacum. 697 warm water on sublimed sulphur, and to continue the washing as long as the water, when poured off, continues to be impregnated with acid, which may be known by the test of litmus. The sulphur is then dried on bibulous paper. The Edinburgh College directs the sublimation of " sulphur," and the washing of the powder obtained with boiling water until it is freed from acid taste. The sulphur here meant is evidently not the " sulphur" of the Materia Medica list of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia; as this is defined to be a pure sulphur, free from acidity. Washed sulphur has the general appearance of sublimed sulphur, if properly prepared it does not affect litmus, and undergoes no change by exposure to the atmosphere. Medical Properties and Uses. Sulphur is laxative, diaphoretic,and resolv- ent. It evidently passes off by the pores of the skin ; as is shown by the fact that silver, worn in the pockets of patients under a course of it, becomes blackened with a coating of sulphuret. The stools which it occasions are usually solid, and it is gentle in its operation, unless it contain a good deal of acid, when it causes griping ; and the liability of the sublimed sulphur to contain acid, renders it less eligible for exhibition than the washed sulphur, from which all acidity is removed. The diseases in which sulphur is prin- cipally used are hemorrhoidal affections, chronic rheumatism and catarrh, atonic gout, asthma, and other affections of the respiratory organs unattended with acute inflammation. It is also much employed, both internally and externally, in cutaneous affections, especially in scabies, for the cure of which it is considered a specific. In these affections, as well as in chronic rheumatism, it is sometimes applied as an air bath, in the form of sulphurous acid gas, the head being protected from its effects. The dose of sulphur is from one to three drachms, mixed with syrup or molasses, or taken in milk. It is often combined with bitartrate of potassa, or with magnesia. Sulphur is consumed in the arts, principally in the manufacture of gun- powder and sulphuric acid. Off. Prep, of Sulphur. Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro, Lond., Ed.; Emplast. Hydrargyri, Lond.; Ferri Sulphuretum, Ed., Dub.; Hy- drargyri Sulphuretum Nigrum, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Hydrargyri Sulphure- tum Rubrum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassas Sulphas cum Sulphure, Ed.; Potassii Sulphuretum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Sulphur Lotum, Dub.; Sulphur Praecipitatum, U. S.; Sulphuris Iodidum, U. S.; Unguen- tum Sulphuris, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguent. Sulphuris Compositum, U. S., Lond. Off. Prep, of Sulphur Lotum. Potassas Sulphureti Aqua, Dub. B. TABACUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Tobacco. " The leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum." U. S., Ed. " Nicotiana Tabacum. Folia exsiccala." Lond. Off Syn. NICOTIANA TABACUM. Folia. Dub. Tabac, Fr.; Tabak, Germ.; Tobacco, Ital: Tabaco, Span. Nicotiana. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord.—Solanaceas. Gen. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped, with the border plaited. Stamens in- clined. Capsules two valved, two-celled. Willd. Nicotiana Tabacum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1014; Bigelow, Am.Med. Bot. ii. 171; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 208. t. 77. The tobacco is an annual plant, with a large fibrous root, and an erect, round, hairy, viscid stem, which branches near the top, and rises from three to six feet in height. The leaves 60 698 Tabacum. part i. are numerous, alternate, sessile and somewhat decurrent, very large, ovate lanceolate, pointed, entire, slightly viscid, and of a pale green colour. The lowest are often two feet long, and four inches broad. The flowers are dis- posed in loose terminal panicles, and are furnished with long, linear, pointed bractes at the divisions of the peduncle. The calyx is bell shaped, hairy, somewhat viscid, and divided at its summit into five pointed segments. The tube of the corolla is twice as long as the calyx, of a greenish hue, swelling at top into an oblong cup, and ultimately expanding into a five-lobed, plaited, rose-coloured border. The whole corolla is very viscid. The filaments incline to one side, and support oblong anthers. The pistil consists of an oval germ, a slender style longer than the stamens, and a cleft stigma. The fruit is an ovate, two-valved, two-celled capsule, containing numerous reni- form seeds, and opening at the summit. Although the original locality of this plant is not settled to the satisfaction of all botanists, there is good reason to believe that.it is a native of tropical America, where it was found by the Spaniards upon their arrival. It is at present cultivated in most parts of the world, and nowhere more abundantly than within the limits of the United States. We seldom, however, see it north of Maryland. Virginia is, perhaps, the region of the world most, celebrated for its culture. The young shoots, produced from seeds thickly sown in beds, are transplanted into the fields during the month of May, and set in rows with an interval of three or four feet between the plants. Through the whole period of its growth, the crop requires constant attention. The developement of the leaves is promoted by removing the top of each plant, and thus preventing it from running into flower and seed. The harvest is in August. The ripe plants having been cut off above their roots, are dried under cover, and then stripped of their leaves, which are tied in bundles, and packed in hogsheads. Two varieties of this species are mentioned by authors, one with narrow, the other with broad leaves; but they do not differ materially in properties. Great diversity in the quality of tobacco is produced by difference of soil and mode of cultivation; and several varieties are recognised in commerce. Other species of Nicotiana are also cultivated, especially the N. rusticaand N. paniculata, the former of which is said to have been the first introduced into Europe, and is thought to have been cultivated by the aborigines of this country, as it is naturalized near the borders of some of our small northern lakes. The N. quadrivalvis of Pursh affords tobacco to the Indians of the Missouri and Columbia rivers; and the N. fructicosa, a native of China, was probably cultivated in Asia before the discovery of this continent by Columbus. Properties. Tobacco, as it occurs in commerce, is of a yellowish-brown colour, a strong narcotic penetrating odour which is less obvious in the fresh leaves, and a bitter, nauseous, and acrid taste. These properties are imparted to water and alcohol. They are destroyed by long boiling; and the extract is, therefore, feeble or inert. An elaborate analysis of tobacco was made by Vauquelin, who discovered in it among other ingredients, an acrid, volatile colourless principle, slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alco- hol, and supposed to be the active principle of the leaves. It was separated by a complicated process, of which, however, the most important step was the distillation of tobacco juice with potassa. In the results of this distilla- tion Vauquelin recognised alkaline properties, which he ascribed to the pre- sence of ammonia, but which were, in part at least, dependent upon the acrid principle alluded to. To this principle, which was supposed to be the ac- tive constituent of tobacco, the name of nicotin was given; but its alkalinity was not ascertained till a subsequent period. Another substance was ob- tained by Hermstadt by simply distilling water from tobacco, and allowing PART I. Tabacum. 699 the liquid to stand for several days. A white crystalline matter rose to the surface, which, upon being removed, was found to have the odour of tobacco, and to resemble it in effects. It was fusible, volatilizable, similar to the nicotin of Vauquelin in solubility, and without alkaline or acid properties. It was called nicotianin by Hermstadt, and appears to partake of the nature of volatile oils. Two German chemists, Posselt and Reimann, subsequently analyzed tobacco, and ascertained the alkaline nature of its active principle, which, however, neither they nor Vauquelin obtained in a state of purity. According to these chemists, 10,000 parts of the fresh leaves contain 6 parts of an alkaline principle, which they call nicotin, 1 of the nicotianin of Herm- stadt, 287 of slightly bitter extractive, 174 of gum mixed with a little malate of lime, 26*7 of green resin, 26 of albumen, 104*8 of a substance analogous to gluten, 51 of malic acid, 12 of malate of ammonia, 4*8 of sulphate of potassa, 6*3 of chloride of potassium, 9*5 of potassa, which was combined in the leaves with malic and nitric acids, 16*6 of phosphate of lime, 24*2 of lime which had been combined with malic acid, 8*8 of silica, 496*9 of lignin, traces of starch, and 8828 parts of water. (Berzelius, Tmite de Chimie.) According to M. E. Goupet, tobacco also contains a little citric acid. (Chem. » Gaz., Aug., 1846, p. 319.) The nicotin obtained by Vauquelin and by Pos- selt and Reimann was a colourless, volatile liquid ; and, as subsequently ascertained by MM. Henry and Boutron, was in fact an aqueous solution of the alkaline principle in connexion with ammonia. It was reserved for these chemists to obtain nicotin, or nicotia, as it should now be called, in a state of purity. It exists in tobacco combined with an acid in excess, and in this state is not volatile. The following is the process employed by the last-mentioned chemists. Five hundred parts of smoking tobacco were exposed to distillation, in connexion with about 6000 parts of water and 200 parts of caustic soda; the heat applied being at first very moderate, and afterwards increased to the boiling point. The product of the distilla- tion was received in a vessel containing about 30 or 40 parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with three times its weight of water; and the process was continued till nearly one-half of the liquid had come over. The product, in which care was taken to preserve a slight excess of acid, was evaporated to about 100 parts, and was then allowed to cool. A slight deposit which had formed was separated by filtration, an excess of caustic soda was added, and the liquid again distilled. A colourless, very volatile acrid liquid now came over, which, being concentrated under the receiver of an air-pump, lost- the ammonia which accompanied it, and assumed a syrupy consistence, and more or less of the colour of amber. In this liquid, after a few days, minute crystalline plates formed, but, in consequence of their great affinity for moisture, it was difficult to isolate the crystals.- This pro- duct was pure nicotia. Nicotia. (Nic.oiina. Nicotin/) As usually obtained, this is a colourless or nearly colourless liquid; heavier than water; remaining liquid at 22° F.; of little smell when cold; of an exceedingly acrid burning taste, even when largely diluted; entirely volatilizable, and, in the state of vapour, very irri- tant to the nostrils, with an odour recalling that of tobacco; inflammable; soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine; strongly alkaline in its reaction; and capable of forming crystallizable salts with the acids. These salts are deliquescent, have a burning and acrid taste, and, like the salts of ammonia, lose a portion of their base by heat. Nicotia contains a much larger proportion of nitrogen than the other organic alkalies. In its action on the animal system, it is one of the most virulent poisons known. A drop of it in the state of concentrated solution was sufficient to destroy a dog; and small birds perished at the approach of a tube containing it. Tan- 700 Tabacum. PART I. nin forms with it a compound of but slight solubility, and might be employed as a counterpoison. Its exists in tobacco in small proportion. Henry and Boutron found different varieties of tobacco to give products varying from 3*8 to 11*28 parts in 1000. It has been found in the seeds, and in very small proportion in the root. (See Journ. de Pharm., xxii. 689.) There can be little doubt that tobacco owes its activity to this alkali. Nicotianin is probably the odorous principle of tobacco. Posselt and Reimann prepared it by distilling six pounds of the fresh leaves with twelve pounds of water, till one half of the liquid passed over, then adding six pounds more of water, and again distilling, and repeating this process three times. The nicotianin was obtained to the amount of eleven grains, floating on the surface of the water. It was a fatty substance, having the smell of tobacco-smoke, and an aromatic somewhat bitter taste. It was volatilizable by heat, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, and not affected by the dilute acids, but dissolved by the solution of potassa. This was not obtained by MM. Henry and Boutron. According to Landerer, it does not exist in the fresh leaves, but is generated in the drying process. It pro- duces sneezing when applied to the nostrils, and a grain of it swallowed by Hermstadt, occasioned giddiness and nausea. When distilled at a temperature above that of boiling water, tobacco" affords an empyreumatic oil, which Mr. Brodie has proved to be a most virulent poison. A single drop injected into the rectum of a cat occasioned death in about five minutes, and double the quantity administered in the same manner to a dog, was followed by the same result. This oil is of a dark-brown colour, of an acrid taste, and has a very peculiar smell, exactly resembling that of tobacco pipes which have been much used. It has been shown to contain nicotia. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 3e ser. ix. 465.) Medical Properties and Uses. Tobacco unites with the powers of a sedative narcotic, those of an emetic and diuretic; and produces these effects to a greater or less extent to whatever surface it may be applied. In addi- tion, when snuffed up the nostrils, it excites violent sneezing and a copious secretion of mucus; when chewed, it irritates the mucous membrane of the mouth, and increases the flow of saliva; and, when injected into the rectum, it sometimes operates as a cathartic. Moderately taken, it quiets-restless- ness, calms mental and corporeal inquietude, and produces a state of general languor or repose, which has great charms for those habituated to the impres- sion. In larger quantities, it gives rise to confusion of the head, vertigo, stupor, faintness, nausea, vomiting, and general debility of the nervous and circulatory functions, which, if increased, eventuates in alarming and even fatal prostration. The symptoms of its excessive action are severe retching, with the most distressing and continued nausea, great feebleness of pulse, coldness of the skin, fainting, and sometimes convulsions. It probably ope- rates both through the medium of the nervous system, and by entering the circulation. As its local action is stimulant, we can-thus account for the fact, that it excites the functions of the kidneys, at the same time that it reduces the nervous and secondarily the arterial power. The experiments of Brodie lead to the inference that the function of the heart is affected by tobacco, through the medium of the nervous system; for in a decapitated animal in which the circulation was sustained by artificial respiration, the infusion injected into the rectum did not diminish the action of the heart; while on the contrary this organ almost immediately ceased to'contract, when an equal dose of the poison was administered to a healthy animal. Mr. Brodie ob- served a remarkable difference between the operation of the infusion and that of the empyreumatic oil. After death from the former the heart was found completely quiescent, while it continued to act with regularity for a con- PART I. Tabacum. 701 siderable time after apparent death from the latter. We may infer from this fact, either that there are two poisonous principles in tobacco, or that a new narcotic product is formed during its destructive distillation. In cases of poisoning from tobacco, the indications are, after the evacuation of the poi- son, to support the system by external and internal stimulants, and to allay irritation of stomach by the moderate use of opiates. The use of tobacco was adopted by the Spaniards from the American Indians. In the year 1560, it was introduced into France by the ambassa- dor of that country at the court of Lisbon, whose name-—Nicot—has been perpetuated in the generic title of the plant. Sir Walter Raleigh is said to have introduced the practice of smoking into England. In the various modes of smoking, chewing, and snuffing, the drug is now excessively consumed in every country on the globe. It must have properties peculiarly adapted to the propensities of our nature, to have thus surmounted the first repug- nance to its odour and taste, and to have become the passion of so many millions. When employed in excess, it enfeebles the digestive powers, produces emaciation and general debility, and lays the foundation of serious disorders of the nervous system. Dr. Chapman informs us that he has met with several instances of mental disorder closely resembling delirium tre- mens, which resulted from its abuse, and which subsided in a few days after it had been abandoned. Its remedial employment is less extensive than might be inferred from the variety of its powers. The excessive and distressing nausea which it is apt to occasion, interferes with its internal use ; and it is very seldom adminis- tered by the stomach. As a narcotic it is employed chiefly to produce relaxation in spasmodic affections. For this purpose, the infusion or smoke of tobacco, or the leaf in substance in the shape of a suppository, is intro- duced into the rectum in cases of strangulated hernia, obstinate constipation from spasm of the bowels, and retention of urine from a spasmodic stricture of the urethra. For a similar purpose, the powdered tobacco, or common snuff, mixed with simple cerate, as recommended by the late Dr. Godman, is sometimes applied to the throat and breast in cases of croup ; and Dr. Chapman has directed the smoking of a cigar in the same complaint, with decided benefit. One of the worst cases of spasm of the rima glottidis which we have seen, and which resisted powerful depletion by the lancet, yielded to the application of a tobacco cataplasm to the throat. A similar application to the abdomen is highly recommended in painters' colic, and has proved useful in hysterical convulsions. Tetanus is said to have been cured by baths made with the decoction of the fresh leaves. The relaxation produced by smoking, in a person unaccustomed to it, was very happily resorted to by Dr. Physick, in a case of obstinate and long continued dislo- cation of the jaw ; and the same remedy has frequently been found useful in the paroxysm of spasmodic asthma. Tobacco has been highly recommended, in the form of cataplasm, in articular gout and rheumatism ; and has been employed in the same way, as well as by injection, in cases of obstinate ver- minose affections. As an emetic it is seldom or never employed, unless in the shape of a cataplasm to the epigastrium, to assist the action of internal medicines in cases of great insensibility of stomach. As a diuretic it was used by Fowler in dropsy and dysury, but the practice is not often imitated. There is no better errhine than tobacco, for the ordinary purposes for which this class of medicines is employed. As a sialagogue, it is beneficial in rheumatism of the jaws, and often relieves toothache by its anodyne action. It is also used externally in the shape of cataplasm, infusion, or ointment, in cases of tinea capitis, psora, and some other cutaneous affections. The 60* 702 Tabacum.— Tamarindus. PART I. empyreumatic oil mixed with simple ointment, in the proportion of twenty drops to the ounce, has been applied with advantage, by American practi- tioners, to indolent tumours and ulcers; but, in consequence of its liability to be absorbed, and to produce unpleasant effects on the system, it should be used with great caution. This remark is applicable to all the modes of em- ploying tobacco; particularly to the injection of the infusion into the rectum, which has in several instances caused the death of the patient. It is even more dangerous than a proportionate quantity introduced into the stomach; as, in the latter case, the poison is more apt to be rejected. Even the ex- ternal application of the leaves or powder is not without danger, especially when the cuticle is removed. A case of death is on record occurring in a child eight years old, in consequence of the application of the expressed juice of the leaves to the head for the cure of tinea capitis. Five or six grains of powdered tobacco will generally act as an emetic; but the remedy is not given in this shape. The infusion used in dropsy by Fowler was made in the proportion of an ounce to a pint of boiling water, and given in the dose of sixty or eighty drops. The officinal infusion, which is employed for injection, is much weaker. (See Infusum Tabaci.) A wine and an ointment of tobacco are directed by the United States Pharma- copoeia. Off. Prep. Infusum Tabaci, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Vinum Tabaci, U. S., Ed.; Unguentum Tabaci, U.S. W. TAMARINDUS. U.S., Lond., Ed. Tamarinds. " The preserved fruit of Tamarindus Indica." U.S. "Tamarindus indica. Leguminis Pulpa." Lond. " Pulp of the pods of Tamarindus indica." Ed. Off. Syn. TAMARINDUS INDICUS. Leguminis pulpa. Dub. Tamarins, Fr.; Tamarinden, Germ.; Tamarindi, Ital; Tamarindos, Span. Tamarindus. Sex. Syst. Monadelphia Triandria.—Nat. Ord. Fabaceas or Leguminosae. Gen. Ch. Calyx four-parted. Petals three. Nectary with two short bristles under the filaments. Legume filled with pulp. Willd. Tamarindus Indica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 577; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 448. t. 161. The tamarind tree is the only species of this genus. It rises to a great height, sends off numerous spreading branches, and has a beau- tiful appearance. The trunk is erect, thick, and covered with a rough, ash- coloured bark. The leaves are alternate and pinnate, composed of many pairs of opposite leaflets, which are almost sessile, entire, oblong, obtuse, unequal at their base, about half an inch long by a sixth of an inch broad, and of a yellowish-green colour. The flowers, which are in small lateral racemes, have a yellowish calyx, and petals which are also yellow, but beautifully variegated with red veins. The fruit is abroad, compressed, reddish ash- coloured pod, very much curved, from two to six inches long, and with nume- rous brown, flat, quadrangular seeds, contained in cells formed by a tough membrane. Exterior to this membrane is a light-coloured acid pulpy matter, between which and the shell are several tough ligneous strings, running from the stem to the extremity of the pod, the attachment of which they serve to strengthen. The shells are very fragile and easily separated. The Tamarindus Indica appears to be a native of the East and West Indies, Egypt, and Arabia, though believed by some authors to have been imported into America. De Candolle is doubtful whether the East part i. Tamarindus.— Tanacetum. 703 and West India trees are of the same species. The pods of the former are much larger than those of the latter, and contain a greater number of seeds. At least such is the statement made by authors, who inform us that East India tamarinds contain six or seven seeds, those from the West Indies rarely more than three or four. We have found, however, in a parcel of the latter which we have examined, numerous pods with from eight to ten seeds, and the number generally exceeded four. The fruit is the officinal portion. Tamarinds are brought to us chiefly, if not exclusively, from the West Indies, where they are prepared by placing the pods, previously deprived of their shell, in layers in a cask, and pouring boiling syrup over them. A better mode, sometimes practised, is to place them in stone jars, with alter- nate layers of powdered sugar. They are said to be occasionally prepared in copper boilers. Properties. Fresh tamarinds, which are sometimes, though rarely, brought to this country, have an agreeable- sour taste, without any mixture of sweetness. As we usually find them, in the preserved state, they form a dark-coloured adhesive mass, consisting of syrup mixed with the pulp, membrane, strings, and seeds of the pod, and of a sweet acidulous taste. The seeds should be hard, clean, and not swollen, the strings tough and en- tire, and the smell without mustiness. From the analysis of Vauquelin it appears, that in 100 parts of the pulp of tamarinds, independently of the sugar added to them, there are 9*40 parts of citric acid, 1*55 of tartaric acid, 0*45 of malic acid, 3*25 of bitartrate of potassa, 4*70 of gum, 6*25 of jelly, 34*35 of parenchymatous matter, and 27*55 of water; so that the acidity is chiefly owing to the presence of citric acid. It is said that copper may sometimes be detected in preserved tamarinds, derived from the boilers in which they are occasionally prepared. Its presence may be ascertained by the reddish coat which it imparts to the blade of a knife immersed in the tamarinds. Medical Properties and Uses. Tamarinds are laxative and refrigerant, and infused in water form a highly grateful drink in febrile diseases. Con- valescents often find the pulp a pleasant addition to their diet, and useful by preserving the bowels in a loose condition. It is sometimes prescribed in connexion with other mild cathartics, and is one of the ingredients of the confection of senna. Though frequently prescribed with the infusion of senna to cover the taste of that medicine, it is said to weaken its purgative power; and the same observation has been made of its influence upon the resinous cathartics in general. From a drachm to an ounce or more may be taken at a dose. Off. Prep. Confectio Cassias, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Sennae, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Infusum Sennae, Dub., Ed.; Tamarindi Pulpa, U. S. W. TANACETUM. U. S. Secondary. Tansy. "The herb of Tanacetum vulgare." U. S. Off. Syn. TANACETUM VULGARE. Folia. Dub. Tanaisie, Fr.; Gemeiner Rheinfarrn, Wurmkraut, Germ.; Tanaceto, Ital, Span. Tanacetum. Sex. Syst. SyngenesiaSuperflua.—Nat. Ord. Compositas- Senecionideae, De Candolle ; Asteraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch.. Receptacle naked. Pappus somewhat marginate. Calyx imbri- cate, hemispherical. Corolla rays obsolete, trifid. TVilld. Tanacetum vulgare. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1814; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 704 Tanacetum.— Tapioca. part i. 66. t. 27. This is a perennial herbaceous plant, rising two or three feet in height. The stems are strong, erect, obscurely hexagonal, striated, often reddish, branched towards the summit, and furnished with alternate, doubly pinnatifid leaves, the divisions of which are notched or deeply serrate. The flowers are yellow, and in dense terminal corymbs. Each flower is com- posed of numerous florets, of which those constituting the disk are perfect and five-cleft, those of the ray,very few, pistillate, and trifid. The calyx consists of small, imbricated, lanceolate leaflets, having a dry scaly margin. The seeds are small, oblong, with five or six ribs, and crowned by a mem- branous pappus. Tansy is cultivated in our gardens, and grows wild in the roads and in old fields; but was introduced from Europe, where it is indigenous. It is in flower from July to September. The leaves are ordered by the Dublin College; but the flowers and seeds are not less effectual, and all; are in- cluded in the directions of the United States Pharmacopoeia. There is a variety of the plant with curled leaves, which is said to be more grateful to the stomach than that above described, but has less of the peculiar sensible properties of the herb, and is probably less active as a medicine. The odour of tansy is strong, peculiar, and fragrant, but much diminished by drying; the taste is warm, bitter, somewhat acrid, and aromatic. These properties are imparted to water and alcohol. According to Peschier, the leaves contain volatile oil, fixed oil, wax or stearin, chlorophylle, yellow resin, yellow colouring matter, tannin and gallic acid, bitter extractive, gum, lignin, and a peculiar acid which he calls tanacetic, and which precipitates lime, baryta, oxide of lead, and oxide of copper. The medical virtues of the plant depend on the bitter extractive and volatile oil. The latter, when separated by distillation, has a greenish-yellow colour, with the flavour of the plant, is lighter than water, and deposits camphor upon standing. The seeds contain the largest proportion of the bitter principle, and the least of volatile oil. Medical Properties and Uses. Tansy has the medical properties common to the aromatic bitters. It has been recommended in intermittents, hysteria, amenorrhoea, and as a preventive of arthritic paroxysms; but at present it is chiefly used as an anthelmintic, and in this country is scarcely em- ployed, for any purpose, in regular practice. The seeds are said to be most effectual as a vermifuge. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm two or three times a day; but the infusion is more fre- quently administered. A fatal case of poisoning with half an ounce of oil of tansy is recorded in the Medical Magazine for November, 1834. Fre- quent and violent clonic spasms were experienced, with much disturbance of respiration; and the action of the heart gradually became weaker till death took place from its entire suspension. No inflammation of the stomach or bowels was discovered upon dissection. (Am. Journ. of the Med. Sci., xvi. 256.) W. TAPIOCA. U.S., Ed. Tapioca. "The fecula of the root of Jatropha Manihot." U. S. "Fecula of the root of Janipha Manihot." Ed. Jatropha. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord.1 Euphor- biaceae. Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx none, or five-leaved. Corolla monopetalous, funnel-shaped. Stamens ten, alternately shorter. Female. Calyx none. part i. . Tapioca. 705 Corolla five-petaled, spreading. Styles three, bifid. Capsule three-celled. Seed one. Willd. Most if not all the species of Jatropha are impregnated, like other plants of the natural family of Euphorbiaceas, with an acrid, purging, poisonous principle. The seeds of the J. Curcas, which are known in Europe by the name of purging nuts, or Barbadoes nuts, have properties closely similar to those of the Croton Tiglium and Ricinus communis. They are blackish, oval,.about eight lines long, flat on one side, convex on the other; and the two sides present a slight longitudinal prominence. Four or five of these seeds, slightly roasted, and deprived of their envelope, are sufficient to purge actively; and in a large dose they are capable of producing fatal effects. Their active principle is said to reside exclusively in the embryo. Upon pressure they yield an oil which has all the properties of the croton oil. We are not aware that they are employed in this country. The only species of Jatropha acknowledged as officinal in our Pharmacopoeia is the ./. Manihot, which yields the tapioca of the shops. A number of botanists, following Kunth, place this plant in a new genus^separated from Jatropha, and named Janipha, from the Indian designation of another species of the genus. The following is the generic character of Janipha given by Lindley, from A. de Jussieu. "Flowers monoecious. Calyx campanulate, five-parted. Petals none. Male. Stamens ten; filaments unequal, distinct, arranged around a disk. Female. Style one. Stigmas three, consolidated into a rugose mass. Capsule three-coccous." Jatropha Manihot. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 562. Janipha Manihot. Cur- tis's Bot. Mag. 3071. This is the cassava plant of the West Indies, the mandioca or tapioca of Brazil. It is a shrub about six or eight feet in height, with a very large, white, fleshy, tuberous root, which often weighs thirty pounds. The stem is round, jointed, and furnished at its upper part with alternate petiolate leaves, deeply divided into three, five or seven oval, lanceolate, very acute lobes, which are somewhat wavy upon their borders, of a deep-green colour on their upper surface, glaucous and whitish beneath. The flowers are in axillary racemes. The Jatropha Manihot is a native of South America, and is cultivated extensively in the West Indies, Brazil, and other parts of Tropical America, for the sake of its root, which is much employed as an article of food. The plant is of quick growth, and the root arrives at perfection in about eight months. There are two varieties, distinguished by the names of sweet and bitter. The root of the former may be eaten with impunity; that of the latter, which is most extensively cultivated, abounds in an acrid milky juice, which renders it highly poisonous if eaten in the recent state. By MM. Henry and Boutron-Charlard, it has been ascertained that the bitter cassava owes its poisonous properties to the presence of hydrocyanic acid. (Journ. de Pharm., xxii. 119.) Both varieties contain a large proportion of starch. The root is prepared for use by washing, scraping, and grating or grinding it into a pulp, which, in the case of the bitter variety, is submitted to pressure so as to separate the deleterious juice. It is now in the state of meal or powder, which is made into bread, cakes, or puddings. As the poisonous principle is volatile, the portion which may have remained in the meal is entirely dissipated by the heat employed in cooking. The preparation denominated tapioca among us is obtained from the expressed juice. This, upon standing, deposits a powder, which, after repeated washings with cold water, is nearly pure starch. It is dried by exposure to heat, which renders it partly soluble in cold water, and enables it to assume the consistence by which it is characterized. When dried without heat, it is pulverulent, and closely resembles the fecula of arrow-root. 706 Tapioca.— Taraxacum. . parti. Tapioca is in the form of irregular, hard, white, rough grains, possessing little taste, partially soluble in cold water, and affording a fine blue colour when iodine is added to its filtered solution. The partial solubility,in cold water is owing to the rupture of the starch-granules by heat. Examined under the microscope, the granules appear partly broken, partly entire. The latter are muller-shaped, about the two-thousandth of an inch in diameter, more uniform in size than the granules of most other varieties of fecula, with a distinct hilum which is surrounded by rings, and cracks in a stellate man- ner. The tapioca meal, called sometimes Brazilian arrow-root, and by the French moussache, is the fecula dried without heat. Its granules are iden- tical with those already described. Being nutritious, and at the same time easy of digestion, and destitute of all irritating properties, tapioca forms an excellent diet for the sick and convalescent. It is prepared for use by boiling it in water. Lemon juice and sugar will usually be found grateful additions; and, in low states of disease or cases of debility, it may be advantageously impregnated with wine and nutmeg or other aromatic. A factitious tapioca is found in the shops, consisting of very small, smooth, spherical grains, and supposed to be prepared from potato starch. It is sold under the name of pearl tapioca. W. TARAXACUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Dandelion. " The root of Leontodon Taraxacum." U. S. " Leontodon Taraxacum. Radix." Lionel. " The root of Taraxacum Dens-leonis." Ed. Off. Syn. LEONTODON TARAXACUM. Herba. Radix. Dub. Pissenlit, Dent de lion. Fr.; LSwenzahn, Germ.; Tarassaco, Ital; Dicnte de leon, Span. Leontodon. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia JEqualis.—Nat. Ord. Compositas- Cichoraceas, De Candolle; Cichoraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx double. Seed-down stipitate, hairy. Willd. Leontodon Taraxacum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1544; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 39. t. 16. Taraxacum Dens-leonis. De Cand. Prodrom. vii. 145. The dandelion is an herbaceous plant, with a perennial, fusiform root. The leaves, which spring immediately from the root, are long, pinnatifid, gene- rally runcinate, with the divisions toothed, smooth, and of a fine green colour. The common name of the plant was derived from the fancied re- semblance of its leaves to the teeth of a lion. The flower-stem rises from the midst of the leaves, six inches or more in height. It is erect, simple, naked, smooth, hollow, fragile, and terminated by a large golden-coloured flower, which closes in the evening, and expands with the returning light of the sun. The calyx is smooth and double, with the outer scales bent downwards. The florets are very numerous, ligulate, and toothed at their extremities. The receptacle is convex and punctured. The seed-down is stipitate, and, at the period of maturity, is disposed in a spherical form, and is so light and feathery as to be easily borne away by the wind, with the seeds attached. This species of Leontodon grows spontaneously in most parts of the globe. It is abundant in this country, adorning our grass-plats and pasture- grounds with its bright yellow flowers, which, in moist places, show them- selves with the first opening of spring, and continue to appear till near the close of summer. All parts of the plant contain a milky bitterish juice, part i. , Taraxacum. 707 which exudes when they are broken or wounded. The leaves, when very young, and blanched by the absence of light during their growth, are tender and not unpleasant to the taste, and on the continent of Europe are some- times used as a salad. When older- and of their natural colour, they are medicinal, and have been adopted as officinal by the Dublin College. The other authorities recognise only the root, which is by far the most efficacious part. It should be full grown when collected, and should be employed in the recent state, as it is then most active. It does not, however, as stated by Duncan, lose nearly all its bitterness by drying; and the root dug up in the warmer seasons might, if dried with care, be employed with propriety in the succeeding winter. The juice of the root is thin and watery in the spring; milky, bitter, and spontaneously coagulable in the latter part of summer and autumn ; and sweet and less bitter in the winter, when affected by the frost. The months of July, August, and September are, therefore, the proper period for collecting it. The fresh full-grown root of the dandelion is several inches in length, as thick as the little finger, or thicker, round and tapering, somewhat branched, of a light brown colour externally, whitish within, having a yellowish ligne- ous cord running through its centre, and abounding in a milky juice. In the dried state it is much shrunk, wrinkled longitudinally, brittle, and when broken presents a shining somewhat resinous fracture. It is without smell, but has a sweetish, mucilaginous, bitterish, herbaceous taste. Its active properties are yielded to water by boiling, and do not appear to be injured in the process. The milky juice, examined by John, was found to contain bitter extractive, gum, caoutchouc, saline matters, a trace of resin, and a free acid. Besides these ingredients, starch, or inulin, and saccharine matter exist in the root. A crystallizable principle has been extracted from the juice of the root by M. Pollex, who has named it taraxacin. It is bitter and somewhat acrid, fusible but not volatile, sparingly soluble in cold water, but very soluble in boiling water, alcohol, and ether. It is obtained by boiling the milky juice in distilled water, filtering the concentrated liquor, and allow- ing it to evaporate spontaneously in a warm place. The taraxacin crystal- lizes, and may be purified by repeated solution and crystallization in alcohol or water. (Pharm. Journ. and Transact,, i. 425.) Medical Properties and Uses. Taraxacum is slightly tonic, diuretic, and aperient; and is thought to have a specific.action upon the liver, exciting it when languid to secretion, and resolving its chronic engorgements. It has been much employed in Germany, and is a popular remedy with many prac- titioners in this country. The diseases to which it appears to be especially applicable, are those connected with derangement of the hepatic apparatus, and of the digestive organs generally. In congestion and chronic inflamma- tion of the liver and spleen, in cases of suspended or deficient biliary secre- tion, and in dropsical affections dependent on obstruction of the abdominal viscera, it is capable of doing much good, if employed with a due regard to the degree of excitement. Our own experience is decidedly in its favour. An irritable condition of the stomach and bowels, and the existence of acute inflammation, contra-indicate its employment. It is usually given in the form of extract or decoction. (See Decoctum Taraxaci and Extractum Taraxaci.) Bitartrate of potassa is sometimes added to the decoction when an aperient effect is desired; and aromatics will occasionally be found useful in correcting a tendency to griping or flatulence. Off. Prep. Decoctum Scoparii Compositum, Lond.; Decoctum Taraxaci, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Extractum Taraxaci, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. 708 Terebinthina. PART I. TEREBINTHINA. U.S. Turpentine. "The juice of Pinus palustris, and other species of Pinus." U. S. TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS. U.S., Lond. Canada Turpentine. "The juice of Abies balsamea." U.S. "Pinus balsamea. Resina liquida." Off. Sun BALSAMUM CANADENSE. Fluid resinous exudation of Abies'balsamea; Canada balsam. Ed.; BALSAMUM CANADENSE. PINUS BALSAMEA. Resina liquida. Dub. TEREBINTHINA CHIA. Lond., Ed., Dub. Chian Turpentine. " Pistacia Terebinthus. Resina liquida." Lond., Dub. " Liquid resinous exudation of Pistacia Terebinthus." Ed. TEREBINTHINA VENETA. Ed., Dub. Venice Turpentine. " Liquid resinous exudation of Abies Larix." Ed. " Pinus Larix. Resina liquida." Dub. TEREBINTHINA VULGARIS. Lond., Dub. Common European Turpentine. "Pinus sylvestris. Resina Liquida." Lond., Dub. Terebenthine, Fr.; Terpentin, Germ.; Trementina, Ital, Span. _ The term turpentine is now generally applied to certain vegetable juices, liquid or concrete, which consist of resin combined with a peculiar essential oil, called oil of turpentine. They are generally procured from different species of pine, fir, or larch, though other trees afford products which are known by the same general title, as for instance the Pistacia Terebinthus, which, yields the Chian turpentine. Some of the French writers extend the name of turpentine to other juices consisting of resin and essential oil, without benzoic or cinnamic acid, as copaiba, balm of Gilead, &c. We shall describe particularly, in this place, only the officinal turpentines. A brief botanical view of the plants from which they are respectively derived, will be in accordance with the plan of this work. It is proper first to ob- serve that the original genus Pinus of Linnasus has been divided into the three genera, Pinus, Abies, and Larix, which are now very generally recog- nised, though Lindley unites the two latter in his Flora Medica. Pinus. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Pinaceas or Com- feras. PART I. Terebinthina. 709 Gen. Ch. Flowers monoecious. Males. Catkins racemose, compact, and terminal; squamose; the scales staminiferous at the apex. Stamens two; the anthers one-celled. Females. Catkins or cones simple, imbricated with acuminate scales. Ovaries two. Stigmas glandular. Scales of the cone oblong, club-shaped, woody; umbilicato-angular at the apex. Seeds in pairs, covered with a sharp-pointed membrane. Cotyledons digitato-partite. Leaves two or many, in the same sheath. (Pereira's Mat. Med. from Bot. Gall.) 1. Pinus palustris. Willd. Sp. Plant. iv. 499.*—P. Australis. Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 133. " Leaves in threes, very long; stipules pinnatifid, ra- mentaceous, persistent; strobiles subcylindrical, armed with sharp prickles." This is a very large indigenous tree, growing in dry sandy soils, from the southern part of Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico. Its mean elevation is sixtv or seventy feet, and the diameter of its trunk about fifteen or eighteen inches for two-thirds of this height. The leaves are about a foot in length, of a brilliant green colour, and united in bunches at the ends of the branches. The names by which the tree is known in the Southern States, are long- leaved pine, yellow pine, and pitch pine; but the first is most appropriate, as the last two are applied also to other species. This tree furnishes by far the greater proportion of the turpentine, tar, &c, consumed in the United States, or sent from this to other countries. (See Pix Liquida.) 2. Pinus Txda. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 498; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 156. " Leaves in threes, elongated, with elongated sheaths; strobiles bblong- conical, deflexed, shorter than the leaf; spines inflexed." This is the loblolly, or old field pine of the Southern States. It is abund- ant in Virginia, where it occupies the lands which have been exhausted by cultivation. It exceeds eighty feet in height, has a trunk two or three feet in diameter, and expands into a wide spreading top. The leaves are about six inches long, and of a light-green colour. It yields turpentine in abundance, but less fluid than that which flows from the preceding species. 3. Pinus sylvestris. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 494 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 1. t. 1; Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. p. 125. " Leaves in pairs,rigid; strobiles ovate-conical, of the length of the leaves; scales echinate." This species of pine, when of full size, is eighty feet high, with a trunk four or five feet in diameter. It inhabits the northern and mountainous parts of Europe. In Great Britain it is called the wild pine, or Scotch fir; the latter name having been applied to it from its abundance in the moun- tains of Scotland. It yields a considerable proportion of the common Euro- pean turpentine. Besides the pines above described, various others yield medicinal products. The Pinus maritima (Pinus Pinaster of Aiton and Lambert), growing in the southern and maritime parts of Europe, yields much of the turpentine, pitch, and tar consumed in France, and is admitted among the officinal plants m the French Codex. From the branches of the Pinus Pumilio, which inhabits the mountains of Eastern and South-eastern Europe, a terebinthi- nate juice exudes spontaneously, called Hungarian balsam. The Pinus Cembra, or Siberian stone-pine of the Alps and Carpathian mountains, is said to afford the product called Carpathian balsam ; and the seeds both of that species, and the Pinus Pinea, or stone pine of the South of Europe and North of Africa, are used in Europe in desserts, under the name of pine nuts. The Pinus rigida, or pitch pine of this country, and probably others besides those mentioned are sometimes employed in the preparation of tar. Abies. See PIX ABIETIS. Abies balsamea. Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 554___A balsamif era, Michaux, 710 Terebinthina. PART I. N.Am. Sylv. iii. 191.—Pinus balsamea. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 504. "Leaves solitary, flat, emarginate or entire, glaucous beneath, somewhat pectinate, sub-erect above, recurved, spreading; cones cylindrical, erect; •* bractes abbreviate, obovate, conspicuously mucronate, sub-serrulate." This is the American silver fir, or balm of Gilead tree, inhabiting Canada, Nova Scotia, Maine, and the mountainous regions further to the south. It is an elegant tree, seldom rising more than forty feet in height, with a taper- ing trunk, and numerous branches which diminish in length in proportion to their height, and form an almost perfect pyramid. The leaves are six or eight lines long, inserted in rows on the sides and tops of the branches, narrow, flat, rigid, bright green on their upper surface, and of a silvery whiteness beneath. The cones are large, erect, nearly cylindrical, of a purplish colour, and covered with a resinous exudation which gives them a glossy, rich, and beautiful appearance. It is from this tree that the Canada balsam is obtained. Several other species of Abies are officinal. The A. excelsa of Europe, and A. Canadensis of the United States, have already been described as the sources respectively of Burgundy and Canada pitch. (See Pix Abietis and Pix Canadensis.) The A. Picea (Abies pectinata of De Candolle, A. taxifolia of the French Codex, Pinus Picea of Linnaeus), or European silver fir, growing in the mountainous regions of Switzerland, Germany, and Siberia, yields the Strasburg turpentine, which is much used in some parts of Europe. The Abies nigra (Pinus nigra), or black spruce of this country, yields a product, which, though not recognised by the Pharmaco- poeia, is considerably employed. The substance alluded to is the essence of spruce, prepared from the young branches by boiling them in water, and evaporating the decoction. It is a thick liquid, having the colour and consistence of molasses, with a bitterish, acidulous, astringent taste. It is much used in the preparation of the beverage commonly known by the name of spruce beer, which is a pleasant and wholesome drink in summer, and useful in long sea-voyages as a preventive of scurvy.* Larix. Sex. Syst. Monoecia Monadelphia.—Nat. Ord. Pinaceas or Coni- fer ae. Gen. Ch. As in Abies, except that the cotyledons are simple, and never lobed; the cones lateral; the leaves, when first expanding, in tufted fascicles, becoming somewhat solitary by the elongation of the new branch. (Pereira's Mat. Med. from Bot. Gall.) Larix europaea. De Cand. Flor. Fr. 2064.—Abies Larix. Lamb. Illustr. t. 785. f. 2.—Pinus Larix. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 503; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 7. t. 4. "Leaves fascicled, deciduous; cones ovate-oblong; margins of the scales refiexed, lacerated ; bractes panduriform." The European larch is a large tree inhabiting the mountains of Siberia, Switzerland, Germany, and the East of France. It yields the Venice tur- pentine of commerce, and a peculiar sweetish substance, called in France Briancon manna, which exudes spontaneously, and concretes upon its bark. When the larch forests of Russia take fire, a juice exudes from the trunk during their combustion, which concretes, and is called Orenburgh gum. It is wholly soluble in water. (Lindley, Flor. Med.) Pistacia. See MASTICHE. Pistacia Terebinthus. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 752 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. * The following is the formula usually followed. Take of essence of spruce half a pint; pimento bruised, ginger bruised, hops, each, four ounces ; water three gallons. Boil for five or ten minutes; then strain, and add of warm water eleven gallons; yeast a pint; molasses six pints. Mix, and allow the mixture to ferment for twenty-four hours. PART I. Terebinthina. 711 29. t. 12. This is a small tree with numerous spreading branches, bearing alternate pinnate leaves, which consist of three or four pairs of ovate, lanceo- late, entire, acute, smooth, and shining leaflets, with an odd one at the end. The male and female flowers are dioecious, small, and in branching racemes. This is a native of Barbary and Greece, and flourishes in the islands of Cy- prus and Chio, the latter of which has given its name to the Chian turpen- tine obtained from the tree. A gall produced upon this plant by the punc- ture of an insect, has been used in Eastern Europe in pectoral affections. We shall treat of the several varieties of turpentine under distinct heads. 1. White Turpentine. Terebenthine de Boston, Fr. The common American or white turpentine (Terebinthina, U. S.) is pro- cured chiefly from the Pinus palustris, partly also from the Pinus Taeda, and perhaps some other species inhabiting the Southern States. In former times, large quantities were collected in New England; but the turpentine trees of that section of the Union are said to be nearly exhausted; and our commerce is almost exclusively supplied from North Carolina, and the south- eastern parts of Virginia. The following is the process for obtaining the turpentine as described by Michaux. During the winter months, exca- vations of the capacity of about three pints are made in the trunk of the tree three or four inches from the ground. Into these the juice begins to flow about the middle of March, and continues to flow throughout the warm sea- son, slowly at first, rapidly in the middle of summer, and more slowly again in the autumnal months. The liquid is removed from these excavations as they fill, and transferred into casks, where it gradually thickens, and ulti- mately acquires a soft solid consistence. Very large quantities are thus annually procured, sufficient not only to supply the whole consumption of this country, but also to furnish a valuable export. White turpentine, as found in our shops, is yellowish-white, of a peculiar somewhat aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent, bitterish taste. It is some- what translucent, and of a consistence which varies with the temperature. In the middle of summer it is almost semi-fluid and very adhesive, though brittle; in the winter it is often so firm and hard, as to be incapable of being made into pills without heat. Exposed to the air it ultimately becomes perfectly hard and dry. In the recent state it affords about seventeen per cent, of essential oil. It is apt to contain small pieces of bark, wood, or other impurity. 2. Common European Turpentine. Terebenthine de Bordeaux, Terebenthine commune, Fr.; Gemeiner Terpentin, Germ.; Trementina coniune, Ital; Trementina comun, Span. This is the Terebinthina Vulgaris of the London Pharmacopoeia. It is furnished by several species of pine; but chiefly by the Pinus sylvestris and Pinus maritima (P. Pinaster of Aiton). From the latter tree it is obtained largely in the maritime districts of the South-west of France, espe- cially in the department of the Landes, and is exported from Bordeaux. Hence it is called in commerce Bordeaux turpentine. The process for pro- curing it consists simply in making incisions into the trunk, or removing portionsof the bark, and receiving the juice which flows out in small troughs, or in holes dug at the foot of the tree. It is purified by heating, and filtering it through straw, or by exposing it to the sun in a barrel, through holes in the bottom of which the melted turpentine escapes. Thus prepared, it is whitish, turbid, thickish, and separates, upon standing, into two parts, one 712 Terebinthina. PART I. liquid and transparent, the other of a consistence and appearance like those of thickened honey. As found in European commerce it often consists wholly of this latter portion. It speedily hardens upon exposure to the air in thin layers. The most liquid specimens are completely solidified by the addition of one part of magnesia to thirty-two of the turpentine. (Guibourt, Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 499.) It is scarcely ever given internally, but furnishes large quantities of oil of turpentine and resin. We do not import it into this country. The substance which the French call galipot or barras, is that portion of the turpentine which concretes upon the trunk of the tree when wounded, and is removed during the winter. (Thenard.) This, when purified by melting with water and straining, takes the name of yellow or white pitch, or Burgundy pitch. When turpentine has been deprived of its oil by distillation, the resin which remains is called rosin, and sometimes colophony, from the Ionian city of that name, where it was formerly pre- pared. It is the resin (Resina) of the London College, and the yellow resin (Resina flava) of the Dublin. White resin (Resina alba) is prepared by in- corporating this, while in fusion, with a certain proportion of water. Tar (Pix Liquida) is the turpentine extracted from the wood by a slow com- bustion, and chemically altered by the heat. Common pitch (Pix Nigra or Resina Nigra) is the solid residue left after the evaporation by boiling of the liquid parts of tar. (See these titles respectively.) 3. Canada Turpentine. Canada balsam, Balsam of fir; Baume de Canada, Fr.; Canadischer Balsam, Cana- discher Terpentin, Germ.; Trementina del Canada, Ital. This is the product of the Abies balsamea, and is collected in Canada and the State of Maine. It is procured, according to Michaux, by breaking the vesicles which naturally form upon the trunk and branches, and receiving their liquid contents in a bottle. When fresh, it is colourless or slightly yel- lowish, transparent, of the consistence of thin honey, very tenacious, of a strong, agreeable odour, and a bitterish, somewhat acrid taste. By time and exposure it becomes thicker and more yellow, and at last assumes a solid consistence. It is usually brought into market in bottles, and is kept in the shops under the name of Canada balsam, or balsam of fir. In Europe, it is sometimes called balm of Gilead, from its supposed resemblance to that celebrated medicine. The term balsam, as at present understood, is impro- perly applied to it; as it contains no benzoic acid, and is in fact a true tur- pentine, consisting chiefly of resin and essential oil. Bonastre obtained from 100 parts of Canada turpentine, 18*6 parts of volatile oil, 40*0 of resin easily dissolved by alcohol, 33*4 of sub-resin of difficult solubility in that fluid, 4*0 of caoutchouc similar to sub-resin, and 4*9 of bitter extractive and salts, besides traces of acetic acid. There is reason to believe that Strasburg turpentine is sometimes sold for it in the shops. 4. Venice Turpentine. Terebenthine de meleze, Terebenthine de Venise, Fr.; Venetianischer Terpentin, Germ.; Trementina di Venezia, Ital; Trementina de Venecia, Span. This turpentine received its name from the circumstance that it was for- merly an extensive article of Venetian commerce. It is procured in Switzer- land, and the French province of Dauphiny, from the Larix Europaea or larch, which grows abundantly upon the Alps and the Jura mountains. The peasants bore holes into the trunk about two feet from the ground, and con- duct the juice by means of wooden gutters into small tubs, placed at a con- PART I. Terebinthina. 713 venient distance. It is afterwards purified by filtration through a leather sieve. Genuine Venice turpentine is a viscid liquid, of the consistence of honey, flowing with difficulty, cloudy or imperfectly transparent, of a yel- lowish or slightly greenish colour, a strong not disagreeable odour, and a warm bitterish and very acrid taste. It does not readily concrete on exposure, is not solidified by one-sixteenth of magnesia, and is entirely soluble in alco- hol. (Guibourt, Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 500.) What is sold under the name of Venice turpentine in our shops, is usually quite brown, and is said to be a factitious substance, prepared by-dissolving rosin in oil of turpentine. Dr. A. T. Thomson states that much of the Venice turpentine of the shops of London is obtained from America. It is probably the same preparation as that which passes under the name in this country. 5. Chian Turpentine. Terebenthine de Chio, Fr.; Cyprischer Terpentin, Germ.; Trementina Cipria, Ital. This variety of turpentine is collected chiefly in the island of Chio or Scio, by incisions made during the summer in the bark of the Pistacia Terebinthus. The juice, flowing from the wounds, falls upon smooth stones placed at the foot of the tree, from which it is scraped with small sticks, and allowed to drop into bottles. The annual product of each tree is very small; and the turpentine, therefore, commands a high price even in the place where it is procured. Very little of it reaches this country. It is said to be frequently adulterated with the other turpentines. It is a thick, tenacious liquid, of a greenish-yellow colour, a peculiar penetrating odour more agreeable than that of the other substances of the same class, and a mild taste without bitterness or acrimony. It leaves a glutinous residue when treated with strong alcohol. (Guibourt.) On exposure to the air it speedily thickens, and ultimately becomes concrete and hard, in conse- quence of the loss of its volatile oil. Besides the turpentines mentioned, various others are noticed in books on materia medica, though not found in the shops of this country. There are the Strasburg turpentine, much used in France, and obtained from the Abies Picea (Abies pectinata of De Candolle), or European silver fir, which grows on the mountains of Switzerland and Germany, and bears a close resemblance, as well in its appearance as its product, to the Abies balsamea of Canada; the Damarra turpentine, which speedily concretes into a very hard resin, and is derived from the Pinus Damarra of Lam- bert, the Agathis Damarra of Richard, growing in the East India islands; and the Dombeya turpentine, a glutinous, milky-looking fluid of a strong odour and taste, derived from the Dombeya excelsa, the Araucaria Dombeyi of Richard, which inhabits Chili, and is said to be identical with the Nor- folk Island pine. These, with one or two other turpentines scarcely known, or having a doubtful claim to the title, are all that belong properly to this class of vegetable products. General Properties. The turpentines resemble each other in odour and taste, though distinguished by shades of difference. Liquid at first, they become thick and gradually solid by exposure, in consequence partly of the volatilization, partly of the oxidation of their essential oil. They are ren- dered more liquid or softened *by heat, and at a high temperature take fire, burning with a white flame and much smoke. Water extracts only a minute proportion of their volatile oil. They are almost wholly soluble in alcohol and ether, and readily unite with the fixed oils. They yield by distillation a volatile oil, well known as the oil of turpentine, and leave a 61* 714 Terebinthina.— Testa. PART I. residue consisting exclusively of resin. (See Oleum Terebinthinee and Re- sina.) A minute proportion of succinic acid passes over with the oil. From the experiments of M. Faure of Bordeaux, it appears that some of the liquid turpentines, like copaiba, may be solidified by the addition of mag- nesia (Journ. de Chim. Med., 1830, p. 94); and, according to M. Thierry, the same result is obtained by the addition of one part of hydrate of lime to thirty-two parts of the common European turpentine. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser. i. 315.) Medical Properties and Uses. The effects of the turpentines upon the system are dependent entirely on their essential oil. They are stimulant, diuretic, anthelmintic, and in large doses laxative. When taken internally, or applied to the skin, they communicate a violet odour to the urine, and if continued for some time produce an irritation of the mucous membrane of the urinary passages, amounting frequently to strangury. The last effect is less apt to be experienced when they operate upon the bowels. Externally applied they act as rubefacients. Their medical virtues were known to the ancients. At present they are less used than formerly, having been super- seded by their volatile oil. They are, however, occasionally prescribed in leucorrhoea, gleet, and other chronic diseases of the urinary passages; in piles and chronic inflammations or ulcerations of the bowels; in chronic catarrhal affections; and in various forms of rheumatism, especially sciatica and lumbago. The white turpentine is usually employed in this country. They may be given in the shape of pill made with powdered liquorice root; or in emulsion with gum Arabic or yolk of egg, loaf sugar, and water; or in electuary formed with sugar or honey. Their dose is from a scruple to a drachm. In the quantity of half an ounce or an ounce, tritu- rated with the yolk of an egg, and mixed with half a pint of mucilaginous liquid, they form an excellent injection in cases of ascarides, and of consti- pation attended with flatulence. Off. Prep. Ceratum Resinas Compositum, U. S.; Emplastrum Cantha-> ridis Comp., Ed.; Emplastrum Galbani Comp., U. S., Lond.; Oleum'Te- rebinthinas, Dub.; Unguentum Elemi, Lond.; Unguentum Infusi Canthari- dis, Ed. W. TESTA. U.S. Oyster-shell. "The shells of Ostrea edulis." U.S. Off. Syn. TEST.E. Lond. Ecailles des huitres, Fr.; Austerschalen, Germ.; Gusci della ostriche, Ital; Cascaras. Span. The common oyster is the Ostrea edulis of naturalists, an animal belong- ing to the class Vermes, order Testacea. It is found in many parts of the world, and is particularly abundant on our own coast, and in the bays of our large rivers. It consists of a soft pulpy portion, comprising the vital organs of the animal, enclosed in a hard bivalve shell, of the nature of mother-of- pearl. The flesh of the oyster forms a very digestible and nutritious article of food, particularly suited to convalescents; but the shell only is officinal. Properties. Oyster-shells are too familiarly known to require description. They are made up, like other mother-of-pearl shells, of alternate layers of earthy matter, and of animal matter of the nature of coagulated albumen. According to the analysis of Bucholz and Brandes, their exact constituents are carbonate of lime 98*6, phosphate of lime 1*2, animal matter 0*5, alu- mina (accidental) 0*2=100*5. Thus it appears that the animal matter is present in but small amount. When calcined or burnt, the animal matter part i. Testa.— Tolutanum. 715 and carbonic acid are dissipated, and the shells are converted into a species of lime, called oyster-shell lime. Crab stones (crabs' eyes) and crabs' claws are both forms of carbonate of lime, resembling oyster-shell in containing a small proportion of animal matter. They were formerly officinal in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, but were very properly omitted at the last revision of that work. They will be noticed in the Appendix. Pharmaceutical Uses. Oyster-shells require to be reduced to an impal- pable powder, before they are fit for medicinal employment; and their pre- paration in this way constitutes their sole pharmaceutical use. When thus prepared they form the Testa Prxparata, under which head their medici- nal properties will be noticed. Off. Prep. Testa Prasparata, U. S., Lond. B. TOLUTANUM. U.S. Balsam of Tolu. "The juice of Myroxylon Toluiferum. Richard." U. S. Off. Syn. BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM. Myroxylon peruiferum. Bal- samum concretum. Lond.; BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM. "Concrete bal- samic exudation of Myrospermum toluiferum." Ed.; TOLUIFERA BAL- SAMUM. Resina. Dub. Balsam of Tolu; Baume de Tolu, Fr.; Tolubalsam, Germ.; Balsamo del Tolu, Ital; Balsamo de Tolu, Span. Myroxylon. See MYROXYLON. Till recently the tree from which this balsam is derived retained the name of Toluifera Balsamum, given to it by Linnasus; but it is now ad- mitted that the genus Toluifera was formed upon insufficient grounds; and botanists agree in referring the Tolu balsam tree to the Myroxylon, or Myrospermum of De Candolle. Ruiz, one of the authors of the Flora Peruviana, considers it identical with the Myroxylon Peruiferum ; and his opinion has been adopted by some other writers. M. Achille Richard, how- ever, thinks it a distinct species, and has appropriately denominated it My- roxylon Toluiferum, a title which is recognised in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. Sprengel and Humboldt also consider it a distinct species of Myroxylon. According to Richard, who had an opportunity of examin- ing specimens brought from South America by Humboldt, the leaflets of the M. Peruiferum are thick, coriaceous, acute, and blunt at the apex, and all equal in size; while in the M. Toluiferum the leaflets are thin, membran- ous, obovate, with a lengthened and acuminate apex, and the terminal one is longest. The M. Peruiferum is found in Peru and the southern parts of New Granada; the M. Toluiferum grows in Carthagena, and abounds especially in the neighbourhood of Tolu. The wood of the latter species, according to Humboldt, is of a deep red colour, has a delightful balsamic odour, and is much used for building. It is not improbable, that the two balsams, known in the shops by the respective names of Peru and Tolu, differ more in the mode by which they are procured, than in the character of the trees which afford them. The balsam of Tolu is procured by making incisions into the trunk of the tree. The juice as it exudes is received in vessels of various kinds, in which it concretes. It is brought from Carthagena in calabashes or baked earthen jars of a peculiar shape, and sometimes in glass vessels. Properties. As first imported, it has a soft, tenacious consistence, which 716 Tolutanum.— Tormentilla. part i. varies considerably with the temperature. By age it becomes hard and brittle like resin. It is shining, translucent, of a reddish or yellowish- brown colour, a highly fragrant odour, and a warm, somewhat sweetish and pungent, but not disagreeable tase. Exposed to heat, it melts, inflames, and diffuses an agreeable odour while burning. It is entirely dissolved by alcohol and the essential oils. Boiling water extracts its acid. Distilled with water it affords a small proportion of volatile oil; and if the heat be continued the acid matter sublimes. Mr. Hatchett states that, when dis- solved in the smallest quantity of solution of potassa, it loses its own cha- racteristic odour, and acquires that of the clove-pink. Its ingredients are resin, benzoic and cinnamic acids, and volatile oil, the proportions of which vary in different specimens. Fremy discovered in it cinnamic acid, but was wrong in supposing that it contained no benzoic acid, as has been proved by M. Deville. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvii. 638.) Guibourt observed that it contains more acid, and is less odorous in the solid form; and thinks that the acid is increased at the expense of the oil. Tromms- dorff obtained 88 per cent, of resin, 12 of acid, and only 0*2 of volatile oil. According to Mr. Heaver, the balsam yields by distillation about one-eighth of its weight of pure cinnamic acid. The acid distils over in the form of a heavy oil, which condenses into a white crystalline mass. It may be freed from empyreumatic oil by pressure between folds of bibulous paper, and subsequent solution in boiling water, which deposits it in minute colour- less crystals upon cooling. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 77.) Medical Properties and Uses. Balsam of Tolu is a stimulant tonic, with a peculiar tendency to the pulmonary organs. It is given with some advan- tage in chronic catarrh and other pectoral complaints, in which a gently stimu- lating expectorant is demanded; but should not be prescribed until after the reduction of inflammatory action. Independently of its medical virtues, its agreeable flavour renders it a popular ingredient in expectorant mixtures. Old and obstinate coughs are said to be sometimes greatly relieved by the inhala- tion of the vapour proceeding from an ethereal solution of this balsam. From ten to thirty grains may be given at a dose, and frequently repeated. The best form of administration is that of emulsion, made by triturating the bal- sam with mucilage of gum Arabic and loaf sugar, and afterwards with water. Off. Prep. Syrupus Tolutanus, Lond.; Tinctura Benzoini Composita, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Tolutani, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. TORMENTILLA. U.S. Secondary,Lond., Ed. Tormentil. " The root of Potentilla Tormentilla." U. S., Ed. " Potentilla Tormen- tilla. Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. TORMENTILLA OFFICINALIS. Dub. Tormentille, Fr.; Tormentillwurzel, Germ.; Tormentilla, Ital; Tormentila, Span. Potentilla. Sex. Syst. Icosandria Polygynia.—Nat. Orel. Rosaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx with a concave tube, a four or five-cleft limb, and four or five bractlets. Petals four or five. Stamens numerous. Carpels numerous, with a lateral style, on a procumbent, persistent,capitate, juiceless receptacle. Seed appended. Herbs or undershrubs, with compound leaves, stipules adnate to the petiole, and white, yellow, rarely red flowers. (De Candolle.) Potentilla Tormentilla. Sibthorp. Fl. Ox. 162; Lindley, Flor. Med. 225.— Tormentilla erecta. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1112; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 503. t. 181.—T. officinalis. Smith, Flor. Brit. The tormentil, or sept- part i. Tormentilla.— Toxicodendron. 717 foil, is a small perennial plant, very common throughout Europe. The stems, which rise about six or eight inches in height from a woody root, are slender, more or less erect, branching towards the top, and furnished with sessile leaves, which on the stalk usually consist of seven, on the branches of five, digitate, elliptical, villous, deeply serrated leaflets, three of which are larger than the others. The flowers are small, yellow, and solitary upon axillary peduncles. All parts of the plant are astringent, especially the root, which is the part employed. It is gathered in spring. Properties. The root of tormentil is cylindrical or roundish, rather larger above than at the lower extremity, an inch or two in length, about as thick as the finger, knotty, sometimes contorted, brown or blackish externally, and reddish within. It has a slight aromatic odour, and a very astringent taste. Tannin is an abundant constituent. There is also a red colouring principle, soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water. Besides these ingredients Meissner found resin, cerin, myricin, gummy extractive, gum, extractive, lignin, water, and a trace of volatile oil. The root is said to be used for tanning leather in the Orkneys and Western Islands of Scotland, and for staining leather red by the Laplanders. It yields all its medical virtues to boiling water. Medical Properties and Uses. Tormentil is a simple and powerful astring- ent, applicable to all cases of disease in which this class of medicines is in- dicated. We seldom, however, employ it in this country, having indigenous plants of equal virtue. It may be given in substance, decoction, or extract. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. Off. Prep. Decoctum Tormentillas, Lond.; Pulvis Cretas Compositus, Lond. W. TOXICODENDRON. U S. Secondary, Lond. Poison-oak. "The leaves of Rhus Toxicodendron." U.S. "Rhus Toxicodendron. Folia." Lond. Off. Syn. RHUS TOXICODENDRON, Folia. Dub. Sumach veneneux, Fr.; Gift-Sumach, Germ.; Albero del veleno, Ital. Rhus. See RHUS GLABRUM. Admitting, as appears generally to be done at present, that the Rhus Toxi- codendron and Rhus radicans of Linnasus, are mere varieties of the same plant, there are three indigenous species of Rhus which possess poisonous properties—the one above mentioned, the R. Vernix, commonly known by the name of swamp sumach or poison sumach, and the R. pumilum of the Southern States. Though the first only is designated in the Pharmacopoeias, we shall briefly describe the three species ; as their medical effects are pro- bably similar, and their operation upon the system such that the plants should be known to every practitioner. 1. Rhus radicans. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1481; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 17.—R. Toxicodendron. Pursh,/1/. Am. Sept. p. 205. Though Elliott and Nuttall consider the R. radicans and R. Toxicodendron as distinct spe- cies, the weight of botanical authority is on the other side, and Bigelow declares that he has " frequently observed individual shoots from the same stock, having the characters of both varieties." The difference, however, in their appearance is sufficiently striking to have led to the adoption of different common names, the R. radicans being usually called poison vine, and the R. Toxicodendron, poison oak. The former has a climbing stem, 718 Toxicodendron. part i. rising to a great height upon trees, rocks, and other objects, to which it ad- heres by strong rooting fibres, which it throws out from its sides. The leaves, which stand upon long footstalks, are ternate, with broad ovate or rhomboidal, acute leaflets, smooth and shining on both sides, sometimes slightly hairy on the veins beneath, entire, or irregularly lobed and toothed. The flowers are small, greenish-white, dioecious, and grow in lateral, usually axillary panicles, or compound racemes. The male flowers have five stamens, and the rudiments of a style ; the female, which are of only half the size and on a different plant, have abortive stamens, and a short erect style, standing on a roundish germ, and terminating in three stigmas. The fruit consists of roundish, pale-green or whitish berries. The R. Toxicodendron, or poison-oak, has the form of a shrub from one to three feet high, with leaflets angularly indented, and pubescent beneath. But this character of the foliage is probably not constant; and the stunted growth may be owing to peculiarities of situation. Dr. Bigelow states that the young plants of the R. radicans do not put forth rooting fibres until they are several years old, and that they are influenced in this respect by the contiguity of supporting objects. This species of Rhus grows in woods, fields, and along fences from Ca- nada to Georgia. It flowers in June and July. When wounded, it emits a milky juice, which becomes black on exposure to the air, and leaves upon linen or other cloth a stain, which cannot afterwards be removed by washing with soap and water, or by alcohol either hot or cold, but deepens by age. It has been proposed as an indelible ink. Ether dissolves it. The juice applied to the skin frequently produces inflammation and vesi- cation ; and the same poisonous property is possessed by a volatile principle which escapes from the plant itself, and produces in persons who come into its vicinity an exceedingly troublesome erysipelatous affection, particularly of the face. Itching, redness, a sense of burning, tumefaction, vesication, and ultimate desquamation, are some of the attendants of this poisonous action. The swelling of the face is sometimes so great as almost entirely to obliterate the features. The effects are experienced soon after exposure, and usually begin to decline within a week. A light cooling regimen, with saline pur- gatives, and the local use of cold lead-water, are the best remedies. All per- sons are not equally liable to the affection, and the great majority are wholly insusceptible of it from any ordinary exposure. 2. Rhus Vernix. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1479 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 96. The swamp sumach is a beautiful shrub or small tree, usually ten or fifteen feet high, but sometimes rising thirty feet. The bark of the trunk is dark gray, of the branches lighter, of the extreme twigs and petioles beauti- fully red. The leaves are pinnate, with four or five pairs of opposite leaflets, and an odd terminal one. These are oblong or oval, entire or slightly sinuated, acuminate, smooth, and except the one at the end, nearly sessile. The flowers, as in the preceding species, are dioecious. They are very small, greenish, and arranged in loose axillary panicles. The berries are small, roundish and greenish-white. The tree grows in swamps and low grounds, from Canada to Carolina, and flowers in June and July. It is thought to be identical with a species of Rhus which grows in Japan, and furnishes a fine black varnish, much used in that country. Dr. Bigelow found that the opaque whitish juice which exudes from our native plant when wounded, and which becomes permanently black on exposure, may be made to afford a brilliant, glossy, durable varnish, by boiling it sufficiently before applying it. The Rhus Vernix produces much more powerfully than the R. radicans, parti. Toxicodendron.— Tragacantha. 719 the poisonous effects already described. Persons coming within its influ- ence are much more apt to be affected with the poison, and generally suffer more severely. The whole body is sometimes enormously swollen, and the patient for many days scarcely able to move; but the complaint almost always spontaneously subsides without destroying life. As in the former instance, the susceptibility to the influence of the poison is exceedingly various, and some persons may handle the plant with perfect impunity. 3. Rhus pumilum. Michaux, Flor. Americ. i. 182. This is a southern species, growing in upper Carolina, and not more than a foot in height. It is characterized by its pubescent branches and petioles; its pinnate leaves, with many pairs of oval, nearly acuminate, incised dentate leaflets, downy beneath; and by its silky fruit. According to Pursh, it is the most poisonous of the genus. It is probable that all parts of the Rhus radicans (R. Toxicodendron) are possessed of active properties; but the leaves only are directed in the Phar- macopoeias, under the title of Toxicodendron. These are inodorous, have a mawkish acrid taste, and yield their virtues to water. The presence of tannin and gallic acid has been detected in them; but they have not been accurately analyzed. Medical Properties and Uses. These leaves appear to be stimulant and narcotic, producing when swallowed more or less irritation of the stomach and bowels, and promoting the secretory function of the skin and kidneys. Orfila found them to act in the manner of the acrid poisons, and to produce a stupefying effect u pon the nervous system. They were successfully used by Du Fresnoy, in France, in the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases. Dr. Anderson, of Hull, in England, effected cures with the medicine in several cases of palsy. A sense of heat and pricking, with irregular twitchings, was excited by it in the affected parts. Dr. Horsfield, and other phy- sicians of this country, have used it in consumption and dropsy, but not with any very encouraging success. The dose of the leaves recommended by Dr. Anderson, was half a grain or a grain three times a day; but this is much too small. Dr. Duncan gave it in larger doses, with little other than a laxative effect. Dr. Horsfield administered a teacupful of the strong infusion without disadvantage. In France, the extract is recommended in doses of fifteen or twenty grains, repeated two or three times a day, and gradually increased to one or two drachms. Some of Du Fresnoy's patients took an ounce without effect. The probability is, that the active principle is volatile, and that the extract is less efficient than the leaves themselves. The risk of experiencing the poisonous effects of the plant upon the system, will probably prevent its extensive employment as a remedy, unless it should prove much more useful than the trials hitherto made give us reason to expect. W. TRAGACANTHA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Tragacanth. "The concrete juice of Astragalus verus." U.S. "Astragalus verus. Succus concretus." Lond. " Gummy exudation from Astragalus gummifer and probably A. verus, and other species." Ed. Off. Syn. TRAGACANTHA GUMMI. ASTRAGALUS CRETICUS. Gummi. Dub. Goinme Adraganthe, Fr.; Tragant, Germ.: Dragante, Ital; Gomo tragacanto, Span. Astragalus. Sex. Syst. Diadelphia Decandria.—Nat. Ord. Fabaceas or Leguminosas. 720 Tragacantha. PART I. Gen. Ch. Legume two-celled, more or less gibbous, with the lower suture turned inwards. Carina blunt. Loudon's Encyc. of Plants. Numerous species belonging to this genus yield a gummy matter having the properties of tragacanth. The drug known in commerce by that name was at first erroneously supposed to be obtained from the A. Tragacantha of Linnasus (A. massiliensis of Lamarck), which grows in the South of Europe and North of Africa, and is now said to yield no gum. It was after- wards ascribed, on the authority of Tournefort, to a species (A. Creticus of Lamarck) which grows in Crete and Ionia, and on that of Olivier to the A. verus, which inhabits Asia Minor, Armenia, and Northern Persia. Labil- lardiere described a species by the name of A. gummifer, which he found growing on Mount Libanus in Syria, and from which tragacanth exudes, though not that of commerce. Sieber denies that any one of these species yields the officinal tragacanth, which he ascribes to the A. aristatus growing in Anatolia, especially upon Mount Ida, where the gum is most abundantly collected. This plant, however, is not the A. aristatus of Villars, which, according to Sibthorp, furnishes tragacanth in Greece. (Merat and De Lens.) Professor Lindley has lately received two specimens of plants, said to be those which furnish tragacanth in Turkistan, one of which proves to be the A. gummifer of Labillardiere, which was said to yield a white variety, and the other a new species which he calls A. strobiliferus, and which was said to yield a red and inferior product. The fact seems to be, that the commercial drug is collected from various sources; and it is affirmed that all the species of Astragalus with thorny petioles are capable of pro- ducing it. These form a natural group, and so closely resemble each other, that botanists have found some difficulty in distinguishing them. As the A. verus is designated in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, and that of the London College, we shall briefly describe it. Astragalus verus. Olivier, Voy. dans I'Empire Ottoman, v. 342. pi. 44. This is a small shrub, not more than two or three feet high, with a stem an inch in thickness, and numerous very closely crowded branches, covered with imbricated scales, and spines which are the remains of former petioles. The leaves, which are little more than half an inch long, consist of several pairs of opposite, villous, stiff, pointed leaflets, with a midrib terminating in a sharp yellowish point. The flowers are papilionaceous, small, yellow, axillary, aggregate, and furnished with cottony bractes. This species yields the gum collected in Persia, and thence transmitted southward to India through Bagdad and Bassora, northward to Russia, and westward to Aleppo. Tragacanth exudes spontaneously during the summer from the stems and branches, hardening as it exudes, and assuming various forms according to the greater or less abundance of the juice. Properties. It is in tortuous vermicular filaments, rounded or flattened, rolled up or extended, of a whitish or yellowish-white colour, somewhat translucent, resembling horn in appearance. Sometimes the pieces are irre- gularly oblong or roundish, and of a slightly reddish colour. It is hard and more or less fragile, but difficult of pulverization, unless exposed to a freez- ing temperature, or thoroughly dried, and powdered in a heated mortar. The powder is very fine and white. Tragacanth has no smell and very little taste. Its sp. gr. is 1-384. Introduced into water it absorbs a certain proportion of that liquid, swells very much, and forms a soft adhesive paste, but does not dissolve. If agitated with an additional quantity of water, this paste forms a uniform mixture; but in the course of one or two days the greater part separates, and is deposited, leaving a portion dissolved in the supernatant fluid. Tragacanth is wholly insoluble in alcohol. It appears PART I. Tragacantha.— Triosteum. 721 to be composed of two different constituents, one soluble in water and resembling gum Arabic, the other capable of swelling in water, but not dissolving. The former is said to differ from gum Arabic in affording no precipitate with silicate of potassa or sesquichloride of iron. (Pereira's Mat. Med.) The latter, which, according to Bucholz, constitutes 43 per cent, of tragacanth, is ranked by some among the peculiar* proximate principles with the title of tragacanthin. It is probably identical with bassorin. It has the property of becoming blue with iodine, which is not the case with bassorin; but this property is ascribed to the presence of a small quantity of insoluble starch. According to M. Guerin, 100 parts of tragacanth contain 53*3 parts of arabin or pure gum, 33*1 of bassorin and insoluble starch, and 11*1 of water, and yield when burned 2*5 parts of ashes. To separate the soluble entirely from the insoluble part, requires agitation with separate portions of water, which are to be decanted and filtered; and the process is to be continued till water ceases to dissolve any thing. Berzelius considers tragacanth as a variety of mucilage. (See Linum.) Medical Properties and Uses. Tragacanth is demulcent, but on account of its difficult solubility, is not often given internally. The great viscidity which it imparts to water, renders it useful for the suspension of heavy insoluble powders; and it is also employed in pharmacy to impart consist- ence to troches, for which it answers better than gum Arabic. Off. Prep. Confectio Opii, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Mucilago Tragacanthas, Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Tragacanthas Compositus, Lond. W. TRIOSTEUM. U.S. Secondary. Fever-root. " The root of Triosteum perfoliatum." U. S. Triosteum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Caprifoli- aceas. Gen.Ch. Calyx five-cleft, persistent, nearly the length of the corolla; segments linear, acute. Corolla tubular, five-lobed, sub-equal; base, necta- riferous, gibbous. Stigma somewhat five-lobed, capitate. Berry three- celled, three-seeded, crowned with the calyx. Nuttall. Triosteum perfoliatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 990; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 90; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 59. This plant is indigenous and peren- nial. Several stems usually rise from the same root. They are simple, erect, round, hairy, fistulous, herbaceous, and from one to four feet high. The leaves are opposite, large, mostly connate, oval, acuminate, entire, abruptly narrowed at the base, and pubescent on their under surface. The flowers are of a dull purple colour, axillary, sessile, rarely solitary, some- times in pairs, generally in triplets or five together in the form of whorls. The germ is inferior, and the style projects beyond the corolla, into the tube of which the stamens are inserted. The berry is oval and of a deep orange colour, and contains three hard, bony seeds. The fever-root, fever-wort, or wild ipecac, as this plant is variously called, though not very abundant, is found in most parts of the United States, preferring a limestone soil and shady situations. Its flowers appear in June. The whole plant has a bitter taste; but the root is most active, and is the only officinal part. It is horizontal, long, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, thicker and tuberculated near the origin of the stem, of a yellowish or brownish colour externally, whitish within, and furnished with fibres which may be 62 722 Triosteum.— Triticum Hybernum. part i. considered as branches of the main root. When dry it is brittle and easily pulverized. It has a sickening odour, and a bitter nauseous taste. Both water and alcohol take up its active properties, which are retained in the extract. Medical Properties and Uses. Fever-root is cathartic, and in large doses emetic. The late Professor Barton observed it also to produce a diu- retic effect. The bark of the root is the part which has been usually em- ployed. In the quantity of twenty or thirty grains it ordinarily acts upon the bowels; and may be given alone or in combination with calomel at the com- mencement of fevers. The extract may be given in half the dose. W. TRITICUM HYBERNUM. Seminum farina. Dub. Wheat Flour. Off. Syn. FARINA. Triticum hybernum. Seminum Farina. Lond.; FARINA. Flour of the seeds of Triticum vulgare. Ed. Farine de froment, Fr.; Waizenmehl, Germ.; Farina di frumento, Ital; Flor del trigo, Acemite, Span. Triticum. Sex. Syst. Triandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Graminaceas. Gen.Ch. Caylx two-valved, solitary, transverse, many-flowered, on a flexuose, toothed receptacle. Rees's Cyclopaedia. Triticum hybernum. Willd., Sp.Plant, i. 477.—T.vulgare, var. j3. hybernum. Kunth, Gramin., 438. The common winter wheat has a fibrous root, and one or more erect, round, smooth, jointed stems, which rise from three to five feet in height, and are furnished with linear, pointed, entire, flat, many-ribbed, rough, somewhat glaucous leaves, and jagged bearded stipules. The flowers are in a solitary, terminal, dense, smooth spike, two or three inches long. The calyx is four-flowered, tumid, even, imbricated, abrupt, with a short compressed point. In the upper part of the spike it is more elongated; and in this situation the corolla is more or less awned. The grain is imbricated in four rows. The native country of wheat is unknown; but its cultivation is supposed to have spread from Sicily over Europe. It is now an object of culture in almost all countries which enjoy a temperate climate. Sown in the autumn, it stands the winter, and ripens its seeds in the following summer. Nume- rous varieties have been produced by cultivation, some of which are usually described as distinct species. Among these may perhaps be ranked the T. asstivum, or spring wheat, distinguished by its long beards, and the T. com- positum, or Egyptian wheat, by its compound spikes. It is asserted that the latter changes, in Great Britain, into ihe common single-spiked wheat. (Loudon's Encyc.) The seeds are too well known to need description. They are prepared for use by grinding and sifting, by which the interior farinaceous part is separated from the husk. The former is divided accord- ing to its fineness into different portions, but so far as regards its medical relations may be considered under one head, that of farina ox four. The latter is called bran, and constitutes from 25 to 33 per cent. Flour is white, inodorous, and nearly insipid. Its chief constituents are starch, gluten, albumen, saccharine matter, and gum, the proportions of which are by no means constant. Vauquelin obtained, as an average pro- duct, from eight varieties of flour which he examined, 10*25 per cent, of water, 10*80 of gluten (including coagulated albumen), 68*08 of starch, 5*61 of sugar, and 4*11 of gum. The ashes of wheat, which amount only to about 0*15 per cent., contain, according to Henry, superphosphates of PART I. Triticum Hybernum. 723 soda, lime, and magnesia. The gummy substance found in wheat flour is not precisely identical with ordinary gum; as it contains nitrogen, and does not yield mucic acid by the action of nitric acid. The starch, which is by far the most abundant ingredient, is much employed in a separate state. (See Amylum.) The gluten, however, is not less important; as it is to the large proportion of this principle in wheat flour, that it owes its superiority over that from other grains for the preparation of bread. The gluten here alluded to is the substance first noticed as a distinct principle by Beccaria. It is the soft viscid fibrous mass which remains, when wheat flour, enclosed in a linen bag, is exposed to the action of a stream of water, and at the game time pressed with the fingers till the liquor comes away colourless. But this has been ascertained to consist, in fact, of two different substances. When boiled in alcohol, one portion of it is dissolved, while another portion remains unaffected. Einhof appears to have established the fact, that the part of the glutinous mass left behind by alcohol is iden- tical with vegetable albumen, while the dissolved portion only is strictly entitled to the appellation of gluten, which had been previously conferred on the whole mass. As these two principles are contained in numerous vegetable products, and as they are frequently referred to in this work, it is proper that they should be briefly noticed. They both contain nitrogen, and both, when left to themselves in a moist state, undergo putrefaction. From these circumstances, and from their close resemblance to certain proximate animal principles in chemical habitudes and relations, they are sometimes oalled, in works on chemistry, vegeto-animal substances. They are separated from each other, as they exist in the mass originally denomi- nated gluten, by boiling this mass with successive portions of alcohol, till the liquid, filtered while yet hot, ceases to become turbid on cooling. The gluten dissolves, and may be obtained by adding water to the solution, and distilling off the alcohol. Large cohering flakes float in the liquor, which, when removed, form a viscid elastic mass, consisting of the substance in question with some slight impurity. The part left behind by the alcohol is the albumen in a coagulated state. Pure gluten, now called vegetable fibrin, is a pale yellow, adhesive, elastic substance, which, by drying, becomes of a deeper yellow colour and trans- lucent. It is almost insoluble in water, and quite insoluble in ether, and in the oils both fixed and volatile. Hot alcohol dissolves it much more readily than cold ; and from its solution in ordinary alcohol, at the boiling temperature, it is precipitated unchanged when the liquor cools. It is soluble in the dilute acids, and in caustic alkaline solutions, in consequence of forming soluble compounds with the acids and alkalies. With the earths and metallic oxides it forms nearly insoluble compounds, which are precipitated when the earthy Or metallic salts are added to the solution of gluten in liquid potassa. Corro- sive sublimate precipitates it from its acid as well as alkaline solutions, and, added in solution to moist gluten, forms with it a compound, which, when dry, is hard, opaque, and incorruptible. Gluten is also precipitated by in- fusion of galls. It closely resembles if it be not identical with animal fibrin. Its name originated in its adhesive property. Gluten exists in most of the farinaceous grains, and in the seeds of some leguminous plants. Vegetable albumen is destitute of adhesiveness,and, when dried, is opaque, and of a white, gray, or brown colour. Before coagulation, it is soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. By heat it coagulates and becomes insolu- ble in water. It is dissolved by the solutions of the caustic alkalies. Most of the acids, if added to its solutions in excess, precipitate compounds of the acids respectively with the albumen, which, though soluble in pure water, 724 Triticum Hybernum. PART I. are insoluble in that liquid when acidulated. It is not, however, precipitated by an excess of the phosphoric or acetic acid. Its relations to the earthy and metallic salts are similar to those of gluten. Corrosive sublimate pre- cipitates it from its solutions, except from those in phosphoric and acetic acids, and, when added in a state of solution to moist albumen, forms with it a hard, opaque compound. It is also precipitated-by infusion of galls. This principle derived its name from its very close resemblance to animal albumen. It is associated with gluten in most of the farinaceous grains, is a constituent of all the seeds which form a milky emulsion with water, and exists in all the vegetable juices which coagulate by heat. The mixture of gluten and albumen which constitutes the gluten of Bec- caria, exercises an important influence over starch, which, with the presence of water and the aid of a moderate heat, it converts partly into gum and partly into sugar. The production of saccharine matter in the germination of seeds, and in the formation of malt, which is an example of germination, is thus accounted for. The gluten itself becomes acid in the process, and loses the property of reacting on starch. It is now thought by many chemists that vegetable albumen is identical in all respects with animal albumen, and the gluten of vegetables with animal fibrin; and that both these principles, as well as another named casein, found also both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, consist of a principle named protein, combined with a very small proportion of mineral substances, such as sulphur, phosphorus, &c. Protein consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and its formula, according to Liebig, is NgC^HggO^. It is pro- cured by dissolving any one of the substances above named in a strong solu- tion of potassa, heating for some time to 120°, and precipitating with acetic acid. (Turner's Chemistry, 7th Lond. Ed.) It is scarcely necessary to state, that bread is formed by making flour into a paste with water, with the addition of yeast, setting it aside to ferment, and then exposing it to the heat of an oven. The fermentation excited by the yeast is accompanied with the extrication of carbonic acid gas, which, being retained by the tenacity of the gluten, forms innumerable little cells through the mass, and thus renders the bread light. It is important to recollect that common salt is always added; as this ingredient is incompati- ble with some of the substances which are occasionally directed to be made into pills with the crumb of bread. Medical Properties and Uses. Wheat flour in its unaltered state is seldom used in medicine. It is sometimes sprinkled on the skin in erysipelatous inflammation, and various itching or burning eruptions, particularly the nettle-rash; though rye flour is generally preferred for this purpose. In the state of bread it is much more employed. An infusion of toasted bread in water is an agreeable, somewhat nutritive drink, very well adapted to febrile complaints. Within our experience, no drink has been found more grateful in such cases than this infusion, sweetened with a little molasses, and flavoured by lemon-juice. Boiled with milk, bread constitutes the com- mon suppurative poultice, which may be improved by the addition of a small proportion of perfectly fresh lard. Slices of it steeped in lead-water, or the crumb mixed with the fluid and confined within a piece of gauze, afford a convenient mode of applying this preparation to local inflammations. The crumb—mica panis—is, moreover, frequently used to give bulk to minute doses of very active medicines, administered in the form of pill. It should be recollected, however, that it contains common salt, which is in- compatible with certain substances, as, for example, the nitrate of silver. Branis sometimes used in decoction, as a demulcent in catarrhal affections part i. Triticum Hybernum.— Tussilago. 725 and complaints of the bowels. It has, when taken in substance, laxative properties, and may be used with great advantage to prevent costiveness. Bran bread, made from the unsifted flour, forms an excellent laxative arti- cle of diet in some dyspeptic cases. The action of the bran is probably altogether mechanical, consisting in the irritation produced upon the mu- cous membrane of the stomach and bowels by its coarse particles. Off. Prep. Cataplasma Fermenti, Lond., Dub. W. TUSSILAGO. Lond. Coltsfoot. " Tussilago Farfara." Lond. Off. Syn. TUSSILAGO FARFARA. Folia. Flores. Dub. Tussilage, Pas d'ane, Fr.; Gemeiner Huflattig, Germ.; Tossilagine, Ital; Tusilago, Span. Tussilago. Sex. Syst. Syngenesia Superflua.—Nat. Ord. Compositas- Eupatoriaceas, De Candolle; Asteraceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Receptacle naked. Pappus simple. Calyx scales equal, as long as the disk, submembranaceous. Florets of the ray ligulate or toothless. Willd. Tussilago Farfara. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1967; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 45. t. 18. Coltsfoot is a perennial herb, with a creeping root, which early in the spring sends up several leafless, erect, simple, unifloral scapes or flower-stems, five or six inches high, and furnished with appressed scale- like bractes of a brownish-pink colour. The flower, which stands singly at the end of the scape, is large, yellow, compound, with hermaphrodite florets in the disk, and female florets in the ray. The latter are numerous, linear, and twice the length of the former. The leaves do not make their appear- ance until after the flowers have blown. They are radical, petiolate, large, cordate, angular and toothed at the margin, bright green upon their upper surface, white and downy beneath. The plant grows spontaneously both in Europe and North America. In this country it is found upon the banks of streams in the Middle and North- ern States, and flowers in April. The whole of it is directed by the London College, the leaves and flowers only by that of Dublin. The leaves are most frequently employed. They should be gathered after their full expan- sion, but before they have attained their greatest magnitude. (London Dispensatory.) The flowers have an agreeable odour, which they retain after desiccation. The dried root and leaves are inodorous, but have a rough, bitterish, mucila- ginous taste. Boiling water extracts all their virtues. Medical Properties and Uses. Coltsfoot exercises little sensible influence upon the human system. It is, however, demulcent, and is sometimes used in chronic coughs, consumption, and other affections of the lungs. The expectorant properties which it was formerly thought to possess are not obvious. The leaves were smoked by the ancients in pulmonary complaints; and in some parts of Germany they are at the present time said to be sub- stituted for tobacco. Cullen states that he found the expressed juice of the fresh leaves, taken to the extent of some ounces every day, beneficial in severaL cases of scrofulous sores ; and a decoction of the dried leaves as re- commended by Fuller, answered a similar purpose, though it often failed to effect a cure. The usual form of administration is that of decoction. An ounce or two 62* 726 Tussilago.— Ulmus. PART I. of the plant may be boiled in two pints of water to a pint, of which a tea- cupful may be given several times a day. W. ULMUS. Lond. Elm Bark. "Ulmus campestris." Cortex. Lond. Off. Syn. ULMUS CAMPESTRIS. Cortex interior. Dub. Ecorce d'orme, Fr.; Ulmenrinde, Germ.; Scorza del olma, Ital; Corteza de olmo, Span. Ulmus. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.—Nat. Ord. Ulmaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla none. Capsule (samara) compressed, membranaceous. Willd. Ulmus campestris. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1324; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 710. t. 242. This species of elm is Characterized by its doubly serrate leaves, unequal at their base, by its nearly sessile, clustered, pentandrous flowers, and its smooth fruit. It is a large tree, with strong spreading branches, and a rough, cracked bark. It is a native of Europe, where the wood is highly esteemed for certain purposes in the arts. The inner bark of its young branches, which is the officinal portion, is thin, tough, of a brownish-yellow colour, inodorous, and of a mucilaginous, bitterish, and very slightly astringent taste. It imparts to water its taste and mucilaginous properties. The tincture of iodine indicates the presence of starch, and Davy found somewhat more than two per cent, of tannin. A pecu- liar vegetable principle called ulmin or ulmic acid, now believed to be a constituent of most barks, was first discovered in the matter which sponta- neously exudes from the bark of the European elm. It is a dark-brown almost black substance, without smell or taste, insoluble in cold water, sparingly soluble in boiling water which it colours yellowish-brown, soluble in alcohol, and readily dissolved by alkaline solutions. Medical Properties and Uses. The bark of the European elm is demul- cent, and very feebly tonic and astringent, and is said also to be diuretic. It has been recommended in cutaneous affections of the leprous and herpetic character. Dr. Sigmond speaks in strong terms of its efficacy in all the varieties of lepra, in lichenous eruptions, and in tinea capitis, employed both internally and externally. (Med. Bot. Trans., i. 169.) It is usually given in the form of decoction, and in chronic cases must be long continued to produce beneficial results. Off. Prep. Decoctum Uimi, Lond., Dub. W. ULMUS. U.S. Slippery Elm Bark. "The inner bark of Ulmus fulva." U. S. Ulmus. See ULMUS. Lond. Ulmus fulva. Michaux, Flor. Americ. i. 172.—Ulmus rubra. F. An- drew Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii. 89. The slippery elm, called also red elm, is a lofty tree, rising fifty or sixty feet in height, with a stem fifteen or twenty inches in diameter. The bark of the trunk is brown, that of the branches rough and whitish. The leaves are oblong ovate, acuminate, nearly equal at the base, unequally serrate, pubescent and very rough on both sides, four or five inches in length by two or three in breadth, and sup- ported on short footstalks. The buds, a fortnight before their developement, PART I. Ulmus.— Uva Passa. 121 are covered with a dense russet down. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are sessile, and in clusters at the extremity of the young shoots. The bunches of flowers are surrounded by scales, which are downy like the buds. The calyx also is downy. There is no corolla. The stamens are five in number, short, and of a pale rose colour. The fruit is a membranaceous capsule or samara, enclosing in the middle one round seed, destitute of fringe. This species of elm is indigenous, growing in all parts of the United States north of Carolina, but most abundantly west of the Alleghany moun- tains. It flourishes in open, elevated situations, and requires a firm, dry soil. From the white elm, U. Americana, it is distinguished by its rough branches, its larger, thicker, and rougher leaves, its downy buds, and the character of its flowers and seeds. Its period of flowering is in April. The inner bark is the part used in medicine, and is brought to the shops separated from the epidermis. It is in long, nearly flat pieces, from one to two lines in thickness, of a fibrous texture, a tawny colour which is reddish on the inner surface, a peculiar sweetish, not unpleasant odour, and a highly mucilaginous taste when chewed. By grinding, it is reduced to a light, grayish-fawn coloured powder. It abounds in mucilaginous matter, which it readily imparts to water. Medical Properties and Uses. Slippery elm bark is an excellent demul- cent, applicable to all cases in which this class of medicines is employed. It is especially recommended in dysentery, diarrhoea, and diseases of the urinary passages. Like the bark of the common European elm, it has been employed in leprous and herpetic eruptions; but neither in these, nor in any other complaints, does it probably exert any greater powers than such as belong to the demulcents generally. Its mucilage is highly nutritious; and we are told that it has proved sufficient for the support of life in the absence of other food. The instance of a soldier is mentioned, who lived for ten days in the woods on this bark and sassafras; and the Indians are said to resort to it for nutriment in extreme emergencies. It is usually employed as a drink in the form of infusion. (See Infusum Ulmi.) The powder may be used, stirred in hot water, with which it forms a mucilage, more or less thick according to the proportion added. The bark also serves as an emollient application in cases of external inflammation. For this purpose the powder may be formed into a poultice with hot water, or the bark itself may be applied, previously softened by boiling. Dr. McDowell, of Virginia, has recommended the use of slippery elm bark for the dilatation of fistulas and strictures. (Med. Examiner, i. 244, from the West Journ. of Med. and Phys. Sci.) Off.Prep. Infusum Ulmi, U.S. W. UVA PASSA. U. S. Raisins. " The dried fruit of Vitis vinifera." U. S. Off. Syn. UVA. Vitis vinifera. Baccae exsiccatse demptis acinis. Lond.; UYM PASSM. Dried fruit of Vitis vinifera. Ed.; VITIS VINIFERA. Fructus siccatus. Dub. Raisins sees, Fr.; Rosinen, Germ.; Uve passe, Ital; Pasas, Span. Vitis. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Vitaceae. Gen. Ch. Petals cohering at the apex, withering. Berry five-seeded, superior. Willd. 728 Uva Passa. PART I. Vitis vinifera. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1180; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 141. t. 57. The vine is too well known to require description. This particular species is distinguished by the character of its leaf, which is lobed, sinuated, and naked or downy. The leaves and tendrils are somewhat astringent, and were formerly used in diarrhoea, hemorrhages, and other morbid discharges. The juice which flows from the stem was also thought to be possessed of medicinal virtues, and the prejudice still lingers among the vulgar in some countries. The unripe fruit has a harsh sour taste, and yields by expression a very acid liquor, called verjuice, which was much esteemed by the ancients as a refreshing drink, when diluted with water. It contains malic and tar- taric acids, and another called by some chemists racemic acid, by Berzelius paratartaric acid, from its resemblance to the tartaric, with which it agrees in composition, though differing from it in properties. The grape, when quite-ripe, is among the most pleasant and grateful fruits brought upon the table, and is admirably adapted, by its refreshing properties, to febrile com- plaints. If largely taken, it proves diuretic and gently laxative. The ripe fruit differs from the unripe in containing more sugar and less acid, though never entirely destitute of the latter. The plant is supposed to have been derived originally from Asia; but it has been cultivated in Europe and Northern Africa from the remotest antiquity, and is now spread overall the temperate civilized regions of the globe. The fruit is exceedingly influenced by soil and climate, and the varieties which have resulted from culture or situation are innumerable. Those which yield the raisins of commerce are confined to the basin of the Mediterranean. Raisins are prepared either by partially cutting the stalks of the bunches before the grapes are perfectly ripe, and allowing them to dry upon the vine; or by picking them in their mature state, and steeping them for a short time previously to desiccation in an alkaline ley. Those cured by the first method are most highly esteemed. Several varieties of raisins are known in commerce. The best of those brought to this country are the Malaga raisins, imported from Spain. They are large and fleshy, of a purplish-brown colour,; and sweet agreeable taste. Those produced in Calabria are similar. The Smyrna raisins are also large, but of a yellowish-brown colour, slightly musky, odour, and less agreeable flavour. They are originally brought from the coast of Syria. The Corin- thian raisins, or currants as they are commonly called in this country, are small, bluish-black, of a fatty appearance, with a vinous odour, and a sweet slightly tartish taste. Their name was derived from the city in the vicinity of which they were formerly cultivated; at present they are procured chiefly from Zante, Cephalonia, and the other Ionian Islands. In the older Phar- macopoeias they are distinguished by the title of uvae passae minores. Raisins contain a larger proportion of sugar than recent grapes. This principle, indeed, is often so abundant that it effloresces on the surface, or concretes in separate masses within the substance of the raisin. The sugar of grapes differs slightly from that of the cane, and is said to be identical with that produced by the action of sulphuric acid upon starch. It is less sweet than common sugar, less soluble in cold water, much less soluble in alcohol, and forms a syrup of less consistence. Medical Properties and Uses. The chief medical use of raisins is to flavour demulcent beverages. Taken in substance they are gently laxative; but are also flatulent and difficult of digestion, and, when largely eaten, some- times produce unpleasant effects, especially in children. Off. Prep. Decoctum Althasas, Dub., Ed.; Decoctum Guaiaci, Ed.; Decoctum Hordei Compositum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cardamomi PART I. Uva Passa.— Uva Ursi. 729 Composita, Lond.,Ed.; Tinctura Quassias Comp., Ed.; Tinctura Rhei et Sennas, U. S.; Tinctura Sennas Comp., Lond., Ed. W. UVA URSI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Uva Ursi. " The leaves of Arbutus Uva Ursi." U. S. " Arctostaphylos Uva ursi. Folia." Lond. "Leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva'-ursi." Ed. " Arbutus Uva Ursi. Folia." Dub. Busserote, Raisin d'ours, Fr.; Barentraube, Germ.; Corbezzolo, Uva Ursina, Ital; Gayuba, Span. Arbutus. Sex. Syst. Decandria Monogynia.—--iVaf. Ord. Ericaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted. Corolla ovate, with a mouth, pellucid at the base. Berry five-celled. Willd. Arbutus Uva Ursi. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 618; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 66.—Arctostaphylos Uva Ursi. Sprengel, Syst. ii. 287.—The uva ursi, or bearberry, is a low evergreen shrub, with trailing stems, the young branches of which rise obliquely upwards for a few inches. The leaves are scattered, upon short petioles, obovate, acute at the base, entire, with a rounded margin, thick, coriaceous, smooth, shining, and of a deep green colour on their upper surface, paler and covered with a network of veins beneath. The flowers, which stand on short refiexed peduncles, are col- lected in small clusters at the ends of the branches. The calyx is small, five-parted, of a reddish colour, and persistent. The corolla is ovate or urceolate, reddish-white, or white with a red lip, transparent at the base, contracted at the mouth, and divided at the margin into five short refiexed segments. The stamens are ten, with short filaments and bifid anthers; the germ round, with a style longer than the stamens, and a simple stigma. The fruit is a small, round, depressed, smooth, glossy, red berry,containing an insipid mealy pulp, and five cohering seeds. This humble but hardy shrub inhabits the northern latitudes of Europe, Asia, and America. It is also found in the lofty mountains of Southern Europe, such as the Pyrenees and the Alps; and, on the American conti- nent, extends from Hudson's Bay as far southward as New Jersey, in some parts of which it grows in great abundance. It prefers a barren soil, flou- rishing on gravelly hills, and elevated sandy plains. The leaves are the only part used in medicine. They are imported from Europe ; but are also col- lected within our own limits ; and the market of Philadelphia is supplied to a considerable extent from New Jersey. They should be gathered in autumn, and the green leaves only selected. In Europe, the uva ursi is often adulterated with the leaves of the Vac- cinium VitisIdaea, which are wholly destitute of its peculiar properties, and may be distinguished by their rounder shape, their revolute edges which are sometimes slightly toothed, and the appearance of their under surface, which is dotted, instead of being reticulated as in the genuine leaves. Leaves of the Chimaphila umbellata axe sometimes found among the uva ursi as it exists in our markets. They may be readily detected by their greater length, their cuneiform lanceolate shape, and their serrate edges. The leaves of the uva ursi are inodorous when fresh, but acquire a smell not unlike that of hay when dried and powdered. Their taste is bitterish, strongly astringent, and ultimately sweetish. They afford a light brown, greenish-yellow powder. Water extracts their active principles, which are also soluble in officinal alcohol. Among their ingredients are tannin, bitter 730 Uva Ursi.— Valeriana. PART I. extractive, resin, gum, and gallic acid; and the tannin is so abundant that they are used for tanning in some parts of Russia. Neither this principle nor gallic acid exists in the leaves of the Vaccinium Vitis Idaea. Medical Properties and Uses. Uva ursi is astringent and tonic, and is thought by some to have a specific direction to the urinary organs, for the complaints of which it is chiefly used. Others deny that it possesses any peculiar tendency of this kind, and ascribe all its effects to its astringent and tonic action. It alters the colour of the urine, and its astringent principle has been detected in that secretion. It probably, therefore, exerts a direct influence on the kidneys and urinary passages. Though known to the ancients, it had passed into almost entire neglect, till its use was revived by De Haen about the middle of the last century. It has acquired some reputa- tion as an antilithic, and has undoubtedly been serviceable in gravel, partly, perhaps, by a direct action on the kidneys, partly by giving tone to the digestive organs, and preventing the accumulation of principles calculated to produce a secretionor precipitation of calculous matter. In chronic nephritis it is also a popular remedy, and is particularly recommended when there is reason to conjecture the existence of ulceration in the kidneys, bladder, or urinary passages. Diabetes, catarrh of the bladder, incontinence of urine, gleet, leucorrhoea, and menorrhagia, are also among the diseases in which it has occasionally proved serviceable ; and testimony is not wanting to its beneficial effects in phthisis pulmonalis. The dose of the powder is from a scruple to a drachm, to be repeated three or four times a day; but the form of decoction is usually preferred. (See Decoctum Uvae Ursi.) Off. Prep. Decoctum Uvas Ursi, U. S., Lond.; Extractum Uvae Ursi, Lond. W. VALERIANA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Valerian. " The root of Valeriana officinalis." U. S., Ed. ■" Valeriana Officinalis. (Sylvestris.) Radix." Lond. Off. Syn. VALERIANA OFFICINALIS. Radix. Dub. Valeriane, Fr.; Wilde Baldrianwurzel, Germ.; Valeriana silvestre, Ital; Valerian sil- vestre, Span. Valeriana. Sex. Syst. Triandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Valenan- aceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx very small, finally enlarged into a feathery pappus. Corolla monopetalous, five-lobed, regular, gibbous at the base. Capsule one-celled. (Loudon's Encyc. of Plants.) Stamens exserted, one, two, three, and four. (Nuttall.) Valeriana officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 117; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 77. t. 32. The officinal, or great wild valerian is a large handsome her- baceous plant, with a perennial root, and an erect, round, channeled stem, from two to four feet high, furnished with opposite pinnate leaves, and terminating in flowering branches. The leaves of the stem are attached by short broad sheaths, the radical leaves are larger and stand on long foot- stalks. In the former the leaflets are lanceolate and partially dentate, in the latter elliptical and deeply serrate. The flowers are small, white or rose-coloured, odorous, and disposed in terminal corymbs, interspersed with spear-shaped pointed bractes. The number of stamens is three. The fruit is a capsule containing one oblong ovate, compressed seed. The plant is a native of Europe, where it grows either in damp woods and meadows, or on dry elevated grounds. As found in these different PART I. Valeriana. 731 situations, it presents characters so distinct as to have induced some bota- nists to make two varieties. Dufresne makes four, of which three prefer marshy situations. The variety which affects a dry soil (sylvestris, L. Ph.) is not more than two feet high, and is distinguished by its narrow leaves. It is superior to the others in medicinal virtue. The root, which is the officinal portion, is collected in spring before the stem begins to shoot, or in the autumn when the leaves decay. It should be dried quickly, and kept in a dry place. It consists of numerous, long, slender, cylindrical fibres, issuing from a tuberculated head or rhizoma. As brought to this country it frequently has portions of the stem attached. The best comes from England. Properties. The colour of the root is externally yellowish or brown, in- ternally white. The powder is yellowish-gray. The odour, which in the fresh root is slight, in the dried is strong and highly characteristic, and, though rather pleasant to many persons, is very disagreeable to others. Cats are said to be strongly attracted by it. The taste is at first sweetish, afterwards bitter and aromatic. Valerian yields its active properties to water and alcohol. Trommsdorff found it to consist of 1*2 parts of volatile oil; 12*5 of a peculiar extractive matter, soluble in water, insoluble in ether and alcohol, and precipitated by metallic solutions; 18*75 of gum; 6*25 of a soft odorous resin ; and 63 of lignin. Of these constituents the most im- portant is the essential oil, in which the virtues of the root chiefly reside. It is of a pale greenish colour, of the sp.gr. 0*934, with a pungent odour of valerian, and an aromatic taste. It becomes yellow and viscid by ex- posure. Trommsdorff ascertained that it contains a peculiar volatile acid, upon which the name of valerianic acid has been conferred. This, when separated from the oil, is a colourless liquid, of an oleaginous consistence, having an odour analogous to that of valerian, and a very strong, sour, dis- agreeable taste. It is soluble in thirty parts of water, and in all proportions in ether and alcohol. It combines with salifiable bases, forming soluble salts, which retain, in a diminished degree, the odour of the acid. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 316.) Valerianic acid is obtained by distilling the impure oil from carbonate of magnesia, decomposing by sulphuric acid the valeri- anate of magnesia which remains, and again distilling. M. Rabourdin, of Orleans, has ascertained that a large proportion of the valerianic acid remains fixed in the root by union with a base, and does not come over by distillation alone. To procure it he adds sulphuric acid to the root with a sufficient quantity of water, distils, separates the oil, saturates the liquor with carbonate of soda, evaporates, adds a slight excess of sulphuric acid, and again distils. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser., vi. 310.) The following process by Messrs. T. and H. Smith, of Edinburgh, avoids the inconvenience of distilling so bulky a root as valerian, while it answers the same purpose as that of M. Rabourdin. Boil the root for three or four hours with rather more than its bulk of water, in which an ounce of car- bonate of soda is dissolved for every pound of the root, replacing the water as it evaporates. Express strongly, and boil the residuum twice with the same quantity of water, expressing each time as before. Mix the liquids, add two fluidrachms of strong sulphuric acid for every pound of the root, and distil till three-fourths of the liquid have passed over. Neutralize this with carbonate of soda, concentrate the liquid, decompose the valerianate of soda contained in it by sulphuric acid, and separate the valerianic acid now set free, either by a separatory, or by distillation. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 253.) A similar process was also proposed by Mr. Procter, of Philadelphia. (Ibid., xvii. 3.) 732 ' Valeriana.— Veratrum Album. part i. The roots of the Valeriana Phu and V. dioica axe said to be sometimes mingled with those of the officinal plant; but the adulteration is attended with no serious consequences; as, though much weaker than the genuine valerian, they possess similar properties. The same cannot be said of the roots of several of the Ranunculaceae, which, according to Ebermayer, are sometimes fraudulently substituted in Germany. They may be readily detected by their want of the peculiar odour of the officinal root. Medical Properties and Uses. Valerian is gently stimulant, with an especial direction to the nervous system, but without narcotic effect. In large doses it produces a sense of heaviness and dull pain in the head, with various other effects indicating nervous disturbance. It is useful in cases of irregular nervous action, when not connected with inflammation, or an excited condition of the system. Among the complaints in which it has been particularly recommended are hysteria, hypochondriasis, epilepsy, hemicrania, and low forms of fever attended with restlessness, morbid vigi- lance, or other nervous disorder. It has also been used in intermittents, combined with Peruvian bark. At best, however, it is an uncertain remedy. It may be given in powder or infusion. In the latter form, it is said by Professor Joerg of Leipsic, who has experimented with it, to be less apt to irritate the alimentary canal than when administered in substance. The dose of the powder is from thirty to ninety grains, repeated three or four times a day. The tincture is also officinal. As the virtues of valerian reside chiefly in the volatile oil, the medicine should not be given in decoc- tion or extract. The distilled water is used on the continent of Europe; and the volatile oil is occasionally substituted with advantage for the root. The dose of the oil is four or five drops. Off. Prep. Infusum Valerianas, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Valerianas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Valerianas Ammoniata, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. VERATRUM ALBUM. U.S. White Hellebore. "The rhizoma of Veratrum album." U. S. Off. Syn. VERATRUM. Veratrum album. Radix. Land.; VERA- TRUM. Rhizoma of Veratrum album. Ed.; VERATRUM ALBUM. Radix. Dub. Ellebore blanc, Fr.; Weisse Niesswurzel, Germ., Eleboro bianco, Ital; Veratro bianco, Span. Veratrum. Sex. Syst. Polygamia Monoecia.—Nat. Ord. Melanthaceas. Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Calyx none. Corolla six-petaled. Stamens six. Pistils three. Capsules three, many-seeded. Male, Calyx none. Co- rolla six-petaled. Stamens six. Pistils a rudiment. Willd. Botanists who reject the class Polygamia of Linnasus, place this genus in the class and order Hexandria Trigynia, with the following character. "Polygamous. Corolla six-parted, spreading, segments sessile and without glands. Stamens inserted upon the receptacle. Capsules three, united, many-seeded." Nuttall. Veratrum album. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 895; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 754. t. 257. This is an herbaceous plant, with a perennial, fleshy, fusiform root or rhizoma, yellowish-white externally, pale yellowish-gray within, and beset with long cylindrical fibres of a grayish colour, which constitute the true root. The stem is three or four feet high, thick, round, erect, and fur- rAKT I. Veratrum Jilbum. • 733 nished with alternate leaves, which are oval, acute, entire, plaited longitu- dinally, about ten inches long by five in breadth, of a yellowish-green colour, and embrace the stem at their base. The flowers are greenish, and arranged in a terminal panicle. The white hellebore is a native of the mountainous regions of continental Europe, and abounds in the Alps and Pyrenees. All parts of the plant are said to be acrid and poisonous; but the root (rhizoma) only is officinal. This is brought to us from Germany in the dried state, in pieces from one to three inches long by an inch or less in mean diameter, cylindrical or in the shape of a truncated cone, internally whitish, externally blackish, wrinkled, and rough with the remains of the fibres which have been cut off near their origin'. Sometimes the fibres continue attached to the root. They are numerous, yellowish, and of the size of a crow's quill. White hellebore deteriorates by keeping. Properties. The fresh root has a disagreeable odour, which is lost by drying. The taste is at first sweetish, afterwards bitterish, acrid, burning, and durable. The powdered root is grayish. Analyzed by Pelletier and Caventou, white hellebore was found to contain an oily matter consisting of olein, stearin, and a volatile acid; supergallate of veratria, a yellow colour- ing matter, starch, gum, lignin, silica, and various salts of lime and potassa. The medicinal properties of the root reside in the veratria, which was first discovered in the seeds of Veratrum Sabadilla, and probably exists in other plants belonging to the same family. For an account of veratria, see Sabadilla, p. 610, and the article Veratria among the preparations. Simon believed that he had found two new vegetable alkalies in white hellebore, one of which was named barytina, from being precipitated, like baryta, from its solution in acetic or phosphoric acid by sulphuric acid or the sulphates; the other jervina, from the Spanish name for a poison obtained from the root of white hellebore. (Pereira's Mat. Med., from Pharm. Cent. Blatt., 1837, s. 191.) Medical Properties and Uses. White hellebore is a violent emetic and cathartic, capable of producing dangerous and fatal effects when incautiously administered. Even in small doses it has sometimes occasioned severe vomiting, hypercatharsis with bloody stools, and alarming symptoms of genera] prostration. Like many other acrid substances, it appears, in small doses, to be a general stimulant to the secretions. Applied externally upon a portion of the surface denuded of the cuticle, as upon ulcers, for example, it gives rise to griping pain in the bowels, and sometimes violent purging. When snuffed up the nostrils, it occasions great irritation with violent sneezing, and its use in this way is not free from danger. It was employed by the ancients in dfopsy, mania, epilepsy, leprosy, elephantiasis, and other obstinate disorders, not without occasional advantage; but the severity of its operation has led to its general abandonment as an internal remedy. It is sometimes used as an errhine, diluted with some mild powder, in cases of gutta serena and lethargic affections; and, in the shape of decoction, or of ointment prepared by mixing the pulverized root with lard, has been found beneficial as an external application in the itch, and other cutaneous erup- tions. From the resemblance of its operation to that of the eau medicinale d'Husson, so celebrated for the cure of gout, it has been conjectured to be the chief constituent of that remedy—a reputation which has also been enjoyed by colchicum. A mixture of the wine of white hellebore and the wine of opium, in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the latter, was introduced into use by Mr. Moore, of London, as a substitute for 63 734 Veratrum Album.—Veratrum Viride. part i. the eau medicinale, and has been considerably employed in gouty and rheu- matic affections. In whatever way white hellebore is used, it requires cautious management. It has been given in doses varying from one grain to a scruple. Not more than two grains should be administered at first. When employed as an errhine, it should be mixed with five or six parts of pulverized liquorice root, or other inactive powder. Ten or twelve grains of the mixture may be snuffed up the nostrils at one time. Veratria acts in a similar manner with the white hellebore, but is much more powerful. From one-twelfth to one- sixth of a grain may be given in the form of pill or alcoholic solution, and repeated three or four times in the twenty-four hours, till it nauseates or purges. For an account of its practical applications the reader is referred to Veratria, among the Preparations, in the second part of this work. Off. Prep. Decoctum Veratri, Lond., Dub.; Unguentum Sulphuris Com- positum, Lond.; Unguentum Veratri Albi, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Vinum Veratri Albi, U. S., Lond. W. VERATRUM VIRIDE. U.S. American Hellebore. "The rhizoma of Veratrum viride." U. S. Veratrum. See VERATRUM ALBUM. Veratrum viride. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 896; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 121. The American hellebore, known also by the names of Indian poke, poke root, and swamp hellebore, has a perennial, thick, fleshy root or rhi- zoma, the upper portion of which is tunicated, the lower solid, and beset with numerous whitish fibres or radicles. The stem is annual, round, striated, pubescent, and solid, from three to six feet in height, furnished with green bright leaves, and terminating in a panicle of greenish-yellow flowers. The leaves gradually decrease in size as they ascend. The lower are from six inches to a foot long, oval, acuminate, plaited, nerved, and pubes- cent; and embrace the stem at their base, thus affording it a sheath for a considerable portion of its length. Those on the upper part of the stem, at the origin of the flowering branches, are oblong lanceolate. The panicle consists of numerous flowers, distributed in racemes with downy peduncles. Each flower is accompanied with a downy pointed bracte, much longer than its pedicel. There is no calyx, and the corolla is divided into six oval acute segments, thickened on the inside at their base, with the three alternate seg- ments longer than the others. The six stamens have recurved filaments, and roundish two-lobed anthers. The germs are three, with recurved styles as long as the stamens. Some of the flowers have only the rudiments of pistils. Those on the upper end of the branchlets are barren, those on the lower portion fruitful. The fruit consists of three cohering capsules, sepa- rating at top, opening on the inner side, and containing flat imbricated seeds. This indigenous species of Veratrum is found from Canada to Carolina, inhabiting swamps, wet meadows, and the banks of mountain streamlets. Early in the spring, before the stem rises, it bears a slight resemblance to the Symplocarpus foetidus, with which it is very frequently associated; but the latter sends forth no stem. From May to July is the season for flower- ing. The root should be collected in autumn, and should not be kept longer than one year, as it deteriorates by time. The root of the American hellebore has a bitter acrid-taste, leaving a per- manent impression in the mouth and fauces. In sensible properties it bears part i. Veratrum Viride.— Verbascum Thapsus. 735 a close resemblance to white hellebore; and from this circumstance, as well as from the strong botanical affinity of the two plants, it is highly probable that it contains veratria. The experiments of Mr. Mitchell and Mr. Worth- ington, of Philadelphia, go to strengthen this probability. (See Amer. Journ. of Pharm. ix. 181. and x. 89.) Medical Properties and Uses. American hellebore resembles its European congener in its effects upon the system, though asserted by Dr. Osgood to be wholly destitute of cathartic properties. In addition to its emetic action, which is often violent and long Continued, it is said to increase most of the secretions, and, when freely taken, to exercise a powerful influence over the nervous system, indicated by faintness, somnolency, vertigo, headache, dim- ness of vision, and dilated pupils. According to Dr. Osgood, it reduces the frequency and force of the pulse, sometimes, when taken in full doses, as low as thirty-five strokes in the minute. It may be safely substituted for the European root in most cases in which the latter is employed; and is highly recommended as a substitute for colchicum by Dr. Tully, of New Haven. Gouty, rheumatic, and neuralgic affections are those to which it appears best adapted. For an account of what may be said upon the medical properties and applications of the American hellebore, the reader is referred to a paper by Dr. Charles Osgood, of Providence, in the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, vol. xvi. p. 296. It may be used in substance, tincture, or extract. Dr. Osgood states the dose in which it will generally prove emetic at from four to six grains of the powder, one or two fluidrachms of a tincture made in the proportion of six ounces of the fresh root to a pint of alcohol, and one or two grains of an extract, made by inspissating the juice of the root. The medicine, however, should, in most cases, be given in doses insufficient to vomit. W. VERBASCUM THAPSUS. Folia. Dub. Mullein Leaves. Verhascum. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scrophula- riaceas. Gen.Ch. Calyx five -parted. Corolla rotate, five-lobed, unequal. Stamens declined, bearded. Stigma simple. Capsule two-celled, valves inflected, many-seeded. Nuttall. Verbascum Thapsus. Willd. Sp.Plant, i. 1001; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 202. t. 75. This is a biennial plant, with an erect, round, rigid, hairy stem, which rises from three to six feet in height, and is irregularly beset with large sessile, oblong or oval, somewhat pointed leaves, indented at the margin, woolly on both sides, and decurrent at the base. The flowers are yellow, and disposed in a long, close, cylindrical, terminal spike. The mullein is common throughout the United States, growing along the road-sides and in neglected fields, and springing up abundantly in newly cleared places, at the most remote distance from cultivation. It is never- theless considered by many botanists as a naturalized plant, introduced originally from Europe, where it is also abundant. It flowers from June to August. The leaves and flowers have been employed; but the former only are directed by the Dublin College. Both have a slight, somewhat narcotic smell, which in the dried flowers becomes agreeable. Their taste is mucilaginous, herbaceous, and bitterish, but very feeble. They impart their virtues to water by infusion. Medical Properties and Uses. Mullein leaves are demulcent and emol- 736 Verbascum Thapsus.— Vinum. part i. lient, and are thought to possess anodyne properties, which render them useful in pectoral complaints. On the Continent of Europe, an infusion of the flowers, strained in order to separate the rough hairs, is considerably used in mild catarrhs. Dr. Home found a decoction of the leaves useful in diarrhoea. The infusion or decoction may be prepared in the proportion of an ounce of the leaves to a pint of water, and given in the quantity of four fluidounces. The leaves are also employed externally, steeped in hot water, as a feebly anodyne emollient. An ointment is prepared from them in the recent state, and used for the same purposes. It may be made in the same manner as ointment of stramonium, by boiling the leaves in lard. It will be found advantageous to moisten them with water previously to the boiling. W. VINUM. U.S. Wine. "Sherry wine." U.S. Off. Syn. VINUM XERICUM. Lond. VINUM ALBUM. Sherry. Ed.; VINUM ALBUM HISPANUM. Dub. Yin, Fr.; Wein, Germ.; Vino, Ital, Span. Wine is the fermented juice of the grape, the fruit of the Vitis vinifera of botanists, the description of which will be found under another head. (See Uva Passa.) The juice of sweet grapes consists of a considerable quantity of grape sugar, a peculiar matter of the nature of ferment or yeast, and a small portion of extractive, tannic acid, bitartrate of potassa, tartrate of lime, common salt, and sulphate of potassa; the whole dissolved or suspended in a large quantity of water. Sour grapes contain, in addition, a peculiar acid, isomeric with the tartaric, called paratartaric acid. Grape juice, therefore, embraces all the ingredients essential to the production of the vinous fer- mentation, and requires only the influence of the atmosphere and a proper temperature to convert it into wine. The theory of the vinous fermentation, and the agency of sugar in the process have been explained under Alcohol. Preparation. Though the art of making wine varies in different countries, yet it is regulated by general rules which require to be observed. When the grapes are ripe, they are gathered, and trodden under foot in wooden vessels with perforated bottoms, through which the juice, called the must, runs into a vat placed beneath. The temperature of the air being about 60°, the fermentation gradually takes place in the must, and becomes fully established after a longer or shorter period. In the mean time, the must becomes sensibly warmer, and emits a large quantity of carbonic acid, which, creating a kind of effervescence, causes the more solid parts to be thrown to the surface in a mass of froth having a hemispherical shape called the head. The liquor from being sweet, becomes vinous, and assumes a deep red colour if the product of red grapes. After a while the fermentation slackens, when it becomes necessary to accelerate it by thoroughly mixing the contents of the vat. When the liquor has acquired a strong vinous taste, and become perfectly clear, the wine is considered formed, and is racked off into casks. But even at this stage of the process the fermenta- tion is not completed, but continues for several months longer. During the whole of this period, a frothy matter is formed, which for the first few days collects round the bung, but afterwards precipitates along with colouring matter and tartar, forming a deposit which constitutes the wine-lees. Division and Nomenclature. Wines, according to their colour, are PART I. Vinum. 737 divided into the red and white; and, according to their taste and other quali- ties, are either spirituous, sweet, dry, light, sparkling, still, rough, or acidu- lous. Red wines axe derived from the must of black grapes, fermented with their husks; white wines, from white grapes, or from the juice of black grapes fermented apart from their skins. The other qualities of wines, above enu- merated, depend on the relative proportions of the constituents of the must, and on the mode in which the fermentation is conducted. The essential ingredients.of the must as a fermentable liquid are water, sugar, and a fer- ment. If the juice be very saccharine, and contain sufficient ferment to sustain the fermentation, the conversion of the sugar into alcohol will pro- ceed until checked by the production of a certain amount of the latter, and there will be formed a spirituous or generous wine. If, while the juice is highly saccharine, the ferment be deficient in quantity, the production of alcohol will be less, and the redundancy of sugar proportionably greater, and a sweet wine will be formed. When the sugar and ferment are in considera- ble amount, and in the proper relative proportions for mutual decomposi- tion, the wine will be strong bodied and sound, without any sweetness or acidity, and of the kind called dry. A small proportion of sugar can give rise only to a small proportion of alcohol, and consequently the less saccharine grapes will generate a comparatively weak, or light wine, which will be sound and stable in its constitution, in case the ferment is not in excess, but otherwise liable to pass into the acetous fermentation and become acescent. In case the wine is bottled before the fermentation is fully completed, the process will proceed slowly in the bottles, and the carbonic acid generated, not having vent, will impregnate the wine, and render it effervescing and sparkling. The rough or astringent wines owe their flavour to a portion of tannic acid derived from the husks of the grape; and the acidulous wines, to the presence of carbonic acid or an unusual proportion of tartar. Several of the above qualities often co-exist. Thus a wine may be spirituous and sweet, spirituous and rough, rough and sweet, light and sparkling, &c. Wines are made in many countries, and are known in commerce by various names, according to their source. Thus, Portugal produces port and lisbon ; Spain, sherry, saint lucar, malaga, and tent; France, champagne, burgundy, hermitage, vin de Grave, sauterne, and claret; Germany, hock and moselle; Hungary, tokay; Sicily, marsala or Sicily madeira, and lissa; the Cape of Good Hope, constantia; Madeira and the Canaries, madeira and teneriffe. In the United States, a small quantity of wine is made, for the most part of inferior quality. The best is manufactured near Vevay, a Swiss settlement on the banks of the Ohio. The consumption of this coun- try is accordingly supplied almost entirely from abroad; and the wines most extensively imported are madeira, teneriffe, sherry, and port, and the claret wines of France. Properties. Wine, considered as the name of a class, may be charac- terized as a spirituous liquid, the result of the fermentation of grape-juice, and containing colouring matter, and some other substances, which are either combined or intimately blended with the spirit. All its other qualities vary with the nature of each particular wine. It will not be necessary to describe all the wines that have been enumerated; but only such as are commonly used for medicinal purposes. Under this denomination may be included the officinal wine sherry, together with madeira, teneriffe, port, and claret. Sherry is of a deep-amber colour, and when good possesses a dry aro- matic flavour and fragrancy, without any acidity. It ranks among the stronger white wines, and contains between 19 and 20 per cent, by measure of alcohol of sp. gr. 0-825. The United States and British Pharmacopoeias 63* 738 Vinum. PART I. now agree in indicating it as the officinal wine. It is prepared in the vici- nity of Xeres in Spain, and hence its English name sherry. This wine is supposed to have been the sack of Shakspeare, so called from the word sec (dry), in allusion to its being a dry wine. Its dryness, or freedom from aciaity, is said to arise from the use of lime in its manufacture. Madeira is the strongest of the white wines in general use. It is a slightly acid wine, and, when of proper age and in good condition, has a rich, nutty, aromatic flavour. As it occurs in the market, however, it is of very variable quality, on account both of the less care taken in its manu- facture than formerly, and of the adulterations and mixtures to which it is subjected after importation. The madeira consumed in this country is generally better than that used in England; its adulteration being practised to a less extent with us, and our climate being more favourable to the im- provement of the wine. Teneriffe is a white wine, of a slightly acid taste, and, when of good quality, of a fine aromatic flavour. Its average strength is about the same as that of sherry. It is made from the same grape as madeira, to which it bears a close resemblance. Port is of a deep-purple colour, and, in its new state, is a rough, strong, and slightly sweet wine. When kept a certain length of time in bottles, it deposits a considerable portion of its astringent matter, loses the greater part of its sweetness, acquires more flavour, and retains its strength. If too long kept, it deposits the whole of its astringent and colouring matter, and becomes deteriorated. Considerable quantities of brandy are usually added to it, which causes its heating quality on the palate. It is the strongest of the wines in common use. Claret, called in France vin de Bordeaux, is also a red wine, and from its moderate strength is ranked as alight wine. It has a deep-purple colour, and, when good, a delicate taste, in which the vinous flavour is blended with slight acidity and astringency. The most esteemed kinds are the Medoc clarets, called Chateau-Lafite, Chateau-Margaux, and Chdteau-Latour. Another celebrated variety is the Chateau-Haut Brion of the Pays de Grave. Claret is the variety of French wine most extensively consumed in the United States. It is made in large quantities in the country around Bordeaux, from which port it is shipped. Adulterations. Wines are very frequently adulterated, and counterfeit mixtures are often palmed upon the public as genuine wine. Formerly the wine dealers were in the habit of putting litharge into wines that had be- come acescent. The oxide of lead formed with the acetic acid acetate of lead, which, being sweet, corrected the defect of the wine, but at the same time rendered it poisonous. At the present day, however, this criminal practice is wholly abandoned. The adulteration is readily detected by sul- phuretted hydrogen, which causes a black and flocculent precipitate. Mr. Brande assures us that, among the numerous samples of wine of suspected purity which he had examined, he had not found one containing any poison- ous ingredient fraudulently introduced. Lead, in minute quantity, according to this writer, may often be detected in wines; but it is derived invariably from shot in the bottle, or some analogous source. Spurious mixtures, frequently containing very little of the fermented juice of the grape, which are sold for particular wines, may not be poisonous; but are, notwithstand- ing, highly pernicious in their effects upon the stomach, and always pro- duce mischief and disappointment, when depended on as therapeutic agents. The wines most frequently imitated are port and madeira; and cider is generally the chief ingredient in the spurious mixtures. English port is PART I. Vinum. 739 sometimes made of a small portion of real port mixed with cider, juice of elder berries, and brandy, coloured and rendered astringent with logwood and alum. In the United States, of latter years, the cheapness of genuine wines has left little motive for manufacturing these factitious imitations. Composition. Wines consist mainly of water and alcohol. They con- tain, besides, sugar, gum, extractive, colouring matter, tannic, malic, and carbonic acids, bitartrate of potassa (tartar), tartrate of lime, volatile oil, and oenanthic ether. The volatile oil has never been isolated, but is supposed to be the cause of the delicate flavour and odour of wine, called the bou- quet. GEnanthic ether (oenanthate of ether, oenanthate of oxide of ethyle), was discovered by Pelouze and Liebig. It is obtained towards the end of the distillation of wine on the great scale for making brandy. It forms only about one ten-thousandth part of the wine. It is a mobile, oily, colourless liquid, having the peculiar unpleasant smell which is perceived in a bottle which has contained wine. Its sp. gr. is 0*862, and boiling point 435°. Its formula is C^H^O =Cl4H13Oa (oenanthic acid) -f C4H50 (ether). (Enanthic ether must not be confounded with the volatile oil upon which the bouquet of wine is supposed to depend. The other ingredients of wine, above enu- merated, are not to be supposed present in every wine. Thus, sugar is present in sweet wines, tannic acid in rough wines, and carbonic acid in those that effervesce. Malic acid exists in minute proportion in some wines, and is absent in others. The different kinds of wine derive their various qualities from the mode of fermentation, the nature of the grape, and the soil and climate in which it may have grown. The alcohol in pure wine is that which results from the vinous fermentation, and is inti- mately united with the other ingredients of the liquor; but with almost all the wines of commerce a portion of brandy is mixed, the state of union of which is probably different from that of the natural alcohol of the wine. By the custom-house regulations in England, ten per cent, of brandy may be added to wines after importation; but to good wines not more than four or five per cent, is added. The intoxicating ingredient in all wines is the alcohol which they con- tain ; and hence their relative strength depends upon the quantity of this substance entering into their composition. The alcohol, however, naturally in wine, is so blended with its other constituents, as to be in a modified state, which renders it less intoxicating and less injurious than the same quantity of alcohol, separated by distillation and diluted with Water. Mr. Brande published in 1811 a very interesting table, giving the per centage by measure of alcohol of sp.gr. 0*825 in different kinds of wine. Similar tables have since been published by M. Julia-Fontenelle, and by Dr. Chris- tison. An abstract of their results is given in the following table, the proof spirit of Dr. Christison's table (0*920) being reduced, for the sake of com- parison, to the standard of 0*825, the density of the spirit adopted by Mr. Brande. The results of Julia-Fontenelle are distinguished by the letter J.; those of Dr. Christison by the letter C. The rest are Mr. Brande's. Table of the Proportion by Measure of Alcohol (sp. gr. 0*825) contained in 100 parts of different Wines. Port, mean - - - 22*96 Lissa, (mean) - - 25*41 Raisin wine, (mean) 25*12 Marsala, [Sicily madeira] (meanj - - - 25-09 Port, strongest - - 25*83 weakest - - - 19-00 strongest (C.) - - 20-49 mean(C) - - 18-68 weakest (C.) - - 16-80 740 • Vinum. PART I. White port, (C.) . - - 17-22 Madeira, strongest - - 24-42 mean - .- - 22*27 weakest - - - 19-24 strongest (C.) - - 20-35 Sercial madeira - - 21-40 Ditto (C.) - - - 18-50 Sherry, strongest - - 19*81 mean ... 19*17 weakest -. - - 18*25 strongest (C.) - - 19*31 mean(C) - - 18*47 weakest (C.) - - 16*96 Amontillado (C.) - 15*18 Teneriffe - - - 19*79 Ditto (C.) - - - 16-61 Colares - 19*75 Lachryma Christi - - 19*70 White constantia - - 19*75 Red constantia - - 18*92 Lisbon --- - 18*94 Ditto (C.) - - - 19*09 Bucellas - - - 18*49 Red madeira (mean) - 20-35 Cape muschat - - 18-25 Cape madeira (mean) - 20-51 Grape wine - - - 18-11 Calcavella (mean) - - 18-65 Vidonia - - - - 19*25 Alba flora - - - 17-26 Zante - 17*05 Malaga - 17*26 White hermitage - - 17*43 Rousillon (mean) - - IS-13 Claret, strongest - - 17*11 mean ... 15*10 weakest - 12*91 ditto (J.) - - - 14*73 vin ordinaire (C.) - 10*42 Chateau-Latour, 1825, (C.) 9*38 first growth, 1811, (C.) 9*32 Malmsey madeira - - 16-40 Ditto (C.) - - - 15*60 Lunel - - - - 15*52 Ditto (J.) - - - 18*10 Sheraaz ... 15*52 Ditto (C.) - - .- 15*56 Syracuse ... 15-2N Sauterne - - - 14*22 Burgundy (mean) - - 14*57 Hock (mean) - - - 12-08 Nice - 14*63 Barsac - 13-86 Tent - - - - 13-30 Champagne (mean) - 12-61 Ditto (J.) - - - 12-20 Red hermitage - - 12*32 Vin de Grave (mean) - 13-37 Frontignac (Rives Altes) - 12-79 Ditto (J.) - - - 21-80 Ditto (C.) - - - 12*29 Cote rotie - - - 1232 Tokay - - - - 9-88 Rudesheimer, first qual.,(C.) 10-14 inferior, (C.) - - 8-35 HambaGher, first quality, (C.) 8*88 Dr. Christison considers it a mistake to suppose that wines become stronger by being kept a long time in cask. His experiments appear to prove the reverse. While, however, the wine is not rendered more alco- holic by age, its flavour is improved, and its body or apparent strength is increased. Besides the grape, a number of other fruits yield a juice susceptible of the vinous fermentation. The infusion of malt, also, is capable of. under- going this process, and becomes Converted into the different kinds of porter and ale. The product in all these cases, though not commonly called a wine, is nevertheless a vinous liquor, and may be classed among the wines properly so called. The following is a list of these vinous liquors, together with the per centage of alcohol which they contain, as ascertained,by Mr. Brande: — Currant wine, 20-55; gooseberry wine, 11-84; orange-wine, 11-26; elder wine,8*79; cider, from 5*21 to 9*87; perry,7*26; mead,7-32; Burton ale, 8*88; Edinburgh ale, 6-20; brown stout, 6-80; London porter, 4-20; small beer, 1*28. According to L. Hoffmann, Burton ale consists, in the 100 parts, of carbonic acid 0*04, absolute alcohol 6*62, extract of malt 14-97, and water 78-37; and pale ale, of carbonic acid 0-07, absolute alco- hol 5-57, extract of malt 4-62, and water 89-74. (Chem. Gaz., No. 80. p. 78.) PART I. Vinum. 741 Medical Properties and Uses. Wine is consumed in most civilized countries; but in a state of health it is at least useless, if not absolutely per- nicious. The degree of mischief which it produces depends very much on the character of the wine. Thus the light wines of France are com- paratively harmless; while the habitual use of the stronger ones, such as port, madeira, sherry, &c, even though taken in moderation, is always in- jurious, as having a tendency to induce gout and apoplexy, and other diseases dependent on plethora and over-stimulation. All wines, however, when used habitually in excess, are productive of bad consequences. They weaken the stomach, produce disease of the liver, and give rise to dropsy, gout, apoplexy, tremors, and not unfrequently mania. Nevertheless, wine is an important medicine, productive of the best effects in certain diseases and states of the system. As an article of the materia medica, it ranks as a stimulant and antispasmodic. In the convalescence from protracted fever, and in sinking of the vital powers, it is frequently the best remedy that can be employed. In certain stages of typhoid fevers, and in extensive ulceration and gangrene, this remedy, either alone, or conjoined with bark and opium, is often our main dependence. In low febrile affections, if it increase the fulness and lessen the frequency of the pulse, mitigate delirium, and produce a tendency to sleep, its further use may be deemed proper; but, on the contrary, if it render the pulse quicker, augment the heat and thirst, produce restlessness, or increase delirium, it should be immediately laid aside as injurious. In some convulsive diseases, as for example teta- nus, wine, liberally given, has been found useful. Wine, when used medicinally, should be sound, and good of its kind; for otherwise it will disagree with the stomach, and prove rather detrimental than useful. The individual wine selected for internal exhibition must be determined by the nature of the disease, and the particular object in view. Sherry, when in good condition, is a fine wine, and being free from all acid, is to be preferred whenever the stomach is delicate, or has a tendency to dyspeptic acidity. Unfortunately, however, it is of very unequal quality. Good madeira is the most generous of the white wines, particularly adapted to the purpose of resuscitating debilitated constitutions, and of sustaining the sinking energies of the system in old age. The slight acidity, however, of pure madeira causes it to disagree with some stomachs, and renders it an improper wine for gouty persons. Teneriffe is a good variety of white wine for medicinal use, being of about a medium strength, and agreeing very well with most stomachs. Port is generally used in cases of pure debility, especially when attended with a loose state of the bowels, unaccompanied by inflammation. In such cases, it often acts as a powerful tonic as well as stimulant, giving increased activity to all the functions, especially digestion. Claret is much less heating, and is often useful on account of its aperient and diuretic qualities. All the acid and acidulous wines are contra-indicated in the gouty and uric acid diatheses; as they are very apt to convert the existing predisposition into disease. They are useful, however, in what is called the phosphatic diathesis, their acidity tending to prevent the deposition of the earthy phos- phates. The quantity of wine which may be given with advantage in disease is necessarily very variable. In low fevers, it may be administered to the ex- tent of a bottle or more in twenty-four hours, either pure, or in the form of wine-whey. This is made by adding to a pint of boiling milk from a gill to half a pint of wine, straining without pressure to separate the curd which is formed, and sweetening the clear whey with loaf sugar. Wine-whey forms 742 Vinum.— Viola. PART I. a peculiarly safe and grateful stimulus in typhoid fevers and other febrile affections, which, after depletion, may tend to a state of deficient action, and be accompanied with a dry skin. Under these circumstances, it often acts as a diaphoretic, and, if used of moderate strength, without stimulating the system injuriously. Pharmaceutical Uses. Wine is employed as a menstruum to extract the virtues of several plants, and the preparations thus formed are called vinous tinctures or medicated wines. Tartar emetic is the only mineral substance prepared in a similar manner. (See Vinum Antimonii.) For the peculiar powers of wine as a menstruum for medicinal substances, see Vina Medi- cata. B. VIOLA. U. S. Secondary. Violet. « The herb of Viola pedata." U. S. VIOLA ODORATA. Flores. Dub. Flowers of the Sweet Violet. Off. Syn. VIOLA. Flowers of Viola odorata. Ed. Violette odorante, Fr.; Wohlriechendes Veilchen, Germ.; Violetta, Ital; Violeta, Span. Viola. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Violaceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Corolla five-petalled, irregular, horned at the back. Anthers cohering. Capsule superior, three-valved, one celled. This genus includes numerous species, of which, though perhaps all or nearly all are possessed of analogous properties, two only are recognised as officinal, the V. odorata, by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, and the V. pedata, by our National Pharmacopoeia. The V. ovata, an indigenous species, has been recommended as a remedy for the bite of the rattle-snake. (See a paper by Dr. Williams in the Am. Journ. of the Med. Scien., xiii. 310.) Viola odorata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1163; Woodv. Med. Bot, p. 251. t. 89. This is a small, pretty, creeping plant, the runners of which are fur- nished with fibrous roots, and send up annually tufts of leaves and flowers. The leaves are heart-shaped, crenate, and supported on long petioles. The flowers are at the summit of delicate, quadrangular, channeled, radical peduncles. The leaves of the calyx are shorter than the petals, which are obovate, obtuse, unequal, and of a bluish-purple or deep-violet colour, except at the claws, which are whitish. The two lateral petals are spreading and bearded towards the base, the inferior furnished with a large spur, and the two upper reflected. In the centre are the stamens with very short filaments, and anthers slightly cohering by an orange-coloured membranous expansion. The sweet violet is a native of Europe, growing in woods, hedges, and other shady places. It is cultivated in gardens both for its beauty and for medical use; and has been introduced into this country. It is valued chiefly for its flowers, which appear in April and May. The flowers of this species of violet, besides their beautiful colour, have a peculiar agreeable odour, and a very slightly bitter taste. These proper- ties they yield to boiling water; and their infusion affords a very delicate test for acids and alkalies, being reddened by the former, and rendered green by the latter. Their odour is destroyed by desiccation; and the degree to PART I. Viola. 743 which they retain their fine colour, depends upon the care used in collect- ing and drying them. They should be gathered before being fully blown, deprived of their calyx, and rapidly dried, either in a heated room, or by exposing them to a current of very dry air. The flowers of other species are often mingled with them, and, if of the same colour, are equally useful as a chemical test. In the root, leaves, flowers, and seeds of the V. odorata, M. Boulay dis- covered a peculiar alkaline principle, bearing some resemblance to emetia, but possessing distinct properties. He called it violine; but violia is its proper title, in accordance with the nomenclature adopted in this work. It is white, soluble in alcohol, scarcely soluble in water, and forms salts with the acids. It exists in the plant combined with malic acid, and may be obtained by treating with distilled water the alcoholic extract of the dried root, decomposing by means of magnesia the malate of violia contained in the solution, and extracting the alkali from the precipitated matters by al- cohol, which yields it on evaporation. To obtain it entirely pure, a more complicated process is necessary. Orfila has ascertained that it is exceed- ingly active and even poisonous. It is probably contained in most of the other species of Viola. Viola pedata. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1160. Curtis, Bot. Mag. 89. This is an indigenous species, without stems, glabrous, with many parted often pedate leaves, the segments of which are linear lanceolate, obtuse, and nearly entire. The flowers are large and of a beautiful blue colour, often more or less variegated. The divisions of the calyx are linear and acute. The stigma is large, compressed at the sides, obliquely truncate and per- forate at the apex. The plant grows in dry sandy hills and fields, and rocky woods, from New England to Carolina, and flowers in May and June. Medical Properties, tyc. of the Violets. The herbaceous parts of differ- ent species of violet are mucilaginous, emollient, and slightly laxative; and have been used in pectoral, nephritic, and cutaneous affections. Much was formerly thought of the Viola tricolor, or pansy, as a remedy in the crusta lactea. A decoction in milk of a handful of the fresh, or half a drachm of the dried herb, was taken morning and evening, and a poultice made with the same decoction was applied to the affected part. Cures in numerous instances are said to have been effected by this treatment persevered in for some time. Our own Viola pedata is considered a useful expectorant and demulcent in pectoral complaints. (Bigelow.) In Europe, a syrup prepared from the fresh flowers of the Viola odorata is much employed as an addition to demulcent drinks, and as a laxative for infants. (See Syrupus Violae.) The seeds were formerly considered useful in gravel, but are not now employed. The root, which has a bitter, nauseous, slightly acrid taste, acts in the dose of thirty grains or a drachm as an emetic and cathartic. It is probable that the same property is possessed by the roots of all the violets, as it is known to be by several species of Ionidium, which belong to the same natural family. The existence in small propor- tion of the emetic principle, upon which the powers of the root probably depend, in the leaves and flowers, accounts for the expectorant properties long attributed to these parts of the plant. W. Off. Prep. Syrupus Violas, Ed. 744 Winter a. PART I. WINTERA. U.S. Secondary. Winter's Bark. " The bark of Wintera aromatica—Drymis Winteri (De Candolle)." US Off Syn. WINTERA AROMATICA. DRYMIS AROxMATICA. Cortex. Dub. Ecorce de Winter, Fr.; Wintersche Rinde, Germ.; Corteccia Vinterana, Ital; Corteza Winterana, Span. . Drymis. Sex. Syst. Polyandria Tetragynia.—Nat. Ord. Magnoliaceae, Juss.; Winteraceas, IAndley. Gen. Ch. Calyx with two or three deep divisions. Corolla with two or three petals, sometimes more numerous. Stamens with the filaments thick- ened at the summit, and anthers having two separate cells. Ovaries from four to eight, changing into the same number of small, many-seeded berries. A. Richard. Drymis Winteri. De Cand. Prod. ii. 78 ; Foster, Gen. p. 84. t. 42.— Wintera aromatica. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1239; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 647. t. 226. This is an evergreen tree, varying very much in size, sometimes rising forty or fifty feet in height, sometimes not more than six or eight feet. The bark of the trunk is gray, that of the branches green and smooth. Its leaves are alternate, petiolate, oblong, obtuse, somewhat coriaceous, entirely smooth, green on their upper surface, of a pale bluish colour beneath, with two caducous stipules at their base. The flowers are small, sometimes soli- tary, but more frequently in clusters of three or four, upon the summit of a common peduncle about an inch in length, simple, or divided into as many pedicels as there are flowers. The tree is a native of the southern part of South America, growing along the Straits of Magellan, and extending as far north as Chili. According to Martius it is.found also in Brazil. The bark of the tree was brought to England, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, by Captain Winter, who attended Drake in his voyage round the world, and while in the Straits had learned its aromatic and medicinal properties. Since that period it has been occasionally employed in medicine. It is in quilled pieces, usually a foot in length, and an inch or more in diameter, appearing as if scraped or rubbed on the outside, where the colour is pale yellowish or reddish-gray, with red elliptical spots. On the inside the colour is that of cinnamon, though sometimes blackish. The pieces are sometimes flat and very large. The bark is two or three lines in thickness, hard and compact, and when broken exhibits on the exterior part of the fracture a grayish colour, which insensibly passes into reddish or yellowish towards the interior. The powder resembles in colour that of Peruvian bark. The odour is aromatic, the taste spicy, pungent, and even burning. Winter's bark Avas found by M. Henry to contain resin, volatile oil, co- louring matter, tannic acid, several salts of potassa, malate of lime, and oxidized iron. The presence of tannic acid and oxide of iron serves to distinguish it essentially from the canella alba, with which it is often con- founded. Medical Properties and Uses. It is a stimulant aromatic tonic, and was employed by Winter as a remedy for scurvy. It may be used for simi- lar purposes with cinnamon or canella alba, but is scarcely known in the medical practice of this country. The dose of the powder is about half a drachm. W. part i. Xanthorrhiza.—Xanthoxylum. 745 XANTHORRHIZA. U. S. Secondary. Yellow-root. " The root of Xanthorrhiza apiifolia." U. S. Xanthorrhiza. Sex. Syst. Pentandria Polygynia.—Nat. Ord. Ranuncu- laceas. Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five. Nectaries five, pedicelled. Capsules five to eight, one-seeded, semibivalve. Nuttall. Xanthorrhiza apiifolia. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1568; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 203.—X. tinctoria. Woodhouse, N. Y. Med. Repos. vol. v. This is an indigenous shrub, two or three feet in height, with a horizontal root, which sends off numerous suckers. The stem is simple, rather thicker than a goose-quill, with a smooth bark, and bright yellow wood. The leaves, which stand thickly at the upper part of the stem, are compound, consist- ing of several ovate lanceolate, acute, doubly serrate leaflets, sessile upon a long petiole, which embraces the stem at its base. The flowers are small, purple, and disposed in long, drooping, divided racemes, placed immediately below the first leaves. The nectaries are obovate and bilobed, the styles usually about six or eight in number. The yellow-root grows in the interior of the Southern, and in the Western States. Nuttall says that it is abundant on the banks of the Ohio. It flowers in April. The root is the part directed by the Pharmacopoeia; but the bark of the stem possesses the same virtues. The root is from three inches to a foot in length, about half an inch in thickness, of a yellow colour, and of a simple but extremely bitter taste. It imparts its colour and taste to water. The infusion is not affected by a solu- tion of the sulphate of iron. By the late Professor Barton the bark of the root was considered more bitter than its ligneous portion. Medical Properties and Uses. Xanthorrhiza possesses properties closely analogous to those of columbo, quassia, and the other simple tonic bitters ; and may be used for the same purposes, and in the same manner. Dr. Woodhouse employed it in the dose of two scruples, and found it to lie easily upon the stomach. W. XANTHOXYLUM. U. S. Secondary. Prickly Ash. " The bark of Xanthoxylum fraxineum." U. S. Xanthoxylum. Sex. Syst. Dioecia Pentandria.—Nat. Ord. Terebintaceas, Juss.; Xanthoxylaceas, Lindley. Gen.Ch. Male. Calyx five-parted. Corolla none. Female. Calyx five- parted. Corolla none. Pistils five. Capsules five, one-seeded. Willd. Xanthoxylum fraxineum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv.757; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 156. The prickly ash is a shrub from five to ten feet in height, with alternate branches, which are covered with strong, sharp, scattered prickles. The leaves are alternate and pinnate, consisting of four or five pairs of leaflets, and an odd terminal one, with a common footstalk, which is sometimes prickly on the back, and sometimes unarmed. The leaflets are nearly sessile, ovate, acute, slightly serrate, and somewhat downy on their under surface. The flowers, which are small and greenish, are dis- posed in sessile umbels near the origin of the young shoots. The plant is 64 746 Xanthoxylum.—Zincum. PART I. polygamous, some shrubs bearing both male and perfect flowers, others only female. The number of stamens is five, of the pistils three or four in the perfect flowers, about five in the pistillate. Each fruitful flower is fol- lowed by as many capsules as it had germs. These capsules are stipitate, oval, punctate, of a greenish-red colour, with two valves, and one oval blacldsh seed. This species of Xanthoxylum is indigenous, growing in woods and in moist shady places, throughout the Northern, Middle, and Western States. The flowers appear in April and May, before the foliage. The leaves and capsules have an aromatic odour recalling that of the oil of lemons. The bark is the officinal portion. This, as found in the shops, is in pieces more or less quilled, from one to two lines in thickness, of a whitish colour, internally somewhat shining, with an ash-coloured epidermis, which in some specimens is partially or wholly removed, and in those derived from the small branches is armed with strong prickles. The bark is very light, brittle, of a farinaceous frac- ture, nearly or quite inodorous, and of a taste which is at first sweetish and slightly aromatic, then bitterish, and ultimately acrid. The acrimony is imparted to boiling water and alcohol, which extract the virtues of the bark. Its constituents, according to Dr. Staples, besides fibrous substance, are vola- tile oil, a greenish fixed oil, resin, gum, colouring matter, and a peculiar crystallizable principle which he calls xanthoxylin, but of which the pro- perties are not designated. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., i. 165.) Dr. Bigelow states that the Aralia spinosa, or angelica tree, which grows in the Southern States, is occasionally confounded with the X. fraxineum, in consequence, partly, of being sometimes called like the latter prickly ash. Its bark, however, in appearance and flavour, is entirely different from the xanthoxylum. Medical Properties and Uses. Xanthoxylum is stimulant, producing when swallowed a sense of heat in the stomach, with more or less general arterial excitement, and a tendency to diaphoresis. It is thought to resem- ble mezereon and guaiac in its remedial action, and is given in the same complaints. As- a remedy in chronic rheumatism, it enjoys considerable reputation in this country. The dose of the powder is from ten grains to half a drachm, to be repeated three or four times a day. A decoction pre- pared by boiling an ounce in three pints of water down to a quart, may be given in the quantity of a pint, in divided doses, during the twenty-four hours. The powder has sometimes been employed as a topical irritant, and the bark is a popular remedy for toothache. W. ZINCUM. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Zinc. Speltre; Zinc, Fr.; Zink, Germ.: Zinco, Ital, Span. Zinc occurs native in two principal states; as a sulphuret, called blende, and as a carbonate or silicate, denominated calamine. It is found in various parts of the world, but most abundantly in Germany, from which country the United States are principally supplied. The metal is extracted generally from calamine. This is roasted and mixed with charcoal powder, and the mixture heated in iron cylinders placed horizontally over a furnace. When the reduction of the zinc commences, iron receivers are adapted to the open- ing of the cylinder to receive the volatihzed metal as it condenses. The PART I. Zincum. 747 metal is then melted and run into moulds, and forms speltre, or the zinc of commerce. In this state it contains iron, and traces of lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper, sulphur, and charcoal. To purify it from these substances, it must be subjected to a second distillation in a crucible, furnished with a tube passing through its bottom and open at both ends; its upper extremity reaching a little more than halfway up the interior of the crucible, and its lower end terminating above a vessel of water. The impure zinc being placed in the crucible, the cover luted on, and the fire applied, the pure zinc is volatilized, and, passing down the tube by a descending distillation, condenses in the water below. Properties. Zinc has a bluish-white colour, a peculiar taste, and a percep- tible smell when rubbed. Its texture is laminated, and its fracture crystalline. Its malleability and ductility are not very great. When perfectly pure, it may be reduced to thin leaves at ordinary temperatures; but the zinc of commerce requires to be heated to a temperature between 212° and 300° to render it sufficiently laminable to be rolled into sheets. The softness of zinc is peculiar, as is shown by the circumstance that it clogs the file when the attempt is made to reduce it to filings ; and hence, if it be desired to have it in the divided form, it is necessary to submit it to fusion, and to tri- turate it at the moment of solidification. Its sp.gr. is about 7-1, its equiva- lent number 32*3, and symbol Zn. By experiments instituted to determine the point, Favre makes its equivalent 32*99, and Erdmann, 32-527. Sub- jected to heat, it fuses at 773°. At full redness it boils, and in close ves- sels may be distilled over ; but in open ones it takes fire, and burns with a dazzling white flame, giving off dense white fumes. It dissolves in most of the acids with disengagement of hydrogen, and precipitates all the metals either in the metallic state, or in that of oxide. It forms but one well-characterized oxide (a protoxide), and but one sulphuret. A peroxide, of uncertain composition, was obtained by Thenard. The protoxide is officinal, and will be described under another head. (See Zinci Oxidum.) Zinc of good quality dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid, with the exception of a scanty grayish-black residuum. If absolutely pure it would be wholly dissolved. The solution is colourless, and yields white precipitates with ferrocyanuret of potassium and hydrosulphate of ammonia. Ammonia throws down from this solution a white precipitate, which is wholly dis- solved when the alkali is added in excess. If copper be present the solution will be rendered blue by the ammonia; and if iron be an impurity it will be thrown down by this alkali, but not redissolved by its excess. Zinc is extensively employed in the arts. It is the best metal that can be used, in conjunction with copper, for galvanic combinations. Combined with tin and mercury, it forms the amalgam for electrical machines. Its solution in dilute sulphuric acid furnishes the readiest method for obtaining hydrogen. With copper it forms brass, and, in the form of sheet zinc, it is employed to cover the roofs of houses, and for other purposes. It should never be used for culinary vessels, as it is soluble in the weakest acids. Pharmaceutical Uses. Zinc is never used as a medicine in the metallic state ; but is employed in this state to form the officinal preparations, acetate, sulphate, and chloride of zinc. In combination it forms a number of import- ant medicinal preparations, a list of which, with the synonymes, is subjoined. Zinc is employed medicinally, I. Oxidized. Zinci Oxidum, U. S., Ed.; Zinci Oxydum, Lond., Dub. Unguentum Zinci Oxidi, U.S.; Unguentum Zinci, Lond., Ed.; Unguentum Zinci Oxydi, Dub. 748 Zincum.—Zinci Carbonas. part i. II. Combined with chlorine. Zinci Chloridum, U. S. III. Oxidized and combined with acids. Zinci Acetas, U. S. Zinci Acetatis Tinctura, Dub. Zinci Carbonas, U.S.; Calamina, Lond.; Zinci Carbonas Impurum. Calamina, Dub.; Anglice, Calamine. Zinci Carbonas Prasparatus, U. S.; Calamina Prasparata, Lond., Ed.; Zinci Carbonas Impurum Prasparatum, Dub. Ceratum Zinci Carbonatis, U. S.; Ceratum Calaminae, Lond., Ed.; Unguentum Calaminae, Dub.; Anglice, Turner's cerate. Zinci Sulphas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Liquor Aluminis Compositus, Lond. B. ZINCI CARBONAS. U S. Carbonate of Zinc. "Native impure carbonate of zinc." U. S. Off. Syn. CALAMINA. Lond.; ZINCI CARBONAS IMPURUM. CALAMINA. Dub. Calamine; Lapis calaminaris, Lat.; Carbonate de zinc, Calamine, Fr.; Galmei, Germ.; Giallamina, Pietra calaminaria, Ital; Calamina, Span. The term calamine is applied by mineralogists indiscriminately to two minerals, scarcely distinguishable by their external characters, the carbonate and silicate of zinc. The term, however, in the pharmaceutical sense, refers to the native carbonate only. The silicate is sometimes called electric cala- mine. Properties, fyc. Carbonate of zinc is found in various localities, but occurs most abundantly in Germany and England. It is found also in the United States. It usually occurs in compact or earthy masses, or concretions, of a dull appearance, readily scratched by the knife, and breaking with an earthy fracture; but sometimes it is found crystallized. Its colour is very variable; being, in different specimens, grayish, grayish-yellow, reddish-yellow, and, when impure, brown, or brownish-yellow. Its sp. gr. varies from 3*4 to 4*4. Before the blowpipe it does not melt, but becomes yellow and sublimes. When of good quality, it is almost entirely soluble in the dilute mineral acids ; and, unless it has been previously calcined, emits a few bubbles of carbonic acid. If soluble in sulphuric acid, it can contain but little carbonate of lime, and no sulphate of baryta. Ammonia, added to the sulphuric solution, throws down a precipitate of the oxide, mixed with the subsulphate, and takes it up again when added in excess. If copper be present, the ammonia will strike a blue colour; and, in case of the presence of iron, the alkali will throw down the sesquioxide, not soluble in an excess of the precipitant. Carbonate of zinc is distinguished from the other variety of calamine (silicate) by dis- solving in warm nitric acid without gelatinizing, and by not being rendered electric by heat. Impurities. According to Mr. Robert Brett, calamine, as sold in the Eng- lish shops, is frequently a spurious mixture containing only traces of zinc. He analyzed six specimens, and found them to contain from 78 to 87-5 per cent, of sulphate of baryta, the rest consisting of sesquioxide of iron, carbonate of lime, sulphate of lead, and mere traces of zinc! . When acted on by part i. Zinci Carbonas.—Zingiber. 749 muriatic acid, the spurious calamine, in powder, evolved sulphuretted hydro- gen, and was only in small part dissolved, the great bulk of it remaining behind as sulphate of baryta. (Amer. Journ. of Pharm., ix. 173 from the Brit. Annals of Med.} The results of Mr. Brett have been confirmed by Dr. R. D. Thomson, and by Mr. D. Murdock of Glasgow. Dr. Thomson thinks the spurious calamine is manufactured of sulphate of baryta and chalk, coloured with Armenian bole. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iv. 31.) Even the genuine calamine of the shops is impure, containing iron and copper, and various earthy matters. That which has been calcined to ren- der it more readily puiverizable, contains little or no carbonic acid, and, therefore, is not entitled to the name of carbonate. In view of these facts, it would probably be an improvement if this preparation were expunged from the Pharmacopoeias, and the pure carbonate, obtained by precipitation, substituted for it. Composition. The crystallized variety is anhydrous, and consists of one eq. of carbonic acid 22, and one of protoxide of zinc 40*3 = 62*3. The com- pact and earthy varieties are said to contain one eq. of water. Pharmaceutical Uses. Calamine requires to be brought to a state of impalpable powder before it can be used in medicine, and in this state it forms the Prepared Carbonate of Zinc, under which head its medical pro- perties will be noticed. Off. Prep. Ceratum Calaminas, Lond.; Zinci Carbonas Prasparatus, U. S., Lond., Dub. B. ZINGIBER. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Ginger. "The rhizoma of Zingiber officinale." U. S., Ed. " Zingiber officinalis. Rhizoma." Lond. "Amomum Zingiber. Radix." Dub. Gingembre, Fr.; Ingwer, Germ.; Zenzero, Ital; Gengibre, Span. Zingiber. Sex. Syst. Monandria Monogynia.—Nat. Ord. Scitamineae, R. Brown; Zingiberaceas, Lindley. Gen. Ch. Flowers spathaceous. Inner limb of the corolla with one lip. Anther double, with a simple recurved horn at the end. Germen inferior. Style enclosed in the furrow formed by the anther. Loudon's Encyc. of Plants. Zingiber officinale. Roscoe, Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. 348; Amomum Zingiber. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 6; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 731. t. 250. The ginger plant has a biennial or perennial, creeping, tuberous root or rhizoma, and an annual stem, which rises two or three feet in height, is solid, round, erect, and enclosed in an imbricated membranous sheathing. The leaves are lanceolate, acute, smooth, five or six inches long by about an inch in breadth, and stand alternately on the sheaths of the stem. The scape or flower stalk rises by the side of the stem from six inches to a foot high, like it is clothed with oval acuminate sheaths, but is without leaves, and terminates in an oval, obtuse, bracteal, imbricated spike. The flowers are of a dingy yellow colour, and appear two or three at a time between the bracteal scales. The plant is a native of Hindostan, and is cultivated in all parts of India. It is also cultivated in the West Indies, whither it was transplanted from the East. The flowers have an aromatic smell, and the stems, when bruised, are slightly fragrant; but the root is the portion in which the virtues of the plant reside. This is fit to be dug up when a year old. In the West Indies, 64* 750 Zingiber. PART I. the ginger crop is gathered in January and February after the stems have withered. After having been properly cleansed, the root is scalded in boil- ing water, in order to prevent germination, and is then rapidly dried. Thus prepared, it constitutes the ordinary ginger of commerce, or black ginger, as it is sometimes called from the darkish colour which it acquires in the pro- cess. It is imported into this country almost exclusively from Calcutta, and is known to the druggists by the name of East India ginger. In Jamaica another variety is prepared by selecting the best roots, depriving them of their epidermis, and drying them separately and carefully in the sun. This is called in the books white ginger, and is most highly valued. It reaches us from England, where it is said to undergo some further preparation, by which its appearance is improved. It is usually called in our markets Jamaica ginger. The root is also brought immediately from the West Indies in a recent state, and sold by the confectioners. A preserve is made from ginger by selecting the roots while young and tender, depriving them of their cortical covering, and boiling them in syrup. This is occasionally imported from the East and West Indies. When good it is translucent and tender. The recent root is from one to four inches long, somewhat flattened on its upper and under surface, knotty, obtusely and irregularly branched or lobed, externally of a light-ash colour, and marked with circular rugas, internally fleshy and yellowish-white. It sometimes germinates when kept in the shops. The common, East India, or black ginger, is of the same general shape, but has a dark ash-coloured wrinkled epidermis, which, being removed in some places, exhibits patches of an almost black colour, apparently the result of exposure. Beneath the epidermis is a brownish, resinous, almost horny cortical portion. The interior parenchyma is whitish and some- what farinaceous. The powder is of a light yellowish-brown colour. This variety is most extensively used throughout the country. The Jamaica or white ginger differs in being entirely deprived of epider- mis, and white, or yellowish-white on the outside. The pieces are rounder and thinner, in consequence of the loss of substance in their preparation. They afford when pulverized a beautiful yellowish-white powder, which is brought from Liverpool in jars. This variety is firm and resinous, and has more of the sensible qualities of ginger than the black. There is reason to believe that a portion at least of the white ginger of commerce has been subjected to a bleacbing process, by which not only the exterior, but also the internal parts are rendered whiter than in the unprepared root. Trommsdorff found, in a specimen which he examined, evidences of the presence of chlo- rides, sulphates, and lime; and concluded that the bleaching was effected by chlorine, or the chloride of lime and sulphuric acid. Having macerated some black ginger in water, deprived it of the cortical portion, treated it for twenty-four hours with sulphuric acid diluted with nine times its weight of water, and finally placed it in a mixture of chloride of lime and water, in which it was allowed to remain for two days, he found it, upon being washed and dried, to present an appearance closely resembling that of the finest white ginger, both on the surface and internally. (Annal. der Pharm., xvii. 98.) According to Brande, ginger is often washed in whiting and water; and Pereira states that it is sometimes bleached by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur. General Properties. The odour of ginger is aromatic and penetrating, the taste spicy, pungent, hot, and biting. These properties gradually diminish, and ultimately disappear when the root is long exposed. The virtues of ginger are extracted by water and alcohol. Its constituents, according to M. Morin, are a volatile oil of a greenish-blue colour; a resinous matter, soft, PART I. Zingiber. 751 acrid, aromatic, and soluble in ether and alcohol; a sub-resin insoluble in ether; a little osmazome; gum; starch; a vegeto-animal matter; sulphur; acetic acid; acetate of potassa; and lignin. The peculiar flavour of the root appears to depend on the essential oil, its pungency partly on the resin- ous or resino-extractive principle. A considerable quantity of very pure white starch may be obtained from it. Those pieces of ginger which are very fibrous, light and friable, or worm- eaten, should be rejected. Medical Properties and Uses. Ginger is a grateful stimulant and car- minative, and is often given in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, and the feeble state of the alimentary canal attendant upon atonic gout. It is an excellent addi- tion to bitter infusions and tonic powders, imparting to them an agreeable, warming, and cordial operation upon the stomach. When chewed it pro- duces much irritation of the mouth, and a copious flow of saliva; and when snuffed up the nostrils, in a state of powder, excites violent sneezing. It is sometimes used as a local remedy in relaxation of the uvula, and paralysis of the tongue and fauces. Externally applied, it acts as a rubefacient. It may be given in powder or infusion. The dose of the former is from ten grains to a scruple or more. The infusion may be prepared by adding half an ounce of the powdered or bruised root to a pint of boiling water, and may be given in the dose of one or two fluidounces. Off. Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Con- fectio Opii, Lond., Dub.; Confectio Scammonii, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Sennas, Ed., Lond., Dub.; Pilulas Gambogias Compositas, Dub., Lond.; Pil. Hydrargyri Iodidi, Lond.; Pil. Scillas Compositas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Aromaticus, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Cinnamomi Compositus,Lond.; Pulvis Jalapas Comp., Lond.; Pulvis Rhei Comp., Ed.; Pulvis Scammonii Comp., Lond., Dub.; Syrupus Rhamni, Lond., Ed.; Syrupus Zingiberis, U. S.,Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Cinnamomi Comp., U.S., Lond.; Tinct. Rhei Comp., Lond.; Tinct. Zingiberis, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Vinum Aloe's, U. S., Ed., Dub. W. PAKT II. PREPARATIONS. The preparation of medicines, which constitutes the art of Pharmacy, comes within the peculiar province of the apothecary. It is for his guidance that the various formulae of the Pharmacopoeia have been arranged, and to him that their directions are especially addressed. A few general observations, therefore, of an explanatory nature, calculated to facilitate the progress of the pharmaceutic student, will not be misplaced under the present head. The duty of the apothecary is to obtain a supply of good medicines, to preserve them with care, to prepare them properly for use, and to dispense them. Our remarks will embrace each of these points. The substances obtained from the mineral and animal kingdoms, and those furnished by the chemical manufacturer, are of a nature to admit of no gene- ral precepts as to their proper condition, which would not be suggested by the common sense of the purchaser. He must receive them as offered,and judge of their fitness for his purposes by his knowledge of the peculiar pro- perties of each. The same remark applies to vegetable substances from abroad; but with respect to indigenous plants, the apothecary is frequently called upon to exercise his judgment in relation to their collection and desic- cation, and will derive advantage from some brief practical rules upon the subject. Collecting and Drying of Plants. The proper mode of proceeding varies according to the nature of the part used. The different parts of plants are to be gathered at the period when the peculiar juices of the plant are most abundant in them. In the roots of annual plants this happens just before the time of flowering; in the roots of biennials, after the vegetation of the first year has ceased ; and in those of perennials, in the spring before vegetation has commenced. They should be washed, and the small fibres, unless they are the part employed, should be separated from the fleshy solid part, which is to be cut in slices previously to being dried. Bulbs are to be gathered after the new bulb is perfected, and before it has begun to vegetate, which is at the time the leaves decay. Barks, whether of the root, trunk, or branches, should be gathered in the autumn, or early in the spring. The dead epider- mis, and the decayed parts are to be separated. Of some trees, as the slip- pery elm, it is the inner bark only that is preserved. Leaves are to be gathered after their full developement, before the fading of the flower. The leaves of biennial plants do not attain their perfect qualities until the second year. Flowers should in general be gathered at the time of their expansion, before or immediately after they have fully opened; and some, as the Rosa Gallica, while in the bud. Aromatic herbs are to be gathered when in flower. Leaves, flowers, and herbs are to be gathered in clear dry weather, in the morning, after the dew is exhaled. Stalks and twigs are collected in autumn ; seeds at the period of their full maturity. PART II. Collecting and Drying of Plants. 753 Vegetables should be dried as rapidly as is consistent with their perfect rtTJJ cT' £tbrouJ™°ts m.ay be d"ed in the sun, or in a room in which a heat of from 65° to 80° is maintained. Fleshy roots may be cut in trans- verse slices, dried in the open air till the moisture is nearly evaporated, and then placed in a stove heat not exceeding 100°, till perfectly dry and hard. Bulbs must have the outer membranes peeled off, and be cut in transverse slices and dried in a heat not exceeding 100°. Barks, woods, and twigs, readily dry in thin layers in the open air. Leaves which are dry and thin do not require a heat exceeding 60° or 703; those which are succulent may ?nnoXP°S£d' ^ caref«% and slowly raising the heat, to a temperature of 100 . Flowers must be dried carefully and rapidly in the shade; those of the most delicate texture and odour requiring the greatest care. The following table, taken from the Edinburgh Dispensatory, presents the amount yielded by 1000 parts of the vegetables respectively mentioned after being dried. Roots of Angelica Archangelica 263 Aspidium Filix Mas - 500 Inula Helenium - - 187 Valeriana sylvestris - 316 Bark of the Oak.....410 Elder - - - - 292 Elm.....375 Twigs of Solanum Dulcamara - 308 Leaves of Atropa Belladonna - 140 Conium maculatum - 185 Datura Stramonium - 110 Leaves of Digitalis purpurea - 180 Hyoscyamus niger - 135 Melissa officinalis - 220 Salvia officinalis - - 220 Tops of Mentha piperita - -215 Flowers of Anthemis nobilis - 338 Borago officinalis - 96 Lavandula vera - - 510 Sambucus Ebulus - 256 Petals of Papaver Rhoeas - - 84 Rosa rubra - - - - 330 Preservation of Medicines. The proper preservation of medicines is an object of the greatest importance to the apothecary. The aromatic gums and resins, and in general all the parts of vegetables, should be kept secluded from the light, and as much as possible from the air, in perfectly dry rooms Boxes or barrels, with close covers, will serve for holding roots and barks' after they have been thoroughly dried. Roots and bulbs, such as liquorice' and squill, which are to be preserved fresh, should be buried in dry sand Leaves and flowers should be kept in tin canisters, or in light boxes lined with lead, tin, or zinc. The apothecary should regulate his purchases of perishable drugs by the demand which he finds for>them, so as frequently to renew them. He should frequently examine the condition of every article, and, on the slightest appearance of mouldiness, or of the attack of insects, should clean them, and again dry them perfectly in a heat of from 70° to 100°. This examination and re-drying, which should be made several times a year in respect to the articles which are most subject to change, should be made early in the spring of all the roots and barks and leaves in the shop; and those of which the sensible properties have become impaired should be rejected. Drugs frequently require to be garbled, as it is termed, before they are in a proper state for use. Senna is to be separated from the stalks and legumes; cetraria from moss, leaves,and sticks; myrrh from bdellium, &c; gum Senegal from Bassora gum and a terebinthinate resin; flaxseed from clover seed; seneka from ginseng; spigelia from the stems, and both it and serpentaria from the adhering dirt. Seroons of cinchona should be ex- amined, and the barks assorted before they are put by for use. Gums and gum-resins should be garbled, and the tears preserved separately. Weights and Measures. A precise acquaintance with the recognised 754 Weights and Measures.—Specific Gravity. part u. measures of weight and capacity is essential to the operations of the apothe- cary. The weights used by him in compounding medicines are the troy pound and its divisions; those by which he buys and sells, the pound avoir- dupois and its divisions. The former contains 5760 grains, the latter 7000 grains, so that 11 troy pounds are nearly equivalent to 9 pounds avoirdupois. The troy pound contains 12 ounces of 480 grains ; the avoirdupois pound, 16 ounces of 437£ grains; eleven of the former being nearly equal to twelve of the latter. The troy ounce is divided, for the use of the apothecary, into 8 drachms of 60 grains each, and the drachm into 3 scruples of 20 grains each. The United States and British Pharmacopoeias all recognise the troy weights, and whenever in this work any term is used expressive of weight, it is to be understood as being of this denomination. The measures used by the apothecary, in this country, are the wine pint and the gallon. The wine pint contains 28*875 cubic inches. The weight of a pint of distilled water, at 62° Fahrenheit and 30° of the barometer, is 7289*7 grains, or 1 pound 3 ounces 1 drachm 29*7 grains troy, or 1 pound 289*7 grains avoirdupois. The gallon is divided into 8 pints, the pint into 16 fluidounces, the fluidounce into 8 fluidrachms, and the fluidrachm into 60 minims. The weight of a fluidounce of water is 455s grains, being 18 grains more than an avoirdupois ounce. A drop is generally though incor- rectly considered as equivalent to the minim. Drops vary in size according to the nature of the fluid, and the size and shape of the lip from which they fall. A drop of water nearly equals a minim. A fluidrachm of antimoniai wine will make, on an average, about 72 drops, one of laudanum 120 drops, and one of alcohol 138 drops. For a table showing the relative value of minims and drops, see the Appendix. Measures are employed, both by the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, to express the quantity of liquids in nearly all their formulas. Fluids are to be dispensed from graduated measures, of which those hold- ing from a fluidounce to a pint are hollow inverted cones; and those holding a fluidrachm, and graduated to every five minims, are cylindrical. For smaller quantities than five minims, a slender tube holding a fluidrachm may be used, having the aliquot parts divided off and marked with a diamond. Care should be taken to verify these instruments. The following approxi- mate measures are used in prescribing medicines; viz., a wineglassful containing two fluidounces, a tablespoonful containing half a fluidounce, a dessertspoonful two fluidrachms, and a teaspoonful a fluidrachm. Specific Gravity. The specific gravity of fluids affords one of the best tests of their purity. The instrument commonly used by the apothecary for ascertaining this is Baume's hydrometer. This is a glass bulb loaded at one end, and drawn out at the other into a tube on which the scale is marked. That used for alcohol is graduated by loading it until it sinks to the foot of the stem (which is marked zero) in a solution of one part of salt in nine parts of water. It is then put into water, and the place to which it sinks marks 10° of the scale, which is constructed from these data. The hydrometer for liquids heavier than water is made by loading it, so that in distilled water it shall sink to nearly the top of the stem. The place to which it sinks in a solution of 15 parts of salt in 85 parts of water is then marked as 15°, and the scale divided off. For a table exhibiting the value of these scales in specific gravities, see the Appendix. The hydrometers commonly imported are so carelessly made that scarcely any two will agree, and little dependence is to be placed on their accuracy. A more certain method consists in weighing the liquid at a uniform tem- perature in a bottle, the capacity of which, in grains of distilled water, has part n. Specific Gravity.—Mechanical Division. 755 been previously ascertained. If a bottle is selected which will hold exactly 1000 grains of water at 60°, the weight in grains of the quantity of any liquid which it will hold will be the specific gravity of that liquid. Such bottles are sold in the shops. If one is not attainable, an ordinary vial may be used, and the specific gravity obtained by dividing the weight of the liquid examined by the weight of the water. Gay-Lussac's centesimal alcoholmeter is a very useful instrument, being graduated so as to indicate the per centage of absolute alcohol in any mix- ture of spirit and water. The specific gravity of a solid is ascertained by first weighing it in air and then in water, and dividing the former weight by the difference between the two. Mechanical Division. One of the simplest means of preparing medi- cines is their reduction, by mechanical means,tto a state of minute division. This includes the various operations of pulverization, levigation, grinding, filing, rasping, sifting, bruising, slicing, &c. The principal drugs which are sold in the state of powder, are pulverized by persons who pursue that occupation for a livelihood. The apothecary, therefore, is chiefly interested in knowing the loss sustained in this process. The following statement has been abbreviated from a table prepared by MM. Henry and Guibourt. One thousand parts of the substances mentioned yielded, when pulverized— Roots. Vegetable Products. Jalap 940 Cinnamon 890 Aloes - 960 Rhubarb 920 Angustura 825 Tragacanth - 940 Columbo 900 Leaves. Opium - 930 Liquorice root 900 Hemlock 800 Gum Arabic - 925 Valerian 860 Savine - 800 Scammony 915 Elecampane - 850 Digitalis 790 Catechu 900 Gentian 850 Belladonna - 785 Liquorice (extract) 810 Florentine orris 850 Senna - 720 Jlnimal Substances. Rhatany 850 Henbane 530 Castor ... 900 Calamus 840 Flowers. Spanish flies - 850 Virginia snakeroot 800 Chamomile - 850 Mineral Substances. Ipecacuanha - 750 Saffron - 800 Red oxide of mercury 980 Squill (bulb) - 820 Fruits. Red sulphuret of mercu - Barks. Mustard 950 ry - - - 950 Cinchona, pale 875 Black pepper 900 Arsenious acid 950 --------, red ----■----, yellow - 880 900 Nux vomica -Colocynth 850 500 Sulphuret of antimony Tin - 950 825 For the greater part of those drugs that are powdered in the shops, iron, brass, glass, or Wedgwood mortars are to be used; the two former for hard substances requiring repeated blows; the latter for those which are friable and can be reduced to powder by trituration. The interior surface of the mortar should be concave and nearly spherical, and care should be taken not to impede the operation by overloading and clogging the pestle. In powdering acrid substances, the mortar should be covered with a board perforated in the centre for the pestle, or with a large piece of pliable leather tied round the top of the mortar and the handle of the pestle, so as to allow of the free motion of the latter. The operator should guard himself against the fine particles of very acrid substances, by standing with his back to a current of air and covering his nostrils with a wet cloth. Various means are used to facilitate the operation of powdering. All vegetable substances must be carefully and thoroughly dried. Resins, gum-resins, and gums must be powdered in cold frosty weather. Tragacanth and nux vomica 756 Separation of Solids from Liquids. part ii. must be dried in a stove heat, and powdered while hot. The fibrous roots, as liquorice and marshmallow, should be previously shaved into thin trans- verse slices. Agaric is to be powdered by beating it into a paste with water, then drying and triturating it. Cloves and the aromatic seeds may be ground in a hand-mill and afterwards triturated. Squill and colocynth, the comminu- tion of which is sometimes aided by soaking them in mucilage of tragacanth and then drying, are best powdered in a dry atmosphere, after being tho- roughly dried in a stove heat. Camphor requires the addition of a few drops of alcohol. The efflorescent salts may be obtained in the state of fine powder by exsiccation ; and those which are insoluble in alcohol, may be precipitated by it, in an impalpable powder, from their aqueous solutions. Care should be taken in powdering, previously to separate the inert por- tions and impurities, and to mix intimately the whole of the powder which is reserved for use. The central woody fibre of ipecacuanha and other roots the virtues of which reside in the bark, is to be rejected. The first portions of those barks to which lichens and the dead epidermis adhere, are inert; as are also the last particles of the fibrous roots and barks. The outer coat of the aromatic seeds is to be reserved, and the inner albuminous part rejected as inodorous. In the operation of powdering, the fine particles are to be separated from time to time by sifting. Fine sieves should be made of that sort of raw silk called bolting cloth; coarser ones of wire, hair-cloth, or gauze. Valuable or aromatic powders should be passed through box sieves, which are sieves provided with covers for the top and bottom, that shut up so as to prevent all waste. Ivory, horn, nux vomica, wood, and iron are prepared for pharmaceutic purposes by filing or rasping; guaiacum wood by turning in a lathe; roots, stalks, and leaves, by cutting with a large pair of shears, such as is used by the tinplate workers; or with a large knife fixed in a frame at one end, and furnished with a long handle at the other. Tin and zinc are granulated by melting them, and strongly agitating while they are cooling; carbonate of potassa, by stirring the concentrated solution with a rod as it hardens. Earthy insoluble substances are conveniently reduced to powder by levi- gation. This is performed by moistening them with alcohol or water, and rubbing them on a hard flat stone with a muller or rubber of the same mate- rial. The powder may be rendered impalpable by agitating it with a large quantity of water, and pouring off'the liquid to settle, after the coarser par- ticles have subsided. The fineness of the powder depends on its specific gravity, and the length of time which elapses before the liquid from which it subsides is drawn off. This last operation is termed elutriation, and the thick pasty mass which remains, is usually dropped on an absorbent sur- face, and dried in the shape of small cones. Vanilla, mace, and other oily aromatic substances, may be rubbed to powder with sugar; magnesia and white lead, by friction on a wire or hair sieve. Separation of Solids from Liquids. This is another mechanical opera- tion which is frequently resorted to in practical pharmacy. It includes the processes of decantation, filtration, straining, expression, clarification, &c. Solids may be separated from fluids, when there exists no chemical action between them by being allowed to subside. The supernatant liquid may then be carefully poured off; or it may be drawn off by a syphon, or sepa- rated by filtering. Either the last operation, or expression by a stronger force, is necessary to separate the whole of the liquid. Jars larger at bottom than at the top, and furnished with a lip for pouring, are sold in the shops, and will be found very useful for precipitations. part ii. Separation of Solids from Liquids. 151 When the powder subsides very slowly, the precipitation may be greatly hastened by the addition of a small quantity of the solution of gelatin. Gelatinous precipitates, such as alumina, must be filtered to clear them from the adhering liquid. The most convenient material for a filter is unsized paper. This is to be folded into a cone and placed in a glass funnel. It will serve for filtering tinctures, wines, saline solutions, watery infusions, and essential oils. In some cases it may be necessary to place a small cone of the same material outside of the large one in order to strengthen it. When the liquid is too viscid to pass readily-through paper, a cotton or woollen bag of a conical shape may be used. Acids may be filtered through a layer of fine siliceous sand, supported in the neck of a glass funnel by pieces of glass gradually decreasing in size. Castor oil, syrups, and oxymels may be readily filtered through coarse paper made entirely of woollen shreds. Melted fats, plasters, resins, and wax, may be strained through muslin stretched over a square frame, or a hoop. Small sieves of fine- bolting cloth serve for straining emulsions, decoctions, and infusions; and a temporary strainer for these purposes may be made by fastening a piece of muslin between the upper and lower parts of a common pill box, and then cutting off the ends so as to leave the rim only of the box around the muslin. The filtration of viscid substances is facilitated by heat. Filtration through bone-black is practised for muddy or dark coloured liquids. Much inconvenience is often experienced in the filtration of hot saturated saline solutions, by the cooling of the liquid and consequent crystallization of the salt in the filter and neck of the funnel. To obviate this, the tin apparatus represent- ed in the wood cut has been contrived by Professor Hare. The vessel is filled with hot water, which is kept at a boil- ing heat by a spirit lamp placed under the cavity having the shape of an in- verted funnel. A glass funnel with a filter is placed in the other cavity, and the liquid passes through rapidly. In filtering alcoholic solutions, it is neces- sary to protect the liquid from the flame of the lamp, and for this purpose the partition underneath has been added. No apothecary should be without this useful apparatus. Frames of various sizes for holding funnels and filters will be found very useful; the wood cut represents the one commonly used. The efflo- rescence of saline solutions on the edge of the filtering paper may be prevented by dipping it in melted tallow or lard. The filtration of liquids which are altered by exposure to the air requires much caution. A very simple method of accomplishing it, is to in- sert a slender tube of glass into the funnel, long enough to reach below the neck, while the upper part is nearly as high as the top of the funnel. The space between the tube and the neck must be filled with bits of glass and fine sand, so as to form a good filtering bed; the liquid is to be poured in, and the top of 65 758 Separation of Liquids.—Application of Heat. part ii. the funnel covered with a plate of glass. If this be luted on, and the funnel luted into the neck of a bottle, the process will be performed with perfect accuracy. Expression is required to separate the last portions of tinctures or infu- sions from the dregs. A screw press is used for this purpose. The sub- stance to be pressed is put into a cylinder of strong sheet tin, the sides of which are pierced with small holes. This is placed on a square tray of tin having a lip for pouring. A block of wood fits into the cylinder and is placed on the top, and the whole is put under the screw press, the pressure of which is gradually brought to bear upon it. This press is to be used for expressing the juices of fresh plants, which, previously to being pressed, must be well beaten in a mortar, and water added to those which are hard and dry. The expressed oils are obtained by bruising the seeds which contain them, and enclosing the bruised mass in strong bags, which are placed in a firm hollow frame, and subjected to strong sudden pressure by driving up a wedge. Expressed oils are clarified from mucilage by boiling them with water. The clarification of liquids'may be effected by the addition of some coagu- lable substance, such as milk or an aqueous solution of ichthyocolla. The white of an egg, beaten up with water, will coagulate by a gentle heat, and clarify any liquid with which it has been mixed. The vegetable acids will clarify many of the expressed juices of plants. Separation of Liquids. Liquids which/have no chemical affinity, and differ in specific gra- vity, may be separated by allowing them to re- main at rest in the separating funnel represented in the annexed figure, and then drawing off the heavier fluid. Another very convenient method of separating fluids is by means of the separa- tory figured in the wood cut in the margin. The last drops of the heavier fluid may be drawn off by means of this instrument. Application of Heat. The most efficient and economical means of obtaining heat is a subject of great importance to the pharmaceutist, on account of the variety of processes in which it is required. With the small furnaces, which are now made of fire clay, of various patterns and sizes, almost all the operations of the laboratory which require heat, can be performed. The fuel used is charcoal, although anthracite will burn in those of a larger size, and is to be preferred where a uniform heat is ne- cessary for several hours. The apothecary should be pro- vided with a complete set of these useful utensils, including one with a dome for a reverbatory furnace. By adding a pipe several feet in length to this, and urging the fire with a pair of double bellows, the heat maybe raised to that of an air furnace. A small pipe of sheet iron with a cone at the lower end, as in the figure, to fit on the furnace, will be found an excellent means of obtaining an intense heat in those of the smallest size. For operations on a smaller scale, the most convenient means of obtaining heat is by an alcoholic lamp. Alcohol burns without smoke or smell, and is almost as cheap a fuel as oil, to which it is on every other account preferable. |C^ CE3 part ii. Application of Heat. 759 The annexed figures represent the usual forms of spirit lamps. The larger one will be found very useful in heating spatulas for spreading plasters. For supportingthesubstance to be heated, iron tripods, of various heights and sizes must be provided. These should be furnished with sets of concentric rings as in the figure, for vessels of different sizes. A very convenient support is the stand and ring figured in the wood cut, which will answer either for a spirit lamp, or a small furnace made from a black lead cru- cible, as in the ,^_ figure. rr^^^^-——1^^^^ Tfie tempera- y^^^==^^// ture required in v~-"-ij--------"Si pharmaceutical ^^^r ^S^r--^ processes, sel- (( j I ~"^\ dom exceeds a f)^-^---—^ IL^--^^ red heat; and I "fl T| the vessels used J are crucibles of silver, porce- ^ lain, Wedgwood II I ware,black lead, ^ and fire clay (Hessian crucibles). Silver is used for the fusion of potassa, porcelain for nitrate of silver, and black lead and Hessian crucibles for the metals, glass of antimony, sulphuret of potassium, and the ordinarv operations which require a great heat. They are each liable to objections"; silver fuses too readily; porcelain and Wedgwood ware do not bear sudden changes of temperature ; black lead, which bears these changes, is destroyed by saline substances, and burns in a current of air; and the Hessian cru- cibles are so porous as to absorb and waste much of the fused substance. The crucibles should be covered with a lid or an inverted crucible, and should be supported at a little distance from the bottom of the grate, and surrounded and covered with ignited coals. Liquefaction is performed in open earthen, copper, or iron vessels, and care must be taken not to raise the heat so as to char or inflame the substance. A sand bath is an indispensable part of the pharmaceutic apparatus. It is usually an iron pot or a shallow vessel of sheet iron capable of holding sand to the depth of four or six inches. It serves to regulate the action of the heat on vessels which do not bear a rapid change of temperature. It is sometimes heated to a red heat, as in preparing the mineral acids, though more frequently used for the evaporation of saline solutions and vege- table juices. The water bath is to be used in all cases in which a heat above that of boiling water would be injurious. A very convenient one, figured in the wood cut, consists of two copper vessels, the upper one of which is well tinned. Where a temperature above that of boiling water, 81 760 Application of Heat. part ii. and not exceeding 228°, is required, the water bath may be filled with a saturated solution of common salt. The common still and worm, the vessels in general use for distillation, are too well known to need description. A convenient still or alembic for small operations, which may be heated by a spirit lamp, is figured in the wood cut. The top of the head is kept filled with cold water, and all escape of vapour is prevented by having an inner ledge to the still, and filling the space in which the head fits with water. The condensation of all the vapour is secured by adapting a worm or a long tube to the apparatus. The boiler of this still may hold one or two gallons, and it will be found a very useful means of recover- ing the alcohol in makingalcoholic extracts. It may easily be converted into a water bath by fitting on the top of the boiler a vessel of convenient form. For the extrication and condensation or absorp- tion of gaseous fluids, a retort and a series of three necked (or Woulfe's) bottles are used. The bottles are partly filled with water and become satu- rated in succession. As the tubes which convey the gas are plunged nearly to the bottom of the liquid in the bottles, there is danger, when the operation is complete, and a vacuum formed in the retort, of the water being driven by the atmospheric pressure in the last bottle, back through the whole series, so as to fill the retort. To prevent this, safety tubes must be fitted to the retort and the bottles. Those for the bottles are straight tubes, dipping a small depth into the liquid ; that for the retort is the common Welter's tube of safety. When, the common glass retort and receiver are used for the distillation of fluids, care should be taken not to apply the luting until the atmospheric air is expelled. The chief objects to be aimed at are to keep the body of the retort hot, and the neck and receiver cool. A hood of pasteboard or tin, as represented in the figure, will much facilitate the former; and the latter will be gained by keeping the neck and receiver wrapt in wet cloths, on which a stream of cold water is kept running. This may be conveniently done by means of a syphon, made by dipping one end of a strip of cotton or woollen cloth in a vessel of water, and allowing the other end to hang down upon cloths bound loosely around the receiver or the neck of the retort. When the object of distillation is to preserve the residuum, and this is liable to injury from heat, as is the case with vegetable extracts, the opera- tion is best performed in vacuo. For this purpose the still and recipient are made so as to form an air-tight apparatus, and the latter is furnished with a stop-cock, which is kept open until the whole of the atmospheric air is expelled by the vapour. It is then closed, and a vacuum formed and main- tained in the recipient by surrounding it with cold water. The distillation is carried on in this manner at a much lower temperature than ordinary. The vapours of some volatile solids have the property of condensing into the solid form, either in mass, or in a state of the most minute division. The operation in which this occurs is called sublimation. When the pro- duct is compact, it is called a sublimate, when slightly cohering, it is called flowers. The operation is generally performed in a sand bath; and the part ii. Lutes. 761 apparatus consists of two vessels fitting each other, one being inverted over the other. The shape, size, and depth of the vessels, and the degree of heat to be applied, are regulated by the nature of the substance operated on. Lutes, The most precious material for the chemist is glass, the trans- parency, insolubility, and hardness of which fit it for almost every purpose. It is often necessary to strengthen it by means of lutes, which will bear a heat at which glass would soften; and the application of lutes for this pur- pose, and for securing the junctures of tubes and vessels, is also an import- ant part of the pharmaceutic art. Those lutes which are required for coating vessels exposed to a great heat, are made of Stourbridge clay. The clay is made into a paste with water mixed with chopped straw, and suc- cessive coats applied as they become dry. Earthenware vessels may be rendered impervious to air or vapours, by brushing over them a thin paste, made of slaked lime and a solution of borax containing an ounce to the half pint. This is allowed to dry, and the vessel is then coated with slaked lime and linseed oil, beaten till the mixture becomes plastic. Earthenware retorts, thus coated, may be safely used more than once, the coating being renewed every time. Fat lute is applied to the joinings of apparatus to prevent the escape of corrosive vapours. It is made like glazier's putty, pipe clay being substi- tuted for whiting. It will bear a considerable heat, and great care must be taken that the part where it is applied be perfectly dry. If it is to be exposed to heat, slips of moistened bladder must be wrapped round it and secured with twine. Roman cement and plaster of Paris may be applied in the same manner as fire clay. When used for securing the joinings of apparatus, a coating of oil or wax will render them air-tight. A very useful lute is formed by beating the white of an egg thoroughly with an equal quantity of water, and mixing it with some slaked lime in the state of fine powder, so as to form a thin paste. This must be spread immediately on slips of muslin, and applied to the cracks or joinings in- tended to be luted. It soon hardens, adheres strongly, and will bear a heat approaching to redness without injury. A leak in this lute is readily stopped by the application of a fresh portion. Solution of glue, or* any liquid albuminous matter may be used in place of the white of eggs. An excellent cement for surfaces of iron consists of one part of sulphur, two of sal ammoniac, and eighty of iron filings, mixed together and slightly moistened. It is rammed or caulked into the joints, and solidifies perfectly in time. White lead ground in oil is an excellent cement for broken glass. Spread upon linen, it forms a good coating for a cracked surface, but dries slowly. Strips of bladder macerated in water adhere well to glass, and are very useful. A mixture of waiting and paste or gum water, spread upon strips of paper, forms an excellent luting for joinings not exposed to acrid vapours or a great heat. A useful lute is formed by spreading a solution of glue on strips of cloth, and coating them, after they are applied, with drying oil. Linseed meal beaten into a uniform mass with milk, lime-water, rye paste, or thin glue, and applied in thick masses, adheres well; and when dry will resist most vapours. Cap cement is made of six parts of resin, one part of yellow wax, and one of Venetian red. It is a very useful cement for fastening metals or wood to glass, and for rendering joints impervious to water. Soft cement 65* 762 Lutes.— Chemical Operations. part ii. is used for the same purposes, and is made of yellow wax, melted with half its weight of turpentine, and coloured with a little Venetian red. It is very useful for rendering the stoppers of bottles perfectly air-tight. Chemical Operations. Some of the chemical processes conducted by the apothecary, have been explained in the former part of this introduction. It remains to notice some others in constant or frequent use. Infusion is the subjecting of a substance containing soluble principles to the action of a menstruum, which is usually water. Hot infusions are made by pouring boiling water on the substance, and allowing it to remain in a covered ves- sel till cold. Cold infusions are made with cold water, and require several hours to attain their full strength. Maceration is the term employed to denote the action of liquids upon medicines, when allowed to remain upon them for some time, at a heat of from 60° to 90°. Digestion is the name given to the same operation, when conducted at a temperature of between 90° and 100°. It is commonly performed in glass bottles or flasks, and a common fire or stove heat is employed. Decoction, or boiling, is sometimes employed in extracting the virtues of plants; but is often disadvantageous, as most of the proximate principles of vegetables are altered by it, espe- cially Avhen long continued. Where it is practised, the ebullition should generally be continued for a few minutes only, and the liquid be allowed to cool slowly in a close vessel. - From the solutions of vegetable principles obtained by these different processes, extracts are prepared by slow evaporation, so as to inspissate the liquid. This process should, as has already been mentioned, be always conducted at a heat not exceeding that of boiling water. Evaporation at a gentle heat is also performed for the concentration of saline solutions, in order to promote their crystallization. The proper degree of concentration is attained, if a drop of the liquid on a cold glass plate deposits crystals. The slower the evaporation and the cooling, and the greater the quantity operated on, the larger will be the crystals. Water which is saturated with any salt is still capable of dissolving other salts. It is in this way, by washing crystals of impure salts with their own saturated solutions, that the crystals are purified. Fine silky crystals, which retain their mother water by capillary attraction, must be dried by strong expression in a linen bag. The finest silky crystals may be entirely freed from their adhering liquid by placing them in a funnel which fits closely to one of the necks of a double mouthed bottle, and fitting a tube to the other, through which air is drawn. The current of air, in passing through the funnel, carries the water with it, and dries the crystals perfectly. Lixiviation is a process used for separating a soluble from a porous in- soluble body. It consists in placing the substance to be lixiviated in a ves- sel, the bottom of which is covered with straw, &c, pouring water upon it, allowing the water to remain until saturated, and then drawing it off through an opening at the bottom of the vessel. It is found that if fresh water be poured on without disturbing the mixture in the vessel, it does not mix with the liquid already there, but percolates the solid particles, driving the saturated liquid before it; so that, for example in lixiviating wood ashes, if a gallon of water had been poured upon the ashes, and allowed to become saturated with the alkali, we shall obtain, by this mode of proceeding, a gallon of strong ley, and immediately thereafter the water will become almost tasteless. The fact has been applied to the service of the pharmaceutist, and has led the way to some valuable improvements in the mode of extracting the medicinal qualities of plants. The operation referred to is called by the French the method of displacement. PART II. Chemical Operations. 763 The figure in the margin represents Boullay's filter, constructed on this principle. It consists of a long tin vessel, nearly cylindrical, but narrower at the lower end, which has a funnel shaped termi- nation,for the purpose of being inserted in the neck of a bottle. A metallic plate pierced with holes, like a colander, and having a handle in the centre, fits accurately in the lower part of the cylinder. Upon this, previously covered with a thin layer of carded cotton, is placed the substance upon which it is intended to operate, and which should be coarsely powdered or mashed in a mill. It must then be saturated with the menstruum, which is done by pouring on the liquid from time to time until it will absorb no more, and then allowing them to remain for a few hours in contact. On the top of the powder is placed another similarly pierced plate, and fresh portions of the menstruum are gradually and successively added, until all the sensible properties are extracted. The first portion, that with which the powder was mixed, flows off very highly concentrated, while the next is much less so, and the successive infusions rapidly become weaker. A stop-cock near the lower end of the instrument, as represented in the second figure, will be convenient for regulating the discharge of the fluid. A single example will show the value of this process. The Messrs. Boullay, by subjecting four ounces of bruised cinchona to# displacement with half a pint of water, and then adding four half pints in succession, obtained the fol- lowing results. yielded 9 1st H alf pint 2d Do. 3d Do. 4th Do. 5th Do. drs. 48 grs. dr. 5 grs. 15 grs. 9 grs. 7 grs. dry extract Do. Do. Do. Do. Cylinders 14 inches long by 2^ in width at the base, 14 inches by 4, and 17. by 6, are convenient sizes for ordinary use. When it is wished to operate upon a fine powder it will be found advisable to increase the height of the column of liquid by making the top of the cylinder air-tight, and inserting a tin tube several feet long, which must be kept filled with the liquid. All the substantial advantages of this method may, however, be generally obtained without pressure, by using the filter of Boullay. For operating upon small quantities of a substance, an adapter or the broken neck of a retort may be used by loosely stopping the lower and smaller end with a piece of cotton. Soubeiran has adapted to Boullay's filter a receiver of tin, from which the filtered liquor may be drawn off by a stop-cock at the most dependent part. An apparatus of this kind is represented in the margin. Precipitation is sometimes mechanical, as in the pro- cess of levigating and elutriating the carbonate of lime, and sometimes chemical, as in the preparation of this salt by decomposing chloride of calcium. When a precipitant is directed to be added until no ^r ^L 764 Chemical Operations. PART II. further precipitation takes place, the fact may be ascertained by taking a drop of the liquid on a glass plate, and trying it with the precipitant. The formation of a precipitate is often much assisted by agitation or by heat. The separation of the supernatant liquid from the precipitate is most effect- ually accomplished by means of a syphon. When the liquid is a saline solution, it is necessary to wash the precipitate until the water exhibits no trace of the salt. In doing this, great care must be taken to select the purest and clearest water, and the ultimate drying of the precipitate must be performed in„a filter, or on a porous stone. The apparatus figured in the margin is very convenient for procuring a constant and gentle stream of water in the washing of precipitates, and in clearing crystals of the impurities of their mother water. It consists of a syphon having legs of equal length, one of which is inserted in an air-tight bottle nearly filled with water, and the other dips into the funnel. A straight open tube is also inserted in the bottle, the lower end of which is about half an inch or an inch above the end of the syphon. It is obvious that the water will run from the syphon no longer than till the water in the funnel is level with the end of the strait tube. The operations which require a heat greater than that used in digesting, are liquefaction, fusion, calcination, ustulation, incineration, distillation, and sublimation. Liquefaction is the melting of those substances that become soft previously to fusion, as wax, tallow, plasters, &c. The heat employed is always below that at which charring takes place. Fusion is the melting of those substances which pass immediately from the solid to the fluid state. It is employed in pharmacy in preparing the nitrate of silver and caustic potassa for casting into cylinders. The former must be melted in a porcelain, the latter in an iron crucible. The moulds in which they are cast are formed of two thick plates of cast iron, with semi-cylindrical grooves that fit accurately to each other. Fusion is also used in preparing the glass of antimony. Calcination is - a term applied to the changes produced in mineral sub- stances by intense heat, not attended with fusion and leaving a solid residue, and is often synonymous with oxidation. The term ustulation is restricted to the metallurgic operations of roasting ores, to drive off the volatile matters, as arsenic, &c. Calcination is often used to express the ustulation or burning of carbonate of magnesia. This is to be performed in an earthen vessel at a red heat. Exposure to the heat of a potter's furnace during the burning of the kiln, is an excellent mode of performing the operation. More com- monly, the magnesia is burnt in an iron pot, which is objectionable, as the heat soon oxidates the iron, and the oxide scales off and mixes with the magnesia, which is seldom free from iron when prepared in this way. Incineration, as the name expresses, is the operation of burning substances for the sake of their ashes. It is performed in obtaining the phosphate of lime—the Cornu Ustum of the London Pharmacopoeia. The bones are burnt in an open fire until all the combustible matter is consumed. Distillation and sublimation have already been spoken of. The former is used for separating a more volatile liquid, as ether or alcohol, from one less so; for impregnating a liquid with the volatile principles of plants to part ii. Dispensing of Medicines. 765 the exclusion of other principles, as in the preparation of aromatic spirits and waters; and for separating, by means of aqueous vapour, the essential oils and volatile proximate principles of the vegetable kingdom. The first process is termed rectification. When the second process is repeated with the same liquid and a fresh quantity of the plant, the operation is termed cohobation. In submitting the solid parts of the vegetables to distillation in the two latter processes, it will be found advisable to expose them to the action of vapour on a grate or in a basket, so as to preserve them from touching the bottom of the still, where they would be liable to be heated so as to become empyreumatic. Distillation is also used for obtaining the volatile products which result from the decomposition by heat of substances of animal or vegetable origin. The oils, which are obtained in this manner are called empyreumatic oils. Sometimes the result is an acid, as the suc- cinic acid, and sometimes the volatile alkali, as in the destructive distillation of animal substances. Dispensing of Medicines. A large portion of the operations of the apo- thecary is performed in the shop extemporaneously. In dispensing medi- cines from the counter, he is continually called upon to put his previous knowledge in practice, and often to substitute extemporaneous for the regular officinal formulas. There is no part of his business which requires for its proper performance so much ready knowledge and so accurate a judgment. A few directions, suggested by running the eye over the list of preparations of the Pharmacopoeia, may be found useful. It may sometimes be necessary for the apothecary to make extemporane- ously an aromatic water which is not usually kept in the shops. In this case he is to prepare it by rubbing a drop of essential oil with one or two grains of carbonate of magnesia, for every fluidounce of water, and filtering. It is sometimes desirable to apply plasters prepared.from the narcotic herbs. These may be made extemporaneously by mixing the soft extracts of the plant with about an equal weight of melted adhesive plaster, keeping the mixture soft, and stirring it until the moisture is evaporated. The most suitable material on which to spread plasters is soft white leather. A mar- gin of half an inch should be allowed to remain around the plaster. The plas- ter iron or spatula may be heated over the large spirit lamp, figured in page 759. A skilful apothecary will be able tospread the plaster uniformly and evenly, without over- heating it so as .to penetrate or corrugate the leather. A convenient instrument for deterrrrin- ing the size and preserving a straight edge, rjrj consists of two squares made of tin and gra- duated to inches, as in the annexed figure: or pieces of paper may be cut out and pasted on the leather, so as to enclose a space of the required dimensions. The plaster should first be melted on a piece of brown paper, and then transferred to the leather, in order to prevent its being applied at too great a heat. Decoctions and infusions are often ordered in prescriptions in the quan- tity of a few ounces. A very convenient vessel for preparing them in is the common nursery lamp, which consists of a cylindrical vessel, open at the side for a spirit lamp, and at the top to receive a tea pot or tin boiler. Infusions and decoctions may be kept during the hot weather, and for many months, by straining them while hot, and pouring them at once into bottles provided with accurately ground stoppers. The bottle must be en- ■ i .i .i 11.1.i.ii !■ 11 ' i1 i'iir i1 H1 i'ii n- 766 Dispensing of Medicines. part ii. tirely filled, the stopper being made to displace its own bulk of the liquid. A common bottle with a perforated cork stopper may be used, provided the hole be instantly closed, and the cork covered with sealing wax. The hotter the liquid and the freer from air bubbles, the better will the infusion be pre- served. The neutral mixture is known to be saturated perfectly, when it does not affect litmus paper either in its blue state or when reddened by acid. For preparing this and the effervescing draught, it is advisable to keep in the shop a solution of carbonate of potassa, containing an ounce to the pint. The silica which this salt contains precipitates after a few weeks, and leaves a perfectly clear solution; whereas that prepared at the time it is to be used, always becomes turbid after being saturated. The carbonic acid which is extricated in the preparation of the neutral mixture, combines at first, without effervescence, with the remaining carbonate and forms a bisalt. This circumstance may lead, unless the solution be tested, to the supposition that the mixture is saturated. Powders are often mixed together with difficulty, by means of a pestle and mortar, on account of their differing greatly in weight, or of their soft- ness and compressibility. In these cases, frequent stirring with a pallet knife becomes necessary to produce a perfect mixture. In dividing powders into doses, it is very desirable to fold the packages neatly and of a uniform size. The powder folder repre- sented in the figure is very useful for this purpose. It may be made of mahogany or other hard wood. It is important to the apothecary to ascertain the best means of combining substances which have no affinity for each other. This can often be done by means of a third substance. Water can be saturated with camphor by means of carbonate of magnesia, and an aqueous mixture of any strength may be made with it, by triturating the camphor with magnesia and shaking the mixture before using it. Camphor softens the gum-resins and solid fats and oils, and may be rendered permanently miscible with water, in considerable quantity, by trituration with a fifth part of myrrh. In preparing oily emulsions in which gum Arabic or gum and sugar are the medium, a sufficient quantity of water must be added to convert them into a thick mucilage before adding the oil, which must then be thoroughly mixed with it, and the remaining water added gradually with great care. Sulphuric ether is rendered more soluble in water by trituration with spermaceti. The mixture should be filtered to separate the superfluous spermaceti. Mixtures that contain the resinous tinctures, should also contain syrup, with which the tincture should first be mixed, and the water then added very gradually. If a mixture contains laudanum and a fixed oil, the former should be first mixed with the syrup, and the oil afterwards incorporated, and lastly the water. The mixture will not otherwise be uniform. In ordering pills, care must be taken to avoid the use of deliquescent salts, and to deprive those which are efflorescent of their water of crystalli- zation. The mass must be thoroughly incorporated previously to being divided; and this is particularly important when extracts of different degrees of hardness enter into the composition. A section of the mass should be throughout of uniform colour and consistency. Pills are to be rolled and preserved in powdered liquorice root, which ought to be kept for use in a tin box with a perforated lid, like a pepper-box. When pills are of too soft a consistence, a little liquorice powder may be incorporated with them to render them more firm. Pills, into the composition of which gum Arabic PART II. Dispensing of Medicines. 161 enters, should be softened with syrup and not with water, as the latter renders the mass difficult to roll. The proper cleanliness of his vessels is an object of great importance to the apothecary. Open vessels, as mortars and measures, are easily cleansed, and should be wiped dry immediately after being washed. Fats and resins are easily removed by pearlash, or tow and damp ashes, or sand. Red pre- cipitate and other metallic substances, may be removed by a little nitric or muriatic acid. Bottles may be cleansed from the depositions which accumu- late on their sides and bottom from long use in the shop, by a few shreds of grocers' paper and a little clean water. They are to be shaken so as to give the paper and water a centrifugal motion, which effectually removes the dirt from the sides. They may be freed from oil by means of a little strong nitric acid, after the action of which, water will thoroughly clean them. Long sticks, with sponge or dry cloth at the end, should be provided for wiping dry the interior of flasks and bottles. A wire, bent at the end into a sort of hook, will be found useful for getting corks out of bottles. A loop of twine will also be found a very convenient means of effecting the same object. When the glass stopper of a bottle is fast, it may often be loosened by gently tap- ping its sides alternately with the handle of a pallet knife. Sometimes a drop or two of oil, alcohol, or water, will soften or dissolve the cementing substance. It will sometimes answer to wrap the stopper in a cloth, insert it in a crevice or hole in a table or door, and twist the bottle gently and dex- terously.' Sometimes the stopper may be loosened by quickly expanding the neck in the flame of a lamp, and tapping the stopper before the heat has reached it. When the stopper of a bottle containing caustic alkali adheres in consequence of the neck not having been wiped thoroughly dry, it is almost impossible to loosen it, and the neck must be cut off. The apothecary should be provided with pallet knives of wood, bone, and horn, as well as of steel. It should be an invariable rule to clean every knife and graduated measure immediately after it is used, and to put the dirty mor- tars apart from those which are clean. Too much particularity and order in all the minute details of the shop cannot be practised. The counters and scales should be cleaned once a day, and brushed as often as they become dusty. The bottles should be replaced as soon after being taken down and used as possible, and should on no account be changed from their accus- tomed place on the shelf. For the proper preservation of leaves, flowers, aromatic powders, calomel, and other medicines to which light is injurious, the bottles should be coated with tin foil or black varnish. No apothecary should be destitute of a set of troy weights ; as without • them he will find it difficult to comply with the officinal directions for the preparation of his medicines. In dispensing medicines, no vial or parcel should be suffered to leave the shop without its appropriate label; and this, in the case of prescriptions, should always be the physician's direction as to the manner of taking it, and not the name of the medicine, unless it be so directed by him. The prescription or a copy of it should be retained and numbered, and the same number marked on the bottle or parcel. Every thing connected with the shop, and the dispensing and putting up of medi- cines and parcels, should be characterized by neatness, accuracy, system, and competent knowledge. The apprentice who desires to qualify himself for his business should carefully study Turner's Elements of Chemistry, and Faraday's invaluable treatise on Chemical Manipulation, which may be termed the hand-books of his profession. D. B. S. 768 General Officinal Directions. part ii. General Officinal Directions. As all the processes of the United States and British Pharmacopoeias are either described or fully detailed in the following pages, it is proper that the prefatory explanations of the several Pharmacopoeias should be introduced in this place, in order that the reader may be prepared to understand the precise signification of the terms employed. The Pharmacopoeias recognised in this work unite in the use of the troy or Apothecaries' pound, and its divisions of ounces, drachms, scruples, and grains, for the expression of weights. Upon this subject the United States Pharmacopoeia has the following note, to which the -attention of Apothecaries is particularly invited. " It is highly important that those engaged in pre- paring or dispensing medicines should be provided with Troy weights of all denominations; but, when these are not to be had, the same end may be attained by calculating the Avoirdupois pound at 7000 Troy grains, and the Avoirdupois ounce at 437-5 grains, and making the requisite allowance. Thus 42*5 grains added to the Avoirdupois ounce will make it equal to the Troy ounce, and 1240 grains deducted from the Avoirdupois pound will reduce it to the Troy pound." As the common weights of the country are the avoirdupois weights, and every apothecary is in possession of the lower denominations of the Apothecaries' weight, viz. grains, scruples, and drachms, there can be no difficulty in complying with the officinal direc- tions. Both in the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, the quantity of fluids is generally indicated by the liquid measure, consisting of the gallon and its divisions of pints, fluidounces, fluidrachms, and minims. It is highly necessary that the apothecary should understand that this dis- tinction is rigidly observed in all the details which follow, and that when- ever the simple terms pound, ounce, and drachm are employed, they must be considered as belonging to the denomination of troy weight. This caution is the more necessary, as these terms are often confounded with the cor- responding divisions of liquid measure, viz. the pint, fluidounce, and flui- drachm. (See tables of weights and measures in the Appendix.) The London and Edinburgh Colleges, in the last edition of their Phar- macopoeias, have adopted the imperial gallon and its divisions, instead of the wine gallon which they before employed. In the United States and Dublin Pharmacopoeias the wine gallon is still retained. This discrepancy is very unfortunate, as no one denomination of the imperial measure corre- sponds exactly with the same denomination of the wine measure; and the formulas, therefore, of the London and Edinburgh Colleges, so far as mea- sures are concerned, when they agree in terms with those of the United States and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, differ from them in reality; while in other cases, though differing in terms, they may be quite or very nearly identical. It is very important that the apothecary should bear this dis- tinction in mind ; and when he has occasion to carry into effect one of the London or Edinburgh formulas, that he should make the due allowances. He will find, among the Tables in the Appendix of this work, a statement of the relative value of the several denominations of the imperial and wine measures, and by consulting this statement will be enabled to convert the former into the latter without difficulty. The measures kept in the shop should be graduated according to the divisions of the wine gallon; as this is recognised by our own officinal standard. In the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, and in those of the Edin- burgh and Dublin Colleges, when the specific gravity of a body is given, part ii. General Officinal Directions. 769 it is considered to be at the temperature of 60° of Fahrenheit; in the Lon- don Pharmacopoeia, at 62°. The United States and London Pharmacopoeias explain the term gentle heat as signifying a temperature between 90° and 100°. The Dublin Col- lege employs the terms superior, medium, and inferior heat, the first signi- fying a temperature between 200° and 212°, the second between 100° and 200% and the third between 90° and 100°. Fahrenheit's scale is referred to by all the officinal standards. Maceration, according to the Dublin College, is performed at a tempera- ture between 60° and 90°, digestion at their "inferior heat." The London College directs that acid, alkaline, and metallic preparations, and salts of every kind, be kept in stopped glass bottles, which, for certain substances, should be of black or green glass; the Dublin College, that mor- tars, measures, funnels, and other vessels in which medicines are prepared, should be made of materials containing neither copper nor lead. Earthen vessels, glazed with lead, are therefore improper. Whenever, in the United States and London Pharmacopoeias, an acid or an alkali is directed to be saturated, the point of saturation is to be ascer- tained by means of litmus or turmeric. For this purpose litmus or turmeric paper is usually employed, the latter being rendered brown by the alkalies, the former being reddened by the acids, and having its blue colour restored by the alkalies. (See Lacmus and Curcuma.) The London College directs that, unless otherwise ordered, bibulous paper should be used both for filter- ing liquors and drying crystals. Filtration by displacement, or Percolation. In relation to this process, the following directions are given in the United States Pharmacopoeia. "The kind of filtration commonly called displacement, which is employed in many of the processes of this Pharmacopoeia, is to be effected in the fol- lowing manner, unless otherwise specially directed. A hollow cylindrical instrument is to be used, somewhat conical towards the inferior extremity, having a funnel-shaped termination so as to admit of being inserted into the mouth of a bottle, and provided internally, near the lower end, with a trans- verse partition or diaphragm pierced with numerous minute holes, or, in the absence of such a partition, obstructed with some insoluble and inert sub- stance, in such a manner that a liquid poured into the cylinder may perco- late slowly. (Seepage 763.) The substance to be acted upon,having been reduced to a coarse powder, and mixed with enough of the menstruum to moisten it thoroughly, is, after a maceration of some hours, to be introduced into the instrument, and slightly compressed upon the diaphragm. Any portion of the macerating liquid which may not have been absorbed by the powder, is afterwards to be poured upon the mass in the instrument, and allowed to percolate. Sufficient of the menstruum is then to be gradually added to drive before it, or displace, the liquid contained in the mass; the portion introduced is in like manner to be displaced by another portion; and so on till the required quantity of filtered liquor is obtained. If the liquor which first passes should be turbid, it is to be again introduced into the instrument. Care must be taken that the powder be not, on the one hand, too coarse or loosely pressed, lest it should allow the liquid to pass too quickly, nor, on the other, too fine or compact, lest it should offer an un- necessary resistance. Should the liquor flow too rapidly, it is to be returned to the instrument, which is then to be closed beneath for a time, in order that the finer parts of the powder may subside, and thus cause a slower per- colation." 66 770 General Officinal Directions. part ii. ■p? The Edinburgh College gives directions for percolation under the head of Tinctures. According to that College, "the solid materials, usually in coarse or moderately fine powder, are moist- ened with a sufficiency of the solvent to form a thick pulp; in twelve hours, or frequently without any delay, the mass is put into a cylinder of glass, porcelain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, but obstructed at the lower end by a piece of calico or linen, tied tightly over it as a filter (see figure in the margin); and the pulp (fisf being packed by pressure, varying as to degree with various arti- / £?! \ cles, the remainder of the solvent is poured into the upper part of |i| the cylinder, and allowed grad ually to percolate. In order to obtain ^efiU, the portion of the fluid which is kept in the residuum, an additional gS :l| quantity of the solvent is poured into the cylinder, until the tincture H which has passed through, equals in amount the spirit originally ^ prescribed." The advantages of the process of percolation ordisplacement are, that the active soluble principles of medicinal substances are in general extracted by it more speedily, thoroughly, and economically than by any other mode; that concentrated solutions of these principles are more easily obtained; and that no portion of the impregnated menstruum need be lost by remaining in the solid mass. It is, however, liable to the objection, that considerable experience and skill are necessary to carry it properly into effect, and that, if improperly performed, it must often result in preparations very different from those contemplated in the formulas. It should not, therefore, be resorted to in the fulfilment of officinal directions, when any alternative is given, unless by individuals who have acquired the requisite skill by much prac- tice. Hence, both the United States and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, when directing displacement in any particular case, frequently give another mode of accomplishing the same object, better adapted to inexperience in the operator. The sources of failure in this process are chiefly an improper degree of comminution in the substance to be acted upon, and an improper condition of the mass after it has been introduced into the instrument. If the material be in too fine a powder, it resists or obstructs the passage of the fluid; if too coarse, it allows the fluid to pass too rapidly, and at the same time opposes its cohesion to the solvent power of the menstruum. If merely bruised, especially, if fibrous pieces of some length are intermixed, it causes the fluid to make irregular channels and thus to act uponjt partially. An improper packing of the material occasions similar inconveniences. If too compact it impedes, if too loose it injuriously facilitates the passage of the solvent, and if not uniform, it produces an irregular flow which necessarily vitiates the result. The liquid, finding an easier passage at one part than another, flows more rapidly in that direction, and thus makes channels by which it may in great measure or wholly escape, with little influence upon the mass. Besides, the uniform progression by which each superadded portion displaces that immediately beneath it is broken, the successive layers become intermingled, and thus one of the peculiar advantages of the process is lost. The following observations may be of some use in assisting the operator to avoid these consequences. The solid material should in general be in the state of a uniform coarse powder, to which it is most conveniently brought by grinding in a common coffee-mill. If its texture, however, be very hard, firm, and not easily permeable by moisture, as in certain barks, woods, and ligneous roots, it should be rather finely powdered. If, on the contrary, the texture be loose part ii. General Officinal Directions. Ill and spongy, and especially if the material be-disposed to swell up and form a viscid mass with water, so as to impede percolation, as in the case of gentian and squill, it may be advisable merely to bruise it in a mortar; though care should be taken to ao this as equably as possible; and the substances which require this treatment when water is used, may come under the gene- ral rule with another solvent, as alcohol or ether. It is generally advisable, before introducing the material into the instru- ment, to mix it with a portion of the solvent, and allow it to stand for some time in another vessel. It thus becomes more penetrable and more easily acted on by the menstruum, admits of a more uniform packing, and, if liable to swell with water, undergoes this expansion where it cannot have the effect of checking percolation. The quantity of liquid should be sufficient to form a soft pulp-like mass with the powder. In general, a weight about half that of the solid material will be sufficient, though a much larger quan- tity may be used if on any account deemed advisable. The maceration may continue on the average about twelve hours; but a much shorter time will often answer. It has sometimes been recommended to perform this pre- liminary maceration in the displacement filter, its lower orifice being closed for a time. With some substances this may be done without disadvantage ; but in all those instances in which the material is liable to swell consider- ably with water, and thus to choke the passage, the maceration should take place in another vessel. The packing of the material in the instrument is that part of the process which most requires experience in the operator, and about which the least precise rules can be given. When mixed with a considerable portion of fluid, it will often subside of itself into the proper state; but generally it requires some shaking or pressure, and the degree of the latter must be in proportion to the looseness of texture in the material; reference, however, being always had to its disposition to swell with water. Certain substances in which this property is found, such as gentian and rhubarb, must not be pressed compactly, when water is the solvent. As the percolation advances, and portions of the substance acted on are dissolved, the mass often becomes too loose, and requires to be again pressed down. Substances which are apt to form with the menstruum an adhesive and impermeable mass, such as the resins and gum-resins, may be advantageously mixed, in the state of coarse powder, with about half their weight of perfectly clean white sand, as suggested by the late Mr. Duhamel. (See Am.. Journ. of Pharm., x. 15.) The sand separates the particles of the mass, and allows the menstruum a readier access. After the moistened material has been properly packed, the upper surface should be made quite level, and then covered with a circular disk of tin or filtering paper pierced with numerous minute holes; and, if the disk be of paper, it should be kept in its place by pieces of glass rod. The solvent is thus made to enter into the mass equably, and prevented from forming partial passages by bearing upon one or a few points. The liquid is now to be introduced in successive portions, as stated in the officinal directions above given, and in the general account of the process given at page 763. The fluid which first passes is generally turbid. This should be returned into the instrument; and the same thing should be done with the portions which pass successively, until the liquid comes away perfectly clear. If the percolation be too rapid, pressure may be made upon the upper diaphragm so as to render the mass more compact, or the instrument may be closed below for a time, as stated in the officinal directions. Hence the advantage of having a stop-cock near the lower end for regulating the discharge. 772 General Officinal Directions. part ii. When the percolation is too slow, it may be increased by the pressure of a column of liquid, and this plan may sometimes be advantageously resorted to when the powder is very fine, or large masses of material are operated upon. (Seepage 763.) When the object is to keep up a constant supply of the percolating fluid, it may be accomplished by filling a long-necked bottle or matrass with the fluid, and inverting it over the filtering instru- ment, with its mouth beneath the surface of the liquid in the latter. Hot liquids may be used in the process as well as cold, and are some- times preferable when the substance yields its active principles more largely at an elevated temperature. But there is often an inconvenience in employ- ing hot water; as it dissolves or renders glutinous substances not affected by cold water, which are not requisite, and may even be injurious in the preparation, and which tend to embarrass the process by filling up the interstices of the mass, and thus rendering it less permeable. The first portion of filtered liquid is very strongly impregnated, and the portions which subsequently come away, are successively less so. It is sometimes desirable to obtain the whole of the particular solvent employed. This end may be very nearly attained by adding, at the close of the process, enough of another liquid to supply the place of that retained in the mass. It was Boullay's idea that the whole of the liquid contained in the moist material might be thus driven out of it or displaced by the one added, with- out any admixture of the two. This, however, has been ascertained not to be exactly true; and, however carefully the process may be conducted, some i mixture will take place. Hence, it is recommended, when one liquid is, j added in order to displace another, to introduce first a shallow layer of the \ same liquid with that contained in the mass. In some instances, the solvent, if consisting of two liquids, is resolved into these in the process. Thus, when myrrh is subjected to percolation with proof spirit, the first liquid which comes away is alcohol holding the oil and resin of the myrrh in solution. There are very few substances to which the mode of filtration by dis- placement will not be found applicable, if due attention be paid to the circumstances which require variations in the process. Distillation. In the preface to the last edition of the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia, the following remarks are made in relation to this process. "In the process of distillation, complete success cannot be easily attaine^L espe- cially on the small scale, without the substitution of a different apparatus for the retort and receiver commonly used. In all operations, except where inorganic acids are to be distilled, it is greatly preferable to use a globular matrass (a), to which is fitted with a cork a tube (be), cut obliquely at its lower end (b), curved above at a somewhat acute angle, and fitted at the other end to a refrigeratory. This refrigeratory consists of a long narrow PART II. Aceta. 773 cylinder (df) slightly inclined to the horizon, and of a tube (ce) which passes along the centre of the cylinder, and is fixed at each end, so that the space between them is air-tight; and by means of a funnel (gh) entering at the lower end of this interspace, and an exit tube (di) from its upper extremity, a stream of cold water may be kept constantly running, by which refrige- ration and the condensation of vapours within the inner tube are far more effectually accomplished than by any other mode that has hitherto been devised." The object of the oblique ending of the tube at b, is to prevent any of the fluid which may be driven against it, during the ebullition, from passing along the tube. The inner tube of the refrigeratory should be made of glass or block-tin, the outer may consist of glass, brass, copper, or common tinned iron. The end e of the central tube is either straight, or curved downward so that it may be inserted into a bottle, when the liquid distilled is very volatile. By connecting the funnel with a cistern by means of a syphon, and allowing the water to flow out from the bent tube di into a bucket or sink, the distillation may be allowed to go on for a long time without supervision. Dr. Christison states that a refrigeratory, with the outer tube a foot long, and an inch and a quarter in diameter, will be suffi- cient to condense the whole vapour from a matrass holding two pints of alcohol briskly boiling. W. ACETA. Vinegars. Under this title, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, are included both Distilled Vinegar and those preparations usually denominated Medicated Vinegars. The latter are infusions or solutions of various medicinal sub- stances in vinegar or acetic acid. The advantage of vinegar as a menstruum is that, in consequence of the acetic acid which it contains, it will dissolve substances not readily soluble, or altogether insoluble in water alone. It is an excellent solvent of the organic alkalies, which it converts into acetates, thereby modifying, in some measure, though not injuriously, the action of the medicines of which they are ingredients. Ae ordinary vinegar contains princip-k-s which promote its decomposition, it should be purified by distilla- tion before being used as a solvent. Infusions prepared with it, even in this state, are apt to spoil in a short time; "and a portion of alcohol is usually added to contribute to their preservation. A small quantity of acetic ether is said to result from this addition; and, on the continent of Europe, the place of the alcohol is frequently supplied by an equal amount of concen- trated acetic acid. In consequence of their liability to change, the medi- cated vinegars should be made in small quantities, and kept but for a short time. W. ACETUM DESTILLATUM. U. S., Lond., Ed.; Acetum Distil- latum. Dub. Distilled Vinegar. "Take of Vinegar a gallon. Distil the Vinegar, by means of a sand-bath, from a glass retort into a glass receiver. Discontinue the process when seven pints shall have been distilled, and keep these for use." U. S. The London process is the same as that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The Edinburgh process is as follows. "Take of Vinegar (French by pre- ference) eight parts: distil over with a gentle heat, seven parts: dilute the product, if necessary, with distilled water till the density is 1-005." The 66* 774 Aceta. part ii. Dublin College distils wine vinegar. The first tenth which comes over is rejected, the next seven-tenths are the " distilled vinegar," having the sp. gr. 1*005, and two-tenths are left behind in the retort. Vinegar is a very heterogeneous liquid, containing colouring matter, gum, sugar, alcohol, &c.; and the object of its distillation is to purify it. . (See Acetum.) The first portion which distils contains alcohol and pyroacetic spirit (acetone), these being the most volatile ingredients ; next the acetic acid comes over much purified, but weaker than it exists in the vinegar, on account of its being less volatile than water; and, if the distillation be stop- ped when the pure vinegar ceases to come over, there will be found in the retort a liquid of a deep-brown colour, very sour and empyreumatic, and containing free tartaric and malic acids, bitartrate of potassa, and other sub- stances. This statement explains why the last portion is not distilled. The proportion preserved is seven-eighths according to the U. S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, and seven-tenths according to the Dublin. The residuary liquid in the retort, if diluted with an equal bulk of hot water, may be made to yield, by a fresh distillation, a quantity of weak acetic acid equal to the residuary liquid, and of about the strength and purity of officinal distilled vinegar. Wine vinegar furnishes a stronger distilled vinegar than malt or cider vinegar. The Dublin College gives 1*005 as the density of distilled vinegar; but the product of different vinegars is by no means necessarily of the same strength or density. The Edinburgh College, assuming that distilled vinegar will have the sp. gr. of at least 1*005, directs that its density, when above that number, shall be reduced to it. When brought to this standard, the College states that 100 minims of it neutralize 8 grains of carbonate of soda. In the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, the strength of distilled vinegar is indicated exclusively by its saturating power. According to our national standard, a fluidounce is saturated by about 35 grains of the crystals of bicarbonate of potassa; and by the London College 100 grains of it are stated to be saturated by 13 grains of the crystals of carbonate of soda. The saturating power of the different officinal distilled vinegars indicates the following proportions of dry acetic acid per cent.;—U. S. Pharmacopoeia 3*9, London 4*6, Edinburgh 3*07. Considering the ordinary pharmaceutical uses of distilled vinegar, variations in its strength, limited as they are by the qualities of different vinegars, are not important. Its purity is the point of importance. If, however, precision is attempted, the saturating power and not the density must be indicated; and directions should be given for bring- ing a distilled vinegar which varies from the standard of saturating power, lo that standard by the addition either of pure acetic acid, or of distilled water. The reason why density cannot be depended upon, is that the specific gravity is not in proportion to the strength. If the vinegar contain a good deal of alcohol and pyroacetic spirit, the distilled product wijl be light, but not ne- cessarily weak. This remark applies particularly to distilled wine vinegar. The Dublin College removes in part the ambiguity of density as an indication of strength, by rejecting the first tenth which distils over; but by this rejec- tion, the more agreeable and aromatic part of the vinegar is lost. The different Pharmacopoeias, except the Edinburgh, direct the distilla- tion of vinegar to be conducted in glass vessels; but it is generally distilled in a copper alembic furnished with a pewter worm as a refrigerator. The use of these metals, however, is hazardous, on account of the danger of metallic impregnation. Mr. Brande has suggested that the refrigerator might be made of very thin silver, a metal not acted on by acetic acid of any strength. If this cannot be procured, the head and worm should be of PART II. Aceta. lib glass or earthenware. Empyreuma is effectually prevented by distilling by means of steam. Properties. Distilled vinegar is a limpid, colourless liquid, of a weak acetous taste and smell, less agreeable than those of common vinegar. It is wholly volatilized by heat. It is not a perfectly pure solution of acetic acid in water; but contains a portion of organic matter which rises in the distillation. It is on account of the partial decomposition of this impurity, that distilled vinegar, when saturated with an alkali, is liable to become of a reddish or brownish colour. When distilled in metallic vessels, it is apt to contain traces of copper, lead, and tin. Copper is detected, after satu- rating with ammonia, by the addition of ferrocyanuret of potassium, which produces a brown cloud; lead by iodide of potassium, which occasions a yellow precipitate; and tin by a solution of chloride of gold, which causes a purplish appearance. The two latter metals are discovered also by sul- phuretted hydrogen, which occasions a dark-coloured precipitate. The non-action of this gas proves the absence of metals generally. Distilled vinegar should have neither an empyreumatic taste nor a sulphurous smell. As usually prepared, however, it is somewhat empyreumatic. Malt vinegar contains a small proportion of sulphuric acid ;• but, when it is distilled, this acid does not come over. If, however, sulphuric acid should be accident- ally present in distilled vinegar, it may be detected by chloride of barium or acetate of lead. If muriatic acid be present, it may be shown by a pre- cipitate being formed with nitrate of silver; and if nitric acid be an impurity, the vinegar will possess the property, hy digestion, of dissolving silver, which may be detected afterwards by muriatic acid. Medical Properties and Uses. The medical properties of distilled vine- gar are the same as those of common vinegar (See Acetum); but the former, being purer, and not liable to spontaneous decomposition, is preferable for pharmaceutical purposes. It is employed as the basis, with but few excep- tions, of the two classes of preparations called "Vinegars" and "Oxymels." Off.Prep. Emplastrum Ammoniaci, Lond., Ed.; Hydrargyri Acetas, Dub.; Liquor Ammonias Acelalisy Lond., Ed., Dub.; Oxymel, Dub.; Plumbi Acetas, Dub.; Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor, Dub.; Potassas Acetas, Dub.; Sodas Acetas, Dub.; Syrupus Allii, U. S.; Unguentum Plumbi Compositum, Lond. B. ACETUM CANTHARIDIS. (Epispasticum.) Lond. Acetum Cantharidis. Ed. Vinegar of Spanish Flies. "Take of Spanish Flies, in powder, two ounces; Acetic Acid a pint (Imperial measure). Macerate the Spanish Flies with the Acid for eight days, occasionally shaking. Finally express and filter." Lond. "Take of Cantharides, in powder, three ounces; Acetic Acid five fluid- ounces ; Pyroligneous Acid fifteen fluidounces; Euphorbium, in coarse powder, half an ounce. Mix the acids, add the powders, macerate for seven days, strain and express strongly, and filter the liquor." Ed. This preparation is intended exclusively for external use, as a speedy epispastic. It is said, when lightly applied by a brush, to act as a rubefa- cient; and when rubbed freely upon the skin for three minutes, to be fol- lowed, in two or three hours, by full vesication. The pain produced by the application, though more severe, is also more transient than that occa- sioned by the blistering cerate. From experiments made by Mr. Redwood, it may be inferred that the preparation proves epispastic chiefly if not exclusively in consequence of its acetic acid, and that it contains little of the active principle of the flies. (Lond. Pharm. Trans., Oct., 1841.) W. 776 Aceta. PART II. ACETUM COLCHICI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Vinegar of Colchicum. "Take of [dried] Colchicum Root, bruised, two ounces; Distilled Vine- gar two pints; Alcohol a fluidounce. Macerate the Colchicum Root with the Distilled Vinegar, in a close glass vessel, for seven days; then express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside; lastly, pour off the clear liquor, and add the Alcohol. " Vinegar of Colchicum may also be prepared by macerating the Colchi- cum Root, in coarse powder, with a pint of Distilled Vinegar for two days, then putting the mixture into an apparatus for displacement, gradually pouring in Distilled Vinegar until the quantity of filtered'liquor equals two pints, and lastly adding the Alcohol. "In the above processes, Diluted Acetic Acid may be substituted for Distilled Vinegar." U. S. The London and Edinburgh Colleges direct an ounce of the fresh bulb, sixteen fluidounces of distilled vinegar, and a fluidounce of proof spirit; the Dublin College, an ounce of the fresh bulb, a pint of distilled vinegar, and a fluidounce of proof spirit; all macerate for three days, and proceed as directed in the first process of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, except that the Edinburgh College filters the expressed liquid, instead of clarifying it by rest and decantation. The resulting preparations may be considered as identical with each other, and with the American; as the dried bulb of our shops is probably not on an average much stronger than the fresh bulb in Europe, and the proof spirit of the British Colleges is equivalent to little more than half its bulk of our officinal alcohol. Vinegar is an excellent solvent of the active principle of colchicum; and the organic alkali of the latter loses none of its efficacy by combination with the acetic acid of the former. The use of the alcohol is simply to retard the spontaneous decomposition to which this, like most of the other medi- cated vinegars, is liable. Medical Uses. This preparation has been extolled as a diuretic in dropsy, and may be given in gout, rheumatism, and neuralgia; but the wines of colchicum are usually preferred. It is recommended by Scudamore to be given in connexion with magnesia, so as to neutralize the acetic acid of the menstruum. The dose is from thirty drops to two fluidrachms. W. ACETUM OPII. U.S., Ed., Dub. Vinegar of Opium. Black Drop. "Take of Opium, in coarse powder, eight ounces; Nutmeg, in coarse powder, an ounce and a half; Saffron half an ounce; Sugar twelve ounces; Distilled Vinegar a sufficient quantity. Digest the Opium, Nutmeg, and Saffron with a pint and a half of Distilled Vinegar, on a sand-bath, with a gentle heat, for forty-eight hours, and strain. Digest the residue with an equal quantity of Distilled Vinegar, in the same manner, for twenty-four hours. Then put the whole into an apparatus for displacement, and return the filtered liquor, as it passes, until it comes away quite clear. When the filtration shall have ceased, pour Distilled Vinegar gradually upon the ma- terials remaining in the instrument, until the whole quantity of filtered liquor equals three pints. Lastly, add the Sugar, and, by means of a water bath, evaporate to three pints and four fluidounces. "In the above process, Diluted Acetic Acid may be substituted for Dis- tilled Vinegar." U.S. "Take of Opium four ounces; Distilled Vinegar sixteen fluidounces. Cut the Opium into small fragments, triturate it into a pulp with a little of the Vinegar, add the rest of the Vinegar, macerate in a closed vessel for PART II. Aceta. Ill seven days, and agitate occasionally. Then strain and express strongly, and filter the liquor." Ed. The Dublin process is essentially the same as the Edinburgh, which was adopted from it. The vinegar of opium has been introduced into the Pharmacopoeias as an imitation of, or substitute for a preparation which has been long in use under the name of Lancaster or Quaker's black drop, or simply black drop. The formula of the first edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia was so deficient in precision, and consequently so uncertain in its results, that it was aban- doned in the second edition; but, as this objection was obviated in a process by Mr. Charles Ellis, published in the American Journal of Pharmacy (vol. ii., page 202), and as the preparation continued to enjoy a considerable degree of professional and popular favour, it was deemed proper to restore it to its officinal rank at the last revision of the Pharmacopoeia. The U. S. formula above given is essentially that of Mr. Ellis. It is, we think, pre- ferable to the Edinburgh and Dublin formula. In the latter we cannot but suspect that there is some waste of opium; as Dr. Montgomery, in his ob- servations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, states that twenty drops are equi- valent to thirty of the common tincture of opium, though, in the preparation of the latter, somewhat less than one-third the quantity of opium is used. As common distilled vinegar is often very weak, it would be best to employ white wine vinegar, as directed by Mr. Ellis. The chief advantage of the black drop over laudanum is, probably, that the meconate of morphia is converted by the acetic acid into the acetate; though this has not been posi- tively proved. In the original process, published by Dr. Armstrong, who found it among the papers of a relative of the proprietor in England, ver- juice, or the juice of the wild crab, was employed instead of vinegar. Other vegetable acids also favourably modify the narcotic operation of opium ; and lemon juice has been employed in a similar manner with vinegar or verjuice, and perhaps not less advantageously.* The vinegar of opium may sometimes be advantageously used when opium itself, or the tincture, in consequence of peculiarity in the disease or in the constitution of the patient, occasions so much headache, nausea, or nervous disorder, as to render its employment inconvenient if not impossible. It exhibits all the anodyne and soporific properties of the narcotic, with less tendency to produce these disagreeable effects, at least in many instances. It is of about double the strength of laudanum, six and a half minims con- taining the soluble parts of about one grain of opium, supposing the drug to be completely exhausted by the menstruum. The dose may be stated at from seven to ten drops or minims. W. ACETUM SCILLA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Vinegar of Squill. "Take of Squill, bruised, four ounces; Distilled Vinegar two pints; Alco- hol a fluidounce. Macerate the Squill with the Distilled Vinegar, in a close * The following is the formula given in the first edition of the TJ. S. Pharmacopoeia. "Take of Opium half a pound; Vinegar three pints; Nutmeg, bruised, one ounce and a half; Saffron half an ounce. Boil them to a proper consistence; then add Sugar four ounces; Yeast one fluidounce. Digest for seven weeks, then place in the open air until it becomes a syrup; lastly, decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a little sugar to each bottle." The boiling to a proper consistence, the digestion in the open air until a syrup is formed, and the addition of a little sugar to each bottle, are all indefinite directions, winch must lead to uncertain results. Independently of this want of precision, the point in whiclr the old process chiefly differs from that at present officinal is that, in the former, fermentation is induced by the addition of yeast. But fermentation is of very doubtful value in the process; at least its advantages have not been proved. 778 Aceta. PART II. glass vessel, for seven days; then express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside; lastly, pour off the clear liquid, and add the Alcohol. "Vinegar of Squill may also be prepared by macerating the Squill, in coarse powder, with a pint of distilled Vinegar for two days, then putting the mixture into an apparatus for displacement, gradually pouring in Dis- tilled Vinegar until the quantity of filtered liquor equals two pints, and lastly adding the alcohol. "In the above processes, Diluted Acetic Acid maybe substituted for Dis- tilled Vinegar." U. S. The London College directs fifteen ounces of recently dried squill, six pints (Imperial measure) of distilled vinegar, half a pint (Imp. meas.) of proof spirit, and maceration with a gentle heat for twenty-four hours. The Edinburgh College directs five ounces of dried squill, two pints (Imp. meas.) of distilled vinegar, three fluidounces of proof spirit, and maceration for seven^days. The Dublin College takes half a pound of recently dried squill, three pints of distilled vinegar, and four fluidounces of rectified spirit; and macerates for seven days. In the United Slates process by displacement, the whole of the vinegar em- ployed in the maceration, and introduced with,the squill into the instrument, should be allowed to enter the mass, before the fresh portion of vinegar is added. The preparations of the several Pharmacopoeias are so nearly the same that, for all practical purposes, they may be considered identical. The proportion of alcohol is rather less in the United States formula than in either of the others. In the formula of the French Codex there is none; but the vinegar is stronger than ours. The only object of the alcohol is to retard the decomposition of the vinegar of squill; while its presence is medi- cally injurious by rendering the preparation too stimulating. It is best, there- fore, to prepare the vinegar of squill frequently, and in small quantities, so as to require little alcohol for its preservation. In the preparation of the oxy- mel and syrup of squill, for which purpose the vinegar is chiefly used in this country, it should be employed without alcohol. The vinegar of squill deposits, upon standing, a precipitate which consists, according to Vogel,of citrate of lime and tannic acid. Medical Uses. This preparation has all the properties of the squill in substance, and is occasionally prescribed as a diuretic and expectorant in various forms of dropsy and of pulmonary disease; but the oxymehand syrup are usually preferred, as they keep better, and are less unpleasant to the taste. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms; but the latter quantity would be apt to produce vomiting. It should be given in cinnamon- water, mint-water, or some other aromatic liquid calculated to conceal its taste and obviate its nauseating effect. Off. Prep. Mistura Cascarillas Composita, Lond.; Oxymel Scillas, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Syrupus Scillas, U. S., Ed. W. ACIDUM ACETICUM CAMPHORATUM. Ed., Dub. Cam- phorated Acetic Acid. "Take of Acetic Acid six fluidounces [six fluidounces and a half, Ed.~] ; Camphor half an ounce; Rectified Spirit a sufficient quantity. Reduce the camphor to powder by means of the spirit; then add the acidj and dissolve." Dub. The use of the alcohol is simply to facilitate the -pulverization of the camphor, and a few drops are sufficient. Acetic acid in its concentrated state readily dissolves camphor. In this preparation, the whole of the cam- phor is taken up by the acid". In consequence of the powerful chemical PART II. Aceta.—Adda. 779 agency of the solution, and its extreme volatility, it should be kept in glass bottles accurately fitted with ground stoppers. Camphorated acetic acid is an exceedingly pungent perfume, which, when snuffed up the nostrils, produces a strongly excitant impression, and maybe beneficially resorted to in cases of fainting or nervous debility. It is an officinal substitute for Henry's aromatic spirit of vinegar. At Apothecaries' Hall, in London, an aromatic vinegar is prepared by dissolving the oils of cloves, lavender, rosemary, and calamus, in highly concentrated acetic acid. It is used for the same purpose as the officinal camphorated acetic acid, being dropped on sponge and kept in smellino- bottles. A similar preparation may be made extemporaneously by adding to a drachm of acetate of potassa, contained in a stoppered bottle, three drops of one or more of the aromatic volatile oils, and twenty drops of sulphuric acid. (Pereira's Mat. Med.) A preparation called Marseilles vinegar, or thieves' vinegar (vinaigre des quatres voleurs), consisting essentially of vinegar impregnated with aromatic substances, was formerly esteemed a prophylactic against the plague and other contagious diseases. It is said to have derived its name and reputation from the circumstance that four thieves, who, during the plague at Marseilles, had plundered the dead bodies with impunity, con- fessed, upon the condition of apardon, that they owed their safety to the use of it. The aromatic acetic acid of the former Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia was intended as a simplification of this nostrum. It was made by macerating for a week an ounce of rosemary, an ounce of sage, half an ounce of laven- der, and half a drachm of cloves, with two pounds of distilled vinegar, then expressing the liquor and filtering. Origanum was afterwards substituted for sage, and thirty fluidounces of acetic acid for the two pounds of distilled vinegar. In the last edition of the Pharmacopoeia the preparation has been abandoned. In the present state of knowledge, it is hardly necessary to observe, that neither the original nostrum, nor its substitute, has any other power of protecting the system against disease than such as may depend on its slightly stimulant properties, and its influence over the imagination. W. ACIDA. Acids. Acids, in chemical classification, are those compounds which are capable of uniting in definite proportions with alkalies, earths, and ordinary metallic oxides, with the effect of producing a combination, in which the properties of its constituents are mutually destroyed. Such combinations are said to be neutral, and are denominated salts. Most acids have a sour taste, and possess the power of changing vegetable blues to red; and, though these properties are by no means constant, yet they afford a ready means of detect- ing acids, applicable in practice to most cases. The above explanation of the nature of an acid is that usually given ; but, according to strict definition, acids are compounds having a strong electro-negative energy, and, therefore, possessing a powerful affinity for electro-positive compounds, such as alka- lies, earths, and ordinary oxides. It is this antagonism in the electrical condition of these two great classes of chemical compounds that gives rise to their mutual affinity, which is so much the stronger as the contrast in this respect is greater. In the majority of cases, the electro-negative compound or acid is an oxidized body, but by no means necessarily so. When an acid does not contain oxygen, hydrogen is usually present. These peculiarities 780 Acida. PART II. in composition have given rise to the division of acids by some writers into oxacids and hydracids. Vegetable acids for the most part, contain both oxygen and hydrogen. The number of acids used in medicine is small; but among these are to be found examples of the three kinds above mentioned. B. ACIDUM ACETICUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Acetic Acid. "Take of Acetate of Soda, in powder, a pound; Sulphuric Acid half a pound; Red Oxide of Lead a drachm. Pour the Sulphuric Acid into a glass retort, and gradually add the Acetate of Soda; then, by means of a sand-bath, distil with a moderate heat, into a glass receiver, till the residuum becomes dry. Mix the resulting liquid with the Red Oxide of Lead, and again distil, with a moderate heat, to dryness." U. S. The sp. gr. of this acid is 1*06, and 100 grains of it saturate 83*5 grains of crystallized bicar- bonate of potassa. "Take of Acetate of Soda two pounds; Sulphuric Acid nine ounces; Distilled Water nine fluidounces [Imperial measure]. Add the Sulphuric Acid, first mixed with the Water, to the Acetate of Soda put into a glass retort; then let the acid distil from a sand-bath. Care is to be taken that the heat be not too great towards the end." Lond. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*048, and 100 grains of it saturate 87 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda. "Take of Acetate of Potassa one hundred parts; Sulphuric Arid fifty- two parts. Put the acid into a tubulated retort, and, at different intervals of time, add the Acetate of Potassa, waiting after each addition until the mix- ture becomes cool. Lastly, with a moderate heat, distil the acid until the residuum is dry. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*074." Dub. "Take.of Acetate of Lead any convenient quantity; heat it gradually in a porcelain basin, by means of a bath of oil or fusible metal (8 tin, 4 lead 3 bismuth), to 320° F.; and stir till the fused mass concretes again : pulver- ize this when cold, and heat the powder again to 320°, with frequent stirring, till the particles cease to accrete. Add six ounces of the powder to nine fluidrachms and a half of Pure Sulphuric acid, contained in a glass matrass; attach a proper tube and refrigeratory, and distil from a fusible metal bath with a heat of 320° to complete dryness. Agitate the distilled liquid with a few grains of Red Oxide of Lead to remove a little sulphurous acid, allow the vessel to rest a few minutes, pour off the clear liquor and redistil it. The density is commonly from 1*063 to 1*065, but must not exceed 1*0685." Ed. These processes are intended to furnish a strong acetic acid. The United States, London, and Dublin formulas are similar, consisting in the decom- position of the acetate of soda or of potassa by sulphuric acid. A sulphate of the alkali is formed, and the disengaged acetic acid distils over. The acetate of soda, however, is on several accounts the best salt for decomposi- tion. Its advantages are, its uniform composition in the crystallized state, its giving rise to a residuary salt (sulphate of soda) easily washed out of the retort, and the abundance in which it can be obtained from the manufacturers of pyroligneous acid. (See Sodse Acetas.) On the other hand, acetate of potassa is a deliquescent salt, and, therefore, liable to contain a variable quantity of water, and to yield an acid of variable strength. Besides, the residue of the process (sulphate of potassa) is not so easily removed from the retort. In either process, the acetic acid is apt to pass over contaminated with a small quantity of sulphurous acid, which, however, may be removed by a redistillation from a little red oxide of lead, as is directed in the U. S. process. In the Edinburgh process, acetate of lead is first freed from water of PART II. Adda. 781 crystallization by heat, and then distilled with sulphuric acid which com- bines with the protoxide of lead, and sets free the acetic acid which distils over. As a boiling temperature is not convenient for drying, nor sufficient for decomposing the acetate of lead, the requisite temperature is obtained by a bath of oil or fusible metal. The red oxide of lead removes the sul- phurous acid by combining with it in such a way as to form sulphate of protoxide of lead, by a transfer of oxygen from the oxide to the acid. This process, when carefully conducted, furnishes an acid of the maximum strength, consisting of one eq. of dry acid, and one of water. Before proceeding to compare the different officinal acetic acids as to density, it is necessary to explain the nomenclature adopted in the several Pharmacopoeias, which is somewhat confused. All these acids may be arranged in three divisions, according as their density is high, low, or inter- mediate. The following table presents a view of their names and densities. Acetic Acid. U.S. Lond. Ed. Dub. Highest off. 1 strength. | J Intermediate } strength. > Lowest do. > Acidum Acetic-um. Sp.gr. 1-063 to 1-065. Acidum Pyrolig neum. Sp.gr. 1-034 Acidum Acetic um. Sp.gr. 1-06. Acidum Acetic-um Dilutum. Acidum Acetic-um. Sp. gr. 1-048. Acidum Acetic-um. Sp. gr. 1-074. By this table it is shown that the name " Acidum Aceticum" means in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia the acid of maximum strength, and in the other Pharmacopoeias, the acid diluted with water in various degrees. The acid of full strength was injudiciously adopted, as an officinal preparation, by the Edinburgh College. It is too powerful for convenient medicinal employ- ment, and unnecessary in the formulas for camphorated acetic acid, vinegar of Spanish flies, and creasote mixture, the only ones in which it is em- ployed by the College. Its density is given with great want of precision. This is stated to vary commonly from 1*063 to 1*065, but must not exceed 1*0685! In other words, the acid may vary from maximum strength to con- taining 3 per cent, of water. The intermediate acid varies in density, as seen by the table, according to the following numbers—1*074 Dub., 1*06 U. S., 1*048 Lond., 1*034 Ed. Dr. Christison consider the name "Acidum Aceticum" as belonging only to the strongest possible acid, and objects to its application to the intermediate acid (injudiciously called pyroligneous acid by the Edinburgh College), because it contains water in dilution. It is im- possible to attain entire precision in pharmaceutical nomenclature ; and hence the name of an acid may be conveniently applied to it when not of full strength, just as the name " Acidum Hydrocyanicum" is given to medi- cinal prussic acid by the Edinburgh College, without meaning the anhy- drous acid. The weak acid (Acidum Aceticum Dilutum) is peculiar to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and will be noticed in the next article. The specific gravity of acetic acid increases with the strength up to the density of 1*0735 (maximum), after which it decreases until it reaches 1*063, the density of the strongest acid. The following table, condensed from one given by Pereira, on the authority of Mohr, as containing the most 67 782 Adda. PART II. recent experiments, exhibits the sp. gr. of acetic acid of different strengths. The officinal and commercial acids are noted opposite to their several densi- ties, and the corresponding number in the column on the left gives the per- centage of protohydrated acid in each. Per cent. of acid. Specific gravity. Per cent. of acid. Specific gravity. 100 99 97 90 80 70 CO 54 50 40 1-063 ) . . ., r,7 rocs i Acetic acid, jlu. 1-068 1-073 1-0735 Maximum density 1-070 1-067 1-063 1-060 Acetic acid, U.S. 1-051 39 37 32 30 25 20 10 5 4 1*050 English pyroligneous acid. 1*04S Acetic acid, Lond. 1 -f>42 5 •t'cotcl1 pyroligneous acid ( (strongest). ' 1-040 1-034 Pyroligneous acid, Ed. 1-027 1-015 1-006 1-005 Distilled vinegar. Ed., Dub. The maximum density here given on the authority of Mohr (1*0735), is considerably lower than that fixed by Mollerat (1*079), and agrees best with the determination of Dr. T. Thomson (1*0713), which is still lower. Up to the specific gravity 1*062, the density of acetic acid is a pretty accu- rate index of its strength; but above that specific gravity, two acids of dif- ferent strengths may coincide in density. Thus, by the table, it is seen that an acid weighing 1*063 may be either the strongest possible liquid acid, or an acid containing only 54 per cent, of such acid. The ambiguity may be removed by diluting the acid with a portion of water, when, if the density be increased, the given specimen is the stronger acid of the two having the same density. A note referring to* the Dublin acetic acid is excluded from the table, on account of its density being given at a higher number (1*074) than even the maximum of Mohr. The density of English and Scotch pyroligneous acid (pure acetic acid from wood) is given on the authority, of Dr. Christison. The process adopted in the French Codex for obtaining acetic acid, is the distillation to dryness of the acetate of copper (crystals of Venus). The distillation must be performed in a stoneware retort, and is described in detail by Thenard. The writer of crystallization of the salt being evapo- rated before the acid begins to rise, there is a deficiency of the former liquid, necessary to hold the elements of the acetic acid together. Accord- ingly, a part of the acid is decomposed, being resolved into water, and a compound called pyroacetic spirit or acetone, which gives to the acid a peculiar fragrant smell. For an account of pyroacetic spirit and of its medical applications, see Appendix. Properties. The acetic acid of the United States, London, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias is a colourless, inflammable, volatile liquid, having an acrid taste, and fragrant, pungent smell. It unites in all proportions with water, and dissolves to a certain extent in alcohol. It is incompatible with the alkalies and alkaline earths, both pure and carbonated, with metallic oxides, and most substances acted on by other acids. It is wholly volatilized by heat, and yields no precipitate with chloride of barium or nitrate of silver. The presence of copper, lead, or tin may be detected by neutralizing the acid with ammonia, and testing successively with ferrocyanuret of potassium, iodide of potassium, and sulphuretted hydrogen, in the manner explained under Acetum Destillatum. This officinal acid consists of the strongest liquid acetic acid, diluted with a variable quantity of water. As is shown PART II. Adda. 783 by the table just given, the United States acid contains 50 per cent, of water of dilution, and the London 63 per cent. The dilution of the Dublin acid cannot be estimated from Mohr's table, but calculated from Mollerat's results, it contains 33 j per cent, of water. The saturating strength of the United States and London acids is given under their respective formulas. The corresponding acid of the Edinburgh College, called pyroligneous acid by the College, is described at p. 41. Protohydrated acetic acid (Acidum Aceticum, Ed., glacial acetic acid, or radical vinegar) is a colourless, volatile, inflammable liquid, possessing a corrosive taste, and an acid, pungent, and refreshing smell. At the tem- perature of about 40° it becomes a crystalline solid. Its sp. gr. is 1*063. The anomaly of its having first an increasing and then a decreasing density upon dilution with water, has been already noticed. Acetic acid possesses the property of dissolving a number of substances, such as volatile oils, camphor, gluten, resins and gum-resins, fibrin, albumen, &c. As it attracts humidity from the atmosphere, it should be preserved in well-stopped bottles. Its combinations with salifiable bases are called acetates. It consists of one eq. of dry acid 51, and one of water 9 = 60. The dry acid is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and its formula is C4H303. Medical Properties and Uses. Acetic acid acts as a stimulant and rube- facient. Owing to its volatility and pungency, its vapour is frequently applied to the nostrils as an excitant in syncope, asphyxia, and headache. When employed in this manner, it is generally added to a small portion of sulphate of potassa, so as to moisten the salt, and the mixture is put in small glass bottles with ground stoppers. The concentrated acid is only used externally, and acts as a rubefacient, vesicant, or caustic, according to the length of time it is applied. It is sometimes employed as a substitute for cantharides, when a speedy blister is desired; as, for example, in croup, sorethroat, and other cases of internal inflammation. It may be applied by means of blotting paper or cambric moistened with the acid. It is a good application to warts and corns, the vitality of which it frequently destroys. It is also a valuable remedy in scaldhead. The different officinal acetic acids are necessarily different in their medical applications. For producing a blister, the Edinburgh acid is unnecessarily strong, and the London too weak. Off. Prep. Acetum Cantharidis, Lond.; Acidum Aceticum Camphoratum, Dub.; Acidum Aceticum Dilutum, U.S.; Extractum Colchici Aceticum, Lond.; Morphioe Acetas, U. S., Lond.; Oxymel, Lond.; Plumbi Acetas, Lond.; Potassas Acetas, U. S., Lond.; Zinci Acetas, U. S. Off. Prep, of Acidum Aceticum, Ed. Acetum Cantharidis; Acidum Aceticum Camphoratum; Mistura Creasoti. B. ACIDUM ACETICUM DILUTUM U.S. Diluted Acetic Acid. "Take of Acetic Acid half a pint; Distilled Water five pints. Mix them." The acid resulting from the above formula is peculiar to the United States Pharmacopoeia. The object of having this preparation, is to possess a weak solution of pure acetic acid, which may be substituted for distilled vinegar in all formulas in which nicety is required. Distilled vinegar contains a portion of organic matter, which is always darkened or precipitated when this acid is saturated with an alkali, an occurrence which does not take place when the diluted acetic acid of our Pharmacopoeia is employed. As the Acidum Aceticum (U. S.) contains 50 per cent, of the strongest liquid acid, it is easy to determine by calculation that the Diluted Acetic Acid will con- tain 1*54 per cent, of the same acid. Fifteen parts by weight of the London 784 Adda. PART II. acetic acid, mixed with eighty-five of water, will form an acid, having, according to Mr. Phillips, the strength of the London College distilled vine- gar, and containing about 4*6 per cent, of dry acid. Off. Prep. Liquor Ammonias Acetatis, U. S. B. ACIDUM BENZOICUM. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Benzoic Acid. "Take of Benzoin, in coarse powder, a pound. Put the Benzoin, pre- viously thoroughly mixed with an equal weight of fine sand, into a suitable vessel, and, by means of a sand-bath, with a gradually increasing heat, sublime until vapours cease to rise. Deprive the sublimed matter of oil by pressure in bibulous paper, and again sublime." U. S. The London College proceeds as above directed, except that it does not mix the benzoin with sand before subliming. The Edinburgh College puts a convenient quantity of benzoin into a glass matrass, and operates in the same manner. The Dublin College directs five parts of benzoin, triturated with one part of fresh quicklime, to be boiled in one hundred and thirty parts of water for half an hour, the mixture being constantly stirred with a rod. After having cooled, the clear liquor is decanted, and the residue is boiled with seventy parts of water, which is also decanted when cold. The liquors having been mixed are evaporated to one-half, and filtered through paper; and one part of muriatic acid is gradually added. The precipitate produced is separated from the supernatant liquid, washed with a small quantity of cold water, dried with a gentle heat, and submitted to sublimation. Of the two processes above described, the first is most simple and easy. The acid, which exists in the benzoin combined with resin, is volatilized by the heat, and condensed in the upper part of the apparatus. Unless the temperature is very carefully regulated, a portion of the resin is decomposed, and an oily substance generated, which rises with the acid and gives it a brown colour, from which it cannot be entirely freed by bibulous paper; and this result sometimes takes place even with the greatest caution. The pro- cess for subliming benzoic acid is usually conducted in a glazed earthen ves- sel, surmounted by a cone of paper, or by another vessel with a small open- ing at top, and a band of paper pasted round the place of junction. After the heat has been applied for an hour, the process should be suspended till the condensed acid is removed from the upper vessel or paper cone, when it may be renewed, and the acid again removed, and thus alternately till coloured vapours rise. Mohr, after many experiments, recommends the following plan as unobjectionable. He considers the addition of sand useless, and even injurious by favouring the production of empyreumatic substances. In a round cast-iron pot, eight or nine inches in diameter, and two inches deep, a pound or less of coarsely powdered benzoin is placed, and uniformly strewed over the bottom. The top of the pot is closed by a sheet of bibu- lous paper, which is secured to the sides by paste. A cylinder of thick paper in the form of a hat, just large enough to fit closely around the sides of the pot, is then placed over it, and in like manner secured by paste. A moderate heat is now applied by means of a sand-bath, and continued for three or four hours. The vapours pass through the bibulous paper, which absorbs the empyreumatic oil, and are condensed in the inside of the hat in brilliant white flowers, having an agreeable odour of benzoin. (Annal. der Pharm., xxix. 178.) The remaining acid of the benzoin may be extracted, if deemed advisable, by treating the residue of the balsam with lime or car- bonate of soda. From the mode of preparing benzoic acid by sublimation, it was formerly called flowers of benzoin. By the Dublin process, the acid is extracted from the benzoin by com- part ii. Adda. 785 bining it with a salifiable base, and is subsequently precipitated by an acid. It is purified by sublimation, which gives it the peculiar silky lustre which distinguishes it. The process of the Dublin College is essentially that of Scheele. Carbonate of soda may be substituted for the lime, and sulphuric for the muriatic acid; and the precipitated benzoic acid maybe purified by dissolving it in boiling water, which will deposit it upon cooling. Sten- house unites the process of Scheele with one proposed by Liebig. After concentrating the solution of benzoate of lime, procured by boiling equal parts of benzoin and hydrate of lime with water, he adds a strong solution of chloride of lime, and subsequently a slight excess of muriatic acid, and boils till the chlorine is dissipated. The bleaching effect of the chlorine on the crystals of benzoic acid is thus obtained. The acid, however, requires to be still further purified by repeated crystallization from small portions of boiling water. A little animal charcoal may be employed to render the crystals quite colourless. These processes afford a purer product than that obtained by sublimation, but not preferable in a medicinal point of view; as the small quantity of oil present in the sublimed acid adds to its stimulant properties, and at the same time renders it pleasant to the smell. Several other modes of extracting the acid have been recommended. The following is the process of Stolze. One part of the balsam is dissolved in three parts of alcohol, the solution filtered and introduced into a retort, and the acid saturated by carbonate of soda dissolved*- in a mixture of eight parts of water and three of alcohol. The alcohol is distilled off; and the benzoate of soda contained in the residuary liquid is decomposed by sul- phuric acid, which precipitates the benzoic acid. This .is purified by solution in boiling water, which lets fall the acid when it cools. By this process Stolze obtained 18 percent, of acid from benzoin containing 19*425 per cent. By the process of Scheele (that of the Dublin College) he ob- tained 13*5 per cent.; by the agency of carbonate of soda, 12 per cent.; by sublimation only 7*6 per cent. Nevertheless, Mr. Brande says that the last process is on the whole the most economical. According to this author, good benzoin affords by sublimation from 10 to 15 per cent, of the acid contaminated with empyreumatic oil, and about 9 per cent, of the purified acid. Properties. Sublimed benzoic acid is in white, soft, feathery crystals, of a silky lustre, and not pulverulent. From solution the acid crystallizes in transparent prisms. When quite pure it is inodorous; but prepared by sublimation from the balsam, it has a peculiar agreeable aromatic odour, dependent on the presence of an oil, which may be separated by dissolving the acid in alcohol, and precipitating it with water. Its taste is warm, acrid, and acidulous. It is unalterable in the air, but at 230° melts, and at a somewhat higher temperature rises in suffocating vapours. It is in- flammable, burning without residue. It is very sparingly soluble in cold, but is dissolved by about twenty-four parts of boiling water, which deposits it upon cooling. It is soluble in alcohol, and in concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids, from which it is precipitated by water. The fixed oils also dissolve it. It is entirely dissolved by solution of potassa, and precipitated from the solution by muriatic acid. Its solution reddens litmus paper, and it forms salts with salifiable bases; but its acid properties are not powerful. Benzoic acid is supposed to consist of a peculiar hypothetical body called benzyle, and oxygen; and in the uncombined state it always contains water. Benzyle consists of fourteen equivalents of carbon 84, five of hydrogen 5, and two of oxygen 16=105. The crystallized acid contains one equiv. of benzyle 105, one of oxygen 8, and one of water 9 = 122. It cannot be de- 786 Adda. part ii. prived of its water by heat, but sometimes loses it in combination. Benzoic acid is a characteristic constituent of the balsams, and has been found in various other vegetable, and some animal products. Medical Properties and Uses. Benzoic acid is irritant to the alimentary mucous membrane, and stimulant to the system, and has been thought to be expectorant; but it is seldom used internally except as a constituent of one or two bfficinal preparations. It was proposed by Dr. Alexander Ure as a remedy for uric acid depositions in the urine, and for the chalk-like concretions, consisting of urate of soda, in the joints of gouty individuals. He supposed it to operate by converting the uric into hippuric acid, and consequently the insoluble urates into soluble hippurates. It appears, how- ever, from the observations of Mr. Baring-Garrod and Mr. Keller, that such a transformation of uric acid does not take place, but that the benzoic acid is itself converted into hippuric acid, which is always found in the urine, when the former acid is taken freely. The quantity of uric acid in the urine remains undiminished. In consequence of the acid state of urine produced by the benzoic acid, it has been found useful in the phosphatic variety of gravel; though its beneficial influence, being purely chemical, continues only during its use. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., ii. 327., iii. 41., iv. 397.) A convenient mode of exhibition is to give the acid with four parts of phosphate of soda, or one part and a half of biborate of soda, which enable it to be readily dissolved by water. The dose is from 10 to 30 grains. It is an ingredient in some cosmetic washes, and has been em- ployed by way of fumigation as a remedy in affections of the skin. Off. Prep. Tinctura Opii Ammoniata, Ed.; Tinctura Opii Camphorata, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, U. S. W. ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM. U.S., Ed. Acidum Hydrocy- anicum Dilutum. Lond. Acidum PrussicuM. Dub. Hydrocyanic Acid. Prussic Acid. Cyanohydric Acid. "Take of Ferrocyanuret of Potassium two ounces; Sulphuric acid an ounce and a half; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix the acid with four fluidounces of distilled water, and pour the mixture, when cool, into a glass retort. To this add the Ferrocyanuret of Potassium, previously dis- solved in ten fluidounces of Distilled Water. Pour eight fluidounces of Distilled Water into a cooled receiver, and, having attached this to the retort, distil, by means of a sand-bath, with a moderate heat, six fluidounces. Lastly, add to the product five fluidounces of Distilled Water, or as much as may be sufficient to render the Hydrocyanic Acid of such strength, that 12*7 grains of nitrate of silver, dissolved in distilled water, may be accu- rately saturated by 100 grains of the acid. " Hydrocyanic Acid may be prepared, when wanted for immediate use, in the following manner. "Take of Cyanuret of Silver fifty grains and a half; Muriatic Acid forty-one grains; Distilled Water a fluidounce. Mix the Muriatic Acid with the Distilled Water, add the Cyanuret of Silver, and shake the whole in a well-stopped vial. When the insoluble matter has subsided, pour off the clear liquor and keep it for use. Hydrocyanic Acid should be kept in closely stopped bottles, from which the light is excluded." U.S. The processes of the London College for medicinal hydrocyanic acid, and for that extemporaneously obtained, are the same as those of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; the latter having been adopted from the former. "Take of Ferrocyanide of Potassium three ounces; Sulphuric Acid two fluidounces; Water sixteen fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Dissolve the salt in PART II. Adda. 787 eleven fluidounces of the water, and put the solution in a matrass with a little sand: add the acid, previously diluted with five fluidounces of the water and allowed to cool: connect the matrass with a proper refrigeratory: distil with a gentle heat, by means of a sand-bath or naked gas flame, till fourteen fluidounces pass over, or till the residuum begins to froth up. Dilute the product with distilled water till it measures sixteen fluidounces." Ed. "Take of Cyanuret [Bicyanuret] of Mercury an ounce; Muriatic Acid seven fluidrachms; Water eight fluidounces. From a glass retort, distil into a refrigerated receiver, eight fluidounces, to be kept in a well stopped bottle, in a cool and dark place. The specific gravity of this acid is 0-998." Dub. Hydrocyanic acid was admitted as an officinal into the French Codex in 1818, into the first edition of the United States Pharmacopoeia in 1820, into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1826, into the London in 1836, and into the Edinburgh in 1839. It is now made by two officinal processes,—from the ferrocyanuret of potassium in the U. S., London, and Edinburgh Phar- macopoeias, and from the bicyanuret of mercury in the Dublin. It is also obtained by an extemporaneous process, when wanted for immediate use, in the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, by decomposing the cyanuret of silver. When ferrocyanuret of potassium is decomposed by sulphuric acid, the residue in the retort is bisulphate of potassa, mixed with a compound of two eqs. of cyanuret of iron and one of cyanuret of potassium (Everitt's salt). Two eqs. of ferrocyanuret, 2(FeCy+2KCy), react with six eqs. of hy- drated sulphuric acid, 6(S03--f-HO), and produce three eqs. of hydrated bisulphate of potassa, 3(KO,2SOa-(- HO), together with one eq. of Everitt's salt, 2FeCy-|-KCy, which remain in the retort, and three eqs. of hydro- cyanic acid, 3HCy, which distil over. Everitt's salt, so named from its discoverer, called biferrocyanuret of potassium by Dr. Pereira, is yellow according to Mr. Everitt; but Dr. Pereira, who prepared it with the greatest care, always found it white. Its constitution (2FeCy-fKCy) is precisely the converse of that of ferrocyanuret of potassium (FeCy + 2KCy). The rationale of the U. S. and London process for obtaining hydrocyanic acid extemporaneously is exceedingly simple. The reacting materials are single equivalents respectively of cyanuret of silver and muriaticacid. These, by double decomposition, generate hydrocyanic acid which dissolves in the water, and chloride of silver which subsides, and from which the acid is poured off when clear. (See Argenti Cyanuretum.) As the cyanuret of silver is obtained by the use of hydrocyanic acid, it seems, at first view, a use- less procedure to expend the acid to make the cyanuret, with the intention of decomposing this afterwards to get the acid. But the extemporaneous pro- cess is useful to country practitioners; because the acid will not generally keep. A portion of hydrocyanic acid, if kept by a practitioner, may spoil on his hands, before he has occasion to use it; but if he supplies himself with a portion of cyanuret of silver, he may readily at any moment prepare a small portion of the acid, by following the directions of the formula. The Dublin process is that of Gay-Lussac, with the use of a certain amount of water of dilution. Two equivalents of hydrogen from two equi- valents of muriatic acid form two equivalents of hydrocyanic acid with the two equivalents of cyanogen in the bicyanuret of mercury, while the two equivalents of chlorine form one equivalent of bichloride of mercury, or cor- rosive sublimate, with the one equivalent of mercury. The Dublin College uses a little more than the equivalent quantity of muriatic acid, to ensure the complete decomposition of the bicyanuret. The French Codex of 1837 gives the following process for hydrocyanic acid in place of the three formerly contained in that work. Take of bicya- 788 Adda. PART II. nuret of mercury thirty parts; muriatic acid (sp. gr. I* 17) twenty parts. Reduce the bicyanuret to powder, and introduce it into a small tubulated glass retort, placed over a furnace. Adapt to its neck a tube about 13 inches long, and half an inch in diameter, and filled one-half with pieces of marble, and the remainder with chloride of calcium. To this lube, arranged nearly horizontally, adapt a smaller one, bent at a right angle, and plunging into a graduated tube, surrounded with a mixture of common salt and pounded ice. The apparatus being thus arranged, and the junctures well luted, add the muriatic acid; and, having allowed the action to take place for a few moments in the cold, apply the heat gradually and cautiously. When the action is over, drive forward any acid which may have condensed in the large tube, by means of a live coal brought near to it and passed along its whole length. The quantity of acid found in the graduated tube is mixed with either six times its bulk, or eight and a half times its weight of dis- tilled water. In case the acid is weighed, the operator must carefully avoid its deleterious vapours. The above process is Gay-Lussac's, and, therefore, the same in principle as the Dublin. In the first part of it, Gay-Lussac's strong acid is obtained in the graduated tube, and this is afterwards diluted to a given extent with water. We have not found it stated what is the saturating strength of the Codex acid; but from the method of preparation, we should suppose it to be much stronger than is safe for a medicinal acid. The object of the marble and chloride of calcium is to detain, the former muriatic acid, the latter water; so that it is probable that the acid in the graduated tube, if not anhydrous, is at least pretty strong. Another process for obtaining medicinal hydrocyanic acid, proposed by Dr. Clarke, and adopted by Mr. Laming, is by the reaction of tartaric acid on cyanuret of potassium in solution. Mr. Laming's formula is as follows. Dissolve twenty-two grains of the cyanuret in six fluidrachms of distilled water, and add to this solution fifty grains of crystallized tartaric acid dis- solved in three fluidrachms of rectified spirit. Crystallized bitartrate of potassa precipitates, and each fluidrachm of the clear decanted liquor con- tains one grain of pure hydrocyanic acid. (Pereira, Elem. Mat. Med.) The reaction in this process takes place between two eqs. of tartaric acid, one of cyanuret of potassium, and one of water. The water is decomposed, and the tartaric acid, potassium, and oxygen unite to form the bitartrate, and the cyanogen and hydrogen to form the. hydrocyanic acid. Although Dr. Pe- reira considers this process to have several advantages, yet he very properly objects to it on account of the trouble and expense of obtaining the cyanuret of potassium pure, and its liability to undergo spontaneous decomposition. (See Potassii Cyanuretum.) Liebig recommends the decomposition of cyanuret of potassium with hy- drated sulphuric acid. In this case the products of the double decomposition are sulphate of potassa and hydrocyanic acid. Any cyanate of potassa present as an impurity is at the same time decomposed, and the ammonia resulting from the cyanic acid unites with the sulphuric acid, so as to form a supersulphate. The mode of proceeding is to distil one part of the cya- nuret, dissolved in two parts of water, with one part of sulphuric acid, diluted with three parts of water. The hydrocyanic acid obtained is much stronger than the medicinal acid ; but it may be reduced to any desired stand- ard, by ascertaining its strength by nitrate of silver, and then adding a proper proportion of distilled water, as determined by an obvious calculation. The processes, thus far given, are intended to furnish a dilute hydro- cyanic acid for medicinal purposes. The methods of obtaining the anhy- drous or pure acid are somewhat different. Vauquehn's process is to pass PART II. Adda. 789 a current of hydrosulphuric acid gas over the bicyanuret of mercury con- tained in a glass tube, connected with a receiver kept cold by a freezing mixture of ice and salt. The first third only of the tube is filled with the bicyanuret; the remaining two-thirds being occupied, half with carbonate of lead, and half with chloride of calcium. Another process for the anhydrous acid is that of Gautier, the details of which are thus given by Berzelius. The ferrocyanuret of potassium is fused without access of air, whereby it is converted into a mixture of cyanuret of potassium and carburet of iron. The mass obtained, after having been pulverized and placed in a flask, is slightly moistened with water, and acted on with muriatic acid, added by small portions at a time. By a double decomposition between the cyanuret and muriatic acid, chloride of potassium and hydrocyanic acid are formed. The flask is then plunged into hot water, which causes the hydrocyanic acid to be disengaged in the form of vapour. This is passed through a tube containing chloride of calcium, and finally received in a small flask kept cool by a freezing mixture. The process of Wohler for the anhydrous acid is substantially the same as that of Liebig, given in the preceding page. The cyanuret of potassium selected is a black cyanuret, formed by fusing together 8 parts of dry fer- rocyanuret, 3 of ignited cream of tartar, and 1 of charcoal in fine powder in a covered crucible. This is better than Liebig's cyanuret, which con- tains a large amount of cyanate of potassa. The cyanuret, while still warm, is exhausted by 6 parts of water, and the clear solution, placed in a retort, is decomposed by cold dilute sulphuric acid, gradually added. The hydro- cyanic acid is condensed first in a U-shaped tube, containing chloride of calcium, and surrounded with ice-cold water, and afterwards in a small bottle, connected with the U-shaped condenser by a narrow tube, and immersed up to the neck in a mixture of ice and salt. After the acid has condensed and been dehydrated in the. U-tube, the cold water surrounding it is with- drawn by a siphon, and replaced by water at a temperature between 85° and 90° Fah., whereby the anhydrous acid is made to distil over into the small bottle. (Chem. Gaz., No. 96, p. 399.) Properties of the Medicinal Acid. Hydrocyanic acid, in the medicinal dilute state, is a transparent, colourless, volatile liquid, possessing a taste at first cooling, afterwards somewhat irritating, and a peculiar smell. It im- parts a slight and evanescent red colour to litmus. If it reddens litmus strongly and permanently, the fact shows the presence of some acid im- purity. It is liable to undergo decomposition if exposed to the light, but is easily kept if the bottle containing it is covered with black paint, or black paper. Its most usual impurities are sulphuric and muriatic acids; the former of which may be detected by evaporating a small portion of the sus- pected acid, when this impurity will remain; and the latter, by precipitating with nitrate of silver, when so much of the precipitate as may be chloride of silver will be insoluble in boiling nitric acid, while the cyanuret of silver is readily soluble. The presence of these acids in slight amount is injuri- ous, only in so far as they render the strength of the acid uncertain. In- deed, Mr. Barry, of London, adds a small portion of muriatic acid to all his medicinal hydrocyanic acid, in order to preserve it. (Pereira.) In opposi- tion to the idea that the mineral acids are preservative agents, Dr. Christison remarks that he has known medicinal hydrocyanic acid from ferrocyanuret of potassium to keep perfectly well, although nitrate of baryta, added to it, did not produce the slightest muddiness. If lead be present, it may be detected by means of hydrosulphuric acid gas, which will cause a blackish discoloration or precipitate. Hydrocyanic acid is incompatible in prescrip- 790 Adda. PART II. tions with nitrate of silver, the salts of iron and copper, and most of the salts of mercury. The medicinal acid is of different strengths, as ordered by the different pharmaceutical authorities. Formerly its strength was indicated by its specific gravity, which is lower in proportion as it is stronger; but this mode of estimate has been generally abandoned. The Pharmacopoeias now, with the exception of the Dublin, rely on the saturating power as an index of strength. According to the United States and London formula, 100 grains of the acid must accurately saturate 12*7 grains of nitrate of silver, dissolved in distilled water, and produce a precipitate (cyanuret of silver), which, when washed and dried, shall weigh ten grains, and be wholly soluble in boiling nitric acid. An acid of this strength contains two per cent, of the pure anhydrous acid. The test of entire solubility in boiling nitric acid, applied to the precipitate obtained by nitrate of silver, is intended to verify its nature; for if the hydrocyanic acid contain muriatic acid, part of this precipitate would be chloride of silver, not soluble in the boiling acid. The Edinburgh acid is directed to contain about 3*22 per cent, of anhydrous acid. The mode laid down by the College for testing its strength by nitrate of silver, admits of a variation in this particular; the stronger allowable acid being one-tenth stronger than the weaker. The Dublin acid, according to Dr. Barker, contains 1*6 per cent, of the anhydrous acid. The hydrocyanic acid of the French Codex is evidently much stronger than any of these acids. Properties of the Anhydrous Acid. Hydrocyanic acid, perfectly free from water, is a colourless, transparent, inflammable liquid, of extreme volatility, boiling at 80°, and congealing at 5°. Its sp. gr. as a liquid is 0*6969, at the temperature of 64°; and as a vapour 0*9423. Its taste is at first cooling, afterwards burning, with an after-taste in the throat like that of bitter almonds; but from its extremely poisonous nature, it must be tasted with the utmost caution. Its odour is so strong as to produce immediate headache and giddiness; and its vapour so deleterious that it cannot be inhaled without the greatest danger. Both water and alcohol dissolve it readily. It is much more prone to undergo decomposition than the dilute acid. In the course of a few hours it sometimes begins to assume a reddish-brown colour, which becomes gradually deeper, till at length the acid is converted into a black liquid, which exhales a strong smell of ammonia. It is a very weak acid in its chemical relations, and reddens litmus but slightly. It does not form solid compounds with metallic oxides, but a cyanuret of the metal, the elements of water being exhaled. According to Sobrero, hydrocyanic acid is generated, in sensible quantities, by the action of weak nitric acid on the volatile oils and resins. Though a product of art, it exists in some plants. It is, how- ever, a matter of doubt, in many cases in which it is extracted from vegeta- bles, whether it is an educt or a product. (See Amygdala Amara.) Composition, §*c. Hydrocyanic acid consists of one eq. of cyanogen 26, and one of hydrogen 1=27; or in volumes, of one volume of cyanogen and one volume of hydrogen without condensation. Cyanogen is a colour- less gas, of a strong and penetrating smell, inflammable, and burning with a beautiful bluish-purple flame. Its sp. gr. is 1*8157. It was discovered in 1815 by Gay-Lussac, who considers it a compound radical, which, when acidified by hydrogen, becomes hydrocyanic acid. It consists of two eqs. of carbon l'-i, and one of nitrogen 14=26; or, in volumes, of two volumes of carbon vapour, and one volume of nitrogen, condensed into one volume. The ultimate constituents of hydrocyanic acid are, therefore, two eqs. of carbon, one of nitrogen, and one of hydrogen. Hydrocyanic acid, in a dilute state, was discovered in 1780 by Scheele, PART II. Adda. 791 who correctly stated its constituents to be carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen; but the peculiar way in which they are combined was first ascertained by Gay-Lussac, by whom also the anhydrous acid was first obtained. Medical and Toxicological Properties. Hydrocyanic acid is the most deadly poison known, proving, in many cases, almost instantaneously fatal. According to Dr. Meyer, it acts by paralysing the heart, induced by the topical application of the poison to the organ, conveyed in the blood. One or two drops of the pure acid are sufficient to kill a vigorous dog in a few seconds. Notwithstanding its tremendous energy as a poison, it has been ventured upon in a dilute state as an anodyne and antispasmodic. Though occasionally resorted to as a remedy previously to 1S17, it did not attract much attention until that year, when Magendie published his observations on its use in diseases of the chest, and recommended its employment to the profession. When given in medicinal doses gradually increased, it pro- duces the following symptoms in different cases:—peculiar bitter taste; increased secretion of saliva; irritation in the throat; nausea; disordered respiration; pain in the head ; giddiness; faintness; obscure vision ; and tend- ency to sleep. The pulse is sometimes quickened, at other times reduced in frequency. Occasionally salivation and ulceration of the mouth are pro- duced. It has been most highly recommended and extensively used in Complaints of the respiratory organs, and is supposed to exert a control over pulmonary inflammation, after the excitement has been diminished by blood- letting; and there is no doubt that in some instances it has been found bene- ficial under such circumstances. In tubercular phthisis it has no power whatever, except as a palliative for the cough. In the various affections of the chest, however, attended with dyspnosa or cough, such as asthma, hooping cough, and chronic catarrh, it has often been decidedly bene- ficial, by allaying irritation or relaxing spasm. In hypertrophy of the heart, and aneurism of the aorta, it has also been used with advantage. In various affections of the stomach, characterized by pain and spasm, and sometimes attended with vomiting, but unconnected with inflammation, hydrocyanic acid has proved beneficial in the hands of several practitioners. It has also been administered as an anodyne in several painful affections, as cancer, tic douloureux, &c, but with doubtful advantage. Sometimes it is used externally, diluted with water, as a wash in cutaneous diseases. Dr. A. T. Thomson, from his personal observation, insists particularly on its efficacy in allaying the itching in impetiginous affections. The dose of medicinal hydrocyanic acid is from one to six or eight drops, dissolved in distilled water, or mixed with gum water or syrup. It requires to be administered with the greatest caution, on account of the minuteness of the dose, and the great variableness in strength of the acid as found in the shops. The proper plan, therefore, is to begin with a small dose, one drop, for example, and gradually to increase the quantity until some obvious im- pression is produced. If giddiness, weight at the top of the head, sense of tightness at the stomach, or faintness come on, its use should be discontinued. In all cases in which a fresh portion of medicine is used, the dose should be lowered to the minimum, lest the new sample might prove stronger than that previously employed. When resorted to as a lotion, from thirty minims to a fluidrachm may be dissolved in a fluidounce of distilled water. Hydrocyanic acid is so rapidly fatal as a poison that physicians have seldom an opportunity to treat its effects. When not immediately fatal, the symptoms produced are sudden Joss of sense, trismus, difficult and rattling respiration, coldness of the extremities, a smell of bitter almonds proceeding from the mouth, smallness of the pulse, swelling of the neck, dilatation and 792 Adda. PART II. immobility and sometimes contraction of the pupils, convulsions, &c. The antidotes and remedies most to be relied on, are chlorine, ammonia, cold affusion, and artificial respiration. Chlorine in the form of chlorine water, or weak solutions of chlorinated lime or soda, may be exhibited internally, or applied externally. When chlorine is not at hand, water of ammonia, largely diluted, may be given, and the vapour arising from it cautiously inhaled. A case is related in the Dublin Med. Journal, for Nov., 1835, of poisoning by this acid, in which the diluted aromatic spirit of ammonia applied to the mouth, and the solid carbonate assiduously applied to the nostrils, produced speedy beneficial effects. Cold affusion was first pro- posed in 1828 by Herbst, and its utility was subsequently confirmed by Orfila. Its efficacy is strongly supported by experiments performed in 1839 by Dr. Robinson and M. Lonyet, who quickly resuscitated rabbits, apparently dead from hydrocyanic acid, by pouring on their head and spine a stream of water artificially refrigerated. Messrs. J. & J. H. Smith, of Edinburgh, have recommended as an antidote, a mixture of the sulphates of the protoxide and sesquioxide of iron, associated with carbonate of potassa. So soon as the antidote comes in contact with hydrocyanic acid, sulphate of potassa is formed, and the poison is converted into Prussian blue. This antidote is proposed by the Messrs. Smith for the medicinal acid only. It is of no avail against the anhydrous acid, or this acid diluted with an equal volume of water, as has been shown by M. Larocque and others. After death from suspected poison, it is sometimes necessary to ascertain whether the event was caused by this acid. If death has taken place a long time, it would be needless to search for so volatile a poison; but it has been recognised in one instance seven days after death. The best test, in ordinary cases, is a solution of nitrate of silver, which gives a white curdy precipitate of cyanuret of silver, distinguishable from the chloride by its exhaling the peculiar odour of prussic acid on the addition of muriatic acid. In cases in which the liquid supposed to contain the poison, is disguised by colouring and animal matter, M. Ossian Henry recommends that it should be distilled into a pure weak solution of the nitrate; when, if the suspected acid be present, cyanuret of silver will be precipitated. In order to render it certain that the precipitate when minute is the cyanuret, M. Henry recommends that it be converted into the ferrocyanuret of sodium. The conversion is effected by heating the cyanuret with half its weight of common salt, which generates chloride of silver, and cyanuret of sodium. The latter is then taken up by water, and the solution filtered. To this is added a small portion of the fresh hydrated oxide of iron, obtained by precipitating a solution of sulphate of iron by potassa. The solution is again filtered, and moderately heated. Ferrocyanuret of sodium is thus formed, the least trace of which strikes a blue colour with the sulphate of sesquioxide of iron, and a brown one with the sulphate of copper. For the tests severally of M. Witting and Mr. Richard Austin, jun., of Dublin, see Chem. Gaz., No. 54, p. 46, and No. 87, p. 220. Off. Prep. Argenti Cyanuretum, U.S., Lond.; Hydrargyri Bicyanidum, Lond. B. ACIDUM MURIATICUM DILUTUM. U.S., Ed.,Dub. Acidum Hydrochloricum Dilutum. Lond. Diluted Muriatic Acid. "Take of Muriatic Acid four fluidounces; Distilled Water twelve fluid- ounces. Mix them in a glass vessel. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*046." U.S. The London and Edinburgh directions are the same as those of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The U. S. and London diluted acids are identical; but the PART II. Adda. 793 Edinburgh diluted acid is somewhat stronger (1*050), in consequence, of the pure muriatic acid of that College having a density of 1*17, instead of 1*16 (U. S., Lond.). The Dublin College mixes ten measures of Muriatic Acid with eleven of Distilled Water, and states the density of the acid to be 1*080. It is convenient to have an officinal diluted muriatic acid, and, at present, all the Pharmacopoeias give a formula for it. The acids of the U. S., Lon- don, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias virtually agree in strength; that of the Dublin College is^nearly twice as strong. For an account of the medicinal properties of muriatic acid, see Acidum Muriaticum. The dose of the diluted acid is from twenty to sixty drops ; of the Dublin acid, about half that quantity, mixed with water or other convenient vehicle. The Dublin College employs this acid, as a chemical agent, in the preparation of Calcis Phosjjhas Prsecipitatum. B. ACIDUM NITRICUM DILUTUM. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Diluted JVitric Acid. "Take of Nitric Acid a fluidounce ; Distilled Water nine fluidounces. Mix them in a glass vessel. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*08." U. S. The London formula is the same as that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. " Mix together one fluidounce of Pure Nitric Acid (D. 1*500), and nine fluidounces of Distilled Water. If the Commercial Nitric Acid of D. 1*390 be used, one fluidounce and five fluidrachms and a half axe required. The density of this diluted acid is 1*077." Ed. Take of Nitric Acid by measure, three parts; Distilled Water by measure, four parts. Mix, avoiding the noxious vapours. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*280." Dub. At present all the Pharmacopoeias embrace Diluted Nitric Acid, for con- venience in prescribing. The acids of the U.S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias are of the same strength, being for equal volumes with the strong acid, a little more than one-tenth its strength. The acid of the Dublin College is somewhat less than half as strong as the concentrated acid, and is, therefore, nearly five times as strong as the other officinal acids. The medicinal properties of the diluted acid are the same as those of the strong acid. (See Acidum Nitricum.) The dose of the U.S., Lond., and Ed. acid is from twenty to forty drops three times a day, sufficiently re- duced with water at the time of taking it; of the Dublin acid, from five to ten drops. Diluted nitric acid is used by the Dublin College, as a chemical agent merely, in preparing Calomelas Prascipitatum, Hydrargyri Acetas, and Hy- drargyri Oxydum Nitricum. A diluted nitric acid is used by the Edinburgh College for preparing the red oxide of mercury ; but it is directed to have the density of 1*280, and is, therefore, not the officinal diluted acid of that College. Off.Prep. Argenti Nitras Fusum, Dub.; Argenti Nitratis Crystalli, Dub.; Bismuthi Subnitras, Dub.; Plumbi Nitras, Ed. B. ACIDUM NITROMURIATICUM. U.S., Dub. Mtromuriatic Add. "Take of Nitric Acid four fluidounces ; Muriatic Acid eight fluidounces. Mix them in a glass vessel, and, when effervescence has ceased, keep the product in a well-stopped glass bottle, in a cool and dark place." U. S. The Dublin formula need not be given, as it is the original of that now for the first time introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 68 794 Adda. part ii. Nitromuriatic acid is the aqua regia of the earlier chemists, so called from its property of dissolving gold. Nitric and muriatic acids, when mixed together, mutually decompose each other. The quantities necessary to render the decomposition complete are one equivalent of each. One eq. of hydrogen of the muriatic acid forms water with one eq. of oxygen of the nitric acid, which consequently becomes nitrous acid, and chlorine is set free. The preparation, therefore, after the reaction is over, is a solution of nitrous acid and chlorine in water. As the acids, considered dry, must be used in the proportion of their equivalents, it is easy to calculate in what proportion the officinal acids of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia must be mixed, so as to contain equivalent quan- tities of the dry acids. Thus 67*7 parts of the U. S. nitric, acid, and 114*4 parts of the U.S. muriatic acid, contain respectively one eq. of dry acid. It hence follows that the U. S. officinal acids, for complete decomposition, must be mixed in this proportion, or in the ratio of 10 to 17 nearly; and the mixture will contain, by calculation, somewhat less than 20 per cent, of free chlorine, assuming that none is lost by effervescence. This ratio by weight, turned into volumes, would be 1 measure of nitric acid to 2*19 measures of muriatic acid. But the formula calls for 1 measure of nitric acid to 2 mea- sures of muriatic acid ; and hence it is evident that the nitric acid is used in an amount, somewhat more than sufficient to decompose the whole of the muriatic acid. These calculations, of course, apply also to the Dublin nitro- muriatic acid, the slight difference between the officinal densities of the Dublin and U. S. nitric acid (1*49 and 1*5) not affecting sensibly the result. The affinity of chlorine and nitrous acid for water being much less than that of muriatic and nitric acids for the same liquid, the mixture of the strong acids is always attended with the production of effervescence. To prevent the loss of chlorine, Dr. Duncan recommends the immediate dilu- tion of the mixture with an equal quantity of water. On account of these Objections to the use of the strong acids, it is best to employ gcod ordinary acids of commerce. The strength of these may be stated as averaging 1*15 for muriatic, and 1*34 for nitric acid; and the proportions in which they should be mixed is about 26 parts by weight of the former to 25 of the latter. The mixture contains about 15 per cent, of chlorine. The de- composition, in this case, takes place slowly, and the resulting solution of chlorine may be kept without inconvenience. Properties. Nitromuriatic acid has a golden-yellow colour, and emits the smell of chlorine. It possesses the power of dissolving gold and platinum, owing solely, it is generally supposed, to the presence of chlorine; but, according to Millon, the. action does not take place without the presence of nitrous acid. In the opinion of Baudrimont, the efficient solvent of gold and platinum in this mixed acid is a compound of one eq. of hyponitrous acid and two of chlorine (N03,C12), which corresponds in constitution with dry nitric acid (N05), two eqs. of oxygen being replaced by two of chlorine. (Journ. de Pharm.) It requires to be kept in a cool, dark place, on account of its liability to lose chlorine by heat, or to have it converted, by the action of light, into muriatic acid, in consequence of the decomposition of water. On account of its liability to decomposition, it should not be made by the apothecary until it is wanted for use, and then only in the quantity ordered; the formula being introduced merely as a guide for the proportions. The nitric and muriatic acids, as sold in the shops, are sometimes so weak that when mixed they will not readily act on gold-leaf. When this is the case, their solvent power may be rendered effective by the addition of a little sul- phuric acid, which, by its superior attraction for water, concentrates the part n. Adda. "795 other acids, and produces an immediate action, accompanied by the evolution of chlorine.* Medical Properties and Uses. Nitromuriatic acid was brought into notice as a remedy, in consequence of the favourable report of its efficacy as an external remedy in hepatitis, made by Dr. Scott, formerly of Bombay. When thus employed, it produces a tingling sensation in the skin, thirst, a peculiar taste in the mouth, and occasional soreness of the gums and plentiful ptyalism; and at the same time stimulates the liver, as is evinced by an increased flow of bile. It is used either by sponging, or in the form of bath. When applied in the former way, the acid is first diluted so as to have the acidity of strong vinegar. When used as a bath, three gallons of water contained in a deep, narrow, wooden tub, may be acidulated with six fluid- ounces of the acid. In this the feet and legs are to be immersed for twenty minutes or half an hour. The bath may be employed at first daily, and afterwards twice or thrice a week; and the sponging may be used at the same time. The bath is said to be effective in promoting the passage of biliary calculi. The acid may be used also internally, principally in hepatic and syphilitic diseases. The dose in this case is three or four drops, suffi- ciently diluted with water. B. ACIDUM PHOSPHORICUM DILUTUM. Lond. Diluted Phos- phoric Acid. "Take of Phosphorus an ounce; Nitric A€\d four fluidounces; Distilled Water ten fluidounces. Add the Phosphorus to the Nitric Acid, mixed with the Water in a glass retort placed in a sand-bath; then apply heat until eight fluidounces are distilled. Put these again into the retort, that eight fluid- ounces may distil, which are to be rejected. Evaporate the remaining liquor in a platinum capsule until only two ounces and six drachms remain. Lastly., add to the acid, when it is cold, as much distilled water as may be sufficient to make it accurately measure twenty-eight flouidounces." Lond. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*064. One hundred grains of it saturate forty-two grains of carbonate of soda. Imperial measure is to be understood in this formula. The process for this new officinal of the London College may be thus explained. Phosphorus, when added to strong nitric acid, decomposes it with explosion and rapid combustion; but when distilled with the diluted acid the action takes place slowly, the phosphorus gradually melts and becomes oxidized, and nitric oxide is evolved. Before, however, the whole of the phosphorus is acidified, the nitric acid will have distilled over; and hence the necessity of returning it into the retort, as directed by the College, in order to complete the acidification of the phosphorus. When this has been completed, all remains of nitric acid are driven off by the evaporation in the platinum capsule; and the residue, which contains all the phosphoric acid that can be generated from an ounce of phosphorus, is brought to a staudard degree of dilution, by the addition of sufficient distilled water to make it measure twenty-eight fluidounces. (See Acidum Nitricum and Phosphorus.) Phosphoric acid may be obtained more economically than by the above process, by decomposing phosphate of lime (calcined bones) by sulphuric acid, saturating the superphosphate formed with carbonate of ammonia, which generates phosphate of ammonia in solution with precipitation of phosphate of lime, and finally decomposing the phosphate of ammonia by ■* In relation to nitromuriatic acid, see a paper in the third volume of the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, by Daniel B. Smith. 796 Adda. part ii. a red heat in a platinum crucible. The ammonia is thus expelled, and the solid residuum will be the phosphoric acid. Wackenroder has given another process for medicinal phosphoric acid, which requires the use of alcohol, and is, therefore, ineligible. Gregory finds that the process for phosphoric acid, given in his "Outlines," in which alcohol is used to separate the phosphate of magnesia, will not answer. He accordingly gives an amended process, which may be found described in the Chem. Gaz., No. 62, p. 216. Properties. Diluted phosphoric acid is a colourless, inodorous, sour liquid, acting strongly on litmus, and possessing powerful acid properties. Although evaporated so as to become dense, it is not powerfully corrosive like the other mineral acids. From its saturating power it is shown to contain 10*5 per cent, of real phosphoric acid. With chloride of barium and nitrate of silver it forms precipitates (the phosphates of baryta and silver), which are readily soluble in nitric acid. If the tests mentioned give a precipitate not soluble in this acid, they prove the presence—the chloride of barium, of sulphuric acid or a sulphate; the nitrate of silver, of muriatic acid or a chloride. If carbonate of soda causes a precipitate, phosphate of lime, or some other phosphate insoluble in water, is probably held in solu- tion. The presence of one-tenth of phosphorous acid, or of a minute quantity of arsenic acid, renders the medicinal acid poisonous. (Weigel and Krug.) When the diluted acid is evaporated to dryness and heated to redness, it becomes a transparent, white, brittle, fusible solid, formerly called glacial phosphoric acid, now denominated metaphosphoric acid. Phos- phoric acid consists of one eq. of phosphorus 31*4, and five of oxygen 40=71*4. Medical Properties and Uses. Diluted phosphoric acid is deemed tonic and refrigerant. It is preferable in point of flavour to the diluted sulphuric acid, and is less apt to disturb the digestive functions. Various powers have been ascribed to it, such as allaying pain and spasm, strengthening the sexual organs, preventing the morbid secretion of bony matter, and correct- ing phosphatic deposits in the urine, on the ground of its power of dissolv- ing phosphate of lime. It has been recommended in leucorrhoea, when the secreted fluid is thin and acrid, in hysteria, and diabetes. In the latter dis- ease Dr. Paris found it to allay the thirst more effectually than any other acid drink. The dose is from twenty drops to a teaspoonfui, diluted with water. B. ACIDUM SUCCINICUM. Dub. Succinic Acid. "Take of Amber reduced to coarse powder, and of pure sand, each, one part. On the application of heat gradually increased, an acid liquor, an oil, and the acid in a crystallized form will distil over. The latter should be received on bibulous paper, and exposed to a strong pressure to expel the oil, and again sublimed. By filtration through bibulous paper, the oil may be obtained separate from the acid liquor." Dub. The above formula has for its object to obtain the oil of amber, as well as succinic acid; but our remarks will bff confined in this place to the acid, the oil being described under another head. (See Oleum Succini.) Amber contains succinic acid ready formed, associated with volatile oil, certain resins, and other substances. (See Succinum.) When distilled, it swells considerably, and a yellow liquid, consisting of a solution of impure succinic acid, first comes over; after which a concrete substance sublimes containing the same acid. (See page 693.) It is this concrete substance separated from contaminating oil and re-sublimed, which constitutes the succinic acid of tie Dublin College. The College directs the admixture of sand, to prevent tne amber from swelling too much by the heat. PART II. Adda. 797 Several processes have been proposed to purify succinic acid. The best is that of Morveau, which consists in dissolving the acid in twice its weight of nitric acid, and evaporating the solution*to dryness. In this way the oil is decomposed, while the succinic acid remains unaltered. This is then washed in a little ice-cold water, next dissolved in boiling water, and crys- tallized. Properties. Succinic acid, when pure, is a white, transparent solid, crys- tallizing in prisms, and having a somewhat acrid taste. It reddens litmus strongly. It exists in the resins of certain coniferas, and is a product of the oxidation of stearic and margaric acids. One of its salts, succinate of ammo- nia, has been used with great alleged success in delirium tremens. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., v. 241.) Exposed to heat it melts, and above the boiling point of water is partly sublimed and partly decomposed. It dissolves in five times its weight of cold, and twice' its weight of boiling water. It is soluble also in cold alcohol, and much more so in boiling alcohol. When anhydrous it consists of four eqs. of carbon 24, two of hydrogen 2, and three of oxygen 24=50 (C4Ha03). It differs, therefore, from acetic acid, only in containing one eq. less of hydrogen. The sublimed acid consists of two eqs. of dry acid and one of water (2C4H203-J-HO). Succinic acid is at present never used in medicine, and ought to be expunged from the officinal catalogue. It has been abandoned by the Edin- burgh College in the last revision of its Pharmacopoeia. B. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM AROMATICUM. U.S., Ed., Dub. Aromatic Sulphuric Acid. Elixir of Vitriol. "Take of Sulphuric Acid three fluidounces and a half; Ginger, bruised, an ounce; Cinnamon, bruised, an ounce and a half; Alcohol two pints. Add the Acid gradually to the Alcohol, and digest, in a close vessel, for three days; then add the Ginger and Cinnamon, and macerate for a week; lastly, filter through paper." U. S. "Take of Sulphuric Acid (commercial) three fluidounces and a half; Rectified Spirit a pint and a half [Imp. meas.]; Cinnamon, in moderately fine powder, an ounce and a half; Ginger, in moderately fine powder, an ounce. Add the acid gradually to the spirit, let the mixture digest at a very gentle heat for three days in a closed vessel; mix the powders, moisten them with a little of the acid spirit, let the mass rest for twelve hours, and then put it into a percolator and transmit the rest of the acid spirit. This preparation may also be made by digesting the powders for six days in the acid spirit, and then straining the liquor." Ed. The Dublin process is substantially the same as those of the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, and therefore need not be copied. The original of the formulas here given for elixir of vitriol was the process contained in the former Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, which was adopted, with slight alteration, in the U. S. and Dublin standards. The present formula of the Edinburgh College differs from its original one, in substituting for the weights of the acid and spirit, the nearest equivalent measures, and in giving the alternative of preparing by displacement. The same substitution was made in the formula when it was first adopted in the U. S. Pharma- copoeia, and hence the two formulas are virtually the same. The only difference is in the proportion of the spirit, which is 32 wine fluidounces in the U. S. formula, and 30 Imperial fluidounces in the Edinburgh. This circumstance makes the U. S. preparation somewhat weaker in acid than the Edinburgh, because more diluted with spirit. Properties. Aromatic sulphuric acid is a reddish-brown liquid, of a pe- 68* 798 Adda. PART II. culiar aromatic odour, and, when sufficiently diluted, of a grateful acid taste. It has been supposed by some to be a kind of ether, its main ingredients justifying such a suspicion; but the late Dr. Duncan, who originally held this opinion, satisfied himself that the alcohol and sulphuric acid, in the proportions here employed, do not produce a single particle of ether. It must, therefore, be viewed merely as sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol, and containing the essential oils of ginger and cinnamon. Medical Properties and Uses. This valuable preparation, commonly called elixir of vitriol, is a simplification of Mynsicht's acid elixir. It is tonic and astringent, and affords the most agreeable mode of administering sulphuric acid. It is very much employed in debility with night sweats, in loss of appetite, and in the convalescence from fevers, especially those of the intermittent type. It is often given in conjunction with cinchona, the taste of which it serves to cover, and, by increasing the solubility of the febrifuge principles of the bark, appears to increase its efficacy. (See In- fusum Cinchonse Compositum.) It haemoptysis- and other hemorrhages, when not attended with obvious inflammation, it frequently proves useful in stopping the flow of blood. The dose is from ten to thirty drops in a wineglassful of water, repeated two or three times a day. Care must be taken that the teeth are not injured by the acid. Off. Prep. Infusum Cinchonas Compositum, U. S. B. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM. U. S.t Lond., Ed., Dub. Diluted Sulphuric Acid. " Take of Sulphuric Acid a fluidounce ; Distilled Water thirteen fluid- ounces. Add the Acid gradually to the Water, in a glass vessel, and mix them. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*09." U.S. " Take of Sulphuric Acid a fluidounce and a half; Distilled Water four- teen fluidounces and a half. Add the Acid gradually to the Water, and mix them." Lond. " Mix together one fluidounce of Sulphuric Acid and thirteen fluidounces of Water. The density of this preparation is about 1*090." Ed. " Take of Pure Sulphuric Acid one part; Distilled water seven parts. Gradually add the Acid to the Water. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*084." Dub. This preparation is sulphuric acid, diluted to such an extent as to make it convenient for prescription. The U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias agree in making the strong acid to the water as one to thirteen in volume, equivalent nearly to one to seven in weight, the ratio adopted by the Dub- lin College. There is, accordingly, a virtual agreement in the strength and density of the acid by these three processes; but unfortunately the formula of the London College gives an acid considerably stronger. The coincident processes afford an acid containing about 13 per cent, of the strong liquid acid; while the London acid contains 16 per cent., and has a specific gravity as high as 1*11. According to Mr. Philips, a fluidrachm (Imp. meas.) of the London acid contains about ten grains of the strong acid, and will saturate twenty-eight grains of crystallized carbonate of soda. The strong acid is added gradually to the water, to guard against the too sudden production of heat, which might cause the fracture of the vessel. During the dilution, when commercial sulphuric acid is used, the liquid becomes slightly turbid, and in the course of a few days deposits a grayish-white powder which is sulphate of lead, and from which the diluted acid should be poured off for use. This noxious salt is thus got rid of, but sulphate of potassa, another impurity in the strong acid, still remains in solution. To avoid these im- purities, the Dublin College directs the dilution of pure sulphuric acid. The part ii. Adda. t 799 presence of a small portion of sulphate of potassa will do no harm; but if it should be fraudulently introduced into the strong acid to increase its specific gravity, its amount may be ascertained by saturating the acid, after dilution, with ammonia, and expelling, by a red heat, the sulphate of ammonia formed. Whatever sulphate of potassa is present will remain behind. Medical Properties and Uses. Diluted sulphuric acid is tonic, refrige- rant, and astringent. It is given in low typhoid fevers, and often with advantage. In the convalescence from protracted fevers, it often acts bene- ficially as a tonic, exciting the appetite and promoting digestion. As an astringent, it is employed in colliquative sweats, passive hemorrhages, and diarrhoeas dependent on a relaxed state of the mucous membrane of the intestines. In calculous affections attended with phosphatic sediments, it is the proper remedy, being preferable to muriatic acid, as less apt, by con- tinued use, to disorder the stomach. Externally it is used as an ingredient in gargles for ulcerated sorethroat and for checking excessive ptyalism, and as a wash for cutaneous eruptions and ill-conditioned ulcers. The dose is from ten to thirty drops three times a day, in a wineglass or two of plain or sweetened water. It is added with advantage to infusions of cinchona, the organic alkalies of which it tends to hold in solution. As it is apt to injure the teeth, it is best taken by sucking it through a quill. It is much less used in the United States than the elixir of vitriol, which possesses nearly the same medical properties. An elegant form for giving it is the com- pound infusion of roses. (See Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum and Iufusum Rosas Compositum.) Diluted sulphuric acid is used as a chemical agent to prepare Acidum Citricum, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Acidum Tartaricum, Lond., Ed.; Aconitina, Lond.; Antimonii Sulphuretum Prascipitatum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Strychnia, U. S., Lond.; Veratria, U. S., Lond. Off. Prep. Infusum Rosas Compositum, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mor- phias Sulphas, U. S.; Gluininas Sulphas, Dub.; Zinci Sulphas, Lond., Ed. B. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM PURUM. Ed., Dub. Pure Sulphuric Acid. " If Commercial Sulphuric Acid contain nitrous acid, heat eight fluid- ounces of it with between ten and fifteen grains of sugar, at a temperature not quite sufficient to boil the acid, till the dark colour at first produced shall have nearly or altogether disappeared. This process removes nitrous acid. Other impurities may be removed by distillation, which on the small scale is easily managed by boiling the acid, with a few platinum chips, in a glass retort by means of a sand-bath or gas flame, rejecting the first half ounce." Ed. "Take of Commercial Sulphuric Acid a pound. Put the acid into a retort of flint glass, attach a receiver of the same kind, and with the junc- tures of the vessels left open, let heat be applied to the retort until one- twelfth part of the liquor shall have distilled over: this, as it contains water, should be rejected. The receiver being again applied, the residuum is to be distilled to dryness. A few slips of platinum, put into the acid in the retort, will restrain the ebullition, which otherwise would be too violent. The specific gravity of this acid is 1*845. Let the acid be kept in well closed vessels." Dub. The object of these processes is the purification of commercial sulphuric acid. This acid contains the sulphates of lead and potassa, amounting not unfrequently to three or four per cent.; and nitrous acid is almost always 800 Adda. PART II. present. The salts mentioned, not being volatile, are effectually got rid of by distillation, as directed in the formula. The manner of conducting the distillation is explained at page 48, under the head of Acidum Sulphuricum. The mode of detecting nitrous acid is pointed out at page 46. If present in the commercial acid, the Edinburgh College directs, before distilling it, that it should be heated with a small proportion of sugar, according to the plan of Wackenroder. The acid impurity and sugar mutually decompose each other, and the products are dissipated by the heat. The acid is at first rendered dark and opaque, but gradually becomes pale yellow, if kept for two hours near the boiling point. Nitrous acid is hurtful to the sulphuric, when the latter is used to obtain muriatic acid, which consequently becomes contaminated with chlorine. Hence the Edinburgh College uses pure sulphuric acid in the formula for preparing muriatic acid. If the com- mercial sulphuric acid contain arsenic, it should not be distilled, but rejected. The tests for this impurity are given at page 47. It is, perhaps, an advantage to have an officinal pure sulphuric acid. The least danger of introducing lead into the system, when exhibiting the prepa- rations containing sulphuric acid, should be carefully avoided. It is true that the commercial acid, upon dilution, lets fall the sulphate of lead; but can we be certain that the precipitate is always removed from the preparation into which the diluted acid enters ? When the acid is required as a mere chemical agent, or for forming sulphates, the commercial acid is sufficiently pure. There is a want of precision in the nomenclature of the officinal sulphuric acids in the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. The Edinburgh Col- lege adopts the names "Acidum Sulphuricum" and "Acidum Sulphuricum Purum," and translates them in three ways in the formulas,—"commercial sulphuric acid," "pure sulphuric acid," and "sulphuric acid." The last name is ambiguous, and may mean either the commercial or pure acid. The Dublin College adopts the names "Acidum Sulphuricum Venale" and "Acidum Sulphuricum Purum," but, in the formulas, frequently uses the indefinite term "Acidum Sulphuricum." We shall assume that the inde- finite expressions of both Pharmacopoeias mean the commercial acid. According to the views here taken, pure sulphuric acid should be used especially in forming "diluted sulphuric acid" and "aromatic sulphuric acid." In neither of these preparations is it employed by the Edinburgh College, and only to form the diluted acid by the Dublin. Where a dilute acid is required as a chemical agent, and not as a medicine, it might be directed, in the formula, to be formed by the addition of a determinate quantity of water to the commercial acid. The Edinburgh College consi- ders it necessary to use the "pure sulphuric acid," though acting merely as a chemical agent, in preparing Acidum Aceticum and Acidum Muriaticum Purum. Off. Prep. Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum, Dub. B. ACIDUM TANNICUM. U. S. Tannic Acid. Tannin. "Take of Galls, in powder, Sulphuric Ether, each, a sufficient quantity. Put into a glass adapter, loosely closed at its lower end with carded cotton, sufficient powdered Galls to fill about one half of it, and press the powder slightly. Then fit the adapter accurately to the mouth of a receiving ves- sel, fill it with the Sulphuric Ether, and close the upper orifice so as to prevent the escape of the ether by evaporation. The liquid which passes separates into two unequal portions, of which the lower is much smaller in quantity and much denser than the upper. When the ether ceases to pass, pour fresh portions upon the Galls, until the lower stratum of liquid in the receiver no longer increases. Then separate this from the upper, put PART II. Adda. 801 it into a capsule, and evaporate with a moderate heat to dryness. Lastly, rub what remains into powder. "The upper portion of liquid will yield by distillation a quantity of ether, which, when washed with water, may be employed in a subsequent operation." U. S. This is the process of M. Pelouze. It may be conducted in an ordinary displacement apparatus. The sulphuric ether employed should be that of the shops, containing a small proportion of water, which is necessary to the success of the operation. Should the ether contain no water, it should be washed with this fluid, which answers the double purpose of depriving it of alcohpl and rendering it sufficiently hydrous. To obtain the tannic acid quite pure, the lower stratum may be washed with ether after the separation of the upper, and evaporated in a vacuum with sulphuric acid. The expla- nation of the process first given was that the water in the ether dissolves the tannic acid, to the exclusion of all the other principles of the galls, and forms a saturated solution, which separates from the ether, and constitutes the lower stratum in the receiver. From the experiments of M. Beral, there is reason to believe that the tannic acid is not merely dissolved by the water, but forms with it and a portion of the ether, a definite compound, which is essentially liquid, and is decomposed during the evaporation; the ether and water escaping, and the solid tannic acid being left behind. The upper and larger stratum in the receiver consists of ether, holding colouring matter with a small proportion of gallic and tannic acids in solution. From 30 to 35 per cent, of tannic acid may be obtained from galls by this process, if properly conducted.* For practical purposes it is unnecessary to obtain the tannic acid quite pure. It is probably sufficiently so when extracted by the following simple process of Leconnet, given in Christison's Dispensatory. The powder of galls is macerated in a bottle, with just enough ether to moisten it, for twenty-four hours, and then expressed in a powerful press; and the pro- cess of maceration and expression is repeated, in the same way, until the powder is exhausted. The liquors are mixed, the ether distilled off, and the residue dried by means of a vapour bath. It is stated that 60 per cent. of tannic acid, but very slightly coloured, may be got in this way. As gallic acid exists but in very small proportion in galls, being chiefly produced by the reaction of atmospheric air upon tannic acid in the process for extracting it, very little of that principle is found in the ethereal extract, and the amount of colouring matter taken up by the ether, will scarcely interfere with the medicinal efficacy of the preparation. The term tannin was originally applied to a principle or principles exist- ing in many vegetables, having a very astringent taste, and the property of producing a white flocculent precipitate with the solution of gelatin, and a black precipitate with the salts of the sesquioxide of iron. . As obtained, however, from different plants, tannin was found to exhibit some difference of properties, and chemists have recognised two kinds, one existing in oak bark, galls, &c, distinguished by producing a bluish-black precipitate with the salts of the sesquioxide of iron, and the other existing in Peruvian bark, catechu, &c, and characterized by producing a greenish black or dark olive precipitate with the same salts. The former is the one which has received most attention, and from an examination of which the charac- * The various circumstances in which the process is liable to vary in consequence of difference in the character of the menstruum, have been detailed and explained in a paper by Dr. Robert Bridges, contained in the Am. Journ. of Pharmacy, vol. 14. page 40* to which the reader is referred. 802 Adda. PART II. ters of tannin have generally been given. It is the substance described in this article. It will probably be found that the latter is essentially distinct from the tannin of galls, and probably different in different vegetables. One striking peculiarity of the tannin of galls is its facility of conversion into gallic acid, which is wanting in some at least of the other varieties. Since the publication of the experiments of M. Pelouze in relation to tannin, this substance has been universally admitted to rank with the acids, and is, therefore, now generally denominated tannic acid. Dr. Kane calls the ordinary variety procured from galls, for the sake of distinction, gallo-tannic acid. Properties. Pure tannic acid is solid, uncrystallizable, white or slightly yellowish, inodorous, strongly astringent to the taste without bitterness, very soluble in water, much less soluble in alcohol and ether, especially when anhydrous, and insoluble in the fixed and volatile oils. It may be kept unchanged in the solid state ; but its aqueous solution, when exposed to the air, gradually becomes turbid, and deposits a crystalline matter, con- sisting chiefly of gallic acid. During the change, oxygen is absorbed, and an equal volume of carbonic acid disengaged. Exposed to heat it partly melts, swells up, blackens, takes fire, and burns with a brilliant flame. Its solution reddens liu»us, and it combines with most of the salifiable bases. With potassa it forms a compound but slightly soluble, and is, therefore, precipitated by this alkali or its carbonates from a solution which is not too dilute, though a certain excess of alkalf will cause the precipitate to be redissolved. Its combination with soda is much more soluble ; and this alkali affords no precipitate unless with a very concentrated solution of tannic acid. With ammonia its relations are similar to those with potassa. Baryta, strontia, lime, and magnesia, added in the state of hydrates, form with it compounds of little solubility. The same is the case with most of the metallic oxides, when presented, in the state of salts, to a solution of the tannate of potassa. Many of the metallic salts are precipitated by tan- nic acid even in the uncombined state, especially those of lead, copper, silver, uranium, chromium, mercury, and the protoxide of tin. With? the salts of sesquioxide of iron it forms a black precipitate, which is a compound of tannic acid and the sesquioxide, and is the basis of ink. It does not disturb the solutions of the pure salts of protoxide of iron. Several of the alkaline salts precipitate it from its aqueous solution, either by the forma- tion of insoluble compounds, or by simply abstracting the solvent. Tan- nic acid unites with all the vegetable alkalies, forming compounds which are for the most part of a whitish colour, and but very slightly soluble in water; though they are soluble in the vegetable acids, especially the acetic, and in alcohol, and in this latter respect differ from most of the compounds which tannic acid forms with other vegetable principles. On account of this property of tannic acid, it has been employed as a test of the vegetable alkalies ; and it is so delicate, that it will throw down a precipitate from their solution, even when too feeble to be disturbed by ammonia. It has an affinity for several acids, and when in solution affords precipitates with the sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, phosphoric, and arsenic acids, but not with the oxalic, tartaric, lactic, acetic, or citric. The precipitates are com- pounds of tannic acid with the respective acids mentioned, and are soluble in pure water, but insoluble in water with an excess of acid. Hence, in order to insure precipitation, it is necessary to add the acid in excess to the solution of tannic acid. It precipitates also solutions of starch, albu- men, and gluten, and forms with gelatin an insoluble compound, which is the basis of leather. Its ultimate constituents are carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen; and its formula, according to Liebig, is CigHgO^, or C18H5Ofl-f-3HO. PART II. Adda. —Aconitina. 803 Medical Properties and Uses. Tannic acid, being the chief principle of vegetable astringents, is capable of exerting on the system the same effects with this class of medicines, and may be given in the same complaints. It has an advantage over the astringent extracts in the comparative smallness of its dose, which renders it less apt to offend an irritable stomach. In most of the vegetable astringents, it is associated with more or less bitter extract- ive, or other principle which modifies its opetation, and renders the medi- cine less applicable than it otherwise would be, to certain cases in which there is an indication for pure astringency without any tonic power. Such is particularly the case with the active hemorrhages; and tannic acid, in its separate state, is in these cases preferable to the native combinations in which it ordinarily exists. Dr. Porta, an Italian physician, employed it with great success in the treatment of uterine hemorrhage, and published the results of his experience in 1827. M.Cavalier afterwards used it suc- cessfully in the same complaint, and found it effectual also in a case of bleeding from the rectum. It has been highly recommended by Dr. Charvet for checking excessive sweats. There is no doubt that it would be found a useful remedy in most forms of hemorrhage, after a sufficient reduction of arterial action by depletory measures. In diarrhoea also it would pro- bably be more beneficial than ordinary astringents, as less liable to irritate the stomach and bowels. It has been given, with asserted advantage, in the advanced stages of hooping-cough. The dose is from two to five grains. The only disadvantage which has been experienced from it, when taken in excess, is obstinate constipation. Mr. Druitt has employed it locally, with much success, in excoriations, phagedenic ulcers, leucorrhoea, aphthas of the mouth, severe salivation, sorethroat, and toothache. As a wash it may be used in solution, in the proportion of five grains to a fluidounce of water. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., N. S., ix.' 192.) W. ACONITINA. Lond. Aconitina. "Take of Aconite Root, dried and bruised, two pounds; Rectified Spirit three gallons [Imperial measure]; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Solution of Ammonia, Purified Animal Charcoal, each, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Aconite with a gallon of the Spirit, for an hour, in a retort with a receiver fitted to it. Pour off the liquor, and again boil the residue with another gallon of the Spirit and with the spirit recently distilled, and pour off the liquor also. Let the same be done a third time. Then press the Aconite, and having mixed all the liquors and filtered them, distil the spirit. Evapo- rate the remainder to the proper consistence of an extract. Dissolve this in water and filter. Evaporate the solution, with a gentle heat, to the con- sistence of syrup. To this add of Diluted Sulphuric Acid, mixed with distilled water, sufficient to dissolve the aconitina. Next drop in Solution of Ammonia, and dissolve the precipitated aconitina in Diluted Sulphuric Acid, mixed as before with water. Then mix in the Animal Charcoal, occasionally shaking for a quarter of an hour. Lastly filter, and having again dropped in Solution of Ammonia so as to precipitate the Aconitina, wash and dry it." Lond. The name adopted by the London College for the alkaline principle ex- tracted from aconite is objectionable, as of unnecessary length, and not in accordance with the general nomenclature of the vegetable alkalies. Aconitia is a preferable name. The principle probably exists in the plant combined 804 Aconitina. PART II. with a vegetable acid, forming a soluble salt. In the above process, this is first extracted by alcohol, then taken up from the alcoholic extract by water, and afterwards converted into a sulphate by the addition of dilute sulphuric acid. The sulphate is decomposed by ammonia, which precipitates the aconitia, and this is purified by being once more combined with sulphuric acid, then decolorized by animal charcoal, and again precipitated by am- monia. Care is requisite, in conducting the process, not to add too great an excess of the water of ammonia, which diminishes the product, probably by dissolving the aconitia. Properties. Aconitia, when freshly precipitated, is said to be white and in the form of a hydrate; but it speedily parts with its water, and forms a brownish, brittle mass. (Soubeiran, Trait, de Pharm., ii. 716.) It is thought not to be crystallizable. Obtained by evaporating its alcoholic solution, it is described as being in the form of a transparent, colourless mass, having a glassy lustre. In powder, it is white with a yellowish tinge. It is inodorous, and of a bitter and acrid taste, producing a benumb- ing impression on the tongue. The acrimony, however, is ascribed by some to a distinct principle associated with it, from which it may be freed by repeated solution in dilute acids and subsequent precipitation. It is un- alterable in the air, and fusible by a gentle heat. At a high temperature it is decomposed and entirely dissipated. It is sparingly soluble in water, requiring for solution 150 parts of cold and 50 of boiling water. (Phillips.) Alcohol and ether dissolve it readily. It neutralizes the acids; but its salts are not crystallizable. That it contains nitrogen is proved by the evolution of ammonia, when it is decomposed by heat. A spurious substance has sometimes been sold under the same name, which was nearly or quite inert. It wanted some of the properties above mentioned as characteristic of aconitia. ! Medical Properties and Uses. This vegetable principle exercises a powerful influence over the animal economy. One-fiftieth of a grain dis- solved in alcohol destroyed a sparrow in a few minutes; and the same quantity administered to an elderly female is said to have nearly proved fatal. It is not used internally as a remedy; but Dr. Turnbull has advan- tageously resorted to its external application. According to this writer, it produces in the skin a sensation of heat and prickling, followed by numb- ness and a feeling of constriction; and the effect continues,according to the quantity applied, from two to twelve hours or more. He found it not to act as a rubefacient, or at least but slightly so. Applied very much diluted and in minute quantity to the eye, it causes contraction of the pupil, with an almost intolerable sense of heat and tingling. The affections in which Dr. Turnbull employed it with benefit, were neuralgia, gout, and rheuma- tism. He recommends it either in alcoholic solution, in the proportion of a grain to a fluidrachm, or in the form of an ointment, made by rubbing up two grains of the alkali first with six drops of alcohol and then with a drachm of lard. These proportions are sufficiently large to begin with, but may be gradually increased to four or five, or even eight grains to the drachm. The preparation should be applied by friction over the part affected, which should be continued till the peculiar sensation above de- scribed is produced, and may be repeated three or four times, or more fre- quently, during the day. No good can be expected unless the sensation alluded to be experienced in a greater or less degree. Care should be taken not to apply the medicine to an abraded surface, or to a mucous membrane, for fear of dangerous constitutional effects. It is very seldom used, and all its beneficial effects can be obtained from safer and cheaper preparations of aconite. W. part ii. JEtherea. 805 ^ETHEREA. Ethers. Ethers are peculiar, fragrant, sweetish, very volatile, and inflammable liquids, generated by the action of acids on alcohol. Their composition varies with the acid employed in their formation. Sometimes this merely acts as a chemical agent on the alcohol, without entering into the composition of the ether generated; in which case the ether consists of etherine and water. In other instances the acid employed unites with etherine and water (the ether just mentioned), or with etherine only. On the basis of these dif- ferences of composition, the medicinal ethers may be divided into three kinds: 1. those consisting of etherine and water; 2. those consisting of an acid, etherine, and water; and 3. those composed of an acid and etherine only. Sulphuric ether is an example of the first kind, hyponitrous ether of the second, and muriatic ether of the third. In medicine, the sulphuric and hyponitrous ethers, and their modifications, are those most commonly em- ployed; though occasionally the acetic and muriatic have been used. Ethers, from their extreme inflammability, should never be decanted in the vicinity of flame. Hence it is prudent not to pour them out near a lighted candle. They should be kept in accurately stopped bottles in a cool place; otherwise they are liable to considerable loss by evaporation. B. LIQUOR ^ETHEREUS SULPHURICUS. Dub. Sulphuric Ethe- real Liquor. Unrectified Sulphuric Ether. "Take of Rectified Spirit and of Sulphuric Acid, each, thirty-two ounces. Pour the Spirit into a glass retort adapted to bearing a sudden heat, and then pour on the acid in a continued stream; mix them gradually, and let twenty fluidounces of the liquor be distilled, with a sudden and sufficiently strong heat, into a receiver kept cold. If sixteen ounces of rectified spirit be poured upon the acid remaining in the retort, Sulphuric Ethereal Liquor will again come over by distillation." Dub. The preparation obtained by this process is sulphuric ether, contaminated with alcohol, water, sulphurous acid, and oil of wine. In this state it is proper only for external use. For internal exhibition, it requires to be freed from these impurities, when it becomes a distinct preparation, called rectified sulphuric ether, or, simply, sulphuric ether. This is described in the next article, in which its properties and composition, and the theory of its forma- tion are given. B. Off. Prep. JEiihex Sulphuricus, Dub. .ETHER SULPHURICUS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Sulphuric Ether. Ether. "Take of Alcohol four pints; Sulphuric Acid a pint; Potassa six drachms; Distilled Water three fluidounces. To two pints of the Alcohol, in an open vessel, add gradually fourteen fluidounces of the Acid, stirring them frequently. Pour the mixture, while still hot, into a tubulated glass retort, placed upon a sand-bath, and connected by a long adapter with a re- ceiver kept cold by ice or water; then raise the heat quickly until the liquid begins to boil. When about half a pint of ethereal liquid shall have passed over, introduce gradually into the retort the remainder of the Alcohol, pre- viously mixed with two fluidounces of the Acid, taking care that the mixture shall enter in a continuous stream, and in such quantity as shall supply the place, as nearly as possible, of the liquid which distils over. This may be 69 806 Mtherea. part ii. accomplished by connecting a vessel containing the alcoholic liquid with the retort, by means of a tube provided with a stop-cock to regulate the discharge, and passing nearly to the bottom of the retort, through a cork accurately fitted into the tubulure. When all the Alcohol has been thus added, continue the distillation until about three pints shall have passed over, or until white vapour shall appear in the retort. "To the product thus obtained add the potassa previously dissolved in the Distilled Water, and shake them frequently. At the end of twenty-four hours, pour off from the alkaline solution the supernatant ether, introduce it into a retort, and, with a gentle heat, distil until two pints shall have passed over, or until the distilled liquid shall have the specific gravity of 0*750." U. S. "Take of Rectified Spirit fifty fluidounces ; Sulphuric Acid ten fluid- ounces. Pour twelve fluidounces of the Spirit gently over the Acid con- tained in an open vessel, and then stir them together briskly^and thoroughly. Transfer the mixture immediately into a glass matrass connected with a refrigeratory, and raise the heat quickly to about 280°. As soon as the ethereal fluid begins to distil over, supply fresh spirit through a tube into the matrass in a continuous stream, and in such quantity as to equal that of the fluid which distils over. This is best accomplished by connecting one end of the tube with a graduated vessel containing the spirit,—passing the other end through a cork fitted into the matrass,—and having a stop-cock on the tube to regulate the discharge. When forty-two [fluid] ounces have dis- tilled over, and the whole spirit has been added, the process may be stopped. Agitate the impure ether with sixteen fluidounces of a saturated solution of muriate of lime, containing about half an ounce of lime recently slaked. When all odour of sulphurous acid has been thus removed, pour off' the supernatant liquor, and distil it with a gentle heat so long as the liquid which passes over has a density not above 0*735. More ether of the same strength is then to be obtained from the solution of muriate of lime. From the resi- duum of both distillations a weaker ether may be obtained in small quantity, which must be rectified by distilling it gently again." Ed. "Take of Rectified Spirit three pounds ; Sulphuric Acid two pounds; Carbonate of Potassa, previously ignited, an ounce. Pour two pounds of the spirit into a glass retort, add the acid to it, and mix. Afterwards place it on sand, and raise the heat so that the liquor may quickly boil, and the Ether pass into a receiver cooled with ice or water. Let the liquor distil until some heavier portion begins to pass over. To the liquor which remains in the retort, after the heat has subsided, add the remainder of the Spirit, that Ether may distil in the same manner. Mix the distilled liquors, then pour off the supernatant portion, and add to it the Carbonate of Potassa, shaking them frequently during an hour. Lastly, distil the Ether from a large retort, and keep it in a stopped vessel." Lond. The specific gravity of this ether is 0*750. "Take of Sulphuric Ethereal Liquor twenty fluidounces; Carbonate of Potassa, dried and powdered, two drachms. Mix them, and from a very high retort, distil, by a very gentle heat, twelve fluidounces into a receiver kept cold. The specific gravity of the liquor is 0*765." Dub. The object of these processes is to obtain a pure sulphuric ether. The Dublin formula is intended to purify the unrectified sulphuric ether (sulphu- ric ethereal liquor), which is officinal only with that College. In the other process the ether is formed and purified at one operation. The preparation of sulphuric ether embraces two stages, its generation, and its subsequent rectification to remove impurities. The formulas all agree in obtaining it by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol. In the United PART II. &therea. 807 States process, which is adopted, with modifications, from that of the French Codex, half the alcohol taken is mixed with seven-eighths of the acid, and, while still hot from the reaction, distilled from a glass retort, by a heat quickly applied, into a refrigerated receiver. When the distilled product equals one-fourth of this portion of the alcohol, the remainder of it, mixed with the reserved eighth of the acid, is allowed to enter the retort in a continuous stream, the supply being so regulated as to equal the amount of the liquid which distils over. By a complicated reaction which will be explained presently, the acid converts the alcohol into ether, and, were it not that the acid becomes more and more dilute as the process proceeds, it would be able to etherize an unlimited quantity of alcohol. Although the acid, before it becomes too dilute, is capable of determining the de- composition of a certain amount of alcohol, yet it is not expedient to add this amount at once; as a considerable portion of it would distil over with the ether undecomposed. The proper way of proceeding, therefore, is that indicated in the formula; namely, to commence the process with the use of part of the alcohol; and, when the decomposition is fully estab- lished, and a portion of ether has distilled, to add the remainder in a gradual manner, so as to replace that which, every moment during the progress of the distillation, is disappearing by its conversion into ether. As, however, the acid in the retort has already become somewhat weaker, it is considered advantageous to mix a small portion of acid with the alcohol which is thus gradually added. When a portion of ether has distilled, equal to about three-fourths of the alcohol employed, or when white vapours appear in the retort, the process is discontinued. These vapours indicate the com- mencement of a series of reactions different from those which generate the ether. The Edinburgh process for the generation of sulphuric ether, is the same, in its general features, with that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. Less than a fourth of the alcohol is placed in the distilling vessel, previously thoroughly mixed with the whole of the acid, which forms one-fifth of the bulk of the alcohol, instead of one-fourth as in the U. S. formula. As soon as the ether begins to distil by a quick heat, the remainder of the alcohol is added in a continuous stream as in the U. S. process, and the distillation is con- tinued until a quantity of ether has come over, equal to somewhat less than six-sevenths of the bulk of all the alcohol. The ether is condensed by means of Liebig's excellent refrigeratory, described and figured at page 772. In this process, it is perceived that no acid is reserved to be mixed with the portion of alcohol gradually added to the distilling vessel, and a much smaller proportion of the spirit is mixed with it at the commencement of the distillation than in the U. S. formula. The quantities of the alcohol and acid, in the London formula, are incon- veniently taken in weights instead of measures. The improvement of adding the reserved portion of alcohol gradually is not adopted; but the old method is pursued of performing a second distillation with this alcohol, added to the residue in the retort. The Dublin College generates the ether, and rectifies it by separate for- mulas, giving the crude and rectified product different officinal names. The process of the College for generating the ether is given in the last article, and, being substantially the same as that of the London College, need not be particularly explained. The appearance of white vapours in the retort, or the passing over of a heavier portion in the distillation, is the signal for discontinuing the pro- cess. If it were continued afterwards, the boiling point would gradually 808 JEtherea. PART II. rise, very little ether would be obtained, and at the temperature of 320° there would be generated, in consequence of new reactions, sulphurous acid, heavy oil of wine, olefiant gas, and a large quantity of resino-carbonaceous matter, blackening and rendering thick the residuary liquid; all products arising from the decomposition of a portion of sulphuric acid, alcohol, and ether. Notwithstanding the process may be stopped in time, yet the ether obtained is contaminated with sulphurous acid, heavy oil of wine, alcohol, and water; and hence its purification becomes necessary. This is conducted in various ways, according to the different Pharmacopoeias. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs for this purpose an aqueous solution of potassa, the London and Dublin Colleges carbonate of potassa, and the Edinburgh a saturated solution of chloride of calcium (muriate of lime), to which a por- tion of recently slaked lime has been added. In all cases, the crude ether is agitated with the purifying agent, and submitted to a new distillation at a gentle heat, called the rectification. The purifying substances are potassa for sulphurous acid and water, and water for alcohol in the U. S. formula; carbonate of potassa for acid and water in the London and Dublin processes ; and lime for acid, and a satu- rated solution of chloride of calcium for alcohol and water, in the Edin- burgh. The Edinburgh substances for purifying are stated by Dr. Christi- son to be convenient, and to act perfectly and promptly. The chloride of calcium solution, after having been used, yields, on distillation, a further portion of ether of the officinal density; and by concentrating it, filtering while hot, and separating crystals of sulphite of lime which form on cool- ing, the chloride may be recovered for future operations. In the London and Dublin processes, the ether is distilled from the purifying agent; in the U. S. and Edinburgh, after having been poured off from it. In either case, this distillation, which is performed at a gentle heat, completes the purifica- tion ; as the ether is the most volatile substance present, and as the process is stopped before the whole of the liquid comes over. The process for forming ether is conducted with most advantage on a large scale. At Apothecaries' Hall, where the operation is performed in this way, the apparatus employed is thus described by Mr. Brande. It" consists of a leaden still, heated by means of high pressure steam carried through it in a contorted leaden pipe. A tube enters the upper part of the still, for the purpose of suffering alcohol gradually to run into the acid. The still-head is of pewter, and is connected, by about six feet of tin pipe, with a very capa- cious condensing-worm, duly cooled by a current of water. The receivers are of pewter, with glass lids, and have a side tube to connect them with the delivering end of the worm-pipe." (Manual of Chemistry, fifth ed-) Properties. Sulphuric ether is a colourless very limpid liquid, of a strong and sweet odour, and hot pungent taste. As prepared for medicinal use, it usually reddens litmus slightly, though this is not a property belonging to the pure substance; but if it reddens litmus strongly,it shows that the ether has been imperfectly prepared or too long kept. When perfectly pure it has the specific gravity of 0*713, and boils at 95°. It is not frozen by a cold of 166° below zero. (Faraday, Phil. Mag. and Journ. of Sci. for March, 1845.) The officinal strength of the United States and London ether is 0-750; of the Dublin, 0*765; of the Edinburgh, 0*735, or under. That sold in the shops varies from 0*733 to 0*765. Its sp. gr., as directed by the French Codex, is 0*758. For medicinal purposes, its density should not be greater than 0*750. In the opinion of Dr. Christison, it should not exceed 0*735; because, according to this writer, commercial ether is gene- rally of this density, and may be obtained of such purity without difficulty. PART II. JEtherea. 809 It is a very volatile liquid, and, when of the sp. gr. 0*720, boils at about 98°, and forms a vapour which has the density of 2*586. Its extreme volatility causes it to evaporate speedily in the open air, with the production of a con- siderable degree of cold. When good it evaporates from the hand without leaving a disagreeable odour. Its inflammability is very great, and the pro- ducts of its combustion are water and carbonic acid. In consequence of this property the greatest caution should be used not to bring it in the vici- nity of flame, as, for example, a lighted candle, for fear of its taking fire. One of the great advantages of using steam as the source of heat is, that it obviates, in a great measure, the danger of its accidental inflammation. When too long kept, it undergoes decomposition, and is converted in part into acetic acid. It dissolves iodine and bromine, and sulphur and phospho- rus sparingly. The latter substance is generally exhibited in ethereal solu- tion. (See Phosphorus.) Its solvent power over corrosive sublimate makes it a useful agent in the manipulations for detecting that poison. It is also a solvent of volatile and fixed oils, many resins and balsams, tannic acid, caoutchouc, and most of the organic vegetable alkalies. It does not dissolve potassa and soda, in which respect it differs remarkably from alcohol. Water dissolves a tenth of its volume of ether, and reciprocally ether takes up about the same proportion of water. It unites in all proportions with alcohol. Impurities and Tests. The impurities found in ether, besides acids and fixed substances, are alcohol, water, and heavy oil of wine. Acids are detected by litmus and removed by agitation with potassa; and fixed substances, by their remaining upon the evaporation of the ether. Alcohol is an admissible substance in the officinal ethers; for it is contained in the Edinburgh ether, which has the lowest density of them all. If, however, it is present in too large a quantity, the density of the ether will be too high. It may be sepa- rated by washing the ether, as it is called; that is, agitating it with twice its bulk of water, which will unite with the alcohol, forming a heavier stratum after rest, from which the ether may be poured off. The ether by this treatment dissolves about a tenth of its bulk of water, from which it may be purified by agitation with fresh burnt lime, and subsequent distil- lation. An easy method for detecting and measuring any alcohol which may be present in ether, is that advised by the Edinburgh College; namely, to agitate it, in a minim measure, with half its volume of a concentrated solution of chloride of calcium. This will remove the alcohol, and the re- duction of the volume of the ether, when it rises to the surface, will indi- cate its amount. Heavy oil of wine may be discovered by the ether becoming milky upon being mixed with water. Composition, and Theory of its Production. Sulphuric ether consists of four eqs. of carbon, five of hydrogen, and one of oxygen, and its empi- rical formula is C4H50. In volumes it consists of four volumes of carbon vapour, five volumes of hydrogen, and half a volume of oxygen, condensed into one volume of ether vapour. Its proximate constituents may be con- sidered to be one eq. of etherine and one of water; or, in volumes, one volume of etherine vapour and one volume of aqueous vapour, condensed into one volume. This view makes it a hydrate of etherine (C4H4 + H0). The sp. gr. of its vapour, calculated on this constitution in volume, is 2*5817, which is very near 2*586, the number obtained by experiment. By the gene- rality of chemists, however, the constituents of the etherine, together with the hydrogen of the alleged water, are supposed to form a peculiar hypothe- tical radical, consisting of C4HS, to which the name of ethyle or ethule has been given. On this view, ether is an oxide of ethyle (C4H5+0), and 60* 810 JEtherea. PART II. alcohol, a hydrated oxide of ethyle. (See page 62.) By this statement of the composition of sulphuric ether, it is perceived that it contains no sul- phuric acid, contrary to what its name would imply. The fact is, that it is called sulphuric ether, merely in allusion to the agency of the acid usually employed in its preparation, but an identical ether may be obtained by the action of other acids on alcohol. In allusion to the water which it is sup- posed to contain, it is sometimes called hydric ether. Etherine, considered as a constituent of ether, is a hypothetical 4-4 carbohydrogen (C4H4). It is supposed to consist of four volumes of carbon vapour and four volumes of hydrogen, condensed into one volume. On this supposition its sp. gr. would be 1*961. An isomeric compound, also called etherine by some chemists, and having the same sp. gr. as that assumed for the hypothetical etherine, was discovered as a constituent of oil-gas liquor by Dr. Faraday. With a view to determine in what manner sulphuric acid acts upon alcohol in order to convert it into ether, it is necessary that a comparison should be instituted between the composition of the two latter. Now alcohol is a hydrated oxide of ethyle, and ether, oxide of ethyle without water. It fol- lows, therefore, that to convert alcohol into ether, it is only necessary to abstract the water of the former. The agent in effecting this abstraction is evidently the sulphuric acid, which is known to have a strong affinity for water; but its action is not direct as originally supposed, but intermediate, as was first pointed out by the late Mr. Hennell. This chemist found that when two eqs. of sulphuric acid and one of alcohol were merely mixed, the acid lost a portion of its saturating power, and a new acid was formed, to which he gave the name of sulphovinic acid (the etherosidphuric acid of Liebig). In view of its composition it may be called a bisulphate of alcohol, or, which is the same thing, a bisulphate of ether with one eq. of water, that is, a double sulphate of ether and water. When one eq. of this acid is heated it is decomposed ; two eqs. of sulphuric acid with one eq. of water remain in the retort, while one eq. of ether distils over. If the original proportion of acid and alcohol continued the same through- out the whole of the distillation, all the alcohol would be resolved into ether and water; but, during the progress of the process, the alcohol is constantly diminishing, and of course the relative excess of the acid becoming greater; and at last a point of time arrives when the excess of acid is so great that the generation of ether ceases. As these results depend upon the relative deficiency of the alcohol, while the acid remains but slightly changed in amount, it is easy to understand why it is advantageous to add alcohol gradually to the distilling vessel during the progress of the distillation; for, by this addition, the proper proportion of the alcohol to the acid is maintained. But the decomposing power of the acid has its limit; as it becomes at last too dilute to act upon the alcohol, although, towards the close of the distil- lation, a considerable portion of water distils over with the ether. Medical Properties and Uses. Ether is a powerful diffusible stimulant, though transient in its operation. It is also esteemed antispasmodic and narcotic. Its vapour, when breathed, produces a transient intoxication, resembling that caused by nitrous oxide, but dangerous if carried too far. It has recently been much used, in this manner, to produce insensibility during the performance of painful operations. In some stages of low fevers attended with subsultus tendinum, ether proves beneficial as a stimulant and antispasmodic. In these cases it is frequently conjoined with laudanum. It is useful also in nervous headache unattended with vascular fulness, and generally in nervous and painful diseases which are unaccompanied by inflammation. In catarrhal dyspnoea, and spas- modic asthma, its vapour may be inhaled with advantage, by holding in the PART II. JEtherea. 811 mouth a piece of sugar, to which a few drops of ether have been previously added. In nausea it is given as a cordial, and in cramp of the stomach and flatulent colic it sometimes acts with singular efficacy. It is also useful, given alone, or mixed with oil of turpentine, in relieving the pain or spasm caused by the passage of biliary calculi. According to Mr. Brande, a small teaspoonful of ether, mixed with a glass of white wine, is often an effectual remedy for allaying the distressing symptoms of sea-sickness. When externally applied it may act either as a stimulant or refrigerant. If its evaporation be repressed, it operates as a powerful rubefacient, and may even vesicate; but when this is allowed to take place freely, it is refrigerant in consequence of the cold which it produces. In the latter way it is some- times employed in strangulated hernia, dropped on the tumour and allowed to evaporate. Dr. A. T. Thomson has found ether sometimes to produce immediate relief when dropped into the ear in earache. For external use, the unrettified ether may be employed. The dose of sulphuric ether is from fifty drops to a teaspoonful, to be repeated frequently when the full effect of the remedy is desired. When used habitually the dose must be much larger, to produce a given effect. It may be perfectly incorporated with water or any aqueous mixture, by rubbing it up with spermaceti, employed in the proportion of two grains for each fluidrachm of the ether. The ether and spermaceti are to be rubbed together in a mortar, until the latter is perfectly dissolved; and to the solution thus formed the water or mixture is to be added, while the whole is constantly stirred. The incorporation being finished, the operation is completed by passing the mixture through a piece of muslin to separate the spermaceti. (Durand.) Water saturated with ether is highly recommended by Bouchardat for the preservation of anatomical preparations and other organic bodies. Of course the air must be carefully excluded from the containing vessels. A little sugar should be added to the water, to prevent its absorption by the organic body. It is also recommended by the same authority for the ex- haustion of vegetable medicines, especially in the case of extracts prepared by evaporation in vacuo. (Bulletin de Therap., xxv. 280.) Sulphuric ether is used in the preparation of Morphias Acetas, U. S. Off'. Prep. Spiritus iEtheris Sulphurici, Ed.; Spiritus iEtheris Sulphu- rici Compositus, U. S., Lond. B. OLEUM JETHEREUM. U.S., Lond. Liquor /Ethereus Oleo- sus. Dub. Ethereal Oil. Heavy Oil of Wine. Sulphate of Ether and Etherine. "Take of Alcohol two pints; Sulphuric Acid three pints; Solution of Potassa half a fluidounce; Distilled Water a fluidounce. Mix the Acid cautiously with the Alcohol, allow the mixture to stand twelve hours, then pour it into a large glass retort, to which a receiver kept cool by ice or water is adapted, and distil by means of a sand-bath until a black froth rises, when the retort is to be removed immediately from the sand-bath. Separate the lighter supernatant liquid in the receiver from the heavier, and expose it to the air for a day; then add to it the Solution of Potassa previously mixed with the Distilled Water, and shake them together. Lastly, separate the Ethereal Oil as soon as it shall have subsided. The specific gravity of this liquid is 1*096." U.S. "Take of Rectified Spirit two pounds; Sulphuric acid four pounds; So- lution of Potassa, Distilled Water, each, a fluidounce [Imperial measure], or as much as may be sufficient. Mix the Acid cautiously with the Spirit. Let the liquor distil until a black froth arises; then immediately remove the retort from the fire. Separate the lighter supernatant liquor from the 812 JEtherea. PART II. heavier one, and expose the former to the air for a day. Add to it the Solution of Potassa first mixed with the Water, and shake them together. Lastly, when sufficiently washed, separate the Ethereal Oil which sub- sides." Lond. The specific gravity of this oil is 1*05. " Take what remains in the retort after the distillation of Sulphuric Ether. Distil down to one-half with a moderate heat." Dub. When alcohol is distilled with a large excess of sulphuric acid, the same products are generated as those mentioned in the last article as being formed towards the close of the distillation of ether. These were stated to be sul- phurous acid, heavy oil of wine, olefiant gas, and carbonaceous matter. In the U. S. process such an excess of sulphuric acid is employed, for the pur- pose of obtaining the oil. The product of the distillation is in two layers, a heavier one, consisting of water holding sulphurous acid in solution, and a lighter, formed of ether containing the oil of wine. The lighter liquid is separated and exposed for twenty-four hours to the air, in order to dissipate the ether by evaporation; and the oil, which is left, is shaken with a solution of potassa to deprive it of all traces of water or acid; after which, as soon as it subsides, it is to be separated. The London process is substantially the same as that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The differences are, that the London College omits to direct a prolonged contact between the alcohol and acid, and dispenses with a refrigerated receiver. The Dublin formula is altogether defective. By distilling the residue of the sulphuric ether pro- cess "down to one-half with a moderate heat," the oil of wine is no doubt distilled over; but it is mixed with various substances, for the separation of which no directions are given in the formula. The nature and mode of formation of heavy oil of wine are not well understood. It has been explained in the preceding article, that, in the'early stage of the distillation of a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol, sulphovinic acid, or double sulphate of ether and water is formed. During its progress this is decomposed so as to yield ether. When, however, the alcohol is distilled with a large excess of sulphuric acid, the sulphovinic acid is decom- posed so as to form a small quantity of the heavy oil of wine, now considered to be a double sulphate of ether and etherine, having the formula C4H50,S03 -j-C4H4,S03. It is conceived to be generated from two eqs. of sulphovinic acid (double sulphate of ether and water), which are resolved into one eq. of heavy oil of wine, two of sulphuric acid, and three of water. When the heavy oil is gently heated with four parts of water, it is resolved into sulpho- vinic acid which dissolves, and an oily substance which floats on the surface, called etherole or light oil of wine, and which is isomeric with the hypothe- tical etherine. Etherole, as thus obtained, is not pure. When left for along time at a low temperature, it is resolved into pure etherole, and a concrete substance in crystals, isomeric with it, called concrete oil of wine, or oil of wine camphor, injudiciously denominated etherine by some chemists. Properties. The officinal ethereal oil (heavy oil of wine) is a yellowish liquid, possessing an oleaginous consistency, a peculiar and slightly acrid odour, and rather sharp and bitter taste. It boils at 540°. Its sp. gr. is, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, 1*096, according to the London Col- lege, after Mr. Hennell's results, 1*05. By Dumas and Serullas its density is stated to be as high as 1*133, which is probably the more correct number for the pure oil. It is sparingly soluble in water, but readily so in alcohol and ether. It is devoid of acid reaction, the sulphuric acid present in it being completely neutralized by the ether and etherine united with it. The sul- phuric acid present is not precipitated by the usual reagents; because they furnish a base, which, replacing the etherine, gives rise to one of the salts of PART II. JEtherea. 813 sulphovinic acid, all of which are soluble in water and hydrous alcohol. The process by which the heavy oil of wine is formed yields but a small product, being only about one part in weight to thirty-one of the alcohol employed, even when performed on the large scale; and when conducted on the small scale of the Pharmacopoeias, the product is only one part of the oil to about seventy-five of the alcohol. Pure etherole, ox pure light oil of wine, is a co- lourless oily liquid, having an aromatic odpur. Its sp. gr. is between 0*917 and 0*920, boiling point 536°, and freezing point 31° below zero. It com- municates a greasy stain to paper. Concrete oil of wine crystallizes in long, transparent, brilliant, tasteless prisms, soluble in alcohol and ether, insoluble in water, fusible at 230°, boiling at 500° and having the sp. gr. of 0*980. Composition, fyc. The officinal oil of wine (heavy oil of wine) has already been stated to be a double sulphate of ether and etherine. The discrepancies in the densities, assigned to it by different authors, no doubt arise from its containing more or less of the concrete oil, the presence of which would necessarily lower its specific gravity. The officinal oil is not used in medicine in a separate state, but forms an ingredient of the compound spirit of sulphuric ether, or Hoffmann's ano- dyne. Off. Prep. Spiritus iEtheris Sulphurici Compositus, U. S., Lond. B. SPIRITUS /ETHERIS SULPHURICI. Ed. Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. "Take of Sulphuric Ether a pint; Rectified Spirit two pints. Mix them. The density of this preparation ought to be 0*809." Ed. This preparation is merely ether diluted with twice its volume of alcohol. When prepared with materials of proper strength, its sp. gr. is 0*809. Its medical properties are similar to those of ether. The dose is from one to three fluidrachms, given with a sufficient quantity of water. Off. Prep. Tinctura Lobelias ^Etherea. Ed. B. SPIRITUS /ETHERIS SULPHURICI COMPOSITUS. U.S., Lond. Compound Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. Hoffmanns Anodyne Liquor. " Take of Sulphuric Ether half a pint; Alcohol a pint; Ethereal Oil three fluidrachms. Mix them." U. S. " Take of Sulphuric Ether eight fluidounces ; Rectified Spirit sixteen fluidounces; Ethereal Oil three fluidrachms. Mix them." Lond. Compound spirit of sulphuric ether is a volatile liquid, having a burning, slightly sweetish taste, and the peculiar odour of ethereal oil. Its sp. gr. is 0*816, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. When pure it is wholly volatilized by heat and devoid of acid reaction. It becomes milky on being mixed with water, owing to the precipitation of the ethereal oil; but this change does not prove its goodness, as the same property may be given to the spirit of sulphuric ether, by the addition of various oils. Oneof the authors has been informed by Dr. Hotchkiss, that castor oil is sometimes added to the spirit of sulphuric ether, in order to give it the character of Hoffmann's anodyne, of becoming milky when diluted with water. This sophistication may be detected, as ascertained by Mr. Wm. Procter, jun., by mixing the suspected preparation with water, drawing a piece of paper over the sur- face of the liquid to absorb the oily globules, and exposing the paper to heat. If the globules are castor oil, the greasy stain will be permanent, if ethe- real oil, the stain will disappear. Medical Properties. This preparation is intended as a substitute for the anodyne liquor of Hoffmann, which it closely resembles. In the last 814 JEtherea. PART II. edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, it has been made exactly after the Lon- don'formula. In addition to the stimulating and antispasmodic qualities of the ether which it contains, it possesses anodyne properties, highly useful in nervous irritation, and want of sleep from this cause. These additional virtues it derives from the officinal or heavy oil of wine, which is a more important substance than is generally supposed. Mr. Brande supposes that the only effect of it, in the preparation under notice, is to alter the flavour of the sulphuric ether. In this opinion he is certainly in error. Dr. Hare, in his Chemical Compendium, reports the opinion of Drs. Physick and Dewees in favour of the efficacy of the officinal oil of wine, dissolved in alcohol, in certain disturbed states of the system, as a tranquillizing and anodyne remedy. Such indeed are the generally admitted effects of Hoffmann's ano- dyne, when made with a due admixture of the ethereal oil; but a preparation very deficient in oil is often improperly sold for it, which, instead of becoming milky, is merely rendered opalescent when mixed with water. Hoffmann's anodyne is on many occasions a useful adjunct to laudanum, to prevent the nausea which is excited by the latter in certain habits. Its dose is from half a fluidrachm to two fluidrachms, given in water sweetened with sugar. B. .ETHER NITROSUS. Dub. Nitrous Ether. Nitric Ether. Hyponitrous Ether. "Take of Purified Nitrate of Potassa, dried and coarsely powdered, a pound and a half; Sulphuric Acid a pound; Rectified Spirit nineteen fluid- ounces. Put the Nitrate of Potassa into a tubulated retort, placed in a bath of cold water, and pour on it, by degrees and at intervals, the Sulphuric Acid and Spirit, previously mixed, and cooled after their mixture. Without almost any external heat, or at most a very gentle one (as of warm water added to the bath), the ethereal liquor will begin to distil without the appli- cation of fire. In a short time, the heat in the retort will increase sponta- neously, and a considerable ebullition will take place, which must be mode- rated by reducing the temperature of the bath with cold water. The receiver must also be kept cold with water or snow, and furnished with a proper apparatus for transmitting the highly elastic vapour (bursting from the mix- ture with great violence if the heat be too much increased) through a pound of Rectified Spirit contained in a cooled bottle. "The ethereal liquor, thus spontaneously distilled, is to be received into a bottle with a ground glass stopper; and then must be added by degrees (closing the bottle after each addition) as much very dry and powdered car- bonate of potassa as will suffice to saturate the excess of acid, using litmus as the test. This is effected by the addition of about a drachm of the salt. In a short time the Nitrous Ether will rise to the surface, and is to be sepa- rated by means of a funnel. "If the ether be required very pure, distil it again to one-half, from a water-bath at a temperature of 140°. Its specific gravity is 0*900." Dub. The Dublin is the only Pharmacopoeia, commented on in this work, which embraces among its preparations hyponitrous ether (called also nitrous and nitric, ether) under a distinct name; but the Edinburgh College pre- pares it as the first step in the process for sweet spirit of nitre. The mutual reaction of nitric acid and alcohol is so violent, that the formation of this ether has justly been regarded as a process of difficulty. The method adopted by the Dublin College was contrived by Wolfe, and is commended by Pelletier as well adapted for obtaining this ether with facility and safety. The alcohol is not mixed directly with nitric acid, but with the materials necessary for generating it. Upon the addition of the mixture of sulphuric PART II. AEtherea. 815 acid and alcohol lo the nitre, this salt is decomposed, and the disengaged nitric acid gradually reacts upon the alcohol, and generates the ether inques- tion. The heat evolved upon mixing the materials is so considerable, that the application of extraneous heat is unnecessary and even hazardous. In- deed, as the action advances, the temperature of the mixture must be mode- rated by the application of cold water. The violent action arises from the vast quantity of gases and vapours suddenly given off. These are nitrogen, nitrous and nitric oxides, carbonic acid, and the vapours of water, nitrous acid, and hyponitrous ether itself. Notwithstanding the cold employed, a portion of the ether escapes condensation in the receiver, and hence the Dublin College, to save this portion, directs a cooled bottle to be connected with it, containing a pound of alcohol, into which the uncondensed ether is allowed to pass. The alcohol thus impregnated is subsequently employed in the Dublin formula for sweet spirit of nitre. (See Spiritus AEtheris Nitrici.) The ether condensed in the receiver is not pure, but contains a little nitrous, nitric, and acetic acids. To remove these, the ethereal product is shaken with carbonate of potassa, which has the effect of saturating them. Hyponitrous ether is prepared by Thenard according to the following process. Equal weights of alcohol and nitric acid, contained in a retort having a capacity double their volume, are distilled, by a moderate heat, into a Wolfe's apparatus of five bottles, the first of which is empty, and the four others half filled with saturated brine. Each bottle is placed in an earthen pan containing a mixture of ice and salt. The apparatus being thus arranged, a few live coals are placed under the retort, whereupon the liquid enters quickly into ebullition. The fire must then be immediately withdrawn, and the ebullition moderated by allowing some water pressed from a sponge to flow over the retort. The process is terminated when the spontaneous ebullition ceases; at which time the liquid in the retort forms a little more than a third of the quantity of alcohol and acid employed. In the first bottle, a large quantity of yellow liquid will be found, consisting of much weak alcohol, of ether, and of nitrous, nitric, and acetic acids; in the second, a pretty thick stratum of ether, containing a little acid and alco- hol, and swimming on the surface of the brine; in the third, a very thin stratum of the same nature as that in the second, and so on for the rest. The several layers of ether are then separated by means of a funnel, mixed together, and redistilled, with a moderate heat, into a refrigerated receiver. The first product is the ether, which, to be perfectly puns and devoid of acidity, must be allowed to remain in a bottle for half an hour, in contact with powdered lime. From 500 parts of alcohol and 500 of acid, Thenard obtained 100 of excellent ether. Liebig recommends the following process for obtaining this ether in a state of purity. One part of starch and ten of nitric acid (sp.gr. 1*3) are introduced into a capacious retort, which is connected with a two-necked bottle by means of a wide tube two or three feet long, bent at right ano-les, and reaching to its bottom. This bottle contains a mixture of two parts of alcohol of 85 percent, and one of water, and is surrounded with cold water. The second neck is connected, by means of a long and wide tube, with Liebig's refrigeratory. (For a figure of this apparatus see page 772.) The retort is heated by a water-bath, and, by the reaction of the starch and nitric acid, pure hyponitrous acid is disengaged, which, passing through the alcohol, forms with its ether hyponitrous ether, which distils in a con- tinuous stream. It is then freed from alcohol by means of water, and from water by standing over chloride of calcium. This process is stated to be very productive. (Turner's Chemistry, 1th ed., p. 849.) 816 AUtherea. part ii. Dr. Hare has devised an ingenious process for obtaining this ether, in which he avails himself of a hyponitrite ready formed. When nitre is exposed to heat, as in the process for obtaining oxygen from it, about one- third is converted into hyponitrite of potassa. This may be obtained sepa- rate by crystallizing the nitrate from it. Fourteen parts of the hyponitrite, thus procured, are dissolved in seven parts of water, and mixed, in a tubu- lated retort, with eight parts of alcohol. The beak of the retort is made tapering and bent downwards, and enters a tube, occupying the axis and descending through the neck of an inverted bell glass, so as to terminate within a tall vial. Both the tube and vial are kept cold by ice and water. Seven parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of water, are gradu- ally added to the retort, and the ether is distilled by means of a water-bath, kept blood-warm. (Trans, of the Amer. Phil. Soc, vii. 277; also Proceed- ings of the Society, ii. 143, Jan., 1842.) Theory of the Production of Hyponitrous Ether, cy*c. In the process of Dr. Hare, the hyponitrous acid, ready formed, is liberated from a hyponi- trite in contact with alcohol, with the ether of which the acid unites. In Liebig's process hyponitrous acid is formed by the agency of starch, by which two eqs. of oxygen are detached from each eq. of nitric acid, and is passed into alcohol contained in a separate vessel. When nitric acid is mixed directly with the alcohol, the reaction is different. Here one eq. of nitric acid, by reacting with one eq. of alcohol, forms one eq. of hyponitrous acid, one eq. of aidehyd, and two eqs. of water. Thus N05 and C4H602=N03 and C4H402 and 2HO. The hyponitrous acid, as soon as formed, reacts with a second eq. of alcohol, so as to form one eq. of hypo- nitrous ether, with separation of one eq. of water. It has, however, been shown by Dr. Golding Bird, that, when an excess of alcohol is used, oxal- hydric (saccharic) acid is first formed, and that when the formation of the hyponitrous ether has nearly ceased, aidehyd makes its appearance in the distilled product, and simultaneously oxalic acid in the contents of the retort, before which time the latter cannot be discovered. All these pro- ducts result from the oxidizing action of the nitric acid upon the alcohol, increasing the proportion of oxygen in the substances formed, either by removing the hydrogen, or by abstracting this element and adding directly to the oxygen at the same time. The reader who may wish to pursue this subject, is referred to the interesting paper of Dr. Bird, contained in the Lond. fy Ed. Phil. Mag., xiv. 324., for May, 1839. Properties. Pure hyponitrous ether is pale yellow, has the smell of apples and Hungary wines, boils at 62° (below 65° Hare), and has the sp.gr. of 0*947 at 60°. The density of its vapour is 2*627. Litmus is not affected by it. When it is mixed with an alcoholic solution of potassa, hy- ponitrite of potassa and alcohol are formed, without producing a brown colour, showing the absence of aidehyd. It is soluble in 48 parts of water, and in all proportions in alcohol or rectified spirit. It is highly inflammable, and burns with a white flame without residue. The impure ether obtained by the ordinary processes boils at 70°, and has the density of 0*886 at 40°. The officinal specific gravities of it are 0*900 Dub., 0-899 Ed. (See the next article for the Edinburgh ether.) Mixed with an alcoholic solution of potassa, it becomes dark brown, with production of aidehyd resin. (See page 15.) This discoloration shows the presence of aidehyd. When kept it becomes acid in a short time, as shown by litmus; and nitric oxide is given off, which often causes the bursting of the bottle. Its tendency to become acid is rendered greater by the action of the air, and depends on the absorption of oxygen by the aidehyd, which thereby becomes acetic PART II. AEtherea. 817 acid. These facts show the propriety of preserving this ether in small, strong bottles, kept full and in a cool place. Hyponitrous ether consists, as already explained, of one eq. of hyponitrous acid and one of ether, and its formula is C4H50-f N03. It is, therefore, improperly called nitrous and nitric ether. In its pure or concentrated state it is never used in medicine. Diluted with alcohol (rectified spirit) it forms the spirit of nitric ether, or sweet spirit of nitre, described in the next article. B. SPIRITUS .ETHERIS NITRICI. U.S., Lond., Ed. Spiritus .Ethereus Nitrosus. Dub. Spiritus Nitri Dulcis. Spirit of Nitric Ether. Sweet Spirit of Nitre. "Take of Nitrate of Potassa, in coarse powder, two pounds; Sulphuric Acid a pound and a half; Alcohol nine pints and a half; Diluted Alcohol a pint; Carbonate of Potassa an ounce. Mix the Nitrate of Potassa and the Alcohol in a large glass retort, and, having gradually poured in the Acid, digest with a gentle heat for two hours; then raise the heat and distil a gal- lon. To the distilled liquor add the Diluted Alcohol and Carbonate of Po- tassa, and again distil a gallon." U. S. "Take of Rectified Spirit three pounds; Nitric Acid four ounces. Add the acid gradually to the Spirit and mix them; then distil thirty-two fluid- ounces [Imperial measure]." Lond. "Take of Rectified Spirit two pints and six fluidounces [Imperial mea- sure]; Pure Nitric Acid (D. 1*500) seven fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Put fifteen fluidounces of the Spirit, with a little clean sand, into a two-pint matrass, fitted with a cork, through which are passed a safety-tube terminat- ing an inch above the Spirit, and another tube leading to a refrigeratory. The safety-tube being filled with Pure Nitric Acid, add through it gradually three fluidounces and a half of the acid. When the ebullition which slowly rises is nearly over, add the rest of the acid gradually, half a fluidounce at a time, waiting till the ebullition caused by each portion is nearly over before adding more, and cooling the refrigeratory with a stream of water, iced in summer. The ether thus distilled over, being received in a bottle, is to be agitated first with a little milk of lime, till it ceases to redden litmus paper, and then with half its volume of concentrated solution of muriate of lime. The pure hyponitrous ether thus obtained, which should have a density of 0*899, is then to be mixed with the remainder of the Rectified Spirit, or exactly four times its volume. " Spirit of Nitric Ether ought not to be kept long, as it always undergoes decomposition, and becomes at length strongly acid. Its density by this process is 0-847." Ed. "Add to the matter which remains after the distillation of Nitrous Ether, the Rectified Spirit employed in that operation for condensing the elastic vapour, and distil till the residuum be dry, with the superior heat of a water- bath. Mix the distilled liquor with the alkaline liquor which remains after the separation of the Nitrous Ether, and add, moreover, as much well dried Carbonate of Potassa as shall be sufficient to saturate the predominant acid. This is made evident by the test of litmus. Lastly, distil as long as any drops come over by the medium heat of a water-bath. The specific gravity of this liquor is 0*850. "Nitrous Ethereal Spirit may also be prepared by adding gradually two ounces of Nitric Acid to a pint of Rectified Spirit, and distilling twelve ounces with a proper apparatus and the application of a gentle heat." Dub. The officinal spirit of nitric ether is a mixture, in variable proportions, of hyponitrous ether and alcohol (rectified spirit). Hyponitrous ether is 70 818 AUtherea. PART II. always generated by the reaction of nitric acid and alcohol; and it matters not whether the alcohol be mixed with nitric acid directly, or with the ma- terials for generating it, namely, nitre and sulphuric acid. When the materials for forming the ether contain an excess of alcohol, this distils over with the ether, and forms the preparation under consideration. The processes of the Pharmacopoeias differ considerably. The U. S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias obtain the requisite nitric acid by using the materials for generating it; while the London and Edinburgh Colleges mix the acid ready formed with the alcohol. The London and Edinburgh processes, however, differ in one important particular; namely, that while the London College distils the nitric acid with an excess of alcohol, which comes over in large proportion with the ether, forming, at once, the sweet spirit of nitre; the Edinburgh College forms a concentrated hyponitrous ether in the distillation, and dilutes it with a determinate quantity of alcohol. The United States formula is modeled after a recipe communicated by Mr. John Carter, manufacturing chemist, to the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and recommended for adoption by a committee of that body. It is in fact the Dublin process for obtaining hyponitrous ether, explained in the preceding article, with the use of alcohol in excess. The nitre and alcohol being mixed in the retort, the sulphuric acid is gradually added, and a gentle heat applied. Nitric acid is set free, and by reacting with a part of the alcohol produces the hyponitrous ether, as explained in the last article. Upon the subsequent increase of the heat, the ether and the remainder of the alcohol distil over as the sweet spirit of nitre. The distilled product, however, contains some acid, and hence is rectified by a distillation from carbonate of potassa. The diluted alcohol is added before commencing this distillation, to enable the operator to obtain a quantity of distilled product equal to that procured at first, without distilling to dryness, which would endanger the production of empyreuma. The alcohol is first mixed with the nitre, and the sulphuric acid afterwards gradually added. If the alcohol and sulphuric acid are previously mixed, the risk would be run of generating some sulphuric ether, before they are added to the nitre in the retort. The retort should be of such a capacity as to be capable of holding twice the amount of the materials employed. The above process, as conducted by Mr. Carter on a large scale, is per- formed in a copper still of about twenty gallons capacity, and furnished with a pewter head and worm. The materials for the first distillation are 18 pounds of purified nitre, 12 gallons of alcohol of 34° Baume (0*847), and 12 pounds of sulphuric acid ; and 10 gallons are drawn off. The dis- tilled product is then mixed with a gallon of diluted alcohol, and rectified by a new distillation from lime or a carbonated alkali; the same quantity being distilled as at first. When large quantities of this preparation are thus obtained, the several portions require to be mixed in a large glass vessel, to render the whole of uniform strength; as the portion which first comes over in the rectification is strongest in hyponitrous ether. Previously to the redistillation, the head and worm must be washed thoroughly with water, to remove a little acid which comes over in the first distillation. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., i. 308.) A similar process to the above for making sweet spirit of nitre, is adopted in the principal laboratories of Philadelphia. As the use of metallic vessels is attended with some risk, it would be an improvement in the above pro- cess, if an earthenware still and worm were employed, as is done at Apo- thecaries' Hall, London; the still being heated by the slow application of steam to its outer surface. FART II. Mtherea. 819 In order to understand the process of the Dublin College for preparing sweet spirit of nitre, it will be necessary to revert to their formula for ob- taining hyponitrous ether, explained in the last article. The residue of this process consists of sulphate of potassa, free nitric acid not consumed in the generation of the ether, and certain products resulting from the oxidation of the alcohol by the nitric acid, as mentioned in the last article. To this resi- due is added the pound of alcohol, which had been employed in the process for the purpose of absorbing the ether which escapes condensation in the receiver. Of course, after this addition, all the conditions are fulfilled which are necessary for the generation of sweet spirit of nitre, namely, nitric acid in contact with more alcohol than is necessary to form hyponitrous ether. Accordingly, upon distillation, the ether comes over mixed with a certain proportion of alcohol, forming the sweet spirit of nitre. But at the same time, a portion of acid is distilled over, to separate which the product is re- distilled from an alkaline carbonate at a medium heat (between 100° and 200°) as long as any drops come over. To save the alkaline solution used in purifying the ether described in the last article, it is directed to be ap- plied, as far as it will go, to the purpose of saturating the free acid of this preparation. From the explanations here and previously given, it is obvious that the formulas for hyponitrous ether and sweet spirit of nitre of the Dublin Col- lege form in fact but one process; and whenever it is desirable to obtain hyponitrous ether, it is no doubt expedient to use the residue and part of the products of the process, for procuring sweet spirit of nitre, provided the latter preparation can be obtained from them of good quality. But when it is recollected that the residue is loaded with newly formed acids, and that the quantity of free nitric acid in it cannot be estimated, it may be well doubted whether the process of the Dublin College for sweet spirit of nitre is an eligible one. As hyponitrous ether is never employed in medicine in a pure state, and has very few uses, it is an objection to the Dublin formula for sweet spirit of nitre that it requires the preparation of another substance which may not be wanted. It is, no doubt, on this account that the College has appended to its process for sweet spirit of nitre, another formula, similar to that of the London College, by which it may be obtained independently of any other product. In the London process, nitric acid, ready formed, is mixed with the alco- hol; the proportion of acid to the spirit being as 1 to 9 in weight. The pro- portion of nitric acid to the alcohol in the U.S. formula, is nearly the same as that in the London process, if we suppose that the nitre, by its decom- position, yields a pound and a quarter of acid, which is about the quantity obtained in practice. This coincidence may be assumed with the greater confidence, as the preparation obtained by the two processes has the same specific gravity. The proportion of sweet spirit of nitre drawn off to the alcohol employed is a little over two-thirds in the London formula, and five- sixths in that of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. When the distillation is pushed too far, the product is high-coloured, specifically heavier than it should be, very acid so as to act strongly on litmus paper, decomposes the alkaline carbonates with effervescence, and contains aidehyd, which gives it a pun- gent odour. (Dr. Golding Bird.) The impurities arising from a distilla- tion carried too far are, according to Dr. Bird, entirely avoided by following the directions of the London Pharmacopoeia. The residue of the process, if further distilled, will yield a small additional portion of sweet spirit of nitre, nearly pure, of higher specific gravity than the officinal portion; but, on continuing the process, the hyponitrous ether ceases to come over, and about the same time aidehyd appears in the distilled product, and in the 820 JEtherea. PART II. residue, oxalic acid, which seems to replace the oxalhydric acid, formed at an earlier stage of the reaction. (See last article.) Admitting Dr. Bird's results, it is probable that the sweet spirit of nitre which comes over in the first distillation of the U;S. process will contain aidehyd; as one-fourth more of liquid is drawn over than is distilled in the London process. Sup- posing this to be the case, it is presumable that this impurity would be separated, together with any contaminating acid, by the second distillation from carbonate of potassa. According to Mr. Alsop and Mr. Scanlan, of London, the process of the London College is a precarious one, and at the same time not economical. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iii. 425.) It is probably not economical, but it gives a good preparation when the London College directions are strictly followed. The Edinburgh process for sweet spirit of nitre, consists of two steps: first the formation of hyponitrous ether, and secondly, its dilution with four times its volume of alcohol. Dr. Christison, commenting on this process, states that it may be conducted with safety and despatch, when the precau- tions are attended to which are enjoined by the Edinburgh College. The conditions for success are to add no more acid to the spirit at first than what is necessary to commence the action ; to wait until the ebullition thus arising shall have ceased; to add the rest of the acid in small successive portions; to let the acid drop from the height of about an inch into the spirit; to have some clean sand in the bottom of the matrass; and to employ a refrigeratory, such as that figured at page 772. Should the ebullition increase too rapidly, it may be repressed by blowing cool air across the matrass. The presence of the sand prevents the dangerous succussions arising from the sudden liberation of ethereal vapour. The ethereal product is first agitated with milk of lime to separate acid, and then with half its volume of a concen- trated solution of chloride of calcium, to remove water and alcohol. The density given for this hyponitrous ether is 0*899, which is lower than that of the pure ether. The last step in the process is to mix this ether with the prescribed quantity of alcohol, which gives a sweet spirit of nitre of the density of 0*847. The hyponitrous ether of this process may be presumed to measure, on an average, 7£ fluidounces, and, consequently, the sweet spirit of nitre obtained from it, 38f fluidounces. The degree of dilution was fixed, so as to make it conform in ethereal strength with the same pre- paration of the former Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. The preparation is intended to contain one-fifth of its volume of ether, and is probably twice or thrice as strong as the sweet spirit of nitre of the U.S. and London Pharmacopoeias. For making this preparation, Dr. Christison prefers the present plan of the Edinburgh College, of diluting the pure ether to a determinate degree, on the ground that it secures a pure and uniform pre- paration. Many years ago the same plan was proposed by Dr. Hare. Properties. Spirit of nitric ether is a colourless volatile liquid, of a fra- grant, ethereal odour, and pungent, aromatic, sweetish, acidulous taste. The Edinburgh preparation is yellow. If perfectly pure it is devoid of acid reaction, but it generally reddens litmus slightly. Its officinal sp.gr. is 0*834 U. S., Lond.; 0-847 Ed.; and 0*850 Dub. High density is not necessarily an index of deficient strength; as it may arise, as in the Edin- burgh preparation, from containing a large proportion of the pure ether. If heated by means of a water-bath, the U.S. sweet spirit of nitre begins to boil at 160°. It mixes with water and alcohol in all proportions. It is very inflammable, and burns with a whitish flame. Impurities and. Tests. Sweet spirit of nitre, when the product of a dis- tillation too long continued, at first contains aidehyd, which afterwards be- PART II. AUtherea. 821 comes acetic acid by the absorption of oxygen—rapidly if the preparation be insecurely kept. The presence of aidehyd may be detected by its im- parting a pungent odour and acrid flavour, and by the preparation contain- ing it assuming a yellow tint on the addition of a weak solution of potassa, owing to the formation of aidehyd resin. It is probable that this impurity is not often present in large amount, being replaced by its product the acetic acid. As aidehyd appears to be the chief source of impurity in sweet spirit of nitre, and as it is detected by producing a characteristic colour with a solution of potassa, it would seem easy to make this test available as an index when the distillation should be discontinued. For if the distilled product were made to pass through a small portion of this alkaline solution, it would probably give indications of the first appearance of aidehyd, and thus enable the operator to stop the distillation in time. Acetic acid, as well as other acids (usually nitrogen acids) that may happen to be present, may be discovered by the taste, by their acting on litmus strongly, and by their decomposing the alkaline carbonates or bicarbonates with effervescence. These acids often operate injuriously by their chemi- cal reactions with other substances, when associated in mixtures. Thus they liberate iodine from iodide of potassium, gradually decolorize infusion of roses, and, in the compound mixture of iron, hasten the conversion of the protoxide into the sesquioxide of iron. To obviate these effects, Mr. Harvey, of Leeds, keeps the sweet spirit of nitre standing on crystals of bicarbonate of potassa, and states that if the preparation be of full strength, no appre- ciable portion of the alkali will be dissolved. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., Jan., 1842.) A deep olive colour being produced with the sulphate of protoxide of iron, shows the presence of a nitrogen oxide or acid, and a blue tint with tincture of guaiac, passing through various shades of green, a nitrogen acid. According to Mr. Bastick, sweet spirit of nitre contains about one-fifth of one per cent, of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid, when made from hyponitrous ether, generated by Liebig's process, namely, the action of nitric acid on starch, &c. (See page 815.) The same contaminating acid has been detected, by M. Dalpaiz, in the preparation when made according to the London Pharmacoposia, though not detected in it by Mr. Bastick. Other impurities, which are often fraudulently added to sweet spirit of nitre, are water and alcohol. These may be detected in the Edinburgh preparation, as stated by the College, by agitating it with twice its volume of a concentrated solution of chloride of calcium. If the sweet spirit of nitre be of full strength, 12 per cent, of ether will slowly separate, which is twelve twentieths of the quantity present. The test acts by taking up the alcohol and water; and if less ether separates, it shows the presence of too much of the former substances. This test is hardly applicable to the U. S. and London preparation, which is much weaker than the Edinburgh. Dr. Christison states that the London sweet spirit of nitre, when subjected to this test, has never yielded in his trials more than four per cent, of ether. Sometimes it yields none. Specific gravity is no criterion of the goodness of the preparation as obtained by any formula. The addition of water will raise its density; and so will the addition of hyponitrous ether. A high density, in connexion with deficient ethereal qualities, would, of course, show the presence of free acids, an excess of water, or both. A specific gravity lower than the U. S. and London standard, would probably indicate the presence of alcohol stronger than it should be, which might be either in proper amount or in too large proportion. The fraudulent dilution of sweet spirit of nitre with alcohol and water is 70* 822 AEtherea.—Alcohol. PART II. a great evil, considering the extensive use of the medicine, and its valuable remedial powers when pure. We have been informed on good authority, that it is variously diluted, according to the views of the vender, with twice, thrice, and even four times its weight of alcohol and water. In some shops a strong and a weak preparation are kept, to suit the views of customers as to price. Some of the wholesale druggists are in the habit of diluting it, either upon the plea that the physician's prescriptions are written in view of the use of a weak preparation, or for the purpose of affording it at a low price. All these evils would be corrected, if the different manufacturing chemists in the Union would comply with the recommendation of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and adopt for preparing it the formula of the United States Pharmacopoeia. A uniform preparation being in this way furnished to the druggists, all that would be necessary on their part, would be to abstain from weakening it by the admixture of alcohol and water. Medical Properties and Uses. Sweet spirit of nitre is diaphoretic, diure- tic, and antispasmodic. It is deservedly much esteemed as a medicine, and is extensively employed in febrile affections, either alone, or in conjunction with tartar emetic, for the purpose of promoting the secretions, especially those of sweat and urine. It often proves a grateful stimulus to the stomach, relieving nausea and removing flatulence, and not unfrequently quiets rest- lessness and promotes sleep. On account of its tendency to the kidneys, it is often conjoined with other diuretics, such as squill, digitalis, acetate of potassa, nitre, &c, for the purpose of promoting their action in dropsical complaints. The late Dr. Duncan praised a combination of it with a small proportion of aromatic spirit of ammonia, as eminently diaphoretic and diu- retic, and well suited to certain states of febrile disease. The dose is about a teaspoonful, given every two or three hours in a portion of water. When used as a diuretic, it should be given in larger doses. B. ALCOHOL. Preparations of Alcohol. ALCOHOL DILUTUM. U. S. Spiritus Tenuior. Lond., Ed.,Dub. Diluted Alcohol. Proof Spirit. "Take of Alcohol,Distilled Water,each,apint. Mix them. The specific gravity of Diluted Alcohol is 0*935." U. S. " Take of Rectified Spirit two pints [Imperial measure] ; Distilled Water a pint [Imp. meas.]. Mix them. The density of the product should be 0*912." Ed. The London and Dublin Colleges have placed diluted alcohol or proof spirit in the list of the Materia Medica. The Edinburgh College has ordered the strongest diluted alcohol, its density being 0*912, which is 7 over proof. It contains 52 per cent, of absolute alcohol, and is consider- ably stronger than the corresponding spirit of the former Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia. The London College directs the sp. gr. to be 0*920. When of this strength, it contains 49 per cent, of pure alcohol, and may be formed by mixing five measures of the rectified spirit of that College with three of dis- tilled water at the temp, of 62°. In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, it is ordered of thesp.gr. 0*919, and the statement is made in a note, that spirit of nearly the same specific gravity may be formed by mixing five and a quarter mea- sures of the rectified spirit of that work with three of distilled water. Such a spirit will contain a little more than 49 per cent, of absolute alcohol, and will agree very nearly in strength with the corresponding spirit of the part ii. Alcohol.—Alumen. 823 London College. The diluted alcohol of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia has the sp. gr. 0-935, and contains only 42 per cent, of absolute alcohol. It, there- fore, forms the weakest officinal proof spirit. Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses. The medicinal effects of alcohol in a diluted and modified state, as it exists in brandy and other ardent spirits, have been detailed under other heads. (See Alcohol and Vinum.) As a pure diluted spirit, however, consisting solely of alcohol and water in deter- minate proportions, its use is exclusively pharmaceutical. It is employed as an addition to some of the distilled waters and preparations of vinegar, in order to preserve them from decomposition; as a menstruum for extract- ing the virtues of some plants, preparatory to their being brought to the state of extracts and syrups; and in preparing many of the spirits. But it is in forming the tinctures that diluted alcohol is principally employed. Many of these are formed with the officinal alcohol (rectified spirit), but the majority, with diluted alcohol (proof spirit) as the menstruum. As the latter contains more than half its weight of water, it is well fitted for acting on those vegetables, the virtues of which are partly soluble in water and partly in alcohol. The apothecary, however, is, on no account, to substitute the commercial proof spirit for diluted alcohol, even though it should be of the same strength. On this point, the authors of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia have very correctly remarked, that "almost all the spirit which is sold under the name of proof spirit, is contaminated with empyreumatic oil, and unfit for medical use." But when it is recollected how variable the so called proof spirits are in strength, the objection to their use in pharmacy becomes still stronger. Thus, according to Mr. Brande, gin contains 51*6 per cent, of alcohol of 0*825; and the percentage of the same alcohol is 53*39 in brandy, 53*68 in rum, 53*90 in Irish whisky, and 54*32 in Scotch whisky. The alcohol on which these results are based already contains 11 per cent, of water. B. ALUMEN. • Preparations of Alum. ALUMEN EXSICCATUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Alumen Siccatum. Dub. Dried Alum. " Take of alum any quantity. Melt it in an earthen or iron vessel over the fire, and continue the heat till it becomes dry; then rub it into powder." U.S. "Melt Alum in an earthen vessel over the fire; then increase the heat until ebullition has ceased." Lond. The Edinburgh and Dublin processes agree with that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. When alum is heated, it quickly dissolves in its water of crystallization, which, if the heat be continued, is gradually driven off; and the salt swells up exceedingly, so as to make it expedient to use a vessel, the capacity of which is at least equal to three times the bulk of the alum operated on. When the boiling up has ceased, it is a sign that all the water has been driven off. Properties. Dried alum, sometimes called burnt alum, is in the form of an opaque white powder, possessing a more astringent taste than the crys- tallized salt. Before pulverization, it is a light, white, opaque, porous mass. During the exsiccation, it loses from 41 to 46 per cent, of its weight in dissipated water. If, however, the heat be strongly urged, some of the acid is driven off, and the loss becomes still greater. Dried alum resists the action of water for a long time, showing that the process to which it has 824 Alumen. —Ammonia. PART II. been subjected has altered its state of aggregation. In composition, it differs from crystallized alum merely in the absence of water. Medical Properties and Uses. Dried alum has occasionally been given in obstinate constipation, with the effect of gently moving the bowels, and of affording great relief from pain. (See Alumen.) The dose is about half that of alum. Its principal medical use is as a mild escharotic for destroy- ing fungous flesh. B. LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS. Lond. Compound Solu- tion of Alum. " Take of Alum, Sulphate of Zinc, each an ounce; boiling water three pints [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Alum and Sulphate of Zinc to- gether in the Water, and afterwards strain." Lond. This was formerly called aqua aluminosa Bateana, or Bates's alum water. It is a powerful astringent solution, and is employed for cleansing and stimulating foul ulcers, and as an injection in gleet and leucorrhoea. It is also sometimes employed as a collyrium in ophthalmia after depletion; but when used in this way it must be diluted. A convenient formula is half a fluidounce of the solution, mixed with six and a half fluidounces of rose water. B. AMMONIA. Preparations of Ammonia. AMMONITE BICARBONAS. Dub. Bicarbonate of Ammonia. " Take of Water of Carbonate of Ammonia any quantity. Expose it, in a suitable apparatus, to a stream of (carbonic acid gas, evolved during the solution of white marble in Diluted Muriatic Acid, until the alkali is saturated. Then let it rest to form crystals, which are to be dried without heat, and kept in a closely stopped vessel." Dub. This salt is officinal only in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia. The process by which it is formed consists in saturating the sesquicarbonate (officinal car- bonate) with carbonic acid, whereby this salt becomes a bicarbonate. The sesquicarbonate consists of three eqs. of acid and two of ammonia; and, by gaining one eq. of carbonic acid, becomes tvvo eqs. of bicarbonate, consisting of four eqs. of acid and two of ammonia. Each eq. of the crystallized salt contains two eqs. of water. Bicarbonate of ammonia, as prepared by this process, is in the form of crystals, which have a faint ammoniacal taste and smell, and are permanent in the air. It is less soluble in water than the sesquicarbonate, requiring eight times its weight of that liquid to dissolve it. It possesses, though in an inferior degree, the medical properties of the latter salt. As it furnishes the practitioner with the means of prescribing ammonia in a convenient and palatable form, Dr. Barker deems its introduction into the officinal list of the Dublin College a valuable improvement. It ought to have been shown, however, in what respect the Dublin preparation differs from the bicar- bonate, obtained by exposing the sesquicarbonate to the air; for if they be identical, it cannot be necessary to resort to the Dublin formula for preparing this bisalt. The dose of bicarbonate of ammonia is from six to twenty-four grains, dissolved in cold water, as hot water decomposes it. B. AMMONI.E CARBONAS. U.S., Ed., Dub. Ammonite Sesqui- carbonas. Lond. Carbonate of Ammonia. Mild Volatile Alkali. "Take of Muriate of Ammonia a pound; Chalk, dried, a pound and a half. Pulverize them separately; then mix them thoroughly, and sublime with a gradually increasing heat." U. S. PART II. Ammonia. 825 "Take of Muriate of Ammonia, pulverized and well dried, Dried Carbo- nate of Soda, each, one part. Put the mixture into an earthenware retort, and with a heat gradually increased, sublime the Carbonate of Ammonia into a refrigerated receiver." Dub. The London and Edinburgh processes are the same as that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. In the above processes, by the reciprocal action of the salts employed, the carbonic acid unites with the ammonia, generating carbonate of ammonia, and the muriatic acid with the lime or soda, so as to form water and chloride of calcium, or the same liquid and chloride of sodium. The carbonate and water sublime together as a hydrated carbonate of ammonia, and the residue is chloride of calcium in the U. S., London, and Edinburgh processes, and chloride of sodium, or common salt, in the Dublin. In conducting the pro- cess, the retort should be of earthenware,and have a wide cylindrical neck ; and the receiver should be cylindrical, to facilitate the extraction of the sub- limate. The relative quantities of chalk and muriate of ammonia for mutual decomposition, are 50-5 of the former and 53*42 of the latter, or one eq. of each. The Pharmacopoeias use a great excess of chalk. An excess is desirable to ensure the perfect decomposition of the muriate of ammonia, any redundancy of which would sublime along with the carbonate, and ren- der it impure. The employment of carbonate of soda, in the Dublin pro- cess, affords a product of greater whiteness, but is objectionable on the score of expense. The proportions of the muriate and alkaline carbonate, directed by this College, correspond almost precisely with the equivalents; but in practice, the quantity of carbonate of soda is found insufficient. Carbonate of ammonia is obtained on a large scale, generally by subliming the proper materials from an iron pot into a large earthen or leaden receiver. Sulphate of ammonia may be substituted for the muriate with much economy, as was shown by Payen. Large quantities of this carbonate are manufac- tured indirectly from gas liquor and bone spirit; the ammoniacal products in these liquors being successively converted into sulphate, muriate, and carbonate of ammonia. (See Ammonise Murias.) The salt as first obtained has a slight odour of tar, and leaves a blackish carbonaceous matter when dissolved in acids. Hence it requires to be refined, which is effected in iron pots, surmounted with leaden heads. Properties. Carbonate (sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, recently prepared, is in white, moderately hard, translucent masses, of a fibrous and crystalline appearance, a pungent ammoniacal smell, and a sharp penetrating taste. It possesses an alkaline reaction, and when held under a piece of turmeric paper changes it to brown, owing to the escape of monocarbonate of am- monia. When long or carelessly kept, it gradually passes into the state of bicarbonate, becoming opaque and friable, and falling to powder. It is solu- ble without residue in about four times its weight of cold water, and is decom- posed by boiling water with effervescence. According to Dr. Barker (Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia), it dissolves abundantly in diluted alcohol, as also in heated alcohol of the sp. gr. 0*836, with effer- vescence of carbonic acid. When heated on a piece of glass, it should evaporate without residue, and, if turmeric paper held over it undergoes no change, it has passed into bicarbonate. When saturated with nitric acid, neither chloride of barium nor nitrate of silver causes a precipitate. The non-action of these tests shows the absence of sulphate and muriate of am- monia. It is decomposed by acids, the fixed alkalies and their carbonates, lime-water and magnesia, solution of chloride of calcium, alum, acid salts, such as bitartrate and bisulphate of potassa, solutions of iron (except the 826 Ammonia. PART II. tartrate of iron and potassa), corrosive sublimate, the acetate and subacetate of lead, and the sulphates of iron and zinc. Composition. It consists of three eqs. of carbonic acid 66, two of ammo- nia 34, and two of water 18= 118; or, which comes to the same thing, of one eq. of bicarbonate 61, and one of monocarbonate 39, combined with the same quantity of water. The medicinal carbonate of ammonia is, therefore, when perfect, a hydrated sesquicarbonate, as it is called by the London College. Dalton and Scanlan, however, have rendered it probable that it is a double salt; for, when treated with a small quantity of cold water, monocarbonate is dissolved and bicarbonate left. When converted into bicarbonate by expo- sure to the air, each eq. of the medicinal salt loses one eq. of monocarbonate, a change which leaves the acid and base in the proper proportion to form the bisalt. The mutual decomposition of the salts employed in its preparation, would generate, if no loss occurred, the monocarbonate, and not the sesqui- carbonate. The way in which the latter salt is formed may be thus explained. By the mutual decomposition of three eqs. of muriate of ammonia and of chalk respectively, three eqs. of monocarbonate of ammonia, three of water, and three of chloride of calcium are generated. During the operation, how- ever, one eq. of ammonia and one of water, forming together oxide of ammo- nium, are lost; so that there remain to be sublimed, three eqs. of carbonic acid, two of ammonia, and two of water; or, in other words, the exact con- stituents of the hydrated sesquicarbonate. When this is re-sublimed in the process of refining, two eqs. of the salt lose one eq. of carbonic acid, and become one eq. of 5-4 carbonate of ammonia. Medical Properties and Uses. Carbonate of ammonia is stimulant, dia- phoretic, antispasmodic, powerfully antacid, and in large doses emetic. Under certain circumstances it may prove expectorant; as when, in the last stages of phthisis, it facilitates, by increasing the muscular power, the ex- cretion of the sputa. As a stimulant, it is exhibited principally in typhus fever, and very frequently in connexion with wine whey. Its principal advantage, in this disease, is its power to increase the action of the heart and arteries without unduly exciting the brain. It is employed, with a view to the same effect, and as an antacid, in certain stages of atonic gout, and in the derangements of the stomach supervening on habits of irregularity and 'debauchery. As a diaphoretic, it is resorted to in gout and chronic rheuma- tism, particularly the latter, in conjunction with guaiac. In diabetes it has been recommended by Dr. Barlow in England, and Bouchardat in France. In cases of scrofula attended with languid circulation and dry skin, it is said to produce excellent effects. It is very seldom used as an emetic; but is sup- posed to act with advantage, in this way, in some cases of paralysis. As an external application, it is rubefacient, and may be employed in several ways. Reduced to fine powder, and mixed with some mild ointment, it is useful in local rheumatism. One part of it incorporated with three parts of extract of belladonna, forms a plaster very efficacious in relieving local and spasmodic pains. Coarsely bruised, and scented with oil of lavender, it constitutes the common smelling salts, so much used as a nasal stimulant in syncope and hysteria. The dose as a stimulant is from five to ten grains, every two, three, or four hours, in the form of pill, or dissolved in some aqueous vehi- cle ; and as an emetic, thirty grains, to be repeated if necessary, and assisted by free dilution. It should never be given in powder, on account of its vola- tile nature. Pills of it may be made up with some vegetable extract, as of chamomile for example, and should be dispensed in a wide-mouthed vial, and not in a box. Carbonate of ammonia is used as a chemical agent in preparing Zinci PART II. Ammonia. ■ 827 Oxidum, U. S., Lond., Ed., and Ferrum Tartarizatum, i? G Tq,-°f Chi°nne 35'42' one of bariu™ 68*7, and two of water 1* = 12212. It is used in medicine only in solution. Off. Prep. Liquor Barii Chloridi, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub B MuVi?™ R™ ARIJ CHI;?RIDL U-S" *""*. Wio Bah™ Muriatis. Ed. Baryta Muriatis Aqua. Dub. Solution of Chlo- ride of Barium. Solution of Muriate of Baryta. "Take of Chloride of Barium an ounce; Distilled Water three Hind ounces; Dissolve the Chloride of Barium in the Water, and filter "US " 1 ake of Chloride of Barium a drachm; Distilled Water a fluidounce [Imperial measure] Dissolve the Chloride of Barium, and strain!" Lond Ihe Edinburgh formula is the same as the London. "Take of Muriate of Baryta one part; Distilled Water three parts. Dis- solve The sp. gr. of this solution should be 1*230." Dub. Chloride of barium, not being used in the solid state, is here dissolved for convenient exhibition. The U. S. and Dublin solutions are of about the same strength. The London and Edinburgh preparations are much weaker, an ounce of the salt being dissolved in eight fluidounces of water, instead of three, as directed in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The solution should be limpid and colourless; and to make it so, the salt in crystals, and not in powder should be employed. The U. S. and Dublin solutions are nearly saturated ones, and are probably too strong for convenient use. Medical Properties and Uses. This solution is deobstruent and anthel- mintic, and in large doses poisonous; its action, according to some, beino- analogous to that of arsenic. It was introduced into practfce by Dr. Craw°- ford as a remedy for cancer and scrofula. Its value in the latter disease has been particularly insisted on by Hufeland. This physician considers it to act more particularly on the lymphatic system, in the irritated states of which he esteems it a valuable remedy. Hence he recommends it in the scrofulous affections of delicate and irritable organs, such as the eyes, lumn, &c In the commencement of scrofulous phthisis, he views it as one of the best remedies to which we can have recourse. It is employed also in diseases of the skin, in ulcers, and ophthalmia. The dose for an adult of tlie U. S. solution is about five drops, given twice or thrice a dav, and gra- dually but cautiously increased, until it produces nausea, or some other sensible impression. When taken in an over-dose it causes violent vomiting and purging, vertigo, and other dangerous symptoms. To combat its poi- sonous effects, recourse must be had immediately to a weak solution of sulphate of magnesia, which acts by converting the poison into the insoluble sulphate of baryta. If vomiting does not come on, it should be induced Dy tickling the fauces, or by the administration of an emetic. B. BISMUTHUM. Preparation of Bismuth. BISMUTHI SUBNITRAS. U. S., Dub. Blsmuthi Trisnitras. Lond. Bismuthum Album. Ed. Subnitrate of Bismuth. Trinitrate of Bismuth. White Bismuth. White Oxide of Bismuth. T T^-°f •?IS.rmUh'in fragments' an ounce; Nitric Acid a fluidounce and ah«lf; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix a fluidounce of Distilled Water with the Nitric Acid, and dissolve the Bismuth in the mixture. When.the solution is complete, pour the clear liquor into three pints of Distilled Water, and set the mixture by that the powder may subside. 876 Bismuthum. PART II. Lastly, having poured off the supernatant fluid, wash the Subnitrate of Bismuth with Distilled Water, wrap it in bibulous paper, and dry it with a gentle heat." U S. "Take of Bismuth an ounce; Nitric Acid a fluidounce and a half [Im- perial measure]; Distilled Water three pints [Imp. meas.]. Mix a fluidounce of the Distilled Water with the Nitric Acid, and dissolve the Bismuth in them. Then pour off the solution. To this add the remainder of the Water, and set by that the powder may subside. Afterwards, pour off the super- natant liquor, wash the Trisnitrate of Bismuth with Distilled Water, and dry it with a gentle heat." Lond. " Take of Bismuth, in fine powder, an ounce; Nitric Acid [of commerce ?] (D. 1*380) a fluidounce and a half [Imperial measure] ; Water three pints [Imp. meas.]. Add the metal gradually to the acid, favouring the action with a gentle heat, and adding a very little Distilled Water so soon as crystals or a white powder may begin to form. When the solution is complete, pour the liquor into the Water. Collect the precipitate immediately on a calico filter, wash it quickly with cold water, and dry it in a dark place." Ed. "Take of Bismuth, in powder, seven parts; Diluted Nitric Acid twenty parts; Distilled Water owe hundred parts. Add the Bismuth gradually to the Acid, and dissolve by the assistance of heat. Mix the solution with the Water, and set the mixture by that the powder may subside. Wash this with Distilled Water, and dry it on bibulous paper with a gentle heat." Dub. When bismuth is added to dilute nitric acid, red fumes are copiously given off, and the metal, oxidized by the decomposition of part of the nitric acid, is dissolved by the remainder, so as to form a solution of the nitrate of protoxide of bismuth. It is unnecessary to have the metal in powder, as it dissolves with great facility when added to the acid in fragments. When the solution is completed, the liquor should be added to the water, which should be distilled, and not the water to the solution, which is not so eligible a plan. Immediately on the contact of the solution with the water, four eqs. of the nitrate are resolved into one eq. of ternitrate of bismuth which remains in solution, and one eq. of trisnitrate which precipitates. In order to have a smooth light powder, which is most esteemed, the precipitate should be washed and dried as speedily as possible. Properties. Subnitrate of bismuth is a tasteless, inodorous, heavy powder, of a pure white colour. It is slightly soluble in water, and readily so in the strong acids, from which it is precipitated by water. The fixed alkalies dissolve it sparingly, and ammonia more readily. It is darkened by hydro- sulphuric acid gas, but not by exposure to light, unless it contains a little silver, or is subjected to the influence of organic matter. If it dissolves in nitric acid without effervescence, it contains no carbonate, and if the nitric solution is not precipitated by diluted sulphuric acid, it is free from lead. By the earlier chemists it was called magistery of bismuth. The perfumers, by whom it is sold as a paint for the complexion, denominate itpearl white. It consists of one eq. of nitric acid 54, and three of protoxide of bismuth 237=291. Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation is tonic and antispas- modic. It was originally introduced into practice by Dr. Odier, of Geneva, and has been subsequently employed with advantage both in this country and in Europe. It has been recommended in epilepsy, palpitation of the heart, and spasmodic diseases generally; but more particularly in various painful affections of the stomach, dependent on disordered digestion, such as cardialgia, pyrosis, and gastrodynia. Its use always blackens the stools, PART II. Bismuthum.— Calx. 877 from the effect of the intestinal gases. The dose is five grains, gradually increased to twelve or fifteen twice or thrice a day, and may be taken in pill, or mixed with an equal weight of aromatic powder. In an over-dose it pro- duces alarming gastric distress, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea or constipation, colic, heat in the breast, slight rigors, vertigo, and drowsiness. The reme- dies are bland and mucilaginous drinks, and, in case of inflammation, bleed- ing by leeches or venesection, enemata, and emollient fomentations. ' B. CALX. Preparations of Lime. LIQUOR CALCIS. U.S., Lond. Aqua Calcis. Ed., Dub. Lime- water. "Take of Lime four ounces; Distilled Water a gallon. Upon the Lime. first slaked with a little of the Water, pour the remainder of the Water. and stir them together; then immediately cover the vessel, and set it aside for three hours. Keep the solution, together with the undissolved Lime, in stopped glass bottles, and pour off the clear liquor when it is wanted for use. Water free from saline or other obvious impurity may be employed in this process, though not distilled." U. S. The London College takes half a pound of lime, and twelve pints [Im- perial measure] of distilled water, and proceeds as above directed. "Take any convenient quantity of Water, pour a little of it over about a twentieth of its weight of Lime; when the Lime is slaked, add to it the rest of the Water in a bottle; agitate well; allow the undissolved matter to sub- side; pour off the clear liquor when it is wanted, replacing it with more water, and agitating briskly as before." Ed. " Take of fresh burnt Lime, boiling Water, each, one part. Put the Lime into an earthen vessel, and sprinkle the Water upon it, keeping the vessel closed while the Lime grows hot and falls into powder; then pour upon it thirty parts of cold water, and, having again closed the vessel, shake the mixture frequently for twenty-four hours; lastly, after the lime has subsided, pour off the clear solution, and keep it in closely stopped bottles." Dub. A solution of lime in water is the result of these processes. By the slak- ing of the lime it is reduced to powder, and rendered more easily diffusible through the water. According to all the Pharmacopoeias, except the Dublin, the solution, is to be kept in bottles with a portion of undissolved lime, which causes it always to be saturated, whatever may be the tempera- ture, and to whatever extent it may be exposed to the air. If care be taken to have a considerable quantity of the solution in the bottle, and to avoid • unnecessary agitation, the upper portion will always remain sufficiently clear for use. The direction of the Edinburgh College, to replace by more water the clear liquid poured off, cannot, of course, be carried into effect indefinitely. By the absorption of carbonic acid, the lime is gradually con- verted into a carbonate, and thus rendered insoluble. The employment of Distilled Water as the solvent may seem a useless refinement; and it cer- tainly is unnecessary when pure spring or river water is attainable; but in many places the common water is very impure, and wholly unfit for a pre- paration, one of the most frequent uses of which is to allay irritation of stomach. Water dissolves but a minute proportion of lime, and, contrary to the general law, less when hot than cold. Hence the propriety of em- ploying cold water in the process. According to Mr. Phillips, a pint of 75 878 Calx. PART II. water (the wine pint of the U.S. Ph.) at 212° dissolves 5*6 grains of lime, at 60°, 9*7 grains, and at 32°, 11*0 grains. When a cold saturated solu- tion is heated, a deposition of lime takes place. Properties. Lime-water is colourless, inodorous, and of a disagreeable alkaline taste, changes vegetable blues to green, and forms an imperfect soap with oils. Exposed to the air it attracts carbonic acid, and becomes covered with a pellicle of insoluble carbonate of lime, which, subsiding after a time, is replaced by another, and so on successively till the whole of the lime is exhausted. Hence the necessity of keeping lime-water either in closely corked bottles which should be full, or, what is more convenient, in bottles with an excess of lime. Medical Properties and Uses. Lime-water is antacid, tonic, and astring- ent, and is very usefully employed in dyspepsia with acidity of stomach, diarrhoea, diabetes, and gravel attended with superabundant secretion of uric acid. Mixed with an equal measure- of milk, which completely covers its offensive taste, it is one of the best remedies in our possession for nausea and vomiting dependent on irritability of stomach. We have found a diet exclusively of lime-water and milk to be more effectual than any other plan of treatment in dyspepsia accompanied with vomiting of food. In this case, one part of the solution to two or three parts of milk is usually sufficient. Lime-water is also thought to be useful by dissolving the intestinal mucus in cases of worms, and in other complaints connected with an excess of this secretion. Externally it is employed as a wash in tinea capitis and scabies, as an application to foul and gangrenous ulcers, as an injection in leucorrhoea and ulceration of the bladder or urethra, and, mixed with linseed or olive oil, as a liniment in burns and scalds. The dose is from two to four fluid- ounces taken several times a day. When employed to allay nausea, it is usually given in the dose of a tablespoonful mixed with the same quantity of new milk, and repeated at intervals of half an hour, an hour, or two hours. If too long continued it debilitates the'stomach. Off.Prep. Aqua Calcis Composita, Dub.; Infusum Sarsaparillas Compo- situm, Dub.; Linimentum Calcis, U. S., Ed., Dub. W. AQUA CALCIS COMPOSITA. Dub. Compound Lime-water. "Take of Guaiacum Wood, rasped, half a pound; Liquorice Root, sliced and bruised, an ounce; Sassafras Bark, bruised, half an ounce; Coriander Seeds three drachms; Lime-water six pints. Macerate without heat, for two days, in a close bottle, occasionally shaking, and filter." Dub. This is a very inert preparation, and should be ranked among the infu- sions, as the lime-water can scarcely fail to be decomposed during the process. W. CALCIS CARBONAS PR.ECIPITATUM. Dub. Precipitated Carbonate of Lime. "Take of Water of Muriate of Lime five parts. Add three parts of Carbonate of Soda, dissolved in four times its weight of Distilled Water. Wash the precipitate three times with a sufficient quantity of water; then collect it and dry it,on a chalk-stone, or on bibulous paper." Dub. In this process a mutual interchange of principles takes place, resulting in the production of chloride of sodium which remains in solution, and car- bonate of lime which is deposited. Of crystallized carbonate of soda 143*3 parts decompose 55*92 of chloride of calcium. The Dublin water of muriate of lime contains two parts in nine of chloride of calcium. From these data it may be deduced, that the carbonate of soda in the formula is in very slight excess. Any peculiar advantage which this preparation may possess must depend on the minute division of its particles. According to Dr. Bridges, PART II. Calx. 879 this effect is best obtained by employing the solutions at the boiling tempera- ture. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 163.) The preparation is said to be occa- sionally adulterated with sulphate of lime. When properly made, it is very pure carbonate of lime, and very finely divided, but probably has no such superiority over prepared chalk as to counterbalance its greater expensiveness. Off. Prep. Hydrargyrum cum Creta, Dub. "W. CRETA PR^PARATA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Prepared Chalk. " Take of Chalk a convenient quantity. Add a little water to the Chalk, and rub it into a fine powder. Thsow this into a large vessel nearly full of water, stir briskly, and, after a short interval, pour the supernatant liquor, while yet turbid, into another vessel. Repeat the process with the chalk remaining in the first vessel, and set the turbid liquor by, that the powder may subside. Lastly, pour off the water, and dry the powder." U. S. The London College takes a pound of chalk, and proceeds as above, except that it does not repeat the process with that which remains after the first operation. The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same as that of the United States Pharmacopoeia. Both College's direct the chalk to be powdered in a mortar. The Edinburgh orders it, after having been prepared, to be dried on a filter of linen or calico ; the Dublin, on an absorbent stone or paper. The object of these processes is to reduce chalk to very fine powder. The mineral, previously pulverized, is rubbed with a little water upon a porphyry slab, by means of a rubber of the same material, and having been thus very minutely divided, is agitated with water, which upon standing a short time deposits the coarser particles, and being then poured off, slowly lets fall the remainder in an impalpable state. The former part of the pro- cess is called levigation, the latter elutriation. The soft mass which re- mains after the decanting of the clear liquor, is made to fall upon an absorb- ent surface in small portions, which when dried have a conical shape. Medical Properties and Uses. This is the only form in which chalk is used in medicine. It is an excellent antacid; and as the salts which it forms in the stomach and bowels, if not astringent, are at least not purgative, it is admirably adapted to diarrhoea accompanied with acidity. It is also some- times used in acidity of stomach attending dyspepsia and gout, when a laxa- tive effect is to be avoided ; is one of the best antidotes for oxalic acid ; and has been recommended in rachitis. In scrofulous affections it may some- times do good by forming soluble salts with acid in the primas vias, and thus finding an entrance into the blood-vessels. It is frequently employed as an application to burns and ulcers, which it moderately stimulates, while it absorbs the ichorous discharge, and thus prevents it from irritating the dis- eased surface, or the sound skin. It is given internally in the form of pow- der, or suspended in water by the intervention of gum Arabic and sugar. (See Mistura Cretse.) The dose is from ten to forty grains or more. Off.Prep. Confectio Aromatica, Lond., Dub.; Hydrargyrum cum Creta, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Creta;, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Pulvis Cretae Compositus, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Trochisci Cret-se, U. S., Ed.; Un- guentum Plumbi Compositum, Lond. W. TESTA PR^PARATA. U. S. Testae Pr^para^. Lond. Prepared Oyster-Shell. " Take of Oyster-shell a convenient quantity. Free it from extraneous matter, wash it with boiling water, and reduce it to powder; then prepare it in the manner directed for Chalk." U. S. 880 Calx. PART II. The London College gives similar directions. Prepared oyster-shell differs from prepared chalk in containing animal matter, which, being very intimately blended with the carbonate of lime, is supposed by some physicians to render the preparation more acceptable to a delicate stomach. It is given as an antacid in diarrhoea, in the dose of from ten to forty grains or more, frequently repeated. A preparation has been introduced, within a few years, into use in this country under the name of Castillon's powders, consisting of sago, salep, and tragacanth, of each, in powder, a drachm, prepared oyster-shell a scruple, and sufficient cochineal to give colour to the mixture. A drachm of this is boiled in a pint of milk, and the decoction used ad libitum as a diet in chronic bowel affections. W. LIQUOR CALCII CHLORIDI. U. S., Lond. Calcis Muriatis Solutio. Ed. Calcis Muriatis Aqua. Dub. Solution of Chloride of Calcium. Solution of Muriate of Lime. " Take of Marble, in fragments, nine ounces ; Muriatic Acid a pint; Dis- tilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix the acid with half a pint of the Distilled Water, and gradually add the Marble. Towards the close of the effervescence apply a gentle heat, and, when the action has ceased, pour off the clear liquor and evaporate to dryness. Dissolve the residuum in its weight and a half of Distilled Water, and filter the solution." U. S. The London College dissolves/bur ounces of chloride of calcium in twelve fluidounces (Imperial measure) of distilled water, and filters through paper. The Edinburgh College dissolves eight ounces of muriate of lime (chloride of calcium) in ticelve fluidounces (Imp. meas.) of water. The Dublin College dissolves two parts of the salt in seven parts of distilled water, and states the sp.gr. of the solution at 1*202. By the U. S. process chloride of calcium is first formed, and then, as in the other processes, is dissolved in a certain proportion of water. The U. S. and Edinburgh preparations agree very nearly in strength, containing 1 part of the chloride in about 2*5 parts of the solution. Those of the Lon- don and Dublin Colleges are only about half as strong; the latter contain- ing 1 part of the chloride in 4*5 of the solution. The solution of chloride of calcium has a disagreeable, bitter, acrid taste. It is decomposed by sulphuric acid and the soluble sulphates ; by potassa, soda, and their carbonates; by carbonate of ammonia, tartrate of potassa and soda, nitrate of silver, nitrate and acetate of mercury, and acetate of lead. The mode of preparing chloride of calcium, and its chemical properties, are detailed under the head of Calcii Chloridum in the first part of this work. Medical Properties and Uses. Chloride of calcium is considered tonicand deobstruent, and is said to promote the secretion of urine, perspiration, and mucus. It was first brought into notice as a remedy by Fourcroy, and was at ,_ one time much used in scrofulous diseases and goitre. It still continues to be a favourite with some physicians, but is less employed than formerly. It has been especially recommended in tabes mesenterica. When too largely taken it sometimes produces nausea, vomiting, and purging, and. in excessive closes may even produce fatal effects; but it is a much safer remedy than chloride of barium, which has been recommended in the same complaints. The dose of the solution is from thirty minims or drops to a fluidrachm, to be repeated twice or three times a day, and gradually increased to two, three, or even four fluidrachms. It may be given in milk or sweetened water. Off.Prep. Calcis Carbonas Prascipitatum. Dub. W. PART II. Calx. 881 CALCIS PHOSPHAS PR^CIPITATUM. Dub. Precipitated Phosphate of Lime. "Take of Burnt Bones, in powder, one part; Diluted Muriatic Acid, Water, each, two parts. Digest together for twelve hears, and filter the solution. Add as much Water of Caustic Ammonia as will be sufficient to precipitate the Phosphate of Lime. Wash this with a large proportion of water, and finally dry it." Dub. The muriatic acid dissolves the phosphate of lime of the bones, and lets it fall on the addition of ammonia, in a state of minute division. The ablution is intended to free it from any adhering muriate of ammonia. The salt thus obtained is, for the sake of distinction, called bone-phosphate of lime. It is in the form of a white powder, without taste or smell, insoluble in water, but very soluble in nitric, muriatic, and acetic acids, from which it is pre- cipitated unchanged on the addition of ammonia. By an intense heat it is fused, but is not otherwise changed. It consists of three equivalents of phosphoric acid and eight of lime. The chemical characteristics of bone-phosphate of lime, besides those mentioned, are that with its solution in dilute nitric acid, oxalate of ammo- nia produces a white precipitate of oxalate of lime, and acetate of lead a white precipitate of phosphate of lead; and, if the nitric solution be neutral- ized as far as possible without causing a permanent precipitate of phosphate of lime, ammoniacal nitrate of silver throws down from it a lemon-yellow precipitate of phosphate of silver. (Christison's Dispensatory.) If this preparation possesses any advantage over burnt hartshorn, it must consist in the state of minute division to which it has been brought by pre- cipitation. It may be given in the same complaints and in the same dose; but is probably quite inert. (See Cornu Ustum.) W. CORNU USTUM. Lond. Pulvis Cornu Cervini Usti. Dub. Burnt Hartshorn. " Burn pieces of Hartshorn in an open vessel until they are thoroughly white; then powder them, and prepare them in the manner directed for Chalk." Lond. The Dublin College gives similar directions. The horn must not only be heated, but also burnt, in order that the animal matter may be entirely consumed. The operation may be performed in a common furnace or stove, the air being freely admitted. Care should be taken that the heat be not too violent; as otherwise the external surface of the horn may become vitrified, and prevent the complete combustion of the interior portion, while it is itself rendered less fit fo/ use. Burnt hartshorn consists of bone-phosphate of lime, with a minute proportion of lime derived from the carbonate contained in the horns. It may be inferred, from the analysis of hartshorn by M. Guillot, that the proportion of free lime in this preparation is less than one per cent. (See Cornu.) Bone-earth is usually sold in the shops for burnt hartshorn. For the chemical characters of bone-phosphate of lime, see Calcis Phosphas Praecipitatum. Medical Properties and Uses. The opinion formerly entertained, that burnt hartshorn was antacid, has been abandoned since the discovery of its chemical nature. Its composition suggested its application to the cure of rachitis and mollities ossium, of which the prominent character is a defi- ciency of phosphate of lime in the bones; and it is said to have been em- ployed in some cases, in connexion with phosphate of soda, with apparent success. Experience, however, has not confirmed the first report in its favour. It is probably altogether inert. The dose is twenty grains or more. W. 75* 882 Carbo Animalis.— Cataplasmata. part ii. CARBO ANIMALIS. Preparation of Animal Charcoal. CARBO ANIMALIS PURIFICATUS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Pu- rified Animal Charcoal. " Take of Animal Charcoal a pound ; Muriatic Acid, Water, each, twelve fluidounces. Pour the Muriatic Acid, previously mixed with the Water, gradually upon the Charcoal, and digest with a gentle heat for two days, oc- casionally stirring the mixture. Having allowed the undissolved portion to subside, pour off' the supernatant liquor, wash the Charcoal frequently vyith water until it is entirely free from Acid, and lastly dry it." U. S. The London and Edinburgh formulae are essentially the same as the above. The Edinburgh College gives the additional direction of heating the char- coal first moderately, and then to redness in a closely covered crucible. Animal charcoal, as it is made by charring bones, necessarily contains bone-phosphate and carbonate of lime, the presence of which does no harm in some decolorizing operations ; but, in delicate chemical processes, these salts would be dissolved or decomposed, and thus be a source of impurity. It is for these reasons that animal charcoal requires to be purified from the calcareous salts which it contains; and this is accomplished by dilute muriatic acid, which dissolves the phosphate and decomposes the carbonate. Purified animal charcoal is a dark brownish-black powder. If it contain carbonate of lime, muriatic acid will cause effervescence, and the solution obtained will give a precipitate with carbonate of ammonia; and if phos- phate of lime be present, the acid will dissolve the salt and yield it as a precipitate on the addition of ammonia. The Edinburgh College directs animal charcoal to be tested by incinerating it with its volume of red oxide of mercury; when, if good, it will be dissipated with the exception of a scanty ash. It has been shown by Mr. Warington that bitter vegetable substances, including the organic alkalies, are removed from solution by passing through purified animal charcoal, especially when the action is assisted by heat. F. Weppen finds that a similar effect is produced by it in removing resins from tinctures, tannic acid from astringent infusions, and certain metallic salts from their solutions. Dr. A. B. Garrod has proposed purified animal charcoal as an antidote to the vegetable poisons. According to his experi- ments, common bone-black has not one-fifth the power of the purified substance. Pharmaceutical Uses. As a decolorizing agent in preparing Aconitina, Lond.; Morphias Hydrochloras, Lond., Ed.; Cluinse Sulphas, Ed., Lond.; Strychnia, U. S.; Veratria, U. S., Lond. B. CATAPLASMATA. Cataplasms. Cataplasms or poultices are moist substances intended for external appli- cation, of such a consistence as to accommodate themselves accurately to the surface to which they are applied, without being so liquid as to spread over the neighbouring parts, or so tenacious as to adhere firmly to the skin. As they are in this country scarcely ever prepared by the apothecary, they were not deemed by the compilers of the United States Pharmacopoeia pro- per objects for officinal direction. W. PART II. Cataplasmata. 883 CATAPLASMA ALUMINIS. Dub. Alum Cataplasm. "Take the Whites of two Eggs; of Alum a drachm. Shake them to- gether so as to make a coagulum." Dub. A common mode of preparing the alum poultice is to rub the whites of eggs briskly in a saucer with a lump of alum till the liquid coagulates. The curd produced by coagulating milk with alum is sometimes used as a sub- stitute. The alum cataplasm is an astringent application, occasionally employed in incipient, purulent, or chronic ophthalmia. It is placed over the eye en- closed between folds of cambric or soft linen. It is also esteemed useful in chilblains when the skin is not broken. W. CATAPLASMA CARBONIS LIGNI. Dub. Charcoal Cata- plasm. "Take a sufficient quantity of Wood Charcoal red hot from the fire, and having extinguished it by sprinkling dry sand over it, reduce it to very fine powder, and incorporate it with the Simple Cataplasm in a tepid state." Dub. Charcoal, recently prepared, has the property of absorbing those princi- ples upon which the offensive odour of putrefyinganimal substances depends. In the form of poultice, it is an excellent application to foul and gangrenous ulcers, correcting their fetor, and improving the condition of the sore. It should be frequently renewed. W. CATAPLASMA CONII. Lond., Dub. Hemlock Cataplasm. " Take of Extract of Hemlock two ounces; Water a pint [Imperial mea- sure]. Mix, and add of bruised Flaxseed sufficient to produce a proper con- sistence." Lond. " Take of Dried Hemlock Leaves an ounce; Water a pint and a half. Boil down to a pint, and having strained the liquor, add as much of the pow- dered leaves as may be sufficient to form a cataplasm." Dub. This cataplasm may be advantageously employed as an anodyne appli- cation to cancerous, scrofulous, syphilitic, and other painful ulcers: but its liability to produce narcotic effects, in consequence of the absorption of the active principle of the hemlock, should not be overlooked. W. CATAPLASMA DAUCI. Dub. Carrot Cataplasm. " Take of the root of the cultivated Carrot any quantity. Boil the root in water until it becomes sufficiently soft to form a cataplasm." Dub. Emollient poultices may be prepared from any of the tender culinary roots, from turnips and potatoes as well as carrots, by boiling them, removing the skin, and mashing them into a soft pulp, which may be rendered uniform by pressing it through a coarse sieve or colander. But these poultices possess no specific power, and act on the same principle with those made with bread and milk, or flaxseed meal. The carrot cataplasm, when designed to produce a peculiar impression, should be made by grating the fresh roots. Thus prepared, it is slightly stimulating,andis useful in weak,flabby, ill-conditioned, and offensive ulcers. By boiling, the stimulant property is diminished, if not lost; and the carrot becomes a mild and nutritious article of food. W. CATAPLASMA FERMENTI. Lond. Cataplasma Febmenti Cerevisije. Dub. Yeast Cataplasm. " Take of Flour [wheat flour] a pound; Yeast half a pint [half a pound, Dub.~\. Mix and expose the mixture to a gentle heat until it begins to rise." Lond., Dub. By exposing a mixture of yeast and flour to a gentle heat, fermentation 884 Cataplasmata. part ii. takes place, and carbonic acid gas is extricated, which causes the mixture to swell, and is the source of its peculiar virtues. The yeast cataplasm is gently stimulant, and is sometimes applied with much benefit to foul and gangren- ous ulcers, the fetor of which it corrects, while it is supposed to hasten the separation of the slough. WT. CATAPLASMA LINI. Lond. Flaxseed Cataplasm. " Take of boiling Water a pint; Flaxseed, powdered, sufficient to pro- duce a proper consistence. . Mix them." Lond. CATAPLASMA SIMPLEX. Dub. Simple Cataplasm. "Take of the Powder for a Cataplasm any quantity; Boiling Water sufficient to form a tepid cataplasm, the surface of which should be covered with olive oil." Dub. The Dublin "Powder for a Cataplasm," consists of one part of flaxseed meal remaining after the expression of the oil, and two parts of oat meal. Flaxseed meal which has not been submitted to pressure is decidedly pre- ferable, and answers an excellent purpose when mixed with boiling water, without other addition, as in the London flaxseed cataplasm. Fresh lard or olive oil, spread upon the surface of the poultice, serves to prevent its adhe- sion to the skin, and to preserve its softness. The use of this and other emollient cataplasms is to relieve the tense condition of the vessels in inflammation, and to promote suppuration. They act simply by their warmth and moisture. The one most extensively em- ployed, perhaps because its materials are always at hand, is that prepared by heating together milk and the crumb of bread. The milk should be quite sweet, and fresh lard should be incorporated with the poultice. Mush made with the meal of Indian corn also forms an excellent emollient cataplasm. W. CATAPLASMA SINAPIS. Lond., Dub. Mustard Cataplasm. " Take of Flaxseed, Mustard [seed], each, in powder, half a pound; boiling Vinegar, sufficient to produce the consistence of a cataplasm." Lond. The Dublin College orders the same seeds in the same proportion, and states that the cataplasm may be made more stimulating by,the addition of two ounces of scraped horse-radish. The simplest and most effectual mode of preparing a mustard poultice, is to mix the powdered mustard of the shops with a sufficient quantity of warm water to give it a due consistence. When a weaker preparation is required, an equal portion or more of rye or wheat flour should be added. Vinegar never increases its efficiency, and, in the case of the black mustard seed, has been ascertained by MM. Trousseau and Blanc to diminish its rubefacient power. A boiling temperature is also injurious by interfering with the developement of the volatile oil or acrid principle. (See Sinapis.) These poultices are frequently called sinapisms. They are powerfully rubefacient, exciting a sense of warmth in a few minutes, and usually be- coming insupportably painful in less than an hour. When removed, they leave the surface intensely red and burning; and the inflammation fre- quently terminates in desquamation, or even blistering, if the application has been too long continued. Obstinate ulcers and gangrene also sometimes result from the protracted action of mustard, especially on parts possessed of little vitality. As a general rule, the poultice should be removed when the patient complains much of the pain ; and in cases of insensibility should not, unless greatly diluted, be allowed to remain longer than one, or at most two hours; as violent inflammation, followed by obstinate ulceration, is apt to occur upon the establishment of reaction in the system. In children also particular care is necessary to avoid this result. The poultice should be thickly spread on PART II. Cataplasmata.— Cerata. 885 linen, and maybe covered with gauze or unsized paper in order to prevent its adhesion to the skin. If hairs are present they should be removed by the razor. Sinapisms may be employed in all cases in which it is desirable to produce a speedy and powerful rubefacient impression. W. CERATA. Cerates. These are unctuous substances consisting of oil or lard, mixed with wax, spermaceti, or resin, to which various medicaments are frequently added. Their consistence, which is intermediate between that of ointments and of plasters, is such that they may be spread at ordinary temperatures upon linen or leather, by means of a spatula, and do not melt or run when applied to the skin. In preparing them, care should usually be taken to select the oil or lard perfectly free from rancidity. The liquefaction should be effected by a very gentle heat, which may be applied by means of a water-bath; and during the refrigeration the mixture should be well agitated, and the portions which solidify on the sides of the vessel should be made to mix again with the liquid portion, until the whole assumes the proper consistence. When a large quantity is prepared, the mortar, or other vessel into which the mixture may be poured for cooling, should be previously heated by means of boiling water. W. CERATUM CANTHARIDIS.* U.S. Emplastrum Cantharidis, Lond., Ed., Dub. Emplastrum Epispasticum. Cerate of Spanish Flies. Blistering Plaster. " Take of Spanish Flies, in very fine powder, a pound; Yellow Wax, Resin, Lard, each, eight ounces. To the Wax, Resin, and Lard, previously melted together, add the Spanish Flies, and stir the mixture constantly until cool." U. S. The London College orders a pound of Spanish flies, a pound and a half of wax plaster, and half a pound of lard; the Edinburgh, two ounces, each, of flies, resin, yellow wax, and suet; and the Dublin, a pound of flies, a pound of yellow wax, four ounces of yellow resin, half a pound of suet, and half a pound of lard. This is the common blistering plaster of the shops. As it can be readily spread without the aid of heat, it is properly a cerate, and is therefore correctly named in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Though essentially the same in character as prepared by the different processes, it varies somewhat in strength. The U. S. and London preparations have the same proportion of flies, but are stronger than those of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges. One of the two former, therefore, is preferable, and our own has this advantage, that it does not require the previous preparation of the wax plaster. Care has usually been considered requisite, in making the cerate, not to injure the flies by heat. It has, therefore, been recommended that they should not be added to the other ingredients, until immediately before these begin to stiffen after having been removed from the fire. But from the experiments of Mr. Donovan (Dublin Med. Press, Aug., 1840), and those of Mr. Wm. Procter (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 302), it may be inferred that the vesicating principle of Spanish flies is not injured or dissipated by a heat under 300° F., and that an elevated temperature, instead of being hurtful, is positively advantageous * This is a different preparation from the London Ceratum Cantharidis. For an ac- eount of this see Unguentum Cantharidis; Dub. 886 Cerata, PART II. in the preparation of the blistering cerate. The cantharidin is thus more thoroughly dissolved by the oleaginous matter, and consequently brought more efficiently into contact with the skin, than when retained in the interior of the tissue of the fly. Another advantage stated by Donovan is, that the moisture which usually exists to a certain extent in all the ingredients of the cerate is thus dissipated, and the preparation is less apt to become mouldy, or otherwise to undergo decomposition. Instead, therefore, of waiting until the melted wax, resin, and lard begin to stiffen, it is better to add the powder before the vessel is removed from the fire. Mr. Donovan recommends that as soon as the other ingredients are melted, the powdered flies should be added, and the mixture stirred until the heat is shown by a thermometer to have risen to 250°, when the vessel is to be removed from the fire, and the mixture stirred constantly until cool. At the heat mentioned, ebullition takes place in consequence of the escape of the moisture contained in the mate- rials. In the cerate thus prepared the active matter has been dissolved by the lard, and the powder may be separated, if deemed advisable, by straining the mixture before it solidifies. Care should be taken that the temperature be not so high as to decompose the ingredients; and it would be better to keep it within 212° by means of a water-bath, than to incur any risk from its excess. Violent irritation and even vesication of the face of the operator are stated to have resulted from exposure to the vapours of the liquid, at a temperature of 250°. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., ii. 391.) It is desirable also that the flies should be very finely pulverized. Powdered euphorbium is said to be sometimes fraudulently substituted for a portion of the flies. The cerate will always raise a blister in ordinary conditions of the system, if the flies are good, and not injured in the preparation. It should be spread on soft leather, though linen or even paper will answer the purpose when that is not to be had. An elegant mode of preparing it for use, is to spread a piece of leather of a proper size first with adhesive plaster, and afterwards with the cerate, leaving a margin of the former uncovered, in order that it may adhere to the skin. Heat is not requisite, and should not be employed in spreading the cerate. Some sprinkle powdered flies upon the surface of the plaster, press them lightly with a roller, and then shake off the portion which has not adhered; but, if the flies originally employed were good, this addition is superfluous. Upon the application of the plaster, the skin should be moistened with warm vinegar or other liquid; and a good rule is to cover the surface of the plaster closely with very thin gauze or unsized paper, which prevents any of the cerate from adhering to the cuticle, and is thought by some to diminish its liability to occasion strangury. In the cases of adults, when the full action of the flies is desired, and the object is to produce a permanent effect, the application should be continued for twelve hours, and on the scalp for twenty-four hours. In very delicate persons, however, or those subject to strangury, or upon parts of a loose texture, or when the object is merely to produce a blister to be healed as quickly as possible, the plaster should remain no longer than is necessary for the production of full redness of the skin, which generally occurs in five or six hours, or even in a shorter time. It should then be removed, and followed by a bread and milk poultice, or some other emollient dressing, under which the cuticle rises, and a full blister is usually produced. By this management the patient will generally escape strangury, and the blister will very quickly heal after the discharge of the serum.* In young children, cantharides sometimes produce alarming * J)r. M. B. Smith, of Philadelphia, informed us that he had frequently employed uva ursi as a preventive of strangury from blisters, and had never found it to fail. He ^ave PART II. Cerata. 887 and even fatal ulceration, if too long applied. From two to four hours are usually sufficient for any desirable purpose. When the head, or other very hairy part is to be blistered, an interval of ten or twelve hours should, if pos- sible, be allowed between the shaving of the part and the application of the plaster; so that the abrasions may heal, and some impediment be offered to the absorption of the active principle of the flies. After the blister has been formed, it should be opened at the most depending parts, and, the cuticle being allowed to remain, should be dressed with simple cerate; but, if it be desirable to maintain the discharge for a short time, resin cerate should be used, and the cuticle removed, if it can be done without inconvenience. The effects of an issue may be obtained by employing savine ointment, or the ointment of Spanish flies, as a dressing. If much inflammation take place in the blistered surface, it may be relieved by emollient poultices, or weak lead-water. Where there is an obstinate indisposition to heal, we have found nothing so effectual as the cerate of subacetate of lead, diluted with an equal weight of simple cerate. When deep and extensive ulceration occurs in consequence of general debility, bark or sulphate of quinia should be used, with nutritious aliment. Various preparations of cantharides have been proposed and.employed as substitutes for the cerate. They consist for the most part of cantharidin, more or less pure, either dissolved in olive oil and applied to the skin by means of a piece of paper saturated with it, or incorporated with wax and spread in a very thin layer upon fine waxed cloth, silk, or paper, constituting the blistering cloth, blistering paper, vesicating taffetas, $*c.,of the shops. The advantages of these preparations are that they occupy less space, are more portable, and, being very pliable, are more easily adapted to irregu- larities of the surface. Absolutely pure cantharidin is expensive and not re- quisite ; as extracts of cantharides, made with ether, alcohol, or boiling water, will answer every purpose. Henry and Guibourt give the following formula. Digest powdered cantharides in sulphuric ether, distil off the ether, evapo- rate the residue by means of a salt-water bath until ebullition ceases, melt the oily mass which remains with twice its weight of wax, and spread the mixture upon waxed cloth. The waxed cloth may be prepared by spreading upon linen or muslin a mixture composed of 8 parts of white wax, 4 of olive oil, and 1 of turpentine, melted together. An extract of cantharides, of a buttery consistence, said to act very efficiently when applied by means of paper greased with it, is prepared by digesting 4 parts of flies with 1 part of strong acetic acid and 16 of alcohol, straining, filtering, and evaporating at a moderate heat. A preparation which has received the favourable report of a committee of the Society of Pharmacy, at Paris, is the following, proposed by M. Dubuison. Four parts of a hydro-alcoholic extract of the flies made by maceration, is mixed with an aqueous solution of one part of pure gelatin, so as to obtain a solution of suitable consistence, which is then applied upon a piece of extended waxed cloth, care being taken that the brush should always have the same direction. When the first layer has dried, a second, and a third are to be applied in the same manner. The gelatin renders the cloth more adhesive and less deliquescent. The hydro-alcoholic extract is preferred to the alcoholic, because it contains less of the green oil, which a small wineglassful of the officinal decoction (see Decoctum Uva Ursi) every hour, com- mencing two hours after the application of the blister. Camphor is sometimes incor- porated with the blistering cerate to prevent strangury, though with doubtful effect. A plan proposed by M. Vee is to spread over the surface of the plaster, when ready for delivery, by means of the finger, a saturated solution of camphor in ether. The ether evaporates, leaving a thin coating of camphor uniformly diffused. {Journ. dc Pharm., 3e ser., viii. 08.) 888 Cerata. part ii. does not readily mix with the other ingredients. The committee, however, prefer the aqueous extract, as cheaper and more active. This taffeta has been tried, and found to raise blisters in four hours. (Journ. de Pharm., Se ser., viii. 67.) A strong decoction of the flies in olive oil or oil of turpentine, applied by means of paper, would probably answer a similar purpose with these more elaborate preparations. But none of them is likely to supersede the officinal cerate. For very speedy vesication, an infusion of the flies in strong acetic acid is sometimes employed. (See Acetum Cantharidis.) It is said that the flies, by ebullition with water, are deprived of their pro- perty of producing strangury, while their vesicating powers remain unal- tered. (Paris's Pharmacologia.) Dr.Theophilus Beasly, of Philadelphia, was in the habit of employing a cerate made with cantharides prepared in this manner, and never knew it to produce strangury in more than two or three instances. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., iv. 185.) In a letter ad- dressed to one of the authors by Dr. James Couper, of Newcastle, Delaware, a similar method of preparing the flies is recommended as an expedient against strangury, both from his own experience and that of the late Dr. Groom, of Elkton, Maryland, from whom he derived his knowledge of the plan. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Picis cum Cantharide, U. S., Dub. W. CERATUM CETACEI. U.S., Lond. Ceratum Simplex. Ed. Unguentum Cetacei. Dub. Spermaceti Cerate. "Take of Spermaceti an ounce; White Wax, three ounces; Olive Oil six fluidounces. Melt together the Spermaceti and Wax; then add the Oil previously heated, and stir the mixture until cool." U. S. The London College directs two ounces of spermaceti, eight ounces of white wax, and a pint [Imp. meas.] of olive oil; the Edinburgh, six part* of olive oil, three parts of white wax, and one part of spermaceti; the Dublin, half a pound of white wax, a pound of spermaceti, and three pounds of lard. The direction to heat the oil before adding it to the other ingredients is peculiar to the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias. If added cold, it is apt to produce an irregular congelation of the wax and spermaceti, and thus to render the preparation lumpy. This cerate is employed as a dressing for blisters, excoriated surfaces, and wounds; and as the basis of more active preparations. When the ingredients are pure and sweet, it is perfectly free from irritating properties. Off. Prep. Ceratum Cantharidis, Lond.; Ceratum Calaminas, Ed. W. CERATUM HYDRARGYRI COMPOSITUM. Lond. Compound Cerate of Mercury. "Take of Strong Mercurial Ointment, Soap Cerate, each,four ounces; Camphor an ounce. Rub them together until they are incorporated." Lond. This cerate is used as a discutient application to indolent tumours. W. CERATUM PLUMBI SUBACETATIS. U.S. Ceratum Plumbi Compositum. Lond. Cerate of Subacetate of Lead. Goulard''s Cerate. " Take of Solution of Subacetate of Lead two fluidounces and a half; WThite Wax four ounces; Olive Oil nine fluidounces; Camphor half a drachm. Mix the Wax, previously melted, with eight fluidounces of the Oil; then remove the mixture from the fire, and, when it begins to thicken, gradually pour in the Solution of Subacetate of Lead, stirring constantly with a wooden spatula till it becomes cool. Lastly, add the Camphor dis- solved in the remainder of the Oil and mix." U. S. The above process is that of the former London Pharmacopoeia. In the last edition of that work, three fluidounces of the solution of subacetate of lead, and half a pint of olive oil, were substituted for the quantities PART II. Cerata. 889 before employed, the process remaining in other respects unaltered. But when it is considered that the London College now employs the Imperial instead of the wine measure, the change will be seen to be less than it miffht otherwise appear. . ° This preparation received the name by which it is commonly known from M. Goulard, by whom it was employed and recommended. It is used to dry up excoriations, to relieve the inflammation of burns,'scalds, and chilblains, and to remove cutaneous eruptions. We have found'it more effectual than any other application to blistered surfaces indisposed to heal* and, on the recommendation of the late Dr. Parrish, have used it in the following combination with advantage in various cutaneous eruptions of a local character. Take of cerate of subacetate of lead, simple cerate, each half an ounce; calomel, powdered opium, each a drachm; mix them. The same preparation, without the opium, was a favourite remedy with the late Dr. Wistar in similar complaints. w. CERATUM RESINS. U. S., Lond. Unguentum Resinosum. Ed. Unguentum Resins Albje. Dub. Resin Cerate. Basilicon Oint- ment. "Take of Resin five ounces; Lard eight ounces; Yellow Wax two ounces. Melt them together, strain through linen, and'stir them constantly until cool." U. S. The proportions directed by the Edinburgh College are the same as the above. The London College orders of resin and wax, each a pound, and of olive oil sixteen fluidounces. The resin and wax are melted together over a slow fire, the oil then added, and the mixture while hot strained through linen. By the Dublin process, four pounds, of lard, two pounds of white resin, and one pound of yellow wax are made into an ointment, and strained while hot through a sieve. The straining is directed in consequence of the impurities which resin often contains. Resin cerate, commonly called basilicon ointment, is much used as a gently stimulant application to blistered surfaces, indolent ulcers, burns, scalds, and chilblains. We have found no application more effectual in disposing the ulcers which follow burns to heal. Off. Prep. Ceratum Sabinae, U. S.; Linimentum Terebinthinas, U. S. Ed., Dub.; Unguentum Cantharidis, U. S.,Lond.,Ed.,Dub.; Unguentum Cupri Subacetatis, Dub., Ed. -yy. CERATUM RESINS COMPOSITUM. U.S. Compound Resin Cerate. "Take of Resin, Suet, Yellow WTax, each a pound; Turpentine half a pound; Flaxseed Oil half a pint. Melt them together, strain through linen, and stir them constantly until cool." U. S. This is somewhat more stimulating than the preceding, but is applicable to similar purposes, particularly to the treatment of indolent ulcers. Under the name of Deshler's salve, it is popularly employed in some parts of the United States. yj CERATUM SABmM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Unguentum Sabine Dub. Savine Cerate. "Take of Savine, in powder, two ounces; Resin Cerate a pound. Mix the Savine with the Cerate previously softened." U. S. The London College orders one pound of fresh savine, bruised, to be mixed with half a pound of wax and two pounds of lard previously melted together, and the whole to be strained through linen. The Edinburgh 76 890 Cerata. PART II. College directs the same ingredients, in the same proportions, to be boiled together till the leaves become friable, and then strained. The Dublin College employs only half a pound of the leaves, which it directs to be boiled in the lard till they become crisp. The lard is then to be strained with expression, the wax added, and the whole melted together. As the savine used in this country is generally brought from Europe in the dried state, we are compelled to resort to the mode of preparing the cerate directed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. Nor have we found the pre- paration thus made to be " intolerably acrid and almost caustic," as Dr. Duncan describes it. On the contrary, it answers very well the purpose for which it is used—that of maintaining the discharge from blistered sur- faces. A cerate prepared in the same manner from the leaves of the red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) is sometimes substituted for that of savine, but is less efficient. Prepared according to the processes of the British Colleges, savine cerate has a fine deep-green colour, and the pdour of the leaves. It should be kept in closely covered vessels, as its virtues are impaired by exposure. Savine cerate is preferable to the ointment of Spanish flies as a dressing for perpetual blisters, from the circumstance that it has no tendency to pro- duce strangury. The white coating which forms during its use upon the blistered surface should be occasionally removed, as it prevents the contact of the cerate. It is sometimes applied to seton cords, with the view of increasing the discharge. W. CERATUM SAPONIS. U. S., Lond. Soap Cerate. "Take of Solution of Subacetate of Lead two pints; Soap six ounces; White Wax ten ounces; Olive Oil a pint. Boil the Solution of Subacetate of Lead with the Soap, over a slow fire, to the consistence of honey; then transfer to a water-bath, and evaporate until all the moisture is dissipated; lastly add the Wax previously melted with the Oil, and mix." U. S. "Take of Soap ten ounces; Wax twelve ounces and a half; Oxide of Lead [litharge], in powder, fifteen ounces ; Olive Oil a pint [Imperial mea- sure]; Vinegar a gallon [Imp. meas.]. Boil the Vinegar with the Oxide of Lead, over a slow fire, constantly stirring until they unite; then add the Soap, and again boil in a similar manner, until all the moisture is dissipated; lastly, with these mix the Wax previously dissolved in the Oil." Lond. The present U.S. formula is that of Mr. Durand, given in the American Journal of Pharmacy (vol. 8, p. 27), and was substituted, in the last edition of the Pharmacopoeia, for the London formula, which had been adopted in the previous editions. It has the advantages of being more precise in the directions, more easy of execution, and more uniform in its results. It yields a perfectly white cerate, having the same properties as the London, and a finer appearance. The solution of subacetate of lead, which in the U. S. process is taken already prepared, results, in the London, from the action of the vinegar upon the litharge. In both processes, the subacetate of lead is decomposed by the soap, the soda of which unites with the acetic acid, and the oleaginous acids with the oxide of lead, in the same manner as in the formation of the Emplastrum Plumbi. The wax and oil subsequently added merely serve to give due consistence to the preparation. Soap cerate is thought to be cooling and sedative; and is sometimes used in scrofulous swellings and other instances of chronic external inflammations. It was formerly employed by Mr. Pott as a dressing for fractured limbs; but answers no other purpose in these cases than to yield mechanical support. Off. Prep. Ceratum Hydrargyri Compositum, Lond. W. PART II. Cerata.— Confectiones. 891 CERATUM SIMPLEX. U.S. Ceratum. Lond. Simple Ce- rate. "Take of Lard eight ounces; White Wax four ounces. Melt them toge- ther, and stir them constantly until cool." U. S. The London College directs that four fluidounces of olive oil be mixed with four ounces of wax previously melted. We prefer the formula of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Lard is preferable to olive oil, as it may always be had perfectly sweet, and is the mildest appli- cation which can be made to irritated surfaces. In the preparation of this cerate, peculiar care should be taken that the oleaginous ingredient be entirely free from rancidity, and that the heat employed be not sufficient to produce the slightest decomposition; for the value of the preparation depends on its perfect blandness. It is used fordressing blisters, wounds, &c, in all cases in which the object is to exclude the external air and preserve the moisture of the part, and at the same time to avoid all irritation. It is sometimes improperly employed as the vehicle of substances to be applied by inunction. For this purpose lard should be used in winter, and simple ointment in summer; the cerate having too firm a consistence. W. CERATUM ZINCI CARBONATIS. U.S. Ceratum Calamine. Lond., Ed. Unguentum Calamine. Dub. Cerate of Carbonate of Zinc. Cerate of Calamine. Turner's Cerate. " Take of Prepared Carbonate of Zinc, Yellow Wax, each, half a pound; Lard two pounds. Melt the Wax and Lard together, and, when upon cool- ing they begin to thicken, add the Carbonate of Zinc, and stir the mixture constantly until cool." U. S. The London College orders half a pound of [prepared] calamine, half a pound of wax, and sixteen fluidounces of olive oil; the Edinburgh, one part of prepared calamine, and five parts of simple cerate \_Ceratum Cetacei, U. S.~\; the Dublin, one pound of calamine, and five pounds of ointment of yellow wax. This cerate is an imitation of that recommended by Turner. It is mildly astringent, and is much used in excoriations and superficial ulcerations, produced by the chafing of the skin, irritating secretions, burns, or other causes. W. CONFECTIONES. U.S., Lond. Confections. Confectiones; Conserves; Electuaria. Dub. Conserves and Electuaries. Ed. Under the general title of Confections, the Pharmacopoeias of the United States and of London include all those preparations having the form of a soft solid, in which one or more medicinal substances are incorporated with saccharine matter, with a view either to their preservation or more conve- nient administration. The Edinburgh College retains the old division into Conserves and Electuaries; and, as there is some ground for the distinction, we shall make a few general remarks upon each division, before proceeding to the consideration of the individual preparations. Conserves consist of recent vegetable substances and refined sugar beat into a uniform mass. By means of the sugar, the vegetable matter is ena- bled to resist for some time the decomposition to which it would otherwise be exposed in the undried state, and the properties of the recent plant are thus retained to a certain extent unaltered. But as active medicines even 892 Confectiones. PART II. thus treated undergo some change, and those which lose their virtues by desiccation cannot be long preserved, the few conserves now retained are intended rather as convenient vehicles of other substances than for separate exhibition. The sugar used in their preparation should be reduced to a fine powder by pounding and sifting, as otherwise it will not mix uniformly with the other ingredient.. Electuaries are mixtures consisting of medicinal substances, especially dry powders, combined with syrup or honey, in order to render them Jess unpleasant to the taste, and more convenient for internal use. They are usually prepared extemporaneously ; and it is only when their complex nature renders it convenient to keep them ready made in the shops, or some peculiarity in the mode of mixing the ingredients requires attention, that they become proper objects for pharmaceutic direction. Their consistence should not be so soft, on the one hand, as to allow the ingredients to sepa- rate, nor so firm, on the other, as to prevent them from being swallowed without mastication. Different substances require different proportions of syrup. Light vegetable powders usually require twice their weight, gum-resins two-thirds of their weight, resins somewhat Jess, mineral sub- stances about half their weight, and deliquescent salts not more than one- tenth. Should the electuary be found, after having been kept for a short time, to swell up and emit gas, it should be beat over again in a mortar, so that any portion of the sugar which may have crystallized may be again accurately incorporated with the other ingredients. Should it, on the con- trary, become dry and hard from the mutual reaction of its constituents, more syrup should be added, so as to give it the requisite consistence. If the dryness result from the mere evaporation of the aqueous part, water should be added instead of syrup, and the same-remark is applicable to the conserves. To prevent the hardening of electuaries, the French writers recommend the use of syrup prepared from brown sugar, which is less apt to crystallize than that made from the refined. Molasses would answer the same purpose; but its taste might be considered objectionable. Some persons employ honey, but this is not always acceptable to the stomach. W. CONFECTIO AMYGDALA. Lond. Coxserva Amygdalarum. Ed. Confectio Amygdalarum. Dub. Almond Confection. "Take of Sweet Almonds eight ounces; Gum Arabic, in powder, an ounce; Sugaxfour ounces. Having macerated the Almonds in cold water, and deprived them of their external coat, beat all the ingredients together till they are thoroughly incorporated. The confection may be kept longer, if the Almonds, Gum Arabic, and Sugar, separately rubbed, should be after- wards mixed. Then, whenever the confection is to be used, beat the whole together until incorporated." Lond. The directions of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same as the above, except that these Colleges do not admit the alternative of having the ingredients separately rubbed, and afterwards mixed. This preparation was adopted as affording a speedy method of preparing the almond mixture, which when made immediately from the Almonds requires much time, and which cannot be kept ready made in the shops. But,.from its liability to be injured by keeping, it has been omitted in the last edition of our Pharmacopoeia, which directs the almond mixture to be made immediately from the ingredients. (See Mistura Amygdalae.) W. CONFECTIO AROMATICA. U. S., Lond., Dub. Electuarium Aromaticum. Ed. Aromatic Confection. " Take of Aromatic Powder five ounces and a half; Saffron, in powder, PART II. Confectiones. 893 half an ounce; Syrup of Orange Peel six ounces; Clarified Honey two ounces. Rub the Aromatic Powder with the Saffron; then add the Syrup and Honey, and beat them together until thoroughly mixed." U. S. "Take of Cinnamon, Nutmegs, each, two ounces; Cloves an ounce; Cardamom half an ounce; Saffron two ounces; Prepared Chalk sixteen ounces; Sugar two pounds. Rub the dry ingredients together to a very fine powder, and keep them in a closed vessel. But when the confection is to be used, add water gradually, and mix till a thorough incorporation is effected." Lond. The Dublin formula corresponds with that of the former London Phar- macopoeia, which directed the same ingredients as in the present formula, but added a pint of water to the dry materials, and incorporated the whole together at one time. The Edinburgh College directs one part of their aromatic powder, and two parts of syrup of orange peel, to be mixed, and triturated into a uniform pulp. The preparation of the United States Pharmacopoeia contains cinnamon, ginger, cardamom, and nutmeg, without carbonate of lime, which appears to us to be an unnecessary if not improper ingredient; as it is not always indicated in cases which call for the use of the confection, and may be added extemporaneously when required. The aromatic confection affords a con- venient method of administering the spices which enter into its composition, and an agreeable vehicle for other medicines. It is given in debilitated states of the stomach, alone or as an adjuvant to other substances. The dose is from ten to sixty grains. Off. Prep. Pilulae Digitalis et Scillas. Ed. W. CONFECTIO AURANTII CORTICIS. U. S. Confectio Au- rantii. Lond. Conserva Aurantii. Ed. Confection of Orange Peel. " Take of Fresh Orange Peel, separated from the fruit by grating, a pound; Sugar [refined] three pounds. Beat the Orange Peel with the Sugar gradually added, till they are thoroughly mixed." U. S. The directions of the London and Edinburgh Colleges correspond with the above. The rind of the bitter orange is intended by these Colleges, that either of the bitter or sweet by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. By the London process, the beating is performed in a stone mortar with a wooden pestle. This confection is sometimes used as a grateful aromatic vehicle or adjunct of tonic and purgative powders. W. CONFECTIO CASSLE. Lond. Electuarium Cassia. Dub. Con- fection of Cassia. " Take of Cassia [pulp] half a pound; Manna two ounces ; Tamarind [pulp] an ounce; Syrup of Roses eight fluidounces. Bruise the Manna, and dissolve it in the syrup ; then mix in the Cassia and Tamarind [pulps], and evaporate to a proper consistence." Lond. The formula of the Dublin College corresponds with that of the London, except that syrup of orange peel is substituted for the syrup of roses. The confection of cassia is slightly laxative; but is seldom if ever prepared in this country, and might very properly be expunged from the catalogue of Preparations, as it is both feeble and expensive. W. ELECTUARIUM CATECHU. Ed. Electuarium Catechu Com- positum. Dub. Electuary of Catechu. "Take of Catechu and Kino, of each, four ounces; Cinnamon and Nut- meg, of each, one ounce; Opium, diffused in a little Sherry, one drachm and 76* 894 Confectiones. part ii. a half; Syrup of Red Roses, reduced to the consistence of honey, one pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Pulverize the solids, mix the opium and syrup, then the powders, and beat them thoroughly into a uniform mass." Ed. "Take of Catechu, four ounces; Cinnamon Bark two ounces; Kino three ounces. Rub these to powder,and add of Turkey Opium,diffused in Spanish White Wine, a drachm and a half; Syrup of Ginger, evaporated to the con- sistence of honey, two pounds and a quarter. Mix them." Dub. These preparations do not essentially differ. They are aromatic and as- tringent, containing one grain of opium in about two hundred grains of the mass; and may be advantageously given in diarrhoea and chronic dysentery, in the dose of half a drachm or a drachm more or4ess frequently repeated. They may be taken in the form of bolus, or diffused in water. W. CONFECTIO OPII. U. S., Lond., Dub. Electuarium Opii. Ed. Confection of Opium. " Take of Opium, in powder, four drachms.and a half; Aromatic Pow- der six ounces; Clarified Honey fourteen ounces. Rub the Opium with the Aromatic Powder, then add the Honey, and beat them together until thoroughly mixed." U. S. " Take of Opium, in Powder, six drachms; Long Pepper an ounce; Ginger two ounces; Caraway three ounces; Tragacanth, in powder, two drachms; Syrup sixteen fluidounces [Imperial measure]. Rub them to- gether to a very fine powder, and keep them in a covered vessel. But when the Confection is to be used, add sixteen fluidounces of Syrup previously heated, and mix." Lond. The Dublin College takes the same dry materials, and in the same quan- tities as the London; but first rubs the opium with a pound of heated syrup, and then mixes with these the remaining articles reduced to powder. " Take of Aromatic Powder, six ounces; Senega, in fine powder, three ounces; Opium, diffused in a little Sherry, half an ounce; Syrup of Ginger a pound. Mix them together, and beat them into an electuary." Ed. This confection was intended as a substitute for those exceedingly com- plex and unscientific preparations which were formerly known by the names of theriaca and mithridate, and which have been expelled from modern pharmacy. The seneka, directed in the last edition of the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia, was probably put inadvertently for serpentaria, directed in the old Latin edition. The former medicine has no property which adapts it to this position. The preparation is a combination of opium with spices, which render it more stimulant, and more grateful to a debilitated stomach. It is given in atonic gout, flatulent colic, diarrhoea unattended with inflam- mation, and in various other diseases requiring the use of a stimulant nar- cotic. Added to Peruvian bark or sulphate of quinia, it increases considera- bly the efficacy of this remedy in obstinate cases of intermittent fever.. One grain of opium is contained in about thirty-six grains of the U. S. and Lon- don confections, in twenty-five grains of the Dublin, and in forty-three of the Edinburgh. W. CONFECTIO PIPERIS NIGRI. Lond., Dub. Electuarium Pi- peris. Ed. Confection of Black Pepper. " Take of Black Pepper, Elecampane, each, a pound; Fennel [seeds] three pounds; Honey, Sugar [refined], each, two pounds. Rub the dry ingredients together into a very fine powder, and keep them in a covered vessel. But whenever the confection is to be used, add the Honey, and beat them until thoroughly incorporated." Lond. part ii. Confectiones. 895 The Dublin College takes the same materials, in the same proportions, and in like manner reduces them to powder; but completes the process by immediately incorporating the honey with the other ingredients. The Edinburgh process agrees with the Dublin, except in substituting powdered liquorice root for elecampane. This preparation was intended as a substitute for Ward's paste, which acquired some reputation in Great Britain as a remedy in piles and ulcers of the rectum. To do good, it must be continued, according to Mr. Brodie, for two, three, or four months. The dose is from one to two drachms re- peated two or three times a day. Its stimulating properties render it inap- plicable to cases attended with much inflammation. W. CONFECTIO ROS^. U. S. Confectio Rosje Gallice. Lond. Conserva RosiE. Ed., Dub. Confection of Roses. Conserve of Roses. "Take of Red Roses, in powder, four ounces; Sugar [refined], in pow- der, thirty ounces; Clarified Honey six ounces; Rose Water eight fluid- ounces. Rub the Roses with the Rose Water at a boiling heat; then add gradually the Sugar and Honey, and beat them together until thoroughly mixed." U.S. "Take of Red Roses [fresh] a pound; Sugar [refined] three pounds. Beat the Rose petals in a marble mortar; then add the Sugar, and beat again until they are incorporated." Lond. The Dublin process is the same as the London. The Edinburgh Col- lege directs the petals to be beaten into a pulp with the gradual addition of twice their weight of white sugar. In the British processes, the unblown petals only are used, and these should be deprived of their claws; in other words, the rose buds should be cut off a short distance above their base, and the lower portion rejected. In the last edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, dried roses were substituted for the fresh, as the latter are not brought to our market. The process is very similar to that of the French Codex. This confection is slightly astringent, but is almost exclusively used as a vehicle of other medicines, or to impart consistence to the pilular mass. The Edinburgh College employs it in most of their officinal pills. Off.Prep. Pilulae Hydrargyri, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. CONFECTIO ROS/E CANINE. Lond. Conserva Rosje Fruc- tus. Ed. Confection of the Dog-rose. " Take of Dog-rose [pulp] a pound; Sugar [refined], in powder, twenty ounces. Expose the Pulp to a gentle heat in an earthen vessel; then add the Sugar gradually, and rub them together until they are thoroughly mixed." Lond. " Take any convenient quantity of hips, carefully deprived of their car- pels, beat them to a fine pulp, adding gradually thrice their weight of white Sugar." Ed. This preparation is acidulous and refrigerant, and is used in Europe for forming more active medicines into pills and electuaries. Off. Prep. Pilulae Hydrargyri Iodidi. Lond. W. CONFECTIO RUT.E. Lond. Conserva Rutje. Dub. Confection of Rue. "Take of dried Rue, Caraway, Laurel Berries, each, an ounce and a half; Sagapenum half an ounce; Black Pepper two drachms; Honey [clari- fied] sixteen ounces. Rub the dry ingredients together to a very fine pow- der, and preserve them. Then, as often as the Confection is to be used, add the Honey, and mix the whole together." Lond. 896 Confectiones. part ii. The Dublin process differs only in the immediate addition of the honey to the other ingredients. The confection of rue is antispasmodic, and in Great Britain is employed in the form of enema in hysterical complaints and flatulent colic; but in this country it is not used. From a scruple to a drachm may be administered, diffused in half a pint of warm mucilaginous fluid. W. CONFECTIO SCAMMONII. Lond. Electuarium Scammonii. Dub. Confection of Scammony. "Take of Scammony, in powder, an ounce and a half; Cloves, bruised, Ginger, in powder, each, six drachms ; Oil of Caraway half a fluidrachm; Syrup of Roses a sufficient quantity. Rub the dry ingredients into a very fine powder, and keep them; then, when the Confection is to be used, pour in the Syrup, and again rub them; finally add the Oil of Caraway, and mix them all." Lond. The Dublin College employs the same materials in the same quantities, but immediately incorporates the syrup and oil with the dry ingredients. This confection is actively cathartic in the dose of half a drachm or a drachm; but is very little used, and was omitted in the last edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The proportion of scammony is uncertain, from the indefinite quantity of syrup employed. W. CONFECTIO SENNyE. U. S., Lond. Electuarium Sennje. Ed., Dub. Confection of Senna. Lenitive Electuary. "Take of Senna eight ounces; Coriander [seed] four ounces; Liquorice Root, bruised, three ounces; Figs a pound; Pulp of Prunes, Pulp of Ta- marinds, Pulp of Purging Cassia, each, half a pound; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half; Water four pints. Rub the Senna and Coriander together, and separate ten ounces of the powder with a sieve. Boil the re- sidue with the Figs and Liquorice Root, in the Water, to one-half; then press out the liquor and strain. Evaporate the strained liquor, by means of a water-bath, to a pint and a half; then add the Sugar and form a syrup. Lastly, rub the Pulps with the syrup gradually added, and, having thrown in the sifted powder, beat all together until thoroughly mixed." U. S. The London process corresponds with the above. The Edinburgh Col- lege directs a pound of the pulp of prunes, and omits the pulps of tamarinds and cassia fistula ; but otherwise proceeds in the same manner. The Dub- lin College boils a pound of the pulp of prunes, and two ounces of the pulp of tamarinds, in a pint and a half of molasses, to the thickness of honey; then adds four ounces of senna in very fine powder, and, when the mixture cools, two drachms of oil of caraway; and, lastly, mixes the whole inti- mately. The confection of senna, when properly made, is an elegant preparation. The pulp of purging cassia is most conveniently obtained by boiling the bruised pods in water, straining the decoction, and evaporating to the con- sistence of an electuary. The pulp of prunes may be prepared by boiling the fruit in a small quantity of water to soften it, then pressing it through a hair sieve, and evaporating to a proper consistence. The tamarinds, when too dry for immediate use, may be treated in the same manner. In each case, the evaporation should be completed by means of a water-bath, in order to prevent the pulps from being burnt. It is common to omit the cassia pulp in the preparation of the confection, as the pods are not always to be found in the market. But as this is next to senna the most active in- gredient, the omission is to be regretted; and there is no doubt that a steady PART II. Confectiones.— Cuprum. 897 demand for the fruit would be met by an abundant supply from the West Indies. This is one of our best and most pleasant laxatives, being admirably adapted to cases of habitual costiveness, especially in pregnant women and persons affected with piles. It is also very useful in the constipation which is apt to attend convalescence from fevers and other acute diseases. The mean dose is two drachms, to be taken at bed-time. ' W. CUPRUM. Preparations of Copper. CUPRI SUBACETAS PR^EPARATUM. Dub. Prepared Subace- tate of Copper. "Let the Subacetate of Copper be ground to powder, and the finer parts separated in the manner directed for the preparation of chalk." Dub. _ The object of this process is, by levigation and elutriation, to reduce ver- digris to the state of a very fine powder. A chemical change is at the same time produced, which was not originally contemplated. The diacetate of copper which it contains, consisting of one equivalent of acid, two equiv. of protoxide, and six of water, is converted by the action of water into a soluble acetate and an insoluble trisacetate. The latter, consisting of one equiv. of acetic acid, three equiv. of protoxide of copper, and one and a half of water, is the Dublin prepared subacetate of copper, which, there- fore, differs from commercial verdigris in composition as well as in its state of aggregation. (See Cupri Acetas.) This preparation is used only as an escharotic and stimulant application to unhealthy ulcers and obstinate cuta- neous eruptions. Off. Prep. Oxymel Cupri Subacetatis, Dub.; Unguentum Cupri Sub- acetatis, Dub. W# CUPRUM AMMONIATUM. U.S., Ed., Dub. Cupri Ammon'io- Sulphas. Lond. Ammoniated Copper. _ " Take of Sulphate of Copper half an ounce; Carbonate of Ammonia six drachms. Rub them together in a glass mortar till the effervescence ceases; then wrap the Ammoniated Copper in bibulous paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. Let it be kept in a well stopped glass bottle." U. S. The processes of the British Colleges are essentially the same as the above, the ingredients, proportions, and general mode of operating being identical. The London College orders that the salt be dried in the°air, and omits the direction as to the mode of keeping it; the Edinburgh directs that the product should be first dried in folds of blotting paper, and after- wards by exposure for a short lime to the air; and the Dublin orders the ingredients to be triturated in an earthenware mortar. When the two salts above mentioned are rubbed together, a reaction takes place between them, attended with the extrication of the water of crystal- lization of the sulphate of copper, which renders the mass moist, and the simultaneous escape of carbonic acid gas from the carbonate (sesquicar- bonate) of ammonia, which occasions an effervescence. The colour is at the same time altered, passing from the light blue of the powdered sul- phate of copper to a beautiful deep azure. The nature of the chemical changes which take place is not precisely known. One of the views which have been taken is, that the blue vitriol parts with a portion of its acid to the ammonia of the carbonate, thus forming a subsulphate of copper and 898 Cuprum. part ii. sulphate of ammonia, which are either mixed together, or chemically united in the form of a double salt, the sulphate of copper and ammonia. Accord- ing to Phillips, the sulphuric acid of the sulphate of copper unites with the ammonia of a portion of the sesquicarbonate of ammonia; while the car- bonic acid of the-decomposed sesquicarbonate partly escapes, and partly combines with the oxide of copper; so that the resulting preparation con- sists of sulphate of ammonia, carbonate of copper, and undecomposed sesquicarbonate of ammonia. It is highly probable that the Cuprum Am- moniatum, independently of the excess of sesquicarbonate of ammonia which it may contain, is identical with the crystallized salt obtained by dropping a solution of pure ammonia into a solution of sulphate of copper till the subsalt first thrown down is dissolved, then concentrating, and pre- cipitating by alcohol. Now, from the analysis of this salt by Berzelius, it appears to contain one equivalent of sulphuric acid, one of oxide of copper, two of ammonia, and one of water, which may be supposed to be combined in the form of a double salt—the cupro-sulphate of ammonia—consisting of one equiv. of sulphate of ammonia, one of cuprate of ammonia, in which the oxide of copper acts the part of an acid, and one of water of crystal- lization (NH3,S03+NH3,CuO + HO). But as half an ounce of sulphate of copper would require for such a result somewhat less than the same weight of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, there must be a considerable excess of the latter salt, unless dissipated in the drying process. In the uncertainty which exists as to the precise nature of the preparation, the name of am- moniated copper appears to be as appropriate for a pharmaceutical title as any that could be adopted. This salt has a beautiful deep azure-blue colour, a strong ammoniacal odour, and a styptic, metallic taste. It is soluble in water, and the solution has an alkaline reaction on vegetable colours; but, unless there be an excess of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, the solution deposits subsulphate of copper if much diluted. When exposed to the air it pans with ammonia, and is said to be ultimately converted into sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of copper. This change is apt to occur to a greater or less extent while it is drying. It should not, therefore, be prepared in large quantities at a time, and should be kept in well-closed bottles. By heat, the whole of it is dis- sipated, except the oxide of copper. Arsenious acid precipitates a green arsenite of copper from its solution. Potassa, soda, lime-water, and the acids are incompatible with it. Medical Properties and Uses. Ammoniated copper is tonic, and is thought to exercise an influence over the nervous system which renders it antispasmodic. It has been much employed in epilepsy, in which it was recommended by Cullen. There is good reason to believe that it has oc- casionally effected cures; but like all other remedies in that complaint it very frequently fails. It has also been used in chorea, hysteria, and worms; and by Swediaur as an injection in gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea. In over- doses it produces vomiting, and the poisonous effects which result from the other preparations of copper. (See Cuprum.) It is said, however, to be less apt to excite nausea. The dose is a quarter or half a grain, repeated twice a day, and gradually increased to four or five grains. It may be given in pill or solution. The medicine should not be very long continued without interruption; according to Cullen, not longer than a month. Off. Prep. Cupri Ammoniati Aqua, Dub., Lond.; Pilulae Cupri Ammo- niati, Ed. W. PART II. Cuprum.—Deco eta. 899 CUPRI AMMONIATI AQUA. Dub. Liquor Cupri Ammonio- Sulphatis. Lond. Cupri Ammoniati Solutio. Ed. Solution of Ammoniated Copper. "Take of Ammonio-Sulphate of Copper a drachm; Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Ammonio-Sulphate of Copper in the Water, and filter." Lond. The Edinburgh formula is the same as the London. The Dublin Col- lege employs one part of the salt to one hundred parts of distilled water. By the quantity of water employed in these processes, the ammoniated copper, unless it contain an excess of carbonate of ammonia, which it pro- bably does when recently prepared, is said by Mr. Phillips to be decom- posed, with a precipitation of one-half of the oxide of copper. According to the same author, a smaller portion of water dissolves it perfectly. This solution is sometimes employed as a stimulant to foul and indolent ulcers, and, diluted with water, as an application to the cornea when affected with specks or opacity; but it is probably in no respect superior for these purposes to a solution of sulphate of copper, and scarcely deserves a place among the officinal preparations. ' W. DECOCTA. Decoctions. Decoctions are solutions of vegetable principles, obtained by boiling the substances containing these principles in water. Vegetables generally yield their soluble ingredients more readily and in larger proportion to water maintained at the point of ebullition, than to the same liquid at a lower temperature. Hence decoction is occasionally preferred to infusion as a mode of extracting the virtues of plants, when the call for the remedy is urgent, and the greatest possible activity in the preparation is desirable. The process should be conducted in a covered vessel, so as to confine the vapour over the surface of the liquid, and thus prevent the access of atmospheric air, which sometimes exerts an injurious agency upon the active principle. The boiling, moreover, should not, as a general rule, be long continued; as the ingredients of the vegetable are apt to react on each other, and thus lose, to a greater or less extent, their original character. The substance sub- mitted to decoction, should if dry be either powdered or well bruised, if fresh should be sliced, so that it may present an extensive surface to the action of the solvent; and previous maceration for some time in water is occasionally useful by overcoming the cohesion of the vegetable fibre. All vegetable substances are not proper objects for decoction. In many the active principle is volatile at a boiling heat, in others it undergoes some change unfavourable to its activity, and in a third set is associated with inefficient or nauseous principles, which, though insoluble or but slightly soluble in cool water, are abundantly extracted by that liquid at the boiling temperature, and thus encumber, if they do not positively injure the prepa- ration. In all these instances, infusion is preferable to decoction. Besides, by the latter process, more matter is often dissolved than the water can retain in solution, so that upon cooling a precipitation takes place, and the liquid is rendered turbid. When the active principle is thus dissolved in excess, the decoction should always be strained while hot; so that the matter which separates on cooling, maybe mixed again with the fluid by agitation at the time of administering the remedy. 900 Decocta. PART II. In compound decoctions, the ingredients may be advantageously added at different periods of the process, according to the length of boiling requisite for extracting their virtues; and, should any one of them owe its activity to a vo- latile principle, the proper plan is, at the close of the process, to pour upon it the boiling decoction, and allow the liquor to cool in a covered vessel. As a general rule, glass or earthenware vessels should be preferred; as those made of metal are sometimes corroded by the ingredients of the decoc- tion, which thus becomes contaminated. Vessels of clean cast-iron or of common tin are preferable to those of copper, brass, or zinc; but iron pots should not be used when astringent vegetables are concerned. Decoctions, from the mutual reaction of their constituents, as well as from the influence of the air, are apt to spoil in a short time. Hence they should be prepared only when wanted for use, and should not be kept, in warm weather, for a longer period than forty-eight hours. W. DECOCTUM ALOES COMPOSITUM. Lond., Dub. Decoctum Aloes, Ed. Compound Decoction of Aloes. " Take of Extract of Liquorice half an ounce ; Carbonate of Potassa two scruples; Hepatic Aloes in powder, Myrrh in powder, Saffron, each, a drachm; Water a pint. Boil together to twelve ounces, and strain ; then add four fluidounces of Compound Tincture of Cardamom." Dub. The Edinburgh process may be considered as identical with the Dublin, except that a choice is allowed between the socotrine and hepatic aloes. Take of Extract of Liquorice seven drachms; Carbonate of Potassa a drachm; Aloes in powder, Myrrh in powder, Saffron, each, a drachm and a half; Compound Tincture of Cardamom seven fluidounces; Distilled Water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Boil the liquorice, Carbonate of Potassa, Aloes, Myrrh, and Saffron with the Water to a pint, and strain ; then add the Compound Tincture of Cardamom." Lond. There is no essential difference between the two processes. That of the Dublin College is preferable for practical purposes in this country, as the measures correspond with our own ; while those of the London and Edin- burgh Colleges, adopted at the last revision of their Pharmacopoeias, being divisions of the British Imperial gallon, are wholly inapplicable here. The aloes, myrrh, and carbonate of potassa should be rubbed together before the addition of the other ingredients. The effect of the alkaline car- bonate is, by combining with the resin of the myrrh, and the insoluble por- tion (apotheme of Berzelius) of the aloes, to render them more soluble in water, while the liquorice assists in the suspension of the portion not actually dissolved. The tincture of cardamom is useful not only by its cor- dial property, but also by preventing spontaneous decomposition. Long boiling impairs the purgative property of aloes; and the same effect is thought to be produced, to a certain extent, by the alkalies, which cer- tainly qualify its operation, and render it less apt to irritate the rectum. This decoction, therefore, is milder as a cathartic than aloes itself, and not so liable to produce or aggravate hemorrhoidal disease. At the same time it is more tonic and cordial from the presence of the myrrh, saffron, and cardamom, and derives antacid properties from the carbonate of potassa. It is given as a gentle cathartic, tonic, and emmenagogue ; and is especially useful in dyspepsia, habitual constipation, and those complicated cases in which suppressed or retained menstruation is connected with enfeebled digestion and a languid state of bowels. The dose is from half a fluidounce to two fluidounces. The decoction should not be combined in prescription with acids, acidulous salts, or other saline bodies which are incompatible with the alkaline carbonate employed in its preparation. W. PART II. Decocta. 901 DECOCTUM ALTH;E;£. Dub. Mistura Alth;e;e. Ed. Decoc- tion of Marsh Mallow. " Take of the Herb and Root of Marsh Mallow, dried and bruised,/ow»- ounces; Raisins, stoned, two ounces; Water seven pints. Boil down to five pints, and strain the liquor; then set it by till the dregs have subsided, and decant." Dub. The Edinburgh College takes four ounces of the root, two ounces of the raisins, and five pints [Imperial measure] of boiling water, and proceeds as above, boiling down to three pints. This decoction is a simple mucilage flavoured with raisins ; and may be used advantageously as a drink, in all cases in which demulcents are indi- cated. W. DECOCTUM CETRARLE. U.S., Lond. Decoctum Lichenis Islandici. Dub. Decoction of Iceland Moss. " Take of Iceland Moss half an ounce; Water a pint and a half. Boil down to a pint, and strain with compression." U. S. The London College orders five drachms of the moss with a pint and a half of water to be boiled to a pint and strained; but, as the Imperial measure is used in the process, the proportion is in fact equivalent to about half an ounce to the apothecaries' pint. By the Dublin process, half an ounce of the moss is digested for two hours in a close vessel with a pint of boiling water, then boiled for fifteen minutes, and the liquor strained, while hot. As the bitter principle is dissolved along with the starch of the moss, this decoction unites an unpleasant flavour to its demulcent properties; but the plan which has been proposed of first extracting the bitterness by macera- tion in water, or a very weak solution of an alkaline carbonate, and afterwards preparing the decoction, is inadmissible ; as the peculiar virtues which dis- tinguish the medicine from the ordinary demulcents are thus entirely lost. (See Cetraria.) A pint of the decoction may be taken in divided doses dur- ing the twenty-four hours. W. DECOCTUM CHAMAMELI COMPOSITUM. Dub. Decoction of Chamomile. " Take of dried Chamomile Flowers half an ounce; Fennel Seeds two drachms; Water a pint. Boil for a short time, and strain." Dub. In preparing this decoction, the aromatic should not be added till near the end of the process. The virtues of chamomile are best extracted by infu- sion. Though the bitter principle is taken up, the aroma is dissipated by boiling. The decoction is better calculated for fomentations and enemata than for internal use. W. DECOCTUM CHIMAPHILA. U.S., Lond. Decoctum Pyrola. Dub. Decoction of Pipsissewa. Decoction of Winter Green. " Take of Pipsissewa, bruised, an ounce; Water a pint and a half. Boil down to a pint, and strain." U. S. " Take of Pipsissewa, an ounce; Distilled Water a pint and a half [Im- perial measure]. Boil to a pint, and strain." Lond. "Take of Pipsissewa an ounce; Water two pints. Macerate for six hours ; then take out the Pipsissewa, and having bruised it, return it to the liquor, and evaporate until enough remains to afford one pint of decoction strained with expression." Dub. The previous maceration directed by the Dublin College is quite super- fluous, especially in relation.to the fresh leaves, which may almost always be obtained in this country. The medical properties and uses of pipsissewa 77 902 Decocta. PART II. have been detailed under the head of Chimaphila. One pint of the decoc- tion may be given in the course of twenty-four hours. W. DECOCTUM CINCHONiE. U.S., Ed., Dub. Decoctum Cin- chona Cordifolia. Decoctum Cinchona Lancifolia. Decoctum Cinchona Oblongifolia. Lond. Decoction of Peruvian Bark. " Take of Peruvian Bark, bruised, an ounce; Water a pint. Boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, and strain the liquor while hot." U. S. The London College directs separate decoctions of the three varieties of bark, but in each case employs the same proportions, and proceeds in the same way. The process is essentially the same as ours. The Edinburgh College takes an ounce of either of its officinal varieties of bark, and twenty- four fluidounces [Imperial measure] of water, boils for ten minutes, allows the decoction to cool, then filters it, and evaporates to sixteen fluidounces. The Dublin College, without specifying the length of boiling, orders an ounce of the pale bark, in coarse powder, and enough water to yield a pint of the strained decoction. When the physician directs the decoction according to the U. S. formula, he should specify the variety of bark he wishes to be employed. The virtues of Peruvian bark, though extracted more rapidly by decoction than by infusion, are materially impaired by long boiling, in consequence of the changes effected in its constituents, either by their mutual reaction, or by the agency of atmospheric oxygen, or by both causes united. To prevent this result, the process is directed to be performed in a covered vessel, and to be continued only ten minutes. But, even with these precautions, a con- siderable precipitate takes place in the decoction upon cooling, which is thus rendered turbid. According to Pelletier, besides the kinates of cinchonia and quinia,the water dissolves gum, starch,yellow colouring matter, kinate of lime, tannin, and a portion of cinchonic red, with a minute quantity of fatty matter. But the tannin and starch, at the boiling temperature, united to form a compound insoluble in cold water; and, when the decoction is allowed to cool, this compound is precipitated, together with a portion of the cinchonic red and fatty matter, which carry with them also a considerable quantity of the alkaline principle of the bark. (Journ. de Pharm., vii. 119.) Hence the decoction is ordered to be strained while hot, so that the portion of active matter precipitated may be mingled by agitation with the liquor, and not be lost. Pelletier recommends that a larger proportion of water, sufficient to retain the alkali in solution, be employed, that the decoction be filtered when cold, and then sufficiently concentrated by evaporation. This plan has been adopted by the Edinburgh College, but is unnecessarily tedious. A better mode is to add to the liquid some acid which may form with the quinia and cinchonia compounds more soluble than the native salts. Lemon juice has been long employed as a useful addition to the decoction of cinchona, and we can now understand the manner in which it acts. Sulphuric acid in excess answers the same purpose. By acidulating the pint of water employed in preparing the decoction with a fluidrachm of the aromatic or diluted sul- phuric acid, we shall probably enable the menstruum to extract all the virtues of the bark. The propriety of such an addition is confirmed by the experiments of MM. Henry, Jun., and Plisson, who have ascertained that portions of the alkalies exist in the bark connected with the colouring matter in the form of insoluble compounds, and that it is impossible, there- fore, completely to exhaust the bark by water alone. There may, however, be some diversity of action in the different salts of quinia and cinchonia; and the native kinates may, under certain circumstances, be most efficient. PART II. Decocta. 903 Numerous substances produce precipitates with this decoction; but com- paratively few affect its activity as a medicine. (See Infusum. Cinchonse.) Tannic, gallic, oxalic, and tartaric acids, and the substances containing them, should be excluded from the decoction; as they form salts with the alkaline principles of the bark, which are either insoluble or but slightly soluble in water. The alkalies, alkaline earths, and salifiable bases gene- rally should also be excluded ; because, uniting with the kinic acid, they precipitate the quinia and cinchonia. The dose of the decoction is two fluidounces, to be repeated more or less frequently according to circumstances. Two drachms of orange peel, added to the decoction while still boiling hot, improve its flavour, and render it more acceptable to the stomach. W. DECOCTUM CORNUS FLORIDA. U.S. Decoction of Dog- wood. " Take of Dogwood [bark], bruised, an ounce; Water a pint. Boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, and strain the liquor while hot." U. S. This decoction has been proposed as a substitute for that of Peruvian bark; but, though possessed of analogous properties, it is much inferior in efficacy, and is not likely to be extensively employed so long as the Peru- vian tonic is attainable. The dose is two fluidounces. W. DECOCTUM CYDONLE. Lond. Decoction of Quince Seeds. " Take of Quince [seeds] two drachms; Distilled Water a pint [Impe- rial measure}. Boil over a slow fire for ten minutes ; then strain." Lond. This decoction is viscid, nearly colourless, insipid, and inodorous ; and consists chiefly of the mucilaginous principle of the quince seeds dissolved in water. For an account of the properties and uses of this mucilage see Cydonia. It is only employed externally. As it speedily undergoes de- composition, it should be used immediately after being prepared. W. DECOCTUM DULCAMARA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Decoc- tion of Bittersweet. " Take of Bittersweet, bruised, an ounce; Water a pint and a half. Boil down to a pint and strain." U. S. The processes of the British Colleges correspond with the above. The slender twigs of the bittersweet are the part employed. Their pro- perties and uses have been already detailed under the head of Dulcamara. The dose of the decoction is from one to two fluidounces three or four times a day, or more frequently. W. DECOCTUM GEOFFROYA. Dub. Decoction of Cabbage-tree Bark. "Take of Cabbage-tree Bark, bruised, an ounce; Water two pints. Boil down to a pint, and to the strained liquor add two ounces of the Syrup of Orange Peel." Dub. This decoction has the colour of Madeira wine. It is powerfully anthel- mintic, and is a popular remedy in the West Indies. The disagreeable effects which are said to arise from an over-dose, or from drinking cold water during its operation, may be counteracted, according to Dr. Wright, by washing out the stomach with warm water, purging with castor oil, and administering lemonade freely. The dose for an adult is two fluidounces, for a child two or three years old, half a fluidounce, to be gradually in- creased at each successive administration till it produces nausea. W. 904 Decocta. PART II. DECOCTUM GLYCYRRHIZA. Dub. Decoction of Liquorice Root. " Take of Liquorice Root, bruised, an ounce and a half; Water a pint. Boil for ten minutes and strain." Dub. This decoction may be used as a demulcent beverage, or as a vehicle for medicines of unpleasant flavour. W. DECOCTUM GRANATI. Lond. Decoction of Pomegranate. " Take of Pomegranate [rind] two ounces ; Distilled Water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Boil down to a pint and strain." Lond. The dose of this decoction is a fluidounce. For its uses see Granatum. DECOCTUM GUAIACI COMPOSITUM. Dub. Decoctum Guai- aci. Ed. Compound Decoction of Guaiacum Wood. " Take of Guaiac turnings three ounces ; Raisins two ounces ; Sassafras [root] rasped, and Liquorice Root bruised, each, one ounce; Water eight pints [Imperial measure]. Boil the Guaiac and Raisins gently with the Water down to five pints, adding the Liquorice and Sassafras towards the end. Strain the decoction." Ed. " Take of Guaiacum Wood, rasped, three ounces ; Sassafras root, sliced, ten drachms ; Liquorice Root, bruised, two ounces and a half; Water ten pints. Boil the Guaiacum Wood in the Water down to one-half; near the end of the boiling add the Liquorice and Sassafras, and strain the liquor." Dub. This is the old decoction of the woods. Notwithstanding its former repu- tation, it is little more than a demulcent drink; for water is capable of dis- solving but a minute proportion of the active matter of guaiacum wood, and one ounce of sassafras root can impart no appreciable activity to five pints of menstruum. It was thought useful in chronic rheumatism and cutaneous affections, and as an adjuvant to a mercurial course in syphilis, or an alte- rative course of antimonials. As the patient was directed to be kept warm during its use, it no doubt acted favourably in some instances as a mere diluent, by promoting perspiration. From one to two pints may be taken in the course of the day, in doses of about four fluidounces. W. DECOCTUM HAMATOXYLI. U. S., Ed. Decoction of Log- wood. " Take of Logwood, rasped, an ounce; Water two pints. Boil down to a pint, and strain." U. S. " Take of Logwood, in chips, one ounce ; Water a pint [Imperial mea- sure]; Cinnamon, one drachm, in powder. Boil the Logwood in the Water down to ten fluidounces, adding the Cinnamon towards the end; and then strain." Ed. This is an excellent astringent in diarrhoea; particularly in that form of it which succeeds the cholera infantum of this climate, or occurs as an original complaint in children during summer. The dose for an adult is two fluid- ounces, for a child about two years old, two or three fluidrachms, repeated several times a day. A little bruised cinnamon may often be added with advantage at the end of the boiling, as directed by the Edinburgh College. W. DECOCTUM HORDEI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Decoction of Barley. " Take of [Pearl] Barley two ounces: Water four pints and a half. First wash away, with cold water, the extraneous matters which adhere to the Barley; then pour upon it half a pint of the Water, and boil for a short time. Having thrown away this water, pour the remainder boiling hot upon the Barley; then boil down to two pints, and strain." U. S. PART II. Decocta. 905 The processes of the British Colleges do not essentially differ from the above. Barley water, as this decoction is usually called, is much employed as a nutritive drink in febrile and inflammatory complaints, and, from the total absence of irritating properties, is peculiarly adapted to cases in which the gastric or intestinal mucous membrane is inflamed. As the stomach of those for whom it is directed is often exceedingly delicate, and apt to revolt against anything having the slightest unpleasantness of flavour, it is important that the decoction should be properly made ; and, though the office of preparing it generally falls to nurses, yet the introduction of the process into the Pharmacopoeia is not without advantage, as a formula is thus ever before the physician, by which he may give his directions, with the certainty, if obeyed, of having a good preparation. The use of the washing with cold water, and of the first short boiling, is completely to remove any mustiness, or other disagreeable flavour, which the barley may have acquired from ex- posure. Off. Prep. Enema Aloe's, Lond.; Enema Terebinthinae, Lond. W. DECOCTUM HORDEI COMPOSITUM. Lond., Dub. Mistura Hordei. Ed. Compound Decoction of Barley. "Take of Decoction of Barley two pints [Imperial measure]; Figs, sliced, two ounces and a half; Liquorice [root], sliced and bruised,five drachms; Raisins [stoned] two ounces and a half ; Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Boil down to two pints [Imp. meas.], and strain." Lond. "Take of Pearl-Barley, Figs sliced, Raisins freed of the seeds, of each, two ounces and a half; Liquorice Root, sliced and bruised, five drachms; Water five pints and a half [impexial measure]. Clean the Barley if neces- sary, by washing it with cold water; boil it with four pints and a half of the Water down to two pints; add the Figs, Raisins, and Liquorice Root, with the remaining pint of water; and again boil down to two pints; then strain." Ed. "Take of Decoction of Barley four pints; Raisins stoned, Figs sliced, each, two ounces; Liquorice Root, sliced and bruised, half an ounce. Dur- ing the boiling, add first the Raisins, then the Figs, and lastly the Liquorice Root a short time before it is finished, when the strained decoction ought to measure two pints." Dub. The compound decoction of barley, in addition to the demulcent and nutritive properties of the simple, is somewhat laxative, and may be pre- ferably employed where there is a tendency to constipation. But it is so often necessary to vary the nature of the sapid ingredients to suit the taste of the patient, that it would be better to leave the preparation entirely to extemporaneous prescription. W. DECOCTUM MALVA COMPOSITUM. Lond. Compound De- coction of Mallows. "Take of dried Mallows an ounce; dried Chamomile Flowers half an ounce; Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain." Lond. This is intended only for fomentations and enemata. DECOCTUM MEZEREI. Ed., Dub. Decoction of Mezereon. " Take of Mezereon, in chips, two drachms; Liquorice Root, bruised, half an ounce; Water two pints [Imperial measure]. Mix them and boil down with a gentle heat to a pint and a half, and then strain." Ed. 11* 906 Decocta. PART II. The Dublin process is essentially the same as the above. This preparation affords a convenient mode of exhibiting mezereon, the acrimony of which is qualified by the demulcent principles of the liquorice root. For an account of its medical applications, see Mezereum. The dose is from four to eight fluidounces four times a day. W. DECOCTUM PAPAVERIS. Lond., Ed., Dub. Decoction of Poppy. "Take of White Poppy Capsules, sliced, four ounces ; Water four pints LImperial measure]. Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain." Lond. The Edinburgh and Dublin processes differ from the above only in the proportion of water, which in the former is three pints [Imp. meas.], in the latter two pints. This decoction is used as an anodyne fomentation in painful tumours and superficial cutaneous inflammation or excoriation. It is recommended not to reject the seeds; as their oil, suspended in the water by the mucilage of the capsules, adds to the emollient virtues of the preparation. W. DECOCTUM QUERCUS ALBA. U. S. Decoction of White Oak Bark. Decoctum Quercus. Lond., Ed., Dub. Decoction of Oak Bark. " Take of White Oak Bark, bruised, an ounce; Water a pint and a half. Boil down to a pint, and strain." U. S. The London and Edinburgh Colleges take ten drachms of oak bark and two pints [Imperial measure] of distilled water, and boil to a pint; the Dublin College takes an ounce of the bark and two pints [Apothecaries' measure] of water, and boils to a pint. This decoction contains the tannin, extractive, and gallic acid of oak bark. It affords precipitates with the decoction of Peruvian bark and other sub- stances containing vegetable alkalies, with solution of gelatin, and with most metallic salts, particularly those of iron. Alkaline solutions diminish or destroy its astringency. Its uses have been already detailed. The dose is a wineglassful, frequently repeated. W. DECOCTUM SARSAPARILLA. Dub. Decoctum Sarza. Lond., Ed. Decoction of Sarsaparilla. "Take of Sarsaparilla, sliced, five ounces; boiling Distilled Water four ,pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate for four hours in a covered vessel, near the fire, then take out the Sarsaparilla and bruise it. Put it again into the liquor, and macerate it in the same manner for two hours more, then boil down to two pints [Imp. meas.] and strain." Lond. The Dublin College orders four ounces of the root, previously washed, and four pints of boiling water, and proceeds as directed by the London College, except that the second maceration is omitted. "Take of Sarza, in chips, five ounces; boiling Water, four pints [Impe- rial measure]. Digest the root in the Water for two hours at a temperature somewhat below ebullition, take out the root, bruise it, replace it, boil down to two pints [Imp. meas.], and then squeeze out the decoction and strain it." Ed. There can be no occasion for the maceration directed by the British Colleges; as, if the root is sliced and well bruised, all its ingredients that are soluble in water may be extracted by a length of boiling sufficient to reduce the liquor to one-half. An idea was formerly entertained that the virtues of sarsaparilla resided in its fecula, the extraction of which was, therefore, the main object of the decoction. Hence the long boiling ordered PART II. Decocta. 907 by the Colleges. But this opinion is now admitted to be erroneous. The activity of the root is believed to depend upon one or more acrid principles, soluble to a certain extent in water cold or hot, and either volatilized, or rendered inert by chemical change, at the temperature of 212°. This fact appears to be demonstrated by the experiments of Pope,* Hancock,t Sou- beiran,;]; Beral, and others. Hancock makes the following observations. " After long boiling, the peculiar odour which rises abundantly on the coc- tion of good sarsa is almost extinguished. From the sarsa prepared in this way, I found no sensible results upon any patient, nor were its peculiar nauseating, drowsy, and racking effects produced by a large quantity, although the decoction of six or eight ounces was tried at a dose. These experiments having been carried to a sufficient length, most of the same patients recovered under the use of the sarsa, taken from the same parcels as before, but now prepared by simple maceration in hot water, i. e., affused in a boiling state, and kept near the boiling state for some hours. In all cases the sarsa was directed to be well bruised in large mortars, and in the mean time all other remedies were abstained from, which might, in any way, affect the result." Soubeiran macerated one portion of bruised sarsa- parilla in cold water for twenty-four hours ; infused another portion in boil- ing water, and digested with a moderate heat for two hours; boiled a third portion bruised, and a fourth unbruised, in water for two hours; and in each instance used the same relative quantities. Testing these various preparations by the taste, he found the cold and hot infusion scarcely differ- ent in this respect; and both possessed of a stronger odour and more acrid taste than the decoctions, of which that prepared with the bruised root was the strongest. Beral has proved that sarsaparillin, which is believed to be the active principle of the drug, is volatile. From all these facts the infer- ence is obvious, that the best method of imparting the virtues of sarsaparilla to water is either by cold or hot infusion. Digestion for some hours in water maintained at a temperature of 180° or somewhat less, in a covered vessel, has strong testimony in its favour. Percolation in a displacement apparatus, if properly conducted, is a convenient, and no doubt efficient mode of exhausting the root, so far as water will effect that object. Decoc- tioned is the worst method; and the longer it is continued, the weaker will be the preparation. Accordingly, in the last edition of the U. S. Pharmaco- poeia, an infusion of sarsaparilla has been substituted for the simple decoc- tion. It is probable that, as in the case of the Peruvian bark, a boiling of ten or fifteen minutes might be advantageously resorted to, when circum- stances require the preparation to be made in less time than is requisite for infusion. In every instance the root should be thoroughly bruised, or re- duced to a coarse powder, thus obviating the necessity for a long maceration, merely to overcome the cohesion of its fibres. Precipitates are produced by various substances with the decoction of sar- saparilla ; but it has not been ascertained how far such substances interfere with its activity. Those which merely throw down the fecula do not injure the preparation. The simple decoction of sarsaparilla is chiefly used in the preparation of the compound decoction. If given alone, it may be administered in the dose of four or six fluidounces four times a day. Off. Prep. Decoctum Sarsaparillas Compositum. Dub.,Lond.,Ed. W. * Trans, of the Medico-Chirurg. Society of London, vol. xii. p. 344. f Trans, of the Medico-Botan. Society of London. See also Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., vol. i. p. 295. The observations of Dr. Hancock are entitled to much credit, as he practised long in South America, in the neighbourhood of the best sarsaparilla regions. J Journ. de Pharmacie, torn. xvi. p. 38. 908 Decocta, PART II. DECOCTUM SARSAPARILLA COMPOSITUM. U.S., Dub. De- coctum Sarza Compositum. Lond., Ed. Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla. "Take of Sarsaparilla, sliced and bruised, six ounces; Bark of Sassa- fras Root, sliced, Guaiacum Wood, rasped, Liquorice Root, bruised, each, an ounce; Mezereon, sliced, three drachms; Water four pints. Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain." U. S. "Take of Decoction of Sarsaparilla, boiling hot, four pints [Imperial measure]; Sassafras [root], sliced, Guaiacum Wood, rasped, Liquorice Root [fresh], bruised, each, ten drachms; Mezereon three drachms. Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain." Lond. The Edinburgh process differs from the London only in the quantity of mezereon, which in the former is half an ounce. The Dublin College takes four pints of the decoction, an ounce, each, of sassafras, guaiacum wood, and liquorice root, and three drachms of mezereon, and proceeds as above. The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia differs essentially from the others in this respect, that, instead of taking the simple decoction of sar- saparilla prepared by long boiling, it mixes the bruised root immediately with the other ingredients, and boils the whole together for a few minutes. Thus, the sarsaparilla does not undergo a longer boiling than the other sub- stances ; and the preparation is brought more nearly into accordance with the present state of knowledge in relation to this valuable drug. (See De- coctum Sarsaparillae.) It might, perhaps, be a still farther improvement, if the ingredients were allowed, after the completion of the boiling, to remain in a covered vessel, in a warm place, with occasional agitation, for two or three hours before straining. This decoction is an imitation of the celebrated Lisbon diet drink. The sarsaparilla and mezereon are the active ingredients; the guaiacum wood imparting scarcely any of its virtues, and the sassafras and liquorice serving little other purpose than to communicate a pleasant flavour. If prepared with good sarsaparilla, and with a due regard to the practical rules which may now be considered as established, the decoction may be used with great advantage as a gentle diaphoretic and alterative in secondary syphilis, either alone, or as an adjuvant to a mercurial course; also in certain scrofulous and other depraved conditions of the system, in chronic rheuma- tism, and in various obstinate cutaneous affections. The dose is from four , to six fluidounces three or four times a day. The patient during its use should wear flannel next the skin, and avoid unnecessary exposure to changes of temperature.* W. * The Decoction of Zittmann (Decoctum Zittmanni) is a preparation of sarsaparilla much used in Germany, for similar purposes with our compound decoction of sarsapa- rilla; and, as it has attracted some attention in this country as a remedy in obstinate ulcerative affections, we give the formula of the Prussian Pharmacopasia, which is gene- rally followed in its preparation: "Take of sarsaparilla twelve ounces; spring water ninety pounds. Digest for twenty-four hours; then introduce, enclosed in a small bag, an ounce and a half of saccharine alum (a paste formed of alum ^ vi, white lead !"Jvi, sulphate of zinc jjjiij, white sugar ^iss, white of egg and distilled vinegar, each q. s.). half an ounce of calomel, and a drachm of cinnabar. Boil to thirty pounds, and near the end of the boiling add of aniseed, fennel-seed, each, half an ounce, senna three ounces, liquorice root an ounce and a half. Put aside the liquor under the name of the strong decoction. To the residue add six ounces of sarsaparilla and ninety pounds of water. Boil to thirty pounds, and near the end add lemon-pee], cinnamon, cardamom, liquorice, of each, three drachms. Strain, and set aside the liquor under the name of the weak decoction. Mercury was detected by Wiggers in this decoction in very small proportion. It should not be prepared in metallic vessels, lest the mercurial in solution should be decomposed. The decoction may be drunk freely. PART II. Decocta. 909 DECOCTUM SCOPARII COMPOSITUM. Lond. Decoctum Sco- parii. Ed. Compound Decoction of Broom. "Take of Broom, Juniper Fruit, Dandelion, each, half an ounce; Dis- tilled Water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Boil down to a pint [Imperial measure], and strain." Lond. "Take of Broom-tops, and Juniper-tops, of each, half an ounce; Bitar- trate of Potassa two drachms and a half; Water a pint and a half [Im- perial measure]. Boil them together down to a pint [Imperial measure], and then strain." Ed. This decoction may be used as an adjuvant to more powerful diuretics in dropsy. From half a pint to a pint may be taken during the day. W. DECOCTUM SENEGA. U. S., Lond., Dub. Decoction of Seneka. "Take of Seneka, bruised, an ounce; Water a pint and a half. Boil down to a pint, and strain." U. S. The London College boils ten drachms of the root with two pints of dis- tilled water to a pint; but the relation of the Imperial measure used by this College to the common wine measure is such, that the proportions in the decoction are essentially the same as those of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The Dublin College directs a pint and a half of water to be boiled down with three drachms of the root to eight ounces. It is customary to add to the seneka an equal weight of liquorice root, which serves to cover its taste, and in some measure to obtund its acrimony. The virtues and practical application of seneka have been already treated of. The dose of the decoction is about two fluidounces three or four times a day, or a tablespoonful every two or three hours. W. DECOCTUM TARAXACI. U.S., Ed., Dub. Decoction of Dan- delion. "Take of Dandelion [root], bruised, two ounces; Water two pints. Boil down to a pint, and strain." U. S. The Edinburgh College takes seven ounces of the fresh herb and root, and two pints [Imperial measure] of water, boils to one pint [Imperial measure], and strains. The Dublin College takes four ounces of the fresh herb and root, and two pints of water, boils to a pint, expresses, and strains. This decoction is most efficient when prepared from the root alone. The dose is a wineglassful two or three times a day. (See Taraxacum.) W. DECOCTUM TORMENTILLA. Lond. Decoction of Tormentil. "Take of Tormentil, bruised, two ounces; Distilled water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Boil down to a pint, and strain." Lond. This decoction is astringent, and may be given in the dose of one or two fluidounces, three or four times a day. W. DECOCTUM ULMI. Lond., Dub. Decoction of Elm Bark. " Take of fresh Elm [bark], bruised, two ounces and a half; Distilled Water two pints [Imperial measure]. Boil down to a pint, and strain." Lond. The Dublin College orders two ounces of the bark and two pints of water to be reduced, by boiling, to a pint. This decoction, being prepared from the bark of the European elm, is not used in this country. It has had some repute in England as a remedy for certain cutaneous disorders. From four to six fluidounces are given two or three times a day. W. 910 Decocta.—Emplastra. part ii. DECOCTUM UVA URSI. U.S., Lond. Decoction of Uva Ursi, "Take of Uva Ursi an ounce; Water twenty fluidounces. Boil down to a pint, and strain." U. S. "Take of Uva Ursi, bruised, an ounce; Distilled Water a pint and a haf [Imperial measure]. Boil down to a pint, and strain." Lond. This decoction contains the tannin, extractive, and gallic acid of the leaves. For an account of its uses see Uva Ursi. The dose is from one to two fluidounces three or four times a day. W. DECOCTUM VERATRI. Lond., Dub. Decoction of White Helle- bore. "Take of White Hellebore, in powder, ten drachms; Distilled Water tiro pints [Imperial measure]; Rectified Spirit three fluidounces. Boil the White Hellebore with the Water to a pint, and when it has cooled, add the Spirit, express, and strain." Lond. The Dublin process corresponds with the above. The root of the white hellebore imparts its acrid properties to boiling water, and the decoction is powerfully cathartic and emetic; but, in conse- quence of the harshness of its action, it is not used internally. As an ex- ternal application it is employed in psora, tinea capitis, lepra, and other cutaneous eruptions, in which it sometimes proves highly beneficial. When the skin is very irritable, it should be diluted with an equal mea- sure of water. Even externally applied it should be used with some caution; as the veratria, upon which its activity depends, may possibly be absorbed. As the plant is not a native of this country, the Veratrum viride, which is similar in medical properties, may be advantageously sub- stituted for it in the preparation of the decoction. W. EMPLASTRA. Plasters. Plasters are solid compounds intended for external application, adhesive at the temperature of the human body, and of such a consistence as to render the aid of heat necessary in spreading them. Most of them have as their basis a compound of olive oil and litharge, constituting the Emplas- trum Plumbi of the United States Pharmacopoeia. Those plasters which contain none of the compound of oil and litharge, owe their consistence and adhesiveness to resinous substances, or to a mixture of these with wax and oleaginous matter. Only two of the latter class have gained admission into our national Pharmacopoeia; several of those directed by the British Colleges having been rejected as superfluous, and the Emplastrum Can- tharidis transferred to the Cerates, to which class it properly belongs. In the preparation of the plasters, care is requisite that the heat em- ployed be not sufficiently elevated to produce decomposition, nor so long continued as to drive off any volatile ingredient upon which the virtues of the preparation may in a greater or less degree depend. After having been prepared, they are usually shaped into cylindrical rolls, and wrapped in paper to exclude the air. Plasters should be firm at ordinary temperatures, should spread easily when heated, and, after being spread, should remain soft, pliable, and adhesive, without melting, at the heat of the human body. When long kept, they are apt to change colour and to become hard and brittle; and, as this alteration is most observable upon their surface, it must depend chiefly upon the action of the air, which should therefore be as PART II. Emplastra. 911 much as possible excluded. The defect may usually be remedied by melt- ing the plaster with a moderate heat, and adding a sufficient quantity of oil to give it the due consistence. Plasters are prepared for use by spreading them upon leather, linen, or muslin, according to the particular purposes they are intended to answer^' Leather is most convenient when the application is made to the sound skin, linen or muslin when the plaster is used as a dressing to ulcerated or abraded surfaces, or with the view of bringing and retaining together the sides of wounds. The leather usually preferred is white sheep skin. A margin about a quarter or half an inch broad should usually be left uncovered, in order to facilitate the removal of the plaster, and to prevent the clothing in contact with its edges from being soiled. An accurate outline may be ob- tained by pasting upon the leather a piece of paper, so cut as to leave in the centre a vacant space of the required dimensions, and removing the paper when no longer required. The same object may sometimes be accomplished by employing two narrow rulers of sheet tin, graduated in inches, and so shaped that each of them may form two sides of a rectangle. (See the figure, p. 765.) These may be applied in such a manner as to enclose within them any given rectangular space, and may be fixed by weights upon the leather while the plaster is spread. For any other shape,as in the instance of plasters for the breast, pieces of tin may be employed having a vacuity within, cor- responding to the required outline. The spreading of the plaster is most conveniently accomplished by means of a peculiar iron instrument employed for the purpose; though a common spatula will answer. This may be heated by means of a spirit lamp. A sufficient portion of the plaster should first be melted by the heated instrument,and, having been received on a piece of coarse stiff paper, should, when nearly cool, be transferred to the leather, and applied evenly over its extended surface. By this plan the melted plaster is prevented from penetrating the leather, as it is apt to do when applied too hot. When linen or muslin is used, and the dimensions of the portion to be spread are large, as is often the case with adhesive plaster, the best plan is to pass the cloth " on which the plaster has been laid, through a machine formed of a spatula, fixed by screws, at a proper distance from a plate of polished steel." A machine for spreading plasters is described by M. Herent in the Journ. de Pharm. el de Chim., (3e ser.,ii. 403.) W. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Ammo- niac Plaster. "Take of Ammoniac five ounces; Vinegar half a pint. Dissolve the Ammoniac in the Vinegar, and strain; then evaporate the solution by means of a water-bath, stirring constantly until it acquires a proper consistence." U.S. The London College takes five ounces of ammoniac, and eight fluid- ounces of distilled vinegar; dissolves the ammoniac in the vinegar; and evaporates the solution by a slow fire, stirring constantly, to the proper consistence. The Edinburgh College takes five ounces of ammoniac and nine fluidounces of distilled vinegar; dissolves the ammoniac in the vine- gar, and evaporates over the vapour-bath, frequently stirring. In the Dublin process, the ingredients are in the same proportion as in ours; but pure ammoniac is directed, the vinegar of squill is substituted for common vine- gar, the straining is omitted, and the evaporation is conducted without the water-bath. As ammoniac is not usually kept purified in our shops, the straining of the solution in vinegar is directed as the most convenient method of sepa- 912 Emplastra. PART II. rating impurities. Dr. Duncan remarked that the plaster, prepared in iron vessels, " acquires an unpleasant dark colour, from being impregnated with iron; whereas, when prepared in a glass or earthenware vessel, it has a /ellowish-white colour and more pleasant appearance." Medical Properties. The ammoniac plaster is stimulant, and is applied over scrofulous tumours and chronic swellings of the joints, to promote their resolution. It often produces a papular eruption, and sometimes oc- casions considerable inflammation of the skin. Dr. Duncan has described a fatal case of diffuse inflammation following its use in a case of diseased knee-joint. W. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO. Lond., Dub. Emplastrum Ammoniaci et Hydrargyri. Ed. Plaster of Ammoniac with Mercury. " Take of Ammoniac a pound; Mercury three ounces; Olive Oil a fluidrachm; Sulphur eight grains. Add the Sulphur gradually to the heated Oil, constantly stirring with a spatula, until they unite ; then rub the Mercury with them until the globules disappear; lastly, gradually add the Ammoniac, previously melted, and mix the whole together." Lond. The Edinburgh process corresponds closely with the above. " Take of Pure Gum Ammoniac a pound; Purified Mercury three ounces; Common Turpentine two drachms. Rub the Mercury with the Turpentine until the globules disappear, then gradually add the Ammoniac previously melted, and with a moderate heat rub them all together till they unite." Dub. Of these processes the latter is preferable, as the unpleasant odour of the sulphurated oil is avoided, as well as the action of the sulphur upon the mercury, with which it must form an inactive sulphuret. But it should be recollected that the common turpentine of Great Britain is not the common white turpentine of our shops. The former is a thick liquid, the latter a soft solid. If the white turpentine be employed, it should be rendered sufficiently liquid by the admixture of Venice turpentine. As ammoniac is not fusible by heat, it must be brought to the proper consistence by dis- solving it in a small quantity of hot water, straining, and evaporating. Medical Properties and Uses. This plaster unites with the stimulant power of the ammoniac the specific properties of the mercury, which is sometimes absorbed in sufficient quantity to affect the gums. It is used as a discutient in enlargement of the glands, tumefaction of the joints, nodes, and other indolent swellings, especially when dependent on a venereal taint. It is also sometimes applied over the liver in chronic hepatitis. W. EMPLASTRUM AROMATICUM. Dub. Aromatic Plaster. " Take of Frankincense [concrete juice of the Abies excelsa] three ounces; Yellow Wax half an ounce; Cinnamon Bark, in powder, six drachms; Oil of Pimento, Oil of Lemons, each, two drachms. Melt the Frankincense and Wax together, and strain. When, upon cooling, they begin to thicken, mix in the powdered Cinnamon previously rubbed with the Oils, and make a plaster." Dub. As the virtues of this plaster depend chiefly upon volatile ingredients, it cannot be kept long without injury, and should therefore be extempora- neously prepared. It is not intended to be very adhesive, as, in order to maintain the due impression, its application must be frequently renewed. The volatility of the oils requires that it should be spread without being melted, or heated more than is absolutely necessary to produce the proper PART II. Emplastra. 913 degree of softness. We are therefore recommended to spread it with the fingers. Medical Properties and Uses. This is an elegant local stimulant, calcu- lated, when applied over the region of the stomach, to allay nausea and vomiting, to correct flatulence, and to relieve the gastric uneasiness attend- ant upon dyspepsia. W. EMPLASTRUM ASSAFOETIDA. U. S., Ed. Assafetida Plas- ter. "Take of Assafetida, Lead Plaster, each, a pound; Galbanum, Yellow Wax, each, half a pound; Diluted Alcohol three pints. Dissolve the As- safetida and Galbanum in the Alcohol with the aid of a water-bath, strain the liquor while hot, and evaporate to the consistence of honey; then add the Lead Plaster and Wax previously melted together, stir the mixture well, and evaporate to the proper consistence." U. S. "Take of Litharge [Lead] Plaster and Assafetida, of each, two ounces; Galbanum and Bees'-wax, of each, one ounce. Liquefy the gum-resins together and strain them, then add the plaster and wax also in the fluid state, and mix them all thoroughly." Ed. The directions of the present U. S. Pharmacopoeia in relation to this plaster are fuller than those of former editions; as they indicate the mode in which the gum-resins may be brought to the liquid state before being incorporated with the other ingredients. Galbanum melts sufficiently by the aid of heat to admit of being strained; but this is not the case with assafetida, which must be prepared by dissolving it in a small quantity of hot water or diluted alcohol, straining, and evaporating to the consistence of honey; and even galbanum may be most conveniently treated in the same way. Formerly these gum-resins were ordered merely to be melted and strained, and such is at present the direction of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, unless the term "liquefy" be considered as leaving to the operator the choice of the mode in which they should be brought into the liquid state. This plaster may be advantageously applied over the stomach or abdomen, in cases of hysteria attended with flatulence, and to the chest or between the shoulders in hooping cough. W. EMPLASTRUM BELLADONNA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Plaster of Belladonna. "Take of Resin Plaster three ounces; Extract of Belladonna an ounce and a half. Add the Extract to the Plaster, previously melted by the heat of a water-bath, and mix them." U. S. The London and Edinburgh processes are the same as the above. "Take of the inspissated juice of the Deadly Nightshade [Extractum Belladonnas] an ounce; Soap Plaster two ounces. Make a plaster." Dub. The most convenient method of forming this plaster, is to rub the ingre- dients together in an earthenware mortar placed in hot water, and then, having removed the mortar from the water-bath, to continue the trituration till the mixture cools. The preparation is a useful anodyne application in neuralgic and rheumatic pains, and in dysmenorrhoea. We have seen the constitutional effects of belladonna result from its external use. W. EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS. Lond., Ed.t Dub. Plaster of Spanish Flies. See CERATUM CANTHARIDIS. U. S. 78 914 Emplastra. PART II. • EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS COMPOSITUM. Ed. Com- pound Plaster of Spanish Flies. " Take of Venice Turpentine four ounces and a half; Burgundy Pitch and Cantharides, of each, three ounces; Bees'-wax one ounce; Verdigris half an ounce; White Mustard Seed and Black Pepper, of each, two drachms. Liquefy the Wax and Burgundy Pitch, add the Turpentine, and while the mixture is hot sprinkle into it the remaining articles, previously in fine powder, and mixed together. Stir the whole briskly as it concretes on cooling." Ed. This is intended to be a powerful and speedy blistering plaster, and may probably prove beneficial in very urgent cases attended with much torpor of the skin; but great care should be observed not to allow it to remain on too long, as unpleasant and tedious ulceration, if not gangrene, might result. To the cases of children it is wholly inapplicable. W. EMPLASTRUM CERA. Lond. Emplastrum Simplex. Ed. Wax Plaster. "Take of Wax, Suet, each, three pounds; Resin a pound. Melt them together and strain." Lond. " Take of Bees'-wax three ounces ; Suet and Resin, of each, two ounces. Melt them together with a moderate heat, and stir the mixture briskly till it concretes on cooling." Ed. These plasters were originally intended for dressing blistered surfaces, in order to maintain a moderate discharge, to which purpose they are adapted by the stimulant properties of the resin. But their stiffness and adhesive- ness render them unpleasant and of difficult management; and they have been entirely superseded by the resin cerate. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Cantharidis, Lond. W. EMPLASTRUM FERRI. U.S., Ed. Emplastrum Thuris.Dmo. Emplastrum Roborans. Iron Plaster. Strengthening Plaster. " Take of Subcarbonate of Iron three ounces; Lead Plaster two pounds; Burgundy Pitch half a pound. Add the Subcarbonate of Iron to the Lead Plaster and Burgundy Pitch, previously melted together, and stir them con- stantly until they thicken upon cooling." U. S. The Dublin process differs from the above only in the employment of red oxide of iron instead of the subcarbonate, and of frankincense (seepage. 543) instead of Burgundy pitch. " Take of Litharge Plaster three ounces ; Resin six drachms; Olive Oil three fluidrachms and a half; Bees'-wax three drachms; Red Oxide of Iron [Subcarbonate of Iron, U.S.] one ounce. Triturate the Oxide of Iron with the Oil, and add the mixture to the other articles previously liquefied by gentle heat. Mix the whole thoroughly." Ed. The process of the present U. S. Pharmacopoeia is a great improvement upon that of former editions, yielding a finer, more adhesive, and more effi- cient plaster. The preparation has enjoyed some popular celebrity, under the impression that it strengthens the parts to which it is applied; whence it has derived the name of strengthening plaster. It is used in those con- ditions of the loins, larger muscles, and joints, which, though usually ascribed to debility, are in fact most frequently dependent on rheumatic or other chronic inflammatory affections, and, if relieved by the plaster, are so in consequence of the gentle excitation which it produces in the vessels of the skin. It may also, in some instances, give relief by affording mechanical support; but neither in this, nor in any other respect, can it be deemed very efficient. W. PART II. Emplastra. 915 EMPLASTRUM GALBANI. Dub. Galbanum Plaster "lake of Litharge Plaster [Emplastrum Pfonffii] two pounds; Gal- banum half ajound; Yeflow Wax, sl,ced,/ot«r ounce's. Add the Litharge Plaster and Wax to the Galbanum previously melted; then melt the whole together with a moderate heat, and strain." Dub. This is essentially the same in properties as the following, thoueh some- what Jess stimulating. & w EMPLASTRUM GALBANI COMPOSITUM. U. S. Emplastrum Galbani. Lond. Compound Galbanum Plaster. "Take of Galbanum eight ounces; Lead Plaster three pounds- Turpen- tine ten drachms; Burgundy Pitch three ounces. To the Galbanum and 1 urpentme, previously melted together and strained, add first the Burgundy f'ltch, and afterwards the Lead Plaster melted over a gentle fire, and mix the whole together." U.S. The London process differs only in directing the common European tur- pentine instead of the white turpentine intended by our Pharmacopoeia and the concrete juice or unprepared resin of the Abies excelsa, instead of Burgundy pitch or the prepared resin. Before being employed in this process, the galbanum should be purified, as it often contains foreign matters which must injure the plaster. It may be freed from these by melting it with a little water or diluted alcohol, straining, and evaporating to the due consistence. This plaster is an excellent local stimulant in chronic scrofulous enlarge- ments of the glands and joints. We have employed it in some obstinate cases of this kind, which, after having resisted general and local depletion, blistering, and other measures, have yielded under its use. As a discutient it is also employed in the induration which sometimes remains after the discharge of abscesses. It is said to have been useful in rickets when ap- plied over the whole lumbar region, and has been recommended in chronic gouty or rheumatic articular affections. It should not be used in the dis- cussion of tumours in which any considerable inflammation exists. W EMPLASTRUM GUMMOSUM. Ed. Gum, Plaster. "Take of Litharge Plaster [Emplastrum Plumbi] W ounces; Ammo- niac, Galbanum, and Bees'-wax, of each, half an ounce. Melt the Gum- resins together and strain them; melt also together the Plaster and Wax; add the former to the latter mixture, and mix the whole thoroughly." Ed. Ihe addition of ammoniac adds little to the virtues of this plaster, which closely resembles the compound galbanum plaster in its effects. The gal- banum and ammoniac are best prepared by dissolving them in a small quan- tity of hot water or diluted alcohol, straining the solution, and evaporating it to the proper consistence for mixing with the other ingredients. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Saponis, £V/. W EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRI. U. S„ Lond., Ed. Mercurial Plaster. "Take of Mercury six ounces; Olive Oil, Resin, each, two ounces; Lead Plaster a pound. Melt the Oil and Resin together, and when thev have become cool, rub the Mercury with them till the globules disappear; then gradually add the Lead Plaster, previously melted, and mix the whole together." U. S. The London College takes three ounces of mercury, a pound of lead plaster, a fluidrachm of olive oil, and eight grains of sulphur; gradually adds the sulphur to the heated oil, constantly stirring with a spatula until they unite; then rubs the mercury with them until the globules disappear; 916 Emplastra. PART II. and finally adds by degrees the lead plaster previously melted with a slow fire, and mixes the whole together. The Edinburgh process corresponds with that of the United States Pharmacopoeia, except that only one-half of the quantity of materials is employed, and nine fluidrachms of olive oil are directed instead of an ounce. The sulphuretted oil employed by the London College is intended to facilitate the extinguishment of the mercury; but, as it operates by the union of the sulphur with the metal forming an inefficient sulphuret, it impairs the virtues of the plaster at least as much as it assists in its prepa- ration. The melted resin and oil of the United States and Edinburgh pro- cess are decidedly preferable. This plaster is employed to produce the local effects of mercury upon venereal buboes, nodes, and other chronic tumefactions of the bones or soft parts, dependent on a syphilitic taint. In these cases it sometimes acts as a powerful discutient. It is frequently also applied to the side in chronic hepatitis or splenitis. In habits peculiarly susceptible to the mercurial in- fluence, it occasionally affects the gums. From observations made in France by Messrs. Serres, Gariel, Briquet, and others (Archives Generates, viii. 468, and 3e ser., vi. 24), it appears that the mercurial plaster of the French Codex (Emplastrum de Vigo cum Mercurio), has the power, when applied over the eruption of small-pox, before the end of the third day of its appearance, to check the progress of the eruption and prevent suppuration and pitting. This operation of the plaster, so far from being attended with an increase of the general symp- toms, seems to relieve them in proportion to the diminution of the local affection. It is also thought that the course of the disease is favourably modified when the mercurial impression is produced upon the system. That the local effect is not ascribable to the mere exclusion of air is proved by the fact, that the use of lead plaster was not followed by the same results. It is probable that other mercurial preparations would answer the same pur- pose; and the common mercurial ointment has proved effectual, in our own hands, in rendering the eruption upon the face to a considerable extent abortive, in one very bad case of small-pox. But as the most successful results were obtained with the plaster above mentioned, we give the formula of the French Codex for its preparation. The weights mentioned are those of the French metrical pound. (See table in the Appendix.) Emplastrum de Vigo cum Mercurio. " Take of simple plaster [lead plaster] two pounds eight ounces; yellow wax two ounces; resin two ounces; ammoniac, bdellium, olibanum, and myrrh, each, five drachms; saffron three drachms; mercury twelve ounces; turpentine [common European] two ounces; liquid storax sixounces; oil of lavender two drachms. Powder the gum-resins and saffron, and rub the mercury with the storax and tur- pentine in an iron mortar until completely extinguished. Melt the plaster with the wax and resin, and add to the mixture the powders and volatile oil. When the plaster shall have been cooled, but while it is yet liquid, add the mercurial mixture, and incorporate the whole thoroughly." This should be spread upon leather or linen cloth, and applied so as effectually to cover the face, or whatever other part it is desired to protect. W. EMPLASTRUM OPII. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Opium Plaster. " Take of Opium, in powder, two ounces; Burgundy Pitch three ounces; Lead Plaster a pound; Boiling Water four fluidounces. Melt together the Lead Plaster and Burgundy Pitch; then add the Opium previously mixed with the Water, and boil them over a gentle fire to the proper consistence." U. S. PART II. Emplastra. 917 "Take of Hard Opium, in powder, half an ounce; Resin of the Spruce- fir [unprepared concrete juice of Abies excelsa'], in powder, three ounces ; Lead Plaster a pound; Water eight fluidounces. To the melted Plaster add the Resin, Opium, and Water ; and boil down with a slow fire until the in- gredients unite into a proper consistence." Lond. Take of Powder of Opium, half an ounce; Burgundy Pitch three ounces; Litharge piaster twelve ounces. Liquefy the Plaster and Pitch, add the Opium by degrees, and mix them thoroughly." Ed. The Dublin process is the same as the Edinburgh. The formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is preferable, as containing a much larger proportion of opium, which, in the others, is in a quantity too small for decided effect. The use of the water is to enable the opium to be more thoroughly incorporated with the other ingredients ; but care should be taken that the moisture be well evaporated. • The opium plaster is thought to relieve rheumatic and other pains in the parts to which it is applied. W. EMPLASTRUM PICIS. Lond., Ed. Pitch Plaster. "Take of Burgundy Pitch two pounds; Resin of the Spruce fir [unpre- pared concrete juice of Abies excelsa] a pound; Resin, Wax, each,four ounces; Expressed Oil of Nutmegs an ounce; Olive Oil, Water, each, two fluidounces. To the Pitch, Resin, and Wax, melted together, add first the Resin of the Spruce-fir, then the Oil of Nutmegs, the Olive Oil, and the Water. Lastly, mix the whole, and boil to the proper consistence." Lond. " Take of Burgundy Pitch, one pound and a half; Resin and Bees'-wax, of each, two ounces; Oil of Mace half an ounce ; Olive Oil one fluidounce; Water one fluidounce. Liquefy the Pitch, Resin, and Wax with a gentle heat; add the other articles; mix them well together; and boil till the mix- ture acquires the proper consistence." Ed. We presume that the London expressed oil of nutmegs, and the Edin- burgh oil of mace, in the above formulas, though these terms are not defined in the respective Pharmacopoeias, have reference to the substance denomi- nated, in the Edinburgh Materia Medica catalogue, myrislicae adeps or con- crete oil of nutmeg. (See Myrislicae Adeps, page 470.) The driest white turpentine may be substituted for the resin of the spruce fir, which is not always to be obtained in this country. This is a rubefacient plaster, applicable to catarrhal and other pectoral affec- tions, chronic inflammation of the liver, and rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles. It often keeps up a serous discharge, which requires that it should be frequently renewed. The irritation which it sometimes excites is so great as to render its removal necessary. W. EMPLASTRUM PICIS CUM CANTHARIDE. U.S. Emplas- trum Calefaciens. Dub. Plaster of Pitch with Spanish Flies. Warming Plaster. "Take of Burgundy Pitch three pounds and a half; Cerate of Spanish Flies half a pound. Melt them together by means of a water-bath, and stir them constantly till they thicken upon cooling." U.S. The Dublin College employs the same proportions. This plaster is an excellent rubefacient, more active than Burgundy pitch, yet in general not sufficiently so to produce vesication. Still, however, in consequence of peculiar susceptibility of the skin in some individuals it occa- sionally blisters; and it has been recommended to lessen the proportion of the flies. But, while such a reduction would render the plaster insufficiently active in most cases, it would not entirely obviate the objection ; as the 78* 918 Emplastra. PART n. smallest proportion of flies would vesicate in certain persons, and even the Burgundy pitch alone sometimes produces the same effect. In whatever mode, therefore, this plaster may be prepared, it cannot always answer the expectations which may be entertained ; and the only plan, when the skin of any individual has been found to be very susceptible, is to accommodate the proportions to the particular circumstances of the case. Much, how- ever, may be accomplished by care in the preparation of the plaster, towards obviating its tendency to blister. If the flies of the Ceratum Cantharidis have been coarsely pulverized, the larger particles, coming in contact with the skin, will exert upon the particular part to which they may be applied their full vesicatory effect, while, if reduced to a very fine powder, they would be more thoroughly enveloped in the other ingredients, and thus have their strength much diluted. Hence the cerate, when used as an ingredient of the warming plaster, should contain the cantharides as minutely divided as possible, and if that usually kept is not in the proper state, a portion should be prepared for this particular purpose. A good plan, we presume, would be to keep the cerate used in this preparation, for a considerable time, at the temperature of 212°, and then strain it so as to separate the flies. (See Ceratum Cantharidis.) The mode frequently pursued of preparing the warming plaster by simply sprinkling a very small proportion of powdered flies upon the surface of Burgundy Pitch is altogether objectionable. The warming plaster is employed in chronic rheumatism, and various chronic internal diseases attended with inflammation or an inflammatory tendency; such as catarrh, asthma, pertussis, phthisis, hepatitis, and the sequelas of pleurisy and pneumonia. W. EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI. U.S., Lond. Emplastrum Lithar- gyri. Ed., Dub. Lead Plaster. Litharge Plaster. " Take of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead, in very fine powder, five pounds; Olive Oil a gallon; Water two pints. Boil them together over a gentle fire, stirring constantly, until the Oil and Oxide of Lead unite into a plaster. It will be proper to add a little boiling water, if that employed at the commence- ment be nearly all consumed before the end of the process." U.S. The above process was precisely that of the old London Pharmacopoeia. In the edition of that work for 1836, the quantities directed are sixpounds of the oxide of lead, a gallon of olive oil, and two pints of water; but, as the Imperial measure is employed, the proportions are in fact nearly the same as before. The Edinburgh College orders five ounces of litharge, twelve fluidounces of olive oil, and three fluidounces of water. The Dublin process does not differ materially from that of the London and U. S. Pharmacopoeias. The importance of this plaster, as the basis of most of the others, requires a somewhat detailed account of the principles and manner of its preparation. It was formerly thought that the oil and oxide of lead entered into direct union, and that the presence of water was necessary only to regulate the temperature, and prevent the materials from being decomposed by heat. The discovery, however, was afterwards made, that this liquid was essential to the process ; and that the oil and oxide alone, though maintained at a temperature of 220°, would not combine; while the addition of water, under these circumstances, would produce their immediate union. It was now supposed that the oil was capable of combining only with the hydrated oxide of lead, and that the use of the water was to bring the oxide into this state ; and, in support of this opinion, the fact was advanced that the hydrated oxide of lead and oil would form a plaster, when heated together without any free water. But, since the general reception of Chevreul's views in relation to oils PART II. Emplastra. 919 and their combinations with alkalies and other metallic oxides, the former opinions have been abandoned; and it is now admitted that the preparation of the lead plaster affords a genuine example of saponification, as explained by that chemist. A reaction takes place between the oil and water, resulting in the developement of a sweetish substance called glycerin, and of two acid bodies, the oleic and margaric acids, to which, when animal fat is employed instead of olive oil, a third is added, namely, the stearic. The plaster is formed by a union of these acids with the oxide, and, prepared according to the directions of the Pharmacopoeias, is in fact an oleo-margarate of lead. The glycerin remains dissolved in the water, or mechanically mixed with the plaster. That such is the correct view of the nature of this compound, is evinced by the fact, that, if the oxide of lead be separated from the plaster by digestion at a moderate heat in very dilute nitric acid, the fatly matter which remains will unite with litharge with the greatest facility, without the inter- vention of water. According to a more recent chemical view, the fixed oils are compounds of the oily acids mentioned and oxide of glyceryle. When boiled with the oxide of lead and water, the oily acids combine with the me- tallic oxide to form the plaster, and the oxide of glyceryle takes an equivalent of water and becomes glycerin. Glyceryle is a hypothetical compound of carbon and hydrogen (CbH;), which unites with five equivalents of oxygen to form oxide of glyceryle (CHH705), also a hypothetical substance, and with an additional equivalent of water to form glycerin. (CBH705-fAq.) Other oleaginous substances and other metallic oxides are susceptible of the same combination, and some of them form compounds having the con- sistence of a plaster ; but, according to M. Henry, of Paris, no oily matter except animal fat can properly be substituted for olive oil, and no metallic oxide, not even one of the other oxides of lead, for litharge. He ascertained, moreover, that the English litharge is preferable for the formation of the lead plaster to the German. From more recent experiments of Soubey-an, it appears that massicot or even minium may be substituted for litharge, and a plaster of good consistence be obtained; but that a much longer time is re- quired for completing the process than when the officinal formula is followed. When minium is used, the necessity for its partial deoxidation renders a longer continuance of the process necessary than with massicot. According to M. Davallon, professor in the School of Medicine and Pharmacy at Lyons, it is important that the olive oil employed should be pure; and, adulterated as it frequently is in commerce, it yields an imperfect product. Lead plaster has also been prepared by double decomposition between soap and acetate or subacetate of lead; but the results have not been so ad- vantageous as to lead to the general adoption of this process. For particular information on the subject the reader is referred to the American Journal of Pharm., ix. 127, and to the Journal de Pharmacie, xxiii. 163 and 322. Preparation. The vessel in which the lead plaster is prepared, should be of such a size that the materials will not occupy more than two-thirds of its capacity. The oil should be first introduced, and the litharge then sprinkled in by means of a sieve, the mixture being constantly stirred with a spatula. The particles of the oxide are thus prevented from coalescing in small masses, which the oil would not easily penetrate, and which would therefore delay the process. Though the water exerts an important chemical agency in the changes which occur, it is also useful by preventing too high a temperature, which would decompose the oil and cause the reduction of the metal. The waste must, therefore, be supplied by fresh additions as directed in the process; and the water added for this purpose should be previously heated, as otherwise it would not only delay the operation, but by produc- 920 Emplastra. PART II. ing explosion might endanger the operator. During the continuance of the boiling, the materials should be constantly stirred, and the spatula should be repeatedly passed along the bottom of the vessel, from side to side, so as to prevent any of the oxide, which is disposed by its greater density to sink to the bottom, from remaining in that situation. The materials swell up considerably in consequence partly of the vaporization of the water, partly of the escape of carbonic acid gas, which is liberated by the oily acids from some carbonate of lead usually contained in the litharge. The process should not be continued longer than is sufficient to produce complete union of the ingredients, and this may be known by the colour and consistence of the mass. The colour of the litharge gradually becomes paler, and at length almost white when the plaster is fully formed. The consistence increases with the progress of the boiling, and is sufficiently thick, when a portion of the plaster, taken out and allowed to cool upon the end of a spatula, or thrown into cold water, becomes solid, without adhering in this state to the fingers. The portion thus solidified should not present, when broken, any red points, which would indicate the presence of a portion of uncombined litharge. When the plaster is formed, it should be removed from the fire, and after a short time cold water should be poured upon it. Portions should then be detached from the mass, and, having been well kneaded under water, in order to separate the viscid liquid contained in the interior, should be formed into cylindrical rolls, and wrapped in paper. Such at least has been the course of proceeding usually recommended. But M. Davallon maintains that the presence of glycerin in the plaster is useful by keeping it in a plastic state, and that washing and kneading are injurious, the former by removing the glycerin, the latter by introducing particles of air and moisture into the mass, which is thus rendered more disposed to rancidity. (Am, Journ. of Pharm., xv. 274, from Journ. de Chim. Med.) Medical Properties and Uses. This plaster, which has long been known under the name of diachylon, is used as an application to excoriated surfaces, and to slight wounds, which it serves to protect from the action of the air. It may also be beneficial by the sedative influence of the lead which enters into its composition. A case is on record in which lead-colic resulted from its long-continued application to a large ulcer of the leg. (Am. Jour, of Med. Sci., xxiii. 246.) Its chief use is in the preparation of other plasters.* Off.Prep. Emplastrum Assafoetidas, U.S., Ed.; Emp. Ferri, U.S., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Galbani, Dub.; Emp. Galbani Comp., U. S., Lond.; Emp. Gummosum,i?(i.; Emp. Hydrargyri, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Emp. Opii, U. S<, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Resinae, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Saponis, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Emp. Saponis Comp., Dub.; Unguentum Plumbi Comp., Lond. W. * A plaster of carbonate of lead was originally introduced into our Pharmacopoeia as a substitute for Mahy'splaster;so much employed in some parts of the United States; but was omitted in the last edition. It is a gpod application to surfaces inflamed or excoriated by friction; and may be resorted to with advantage in those troublesome cases of cutaneous irritation, and even ulceration, occurring upon the back and hips during long- continued confinement to one position. We give the process as contained in the Pharma- copoeia of 1830. " Take of Carbonate of Lead a pound; Olive Oil two pints: Yellow Wax four ounces; Lead Plaster apownd and a half; Florentine Orris, in powder, nine ounces. Boil together the Oil and Carbonate of Lead, adding a little water, and constantly stirring, till they are thoroughly incorporated; then add the Wax and Plaster, and when these are melted, sprinkle in the Orris, and mix the whole together." By this process, a good plaster may be prepared, rather too soft, perhaps, at first, but soon acquiring the proper consistence. PART II. Emplastra. 921 EMPLASTRUM RESINS. U. S., Lond. Emplastrum Resino- sum. Ed. Emplastrum Lithargyri cum Resina. Dub. Emplastrum ADHiEsivuM. Resin Plaster. Adhesive Plaster. "Take of Resin, in powder, half a pound; Lead Plaster three pounds. To the Lead Plaster melted over a gentle fire add the Resin, and mix them." U. S., Lond. The Edinburgh College orders five ounces of the lead plaster, and one of resin; the Dublin, three pounds and a half of the former, and half a pound of the latter. This preparation differs from the lead plaster in being more adhesive and somewhat more stimulating. It is the common adhesive plaster of the shops, and is much employed for retaining the sides of wounds in contact, and for dressing ulcers according to the method of Baynton, by which the edges are drawn towards each other, and a firm support is given to the granulations. It is usually spread for these purposes upon muslin ; and the spreading is best accomplished, on a large scale, by means of a machine, as described in the general observations upon plasters. It is kept in the shops ready spread; but, as the plaster becomes less adhesive by long ex- posure to the air, the supply should be frequently renewed. When the skin is very delicate, it occasionally excites some irritation, and under these circumstances a plaster may be substituted, containing a smaller proportion of resin. That originally employed by Baynton contained only six drachms of resin to the pound of lead plaster. In order to render the plaster more adhesive, and less brittle in cold weather, it is customary with many apothecaries to employ a considerable proportion of Burgundy pitch or turpentine in its preparation; but these additions are objectionable, as they greatly increase the liability of the plaster to irritate the skin, and thus materially interfere with the purposes for which the preparation was chiefly intended. If the remarks of Dr. •Duncan on the compound soap plaster of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia maybe relied on, this might be advantageously substituted for the resin plaster in winter. (See Emplastrum Saponis Compositum.)* Off. Prep. Emplastrum Belladonnas. U. S., Lond., Ed. W. EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS. U. S.,Lond., Ed., Dub. Soap Plaster. "Take of Soap, sliced, half a pound; Lead Plaster three pounds. Mix the Soap with the melted Plaster, and boil for a short time." U. S. The London and Dublin Colleges mix the same ingredients, in the same proportions, and boil to the proper consistence. "Take of Litharge Plaster/owr ounces; Gum Plaster two ounces; Cas- tile Soap, in shavings, one ounce. Melt the Plasters together with a mode- rate heat, add the Soap, and boil for a little." Ed. In relation to the soap plaster of the London and Dublin Colleges, and consequently to that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, Dr. Montgomery, in his Observations upon the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, makes the following remark. "I am informed by Mr. Scanlan, who prepares this plaster in large quan- * An adhesive plaster, exempt from oxide of lead, is prepared by Pettenkofer. It consists of calcareous soap incorporated with turpentine and suet, and may be prepared in the following manner. A solution of soap is decomposed by a solution of chloride of calcium. The precipitate, having been expressed, and dried, is powdered with half its weight of turpentine dried by heat; and the mixture is melted along with an eighth part of suet, in boiling water. The mixture is boiled until the mass melts into a homogeneous fluid, when it is worked by the hand, in the ordinary manner, in cold water. Should portions of the calcareous soap not melt, they should be separated by straining through flannel. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., x. 358, from Report fur die Pharm., xlii. 40.) 922 Emplastra.—Enemata. PART II. tities, that the quantity of soap is twice too great, the plaster being, when prepared by this formula, quite puiverizable, and falling into crumbs." This effect is in some degree obviated by the gum plaster directed in the Edin- burgh process. After the addition of the soap to the melted lead plaster, it is only necessary to continue the heat for a short time, till the soap is in- corporated. Boiling is not necessary. Soap plaster is considered discutient, and is sometimes used as an appli- cation to tumours. Off. Prep. Emp. Belladonnae, Dub.; Emp. Saponis Comp., Dub. W. EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS COMPOSITUM vel ADHERENS. Dub. Compound Soap Plaster or Adhesive Plaster. " Take of Soap Plaster two ounces; Litharge Plaster with Resin [Em- plastrum Resinse~J three ounces. Make a plaster, which is to be melted and spread on linen." Dub. Dr. Duncan, in his Dispensatory, makes the following observations in relation to this preparation: "The common resinous plaster is in cold weather too brittle, and apt to crack off from the linen on which it is spread; but by combining it in due proportion with soap plaster, it acquires greater pliability, without losing its adhesive property. In fact, this is the plaster commonly spread by a machine on webs of linen, and sold under the name of adhesive plaster." W. ENEMATA. Clysters. These can scarcely be considered proper objects for officinal direction; but, having been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeias, the plan of this work requires that we should notice them. They are substances in the* liquid form, intended to be thrown up the rectum, with the view either of evacuating the bowels, of producing the peculiar impression of a remedy upon the lower portion of the alimentary canal and neighbouring organs, or of acting on the system generally through the medium of the surface to which they are applied. They are usually employed to assist the action of reme- dies, taken by the mouth, or to supply their place when the stomach rejects them, or is insensible to their impression. Sometimes they are preferably used when the'seat of the disorder is in the rectum or its vicinity. As a general rule, three times as much of any remedy is required to produce a given impression by enema, as when taken into the stomach; but this rule should be acted on with caution, as the relative susceptibilities of the sto- mach and rectum are not the same in all individuals; and, with regard to all very active remedies, the best plan is to administer less than the stated proportion. Attention should also be paid to the fact, that, by the frequent use of a medicine, the susceptibility of the stomach may be in some measure exhausted, without a proportionate diminution of that of the rectum. When the object is to evacuate the bowels, the quantity of liquid ad- ministered should be considerable. For an adult from ten fluidounces to a pint, for a child of eight or ten years, half that quantity, for an infant within the year, from one to three fluidounces, are about the proper propor- tions. Much larger quantities of mild liquids may sometimes be given with safety and advantage; as the bowels will occasionally feel the stimulus of distension, when insensible to irritating impressions. When the design is to produce the peculiar impression of the remedy PART II. Enemata. 923 upon the neighbouring parts or the system, it is usually desirable that the enema should be retained; and the vehicle should therefore be bland, and as small in quantity as is compatible with convenient administration. A so- lution of starch, flaxseed tea, or other mucilaginous fluid should be selected, and the quantity should seldom exceed two or three fluidounces. In every case, the patient should be instructed to resist any immediate disposition to discharge the injected fluid; and his efforts to retain it should be assisted, if necessary, by pressure with a warm folded towel upon the fundament. The best instrument for administering enemata is an accurate metallic syringe. W. ENEMA ALOES. Lond. Clyster of Aloes. "Take of Aloes two scruples; Carbonate of Potassa fifteen grains; De- coction of Barley half a pint [Imperial measure]. Mix and rub them together." Lond. This is intended as a formula for the use of aloes in cases of ascarides in the rectum, and of amenorrhoea attended with constipation. W. ENEMA CATHARTICUM. Ed., Dub. Cathartic Clyster. "Take of Manna an ounce. Dissolve it in ten fluidounces of Compound Decoction of Chamomile, and add of Olive Oil an ounce, Sulphate of Magnesia half an ounce." Dub. "Take of Olive oil one ounce; Sulphate of Magnesia half an ounce; Sugar one ounce; Senna half an ounce; Boiling Water sixteen fluidounces. Infuse the Senna for an hour in the Water; then dissolve the Salt and Sugar; add the Oil, and mix them by agitation." Ed. The laxative enema most commonly employed in this country, consists of a tablespoonful of common salt, two tablespoonfuls of lard or sweet oil, the same quantity of molasses, and a pint of warm water. It has the advan- tage of consisting of materials which are always at hand in families, is in all respects equal to the Dublin preparation, and, though less active than the Edinburgh, is preferable to it on ordinary occasions. Off. Prep. Enema Foetidum. Ed., Dub. W. ENEMA COLOCYNTHIDIS. Lond. Clyster of Colocynth. "Take of Compound Extract of Colocynth two scruples; Soft Soap an ounce; Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Mix and rub them together." Lond. This may be employed whenever a very powerful purgative impression is required upon the lower bowels, as in cases of obstinate colic and consti- pation. W. ENEMA FGETIDUM. Ed,, Dub. Fetid Clyster. " This is made by adding to the Cathartic Clyster two drachms of Tinc- ture of Assafetida." Dub., Ed. It is carminative and antispasmodic, as well as laxative; but, when the peculiar influence of assafetida is desired by way of enema, we prefer the gum-resin itself rubbed up with hot water, in the proportion of one or two drachms to half a pint, of which the whole or a part may be given according to circumstances. W. ENEMA OPII. Lond., Dub. Enema Opii vel Anodynum. Ed. Clyster of Opium. "Take of Decoction of Starch four fluidounces; Tincture of Opium thirty minims. Mix them." Lond. The Edinburgh College boils half a drachm of starch in two fluidounces of water, and when it is cool enough for use, adds from thirty minims to a fluidrachm of tincture of opium. 924 Enemata.—Extracta. PART II. The Dublin College mixes a fluidrachm of tincture of opium with six fluidounces of warm water. Of these processes that of the London College is preferable, although the quantity of decoction of starch is unnecessarily large. In the Dublin formula there is too much both of the tincture and the vehicle. It must have happened to every one in the habit of prescribing opium in this way, to have seen a much greater effect produced by a certain amount of lauda- num injected into the rectum than by one-third of the quantity swallowed. The fluidrachm contains at least one hundred drops of laudanum of the ordinary size, and not less than one hundred and twenty as they are often formed. From twenty to twenty-five drops are usually considered as a medium dose; so that the Dublin College orders five times as much by the rectum as is given by the mouth. Sixty drops, equivalent to about thirty minims, are abundantly sufficient. As the object is that the enema should remain in the rectum, the smaller the quantity of the vehicle the better; and a mucilaginous fluid is preferable to water, as it involves the tincture, and prevents the irritation of the alcohol before the opium begins to take effect. The ordinary anodyne enema, employed in this country, consists of about sixty drops of laudanum and one or two fluidounces of flaxseed tea or solu- tion of starch. This is an admirable remedy in obstinate vomiting, strangury from blisters, painful affections of the kidneys, bladder, and uterus, and in the tenesmus of dysentery. It may also frequently be employed to produce the effects of opium upon the system, when circumstances prevent the administration of this medicine by the mouth. W. ENEMA TEREBINTHINA. Lond., Ed., Dub. Clyster of Tur- pentine. " Take of Oil of Turpentine a fluidounce; Yolk of Egg a sufficient quantity. Rub them together, and add of Decoction of Barley nineteen fluidounces." Lond. The Edinburgh College employs the same proportions, but substitutes water for decoction of barley. " Take of Common Turpentine half an ounce; the Yolk of one Egg. Rub them together, and add gradually ten ounces of Water of a tempera- ture not exceeding 100°." Dub. As the common turpentine alluded to in the Dublin formula is not usually kept in the shops of this country, we almost always employ the oil of tur- pentine, which is even more efficacious, and in no respect inferior for the purpose. (See Oleum Terebinthinee.) W. EXTRACTA. Extracts. Extracts, as the term is employed in the U. S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, are solid substances, resulting from the evaporation of the solutions of vegetable principles, obtained either by exposing the vegetable to the action of a solvent, or by expressing its juice in the recent state. The Dublin College makes a distinction between those prepared from the infusions, decoctions, or tinctures, and those from the expressed juices of plants, calling the former Extracta, the latter Sued Spissati. But there is no such essential difference between these two sets of preparations, as to require that they should be separately classed; and something is gained in PART II. Extracta. 925 the simplicity of nomenclature, as well as of arrangement, which results from their union. We shall consider them under the same head, taking care, however, to detail distinctly whatever is peculiar in the mode of pre- paring each. The composition of extracts varies with the nature of the vegetable, the character of the solvent, and the mode of preparation. The object is gene- rally to obtain as much of the active principles of the plant, with as little of the inert matter as possible; though sometimes it may be desirable to sepa- rate the active ingredients from each other, when their effects upon the sys- tem are materially different; and this may be accomplished by employing a menstruum which, while it dissolves one, leaves the other untouched. The proximate principles most commonly present in extracts are gum, sugar, starch, tannin, extractive, colouring matter, salts, and the peculiar principles of plants ; to which, when a spirituous solvent is employed, may usually be added resinous substances, fatty matter, and frequently more or less essen- tial oil—gum and starch being excluded when the menstruum is pure alcohol. Of these substances, as well as of others which, being soluble, are some- times necessarily present in extracts, we have taken occasion to treat under various heads in the Materia Medica. There is one, however, which, from its supposed almost uniform presence in this class of preparations, and from the influence it is thought to exert upon their character, deserves particular consideration in this place. We allude to extractive, or, as it is sometimes called, extractive matter. It has long been observed, that in most vegetables there is a substance, soluble both in water and alcohol, which, in the preparation of extracts, undergoes some chemical change during the process of evaporation, impart- ing to the liquid, even if originally limpid, first a greenish, then a yellowish- brown, and ultimately a deep-brown colour, and becoming itself insoluble. This substance, originally called saponaceous matter by Scheele, afterwards received the more expressive'name of extractive, derived from its very fre- quent presence in extracts. Its existence as a distinct principle is denied, or at least doubted by some chemists, who consider the phenomena supposed to result from its presence, as depending upon the mutual reaction of other principles; and, in relation to Peruvian bark, it appears to have been proved, that the insoluble matter which forms during its decoction in water is a compound of starch and tannin. A similar compound must also be formed in other cases when these two principles co-exist; but they are not always present in the same vegetable, nor can all the changes which have been attri- buted to extractive, be accounted for by their union, even when they are present; so that till further light is shed on the subject, it is best to admit the existence of a distinct substance, which, though not the same in all plants, possesses sufficient identity of character to be entitled, like sugar, resin, &c, to a distinctive name. The most interesting property of extractive is its disposition to pass, by the influence of atmospheric air at a high temperature, into an insoluble substance. If a vegetable infusion or decoction be evapo- rated in the open air to the consistence of an extract, then diluted, filtered, and again evaporated, and the process repeated so long as any insoluble matter is formed, the whole of the extractive will be separated from the liquid, which will then contain only the gum, sugar, saline matters, &c, which may have existed in the plant. If chlorine be passed through an infusion or decoction, a similar precipitate is formed with much greater rapidity. The change is usually ascribed to the absorption of oxygen by the extractive, which has, therefore, been called,in its altered condition, oxidized extractive; 79 926 Extracta. PART II. butDe Saussure ascertained that, though oxygen is absorbed during the pro- cess, an equal measure of carbonic acid gas is given out, and the oxygen and hydrogen of the extractive unite to form water in such a manner as to leave the principle richer in carbon than it was originally. The name of oxidized extractive is, therefore, obviously incorrect, and Berzelius proposes to substi- tute for it that of apotheme, synonymous with deposit. According to Ber- zelius, apotheme is not completely insoluble in water, but imparts a slight colour to that liquid when cold, and is rather more soluble in boiling water, which becomes turbid upon cooling. It is still more soluble in alcohol, and is freely dissolved by solutions of the alkalies and alkaline carbonates, from which it is precipitated by acids. It has a great tendency, when precipi- tated from solutions, to unite with other principles, and to carry them along with it, thus acquiring properties somewhat different, according to the source from which it is obtained. In this way, also, even when the extractive of a plant is itself medicinally inert,its conversion into apotheme may be injurious by causing a precipitation of a portion of the active principle; and, in prac- tical pharmaceutic operations, this change should always, if possible, be avoided. With these preliminary views, we shall proceed to the considera- tion of the practical rules necessary to be observed in the preparation of extracts. We shall treat of the subject under the several heads, 1. of the ex- traction of the soluble principles from the plant; 2. of the method of conduct- ing the evaporation ; 3. of the proper condition of extracts, the changes they are liable to undergo, and the best method of preserving them; and 4. of the general directions of the several Pharmacopoeias in relation to them. 1. Extraction of the Soluble Principles. There are two distinct modes of obtaining, in a liquid state, the principles which we wish to extract; 1. by expression ; 2. by the agency of a solvent. 1. By expression. This method is applicable only to recent vegetables. All plants cannot be advantageously treated in this way, as many have too little juice to afford an appreciable quantity upon pressure, and of those which are succulent, a considerable portion do not yield all their active principles with their juice. Succulent fruits, and various acrid and narcotic plants, are proper subjects of this treatment. The plants should be ope- rated upon, if possible, immediately after their collection. Mr. Battley, of London, recommends that, if not entirely fresh, they should be revived by the immersion of the stalks in water for twelve or eighteen hours, and those only used which recover their freshness by this management. They should then be cut into pieces, and bruised in a stone mortar till brought to a pulpy consistence. When the plant is not very succulent, it is necessary to add a little water during this part of the process, in order to dilute the juice. After sufficient contusion, the pulp is introduced into a linen or canvass bag, and the liquid parts expressed. Mr. Brande states that light pressure only should be employed; as the extract is thus procured greener, of a less glutinous or viscid consistence, and, in his opinion, more active than when considerable force is used in the expression. (Manual of Pharmacy.) The juice thus obtained is opaque and usually green, in consequence of the presence of green wax or chlorophylle, and of a portion of the undissolved vegetable fibre in a slate of minute division. By heating the juice to about 160°, the albumen contained in it coagulates, and, involving the chlorophylle and vegetable fibre, forms a greenish precipitate. If the liquid be now fil- tered, it becomes limpid and nearly colourless, and is prepared for evapora- PART II. Extracta. 927 tion. The clarification, however, is not absolutely necessary, and is generally neglected. Sometimes the precipitate carries with it a considerable portion of the active principle ; in which case it should be subsequently incorporated with the juice, when reduced by evaporation to the consistence of a syrup. 2. By solution. The active principles of dried vegetables can be ex- tracted only by means of a liquid solvent. The menstruum employed is either water or alcohol, or a mixture of the two. Water, on account of its cheapness, is always preferred, when circumstances do not strongly call for the use of alcohol. It has the advantage, moreover, that it may be assisted in its action, if necessary, by a higher degree of heat than the latter. Pump water is often unfit for the purpose, in consequence of the quantity of its saline matter, which, in some instances, may exert an unfavourable influence on the active principle, and must always be left in the extract. Rain or river, or distilled water should be preferred. Alcohol is employed when the principles to be extracted are insoluble, or but slightly soluble in water, as in the case of the resins ; when it is desirable to avoid in the extract inert substances, such as gum and starch, which are dissolved by water and not by alcohol; when the heat required to evaporate the aqueous solution would dissipate or decompose the active ingredients of the plant, as the volatile oils and the active principle of sarsaparilla; when the reaction of the water itself upon the vegetable principles is injurious, as sometimes happens; and finally, when the nature of the substance to be exhausted requires so longa maceration in water as to endanger spontaneous decomposition. The watery solution requires to be soon evaporated, as this fluid rather promotes than counteracts chemical changes; while an alcoholic tincture may be preserved unaltered for an indefinite period. An addition of alcohol to water is suffi- cient to answer some of the purposes for which the former is preferable ; and the employment of both fluids is essential, when the virtues of the plant reside in two or more principles, all of which are not soluble in either of these menstrua. In this case it is usually better to submit the vegetable to the action of the two fluids successively, than to both united. Extracts obtained by the agency of water, are called watery or aqueous extracts, those by means of alcohol, undiluted or diluted, alcoholic or spirituous extracts. The method of preparing the solution is by no means a matter of indif- ference. The vegetable should be thoroughly bruised, or reduced to the state of coarse powder, so as to allow the access of the solvent to all its parts, and yet not so finely pulverized as to prevent a ready precipitation of the undissolved and inactive portion. When water is employed, it is cus- tomary to boil the medicine for a considerable length of time, and, if the first portion of liquid does not completely exhaust it, to repeat the operation with successive portions, till the whole of the active matter is extracted. This may be known by the sensible properties of the liquid, and by its influence upon reagents. But the boiling temperature produces the decomposition of many vegetable principles, or at least so modifies them as to render them inert; and the extracts prepared by decoction are usually less efficient than those pre- pared with a less degree of heat. From numerous experiments upon extracts, Orfila concluded that their virtues were less in proportion lo the heat used in their preparation. It, has, therefore, been recommended to substitute for decoction the process of maceration, digestion, or hot infusion; in the first of which the liquid acts without heat, in the second is assisted by a moderately increased temperature sustained for a considerable time, and in the third is poured boiling hot upon the vegetable matter,and allowed to stand for a short period in a covered vessel. When the active principles are readily soluble 928 Extracta. PART II. in cold water, maceration is often preferable to the other modes, as starch, which is inert, is thus left behind; but in many instances the preparation would spoil before the extraction would be completed. By digestion, though the solvent power of water is moderately increased, the advantage is often more than counterbalanced by the increased disposition to spontaneous decom- position. Hot infusion, therefore, is to be preferred where the vegetable does not readily yield its virtues to cold water. It has the advantage, moreover, in the case of albuminous substances, that the albumen is coagulated, and thus prevented from increasing the bulk of the extract, without any addition to its virtues. A convenient mode of performing this process, is to introduce the solid material into a vessel with an opening near the bottom temporarily closed, or into a funnel with its mouth loosely stopped, then to pour on the boiling water, and, having allowed it to remain a sufficient length of time, to draw it off through the opening. This operation may be repeated till the water comes away without any obvious impregnation. It is alvvays desirable to obtain the solution in the first place as concentrated as possible, so as to prevent the necessity of long continued evaporation, which has a tendency to injure the extract. It is better, therefore, to incur the risk, both where decoction and infusion are employed, of leaving a portion of the active matter behind, than to obtain a very weak solution. When successive portions of water are employed, those which are least impregnated should be brought by evaporation to the strength of that first obtained before being mixed with it, as the latter thus escapes exposure to unnecessary heat. When alcohol is employed as a menstruum, the vegetable should be ma- cerated in it for one or two weeks, and care should be taken that the tincture be as nearly saturated as possible. The extraction may be hastened by sub- stituting digestion for maceration; as the moderate heat employed, while it facilitates the action of the alcohol, has in this case no effect in promoting decomposition, and the influence of the atmospheric air may be excluded by performing the process in close vessels. When alcohol and water are both used, it is best, as a general rule, to exhaust the vegetable with each separately, as the two menstrua require different modes of treatment. In whichever of these modes the extraction is effected, it requires the assistance of occasional agitation ; and, when the vegetable matter is very porous, and absorbs large quantities of the solvent, expression must be resorted to. Acetic acid has recently been introduced into use as a menstruum in the preparation of extracts. It is supposed to be a better solvent of the active principles of certain substances than either water or alcohol alone. Accord- ing to Girolamo Ferrari, the acrid narcotics, such as aconite, hemlock, hyos- cyamus, and stramonium, yield much stronger extracts with distilled vinegar than with water, and still stronger to alcohol to which strong acetic acid has been added. (Journ. de Pharm., Se ser., i. 239.) This acid is used in the preparation of the acetic extract of colchicum of the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias. The process of displacement has within a few years been very advan- tageously applied to the preparation of extracts, both with water and spirit- uous menstrua. It has the following great advantages; 1. that it enables the soluble principles to be sufficiently extracted by cold water, thereby avoiding the injury resulting from heat in decoction and hot infusion; 2. that it effects the extraction much more quickly than can be done by maceration, thereby not o"nly saving time, but also obviating the risk of spontaneous decomposi- tion; and 3. that it affords the opportunity of obtaining highly concentrated solutions, thus diminishing all the injurious effects of the subsequent evapora- PART II. Extracta. 929 tion. While thus advantageous, it is less liable in this particular case than in others to the objection of yielding imperfect results if not well performed ; for, though an inexpert or careless operator may incur loss by an incomplete exhaustion of the substance acted on, and the extract may be deficient in quantity, it may still be of the intended strength and quality, which is not the case with infusions or tinctures unskilfully prepared upon this plan. For an account of the mode of operating in the process of displacement, and of the instruments used, the reader is referred to pages 763 and 769. Some prefer the mode of expression to that of displacement. This also is applicable both to watery and alcoholic menstrua. The substance to be acted upon is mixed with the menstruum, cold or hot according to circum- stances ; and the mixture is allowed to stand from twelve to twenty-four hours. The liquid part is then filtered off, and the remainder submitted to strong pressure, in a linen bag, by means of the common screw press, or other convenient instrument. Another portion of the menstruum may then be added, and pressure again applied; and, if the substance is not sufficiently exhausted, the same operation may be performed a third time. Frequently only a single expression is required, and very seldom a third. The quan- tity of menstruum added must vary with the solubility of the principles to be extracted. According to Mohr, the method of expression has the advan- tage over'that of displacement, that it yields solutions of more uniform con- centration, that it does not require the material to be so carefully powdered or otherwise so skilfully managed in order to insure favourable results, and finally that it occupies less time. (Annal. der Pharm., xxi. 299.) 2. Mode of conducting the Evaporation. In evaporating the solutions obtained in the modes above described, at- tention should always be paid to the fact, that the extractive matter is con- stantly becoming insoluble at high temperatures with the access of air, and that other chemical changes are going on, sometimes not less injurious than this, while the volatile principles are expelled with the vapour. The ope- rator should, therefore, observe two rules; 1. to conduct the evaporation at as low a temperature as is consistent with other objects; 2. to exclude at- mospheric air as much as possible, and, when this cannot be accomplished, to expose the liquid the shortest possible time to its action. According to Berzelius, the injurious influence of atmospheric air is much greater at the boiling point of water than at a less heat, even allowing for the longer exposure in the latter case ; and, therefore, a slow evaporation at a mode- rate heat is preferable to the more rapid effects of ebullition. Bearing these principles in mind, we shall proceed to examine the different modes in practice. First, however, it is proper to observe, that decoctions generally let fall upon cooling a portion of insoluble matter; and it is a question whether this should be rejected, or retained so as to form a part of the extract. Though it is undoubtedly in many instances inert, as in that of the insoluble tannate of starch formed during the decoction of certain vegetable substances, yet, as it frequently also contains a portion of the active principle which a boil- ing saturated solution necessarily deposits on cooling, and, as it is difficult to decide with certainty when it is active and when otherwise, the safest plan, as a general rule, is to allow it to remain. The method of evaporation usually resorted to in the case of the aqueous solutions is rapid boiling over a fire. The more quickly the process is con- ducted the better, provided the liquid is to be brought to the boiling point; 79* 930 Extracta. part h. for the temperature cannot exceed this, and the length of exposure is dimi- nished. But even where this method is employed, it should not be continued till the completion of the evaporation ; for, when most of the water has es- caped, the temperature can no longer be kept down to the boiling point, and the extract is burnt. The caution, therefore, should always be observed of removing the preparation from the fire, before it has attained the consist- ence of thick syrup, and completing the evaporation either by means of a water-bath, or in shallow vessels at a moderate heat. When large quantities of liquid are to be evaporated, it js best to divide them into portions, and evaporate each separately ; for, as each portion requires less time for evapo- ration than the whole, it will thus be a shorter time exposed to heat. (Mohr.) But the mode of evaporation by boiling is always more or less objectionable, and should be employed only in cases where the principles of the plant are so fixed and unchangeable as to authorize their extraction by decoction. Evaporation by means of the water-bath, from the commencement of the process, is safer than the plan just mentioned, as it obviates all danger of burning the extract; but as the heat is not supplied directly from the fire, the volatilization of the water cannot go on so rapidly, and the temperature being the same, or very nearly so, when the water-bath is kept boiling, there is greater risk of injurious action from the air. The use of the vapour-bath, as suggested by M. Henry, is perhaps preferable; as it requires a smaller consumption of fuel, and the heat imparted to the liquid, while sufficient to evaporate it, is less than 212°. We take the following description of the apparatus employed at the Central Pharmacy of Paris, from M. Chevallier's highly useful Manual. It consists of a covered boiler, containing water, the vapour of which is conducted through a pipe into evaporating vessels, com- municating with each other by means of metallic tubes. These vessels have the form of an ordinary copper basin, over the top of which is soldered a shallow tin capsule, intended to contain the liquor to be evaporated. The vapour from the boiler circulates through these vessels, and the water into which it condenses is allowed to escape through a stop-cock attached to the bottom of each vessel. From the last one of the series a tube passes into a vessel of water; so as to afford a slight pressure against the escape of any excess of vapour. The liquid to be evaporated is first distributed in two or three capsules, but when considerably concentrated is transferred to a single one, where it is stirred towards the close of the process to hasten the evaporation. The heat applied to the liquid, if there are four vessels, is in that nearest the boiler about 198° F., in the fourth or most remote, about 135°. An incidental advantage of this apparatus is, that it affords a large supply of distilled water, which may be used for extracting the active mat- ter from fresh portions of the vegetable, or for other purposes. A good plan of evaporation, though slow, is to place the liquid in a broad shallow vessel, exposed in a stove or drying room to a temperature of about 100°, or a little higher, taking care that the air have free access in order to facilitate the evaporation. This mode is particularly applicable to all those cases in which maceration or infusion is preferred to decoction for extract- ing the active principles. Berzelius says that we may thus usually obtain the extract in the form of a yellowish transparent mass, while those pre- pared in the ordinary way are almost black, and are opaque even in very thin layers. Even when the liquid is boiled at first, the process may often be advantageously completed in this manner. It has been proposed to eflect the evaporation at the common temperature, by directing a strong current of air, by means of a pair of smiths' bellows, over the surface of the liquid; PART II. Extracta. 931 and in the case of those substances which ai'fe injured by heat and not by the action of atmospheric air, there is no doubt that the plan would be found useful. Plans have been proposed and carried into execution for performing evaporation without the admission of atmospheric air. The apparatus for evaporation in vacuo invented by Mr. Barry, and described in the Lond. Journ. of Science and Arts, vol. viii. p. 360, is well calculated to meet this object, at the same time that, by removing the atmospheric pressure, it enables the water to rise in vapour more rapidly, and at a comparatively low temperature. The method of Barry consists in distilling the liquid into a large receiver from which the air has been expelled by steam, and in which the vapour is condensed by cold water applied to the surface of the receiver, so as to maintain a partial vacuum. Mr. Redwood has modified this process by keeping an air-pump in action during the evaporation, thus removing not only the air, but the vapour as fast as it forms, and maintain- ing a more complete vacuum than can be done by the condensation of the vapour alone. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., i. 231.) Another method is to place the liquid under an exhausted receiver, together with some concentrated sulphuric acid, or chloride of calcium, which, by its affinity for water, assists the evaporation of the liquid. But, from the expense and trouble of these modes of evaporation, they are not calculated for general use. Dr. Chris- tison recommends as probably the most perfect and convenient method, especially with watery infusions and decoctions, to evaporate the fluid in a vacuum to the consis'ence of syrup, and then to complete the process in shallow vessels, exposed to a current of air without heat. A more convenient plan of excluding the air, though it does not at the same time meet the object of reducing the requisite degree of heat, is to distil off the water in close vessels. Berzelius says that this is the best mode of concentration next to that in vacuo. Care, however, must be taken that the fire be not too long applied, lest the extract should be burnt. The process should, therefore, be completed by means of the water-bath. In the concentration of alcoholic solutions, distillation should always be performed; as not only is the atmospheric air thus excluded, but the alcohol is recovered, if not absolutely pure, certainly fit for the purpose to which it was originally applied. Here also the water-bath should be employed, to obviate any possible risk of injury from the fire. When the decoction or in- fusion, and tincture of the same vegetable have been made separately, they should be separately evaporated to the consistence of syrup, and then mixed together, while they are of such a consistence as to incorporate without difficulty. The object of this separate evaporation is, that the spirituous extract may not be exposed to the degree of heat, or lengthened action of the air, which is necessary in the ordinary mode of concentrating the infu- sion or decoction. In every instance, care should be taken to prevent any portion of the ex- tract from becoming dry and hard on the sides of the evaporating vessel, as in this state it will not readily incorporate with the remaining mass. The heat, therefore, should be applied to the bottom, and not to the sides of the vessel. 3. Condition and Preservation of Extracts. Extracts are prepared of two different degrees of consistence; soft so that they may be readily made into pills, and hard that they may be pulverized. Those obtained from the expressed juices of plants are apt to attract mois- 932 Extracta. part ii. f.ure from the air, in consequence of the deliquescent nature of the salts existing in the juice. They are thus rendered softer, and more liable to become mouldy upon the surface. Others, especially such as contain much chlorophylle, harden by time, in consequence of the escape of their mois- ture; and it not unfrequently happens that small crystals of saline matter are formed in their substance. Most extracts, especially those containing azo- tized principles, are capable, when left to themselves, of producing nitrates. The air, moreover, exercises an unfavourable chemical influence over the softer extracts, which are enfeebled, and ultimately become nearly inert, by the same changes which they undergo more rapidly in the liquid state at an elevated temperature. If an extract be dissolved in water, and the liquid be saturated with common salt, or any other very soluble salt of difficult decomposition, the greater part of it is precipitated, in consequence of the insolubility of this class of substances in saline solutions. The precipitate may be again dissolved in pure water. (Berzelius.) Extracts, in order that they may keep well, should be placed in glazed earthenware, glass, or porcelain jars, and completely protected from the access of the air. This may be effected by covering their surface with a layer of melted wax, or with a piece of paper moistened with strong spirit, then closing the mouth of the vessel with a cork, spreading wax or rosin over this, and covering the whole with leather, or a piece of bladder. (Dun- can.) The dry extracts, being less liable to be affected by atmospheric oxygen, do not require so much care. The application of alcohol to the surface has a tendency to prevent mouldiness. A method of protecting extracts from the action of the air frequently resorted to, is to cover them closely with oiled bladder; but this, though better than to leave them unco- vered, is not entirely effectual. Should the extract become too moist, it may be dried by means of a water-bath; should it, on the contrary, be too dry, the proper consistence may be restored by softening it in the same manner, and incorporating with it a little distilled water. (Chevallier.) Extracts from recent plants should always be prepared at the season when the plant is medicinally most active ; and a good rule is to prepare them once a year. 4. General Officinal Directions. " In the preparation of the Extracts, evaporate the moisture, as quickly as possible, in a broad, shallow dish, by means of a water-bath, until they have acquired the consistence proper for forming pills ; and towards the end of the process, stir them constantly with a spatula. Sprinkle upon the softer Extracts a small quantity of Alcohol [Rectified Spirit, Lond.]." U. S., Lond. " Extracts are usually prepared by evaporating the expressed juices of plants, or their infusions and decoctions in water, proof spirit, or rectified spirit, at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. by means of a vapour-bath. Most of them, however, may be obtained of greatly superior quality by the process of evaporation in vacuo. And the extracts of expressed juices can- not, perhaps, be better prepared than by spontaneous evaporation in shallow vessels, exposed to a current of air. Extracts should be evaporated to such a consistence as to form a pill-mass when cold." Ed. The Dublin College places the inspissated juices under a distinct head, and gives directions for the watery extracts under the title of Extracta Sim- pliciora, omitting, probably through inadvertence, the classification of the spirituous extracts which it also orders. PART II. Extracta. 933 1. Succi Spissali. "The leaves used in the preparation of the inspis- sated juices should be gathered about the period when the herb begins to flower. The inspissation is best effected by evaporating the superfluous moisture with a medium heat by means of a vapour-bath, and constantly stirring with a spatula towards the close of the process." Dub. 2. Extracta Simpliciora. " All simple extracts, unless otherwise ordered, are to be prepared according to the following rule. Boil the vegetable mat- ter in eight times its weight of water, till the liquid is reduced one-half; then express, and after the subsidence of the dregs filter; evaporate the liquor with a superior heat (between 200° and 212°) until it begins to thicken; finally, inspissate it with a medium heat (between 100° and 200°) obtained by a vapour-bath, frequently stirring, till it acquires the consist- ence proper for the formation of pills." Dub. W. EXTRACTUM ACONITI. U.S., Lond., Ed. Succus Spissatus Aconiti. Dub. Extract of Aconite. This is prepared, according to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, from fresh Aco- nite, in the manner directed for extract of stramonium leaves. (See Extrac- tum Stramonii Foliorum.) "Take of fresh Aconite Leaves a pound. Bruise them in a stone mortar, sprinkling upon them a little water; then express the juice, and evaporate it, without'straining, to the proper consistence." Lond., Dub. "Take of the Leaves of Monkshood, fresh, any convenient quantity. Beat them into a pulp; express the juice; subject the residuum to perco- lation with Rectified Spirit, so long as the Spirit passes materially coloured; unite the expressed juice and the spirituous infusion; filter; distil off the spirit; and evaporate the residuum in the vapour-bath, taking care to remove the vessel from the heat so soon as the due degree of consistence shall be attained." Ed. The U.S., London, and Dublin processes for this extract are the same; all consisting in the evaporation of the expressed juice of the leaves. The reader will find the general officinal directions at the close of our introduc- tory observations in relation to extracts. Among these observations, he will also find rules which may be of practical use in regulating the various steps of the process under consideration. In relation to the preparation of this extract, as well as of all others de- rived from the expressed juices of narcotic plants, the following summary of the plan pursued by Mr. Battley, an experienced apothecary of London, may be of service. Having passed the expressed juice through a fine hair sieve, he places it immediately upon the fire. Before it boils, a quantity of green matter rises to the surface, which in some plants is very abundant. This is removed by a perforated tin dish, and preserved. It ceases to ap- pear soon after the liquid begins to boil. The boiling is continued till rather more than half the fluid has been evaporated, when the decoction is poured into a conical pan and allowed to cool. An abundant dark-green precipitate forms, from which the supernatant liquid is poured off, and, having been reduced one-half by a second boiling, is again allowed to s'tand.' The precipitate which now falls is less green than the first. The remaining fluid is once more placed over the fire, and allowed to boil till it assumes the consistence of syrup, when it is removed. The matter at first collected by filtration, together with that precipitated, is now incorporated with it, and the whole placed in a metallic pan, and by means of a water-bath evaporated to the consistence of an extract. In the latter part of the pro- cess, care is necessary to prevent any part of the extract from hardening 934 Extracta. PART II. on the sides of the vessel, as it thus loses its fine-green colour and becomes proportionably feeble. The superiority of this plan over a continuous boiling is, that the portions of active matter which are deposited at different stages of the process, are subjected for a shorter time to heat than if allowed to remain in the liquor, and are consequently less deteriorated. The matter which coagulates before the fluid boils is chiefly albumen, embracing portions of chlorophylle and of the undissolved vegetable fibre. It might probably be thrown away without diminishing the virtues of the extract; but as chlorophylle, though itself inactive, has often associated with it a portion of the active principle, it is the most economical plan to incorporate it with the other matters. Air. Brande states, that one cwt. of fresh aconite yields about five pounds of extract. According to Geiger, one pound yields an ounce and a half. The Edinburgh process, which was adopted from the Prussian Pharma- copoeia, first expresses the leaves, then digests the residue in alcohol, and evaporates the two liquids together. This is an improvement on the other process; as the residue of the leaves after the expression of the juice is still very acrid. But the evaporation of the expressed juice and that of the tincture should be carried on separately to the consistence of a syrup; since, by the present plan, the active matter of both liquids is exposed to heat during the time necessary for the evaporation of the whole. When properly prepared by means of a water-bath, according to the U.S. and London process, which is that of Storck, this extract has a yel- lowish-brown colour, with a disagreeable narcotic odour, and the acrid taste of the plant. Prepared according to the Endinburgh process, it is said to be more acrid and more active as a medicine. The extract of aco- nite may be given in the dose of one or two grains, night and morning, to be gradually increased till the system is affected. Twenty grains or more have been given in the course of a day. Dr. Turnbull states, that he has tried several extracts of aconite made by evaporating the expressed juice, and found them almost inert. W. EXTRACTUM ACONITI ALCOHOLICUM. U. S. Alcoholic Ex- tract of Aconite. " Take of Aconite, in coarse powder a pound; Diluted Alcohol four pints. Moisten the Aconite with half a pint of the Diluted Alcohol, and, having allowed it to stand for twenty-four hours, transfer it to an apparatus for dis- placement, and add gradually the remainder of the Diluted Alcohol. When the last portion of this shall have penetrated the Aconite, pour in sufficient water from time to time to keep the powder covered. Cease to filter when the liquid which passes begins to produce a precipitate, as it falls, in that which has already passed. Distil off the Alcohol from the filtered liquor, and evaporate the residue to the proper consistence." U. S. This is essentially the process of the French Codex. The water added is merely intended to expel that portion of the spirituous solution remaining in the aconite; and the filtration is directed .to cease when a precipitate begins to appear, because this is an indication that the water is passing. It is important that the heat employed in the evaporation should not be greater than that produced by a vapour-bath, as otherwise decomposition will be apt to ensue. If made from recently dried leaves, which have not yet been impaired by time, this is a good preparation of aconite, and is believed to be more powerful, and to keep better, than the inspissated juice. The dose is half a grain or grain, to be gradually increased if necessary. PART II. Extracta. 935 An alcoholic extract prepared from the root is said to be stronger, and may be given in the dose of one-sixth or one-quarter of a grain three times a day, to be gradually increased until its effects are experienced. W. EXTRACTUM ALOES PURIFICATUM. Lond. Extractum Aloes Hepatic^. Dub. Purified Extract of Aloes. "Take of Aloes, in powder, fifteen ounces; Boiling Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Macerate for three days with a gentle heat; then strain the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside. Pour off the clear liquor, and evaporate it to a proper consistence." Lond. The Dublin College prepares this extract according to the general direc- tion's. (See page 933.) The object of this process is to separate from aloes the resinous matter, the apotheme of Berzelius, which is supposed to irritate the bowels, without possessing purgative properties; but the truth appears to be, that, when de- prived of a small proportion of adhering extractive, this matter is quite inert. It cannot, therefore, injuriously affect the virtues of the medicine; and, as it exists in comparatively small proportion, and during the process a part of the extractive becomes insoluble, the preparation may be considered as at best unnecessary. The dose of the purified aloes is from five to fifteen grains. Off. Prep. Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum, Lond. W. EXTRACTUM ANTHEMIDIS. Ed. Extractum Cham^meli. Dub. Extract of Chamomile. "Take of Chamomile [dried flowers] a pound. Boil it with a gallon [Imperial measure] of Water down to four pints; filter the liquor hot; evaporate in the vapour-bath to the proper consistence." Ed. The Dublin College prepares this extract according to the general pro- cess for simple, extracts. (See page 933.) According to Mr. Brande, one cwt. of dried chamomile flowers affords upon an average 48 pounds of extract. This extract has a deep-brown colour, and the bitter taste of chamomile, but is wholly destitute of aroma, the volatile oil having been entirely driven off during the process. It does not, therefore, possess the peculiar virtues of the flowers; but is simply a mild bitter, which may sometimes be ad- vantageously combined with laxatives and mineral tonics in debilitated states of the digestive organs. Ail the effects of the flowers may be ob- tained from it by adding a little of the oil of chamomile. It is most used, however, as a vehicle for other tonics in the pilular form. It has been omitted in the last edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. An extract may be prepared, having the peculiar flavour as well as bitterness of chamomile, by macerating the flowers in water, and evaporating the infusion in vacuo. W. EXTRACTUM ARTEMISIA ABSINTHII. Dub. Extract of Wormwood. This extract, which is directed only by the Dublin College, is prepared from the tops of Wormwood according to the general formula of that Col- lege for simple extracts. (See page 933.) It retains, to a certain extent, the bitterness of the plant, without the strong odour and peculiar taste de- pendent on the volatile oil, which is driven off by the boiling. It is, how- ever, in no respect superior toother bitter extracts, and is very seldom used. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. W. 936 Extracta. PART II. EXTRACTUM BELLADONNA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Succus Spis- satus Belladonna. Dub. Extract of Belladonna. This is prepared from the fresh leaves of the Atropa Belladonna in the manner directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia for extract of stramonium leaves (see Extractum Stramonii Foliorum); and by the London and Dublin for extract of aconite (see Extractum Aconiti). " Take of Belladonna, fresh, any convenient quantity. Bruise it in a marble mortar into a uniform pulp; express the juice; moisten the residuum with water, and express again. Unite the expressed fluids, filter them, and evaporate the filtered liquid in the vapour-bath to the consistence of firm extract, stirring constantly towards the close." Ed. From the experiments of MM. Solon and Soubeiran, it appears that, in relation to this extract, the insoluble matter separated from the expressed juice by filtering, and that coagulated by heat, are nearly if not quite inert; so that advantage might result from clarifying the juice by these means be- fore evaporating it. (See General Observations on Extracts, p. 927.) Mr. Brande slates that one cwt. of fresh belladonna yields from 1 to 6 pounds of extract. According to M. Recluz, nearly ten parts may be obtained from one hundred. The extract employed in this country is brought chiefly from England. It has usually a dark-brown colour, a slightly narcotic not unpleasant odour, a bitterish taste, and a soft consistence which it long re- tains. Asparagin has been found in this extract. (Journ. de Pharm. xxi. 178). Its medical properties and uses have been detailed under the head of Bel- ladonna. A few words in relation to its mode of application may be proper here. For the dilatation of the pupil, it is either mixed with water to the consistence of cream and rubbed on the brow and eyelids, or dissolved in water and dropped into the eye. In rigidity of the os uteri, it is applied at intervals to the neck of the uterus, mixed with simple ointment in the pro- portion of two drachms to an ounce. In irritability of the bladder, chor- dee, spasm of the urethra, and painful constriction of the rectum, it may either be rubbed in the form of ointment upon the perineum, along the urethra, &c, or may be used in the form of enema; but care is requisite not to introduce it too freely into the bowel. It is sometimes smeared upon the bougie, mixed with oil, in the treatment of stricture of the urethra. In the form of ointment it has been beneficially employed in phymosis and paraphymosis, and in that of plaster or ointment, in local pains of a neural- gic or rheumatic character. (See Emplastrum Belladonnae.) The dose of the extract is uncertain on account of its variable strength. The best plan is to begin with one-quarter or one-half of a grain, repeated two or three times a day, and gradually to increase the dose till the effects of the medi- cine are experienced. To a child two years old not more than one-twelfth of a grain should be administered at first. Off. Prep. Emplastrum Belladonnas, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. EXTRACTUM BELLADONNA ALCOHOLICUM. V. S. Alco- holic Extract of Belladonna. This is directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia to be prepared from Bella- donna, in coarse powder, in the same manner as the alcoholic extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti Alcoholicum.) It is a good preparation, though less necessary than some other spirituous extracts of the narcotic plants; as the inspissated juice or common extract of belladonna can gene- rally be procured of good quality. It is one of the officinals of the French Codex. The dose to begin with is half a grain or a grain. W. PART II. Extracta. 937 EXTRACTUM CINCHONA. U.S., Ed., Dub. Extractum Cinchona Cordifolia. Extractum Cinchona Lancifolia. Ex- tractum Cinchona Oblongifolia. Lond. Extract of Peruvian Bark. " Take of Peruvian Bark, in coarse powder, a pound; Alcohol four pints; Water a sufficient quantity. Macerate the Peruvian Bark with the Alcohol for four days; then filter by means of an apparatus for displace- ment, and when the liquid ceases to pass, pour gradually upon the Bark sufficient Water to keep its surface covered. When the filtered tincture measures four pints, set it aside, and proceed with the filtration until six pints of infusion are obtained. Distil off the alcohol from the tincture, and evaporate the infusion, till the liquids respectively are brought to the con- sistence of thin honey; then mix them, and evaporate so as to form an extract." U.S. " Take of Cinchona Cordifolia, bruised, fifteen ounces; Distilled Water four gallons [Imperial measure]. Boil down with a gallon of Water to six pints, and strain the liquor while hot. In the same manner boil down with an equal measure of Water four times, and strain. Lastly, having mixed all the liquors together, evaporate them to the proper consistence. Prepare the Extract of Cinchona Lancifolia, and Cinchona Oblongifolia, in the same manner as that of Cinchona Cordifolia." Lond. " Take of any of the varieties of Cinchona, but especially the Yellow or Red Cinchona, in fine powder, four ounces; Proof Spirit twenty-four fluidounces. Percolate the Cinchona with the Spirit; distil off the greater part of the spirit; and evaporate what remains in an open vessel over the vapour-bath to a due consistence." Ed. The Dublin College takes a pound of coarsely powdered pale bark and six pints of water; boils for fifteen minutes in a loosely covered vessel, and filters the decoction while hot; boils the residue again in an equal quantity of water, and filters as before; repeats the boiling and filtration in like man- ner a third time; then mixes the decoctions, and evaporates them to a proper consistence. The College also directs that the extract should be kept soft, so as to be fit for forming pills, and hard, that it may be pulverized. Of the different officinal extracts of bark for which directions are given above, we decidedly prefer that of the United States or Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia. The extract of the London and Dublin Colleges is an injudicious preparation. In the first place, the water does not nearly exhaust the bark, and in the second, the boiling favours the formation of an insoluble com- pound of starch and tannin, which carries with it a portion of the alkaline principles, and, though retained in the extract, is probably less efficient as a medicine than a more soluble compound containing an equal proportion of the active matter. According to the suggestion of M. Henry, Jun., it is not improbable that the different colouring matters in the bark act in relation to the quinia and cinchonia the part of an acid, sharing at a high temperature these bases with the kinic acid, and forming with them insoluble if not inert compounds. Besides, we cannot by any means-be certain that a long con- tinued heat of 212° may not determine an actual decomposition of a portion of these alkalies, and the formation of new principles. It is very desirable that the evaporation, in the preparation of this extract, should be effected at a low temperature. A very good extract of bark was formerly prepared, in the shops of Phi- ladelphia, by macerating cinchona for a considerable length of time in a large proportion of water, and slowly evaporating the infusion, by a very 80 938 Extracta. PART II. moderate heat, in large shallow dishes placed upon the top of a stove. Be- fore the use of the sulphate of quinia had superseded that of most other preparations of bark, we employed this extract with success in the treatment of intermittents, and found ten grains of it equivalent to nearly a drachm of the powdered cinchona. According to Mr. Brande, one cwt. of fine crown bark (best pale bark) yields on an average 28 pounds of watery extract, and 25 pounds of alco- holic extract. It is best that the bark should be only coarsely powdered when submitted to decoction or maceration; as in this state it is sufficiently penetrable by the solvent, and more readily separated after being exhausted. The extract should always be brought to the hard dry state in which it may be pulverized ; as it is thus less apt to be injured by exposure, and in the state of powder may be more uniformly incorporated with other substances. It is best prepared from the yellow (Calisaya) or the red bark. Medical Uses. The extract of Peruvian bark is at present much less employed than before the discovery of quinia. It is still, however, occa- sionally prescribed as a tonic in combination with other medicines; and as it possesses, when properly prepared with a spirituous menstruum, almost all the active principles as they exist in the bark itself, it may be used in preference to the sulphate of quinia, whenever it is supposed that the latter is incapable of exerting all the curative influence of cinchona. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, equivalent to about a drachm of the powdered bark. W. EXTRACTUM COLCHICI ACETICUM. Lond., Ed. Acetic Extract of Colchicum. " Take of fresh Colchicum Cormus [bulb] a pound; Acetic Acid three fluidounces. Bruise the Cormus, gradually sprinkling in the Acetic Acid ; then express the juice, and evaporate it, in an earthen vessel not glazed with lead, to the proper consistence." Lond. "Take of Bulb of Colchicum a pound; Pyroligneous Acid three fluid- ounces. Beat the Colchicum to a pulp, gradually adding the acid; express the liquor, and evaporate it in a porcelain vessel (not glazed with lead) over the vapour-bath to the due consistence." Ed. The use of the acetic acid in this preparation, is to render more soluble the alkaline principle upon which the virtues of meadow-saffron are thought to depend. The acetic extract of colchicum is highly commended by Sir C. Scudamore, who, however, prefers it made by evaporating, to the con- sistence of honey, a saturated acetic infusion of the dried bulb. (Lond. Med. Gazette, Dec. 10, 1841.) The dose of the extract is one or two grains, to be repeated two or three times a day, and increased if necessary. W. EXTRACTUM COLCHICI CORMI. Lond. Extract of Colchicum Cormus. This is prepared in the manner directed for Extract of Aconite. There scarcely seems to be occasion for both this and the preceding ex- tract of meadow-saffron bulb. Neither of them can be generally prepared in this country, as the fresh bulb is scarce. The dose is one or two grains. In Great Britain a preparation called preserved juice of colchicum is given in the dose of five minims, or more. It is prepared by expressing the fresh bulb, allowing it to stand for forty-eight hours, so that the feculent matter may be deposited, then adding one-quarter of its bulk of alcohol, allowing it again to stand for a short period, and ultimately filtering. PART II. Extracta. 939 EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS. Lond., Ed. Extractum Col- ocynthidis simplex. Dub. Extract of Colocynth. "Take of Colocynth, sliced, a pound; Distilled Water two gallons [Im- perial measure]. Mix them and boil with a slow fire for six hours, occa- sionally adding Distilled Water, so that it may always fill the same measure. Strain the liquor while hot; and, lastly, evaporate to the proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh process corresponds closely with the London. "Take of Pulp of Colocynth a pound; Water a gallon. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot; then evaporate it to a proper consistence." Dub. In the formula of the Dublin College, the proportion of colocynth is too large, if the pulp only, without the seeds, is intended; as, in consequence of the porous nature of the medullary matter, it absorbs nearly the whole of the water, and almost precludes the possibility of boiling as directed. Dr. Duncan found half a pound of Colocynth to contain 2770 grains of seeds, which, boiled by themselves, yielded almost nothing to water, and 800 grains of pith, which was easily boiled in four pounds of water, but absorbed almost the whole of it. The decoction, when expressed, although it con- tains no starch, gelatinized on cooling. By boiling the residuum in four pounds of fresh water, he obtained a decoction, which, mixed with that pre- viously obtained, yielded upon evaporation 360 grains of a pale-brown, semi-transparent, dry, elastic extract, of intense bitterness. The decoction is ordered to be strained while hot, because the gelatinous consistence which it assumes on cooling prevents it from readily passing through the strainer. The French Codex directs, instead of the decoction, an infusion prepared by maceration in cold water. But the aqueous extract of colocynth, however made, is not an eligible preparation ; as water is not the best solvent of the active bitter principle, while it takes up much inert matter, so that the officinal extract is even feebler than colocynth itself, without having any peculiar merit to recommend it. Besides, according to Mr. Brande, it is invariably either mouldy, or so tough and hard as to resist trituration and formation into pills. It has noplace in our national Pharma- copoeia, and is little used. The dose is from five grains to half a drachm. W. EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITUM. U. S., Lond., Dub. Compound Extract of Colocynth. "Take of Colocynth, deprived of the seeds and sliced, six ounces; Aloes, in powder, twelve ounces; Scammony, in powder, four ounces; Cardamom, in powder, an ounce; Soap [Castile] three ounces; Diluted Alcohol a gallon. Macerate the Colocynth in the Diluted Alcohol, with a gentle heat, for four days. Express and filter the liquor, and add to it the Aloes, Scammony, and Soap; then evaporate to the proper consistence, and, near the end of the process, mix the Cardamom with the other ingredients." U. S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges correspond with the above except in phraseology. The former College, however, directs the purified extract of aloes, the latter, hepatic aloes. The object of the soap in this formula is to improve the consistence of the mass, which it renders more soluble in the liquors of the stomach when hardened by time. It may possibly also serve the purpose of qualifying the action of the aloes. Diluted alcohol is a much better solvent of the active principle of colocynth than water. The proper consistence, alluded to in this process, is that which is adapted to the formation of pills. 940 Extracta. PART II. This extract is an energetic and safe cathartic, possessing the activity of its three purgative ingredients, with comparatively little of the drastic cha- racter of the colocynth and scammony. It may be still further and advan- tageously modified by combination with rhubarb, jalap, calomel, &c, with one or more of which it is very often united in prescription. In such com- bination it is much employed wherever an active cathartic is desirable, par- ticularly in the commencement of fevers and febrile complaints, in conges- tion of the liver or portal system, and in obstinate constipation. In small doses it is an excellent laxative in that state of habitual costiveness depending on a want of the due irritability of the bowels, which often occurs in old people. The dose is from five to thirty grains, according to the effect to be produced, and the susceptibility of the bowels. A very eligible combina- tion is the compound cathartic pill of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. Off. Prep. Enema Colocynthidis, Lond.; Pilulas Catharticas Compositas, u. s. w. EXTRACTUM CONII. U.S., Lond., Ed. Succus Spissatus Conii. Dub. Extract of Hemlock. This is prepared from fresh Hemlock Leaves, in the manner directed by the U.S. Pharmacopoeia for extract of stramonium leaves [see Extractum Stramonii Foliorum^], and by the London and Dublin for extract of aconite (see Extractum Aconiti). "Take of Conium any convenient quantity. Beat it into a uniform pulp in a marble mortar, express the juice, and filter it. Let this juice be evapo- rated to the consistence of a very firm extract either in a vacuum with the aid of heat, or spontaneously in shallow vessels exposed to. a strong current of air freed of dust by gauze-screens. This extract is of good quality only when a very strong odour of conia is disengaged by degrees on its being carefully triturated with Aqua Potassas." Ed. The most important point in the preparation of this extract is to evapo- rate the juice without an undue degree of heat. At a temperature of 212° or upwards, its active principle undergoes rapid decomposition, being con- verted into resinous matter and ammonia. This is detected by the operator by the ammoniacal odour mixed with that which is peculiar to the plant. When evaporated over a fire, the juice always to a certain extent undergoes this decomposition, and is not exempt from it even when the heat is regulated by a water-bath. Hence the propriety of the directions of the Edinburgh College. In Edinburgh, a very fine extract is prepared by evaporating the juice first in a vacuum, and afterwards in shallow vessels, with a current of air, at common temperatures. Long-continued exposure to the air is pro- ductive of the same result as too much heat, so that old extracts are fre- quently destitute of activity. (Journ. de Pharm., xxii. 416.) Nooneofthe extracts is more variable in its qualities than this. The season at which the herb is collected, the place and circumstances of its growth, the method of preparing the extract, are all points of importance, and are all too frequently neglected. (See Conii Folia.) In this country the process is often very carelessly conducted ; and large quantities of an extract prepared by boiling the plant in water and evaporating the decoction, have been sold as the genuine drug. The apothecary should always prepare the extract himself, or procure it from persons in whom he can have entire confidence. That imported from London is usually the best. The activity of any specimen of the extract may be judged of by rubbing it with potassa, which, disen- gaging the conia and rendering it volatile, gives rise to the peculiar odour of that principle. If no odour be evolved under these circumstances, the extract may be deemed inert. PART II. Extracta. 941 Extract of hemlock should have a fresh olive or greenish colour, a strong narcotic somewhat fetid odour, and a bitterish saline taste. According to Brande, from three to five pounds are obtained from one cwt. of the leaves. M. Recluz got rather more than an ounce from sixteen ounces. Of the medical properties and application of this extract, we have spoken under the head of Conii Folia. The dose is three grains twice a day, to be gradually increased till evidences of its action upon the system are afforded. It may be administered in pill or solution. Off. Prep. Pilulas Conii Compositae. Lond. W. EXTRACTUM CONII ALCOHOLICUM. U. S. Alcoholic Ex- tract of Hemlock. This is prepared, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, from Hemlock Leaves, in coarse powder, in the manner directed for alcoholic extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti Alcoholicum.) It is one of the French officinal extracts. The same caution is requisite in evaporating in this case as in that of the inspissated juice or common ex- tract. The dose, to begin with, is two or three grains. W. EXTRACTUM DIGITALIS. Lond., Ed. Extract of Foxglove. This is prepared from the fresh leaves, in the manner directed by the London College for extract of aconite (see Extractum Aconiti), by the Edinburgh, for extract of hemlock (see Extractum Conii). It is a new preparation of the London and Edinburgh Colleges, and ap- pears to us, considering the activity of the leaves themselves, and the at least equal uncertainty of the extract, to be quite superfluous. The dose is from half a grain to two grains. W. EXTRACTUM DULCAMARA. U.S. Extract of Bittersweet. This is prepared, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, from Bittersweet, in coarse powder, in the manner directed for extract of gentian. This has been newly introduced into,the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. It is a preparation well known on the continent of Europe, but little used ir^ this country or Great Britain. The dose is from five to ten grains; but much more may be given with impunity. ^ * W. EXTRACTUM GENTIANA. U.S., Lona% Ed., Dub. Extract of Gentian. " Take of Gentian, in coarse powder, a pound; Water a sufficient quan- tity. Mix the Gentian with a pint of the Water, and, after allowing the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, introduce it into an apparatus for displacement, and pour Water upon it gradually until the liquid passes but slightly impregnated with the properties of the Gentian. Heat the filtered liquid to the boiling point, strain, and evaporate to the proper consistence." U.S. "Take of Gentian, sliced, two pounds and a half; Boiling Distilled Water two gallons [Imperial measure]. Macerate for twenty-four hours ; then boil down to a gallon, and strain the liquor while hot; lastly, evaporate to the proper consistence." Lond. " Take of Gentian any convenient quantity. Bruise it to a moderately fine powder, mix it thoroughly with half its weight of Distilled Water; in twelve hours put it into a proper percolator, and exhaust it by percolation with temperate Distilled Water; concentrate the liquid, filter it before it becomes too thick, and evaporate in the vapour-bath to the due consist- ence." Ed. 80* 942 Extracta. PART II. The Dublin College prepares this extract according to the general process of that College for simple extracts. (See page 933.) The London and Dublin Colleges adhere to the old mode of preparing this extract by decoction; but in the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias the better process of percolation with cold water has been adopted. MM. Guibourt and Cadet de Vaux obtained by the maceration in cold water an extract not only greater in amount, but more transparent, more bitter, and pos- sessing more of the colour and smell of the root than that prepared by decoc- tion. Guibourt attributes this result to the circumstance that, as gentian con- tains little, if any starch, it yields nothing to boiling which it will not also yield to cold water; while decoction favours the combination of a portion of the colouring matter with the lignin. For rules in relation to the proper management of the displacement process, the reader is referred to pages 763 and 769; and for observations upon the best modes of evaporation in the formation of extracts, to page 929. Gentian, according to Brande, yields half its weight of extract by decoction. As ordinarily procured, the extract of gentian is nearly inodorous, very bitter, of a dark-brown colour approaching to black, shining, and tenacious. It is frequently used as a tonic in the form of pill, either alone or in connexion with metallic preparations. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. Off. Prep. Pilulae Aloes Compositae, Lond. W. EXTRACTUM HAMATOXYLI. U. S., Lond., Ed. Extractum Hamatoxyli Campechiani. Dub. Extract of Logwood. "Take of Logwood, rasped, a pound; Water a gallon. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot; then evaporate to the proper con- sistence." U. S. "Take of Logwood, in fine chips, a pound; Boiling Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pints, strain, and concentrate in the vapour-bath to the due consist- ence." Ed. The London College prepares it in the manner directed for extract of gentian (see Extractum Gentianae); the Dublin College, according to their general process for simple extracts. (See page 933.) The evaporation should be carried so far, that the extract maybe dry and brittle when cold. About twenty pounds of it are obtained from one cwt. of logwood. (Brande.) It is of a deep ruby colour, and an astringent sweetish taste; and possesses all the medical virtues of the wood from which it is procured. If given in pills, these should be recently made, as, when long kept, they are said to become so hard as sometimes to pass unchanged through the bowels. The extract, however, is best administered in solution. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. This extract is said to be prepared largely in Yucatan and other parts of Mexico. EXTRACTUM HELLEBORI. U. S. Extract of Black Helle- bore. This is prepared, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, from Black Hellebore, in coarse powder, in the manner directed for alcoholic extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti Alcoholicum.) In consequence, probably, of the injurious influence of heat upon black hellebore, the watery extract prepared by decoction is little if at all stronger than the root. The process of percolation with cold spirit has, therefore, been adopted in the last edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; and, if proper attention be paid to conduct the evaporation at as low a temperature, and with as little exposure to the air as possible, an efficient extract will proba- PART II. Extracta. 943 bly be obtained. It operates as a drastic purge in the dose of twelve or fifteen grains, but is seldom employed. The former French Codex contained a process for preparing the extract of hellebore, according to the method of Bacher. Two pounds of the root and half a pound of carbonate of potassa are digested, with a moderate heat, for twelve hours, in eight pounds of alcohol of 22° B.; the tincture is strained with expression ; the residuum is again digested with eight pounds of white wine for twenty-four hours; the wine is expressed, and havino- stood four hours to settle, is decanted; the liquors are then mixed, and with a gentle heat evaporated to the consistence of an extract. One ounce of this extract, mixed with the same quantity of myrrh, and with ten scruples of the powdered leaves of the Centaurea benedicta, and made into pills of one grain each, constitutes the preparation known as the tonic pills of Bacher, formerly much used in amenorrhoea and dropsy, and probably not without advantage, especially in the former of these diseases. The dose is from ten to twenty pills during the day. An additional quantity of diluted alcohol might, without disadvantage, be substituted for the wine in the pre- paration of the extract. W. EXTRACTUM HUMULI LUPULI. Dub. Extractum Lupuli. Lond., Ed. Extract of Hops. The London College prepares this extract in the manner directed for extract of gentian (see Extractum Gentianae); the Edinburgh, in the same manner as extract of logwood (see Extractum Hsematoxyli); and the Dub- lin, according to its general formula for simple extracts. (See p. 933.) Since the discovery of the fact that the active properties of hops reside chiefly in the lupulin, this extract has not been deemed an eligible prepara- tion, and has been little used. It has the peculiar bitterness of the strobiles, without their aroma. Lupulin may be advantageously substituted for it in all cases in which it was formerly employed. Mr. Brande says, that the average product of one cwt. of hops is forty pounds of the extract. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. W. EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI. U. S., Lond., Ed. Succus Spis- satus Hyoscyami. Dub. Extract of Henbane. This is prepared from fresh Henbane Leaves in the manner directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia for extract of stramonium leaves (see Extractum Stramonii Foliorum), by the London and Dublin for extract of aconite (see Extractum Aconiti), and by the Edinburgh for extract of hemlock (see Extractum Conii). MM. Solon and Soubeiran have shown that the insoluble matter sepa- rated from the expressed juice of henbane by filtering, and that coagulated by heat, are nearly, if not quite, inert; so that the juice may be advan- tageously clarified before evaporation. (Amer. Journ. of Pharm., viii. 228.) Extract of henbane is derived chiefly from England. Mr. Brande says, that one cwt. of the fresh herb affords between four and five pounds. M. Recluz obtained about one part from sixteen. The extract, as it reaches us, is of a dark-olive colour almost black, of a narcotic rather unpleasant odour, and a bitterish, nauseous, slightly saline taste. It retains its softness for a long time; but at the end of three or four years becomes dry, and exhibits, when broken, small crystals of nitrate of potassa and chloride of sodium. (Recluz.) Like all the inspissated juices it is of variable strength, according to its age, the care used in its prepara- tion, and the character of the leaves from which it was procured. (See Hyoscyamus.) In its use, therefore, it is advisable to begin with a moderate 944 Extracta. part ii. dose, two or three grains for instance, and gradually to increase the quantity till some effect is experienced, and the degree of efficiency of the particular parcel employed is ascertained. It is usually given in pill. It is some- times used externally for the same purposes as extract of belladonna. Off. Prep. Pilulae Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami, Ed. W. EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI ALCOHOLICUM. U S. Alcoholic Extract of Henbane. This is prepared, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, from Henbane Leaves, in coarse powder, in the manner directed for alcoholic extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti Alcoholicum.) The alcoholic extract of henbane, if prepared from recently dried leaves, is thought to be more uniform and more powerful than the inspissated juice or common extract. It is one of the preparations of the French Codex. The dose is one or two grains, to be gradually increased until its effects are obtained. W. EXTRACTUM JALAPA. U. S., Lond., Dub. Extract of Jalap. This is prepared, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, from Jalap, in coarse powder, in the manner directed for extract of Peruvian bark. (See Extractum Cinchonae.) " Take of Jalap, in powder, two pounds and a half; Rectified Spirit a gallon [Imperial measure]; Distilled Water two gallons [Imperial mea- sure]. Macerate the Jalap in the Spirit for four days, and pour off the tincture. Boil the residue in the Water down to half a gallon. Filter the tincture and decoction separately; then distil the former and evaporate the latter until they thicken. Lastly, mix the extract with the resin, and evapo- rate to the proper consistence. Let the extract be kept soft, fit for forming pills, and hard, so that it may be powdered." Lond. The Dublin process is essentially the same as the above. Jalap contains a considerable quantity of starch, which is extracted by decoction, but left behind by cold water. As this principle serves only to impede the filtration or straining, and augment the bulk of the extract, without adding to its virtues, the U. S. process, in which the water is em- ployed at common temperatures, is preferable to the London and Dublin, in which decoction is resorted to. The use both of alcohol and water is necessary, in order to extract all the medicinal qualities of the drug, and they are employed successively, under the impression that the previous removal of the resin by the former, facilitates the action of the latter. The use of percolation, as directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, enables the cold water to extract the soluble parts without the long maceration which would otherwise be necessary. According to Cadet de Gassicourt, water at ordi- nary temperatures, and in the old mo'de, acts so slowly, that fermentation takes place before the active matter is all dissolved. Hence, if the extract is prepared without percolation, the residuum, after the tincture has been decanted, should be digested with water at a heat of about 90° or 100° F., which, while it is insufficient for the solution of the starch, enables the sol- vent to take up the active matter with sufficient rapidity. One cwt. of jalap affords, according to Mr. Brande, about fifty pounds of aqueous extract and fifteen of resin. The product of the former is some- what less by infusion than decoction ; and the extract is proportionably stronger. The extract of jalap is of a dark-brown colour, slightly translucent at the edges, and tenacious when not perfectly dry. It contains the resin and gummy extractive, and, consequently, has all the medical properties of the PART II. Extracta. 945 root; but it is not often exhibited alone,being chiefly used as an ingredient of purgative pills, for which it is adapted by the comparative smallness of its bulk. The dose is from ten to twenty grains, or rather more than half that of jalap. Off.Prep. Pilulae Catharticas Compositas, U.S.; Pulvis Scammonii Compositus, Lond., Dub. . W. EXTRACTUM sive RESINA JALAPA. Ed. Extract or Resin of Jalap. " Take any convenient quantify of Jalap, in moderately fine powder; mix it thoroughly with enough of Rectified Spirit to moisten it well; put it in twelve hours into a percolator, and exhaust the powder with Rectified Spirit; distil off the greater part of the Spirit, and concentrate the residuum over the vapour-bath to a due consistence." Ed. This process yields the resin of jalap in an impure state. It may be obtained pure by pouring boiling water on the roots, macerating for a day, then cutting them into very thin slices, boiling them three times successively for about ten minutes in water, expressing after each decoction, afterwards boiling them as often and as long in alcohol, and in like manner expressing, finally mixingthe tinctures, treating the liquor with animal charcoal, filtering, and evaporating. (Nativelle, Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., i. 228.) Another mode is to introduce into a displacement instrument, first one part of finely powdered animal charcoal, and afterwards two parts mixed with an equal quantity of powdered jalap, then to pour on alcohol until the liquid which passes equals the jalap, and finally to add to the tincture thus obtained twice its volume of water, so as to precipitate the resin, which is to be washed, and dried. (Christison's Dispensatory.) The pure resin is as white as starch, and in doses of from three to five grains was found to purge actively. For practical purposes, however, the Edinburgh preparation is sufficiently pure. It is dark-coloured, brittle, and of a shining fracture. Guaiac is said to be sometimes fraudulently added to the resin of jalap. It may be detected by the green colour it produces when a few drops of solution of chloride of soda or of lime is added to an alcoholic solution of the suspected resin. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., x. 357.) According to G. A. Kaiser, jalap resin may be distinguished from all other resins by being gradually dissolved by concentrated sulphuric acid, and depositing after some hours, a brown soft viscid matter. (Chem. Gaz., Jan. 1845, from Liebig's Annalen.) It is now generally believed, that the resin of jalap is its sole purgative principle, the gummy extractive bejng diuretic. The U.S. or London ex- tract better represents the whole virtues of jalap, and should be preferred when its peculiar hydragogue operation is required. The Edinburgh ex- tract or resin is more powerfully purgative, but is also harsh, and apt to operate painfully. To obviate this effect it is advised that it should be tri- turated with loaf-sugar, sulphate of potassa, almond emulsion, or other sub- stance calculated to separate its particles. The dose is from four to twelve grains. "VV. EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS. U. S. Extract of Butternut. This is prepared from the inner bark of the root of the Juglans cinerea, in coarse powder, in the manner directed for extract of gentian. (See Ex- tractum Gentianae.) Most of this extract kept in the shops is prepared by the country people, who are said to use the bark of the branches, and even the branches them- selves, instead of the inner bark of the root, as directed by the Pharmaco- 946 Extracta; PART II. poeia. The heat is also improperly regulated, being applied too vigorously, or continued too long, so that the preparation is often injured. That it should have proved uncertain in the hands of many physicians is, therefore, not a matter of surprise. It should always be prepared by the apothecary, and from the inner bark of the root gathered in May or June. The extract of butternut is of a black colour, sweetish odour, and bitter astringent taste. In the dose of twenty or thirty grains it acts as a mild cathartic. (See Juglans.) W. EXTRACTUM KRAMERIA. U. S., Ed. Extract of Rhatany. This is prepared from Rhatany, in coarse powder (U.S.), or in mode- rately fine powder (Ed.), in the manner directed for extract of gentian. (See Extractum Gentianae.) In selecting a process for the preparation of this new officinal, it was undoubtedly wise to adopt the mode of displacement, with cold water as the menstruum. (See pages 419 and 420.) It is absolutely necessary to the success of this process, that the root should be well and uniformly com- minuted; and the "moderately fine powder" of the Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeia is, therefore, preferable to the "coarse powder" of our own. The wood of the root yielded to Mr. Procter only 6*8 percent, of extract, while the bark separated from the wood yielded 33 per cent. As the wood is of difficult pulverization, the inference is obvious, that, in powdering the roots, the ligneous portion might be rejected with advantage. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 270.) As a prolonged exposure of the infusion to the air is attended with the absorption of oxygen, and the production of insoluble apotheme, it is desirable that the evaporation should be conducted rapidly or in a vacuum. There scarcely appears to be occasion, in the case of rhatany, for heating and filtering the infusion before evaporation, the only use of which would be to get rid of albumen, which is not among the recognised ingredients of rhatany. Very inferior extracts of rhatany are often found in the shops. Such is the South American extract, which is occasionally imported. As the pro- duct obtained by decoction is greater than that afforded by the officinal plan, the temptation to substitute the former is not always resisted, although it has been shown to contain nearly,50 percent, of insoluble matter. A substance was shown us by a respectable apothecary of this city, said to have been imported as extract of rhatany from Europe, which was nearly tasteless, and was plausibly conjectured to be the dried coagulated matter of old tincture of kino. Extract of rhatany should have a reddish-brown colour, a smooth shining fracture, and a very astringent taste; and should be almost entirely soluble in water. Its virtues may be considered as in proportion to its solubility. It is much used for all the purposes for which the astringent extracts are employed. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. Off.Prep. Syrupus Kramerias, U. S. W. EXTRACTUM LACTUCA. Lond. Extract of Lettuce. This extract is prepared by the London College from fresh Lettuce leaves in the same manner as extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti.) The extract of lettuce has been retained by the London College, though the lettuce itself from which it is prepared has been rejected. Its claims to favourable notice are at least very questionable. Consisting chiefly of the common sap of the plant, which is inert, with a variable, but always small proportion of the milky secretion, on which the activity of lettuce depends, it is at best a feeble and uncertain preparation. Lactucarium PART II. Extracta. 947 possesses all its virtues, with more strength and uniformity of action. The dose of the extract is from five to fifteen grains. W. EXTRACTUM NUCIS VOMICA. U.S., Ed., Dub. Extract of Nux Vomica. " Take of Nux Vomica a pound; Alcohol a sufficient quantity. Expose the Nux Vomica to steam till it is softened; then, having sliced and dried it, grind it into powder. Introduce it into an apparatus for displacement, and pour Alcohol upon it gradually until the liquid passes without bitterness. Distil off the greater part of the alcohol from the filtered liquor, and evaporate the residue to the proper consistence." U. S. The Edinburgh College treats the Nux Vomica in the same manner, grinding it to powder in a coffee-mill; then exhausts it with rectified spirit, either by percolation or repeated decoction ; and completes the process as above directed. "Take of Nux Vomica, rasped, eight ounces; Proof Spirit two pints. Digest in a close vessel for three days; filter the liquor, and express the remainder by a press. Add to the residue one pint and a half of Proof Spirit, digest for three days, and express. Mix the liquors, and having re- duced them by distillation to one-fourth, evaporate to a proper consistence." Dub. This extract is an active preparation of nux vomica, though not always of uniform strength, owing to the variable proportion of strychnia in the substance from which it is prepared. M. Recluz obtained from sixteen ounces of nux vomica, the average product of one ounce and a quarter. The dose of the extract is from half a grain to two grains, to be repeated three times a day. W7. EXTRACTUM OPII. Ed. Extractum Opii Purificatum. Lond. Extractum Opii Aquosum. Dub. Extract of Opium. "Take of Opium one pound; Water five pints [Imperial measure]. Cut the Opium into small fragments, macerate it for twenty-four hours in a pint of Water, break down the fragments with the hand ; express the liquid with pretty strong pressure; break down the residuum again in another pint of the Water, let it macerate for twenty-four hours, and express the liquid ; repeat the maceration and expression in the same way till the water is all used. Filter the successive infusions as they are made, passing them through the same filter; unite and evaporate them in the vapour-bath to the due consistence." Ed. " Take of Opium, sliced, twenty ounces ; Distilled Water a gallon [Im- perial measure]. Add a little of the Water to the Opium, and macerate for twelve hours that it may become soft; then, adding gradually the remainder of the Water, rub them until they are thoroughly mixed, and set the mixture by that the dregs may subside; lastly, strain the liquor, and evaporate it to a proper consistence." Lond. "Take of Opium, sliced, two ounces; Boiling Water a pint. Rub the Opium with the Water for ten minutes, and, after a short interval, pour off the liquor. Triturate the remaining Opium with an equal quantity of boil- ing Water, for the same length of time, and pour off the liquor as before. Repeat the trituration a third time; then mix the liquors, and expose the mixture to the air for two days in an open vessel. Lastly, filter through linen, and evaporate the filtered liquor slowly to the consistence of an ex- tract." Dub. Of these processes, that of the Edinburgh or Dublin College should be 948 Extracta. PART II. preferred. But we can discover no advantage which either preparation has over opium itself. Though the dose may be somewhat smaller, yet that of opium is sufficiently small; and, if there be any distinct principle in this drug which modifies in an unpleasant manner the action of the morphia, it is not left behind in the preparation of the watery extract. Nor has this preparation the advantage of greater uniformity; as the gum, extractive, &c, taken up by the water, bear no fixed proportion to the anodyne principle. It is highly probable, moreover, that the opium is not completely exhausted by either process. It certainly is not by that of the London College ; for morphia may be extracted frOm the residuum of the operation. (Brande.) In the preparation, therefore, of the extract of opium, there is a loss of time and of active matter, without any equivalent gain ; and there is the further disadvantage that, as the extract does not possess equally with opium those external characters by which its quality may be decided, it is more liable to adulteration. We should, therefore, in every instance, prefer opium to the extract; but it is necessary that the former should be selected of good quality, and should be freed from all adhering extraneous matters. Under theimpression that the stimulating and unpleasant effects of opium are owing to the narcotina, it has been proposed to separate this principle by submitting the extract to the operation of ether, which dissolves the narco- tina and leaves the morphia with the other ingredients. Robiquet employed cold ether; but M. Dublanc, convinced that the whole of the narcotina was not thus extracted, proposed the following plan. " Take of watery extract of opium 16 ounces; dissolve it in 8 ounces of distilled water; introduce the solution into the water-bath of a still; pour upon it 104 ounces of pure ether; distil off 24 ounces of the ether; take apart the apparatus and decant the ether which floats on the top of the extract; wash the latter while hot with the distilled ether; concentrate the residual matter, dissolve it in dis- tilled water, filter the solution, and evaporate to a proper consistence." It is very doubtful, however, whether any useful end is gained by this expen- sive operation, as it is not by any means conclusively settled that narcotina does in fact produce the unpleasant effects which have been attributed to it; and even admitting the fact, the preparations of morphia, which are of uni- form strength, are greatly preferable to the denarcotized extract. The dose of the extract of opium prepared by the Edinburgh or Dublin process is about one-half that of opium itself. The London extract, accord- ing to Brande, is never stronger, and is sometimes weaker than opium. Recluz obtained from sixteen ounces of opium an average product of nine ounces by hot water and six by cold. Off.Prep. Vinum Opii, Lond. W. EXTRACTUM PAPAVERIS. Lond., Ed. Extract of Poppy. "Take of Poppy [capsules], freed from their seeds, and bruised, fifteen ounces; Boiling Distilled Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pints, strain the liquor while hot, and evaporate it to a proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh process corresponds closely with the above; boiling water simply, instead of boiling distilled water being employed, and evapo- ration over the vapour-bath directed. Mr. Brande observes in relation to this extract, that if prepared over the open fire it is often nearly inert. He states, moreover, that it is apt to be of a troublesome consistence, too hard to be formed into pills, and too tough to be pulverized; and advises that it should always be carefully dried till it becomes sufficiently brittle to admit of being reduced to powder. One cwt. PART II. Extracta. 949 of the capsules, without the seeds, yields, according to this author, the average product of 35 pounds of extract. This preparation is little used in the United States. It possesses the virtues of opium, but is much inferior and less uniform in strength. The dose is from five to ten grains. W. EXTRACTUM PAREIRA. Lond., Ed. Extract of Pardra Brava. This is prepared by the London College from bruised Pareira Brava in the manner directed for extract of gentian. (See Extractum Gentianae.) The Edinburgh College directs the root to be cut into small chips, dried thoroughly with a gentle heat, then reduced to a moderately fine powder, and treated as directed for the extract of gentian. The dose is from ten grains to half a drachm. W. EXTRACTUM PODOPHYLLI. U. S. Extract of May-apple. This is prepared from the root of Podophyllum peltatum, in coarse pow- der, in the manner directed for the extract of Peruvian bark. (See Extract- um. Cinchonae.) It is possessed of the purgative properties of the root, and may be given in the dose of from five to fifteen grains, but is little employed. It might be substituted in all cases for the extract of jalap. W. EXTRACTUM QUASSIA. U. S., Ed. Extract of Quassia. This is prepared, according to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, from the rasp- ings of Quassia, in the manner directed for the extract of gentian. (See Extractum Gentianae.) The Edinburgh College prepares it by cutting the quassia into small chips, drying it thoroughly with a gentle heat, reducing it to a moderately fine powder, and proceeding as directed for the extract of gentian. According to M. Recluz, sixteen ounces of quassia yield by infusion in water seven drachms of extract; by maceration in alcohol of 19° Baurne, two ounces five drachms and a half. The difference between these quan- tities is so great that we suspect some mistake in the table of the Diction- naire des Drogues from which we quote. The extract of quassia is dark-brown or black, and excessively bitter. It is apt to become dry and disposed to"crumble by time. It concentrates a greater amount of tonic power within a given weight than any other extract of the simple bitters; and may, therefore, be given with great advantage in cases in which it is desirable to administer this class of substances in as small a bulk, and with as little inconvenience to the patient as possible. The dose is about five grains, to be given in the form of pill. W. EXTRACTUM QUERCUS. Dub. Extract of Oak Bark. This is prepared from the bark of the Quercus Robur, according to the general formula given by the Dublin College for the preparation of the simple extracts. (See page 933.) The Dublin College alone orders this preparation, which may be consi- dered as quite superfluous. The dose is from ten grains to a drachm. W. EXTRACTUM RHEI. Lond., Ed., Dub. Extract of Rhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb, in powder, fifteen ounces; Proof Spirit a pint [Im- perial measure]; Distilled Water seven pints [Imp. meas.]. Macerate for four days with a gentle heat, then strain, and set the liquor by that the dregs may subside. Pour off the clear liquor, and evaporate it to the proper con- sistence." Lond. 81 950 Extracta. PART II. The Dublin College employs a pound of Rhubarb, a pint of Proof Spirit, and seven pints of Water; and proceeds as above. "Take of Rhubarb one pound; Water five pints [Imp. meas.]; cut the Rhubarb into small fragments, macerate it for twenty-four hours in three pints of the Water, filter the liquor through a cioth, and express it with the hands or otherwise moderately ; macerate the residuum with the rest of the Water for twelve hours at least, filter the liquor with the same cloth as before, and express the residuum strongly. The liquors, filtered again if necessary, are then to be evaporated together to a proper consistence in the vapour-bath. The extract, however, is obtained of finer quality by evaporation in a vacuum with a gentle heat." Ed. Rhubarb yields all its active matter to water and alcohol; but, unless the evaporation is performed with great care and with a very moderate heat, it is certain that the purgative principle is, to a greater or less extent, injured or dissipated in the process; and the extract may thus become even less efficient than the root. Among other consequences which result from the boiling temperature, is the formation of a compound of the tannin and starch, which is insoluble in cold water, and upon its precipitation probably carries with it a portion of the purgative principle. There is, moreover, reason to believe that this principle is volatilizable by heat, and that a portion of it escapes with the vapour. This extract may, therefore, be very well dis- pensed with. It is not directed by the United States Pharmacopoeia. The only advantage, if any, which it possesses over powdered rhubarb is, that it may be given in solution; and the same object may be accomplished by employing the root itself in the state of infusion. The dose of the extract is from ten to thirty grains. Off. Prep. Piluke Rhei et Ferri, Ed. W. EXTRACTUM RUTA. Dub. Extract of Rue. This is prepared by the Dublin College from the herb, in the manner directed for the preparation of the simple extracts. (See page 933.) The volatile oil, upon which the stimulant and antispasmodic properties of rue depend, is driven off in the preparation of the extract, which, there- fore, answers no other purpose than that of a bitter tonic; and even in this respect is inferior to the other bitter extracts. It is not used in this coun- try. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. W. SUCCUS SPISSATUS SAMBUCI. Dub. Inspissated Juice of Elder. This is prepared by the Dublin College from fresh ripe elder berries in the same manner with the inspissated juice of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti.) The elderberries employed in Europe are those of the Sambucus nigra; but the berries of the Sambucus Canadensis, which is a native of this coun- try, will answer equally well. For the uses of this extract the reader is referred to the article Sambucus in the Materia Medica. W. EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLA. U. S., Dub. Extractum Sar- za. Lond. Extract of Sarsaparilla. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia prepares this extract from sarsaparilla, in coarse powder, in the manner directed for alcoholic extract of aconite. (See Extractum Aconiti Alcoholicum.) "Take of Sarsaparilla root, sliced, a pound; Boiling Water a gallon. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and boil down to four pints; then strain the liquor while hot, and evaporate to the proper consistence." Dub. PART II. Extracta. 951 The London College prepares the extract in the manner directed for extract of gentian. (See Extractum Gentianae.) The extract prepared according to the London and Dublin processes can have little or no effect upon the system; as the active matter of sarsaparilla is either destroyed by chemical change or driven off at the heat of boiling water. Besides, it appears from the experiments of Hancock and others, that water, unless in very large proportion, is incapable of exhausting the root; and waste would be incurred, even admitting that the extract pos- sessed some efficiency. Very different quantities have been obtained from different varieties of sarsaparilla, and even from different parcels of the same variety; but, as the matter taken up by boiling water consists chiefly of starch, no inference as to the relative value of any particular specimen of the root, can be drawn from a knowledge of the quantity of extract which it is capable of affording. From ten grains to a drachm of this preparation may be given for a dose. The spirituous extract of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, which is the same as that of the French Codex, contains the active matter of the root. Di- luted alcohol extracts all the virtues of sarsaparilla, leaving the inert fecula which encumbers the extract obtained by decoction; while the temperature requisite for the concentration of the tincture is insufficient to destroy the active principle. M. Beral obtained from 32 ounces of sarsaparilla about 4 ounces of extract by maceration with diluted alcohol. As the product of this operation is about one-eighth of the sarsaparilla employed, a drachm of the extract represents an ounce of the^oot. From ten to twenty grains of it may be given three or four times a day. We have ascertained by actual observation that it possesses in a high degree the acrid taste of sarsa- parilla. "W. EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLA FLUIDUM. Dub. Extractum Sarza Fluidum. Ed. Fluid Extract of Sarsaparilla. "Take of Sarza in chips one pound; Boiling Water six pints [Imperial measure]. Digest the root for two hours in four pints of the Water; take it out, bruise it, replace it, and boil for two hours; filter and squeeze out the liquid; boil the residuum in the remaining two pints of Water, and filter and squeeze out this liquor also; evaporate the united liquors to the con- sistence of thin syrup; add, when the product is cool, as much Rectified Spirit as will make in all sixteen fluidounces. Filter. This fluid extract may be aromatized with volatile oils or warm aromatics." Ed. "Take of the Root of Sarsaparilla, sliced, a pound; Water twelve pints. Boil them together for an hour, and pour off the liquor; then add twelve pints of water, and boil and decant as before. Express the liquor strongly from the residuary matter, and, having mixed the decoctions, set the mix- ture by that the dregs may subside; then evaporate by continued boiling to thirty ounces [fluidounces], and add two ounces [fluidounces] of Rectified Spirit." Dub. It is to be regretted that these processes are not more in conformity with our present knowledge in relation to the pharmaceutical manao-ement of sarsaparilla. There can be little doubt, we think, as to the almost total inefficiency of the fluid extract of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges. We should ourselves prefer the solid extract, prepared according to the U. S. formula, to any concentrated liquid preparation; as we cannot be certain that the active principle is held in solution by a very small proportion of water, and if it be merely suspended, there may be a risk that due agitation may not always be practised in dispensing and administering the medicine. But 952 Extracta. PART II. if the popular inclination to this mode of preparation must be gratified, we should give a decided preference to the following formula of William Hodgson, Jun., over any other which we have seen. "Take of Sarsaparilla Root, bruised, sixteen ounces; Liquorice Root, bruised, Guaiacum Wood, rasped, Bark of Sassafras Root, each, two ounces; Mezereon six drachms; Diluted Alcohol eight pints. Digest for fourteen days at a common temperature; then strain, express, and filter. Evaporate the tincture in a water-bath to twelve fluidounces; then add eight ounces of white sugar, and remove from the fire as soon as the sugar is dissolved." (Journ. of the Phil. College of Pharm., ii. 285.) Mr. Hodgson observes that, during the process, a small quantity of resin separates, and adheres to the sides of the vessel, apparently derived from the guaiacum wood. The advantages of this process are, that by means of the alcohol all the virtues of the root are extracted, while the low temperature required in its evaporation is not sufficient to impair these virtues. The preparation has been used in Philadelphia with great apparent benefit in secondary syphilis. The dose is a fluidrachm, equivalent to a drachm of the root, three or four times a day. W. EXTRACTUM sive RESINA SCAMMONII. Ed. Extract or Resin of Scammony. "Take any convenient quantity of Scammony in fine powder; boil it in successive portions of Proof Spirit till the Spirit ceases to dissolve any thing; filter; distil the liquid till but little water passes over. Then pour away the watery solution from the resin at the bottom; agitate the resin with suc- cessive portions of boiling water till it is well washed; and lastly, dry it at a temperature not exceeding 240°." Ed. The only advantage of this process is that it separates the active matter of scammony from the impurities with which the drug is almost always adulterated. When pure virgin scammony can be procured the extract is unnecessary. Prepared according to the above process, the resin is of a dirty greenish-brown colour, with a feeble odour and taste of scammony, and is very soluble in ether, alcohol, and boiling proof spirit. When purified with animal charcoal it has a pale brownish-yellow colour, and is without odour or taste; but retains its purgative property. When rubbed with un- skimmed milk it forms a uniform emulsion, undistinguishable from rich milk itself. This is an excellent mode of administration. The resin should always be given either rubbed up with some mild powder, or in emulsion. The dose is from five to twelve grains. Off.Prep. Mistura Scammoni, Ed. W. EXTRACTUM SPARTII SCOPARII. Dub. Extract of Broom Tops. This is prepared from the tops of the Cytisus Scoparius, according to the general formula of the Dublin College for the preparation of their simple extracts. (See page 933.) It has laxative and diuretic properties; but is not employed in this country, and seldom in Europe. The dose is from thirty grains to a drachm. W. EXTRACTUM STRAMONII FOLIORUM. U.S. Extract of Stramonium Leaves. " Take of Stramonium Leaves a pound. Bruise them in a stone mortar, sprinkling on them a little water; then express the juice, and, having heated it to the boiling point, strain and evaporate to the proper consistence." U. S. PART II. Extracta. 953 Like all the other inspissated narcotic juices, this is an uncertain prepara- tion, varying in strength according to the care used in conducting the pro- cess, and the season at which the leaves are collected. The reader will find at page 933, and in the preliminary observations on the Extracts, some general rules which will be found useful in conducting this process, and all those of which it is the officinal type. The insoluble matter separated from the expressed juice by filtering, and that coagulated by heat, may be advan- tageously rejected; as, according to the observations of MM. Solon and Soubeiran, they are nearly or quite inert. M. Recluz obtained half an ounce of the extract from sixteen ounces of the leaves. The dose is a grain night and morning, to be gradually increased till it affects the system. W. EXTRACTUM STRAMONII SEMINIS. U.S. Extractum Stra- monii. Lond., Ed., Dub. Extract of Stramonium Seed. "Take of Stramonium Seed, ground into powder, a pound; Diluted Alcohol a sufficient quantity. Having rubbed the powder with half a pint of Diluted Alcohol, introduce the mixture into an apparatus for displacement, and pour upon it gradually Diluted Alcohol till the liquid passes colourless. Distil off the Alcohol from the filtered liquor, and evaporate the residue to the proper consistence." U. S. "Take of Seeds of Stramonium any convenient quantity; grind them well in a coffee-mill. Rub the powder into a thick mass with Proof Spirit; put the pulp into a percolator, and transmit Proof Spirit till it passes colour- less; distil off the spirit, and evaporate what remains in the vapour-bath to a proper consistence." Ed. "Take of Stramonium seeds fifteen ounces; Boiling Distilled Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Macerate for four hours in a covered vessel near the fire; then take out the Seeds, and, after having bruised them in a stone mortar, return them to the liquor. Boil down to four pints [Imp. measure], and strain the decoction while hot. Finally, evaporate to the proper consistence." Lond. The Dublin College gives the same process as the London; but directs a pound of the seeds, and a wine-gallon of undistilled water. The U. S, and Edinburgh processes, which may be considered identical, are preferable to the London and Dublin; as the seeds yield their virtues more freely to spirit than to water alone. According to the table of Recluz, sixteen ounces of the seeds afford two ounces and two drachms of extract by maceration in diluted alcohol, and one ounce and a half by decoction. The dose to begin with is a quarter or half a grain twice a day, to be gradually increased. W. EXTRACTUM TARAXACI. U.S.,Lond., Ed., Dub. Extract of Dandelion. This is prepared, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, from the fresh bruised root of the Leontodon Taraxacum, in the manner directed for ex- tract of logwood. (See Extractum Hsematoxyli.) The London College prepares it in the manner directed for extract of gentian (see Extractum Gentianae); the Edinburgh, from a pound of the fresh root and a gallon [Imperial measure] of boiling water, as directed for the extract of poppy heads (see Extractum Papaveris). The Dublin College employs both the herb and root, and proceeds according to the general formula for the simple extracts. (See page 933.) This extract is undoubtedly stronger, prepared from the root alone than from the whole plant. Nor is it a matter of indifference at what season the 81* 954 Extracta.—Ferrum. part ii. root may be collected. The juice obtained from it by expression in the spring is thin, watery, and of feeble flavour; in the latter part of summer, and in autumn, thick, opaque, cream-coloured, very bitter, and abundant, amounting to one-third or one-half the weight of the root. It may be col- lected in August, and afterwards until severe frost. According to Mr. Squire, frost has the effectof diminishing the bitterness, and increasing the sweetness of the growing root. It is probable that an extract prepared by the inspissa- tion of this juice, would be found much more efficient than that prepared in the usual way by decoction. The inspissation should be effected by ex- posing the juice in shallow vessels to a current of warm dry air, or by eva- poration in a vacuum, and should not be unnecessarily protracted. Long exposure, during evaporation, is said to cause a change of the bitterness of the juice into sweetness, which is a sign of inferiority. As found in the shops, the extract is dark-coloured, sweet, and in all probability nearly inert. Mr. Houlton took more than an ounce of it in a day, without any sensible effect. (Houlton and Squire, Pharm. Journ. and Transact.,']. 421.) Mr. Brande states that one cwt. of the fresh root affords from twenty to twenty- five pounds of extract by decoction in water. The expressed juice yields from 11 to 25 per cent, of extract, the greatest product being obtained in November, and the least in April and May. This extract deteriorates by keeping, and should, therefore, be renewed annually. It is most conveniently given dissolved in cinnamon or mint water. The dose is from a scruple to a drachm three times a day. W. EXTRACTUM UVA URSI. Lond. Extract of Uva Ursi. The London College prepares this extract in the manner directed for extract of gentian. (See Extractum Gentianae.) The dose is from five to thirty grains. W. FERRUM. Preparations of Iron. FERRI ACETAS. Dub. Acetate of Iron. " Take of Carbonate of Iron one part; Acetic Acid six parts. Digest for three days and filter." Dub. As the carbonate of iron of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia (the U.S. subcar- bonate and the London sesquioxide) consists mainly of sesquioxide of iron, associated with a little carbonate, of protoxide, it is evident that this prepa- ration is an aqueous solution of the acetate of sesquioxide of iron, contain- ing a small proportion of the acetate of protoxide. From comparative ex- periments made by Dr. Perceval, of Dublin, it was found that of ten grains of the following ferruginous preparations digested in two drachms of acetic acid, sp. gr. 1*065, half a grain was dissolved of the scales of iron, one and a quarter grains of the red oxide (sesquioxide obtained by strong calcination), three and a quarter of iron filings, and the whole of the so-called carbonate. It was on account of the entire solubility of the latter preparation that it was selected for solution in the acetic acid. Properties, 8fc. This solution has a deep-red colour, and an acid and strongly chalybeate taste. When exposed to heat it yields acetic acid. It possesses the general medical properties of the preparations of iron. The dose is from ten to twenty-five drops, taken in water. It is not used in this country. B. PART II. Ferrum. 955 FERRI ACETATIS TINCTURA. Dub. Tincture of Acetate of Iron. "Take of Acetate of Potassa two parts; Sulphate of Iron one part; Rectified Spirit twenty-six parts. Rub the Acetate of Potassa and Sul- phate of Iron together in an earthenware mortar, until they unite into a mass. Dry this with a medium heat, and triturate it with the Spirit. Digest the mixture in a well stopped bottle for seven days, shakino- it oc- casionally. Lastly, pour off the tincture from the sediment, and preserve it in a well stopped bottle." Dub. This preparation was introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia by Dr. Perceval. In the process, a double decomposition takes place between the salts employed, resulting in the formation of the acetate of iron which dis- solves in the spirit, and sulphate of potassa which remains behind, being insoluble in that menstruum. The tincture also contains a portion of acetate of potassa; more of this salt being employed than is necessary to decompose thep sulphate of iron. Properties. This tincture is a transparent liquid, of a deep claret colour, and strong chalybeate taste. When evaporated to dryness, it yields a saline matter, which is whitish from the presence of acetate of potassa. It is ex- tremely liable to spontaneous decomposition, and is decomposed by the alkalies and their carbonates, the strong acids, and astringent vegetable in- fusions. Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation is represented to be an agreeable chalybeate; but it possesses no particular virtue, which can give it any advantage over other medicines of the same class. The dose is from thirty drops to a teaspoonful, mixed with water or some other convenient vehicle. B. TINCTURA ACETATIS FERRI CUM ALCOHOL. Dub. Tincture of Acetate of Iron with Alcohol. "Take of Sulphate of Iron, Acetate of Potassa. each, an ounce; Alcohol two pints. Rub the Acetate of Potassa and Sulphate of Iron together in an earthenware mortar, until they unite into a soft mass; then dry this with a medium heat, and as soon as it has grown cold triturate it with the al- cohol. Digest the mixture in a well stopped bottle for twenty-four hours, shaking it occasionally. Lastly, pour off the clear tincture from the sedi- ment, and keep it in a well stopped bottle." Dub. This formula is nearly the same with the last; the points of difference being that equal weights of the saline materials are employed, and the men- struum is the alcohol of the Dublin College, and not rectified spirit. The double decomposition takes place as in the preceding preparation, and with the same results ; but here, instead of there being an excess of acetate of potassa to enter into the tincture, there is an excess of sulphate of iron. The acetate of iron formed is a mixture of the acetates of the protoxide and sesquioxide ; but the latter only is soluble in the strong alcohol of the Dublin College. Hence this tincture may be viewed as an alcoholic solution of the acetate of sesquioxide of iron. It is necessary here not to confound the Dublin "alcohol," which has the sp. gr. 0 810 with the U.S. "alcohol," which corresponds with the rectified spirit of the British Colleges. This preparation is stronger, and Jess liable to spontaneous decomposition than the preceding; while its sensible and medical properties are nearly the same. The dose is from twenty drops to a teaspoonful. A fluidounce of it, when evaporated, yields ten grains of a crimson-coloured extract, which 956 Ferrum. PART II. at first has the consistency of wax, but afterwards, when dried, is transpa- rent. B. FERRI CARBONAS SACCHARATUM. Ed. Saccharine Carbo- nate of Iron. "Take of Sulphate of Ixon four ounces; Carbonate of So&afive ounces ; Pure Sugar two ounces; Water four pints [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Sulphate and Carbonate, each, in two pints of the water; add the solu- tions and mix them; collect the precipitate on a cloth filter, and immediately wash it with cold water, squeeze out as much of the water as possible, and without delay triturate the pulp which remains with the Sugar previously in fine powder. Dry the mixture at a temperature not much above 120°." Ed. When solutions of sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda are mixed together, there are formed, by double decomposition, sulphate of soda which remains in solution, and carbonate of protoxide of iron which falls as a pale- bluish precipitate. This precipitate begins immediately to alter in nature by the absorption of oxygen, and, if washed and dried in the .ordinary way, becomes sesquioxide of iron, associated with a small quantity of the carbo- nate of the protoxide which has escaped change; in other words, it is con- verted into the subcarbonate of iron of the U. S. Pharmacoposia. (See Ferri Subcarbonas.) As the preparations of iron containing the protoxide are most esteemed, the change which this precipitate undergoes was always matter of regret, and various attempts were made to prevent it. Now saccharine matter has been ascertained to possess the property of preventing this change, and its power is brought into play, in the preparation under con- sideration, for preventing the protoxide of iron of the carbonate as first pre- cipitated from passing into sesquioxide, with loss of carbonic acid. Dr. Becker, a German physician, was the first to suggest the use of sac- charine matter as a means of protection against the absorption of oxygen, and the idea was carried out by Klauer, a German chemist, who first made the saccharine carbonate of iron. When sugar is used in the way directed in the above formula, the prevention of oxidation is not complete ; for an absorption of oxygen takes place to a partial extent during the washing and squeezing of the precipitate, which are performed before the admixture with the sugar. Mr. R. Phillips, jun., has improved the formula, by mixing the washed precipitate, without being squeezed in a cloth, with the prescribed quantity of sugar, first made into a thick syrup, and gently evaporating the mixture to dryness. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iii. 576.) The protection from oxidation, however, is much more complete, when the materials and product of this process are maintained constantly in contact with saccharine matter, by using weak syrup both for dissolving the salts and for washing the precipitate, after the improved method of Vallet, of Paris. This improved method of proceeding is adopted for forming the U. S. pills of carbonate of iron, or Vallet's ferruginous pills. (See Pilulae Ferri Carbonatis, U.S.) Saccharine carbonate of iron is a grayish-green powder, permanent in the air, possessing a sweet and strongly chalybeate taste, and wholly and readily soluble in muriatic acid, with brisk effervescence. Its composition is not well made out. According to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, it con- sists of " carbonate of protoxide of iron in an undetermined state of combi- nation with sugar and sesquioxide of iron." The presence of sesquioxide of iron is a defect, which is avoided in Vallet's ferruginous pills. Medical Properties. This preparation forms an excellent chalybeate, possessing the advantages of having nearly all the iron in it in the state of protoxide, and of being readily soluble in acids. It is more active PART II. Ferrum. 957 than the subcarbonate of iron, and must be used in a smaller dose. It is, however, inferior to Vallet's ferruginous mass, in the preparation of which the anti-oxidizing influence of saccharine matter is more fully applied. The dose of the saccharine carbonate of iron is from five to thirty grains given in the form of pill. Off. Prep. Pilulas Ferri Carbonatis, Ed. B. FERRI ET POTASSA TARTRAS. U. S. Ferri Potassio-Tar- tras. Lond. Ferrum Tartarizatum. Ed. Ferri Tartarum. Dub. Tartrate of Iron and Potassa. Tartarized Iron. "Take of Subcarbonate of Iron three ounces; Muriatic Acid ten fluid- ounces; Solution of Potassa five pints and a half; Bitartrate of Potassa seven ounces and a half; Distilled Water a gallon and a half. Mix the Subcarbonate of Iron with the Muriatic Acid, and digest for two hours; then pour the solution into a gallon of the Distilled Water, set aside for an hour, and pour off the supernatant liquor. To this add the solution of Potassa, wash the precipitate which is formed frequently with water, and, while it is yet moist, mix it with the Bitartrate of Potassa and half a gallon of the Distilled Water. Keep the mixture at the temperature 140° for thirty hours, frequently stirring; then filter the solution, and evaporate by means of a water-bath, at the same temperature, to dryness." U. S. '•Take of Sesquioxide [Subcarbonate] of Iron three ounces; Hydro- chloric [Muriatic] Acid half a pint [Imperial measure]; Solution of Po- tassa four pints and a half [Imp. meas.] ox a sufficient quantity; Bitartrate of Potassa eleven ounces and a half; Solution of Sesquicarbonate of Am- monia a pint [Imp.meas.] or a sufficient quantity; Distilled Waters/wee gallons [Imp. meas.]. Mix the Sesquioxide of Iron with the Acid, and digest for two hours in a sand-bath. To these add two gallons of the Water and set aside for an hour; then pour off the supernatant liquor. The Solution of Potassa being added, wash what is precipitated frequently with water, and, while moist, boil it with the Bitartrate of Potassa, pre- viously mixed with a gallon of the Water. If the liquor should be acid when tried by litmus, drop into it the Solution of Sesquicarbonate of Am- monia until it is saturated. Lastly, strain the liquor, and evaporate it with a gentle heat, so that the salt may remain dry." Lond. "Take of Sulphate of Ironyh;e ounces; Bitartrate of Potash^ye ounces and one drachm; Carbonate of Ammonia, in fine powder, a sufficiency. Prepare the Rust of Iron from the Sulphate as directed under FerrUgo, and without drying it. Mix the pulpy mass with four pints [Imperial mea- sure] of Water; add the Bitartrate; boil till the Rust of Iron is dissolved; let the solution cool; pour off the clear liquid, and add to this the Carbonate of Ammonia so long as it occasions effervescence. Concentrate the liquid over the vapour-bath to the consistence of a thick extract, or till the resi- duum becomes on cooling a firm solid, which must be preserved in well closed vessels." Ed. "Take of thin Iron Wire one part; Bitartrate of Potassa, in very fine powder,/owr parts; Distilled Water eight parts or a sufficient quantity. Mix them together, and expose them to the air for fifteen days, in a wide vessel. Stir the mixture occasionally, and keep it constantly moist by the daily addition of water, taking care that the iron shall not be entirely covered by the water. Lastly, boil the product in a sufficient quantity of water, and, having filtered the liquor, evaporate it to dryness over a water- bath. Keep the Tartar of Iron in a well-stopped bottle." Dub. The object of these processes is to combine the excess of acid in the 958 Ferrum. PART II. bitartrate of potassa with sesquioxide of iron. The processes of the U.S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias are essentially the same, being that of Soubeiran with modifications. In Soubeiran's process, the moist hydrated sesquioxide of iron is dissolved to saturation in a mixture of one part of cream of tartar and six of water; and the solution obtained is filtered and evaporated to dryness by a gentle heat. In the processes of the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, the moist sesquioxide is obtained by precipi- tating the sesquichloride (formed by dissolving the subcarbonate in muriatic acid) by means of the officinal solution of potassa. Three eqs. of potassa and one of sesquichloride of iron are decomposed, and there are formed three eqs. of chloride of potassium which remain in solution, and one eq. of sesquioxide of iron which precipitates in the hydrated state (3KO-j- FeaCl3-=3KCl+Fe203). In the Edinburgh process the sesquioxide is ob- tained as directed under Ferrugo, by precipitating the tersulphate of the sesquioxide by ammonia; but as one-fourth more sulphate of iron is directed to be converted into sesquioxide than in the Ferrugo formula, it will be found practically inconvenient to increase the quantity of the other materials in the same proportion. The sesquioxide, obtained in either way, is heated or boiled, while yet in the moist state, with a mixture of cream of tartar and water, in which it dissolves. The solution thus obtained contains the tartrate of iron and potassa, and, if it should prove acid, the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias direct that it be rendered neutral by the addi- tion of carbonate of ammonia. The solution is now filtered arid evaporated to dryness. When carbonate of ammonia is added to the solution, it is to be presumed that the resulting salt will contain a little tartrate of ammonia. In the London formula the quantity of cream of tartar taken is excessive, and the water used inconveniently large. Some of the cream of tartar is not dissolved in the water, and that which is dissolved is not fully saturated by sesquioxide, from deficiency of the latter. It is better to have, as in the U. S. formula, an excess of the oxide; for then the cream of tartar is fully saturated, and the solution does not require the addition of carbonate of am- monia to render it neutral. The formula of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia is that recommended by Mr. Wm. Procter, jun., of this city, founded on the results of Soubeiran and . Capitaine. It is superior to the London process, not only in avoiding an excess of water, and the necessity of adding carbonate of ammonia, which introduces an impurity into the preparation, but in substituting the tem- perature of 140° instead of that of ebullition for promoting the solution of the oxide in the cream of tartar and water. Mr. Procter finds that this temperature, which is recommended by Soubeiran and Capitaine, causes the sesquioxide of iron to be taken up in larger quantity than when ebulli- tion is employed. (See Mr. Procter's paper on the Tartrate of Iron and Potassa, in the Amer. Journ. of Pharm., xii. 188.) In the Dublin process metallic iron is employed. By the combined action of air and water it is converted into sesquioxide, which unites with the cream of tartar to form the double salt. This process consumes much time, and is now superseded by that of Soubeiran. The wine of iron (Vinum Ferri), having been dismissed from the Lon- don Pharmacopoeia of 1836, is no longer officinal in any of the Pharmaco- poeias commented on in this work. Yet, as it is sometimes prescribed, it may be well to notice it in this place. The old process for making it was to macerate iron filings in wine. The French Codex, in which this plan is adopted, directs it to be made by macerating for six days in a matrass, an ounce of pure iron filings with thirty-two ounces of good white wine; PART II. Ferrum. 959 stirring from time to time, and afterwards decanting and filtering the liquid. In the dismissed London formula a drachm of iron filings was mixed with six drachms of cream of tartar, and oxidized by exposure to air and moist- ure for six weeks, so as ultimately to form the double tartrate of iron and potassa, with excess of cream of tartar. This was then dried by a gentle heat, rubbed to powder, dissolved in thirty fluidounces of distilled water, the solution filtered, and finally mixed with twenty fluidounces of proof spirit. When this preparation is made by macerating iron filings in wine, a tartrate of iron and potassa may be supposed to be formed, by means of the tartar present in wine; but, as this substance is present in variable proportion in different wines, the strength of the preparation, when thus made, must necessarily vary. The preparation, as made by the old London formula, is also variable, and at the same time deficient in strength. Wine is not capable of taking up sufficient of the tartrate of iron and po- tassa to form a preparation of adequate strength. A good wine of iron may be formed by dissolving an ounce of the double salt in 12 fluidounces of water, mixed with 12 fluidounces of sherry wine. When thus formed, each fluidounce will contain a scruple of the double tartrate. The dose of a wine of this strength is one or two tablespoonfuls two or three times a day. Dr. Ure has proposed the tartrate of protoxide of iron for medical use. He makes it by acting on clean iro» filings, or bits of iron wire, with a solution of tartaric acid. The iron is protoxidized at the expense of the water, and uniting with the tartaric acid produces the tartrate in the form of a powdery matter, which is obtained separate by diffusing it through the liquid, decanting, and washing on a filter. The salt formed is nearly white, pulverulent, insoluble in water, and possesses a mild chalybeate taste. Properties. Tartrate of iron and potassa, as obtained by the U. S. for- mula, has a dark-brown colour. When held, in thin pieces, between the eye and the light it is ruby-red. It is wholly soluble in about four parts of water at 60°, and the solution has a dark-brown colour. Its taste is feebly chalybeate. Prepared according to the London formula, it is deliquescent and has a dark olive-green colour. When kept for several months, the London preparation assumes, according to Mr. Procter, a mottled, light- green colour, is much less soluble than when first made, and exhales an ammoniacal odour. When pure, tartrate of iron and potassa is perfectly neutral to test paper, and at common temperatures does not yield a precipi- tate with potassa, soda, or ammonia. Ferrocyanuret of potassium does not render it blue, unless an acid be added. The non-action of this test shows that the iron is in a peculiar state of combination. It is incompatible with astringent vegetable infusions, which give rise to a dark-coloured pre- cipitate. When prepared by using the bitartrate and iron filings, it is apt to contain metallic iron, detected by the magnet, and a large proportion of it is usually insoluble in water. Composition. When prepared according to the U. S. formula, it has the composition assigned to it by Soubeiran and Capitaine; namely, one eq. of tartrate of sesquioxide of iron, and one of tartrate of potassa. When it has this composition it contains 30 per cent, of sesquioxide of iron. Ac- cording to Phillips, the preparation made according to the London formula consists of one eq. of bitartrate of sesquioxide of iron, and two of tartrate of potassa, and contains only 18 per cent, of sesquioxide. The Edinburgh preparation corresponds with the London. Medical Properties. Tartrate of iron and potassa is an agreeable chaly-, beate, and, when made according to the U. S. formula, may be depended upon for activity and uniformity of composition. From its slight taste and 960 Ferrum. part ii. ready solubility, it forms one of the best ferruginous preparations for ex- hibition to children. The dose for an adult is from ten grains to half a drachm, given in solution, or combined with an aromatic or bitter in the form of bolus. B, FERRI FERROCYANURETUM. U.S. Ferri Percyanidum. Lond. Ferri Cyanuretum. Dub. Ferrocyanuret of Iron. Pure Prussian Blue. "Take of Sulphate of Iron four ounces; Sulphuric Acid three fluid- drachms and a half; Nitric Acid six fluidrachms, or a sufficient quan- tity; Ferrocyanuret of Potassium four ounces and a half; Water two pints. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron in a pint of the Water, and, having added the Sulphuric Acid, boil the solution. Pour into it the Nitric Acid, in small portions, boiling the liquid for a minute or two after each addition, until it no longer produces a dark colour; then allow the liquid to cool. Dissolve the Ferrocyanuret of Potassium in the remainder of the Water, and add this solution gradually to the first liquid, agitating the mixture after each addition; then pour it upon a filter. Wash the precipitate with boiling water until the washings pass tasteless. Lastly, dry it and rub it into pow- der." U.S. Prussian blue has heretofore been officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia in the impure commercial form; but, upon the last revision of the work, it was thought advisable to introduce it in a pure state, and hence the above formula was devised for its preparation. It is officinal also in the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, in which works it is placed in the list of the Materia Medica. In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, the commercial Prussian blue is recognised; in the London, the pure substance is, no doubt, intended, as tests are given for ascertaining its purity. In the process above given, the sulphate of protoxide of iron in solution is first acidulated with sulphuric acid, and then converted into the tersul- phate of the sesquioxide by means of nitric acid. The object of the addition of the sulphuric acid, is to provide for the higher saturating power of the sesquioxide over the protoxide, and thus to prevent the precipitation of the subsulphate of the sesquioxide. The tersulphate is then decomposed by the gradual addition of a solution of ferrocyanuret of potassium. Three eqs. of ferrocyanuret, and two of tersulphate of sesquioxide of iron, are mutually decomposed, with the result of forming one eq. of Prussian blue, or the 3-4 ferrocyanuret of iron which precipitates, and six eqs. of sulphate of potassa which remain in solution. Ferrocyanogen is a tercyanuret of iron (FeCy3); and, representing it by its symbol Cfy, we may compactly express the above reactions by the following equation; 3CfyK2-f 2(Fe/)33S03)-=3Cfy,4Fe-f 6(KO,S03). Prussian blue contains the elements of six eqs. of water, which cannot be separated withoutjhe destruction of the compound. Adding these elements, we may suppose it to become a hydroferrocyanate of the sesqui- oxide of iron, represented by the formula,3CfyH2, Fe40B. From the formula given for the anhydrous compound, 3Cfy,4Fe, it is evident that it contains nine eqs. of cyanogen, and seven of iron. Preparation for Use in the Arts. Prussian blue is manufactured on the large scale as follows. A mixture made of equal parts of carbonate of po- tassa (pearlash of commerce), and animal matter, such as dried blood, hair, the shavings of horn, &c, is calcined at a red heat in an iron vessel, until it becomes pasty. The mass, when cold, is thrown, by portions at a time, into twelve or fifteen times its weight of water, with which it is stirred for half an hour. The whole is then put upon a linen filter; and the clear PART II. Ferrum. 961 solution obtained is precipitated by a mixed solution of two parts of alum and one of the sulphate of protoxide of iron. An effervescence occurs, due principally to carbonic acid; and a very abundant precipitate is thrown down, of a blackish-brown colour. This precipitate is washed by decan- tation, by means of a large quantity of water, which is renewed every twelve hours. By these washings, which last from twenty to twenty-five days, the precipitate becomes, successively, greenish-brown, bluish, and finally deep-blue. When of the latter colour, it is collected and allowed to drain upon a cloth, after which it is divided into cubical masses, dried, and thrown into commerce. Properties. Pure Prussian blue is a tasteless powder, insoluble in water and alcohol, and having a rich deep-blue colour. It is insoluble in dilute acids, decomposed by fuming nitric acid, and dissolved without decom- position by strong sulphuric acid, forming a white mass of the consistence of paste, from which the Prussian blue may be precipitated unchanged by water. Concentrated muriatic acid decomposes it, dissolving sesquioxide of iron, and liberating hydroferrocyanic acid. Boiled with red oxide of mer- cury it generates bicyanuret of mercury. (See Hydrargyri Cyanuretum.) By the contact of a red-hot body it takes fire and burns slowly, leaving a residue of sesquioxide of iron. When it is heated in close vessels, water, hydrocyanic acid, and carbonate of ammonia are evolved, and carburet of iron is left. Its composition has been given above. The Prussian blue of commerce was discovered by accident, in 1710, by Diesbach, a preparer of colours at Berlin. It has the same general properties as the pure substance. It occurs in small rectangular masses, which are heavier than water, and have a fracture presenting a bronzed appearance. Besides the constituents of pure Prussian blue, it always contains alumina, derived from the alum employed in its manufacture, and which serves to give it a body as a pig- ment, and uncombined sesquioxide of iron. These substances may be de- tected by boiling the pigment with diluted muriatic acid, and precipitating the filtered solution with ammonia. Pure Prussian blue, treated in a similar manner, yields no precipitate, and may thus be discriminated from the com- mercial substance. Medical Properties, 8rc. Prussian blue is supposed to act as a tonic, febrifuge, and alterative. Dr. Zollickoffer, of Maryland, has, recommended it as a remedy in intermittent and remittent fevers, and deems it to be par- ticularly adapted to such cases occurring in children, on account of the small- ness of the dose and its want of taste. He considers it more certain, prompt, and efficacious than the bark; while it has the advantage of being admissible in the state of pyrexia, and of not disagreeing with the most irritable stomach. It has also been used by Dr. Kirchoff, of Ghent, in epilepsy with good suc- cess. Dr. Bridges, of this city, exhibited it in a case of severe and protracted facial neuralgia, with considerable relief, after the usual remedies in this complaint had been tried with little or no benefit. It is sometimes employed as an application to ill-conditioned ulcers, mixed with some simple ointment, in the proportion of a drachm to the ounce. The dose of pure Prussian blue for an adult is from three to five grains, repeated several times a day, and gradually increased until some obvious effect is produced. Off. Prep. Hydrargyri Cyanuretum, U. S., Dub., Lond. B. FERRI IODIDUM. U. S., Lond., Ed. Iodide of Iron. "Take of Iodine two ounces ; Iron Filings an ounce; Distilled Water a pint and a half. Mix the Iodine with a pint of the Distilled Water, in a porcelain or glass vessel, and gradually add the Iron Filings, stirring con- 82 962 Ferrum. PART II. stantly. Heat the mixture gently until the liquid acquires a light-greenish colour; then filter, and after the liquid has passed, pour upon the filter half a pint of the Distilled Water boiling hot. When this shall have passed, evaporate the filtered liquor at a temperature not exceeding 212°, in an iron vessel, to dryness. Keep the dry Iodide in a closely-stopped bottle." U. S. The London process is the same as that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, ex- cept that the College directs only two-thirds of the quantity of iron filings, and orders that the preparation should be kept from the light. . " Take any convenient quantity of Iodine, Iron Wire, and Distilled Water, in the proportions for making Solution [Syrup] of Iodide of Iron. Proceed as directed for that process; but before filtering the solution, concentrate it to one-sixth of its volume, without removing the excess of Iron Wire. Put the filtered liquor quickly in an evaporating basin, along with twelve times its weight of quicklime around the basin, in some convenient apparatus, in which it may be shut up accurately in a small space, not communicating with the general atmosphere. Heat the whole apparatus in a hot air-press, or otherwise, until the water be entirely evaporated; and preserve the dry iodide in small well-closed bottles." Ed. In this process iron is made to unite with iodine by the intervention of water. The mixture at first is orange-coloured, from the circumstance that all the iodine has not united with the iron ; but after the application of heat it becomes fully saturated and limpid, and assumes a greenish colour. It is now a solution of iodide of iron, and yields the solid salt by evaporation. The proportion of the iron, taken in the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, is the same, namely, half the weight of the iodine; in the London, it is one- third of the weight of the latter. The London proportion gives an excess of iron; but as it is useful to keep the iodide constantly in contact with a con- siderable quantity of metallic iron, the greater excess of metal ordered in the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias has its advantages, and is not objection- able on the score of expense. Fine iron wire, recently cleaned, is directed by the Edinburgh College on account of its purity; but iron filings dissolve more readily, and, if carefully selected, will be sufficiently pure. It is ex- ceedingly difficult to obtain the solid salt perfectly pure, so great is the prone- ness of the solution to absorb oxygen, whereby the iodide becomes, in part, converted into sesquioxide. This change is prevented to a certain extent in the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, by evaporating to dryness in an iron vessel; and by the Edinburgh College,by concentrating the solution,before filtering, in contact with the excess of iron wire, and afterwards evapo- rating it ina hot air-press, subjected to the drying influence of quicklime. Properties. Iodide of iron is a crystalline substance, exceedingly deli- quescent, of a greenish-bkck colour, and styptic, chalybeate taste. " When carefully prepared by the Edinburgh formula, it has a dark grayish-black metallic appearance, and irregularly foliated texture, not unlike iodine itself." (Christison's Dispensatory.) Its solution, by evaporation with as little contact of air as possible, affords transparent, green, tabular crystals. When heated moderately it fuses, and, on cooling, becomes an opaque crystalline mass, having an iron-gray colour and metallic lustre. At a higher temperature it emits violet-coloured vapours, and the iron is left in the state of sesquioxide. It is very soluble both in water and alcohol. When recently prepared it is wholly soluble in water, forming a pale-green solution ; but if made for some time, it almost unavoidably contains some sesquioxide of iron from a partial decomposition, and will not be entirely soluble. The aqueous solu- tion is very liable to spontaneous decomposition, becoming at last orange-red from the generation of free iodine, and depositing sesquioxide of iron. Ac- PART II. Ferrum. 963 cording to Mr. Richard Phillips, jun., the first step in this change is the formation of protoxide of iron and hydriodic acid, from the decomposition of water. As the protoxide immediately begins to be converted into sesqui- oxide by absorbing oxygen from the air, and in this state is precipitated, the hydriodic acid is set free; and hence is accounted for the acidity of the solu- tion from the first moment the sesquioxide is deposited. Afterwards, the hydriodic acid is decomposed by the action of air and light, and iodine libe- rated. When the solution is prevented from generating free iodine, by plac- ing in it a coil of iron wire, according to the plan of Mr. Squire, the iron acts by combining with the iodine of nascent hydriodic acid, and not with nascent iodine. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iv. 19.) The plan of Mr. Squire does not prevent the deposition of sesquioxide, and has, therefore, been super- seded by the use of saccharine matter, which protects the solution from all change. (See Liquor Ferri Iodidi.) Iodide of iron is incompatible with alka- lies and their carbonates, with lime-water, and with all other substances by which sulphate of iron is decomposed. When crystallized it consists of one eq. of iodine 126*3, one of iron 28, and five of water 45= 199*3. Medical Properties and Uses. Iodide of iron was first employed in medi- cine by Dr. Pierquin in 1824. It was first used in the United States in 1832 by Professor Samuel Jackson, of this city, at whose request it was prepared in solution by Mr. E. Durand. Dr. A. T. Thomson, of London, presented it to the notice of the profession in England, as a remedy, in 1834. Its powers are those of a tonic, alterative, diuretic, and emmenagogue. As a therapeutic agent, it acts more like the preparations of iron than like those of iodine. It sometimes sharpens the appetite and promotes digestion, and occasionally acts as a laxative and diuretic. When it does not operate on the bowels, it generally augments the urine. Its use blackens the stools and lessens their fetor. It is chiefly employed in scrofulous complaints, swell- ings of the cervical glands, visceral obstructions attended with deficient action, chlorosis, atonic amenorrhoea, and leucorrhoea. In the two diseases last men- tioned, Dr. Pierquin employed it with success. In obstinate syphilitic ulcers, M. Baumes, of Lyons, used it with satisfactory results. He gave it in the form of pill, conjoined with extract of opium, and sometimes increased the dose to 20 grains in the course of twenty-four hours. In secondary syphilis, occurring in debilitated and scrofulous subjects, Ricord has found it a valuable remedy. The dose is three grains, gradually increased to eight or more. For forming enemata, injections for the vagina, and lotions for ulcers, one or two drachms of the salt may be dissolved in a pint of water. It should never be given in the form of pill, on account of its deliquescent property and proneness to decomposition, unless it be protected by saccha- rine matter; and even when thus protected, the pills become soft and lose their shape. Messrs. J. and H. Smith, of Edinburgh, have given a formula for pills of this kind, made from the anhydrous iodide of iron with refined sugar and honey. A similar pill had been previously devised by Dupasquier, and improved by Mr. H. W. Worthington, of this city, in which the pro- tecting substances are honey and tragacanth. In view of the serious ob- jections which apply to the solid iodide of iron, it might well be dispensed with in the Pharmacopoeias. Solutions for external use may be formed by reducing the U. S. saccharine solution (Liquor Ferri Iodidi) with water to any desired extent, at the moment of using them; and, in cases in which it might be desirable to give the salt in the solid state, the Edinburgh syrup could be reduced to a saccharine mass proper for making pills by evapora- tion to dryness. (See next article.) M. Calloud has proposed to make the iodide of iron for pills, by double decomposition, between three parts of 964 Ferrum. PART II. crystallized sulphate of protoxide of iron, and four of iodide of potassium. The iodide of iron formed is of course mixed with a little sulphate of potassa, the result of the double decomposition. The reacting salts are first reduced to fine powder, then triturated together, and finally brought to the pilular consistence by the successive addition of tragacanth, sugar, syrup, and powder of marshmallow. (Journ. de Pharm., ix. 356.) B. LIQUOR FERRI IODIDI. U.S. Ferri Iodidi Syrupus. Ed. Solution of Iodide of Iron. Syrup of Iodide of Iron. "Take of Iodine two ounces; Iron Filings an ounce; Prepared Honey five fluidounces; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix the Iodine with ten fluidounces of the Distilled Water, in a porcelain or glass vessel, and gradually add the Iron'Filings, stirring constantly. Heat the mixture gently until the liquor acquires a light-greenish colour; then, having added the honey, continue the heat a short time, and filter. Lastly, pour the Distilled Water upon the filter, and allow it to pass until the whole of the filtered liquor measures twenty fluidounces. Keep the solution in closely- stopped bottles." U. S. "Take of Iodine (dry) two hundred grains; fine Iron Wire, recently cleaned, one hundred grains; White Sugar, in powder,ybwr ounces and a half ; Distilled Water, six fluidounces [Imperial measure]. Boil the Iodine, Iron, and Water together in a glass matrass, at first gently to avoid the ex- pulsion of Iodine vapour, afterwards briskly, until about two fluidounces of liquid remain. Filter this quickly, while hot, into a matrass containing the Sugar; dissolve the Sugar with a gentle heat, and add Distilled Water, if necessary, to make up six fluidounces. Twelve minims contain one grain of Iodide of Iron." Ed. These preparations furnish a solution of iodide of iron, protected from change by saccharine matter. The saccharine matter selected in the U. S. formula is honey ; in the Edinburgh, sugar. Both formulas direct a de- terminate quantity of the preparation to be made; but the U.S. solution contains about 58 grains of the dry iodide of iron to the fluidounce; while the Ed. syrup contains, in the same measure, only 40 grains. The Ed. preparation is strictly a syrup as it is called, on account of the large quantity of sugar it contains; whereas the honey is diluted to a very considerable extent in the U. S. formula. The mode of making tlje iodide of iron in both the formulas is precisely the same as that given under the head of Ferri Iodidum. The Ed, College filters, while hot, into the vessel con- taining the sugar; so that, for a short time, the solutionis not under the pro- tecting influence of either the iron or sugar. In the U. S. formula, the better plan is pursued of adding the saccharine matter before filtration, and while the solution is still in contact with the excess of iron. The Ed. College directs the iodine to be dry, because, if moist, as the British iodine often is, less iodide of iron will be formed, and the syrup will be proportionably weaker. (See page 392 for the method of drying iodine.) The plan of protecting the solution of iodide of iron from change by sac- charine matter originated with M. Frederking, of Riga, who published a formula for the purpose in Buckner's Repertorium in 1839. The same plan was proposed in a paper by Mr. Win. Procter, Jr., contained in the Amer. Journ. of Pharmacy fox April, 1840, In this paper, Mr. Procter detailed his experiments with different saccharine substances, in order to determine their relative protecting power, pronounced in favour of prepared honey for that purpose, and gave a formula for a permanent solution of the iodide, which is the basis of that adopted in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. In PART II. Ferrum. 965 the Journal de Pharmacie for March, 1841, Dr. Dupasquier, of Lyons, claims to have made a pure iodide of iron, protected by the syrup of gum, as early as 183H. In the Pharmaceutical Transactions for August, 1841, Dr. A. T. Thomson gave a paper in which he confirmed the results of Frederking and Procter, and proposed a formula for a strong syrup, which is the basis of that adopted in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Properties. The U. S. solution of iodide of iron is a transparent liquid, free or nearly so from sediment, and of a pale-greenish colour. It becomes brown on the addition of sulphuric acid, and emits violet vapours if heated. It should not contain any free iodine, which, if present, may be detected by the production of a blue colour with starch. The Edinburgh syrup is a transparent liquid, either colourless or pale yellowish-green, and without sediment even when exposed to the air. When concentrated it becomes brown, and, if evaporated to dryness, it forms a mass which may be called the saccharine iodide, and which is not entirely soluble again, a little sesquioxide being left. This saccharine iodide, being protected by the sugar it contains, is not liable to the same objections as the pure solid salt, and may be made into pills. (See page 963.) Medical Properties. These have been detailed under the head of Ferri Iodidum. The dose of the solution is from 30 to 75 drops, sufficiently diluted with water; that of the Edinburgh syrup, one-half larger. The dilution should be made at the moment it is taken; and, in order to guard against injury to the teeth, the mouth should be carefully washed after each dose. g> FERRI OXIDUM HYDRATUM. U. S. Ferrugo. Ed. Hydrated Oxide of Iron. Hydrated Sesquioxide of Iron. "Take of Sulphate of Iron four ounces; Sulphuric Acid three flui- drachms and a half; Nitric Acid six fluidrachms, or a sufficient quantity; Solution of Ammonia a sufficient quantity; Water two pints. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron in the Water, and having added the Sulphuric Acid, boil the solution; then add the Nitric Acid in small portions, boiling the liquid for a minute or two after each addition, until the Acid ceases to produce a dark colour. Filter the liquid, allow it to cool, and add Solution of Ammonia in excess, stirring the mixture briskly. Wash the precipitate with water until the washings cease to yield a precipitate with chloride of barium, and keep it in close bottles with water sufficient to cover it." U. S. "Take of Sulphate of Iron four ounces; Sulphuric Acid (commercial) three fluidrachms and a half; Nitric Acid (D. 1*380) nine fluidrachms ; Stronger Aqua Ammonias three fluidounces and a half; Water two pints [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Sulphate in the Water, add the Sul- phuric Acid, and boil the solution; add then the Nitric Acid in small por- tions, boiling the liquid for a minute or two after each addition, until it ac- quires a yellowish-brown colour, and yields a precipitate of the same colour with ammonia. Filter, allow the liq'uid to cool, and add in a full stream the Aqua Ammonias, stirring the mixture briskly. Collect the precipitate on a calico filter; wash it with water till the washings cease to precipitate with nitrate of baryta; squeeze out the water as much as possible, and dry the precipitate at a temperature not exceeding 180°. When this preparation is kept as an antidote for poisoning with arsenic, it is preferable to preserve it in the moist state, after being simply squeezed." Ed. This is a new officinal of the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, introduced on account of its importance as an antidote to the poison of arsenious acid. The first step of the process is to convert the sulphate of 82* 966 Ferrum. PART II. protoxide of iron into the tersulphate of the sesquioxide, precisely as is done in the U. S. formula for pure Prussian blue. The sesquioxide is then thrown down in the hydrated state by the addition of ammonia in excess, and the precipitate is washed with water to remove adhering sulphate of ammonia, until the washings cease to precipitate with a barytic salt. In the U.S. Pharmacopoeia the precipitate is directed to be kept in close bottles with sufficient water to cover it, in which state it is most convenient for use as an antidote. The Edinburgh College directs it to be kept in two states,— dried at a temperature not exceeding 180° for use as a medicine, and in the moist state as an antidote. Properties. Hydrated oxide of iron, as directed to be kept by the U. S. formula, is a soft, moist, reddish-brown magma. If dried at a heat not ex- ceeding 180°, and afterwards pulverized, it forms a reddish-brown powder, not attracted by the magnet, being the sesquioxide in the state of hydrate, containing about 18 per cent, of water. In this state it is wholly and readily soluble in muriatic acid without effervescence. If exposed to a red heat it loses the combined water, and becomes the anhydrous sesquioxide, less easily soluble in acids, improper for medicinal use, and altogether without effect as an antidote. Hydrated oxide of iron consists of one eq. of sesqui- oxide 80, and two of water 18=98, and is represented by the formula Fe203+2HO. Medical Properties and Uses. The hydrated oxide, being readihy soluble in acids, would no doubt form, in the dry state, a good ferruginous prepara- tion for medicinal employment. Its antidotal powers in cases of poisoning by arsenic, the manner in which it acts, and the mode of using it, are fully explained under the head, of arsenious acid,page 23. Its power of rendering arsenious acid insoluble is readily shown by agitating a solution of the acid with a considerable excess of the moist oxide, filtering, and then testing the filtered solution for arsenious acid; when not a trace of the metal can be detected, even by sulphuretted hydrogen. The hydrated oxide, as obtained by the formula above given, contains a little ammonia, which is thought by some to assist its antidotal powers. At least it has been ascertained that the sesquioxide, precipitated by potassa, is a less efficient antidote to arsenic than the officinal preparation, and must be used in quantities three or four times as large to produce the same effect. The dry hydrate, rubbed up with water, is in the same proportion weaker than the pulpy hydrate. It has already been mentioned, under the head of arsenious acid, that the officinal subcarbonate of iron (precipitated carbonate) possesses antidotal powers to arsenic, though in an inferior degree; but this statement will not apply to it, if it has been exposed to a red heat, as is improperly done by some manu- facturing chemists. By ignition in this way it becomes anhydrous, and is rendered altogether inefficient as an antidote. B. FERRI OXIDUM NIGRUM. Ed. Ferri Oxydum Nigrum. Dub. Black Oxide of Iron. Martial Ethiops. "Take of Sulphate of Iron six ounces; Sulphuric Acid (commercial) two fluidrachms and two fluid scruples; Pure Nitric Acid four fluidrachms and a half; Stronger Aqua Ammonias four fluidounces and a half; Boiling Water three pints [Imperial measure]. Dissolve half the Sulphate in half the boiling Water, and add the Sulphuric Acid; boil; add the Nitric Acid by degrees, boiling the. liquid after each addition briskly for a few minutes. Dissolve the rest of the Sulphate in the rest of the boiling Water; mix thoroughly the two solutions ; and immediately add the Ammonia in a full stream, stirring the mixture at the same time briskly. Collect the black PART II. Ferrum. 967 powder on a calico-filter; wash it with water till the water is scarcely pre- cipitated by solution of nitrate of baryta, and dry it at a temperature not exceeding 180°." Ed. " Wash the Scales of the Oxide of Iron, found at the blacksmith's anvil, with water; and having dried them, separate them from impurities by means of a magnet. Then reduce them to powder, of which the finest particles are to be collected in the manner directed for the preparation of chalk." Dub. The preparations called black oxide of iron in the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias are not precisely identical. The oxide of the Edinbur* 1014 Infusa. PART II. INFUSUM QUASSIA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Infusion of Quassia. " Take of Q,uassia, rasped, two drachms ; Water [cold] a pint. Mace- rate for twelve hours, and strain." U. S. The London College takes two scruples of quassia, sliced, and a pint (Imperial measure) of boiling distilled water; the Edinburgh, a drachm of quassia in chips, and a pint (Imp. meas.) of boiling water; the Dublin, a scruple of quassia, and half a pint of boiling water; all macerate for two hours. The proportion of quassia directed in the British Pharmacopoeias is much too small. The London infusion contains the strength of only two grains of quassia in a fluidounce, the Dublin two grains and a half, and the Edin- burgh three grains; while the dose of quassia in substance is from twenty grains to a drachm, and of the extract not less than five grains. We, there- fore, prefer the proportions directed by our national Pharmacopoeia. Boil- ing water may be employed when it is desirable to obtain the preparation quickly; but cold water affords a clearer infusion. The dose is two fluid- ounces three or four times a day. W. INFUSUM RHEI. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Infusion of Rhu- barb. " Take of Rhubarb, bruised, a drachm; Boiling Water half a pint. Di- gest for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S., Dub. " Take of Rhubarb, sliced, three drachms ; boiling Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Macerate for two hours, in a lightly covered vessel, and strain." Lond. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised into coarse powder, one ounce; Spirit of Cinnamon two fluidounces ; boiling Water eighteen fluidounces. Infuse the Rhubarb for twelve hours in the Water, in a covered vessel, add the Spirit, and strain through linen or calico." Ed. In order that the rhubarb may be exhausted, it should be digested with the water near the fire, at a temperature somewhat less than that of boiling water. It is customary to add some aromatic, such as cardamom, fennel- seed, or nutmeg, which improves the taste of the infusion, and renders it more acceptable to the stomach. One drachm of either of these spices may be digested in connexion with the rhubarb. This infusion may be given as a gentle laxative, in the dose of one or two fluidounces, every three or four hours, till it operates. It is occasionally used as a vehicle of tonic, antacid, or more active cathartic medicines. The stronger acids and most metallic solutions are incompatible with it. W. INFUSUM ROSA COMPOSITUM. U.S., Lond. Infusum RosiE. Ed. Infusum Ros.a: Acidum. Dub. Compound Infusion of Roses. " Take of Red Roses [dried petals] half an ounce; Boiling Water, two pints and a half; Diluted Sulphuric Acid three fluidrachms; Sugar [refined] an ounce and a half. Pour the Water upon the Roses in a glass vessel; then add the Acid, and macerate for half an hour; lastly, strain the liquor, and add the Sugar." U. S. The London College takes three drachms of dried red roses, a fluidrachm and a half of diluted sulphuric acid, six drachms of sugar, and a pint (Im- perial measure) of boiling distilled water, and proceeds as above, except that it macerates for six hours instead of half an hour. The Edinburgh process corresponds with the London, except that boiling water is used instead of boiling distilled water, the maceration continues only for an PART II. Infusa, 1015 hour, and the acid is added after the maceration instead of before it. The Dublin process corresponds with that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, except that the petals are directed without their claws, and three pints of water are employed instead of two pints and a half. The red roses serve little other purpose than to impart a fine red colour and a slight astringent flavour to the preparation, which owes its medicinal virtues almost exclusively to the sulphuric acid. It is refrigerant and astrin- gent, and affords a useful and not unpleasant drink in hemorrhages and colli- quative sweats. It is much used by British practitioners as a vehicle for saline medicines, particularly sulphate of magnesia, the taste of which it serves to cover. It is also employed as a gargle, usually in connexion with acids, nitre, alum, or tincture of Cayenne pepper. The dose is from two to four fluidounces. W. INFUSUM SARSAPARILLA. U. S. Infusum Sarsaparilla Compositum. Dub. Infusion of Sarsaparilla. " Take of Sarsaparilla, bruised, an ounce; Boiling Water, a pint. Digest for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain. " This infusion may also be prepared by the process of displacement, in the manner directed for Infusion of Peruvian Bark." U.S. (See Infusum Cinchonx.) "Take of Sarsaparilla Root, previously cleansed with cold water and sliced, an ounce; Lime-water a pint. Macerate for twelve hours in a covered vessel, with occasional agitation, and strain." Dub. From the experiments of Soubeiran it appears that, by maceration in cold water for twenty-four hours, the active principle of sarsaparilla is extracted as effectually as by infusion in boiling water and digestion for two hours, and that in either case the infusion is stronger than the decoction; but the aqueous preparation which he found to possess most of the sensible properties of the root, was made by infusing the spirituous extract in water. (Seepage 951.) In all his experiments, M. Soubeiran employed the same proportions of the root and of water. (Journ. de Pharm., xvi. 43.) These observations corre- spond with those long since made by Hancock, and subsequently confirmed by Mr. T. J. Husband, of this city, so^fi|r as relates to the greater solvent power of spirit than of water over sarsaparilla. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 6.) Water does not appear competent completely to exhaust sarsapa- rilla of its active principle, unless employed in very large proportion. Still the watery preparations made from the root are certainly not without effi- cacy; and the inference from the experiments of Soubeiran is, that it is of little consequence whether the infusion be made with hot or cold water, sup- posing time to be allowed in the latter case. It is probable that percolation, as directed by the U. S. Pharmacoposia in the second formula above given, will be found the most efficacious plan. The sarsaparilla should in this case be reduced to powder. No advantage can result from the use of lime-water as directed by the Dublin College. From two to four fluidounces of the infusion may be taken three times a day. W. INFUSUM SCOPARII. Lond. Infusion of Broom. "Take of Broom an ounce; boiling Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Macerate for four hours in a lightly covered vessel, and strain." Lond. Used occasionally as a diuretic and aperient in dropsy. The dose is from one to four fluidounces. W. 1016 Infusa. PART II. INFUSUM SENEGA. Ed. Infusion of Seneka. " Take of Senega ten drachms; boiling Water one pint [Imperial mea- sure]. Infuse for four hours in a covered vessel, and strain." Ed. The efficacy of the officinal decoction of seneka has been proved by so long an experience, that we should be cautious in allowing it to be super- seded by the infusion on hypothetical grounds alone. The dose of the preparation, is from one to three fluidounces. W. INFUSUM SENNA. U.S., Ed. Infusum Senna Compositum. Lond., Dub. Infusion of Senna. " Take of Senna an ounce; Coriander, bruised, a drachm; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S. The London College orders fifteen drachms of senna, four scruples of sliced ginger, and a pint [Imperial measure] of boiling distilled water; the Edinburgh, an ounce and a half of senna, four scruples of ginger, and a pint [Imp. meas.] of boiling water; and the Dublin, an ounce of senna, a drachm of ginger, and a pint of boiling water. All macerate as above directed. We decidedly prefer, the formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The pro- portions of senna directed by the London and Edinburgh Colleges are unnecessarily large; and coriander is a better addition than ginger to an in- fusion very often given in inflammatory affections. This infusion deposits, on exposure to the air, a yellowish precipitate, which is said to aggravate its griping tendency; it should, therefore, not be made in large quantities. It is customary to connect with it manna and some one of the saline cathar- tics, which both increase its efficacy and render it less painful in its opera- tion. The following is a good formula for the preparation of senna tea. Take of senna half an ounce; sulphate of magnesia, manna, each, an ounce; fennel seed a drachm; boiling water half a pint. Macerate in a covered vessel till the liquid cools. One-third may be given for a dose, and repeated every four or five hours till it operates. Such a combination as this is called the black draught by English writers. The dose of the infusion of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is about four fluidounces. Off. Prep. Mistura Gentianae Composita, Lond. W. INFUSUM SENNA CUM TAMARINDIS. Dub. Infusum Senna Compositum. Ed. Infusion of Senna with Tamarinds. " Take of Senna one drachm; Tamarinds one ounce; Coriander, bruised, one drachm; Muscovado [sugar] half an ounce; boiling Water eight fluid- ounces. Infuse for four hours, with occasional stirring in a covered vessel, not glazed with lead, and then strain through linen or calico. "This infusion may be likewise made with twice or thrice the prescribed quantity of senna." Ed. The process of the Dublin College corresponds closely with the above, but does not admit the triple quantity of senna. In this infusion, the unpleasant taste of the senna is covered by the acidity of the tamarinds and sweetness of the sugar. It is aperient and refrigerant, and is well adapted to febrile com- plaints when a laxative operation is desired. The dose is from two to four fluidounces. W. INFUSUM SERPENTARIA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Infusion of Vir- ginia Snakeroot. " Take of Virginia Snakeroot half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S. The London College employs half an ounce of the root with a pint [Imperial measure] of boiling distilled water, and macerates for four hours. PART II. Infusa. 1017 The Edinburgh process differs from the London only in the use of boiling water instead of boiling distilled water. This is the ordinary form in which serpentaria is employed. The dose is one or two fluidounces, repeated every two hours in low forms of fever, but less frequently in chronic affections. W. INFUSUM SIMARUBA. Lond., Ed., Dub. Infusion of Sima- ruba. "Take of Simaruba [bark], bruised, three drachms; boiling Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Macerate for two hours in a lightly covered vessel, and strain." Lond. The Edinburgh process differs only in the use of boiling water instead of boiling distilled water. The Dublin College takes half a drachm of the bark, and half a pint of boiling water, and proceeds as above. This preparation is little used in the United States. The dose is two fluidounces. W. INFUSUM SPIGELIA. U. S. Infusion of Pinkroot. "Take of Pinkroot half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S. The dose of this infusion, for a child two or three years old, is from four fluidrachms to a fluidounce; for an adult, from four to eight fluidounces, repeated morning and evening. A quantity of senna equal to that of the spigelia is usually added, in order to insure a cathartic effect. W. INFUSUM TABACI. U. S., Dub. Enema Tabaci. Lond., Ed. In- fusion of Tobacco. "Take of Tobacco a drachm; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S., Dub. The London College takes a drachm of tobacco, and a pint (Imperial measure) of boiling distilled water, macerates for an hour, and strains. The Edinburgh College takes from fifteen to thirty grains of tobacco, and eight fluidounces of boiling water, infuses for half an hour, and strains. This is used only in the form of enema in strangulated hernia, obstinate colic, and retention of urine from spasm of the urethra. Only half of the pint should be employed at once; and if this should not produce relaxation in half an hour, the remainder maybe injected. Fatal consequences have resulted from too free a use of tobacco in this way. W. INFUSUM ULMI. U. S. Infusion of Slippery Elm Bark. "Take of Slippery Elm Bark, sliced and bruised, an ounce; boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S. This infusion may be used ad libitum as a demulcent and nutritious drink in catarrhal and nephritic diseases, and in inflammatory affections of the intestinal mucous membrane. W. INFUSUM VALERIANA. U. S., Lond., Dub. Infusion of Va- lerian. "Take of Valerian half an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain." U. S. The London College takes half an ounce of valerian, and a pint (Im- perial measure) of boiling distilled water, macerates for half an hour in a lightly covered vessel, and strains. The Dublin College directs two drachms of valerian, in coarse powder, seven fluidounces of boiling water, digestion for an hour, and straining after the liquid has become cold. The dose of this infusion is two fluidounces, repeated three or four times a day, or more frequently. **. 1018 Iodinum.—Linimenta. part ii. IODINUM. Preparation of Iodine. LIQUOR IODINI COMPOSITUS. U. S. Iodinei Liquor Com- positus. Ed. Liquor Potassii Iodidi Compositus. Lond. Compound Solution of Iodine. "Take of Iodine six drachms; Iodide of Potassium an ounce and a half; Distilled Water a pint. Dissolve the Iodine and Iodide of Potassium in the Water." U. S. "Take of Iodine two drachms; Iodide of Potassium an ounce; Distilled Water sixteen fluidounces [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Iodide and Iodine in the Water with gentle heat and agitation." Ed. "Take of Iodide of Potassium ten grains; Iodine five grains; Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Mix that they may dissolve." Lond. Although these preparations are all aqueous solutions of iodine and iodide of potassium, yet they differ very much in strength. Iodine is but sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolves when associated with twice its weight of iodide of potassium. The U. S. solution corresponds in strength with Lugol's concentrated solution of iodine in iodide of potassium, and is in- tended to facilitate the administration of the combination in drops. The Edinburgh preparation is a weaker form of the same concentrated solution, in which the iodide of potassium is taken at a quantity four times the amount of the iodine, instead of twice its amount, the usual proportion adopted. On the assumption that 16 Imperial fluidounces are the same as the wine pint, and they are only 5 fluidrachms less, it will be found, on comparing the for- mulas, that the Edinburgh solution is one-third as strong in iodine, and two- thirds as strong in iodide of potassium as that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The London preparation is a weak solution, and is just twice as Strong as Lugol's ioduretted mineral water of medium strength, assuming the Imperial fluid- ounce to be the same as the French ounce. The medicinal properties of these solutions depend mainly on the free iodine present in them, by which the'ir dose must be regulated, and not by the iodide of potassium. The dose of the U.S. solution is six drops, containing about a quarter of a grain of iodine, three times a day, given in four tablespoonfuls of sweetened water, and gradually increased. For children, the dose is proportionably less. (See page 394.) The Edinburgh solution may be given in doses about three times as large. The London preparation may be viewed as the fore- going solutions, brought nearly to the proper degree of dilution for exhibi- tion. The dose of it is a fluidounce, containing a quarter of a grain of iodine, to be diluted with an equal bulk of water, and gradually increased to two fluidounces or more. B. LINIMENTA. Liniments. These are preparations intended for external use, of such a consistence as to render them conveniently applicable to the skin by gentle friction with the hand. They are usually thicker than water, but thinner than the ointments; and are always liquid at the temperature of the body. W. PART II. Linimenta. 1019 LINIMENTUxM AMMONIA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Liniment of Ammonia'. Volatile Liniment. "Take of Solution of Ammonia a fluidounce; Olive Oil two fluidounces. Mix them." U. S. The London and Edinburgh processes agree with the above. The Dub- lin College directs two fluidrachms of "Water of Caustic Ammonia" and two fluidounces of the oil. The U. S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, having adopted a solution of ammonia of the same strength, accord at present in the propor- tion of the solution and of oil employed in the liniment. In this preparation, the ammonia unites with the oil to form a soap, which is partly dissolved, partly suspended in the water, producing a white, opaque emulsion. The liniment is an excellent rubefacient, frequently employed in inflammatory affections of the throat, catarrhal and other pectoral complaints of children, and in rheumatic pains. It is applied by rubbing it gently upon the skin, or placing a piece of flannel saturated with it over the affected part. Should it occasion too much inflammation, it must be diluted with oil. W. LINIMENTUM AMMONIA COMPOSITUM. Ed. Compound Liniment of Ammonia. " Take of Stronger Aqua Ammonias (D. 0^880) [Stronger Solution of Am- monia] five fluidounces; Tincture of Camphor two fluidounces; Spirit of Rosemary one fluidounce. Mix them well together. This liniment may be also made weaker for some purposes with three fluidounces of Tincture of Camphor and two of Spirit of Rosemary." Ed. This liniment is a very close imitation of Dr. Granville's counter-irritant lotion. Like that, it is of two strengths; the stronger containing five-eighths of its bulk of the ammoniacal solution, the weaker only five-thirteenths. They are nothing more than dilutions in different degrees of the officinal Liquor Ammoniae Fortior, which is itself too powerful for convenient use. The tincture of camphor and spirit of rosemary can scarcely exercise, in this case, any peculiar therapeutical influence. These preparations are em- ployed as prompt and powerful rubefacients, vesicatories, or escharotics, in various neuralgic, gouty, rheumatic, spasmodic, and inflammatory affections, in which strong and speedy counter-irritation is indicated. When mere rubefaction is desired, the weaker lotion may be used; and even for blister- ing or cauterizing, unless a very prompt effect is necessary. In the latter case the stronger lotion should be resorted to. They are applied by means of linen folded several times, or a thick piece of flannel saturated with the liniment. A convenient mode is to fill the wooden cover of a large pill or ointment box, an inch or two in diameter, with patent lint, saturate this with the liquid, and press it upon the part. The ammonia is thus prevented from escaping, and a definite boundary given to the inflammation. The application will generally produce rubefaction in from one to six or eight minutes, vesication in from three to ten minutes, and a caustic effect in a somewhat longer period. W. LINIMENTUM AMMONIA SESQUICARBONATIS. Lond. Liniment of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia. "Take of Solution of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia a fluidounce; Olive Oil three fluidounces. Shake them together until they unite." I^ond. In this, as in the liniment of ammonia, a kind of liquid soap is formed; but the union between the oil and alkali is less perfect, and after a short time the soapy matter separates from the water. The preparation is there- 1020 Linimenta. PART II. fore less elegant; and the end which it was probably intended to answer, of affording a milder rubefacient, may be obtained by diluting the liniment of ammonia with olive oil. W. LINIMENTUM CALCIS. U. S., Ed., Dub. Liniment of Lime. " Take of Lime-water, Flaxseed Oil, each, a fluidounce. Mix them." U.S. The Edinburgh College directs equal measures of the same ingredients; the Dublin, three fluidounces of lime-water, and three of olive oil. The lime forms a soap with the oil, of which there is a great excess, that separates upon standing. Olive oil, as directed by the Dublin College, is often substituted for that of flaxseed; but possesses no other advantage than that of having a less unpleasant odour. This is a very useful liniment in recent burns and scalds. It is sometimes called Carron oil, from having been much employed at the iron works of that name in Scotland. It is recommended to be applied upon carded cotton. W. LINIMENTUM CAMPHORA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Oleum Cam- phoratum. Dub. Camphor Liniment. " Take of Camphor half an ounce; Olive Oil two fluidounces. Dis- solve the Camphor in the Oil." U. S. The London and Edinburgh Colleges direct an ounce of camphor, and four fluidounces of olive oil; the Dublin College, a drachm of the former and an ounce of the latter. This is employed as an anodyne embrocation in sprains, bruises, rheu- matic or gouty affections of the joints, and other local pains. It is also sup- posed to have a discutient effect when rubbed upon glandular swellings. LINIMENTUM CAMPHORA COMPOSITUM. Lond., Dub. Compound Camphor Liniment. " Take of Camphor two ounces and a half; Solution of Ammonia seven fluidounces and a half; Spirit of Lavender a pint [Imperial measure]. Mix the Solution of Ammonia with the Spirit; then, from a glass retort, with a slow fire, distil a pint; lastly, dissolve the Camphor in the distilled liquor." Lond. The Dublin College takes two ounces of camphor, six fluidounces of solu- tion of ammonia, and a pint of spirit of lavender; and proceeds in the same manner. This preparation deserves a place rather among the Spirits or Tinctures than the Liniments. It may be imitated by dissolving a little oil of laven- der in tincture of camphor, and adding spirit of ammonia. It is used as a rubefacient and at the same time anodyne embrocation in local pains, par- ticularly of a rheumatic character. W. LINIMENTUM CANTHARIDIS. U. S. Liniment of Spanish Flies. "Take of Spanish Flies, in powder, an ounce; Oil of Turpentine half a pint. Digest for three hours by means of a water-bath, and strain." U. S. Oil of turpentine is an excellent solvent of the active principle of can- tharides, and, when impregnated with it, acquires in addition to its own rubefacient properties those of a powerful epispastic. This liniment was introduced into notice by Dr. Joseph Hartshorne, of Philadelphia, who employed it with great advantage as an external stimulant in the prostrate states of typhus fever. Caution, however, is necessary in its use, both to graduate its strength to the circumstances of the case, and not to apply it very extensively, lest it may produce severe and troublesome, if not dan- part II. Linimenta. 1021 gerous vesication. If too powerful in its undiluted state, it may be weakened by the addition of olive or linseed oil. W. LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI COMPOSITUM. Lond. Com- pound Liniment of Mercury. " Take of Stronger Mercurial Ointment, Lard, each, four ounces; Cam- phor an ounce; Rectified Spirit a fluidrachm; Solution of Ammonia four fluidounces. Rub the Camphor first with the Spirit, then with the Lard and Mercurial Ointment; lastly, add gradually the Solution of Ammonia, and mix the whole." Lond. This is a stimulating liniment, employed for the discussion of chronic glandular enlargements, swellings of the joints, and venereal tumours, and to promote the absorption of collections of fluid. It is said to be more apt to salivate than mercurial ointment. One drachm of it is to be rubbed upon the affected part night and morning. W. LINIMENTUM OPII. Lond., Ed. Linimentum Saponis cum Opio vel Linimentum Anodynum. Dub. Liniment of Opium. Anodyne Liniment. " Take of Castile Soap six ounces; Opium an ounce and a half; Cam- phor three ounces; Oil of Rosemary six fluidrachms; Rectified Spirit two pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate the Soap and Opium in the Spirit for three days ; filter, add the Oil and Camphor, and agitate briskly." Ed. The London and Dublin Colleges merely mix their liniment of soap (Tinctura Saponis Camphorata) with tincture of opium; the former, in the proportion of six measures of the liniment to two of the tincture; the latter, of four parts to three. This is commonly known by the name of anodyne liniment, and is employed as an anodyne and gently rubefacient embrocation in sprains, bruises, and rheumatic and gouty pains. It differs from the camphorated tincture of soap only in containing opium, and is most conveniently pre- pared by extemporaneously mixing that tincture with laudanum, as directed by the London and Dublin Colleges. W. LINIMENTUM SAPONIS CAMPHORATUM. U.S. Camphorated Soap Liniment. Opodeldoc. "Take of Common Soap three ounces; Camphor an ounce; Oil of Rosemary, Oil of Origanum, each, a fluidrachm; Alcohol a pint. Digest the Soap with the Alcohol, by means of a sand-bath, till it is dissolved; then add the Camphor and Oils, and when they are dissolved, pour the liquor into broad-mouthed bottles. This Liniment has, when cold, the consistence of a soft ointment." U. S. This preparation differs from the common soap liniment (Tinctura Saponis Camphorata) chiefly in being prepared with common white soap, made with animal fat, instead of Castile soap, which is made with olive oil. The former is peculiarly adapted to the purposes of this formula, in con- sequence of assuming, when its alcoholic solution cools, the consistence cha- racteristic of the liniment. It is customary, after the solution of the soap has been effected, to pour the liquor into small wide-mouthed glass bottles, con- taining about four fluidounces, in which it solidifies into a soft, semitrans- parent, uniform, yellowish-white mass. This liniment melts with the heat of the body, and therefore becomes liquid when rubbed upon the skin. It is much used, under the name of opodeldoc, as an anodyne application in sprains, bruises, and rheumatic pains. W. 87 1022 Linimenta.—Magnesia. part ii. LINIMENTUM SIMPLEX. Ed. Simple Liniment. " Take of Olive Oil four parts; White Wax one part. Dissolve the Wax in the Oil with a gentle heat, and agitate well as the fused mass cools and concretes." Ed. This is little employed. It may be used for keeping the skin soft and smooth in cold weather. Off. Prep. Unguentum Zinci, Ed. W. LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINA. UyS., Lond., Dub. Lini- mentum Terebinthinatum. Ed. Liniment of Turpentine. " Take of Oil of Turpentine half a pint; Resin Cerate a pound. Add the Oil of Turpentine to the Cerate previously melted, and mix them." U. S., Dub. " Take of Soft Soap two ounces ; Camphor an ounce ; Oil of Turpentine sixteen fluidounces. Shake them together until they are mixed." Lond. "Take of Resinous Ointment four ounces ; Oil of Turpentine^i-e^m-i- ounces; Camphor half an ounce. Melt the ointment, and gradually mix with it the Camphor and Oil, till a uniform liniment be obtained." Ed. This preparation, made according to the U. S. and Dublin formulas, is the liniment originally proposed by Dr. Kentish, and subsequently so highly lauded as a remedy in burns and scalds. It should be applied as soon after the occurrence of the accident as possible, and should be discontinued when the peculiar inflammation excited by the fire is removed. The best mode of application is to cover the burned or scalded surface with pledgets of patent lint saturated with the liniment. It should not be allowed to come in contact with the sound parts. This liniment may also be successfully applied in other cases of cutaneous inflammation requiring stimulation, as in certain conditions of erysipelas. The liniment of the London College, which has been substituted, in the last edition of their Pharmacopoeia, for the mixture of resin cerate and oil of turpentine, directed in the former edition, is a sti- mulating mixture, applicable wherever a powerful rubefacient impression is desired. W. MAGNESIA. Preparations of Magnesia. MAGNESIA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Magnesia. _ " Take of Carbonate of Magnesia any quantity. Put it into an earthen vessel, and expose it to a red heat for two hours, or till the carbonic acid is wholly expelled." U. S. " Take of Carbonate of Magnesia four ounces. Burn it for two hours in a strong fire." Lond. "Take any convenient quantity of Carbonate of Magnesia, expose it in a crucible to a full red heat for two hours, or till the powder, when sus- pended in water, presents no effervescence on the addition of muriatic acid. Preserve the product in well-closed bottles." Ed. " Take-of Carbonate of Magnesia any quantity. Put it into a crucible, and subject it to a strong heat for two hours. When the Magnesia has be- come cool, preserve it in a glass vessel." Dub. By exposure to a red heat, the water and carbonic acid of the carbonate of magnesia are expelled, and the earth is obtained pure. According to Dr. Black, the carbonate loses seven-twelfths of its weight by calcination. Brande says that the loss varies from 50 to 60 per cent, of which from 15 to 20 per cent, is water. About the close of the process the earth exhibits a luminous or phosphorescent appearance, which is said to be a good criterion PART II. Magnesia. 1023 of its freedom from carbonic acid. (Duncan.) A more certain indication, however, is the absence of effervescence when muriatic acid is added to a little of the magnesia, previously mixed with water. It is an error to sup- pose that a very intense heat is requisite in the calcination. The temperature of ignition is sufficient for the expulsion of the water and carbonic acid, and any increase serves only to render the magnesia harder, denser, less readily soluble in acids, and consequently less useful as a medicine. In order to ensure a pure product, care should be taken that the carbonate employed be free from lime. It should be rubbed to powder before being introduced into the pot or crucible; and, as in consequence of its levity it occupies a very large space, the plan has been proposed of moistening and compressing it in order to reduce its bulk. The magnesia may thus be obtained of greater density ; but this is an equivocal recommendation ; and the French pharma- ceutical writers direct that the vessels employed should be sufficiently large to contain a considerable quantity of the carbonate, without the necessity of resorting to compression. The officinal direction, to keep the magnesia, after it has been prepared, in well-stopped glass vessels, is founded on the fact that it absorbs carbonic acid and water from the air ; but, as the absorp- tion of the acid goes on very slowly, and. that of water does not injure the preparation, the caution is often neglected in the shops. The great bulk of the earth renders its introduction into small bottles inconvenient. A four ounce bottle holds only about an ounce of the purest and finest magnesia. But its specific gravity is greatly increased by trituration ; and four times the quantity may be thus got into the same space. (Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., iii. 198.) The density of Henry's magnesia, which is at least four times that of the earth prepared in the ordinary way, has been ascribed to this cause. It has also been attributed to the influence of intense heat em- ployed in the calcination. The conjecture has even been advanced, that this magnesia, which has enjoyed so great a popularity in England and this coun- try, is prepared by precipitating a solution of sulphate of magnesia by caustic potassa; as the earth afforded by this plan is comparatively dense. It is asserted that the magnesia, prepared from the carbonate procured by precipi- tating the sulphate of magnesia with carbonate of soda, is softer to the touch, and bears a closer resemblance to Henry's than that prepared from the ordi- nary carbonate. The fact is explained by the presence in common magnesia of a little sulphate of potassa, from which it is difficult entirely to free it in consequence of the sparing solubility of this salt, and of a portion of silica which originally existed in the carbonate of potassa employed to decompose the sulphate of magnesia, and of which the carbonate of soda is destitute. According to Mr. Richard Phillips, jun., if equivalent quantities of crystal- lized sulphate of magnesia and crystallized carbonate of soda be boiled together in water, the mixture evaporated to dryness, the residual salts cal- cined, and the sulphate of soda dissolved out by water, the magnesia obtained will be dense. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 118., from the Pharm. Journ.) The advantages of Henry's magnesia, independently of the convenience of its less bulk, are its greater softness, and more ready miscibility with water. A preparation similar to Henry's is prepared by Mr. T. J. Husband, of Philadelphia, and sold under the name of Husband's Magnesia. Properties, <^c. Magnesia is a very light, white, inodorous powder, of a feeble alkaline taste. Its sp. gr. is commonly stated at 2*3. It was deemed infusible, till melted by means of the compound blowpipe of Dr. Hare. Water sprinkled upon it is absorbed to the extent of about 18 per cent., but with scarcely any increase of temperature. It is almost insoluble, requiring, according to Dr. Fyfe, 5142 parts of water at 60°, and 36,000 parts of boiling water for solution. Water thus impregnated has no effect 1024 Magnesia. PART II. on vegetable colours; but magnesia itself produces a brown stain by contact with moistened turmeric paper. . Magnesia is a metallic oxide, consisting of one equivalent of magnesium 12*7, and one of oxygen 8=20*7. Magne- sium is a white, very brilliant metal, resembling silver, malleable, fusible at a low temperature, and convertible into magnesia by the combined action of air and moisture. There is a hydrate of magnesia consisting of one equiv. of the earth and one of water. Magnesia forms with nitric and muriatic acids, salts which are soluble in alcohol and very deliquescent. It is preci- pitated from its saline solutions by the pure alkalies in the state of a hydrate, and by the carbonates of potassa and soda as a carbonate; but it is not pre- cipitated by the alkaline bicarbonates, nor by common carbonate of ammonia. Magnesia is liable to contain, as impurities, carbonate of magnesia, lime, alumina, silica, and small quantities of the soluble salts employed or pro- duced in the preparation of the carbonate from which it is procured. The presence of carbonate of magnesia is indicated by effervescence when the earth is dissolved in muriatic acid. Lime, which is a frequent impurity, and imparts to the magnesia a more strongly alkaline and more disagreeable taste, is detected by oxalate of ammonia or bicarbonate of potassa. Neither of these salts disturbs a neutral solution of pure magnesia in a dilute acid; but if lime be present, both produce precipitates, the former of oxalate, the lat- ter of carbonate of lime. As magnesia is completely dissolved by muriatic acid, silica and other impurities insoluble in that acid would be left behind. Alumina is indicated by the production of a precipitate, when ammonia is added in excess to a solution of fifty grains of magnesia in a fluidounce of muriatic acid. (Christison's Dispensatory.) If the magnesia contain a soluble sulphate or carbonate, from insufficient washing of the carbonate of magnesia from which it was prepared, chloride of barium will reveal it by producing a precipitate with water digested on the magnesia. Medical Properties and Uses. Magnesia is antacfcLajadJaxative; and is much employed, under the name of calcined magnesia, in dyspepsia, sick headache, gout, and other complaints attended with sour stomach and con- stipation. It is also a favourite remedy in the complaints of children, in which acidity of the primas viae is often a prominent symptom. Its antacid properties render it very useful in gravel attended with an excessive secre- tion of uric acid. Its advantages over carbonate of magnesia are that it may be given in a smaller dose, and does not occasion flatulence. The dose as a laxative is from thirty grains to a drachm; as an antacid merely, or antilithic, from ten to thirty grains twice a day. When it meets with no acid, it is apt to linger in the stomach or bowels, and may in this case be followed by lemonade. It should be administered in water or milk, and should be thoroughly triturated so as to render the mixture uniform. If mixed with less than 14 or 15 times its weight of water, and allowed to stand for a day or two, magnesia is apt to form with the liquid a more or less concrete mass, owing to the production of a hydrate of the earth, and the solidification of a portion of the water. This change does nbt take place, or at least much less readily, when magnesia already saturated with moisture is employed instead of that freshly calcined. It has been conjectured, that anhydrous magnesia might prove injurious in the stomach by solidifying its liquid contents; and the earth which has become saturated with moisture by exposure to a damp air is preferably recommended. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iv. 360, and v. 475.) Freshly precipitated hydrate of magnesia will serve as an antidote to arsenious acid, though less efficient than the hydrated peroxide of iron. Off. Prep. Trochisci Magnesias, U. S.; Pulvis Rhei Compositus, Ed. PART II. Magneda.—Mellita. 1025 MAGNESIA SULPHAS PURUM. Dub. Pure Sulphate of Mag- nesia. " Take of Commercial Sulphuric Acid tiventy-fiveparts; Water one hun- dred parts; Carbonate of Magnesia twenty-four parts, or as much as may be sufficient to saturate the Acid. Mix the Sulphuric Acid and Water, and then gradually add the Carbonate of Magnesia. Lastly, evaporate the fil- tered liquor, so that crystals may form when it cools." Dub. As the sulphate of magnesia prepared in the large way is sufficiently pure for medical purposes, the above process is superfluous. W. MELLITA. Preparations of Honey. Honey is used in pharmacy only as the vehicle of more active medicines. It is said to have this advantage over syrup, that its preparations are less apt to become candied; but as it contains principles which disagree with the stomachs of many persons, and as its variable consistence prevents the same exact precision in regard to proportion as is attainable with a solution of pure sugar, it is at present little employed. The preparations in which honey and vinegar are combined are called Oxymels. Medicated honeys are of a proper consistence, if, when a small quantity, allowed to cool upon a plate, is divided by the edge of a spoon, the portions do not readily coalesce. A more accurate criterion, however, is their spe- cific gravity, which should be 1*319 (35° B.) at ordinary temperatures, and 1*261 (30° B.) at the boiling point of water. W. MEL DESPUMATUM. U.S., Dub. Clarified Honey. Take of Honey any quantity. Melt it by means of a water-bath, and then remove the scum." U. S., Dub. Honey by the heat of the water-bath becomes so fluid, that the wax and other lighter impurities which it contains rise to the surface, and may be skimmed off; while the heavier substances which may have been accident- ally or fraudulently added, such as sand or other earth, sink to the bottom. The following method of clarifying honey is practised in France. Take of white honey 3000 parts; water 750 parts; carbonate of lime, powdered and washed, 96 parts. Mix them in a suitable vessel, and boil for three minutes, stirring constantly. Then add 96 parts of animal charcoal pre- viously washed, heated to redness, powdered, and sifted, and boil for a few minutes. Lastly, add the whites of two eggs beat up with 500 parts of water, and bring the liquid to the boiling point. Withdraw the vessel from the fire, and, after the mixture has cooled for fifteen minutes, strain it through flannel, and repeat the straining till the liquid passes perfectly clear. Should it not have the proper consistence, it should be concentrated sufficiently by a quick boiling. The French Codex simply directs six pounds of white honey to be heated with three pounds of water, skimmed, concentrated to 30° B. while boiling hot, and then strained through flannel. The following process for clarifying common honey was proposed byM. Borde, and approved by the Society of Pharmacy at Paris. Take of com- mon honey 5000 parts; vegetable charcoal, in powder, 320 parts; animal charcoal, in powder, 160 parts ; nitric acid of 30° or 32° Baume 40 parts; water 320 parts. Rub the two kinds of charcoal, in a porcelain mortar, with the water and acid; then add the honey, and put the whole into a tinned 87* 1026 Mellita. PART II. pan. Place the vessel over the fire, and allow it to remain for eight or ten minutes without suffering it to boil; then add 1600 parts of milk in which the white of an egg has been beaten, and boil for four or five minutes. Remove the liquid from the fire, and pass it through a strainer in a warm place, repeating the straining if the first portions are not clear. Of the nitric acid employed in the process, a portion is saturated by the lime of the animal charcoal, and the remainder unites with the caseous iftatterofthe milk,which it thus causes to coagulate; none remains in the honey. (Diet, des Drogues.) Honey clarified by these processes is as clear and colourless as syrup made with sugar, but still retains a peculiar flavour. It is less disposed to ferment than crude honey, and is said not to be so liable to produce griping pain when swallowed. Off.Prep. Confectio Aromatica, U.S.; Confectio Opii, U.S.; Confec- tio Rosas, U. S., Dub.; Conserva Rutae, Dub.;. Mel Boracis, Dub.; Mel Prasparatum, U.S.; Mel Rosae, U.S., Dub.; Oxymel, Dub.; Oxymel Col- chici, Dub.; Oxymel Scillae, U.S., Dub.; Pilulae Ferri Carbonatis, U.S.; Tinctura Opii Camphorata, U. S. W. MEL PRAPARATUM. U. S. Prepared Honey. " Take of Clarified Honey half a pint; Diluted Alcohol a pint; Prepared Chalk half an ounce. Having mixed the Honey and Diluted Alcohol, add the Prepared Chalk, and allow the mixture to stand for two hours, occasion- ally stirring it. Then heat it to ebullition, filter, and by means of a water- bath evaporate the clear liquor, so that when cold it may have the specific gravity 1*32." U. S. This process was intended to prepare honey, so as to fit it better for addition to the salts of protoxide of iron, as well as to the protiodide and protochloride, in order to prevent the absorption of oxygen. The prepared chalk neutralizes any acid which it may contain, while impurities insoluble in diluted alcohol are left behind, and the honey is deprived of colour. Off. Prep. Liquor Ferri Iodidi, U. S. W. MEL BORACIS. Lond., Ed., Dub. Honey of Borax. " Take of Borax, in powder, a drachm; Honey [Clarified Honey, Dub.] an ounce. Mix them." Lond., Ed., Dub. This preparation might well be left to extemporaneous prescription. It is used in aphthous ulcerations of the mouth. W. MEL ROSA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Honey of Roses. * " Take of Red Roses two ounces; Clarified Honey two pints; Boiling Water a pint and a half. Macerate the Roses in the Water for two hours, and strain; then add the Honey, and evaporate by means of a water-bath to the proper consistence. The specific gravity of the Honey of Roses should be 1*32." U. S. The London College macexatesfour ounces of dried red roses in two pints and a half [Imperial measure] of boiling water for six hours ; then strains-, adds five pounds of honey, and evaporates by a water-bath to the proper consistence. The Edinburgh College, operating upon the same materials, in the same quantities, infuses the petals for six hours in the water, strains with expression, allows the impurities to subside, decants the clear liquor, adds the honey, and evaporates, in the vapour-bath, to the consistence of syrup, removing the scum which forms. The Dublin process corresponds with the London, except that three wine pints of water are used instead of two and a half Imperial pints, and the scum which forms during the evapo- ration is directed to be removed. part ii. Mellita. 1027 This preparation has the flavour of the rose with its slight astringency, and forms a pleasant addition to the gargles employed in inflammation and ulceration of the mouth and throat. W. OXYMEL. Lond., Dub. Oxymel. "Take of Honey ten pounds; Acetic Acid a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Mix the Acid with the Honey previously heated." Lond. The Dublin College takes two pounds of crude honey, and a pint of distilled vinegar, and boils them to the consistence of syrup, removing the scum as it rises. This mixture of honey and vinegar forms a pleasant addition to gargles, and is sometimes used as a vehicle of expectorant medicines, and to impart flavour to drinks in febrile complaints. If it be prepared according to the London formula, care must be taken to employ the acetic acid of the strength directed by that College. W. OXYMEL COLCHICI. Dub. Oxymel of Colchicum. " Take of the fresh Bulb of Colchicum, cut into thin slices, an ounce; Distilled Vinegar a pint; Clarified Honey two pounds. Macerate the Colchicum with the Vinegar, in a glass vessel, for forty-eight hours. Strain the liquor, with strong expression, from the root, and add the Honey. 'Lastly, boil the mixture, frequently stirring it with a wooden spatula, to the consistence of a syrup." Dub. This preparation is seldom used in this country, and could not, indeed, be conveniently prepared, according to the above directions, as we have not the fresh bulbs. It is in no respect superior to the wine of colchicum, by which it has been superseded. The dose is a fluidrachm, repeated twice a day, and gradually increased till it produces the desired effect. W. OXYMEL CUPRI SUBACETATIS. Dub. Linimentum Aru- ginis. Lond. Oxymel of Subacetate of Copper. " Take of Verdigris in powder [Prepared Subacetate of Copper, Dub.] an ounce; Vinegar [Distilled Vinegar, Dub.] seven fluidounces; Honey [Clarified Honey, Dub.] fourteen ounces. Dissolve the Verdigris in the Vinegar, and strain the solution through linen; then gradually add the Honey, and boil down to the proper consistence." Lond., Dub. This is an external stimulant and escharotic, and was formerly called met AEgyptiacum. It is employed either undiluted or mixed with some mild ointment, to destroy fungous granulations, or to repress their growth. In the latter state, it is a useful stimulant to flabby, indolent, and ill-conditioned ulcers, and, largely diluted with water, has been used as a gargle in venereal ulcerations of the mouth and throat. It is sometimes also applied undiluted to those ulcers in the fauces, by means of a camel's-hair pencil. W. OXYMEL SCILLA. U. S., Lond., Dub. Oxymel of Squill. "Take of Clarified Honey three pounds; Vinegar of Squill two pints. Mix them, and evaporate by means of a water-bath to the proper consistence. The specific gravity of the Oxymel of Squill should be 1*32." U. S. The London College takes three pounds of honey and a pint and a half [Imperial measure] of vinegar of squill; the Dublin, three pounds of clari- fied honey and two pints of vinegar of squill; both boil in a glass vessel, with a slow fire, to the proper consistence. This preparation has the virtues of squill, but is in no respect superior to the syrup. Prepared according to the directions of the London and Dublin Colleges, it would be very liable to be injured by heat. It is 1028 Mellita. —Mistura. PART II. chiefly used as an expectorant in chronic catarrh, humoral asthma, hooping- cough, and generally in those states of the pulmonary organs in which the bronchial tubes are loaded with a viscid mucus of difficult expectoration. The dose is from one to two fluidrachms. In large doses it is emetic, and as such may sometimes be given with advantage in infantile croup and catarrh. W. MISTUR^E. Mixtures. This term should be restricted, in the language of pharmacy, to those preparations in which insoluble substances, whether solid or liquid, are suspended in watery fluids by the intervention of Gum Arabic, sugar, the yolk of eggs, or other viscid matter. When the suspended substance is of an oleaginous nature, the mixture is sometimes called an emulsion. The object of these preparations is usually to facilitate the administration, to conceal the taste, or to obviate the nauseating'effects of unpleasant medi- cines; and their perfection depends upon the intimacy with which the ingredients are blended. Some skill and care are requisite for the produc-. tion of a uniform and perfect mixture. As a general rule, the body to be suspended should be thoroughly mixed by trituration with the substance intended to act as the intermedium, before the watery vehicle is added. In the case of the liquid balsams and oils, if gum Arabic be employed as the intermedium, it should be previously brought to the state of mucilage of the consistence directed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The white of eggs is frequently ordered by physicians as the suspending substance; but it is inferior for this purpose to the yolk, or to gum Arabic. When the white is used it should be well beaten, and incorporated with the oleaginous or balsamic substance before the water is added.* Mixtures are generally the objects of extemporaneous prescription; but a few have been deemed of sufficient importance to merit a place in the Pharmacopoeias. They should be prepared only when wanted for use. W. MISTURA ACACIA. Ed. Emulsio Arabica. Dub. Gum Arabic Mixture. Gum Arabic Emulsion. "Take of Mucilage [of gum Arabic] three fliddounces; Sweet Almonds one ounce and two drachms; Pure Sugar five drachms; Water two pints [Imperial measure]. Steep the Almonds in hot water and peel them; beat them to a smooth pulp in an earthenware or marble mortar, first with the Sugar, and then with the Mucilage; add the Water gradually,stirring con- stantly, then strain through linen or calico." Ed. "Take of Gum Arabic, in powder, two drachms; Sweet Almonds, blanched, Refined Sugar, each, half an ounce; Water a pint. Dissolve the Gum in the heated Water, and when the solution is almost cold, gradually pour it upon the Almonds, previously well beaten with the Sugar, triturating at the same time so as to form.'an emulsion; then strain." Dub. This mixture is used as a..demulcent in the dose of one or two fluid- ounces, or as a vehicle for various medicines in inflammatory affections of the bronchial, alimentary, and urinary mucous membranes. W. * For some good practical observations upon the preparation of mixtures, the reader is referred to a communication published in the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, vol. iv. p. 11, by W. Hodgson, Jun. PART II. Mistura. 1029 MISTURA AMMONIACI. U.S., Lond., Dub. Ammoniac Mix- ture. " Take of Ammoniac two drachms; Water half a pint. Rub the Am- moniac with the Water gradually added, until they are thoroughly mixed." U. S. The London College takes five drachms of ammoniac, and a pint [Impe- rial measure] of water, and proceeds as above. The Dublin College directs a drachm of ammoniac to be rubbed with eight fluidounces of pennyroyal water, and the mixture to be strained through linen. In this mixture the insoluble part of the ammoniac is suspended by means of the gum, imparting a milky appearance to the preparation, which, from this circumstance, was formerly called lac ammoniaci or milk of ammoniac. The greater portion of the resin subsides upon standing. The mixture is slightly curdled by acids. The dose is from one to two tablespoonfuls. W. MISTURA AMYGDALA. U.S., Lond. Mistura Amygdalarum. Ed., Dub. Almond Mixture. Almond Emulsion. "Take of Sweet Almonds half an ounce; Gum Arabic, in powder, half a drachm; Sugar two drachms ; Distilled Water eight fluidounces. Mace- rate the Almonds in water, and, having removed their external coat, beat them with the Gum Arabic and Sugar, in a marble mortar, till they are thoroughly mixed ; then rub the mixture with the Distilled Water gradually added, and strain." U. S. " Take of Almond Confection tico ounces and a half; Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. To the Almond Confection, while rubbing it, gradually add the Water, till they are mixed; then strain through linen." Lond. "Take of Conserve of Almonds two ounces; Water two pints [Imp. measure]. Add the Water gradually to the Confection, triturating con- stantly ; and then strain through linen or calico. Or, " Take of Sweet Almonds one ounce and two drachms ; Pure Sugar five drachms ; Mucilage half a fluidounce; Water two pints [Imp. measure]. Steep the Almonds in hot water and peel them ; and proceed as for the Mistura Acacias." Ed. " Take of Sweet Almonds, blanched, an ounce and a half; Bitter Al- monds two scruples; Refined Sugar half an ounce; Water two pints and a half. Triturate the Almonds with the Sugar, adding the Water by degrees, and strain." Dub. Of the above modes of preparing the almond emulsion, we prefer that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, which was very properly substituted, in the last edition of that work, for the mixture made with almond confection directed in the previous edition. This confection very speedily spoils if kept, and it would be a very unnecessary complication of the process to prepare it each time that the emulsion might be wanted. The London and first Edinburgh processes are, therefore, objectionable. In the second pro- cess of the latter College, mucilage is employed instead of powdered gum Arabic, which is preferable, as less likely to have undergone change. The Dublin process is distinguished by the use of bitter almonds, which, though in too small proportion for medicinal effect, impart a flavour which is not acceptable to all individuals, and should be left to the choice of the pre- scriber. The preparations, however, of the different Pharmacopoeias are essentially the same. The gum Arabic in these formulas is introduced not so much for its demulcent properties as to assist in the suspension of the 1030 Mistura. PART II. insoluble ingredients of the almonds. In the Mistura Acaciae above de- scribed it is the prominent ingredient. The same formula will answer for the prepartion of an emulsion of bitter almonds, which may be preferred to the present when a slight influence of hydrocyanic acid is desired. The oleaginous matter of the almonds is suspended in the water by means of their albumen, gum, and sugar, forming a milky emulsion. When the almonds themselves are employed, as in the U. S. process, care should be taken to reduce them to the consistence of a paste previously to the addition of the water; and with each successive portion of fluid a uniform mixture should be formed before another portion is added. Common water, when not very impure, may be properly substituted for the distilled. Great care should be taken to select the almonds perfectly free from rancidity. The mixture is not permanent. Upon standing, the oil rises like thick cream to the surface, and the separation is effected more quickly by heat, alcohol, and the acids, which coagulate the albumen. It has a close analogy to milk in chemical relations as well as in appearance. The preparation, in warm weather, soon becomes sour, and unfit for use. The almond mixture has a bland taste,and maybe used as an agreeable, nutritive demulcent in catarrhal and dysenteric affections, and irritation of the urinary passages. To be of service it must be freely employed. From two to eight fluidounces may be taken at once. It is occasionally employed as the vehicle of less agreeable medicines; but should not be used in con- nexion with any considerable quantity of tinctures, acidulous'salts, or other substances containing an excess of acid. W. MISTURA ASSAFCETIDA. U. S., Lond. Mistura Assjef(etivje. Dub. Assafetida Mixture. "Take of Assafetida two drachms ; Water half a pint. Rub the Assa- fetida with the Water gradually added, until they are thoroughly mixed." U.S. The London College directs five drachms of assafetida and a pint [Impe- rial measure] of water; the Dublin, one drachm of assafetida and eight fluidounces of pennyroyal water. This mixture, from its whiteness and opacity, is frequently called lac assa- foetidae, or milk of assafetida. It is, as a general rule, the best form for the administration of this antispasmodic, being less stimulant than the tincture, and more prompt in its action than the pill. Its excessively disagreeable smell and taste are, however, objections, which induce a frequent preference of the last-mentioned preparation. It is very often employed as an enema. The dose is from one to two tablespoonfuls frequently repeated. From two to four fluidounces may be given by the rectum. W. MISTURA CAMPHORA CUM MAGNESIA. Ed., Dub. Mix- ture of Camphor with Magnesia. " Take of Camphor twelve grains; Carbonate of Magnesia half a drachm; Water six ounces [fluidounces]. Triturate the Camphor with theMagnesia, adding the Water gradually, and mix." Dub. The Edinburgh College takes ten grains of camphor, twenty-five grains of carbonate of magnesia, and six fluidounces of water, and proceeds as above. This differs from the Aqua Camphorae of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, in which, though the camphor is dissolved by the intervention of carbonate of magnesia, the latter is afterwards separated by filtration. In the above mixture the carbonate of magnesia is retained; and an anodyne, antacid, PART II. Mistura. 1031 and laxative draught is formed, which, though it may sometimes be given with advantage, hardly deserves a place among the officinal preparations. W. MISTURA CASCARILLA COMPOSITA. Lond. Compound Mixture of Cascarilla. " Take of infusion of Cascarilla seventeen fluidounces; Vinegar of Squill a fluidounce; Compound Tincture of Camphor two fluidounces. Mix them." Lond. This mixture combines tonic, expectorant, and anodyne properties, and is said to have been employed advantageously in chronic bronchial inflamma- tion ; but it would have been better left to extemporaneous prescription. The dose is from one to two fluidounces twice or thrice daily. W. MISTURA CREASOTI. Ed. Creasote Mixture. "Take of Creasote and Acetic Acid, of each, sixteen minims; Com- pound Spirit of Juniper and Syrup, of each, one fluidounce ; Water four- teen fluidounces. Mix the Creasote with the Acid, then gradually the Water, and lastly the Syrup and Spirit." Ed. The dose of this mixture is a fluidounce, containing a minim of creasote. MISTURA CRETA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Chalk Mixture. "Take of Prepared Chalk half an ounce; Sugar [refined], Gum Arabic in powder, each, two drachms; Cinnamon Water, Water, each, four fluid- ounces. Rub them together till they are thoroughly mixed." U. S. The London College orders half an ounce of prepared chalk, three drachms of sugar, a fluidounce and a half of mixture (mucilage) of gum Arabic, and eighteen fluidounces of cinnamon water; the Dublin College, half an ounce of prepared chalk, three drachms of refined sugar, an ounce of mucilage of gum Arabic, and a pint of water. The Edinburgh College takes ten drachms of prepared chalk, five drachms of pure sugar, three fluid- ounces of mucilage of gum Arabic, two ounces (fluidounces) of spirit of cinnamon, and two Imperial pints of water; rubs the chalk, mucilage, and sugar together, and then adds gradually the water and spirit of cinnamon. This mixture is a convenient form for administering chalk, and is much employed in looseness of the bowels accompanied with acidity. Laudanum and kino or catechu are very often added to increase its astringency. The dose is a tablespoonful frequently repeated. W. MISTURA FERRI AROMATICA. Dub. Aromatic Mixture of Iron. "Take of Crown Bark, in coarse powder, an ounce; Columbo Root, sliced, three drachms; Cloves, bruised, two drachms; Iron filings half an ounce. Digest for three clays in a close vessel, with occasional agitation, with such a quantity of Peppermint Water as will yield a mixture of twelve ounces after filtration; then add, of Compound Tincture of Cardamom three ounces; Tincture of Orange Peel three drachms." Dub. This is an aromatic infusion of Peruvian bark and columbo, and has not the slightest claim to the title given it in the Pharmacopoeia; as it contains but a very small proportion of iron, and that in a state of solution, not of mixture. In consequence of the action of some of the vegetable principles upon the filings, enough of the metal is taken up to impart a greenish-black colour to the liquor; but the quantity is not appreciable, as the filings seem to be scarcely diminished by the process. The preparation may be given as a tonic in the dose of one or two fluidounces. W. 1032 Mistura. part ii. MISTURA FERRI COMPOSITA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Com- pound Mixture of Iron. " Take of Myrrh, a drachm ; Carbonate of Potassa twenty-five grains ; Rose Water seven fluidounces and a half; Sulphate of Iron, in powder, a scruple; Spirit of Lavender half a fluidounce; Sugar [refined] a drachm. Rub the Myrrh with the Rose Water gradually added; then mix with these the Spirit of Lavender, Sugar, and Carbonate of Potassa, and lastly, the Sulphate of Iron. Pour the mixture immediately into a glass bottle, which is to be well stopped." U. S. "Take of Myrrh, in powder, two drachms; Carbonate of Potassa a drachm; Rose Water eighteen fluidounces [Imperial measure]; Sulphate of Iron, in powder, two scruples and a half; Spirit of Nutmeg afluidounce; Sugar two drachms. Rub the Myrrh with the Spirit of Nutmeg and Carbo- nate of Potassa; and to these, while rubbing, add first the Rose Water with the Sugar, and then the Sulphate of Iron. Put the mixture immediately into a suitable glass vessel, and stop it." Lond. The Edinburgh process differs from the London only in using the myrrh bruised, and the sulphate of iron in coarse powder. The Dublin College takes a drachm of myrrh, twenty-five grains of carbonate of potassa, seven ounces and a half of rose-water, a scruple of sulphate of iron, half an ounce of spirit of nutmeg, and a drachm of refined sugar; and proceeds as directed by the London College. This is very nearly the same with the celebrated tonic or antihectic myrrh mixture of Dr. Griffith. The sulphate of iron is decomposed by the carbonate of potassa, with the production of sulphate of potassa and carbonate of prot- oxide of iron; while the excess of the alkaline carbonate forms a saponaceous compound with the myrrh. The mixture is atfirst of a greenish colour, which it loses upon exposure to the air, in consequence of the conversion of the protoxide of iron of the carbonate into the red or sesquioxide. It may, how- ever, be kept for some time without change, if the vessel in which it is contained be well closed; but the best plan is to prepare it only when it is wanted for use. The sugar contained in it probably contributes somewhat to retard the further oxidation of the protoxide of iron, and if considerably increased in amount would act still more efficiently. The finest pieces of myrrh in lump should be selected, and rubbed down for the occasion with a little of the rose water; as the powdered myrrh of the shops is often im- pure, and does not make a good mixture. This mixture is a good tonic in debility of the digestive organs, especially when attended with derangement of the menstrual function. Hence it is used with advantage in chlorosis and hysterical affections. It is also much employed in the hectic fever of phthisis and chronic catarrh. It is contra- indicated by the existence of inflammation of the gastric mucous membrane. The dose is one or two fluidounces two or three times a day. W. MISTURA GENTIANA COMPOSITA. Lond. Compound Mix- ture of Gentian. " Take of Compound Infusion of Gentian twelve fluidounces ; Compound Infusion of Senna six fluidounces; Compound Tincture of Cardamom two fluidounces. Mix them." Lond. We can discover no propriety in making such formulae as the above offi- cinal. Numerous combinations prescribed every day by physicians are quite as much entitled to a place in the Pharmacopoeia. The dose is one or two fluidounces. W. PART II. Mistura.—Morphia. 1033 MISTURA GUAIACI. Lond., Ed. Guaiac Mixture. "Take of Guaiacum Resin three drachms; Sugar half an ounce; Mix- ture of Gum Arabic half a fluidounce; Cinnamon Water nineteen fluid- ounces. Rub the Guaiacum Resin with the Sugar, then with the Mixture of Gum Arabic, and to these, while rubbing, add gradually the Cinnamon Water." Lond. The Edinburgh process differs only in using an additional half fluid- ounce of cinnamon water. From one to three tablespoonfuls of this mixture may be given for a dose, and repeated two or three times a day, or more frequently. W. MISTURA MOSCHI. Lond. Musk Mixture. "Take of Musk, Gum Arabic in powder, Sugar, each, three drachms; Rose Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Rub the Musk with the Sugar, then with the Gum, adding gradually the Rose Water." Lond. The musk should be thoroughly rubbed with the gum and sugar before the addition of the water. The mixture will be more permanent if made with twice the quantity of gum directed. The dose is a fluidounce. W. MISTURA SCAMMONII. Ed. Scammony Mixture. "Take of Resin of Scammony seven grains; unskimmed Milk three fluidounces. Triturate the Resin with a little of the Milk, and gradually with the rest of it till a uniform emulsion is formed." Ed. This Edinburgh officinal is an imitation of a mixture recommended by Planche. The resin of scammony mixes admirably with the vehicle, and forms an emulsion scarcely distinguishable in appearance or taste from rich milk. Of course, it should be prepared only when wanted for immediate use. The whole is to be taken for a dose. W. MISTURA SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI. Lond. Brandy Mix- ture. " Take of Brandy, Cinnamon W*er, each, four fluidounces ; the yolks of two Eggs; Sugar [refined] half an ounce; Oil of Cinnamon two minims. Mix them." Lond. A stimulant and nutritive draught, applicable to the sinking stage of low forms of fever, but scarcely entitled to a place in the Pharmacopoeia. W. MORPHIA. Preparations of Morphia. MORPHIA. U. S., Lond. Morphia. "Take of Opium, sliced, a pound; Distilled Water, Alcohol, each, a sufficient quantity; Solution of Ammonia six fluidounces. Macerate the Opium with four pints of Distilled Water for twenty-four hours, and, having worked it with the hand, digest for twenty-four hours and strain. In like manner, macerate the residue twice successively with Distilled Water, and strain. Mix the infusions, evaporate to six pints, and filter; then add first five pints of Alcohol, and afterwards three fluidounces of the Solution of Ammonia, previously mixed with half a pint of Alcohol. After twenty- four hours, pour in the remainder of the Solution of Ammonia, mixed, as before, with half a pint of Alcohol; and set the liquor aside for twenty-four hours, that crystals may form. To purify these, boil them with two pints of Alcohol till they are dissolved, filter the solution, while hot, through Animal Charcoal, and set it aside to crystallize." U. S. 88 1034 Morphia. PART II. "Take of Hydrochlorate [Muriate] of Morphia an ounce; Solution of Ammonia five fluidrachms; Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. To the Solution of Ammonia, with an ounce of Distilled Water, add the Hydrochlorate of Morphia previously dissolved in a pint of the Water, shaking them together. Wash the precipitate with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat." Lond. The London process consists in a simple decomposition of the muriate of morphia by means of ammonia, which takes the muriatic acid and remains in solution as muriate of ammonia, while the morphia, being insoluble, is deposited. The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia will be better under- stood by a previous acquaintance with the properties and chemical relations of the substance in question. Morphia crystallizes from alcohol in the form of small, colourless, shining crystals. It is inodorous and bitter. Exposed to a moderate heat it loses its water of crystallization and the crystalline form, becoming white and opaque. At a higher temperature it melts, forming a yellowish liquid, which becomes white and crystalline upon cooling. Heated in the open air it burns with a bright flame, and at a red heat is wholly dissipated. It is insoluble or nearly so in cold water, soluble in rather less than 100 parts of water at 212°, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, and freely so in boiling alcohol, which deposits it upon cooling. It is dissolved also by the fixed and volatile oils, but very slightly if at all by ether. Its solution restores the blue colour of litmus paper reddened by acids, and turns the yellow of turmeric to brown. With the acids it forms salts, which are generally soluble, and are decom- posed by the alkalies. The solutions of potassa and soda are also capable of dissolving morphia, which is precipitated slowly on exposure to the air, in consequence of the absorption of carbonic acid. Solution of ammonia has to a certain extent the same solvent power; and hence the necessity, in precipitating morphia by this alkali, not to employ it in great excess. Mor- phia and its salts, by the contact of nitric acid, assume a blood-red colour, which ultimately changes to yellow. When added to a solution of iodic acid, or an acidulous iodate, they redden the liquid and set iodine free. (Serullas.) They assume a fine blue colour with the sesquichloride of iron, and the salts of the sesquioxide; at least this is true of morphia, its acetate and oxalate; and the same effect will be produced by the other salts, if previously decom- posed by an alkali. Water, acids, and alkalies, added in large quantity to the blue compound formed, destroy its colour. According to Pelletier, how- ever, there occasionally exists in opium a principle which he called pseudo- morphia, which becomes red under the action of nitric acid, and changes the salts of sesquioxide of iron blue, and yet is destitute of poisonous pro- perties ; so that the occurrence of these phenomena, in any medico-legal case, cannot be considered as certain evidence of the presence of morphia. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., viii. 77.) The terchloride of gold precipitates morphia first yellow, then bluish, and lastly violet. (Larocque and Thibierge.) Morphia is precipitated from its solutions by potassa or soda, and redissolved by an excess of the alkali. Infusions of galls and other vegetable substances containing tannic acid precipitate morphia in the state of a tannate, which is soluble in acetic acid; but, according to Dublanc, the alkali is not preci- pitated by pure gallic acid. If ammonia be added to a mixture of the solu- tions of chlorine and morphia, a dark-brown colour is produced, which is destroyed by a further addition of chlorine. The proportion of the ingre- dients of morphia is somewhat differently given by different writers. Ac- cording to the most recent authorities, anhydrous morphia consists of one equiv. of nitrogen 14, thirty-five of carbon 210, twenty of hydrogen 20, and part ii. Morphia. six of oxygen 48=292, to which in the crystals are added two eqs. of water 18, or about 5*8 per cent. Various processes for preparing morphia have been employed. In most of them the morphia is extracted from opium by maceration with water either pure or acidulated, is then precipitated by ammonia, and afterwards purified by the agency of alcohol, or by repeated solution in a dilute acid and precipitation. According to another plan, the morphia is removed from the infusion of opium by means of double decomposition, and obtained first in the form of a muriate, from which the alkali is separated by solution and precipitation. The former of these modes of proceeding will be noticed here, the latter under the head of muriate of morphia. Serturner, the discoverer of morphia, made an infusion of opium in dis- tilled water, precipitated the morphia by ammonia in excess, dissolved the precipitate in dilute sulphuric acid, precipitated anew by ammonia, and purified by solution in boiling alcohol, and crystallization. The process adopted in the French Codex is a modification of that of Serturner. It is as follows. " Take of opium 1000 parts, solution of am- monia a sufficient quantity. Exhaust the opium, by means of cold water, of all its parts soluble in this menstruum. For this purpose, it is sufficient to treat the opium, four times consecutively, with ten parts of water to one of the drug, provided care be taken to macerate the opium for some hours, and to work it with the hands. Filter the liquors, and evaporate them to a quarter of their volume. Then add sufficient ammonia to render the liquor very sensibly alkaline. Boil for some minutes, always maintaining a slight excess of ammonia. Upon cooling, the morphia, impure and much co- loured, will be precipitated in granular crystals, which are to be washed with cold water. Reduce this coloured morphia to powder, macerate it for twelve hours in alcohol of 24° Cartier (sp. gr. about 0*900); then decant the alcoholic liquid; dissolve the residuary morphia, already in great measure deprived of colour by the cold alcohol, in boiling alcohol of 33° Cartier (sp. gr. about 0*850); add to the solution a little animal charcoal, and filter. Upon cooling, the morphia crystallizes in colourless needles. In this state the morphia always retains some narcotina, to free it from which, boil it with sulphuric ether in a matrass with a long neck surmounted by a re- frigerator." The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is an improvement upon the above, and is essentially the same with that of Dr. Edward Staples, pub- lished in the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, vol. i. p. 15. Without repeating a description of the process, we shall make such remarks upon its several steps, as appear to us likely to be of practical ad- vantage. The employment of water as the solvent is justified by the almost universal practice. It is true that dilute acetic acid has sometimes been employed, and Vogel states that the product thus obtained is much greater than when water alone is used. But when the opium is properly comminuted, either by being reduced to a coarse powder when dry, or by being finely sliced, in its ordinary state, water alone will be found suffi- ciently to extract the morphia, by a protracted maceration or digestion in successive portions of water, assisted by kneading, as directed in the Phar- macopoeia. The acids have this disadvantage, that they dissolve more of the narcotina than pure water, and thus render the ultimate product more impure; for the narcotina which is originally taken up continues associated with the morphia in all the subsequent steps of the process. It has been proposed to expose the opium to fermentation with water and yeast, in order to facilitate the extraction of the morphia. By this plan M. Blondeau 1035 1036 Morphia. PART II. succeeded in procuring more of the alkaline principle than he could obtain by the ordinary mode; and his results were confirmed by the experiments of MM. Robiquet and Guibourt. According to these latter chemists, no alcohol is produced during the fermentation, which appears to act merely by disengaging the morphia from the combinations in which it naturally exists, and which tend to counteract the solvent power of the menstruum. Alco- hol was proposed as the solvent by M. Guillermond, but is liable to the objection that it dissolves also the resin, a portion of which is afterwards precipitated with the morphia and embarrasses the process. Much of the resin, however, may be separated by distilling most of the alcohol from the tincture, and then adding water. The resin is precipitated, and the liquor may now be treated in the same manner as the aqueous infusion. On the whole, however, the officinal mode of extraction will probably be found most satisfactory; and Mohr states that opium thus exhausted yields no more mor- phia even to muriatic acid ; but he recommends that each maceration should be followed by strong expression. The solution of opium having been pre- pared, the next object is to decompose the meconate or other salt of morphia contained in it. For this purpose solution of ammonia is added, which seizes the acid, and precipitates the vegetable alkali; but much colouring matter is thrown down along with the latter, occasioning some trouble to separate it,' unless measures are taken to obviate this effect. The object is gained by mixing the infusion with alcohol, previously to the addition of the ammonia, and by employing the solution of ammonia itself in connexion with alcohol, as directed in the Pharmacopoeia. This is the peculiarity and chief merit of the process of Dr. Staples. By the presence of the alcohol in all parts of the liquor, the colouring matter is dissolved as soon as it is separated by the ammonia, and the morphia is thus precipitated in a much purer state. The advantage of adding the ammonia in separate portions is, that the morphia, being thus more slowly disengaged, can be more completely deprived of its impurities by the alcohol of the mixture, than if the whole were liberated at once. It is necessary to be careful that the ammonia be not in great excess; as it has the property, under these circumstances, of dissolving the morphia in some degree, and will therefore lessen the product, while waste is incurred by its own unnecessary consumption. Very little more should be added than is sufficient to saturate the acid present. The solution of ammonia of the shops is often much below the officinal standard, and this should always be attended to in the process. Alcohol is mixed with the ammonia before it is added, in order that every panicle of the separated morphia may come in contact with the particles of this fluid, and thus have the opportunity of being deprived of colouring matter. The crystals of morphia obtained by this first operation have a light yellowish colour, and are much purer than when no alcohol is added to the infusion before the precipitation by ammonia. Ac- cording to Dr. Staples, opium yields from 10 to 12$ per cent, of these crys- tals. Their purification by solution in boiling alcohol, is the concluding step of the operation. The liquid, on cooling, deposits the morphia in a crystalline state and nearly free from colour. As cold alcohol retains a portion of the morphia in solution, it should not be employed in too large a quantity. Alcohol somewhat reduced by water, is preferable to the highly rectified spirit; as it is less capable of holding the morphia in solu- tion when cold. It is sufficiently strong for the purpose at 25° Baume (sp. gr. 0*9032). The impure morphia remaining in the alcohol may be obtained by distilling off the latter, and when sufficiently accumulated may be purified by a separate operation. The crystals of morphia may also be purified by solution in dilute sulphuric acid, digestion with animal charcoal PART II. Morphia. 1037 deprived of earthy matter, filtration, and precipitation by ammonia. If alcohol be added to the solution previously to the ammonia, the digestion with animal charcoal may be dispensed with, as the alcohol retains the colouring matter. Morphia procured in this way always Contains narco- tina, from which it may be freed by ether, as directed in the French Codex process, or in some of the modes hereafter to be indicated. Magnesia was employed by Robiquet, instead of ammonia. To the solu- tion obtained by macerating opium in water, he added magnesia in the pro- portion of 5 parts to 100 of the opium used; collected the precipitate on a filter; and, having washed it with water and allowed it to dry, removed it from the filter, powdered it, and digested it repeatedly in alcohol of 22° Baume, until this liquid ceased to extract any thing. The colouring matter being thus removed, the residue was treated with successive portions of boiling alcohol, which dissolved the morphia, and, being filtered and allowed to cool, deposited it in crystals. The mother liquors afforded a fresh sup- ply by evaporation at a low temperature. If still coloured, the morphia was purified by boiling it with alcohol and animal charcoal, filtering the liquid while hot, and allowing it to crystallize. But the process of Robi- quet was soon abandoned, as it was found to occupy more time, to require a greater consumption of alcohol, and to be attended with a greater loss of morphia in consequence of the previous washing, than the processes in which ammonia was employed as the precipitant. A process for extracting morphia without the employment of alcohol was devised by MM. Henry, Jun., and Plisson. The opium was exhausted by water acidulated with muriatic acid; the resulting solution was sufficiently concentrated, then filtered, and decomposed by ammonia; the precipitate was washed and treated with muriatic acid to saturation; and the muriatic solution was boiled with animal charcoal, filtered, and evaporated to the point of crystallization. The crystals of muriate of morphia thus obtained were pressed, purified by repeated solution and crystallization, and finally decomposed by ammonia. (Journ. de Chim. Med., Mars, 1828.) More recently, Mohr has proposed a process founded upon the solubility of morphia in water mixed with lime, which he recommends highly as the shortest and easiest method of procuring the alkali, without the use of alco- hol, and without the possibility of contamination from narcotina. Opium is three or four times successively macerated with three parts of water, and each time strongly expressed. The liquors are then added to a boiling hot milk of lime, containing a quantity of lime equal to about a sixth or a quarter of the opium used; and the mixture is boiled for a few minutes. It is then strained through linen, and the residue washed with boiling water and ex- pressed. The whole of the narcotina is left behind, as not a trace of it can be discovered in the filtered liquor. The liquor thus obtained is evaporated till reduced to about double the weight of the opium, then quickly filtered through paper, and heated to ebullition. Muriate of ammonia is now added to it in the proportion of 1 part to 16 of the opium used; and the morphia is abundantly precipitated. The use of animal charcoal is unnecessary in the process, as the lime acts even more powerfully as a decolorizing agent. The crystallized morphia obtained is somewhat coloured, but may be ren- dered quite pure by solution in dilute muriatic acid, boiling with milk of lime, filtration, and precipitation by muriate of ammonia. (Annal. der Pharm., xxxv. 119, and Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 60.) Various other processes, or modifications of those above described, have been proposed; but, for the preparation of small quantities of morphia by the apothecary, none are probably better adapted than that of the U. S. Phar- 88* 1038 Morphia. PART II. macopoeia, unless indeed the plan of Mohr should be found to equal the representations in its favour. It has been already stated that morphia, obtained in the ordinary manner, contains a considerable proportion of narcotina. It is highly probable that this ingredient exercises no influence, either beneficial or injurious, upon the operation of the morphia; but as the contrary has been supposed, various methods have been employed for separating it. The simplest and easiest is to submit the mixture to the action of sulphuric ether, which dissolves the narcotina and leaves the morphia. The agency of acetic acid may also be resorted to. Distilled vinegar, or diluted acetic acid of the same strength, will dissolve the morphia and leave the narcotina, and the former may be recovered from the acetic solution by saturating the acid with ammonia. Another mode is to dissolve the mixed bases in strong acetic acid (of 7° Baume, or sp.gr. 1*0511, for example), and expose the solution to heat. The narcotina is deposited, and the morphia, remaining in solution, may be precipitated by diluting the liquid and adding ammonia. (See Journ. de Pharm., xvii. p. 640.) Wittstock advises one of the following methods. Dissolve the impure morphia in dilute muriatic acid, evaporate to the point of crystallization, and strongly express the crystals, whicii consist solely of the muriate of morphia, the narcotina being retained in the mother waters: —or saturate the muriatic solution with common salt, which will render the liquor milky, and cause the narcotina to separate after some days; then precipitate the morphia by ammonia:—or pour into the diluted muriatic solution a weak ley of caustic potassa, which, if in slight excess, will dis- solve the morphia at the moment of its separation, while the narcotina is precipitated; then immediately filter the liquor, and separate the morphia by neutralizing the alkali. If the potassa be in considerable excess a small portion of the narcotina is redissolved. (Berzelius, Traite de Chimie.) Mohr recommends to dissolve the morphia in dilute muriatic acid, and to boil the solution with lime, which throws down the narcotina and holds the morphia dissolved. The liquid being filtered yields the morphia upon the addition of sal ammoniac. (Annal. der Pharm., xxv. 123.) The proportion of pure morphia which Turkey opium is capable of affording, varies from nine per cent, or less, to fourteen per cent., according to the quality of the drug; but much less than the least quantity mentioned is often obtained, in consequence of the incomplete exhaustion of the opium, or the loss in the process for preparing it. Medical Properties. There can be no doubt that morphia is the chief, if not the exclusive narcotic principle of opium, from which, however, it differs somewhat in its mode of action. Whether the difference arises from the peculiar state of combination in which morphia exists in opium, or from other narcotic principles being associated with it, has not been determined; but the former would seem to be the probable cause, from the circumstance that, long before the discovery of this alkali, preparations of opium were habitually used, in which the properties of the medicine were somewhat similarly modified by the agency of vinegar, lemon-juice, or other vegetable acid. In consequence of its insolubility in water, morphia in its pure state is less certain in its effects than some of its saline compounds; as the mode and degree of its action must, in some measure, depend on the presence or absence of acid in the stomach, and perhaps on the peculiar character of the acid. Its salts are therefore always preferred. The acetate, sulphate, and muriate have been employed. Between these there is a great similarity of action, and what may be said of one, in regard to its therapeutical effects, will equally apply to the others. They have the anodyne, soporific, and PART II. Morphia. 1039 diaphoretic properties of opium; but are less stimulant, less disposed to constipate the bowels, and less apt to leave behind them headache, nausea, or other unpleasant effect. They are usually also more acceptable to the irritated stomach, and will often be retained, when opium or its tincture would be rejected. They are applicable to all cases where the object is to relieve pain, quiet restlessness, promote sleep, or allay nervous irritation in any shape; but are Jess efficient than opium in the suppression of morbid discharges, and as stimulants in low forms of disease. We have found them especially useful in the mania arising from intemperance. A great advan- tage which they possess is the convenience of their external application to blistered surfaces, and the certainty of their effects when thus applied. In cases which do not admit of the internal use of opium or its preparations, the acetate or sulphate of morphia, sprinkled, in triple the ordinary dose, upon a blistered surface denuded of the cuticle, will be found to exercise upon the system all the influence it is capable of exerting when taken into the stomach. Applied in this manner, these salts are peculiarly useful in relieving violent neuralgic pains, and controlling obstinate sickness of the stomach. When intended toact on the system through the medium of the skin, they should be applied preferably to the epigastrium; when to act locally, as near the affected part as possible. When given in doses nearly, but not quite sufficient to produce sleep, they sometimes give rise to a very troublesome condition of the brain, amounting almost to delirium; but this always subsides spontaneously, or vanishes immediately upon the increase of the dose. In over-doses, morphia and its salts produce the symptoms of narcotic poisons, though not perhaps in the same degree with a quantity of opium, equivalent in anodyne effect. The toxicological treatment is precisely the same as in the case of laudanum. (See Opium.) Strong coffee has been employed with great apparent advantage as an antidote. As the proportion of acid necessary to neutralize morphia is very small, the dose of the alkali is the same as that of its salts. One-sixth of a grain may be considered equivalent to a grain of opium of the medium strength. Off. Prep. Morphias Acetas, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Morphias Murias, U. S.; Morphias Sulphas, U. S. W. MORPHIA ACETAS. U. S., Lond., Ed. Acetate of Morphia. " Take of Morphia, in powder, freed from narcotina by boiling with Sulphuric Ether, an ounce; Distilled Water half a pint; Acetic Acid a sufficient quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Water; then carefully drop in the Acid, constantly stirring, until the Morphia is saturated and dissolved. Evaporate the solution, by means of a water-bath, to the consistence of syrup. Lastly, dry the Acetate with a gentle heat, and rub it into pow- der." U. S. "Take of Morphia six drachms; Acetic Acid three fluidrachms; Dis- tilled Water four fluidounces. Mix the Acid with the Water, and pour the mixture upon the Morphia to saturation. Evaporate the solution with a gentle heat, so that crystals may form." Lond. " Take of Muriate of Morphia any convenient quantity. Dissolve it in fourteen times its weight of warm Water, and when the solution is cool, add Aqua Ammonias gradually and with constant agitation until there is a per- manent but faint odour of ammonia in the fluid. Collect the precipitate on a calico filter, wash it moderately with cold water, and dissolve it by means of a slight excess of Pyroligneous Acid [acetic acid, sp. gr. 1*034] in twelve parts of warm Water for every part of Muriate of Morphia that was used. 1040 Morphia. PART II. Concentrate the solution over the vapour-bath and set it aside to crystallize. Drain and squeeze the crystals, and dry them with a gentle heat. More Acetate of Morphia may be obtained on concentrating the mother liquor." Ed. In all these processes, morphia is saturated with acetic acid; in the first two it is taken already prepared, in the last it is procured by the decompo- sition of the muriate by means of ammonia. Acetic acid is employed in preference to vinegar for saturating the morphia, because it can leave no impurity in the resulting salt. The solution of the morphia in the water is an indication that it is saturated. A small excess of acid is attended with no inconvenience, as it is subsequently driven off by the heat. Care is requisite not to employ too great a heat in the evaporation; as the acetate is readily decomposed, a portion of the acetic acid escaping, and leaving an equivalent portion of uncombined morphia. With attention to arrest the evaporation at a certain point, the acetate may be obtained in the state of crystals; but the crystallization is attended with some difficulty, and evaporation to dryness is almost universally preferred. Some recommend to dissolve the morphia in boiling alcohol, instead of suspending it in water, previously to the addi- tion of the acetic acid. A less heat is thus required in the evaporation, and impurities in the morphia may often be detected, as they are apt to be insolu- ble in alcohol. To ascertain, in this case, whether the morphia is saturated, it is necessary to employ litmus paper, the blue colour of which should not be restored, if previously reddened by an acid. If the morphia used in pre- paring the acetate contain narcotina, it will be best to employ as the solvent distilled vinegar,'or diluted acetic acid of the same strength, and to favour its solvent power by the application of heat. Under these circumstances it dissolves only the morphia, leaving the narcotina nearly or quite untouched. (Hodgson, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., v. 35.) Acetate of morphia crystallizes in the form of slender needles united in fasciculi. It is readily dissolved by water, and Jess easily by alcohol. As ordinarily obtained, however, by evaporation to dryness, it is not entirely soluble in water, a portion of it being uncombined morphia. To render it soluble, all that is necessary is to add a little distilled vinegar. The Edinburgh College gives the following mode of testing its purity: " One hundred measures of a solution of ten grains in half a fluidounce of water and five minims of acetic acid, heated near to 212°, and decomposed by a faint excess of ammonia, yield by agitation a precipitate which in 21 hours occupies 15*5 measures of the liquid." From an eighth to a quarter of a grain may be given for a dose, and re- peated, if necessary, in order to obtain the anodyne and soporific effect of the medicine. One-sixth of a grain is about equivalent to a grain of opium. It may be given in pill or solution. It is frequently employed externally, sprinkled on blistered surfaces, to obtain its effects upon the system. W. MORPHIA MURIAS. U.S., Ed. Morphia Hydrochloras. Lond. Muriate of Morphia. Hydrochlorate of Morphia. "Take of Morphia, in powder, an ounce; Distilled Water half a pint; Muriatic Acid a sufficient quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Water; then carefully drop in the Acid, constantly stirring, till the Morphia is saturated and dissolved. Evaporate the solution by means of a water-bath so that it may crystallize upon cooling. Dry the crystals upon bibulous paper." U. S. " Take of Opium, sliced, a pound; Crystals of Chloride of Lead two ounces, or a sufficient quantity; Purified Animal Charcoal three ounces and a half; Hydrochloric [Muriatic] Acid, Distilled Water, Solution of PART II. Morphia. 1041 Ammonia, each, a sufficient quantity. Macerate the Opium, for thirty hours, in four pints [Imperial measure] of Distilled Water, and bruise it; then digest it for twenty hours, and press it. Macerate the residue a second and a third time in Water, so that it may be deprived of taste, and as often bruise and press it. Mix the liquors, and evaporate them with a heat of 140° to the consistence of syrup. Then add three pints of Distilled Water, and, when all the dregs have subsided, pour off the supernatant liquor. To this add gradually two ounces of Chloride of Lead, or a sufficient quantity, previously dissolved in four pints of boiling Distilled Water, until nothing more is thrown down. Pour off the liquor, and wash the residue frequently with Distilled Water. Then evaporate the mixed liquors, as before, with a gentle heat, and set them aside to crystallize. Press the crystals in a linen cloth, then dissolve them in a pint of Distilled Water, and, having digested with an ounce and a half of Animal Charcoal, at 120°, filter the solution. Finally, having washed the charcoal, cautiously evaporate the liquors, in order to obtain pure crystals. To the liquor, poured off from the crystals first separated, add a pint of Water, and gradually drop in, occasionally shaking, sufficient Solution of Ammonia to precipitate all the Morphia. To this, washed with Distilled Water, add Hydrochloric Acid so as to saturate it; then digest with two ounces of Animal Charcoal, and filter. Lastly, having thoroughly washed the Charcoal, cautiously evaporate the liquors, so as to obtain pure crystals." Lond. " Take of Opium twenty ounces; Water eight pints [Imperial measure]; Muriate of Lime [chloride of calcium] one ounce, or a slight excess. Mace- rate the Opium in fragments for twenty-four hours in two pints of the Water; and separate the infusion, squeezing well the residue. Repeat the maceration successively with two pints more of the Water till the whole is made use of. Concentrate the whole infusions over the vapour-bath to one pint, and add the Muriate of Lime dissolved in four fluidounces of Water. Set the whole aside to settle; pour off the liquid; wash the sediment with a little water, adding the washings to the liquid. Evaporate the liquid suffi- ciently in the vapour-bath for it to solidify on cooling. Subject the cooled mass to very strong pressure in a cloth; redissolve the cake in a sufficiency of warm distilled water; add a little fine powder of white marble, and filter; acidulate the filtered fluid with a very little muriatic acid; and concentrate a second time in the vapour-bath for crystallization. Subject the crystals again to very strong pressure in a cloth. Repeat the process of solution, clarification by marble and muriatic acid, concentration, and crystallization, until a snow-white mass be obtained. " On the small scale trouble and loss are saved by decolorizing the solution of muriate of morphia by means of a little purified animal charcoal after two crystallizations. But on the large scale it is belter to purify the salt by repeated crystallizations alone, and to treat all the expressed fluids, except the first, in the same way with the original solution of impure muriate of morphia. An additional quantity of salt may often be got from the first dark and resinous fluid obtained by expression, on merely allowing it to remain at rest for a few months, when a little muriate of morphia may be deposited in an impure condition. "The opium which yields the largest quantity of precipitate by carbonate of soda, according to the formula [given in page 518], yields muriate of morphia not only in greatest proportion, but likewise with the fewest crys- tallizations." Ed. In relation to the process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, the remarks made upon the preparation of the sulphate of morphia are equally applicable here. 1042 Morphia. PART II. (See Morphiae Sulphas.) The London and Edinburgh processes are based upon the plan, originally suggested by Wittstock, of obtaining the muriate of morphia immediately from opium without the use of alcohol. The Edin- burgh process is that of Dr. Wm. Gregory, which was an improvement upon Wittstock's. The London is a modification, but scarcely an improve- ment of Gregory's. In both processes, the meconate and a small proportion of sulphate of morphia extracted by water from opium are decomposed; in the Edinburgh, by chloride of calcium, yielding muriate of morphia in solu- tion, and meconate and sulphate of lime as precipitates; in the London, by chloride of lead yielding muriate of morphia as in the former case in solution, but meconate and sulphate of lead as precipitates. The remaining steps of the operation consist in obtaining the muriate of morphia from the solution by evaporation and crystallization, and in freeing it from colouring impurities. For the latter purpose the Edinburgh College directs repeated solution, clarification by marble and muriatic acid, concentration, and crystallization; advising, when the process is conducted upon a small scale, the use of animal charcoal after two crystallizations. The London College spares the trouble of these repeated operations, and contents itself with the decolorizing influence of the animal charcoal. The Edinburgh College prevents waste by operating upon all the liquids expressed from the impure sulphate of morphia, except that separated by the first expression, in the same manner as upon the original infusion of opium after concentration and the addition of muriate of lime; the London, by precipitating the mother liquors with ammonia, saturating the pre- cipitated morphia with muriatic acid, and decolorizing with animal charcoal. Points deserving of particular notice in these processes are, to obtain the ori- ginal infusion of opium as concentrated as possible without leaving morphia behind, so as to shorten the period of evaporation; and to add the chloride of calcium or of lead before instead of after the concentration, as, according to Christison, a larger and purer product is obtained, in the former way, with fewer crystallizations. Dr. Christison says, in favour of Dr. Gregory's pro- cess, that the Edinburgh manufacturers, who follow it, produce a salt of un- rivalled purity and cheapness. But it is-much better calculated for the large laboratory of the manufacturing chemist, than for the smaller operations of the apothecary, who will probably find the U. S. process more convenient. The muriate of morphia procured by the processes of the British Col- leges is free from narcotina; but always contains a portion of muriate of codeia, which, however, is scarcely sufficient to affect its operation upon the system. Dr. Christison found the proportion to vary between a 60th in the muriate prepared from good Turkey opium, a 30th in that from inferior samples of the same variety, and a 12th in that from the East Indian. This impurity may be separated by precipitating the morphia by means of am- monia; the codeia being left in solution. Dr. A. T. Thomson has published a process for procuring muriate of morphia which he has found considerably more productive than that of the British Colleges. After macerating the opium in water as directed by the Colleges for thirty hours, and expressing, he rubs it in a mortar with an equal weight of pure white sand, and enough water to form the mixture into a paste, which he places in a percolator, and subjects to the action of distilled water till the fluid passes without colour and taste. He then con- centrates the liquor to the consistence of a thin syrup, adds diacetate of lead, dilutes the solution with twice its bulk of distilled water, allows it to stand for twenty-four hours, decants the supernatant liquid, washes the pre- cipitate with warm water, adds the washings to the decanted solution, and concentrates to one-half. To free the liquid from any remaining acetate of PART II. Morphia. 1043 lead he adds diluted sulphuric acid in slight excess, decants the liquid from the precipitate, washes the latter, adds the washings to the solution, and boils for some minutes to drive off acetic acid. To convert the sulphate of morphia now contained in the solution into muriate, he adds a saturated solution of chloride of barium, washes the precipitate, evaporates the con- joined washings and solution to the point of crystallization, presses the crystals, dilutes and again evaporates the mother liquor so long as it affords crystals, which are purified by means of animal charcoal, and by repeated solution, evaporation, and crystallization. (Pharm. Journ., i. 459.) Muriate of morphia crystallizes in tufts of feathery acicular crystals. It is white, inodorous, bitter, soluble in 16 parts of water at 60°, and in its own weight at 212°, and soluble also in alcohol. A saturated solution in boiling water forms a solid crystalline mass on cooling. The crystals are said to consist of one equivalent of morphia 292, one of muriatic acid 36*42, and six of water 54. Dr. Christison states that he constantly found the crystals, when dried at 150°, to contain 12*7 per cent, of water; and the Edinburgh College states, that the loss of weight at 212° is not above 13 per cent. The salt may be known to be a muriate by the test of nitrate of silver, and to contain morphia by tests for that alkali. This preparation of morphia is much used in Great Britain, but, in this country, less than either the sulphate or acetate. The dose of it, equivalent to a grain of opium, is about one-sixth of a grain. Off. Prep. Morphia, Lond,; Morphiae Acetas, Ed.; Morphiae Muriatis Solutio, Ed.; Trochisci Morphiae, Ed.; Trochisci Morphiae et Ipecacu- anhas, Ed. W. MORPHIA MURIATIS SOLUTIO. Ed. Solution of Muriate of Morphia. " Take of Muriate of Morphia one drachm and a half; Rectified Spirit five fluidounces ; Distilled Water fifteen fluidounces. Mix the Spirit and Water, and dissolve the Muriate of Morphia in the mixture with the aid of a gentle heat." Ed. The use of the alcohol is to prevent spontaneous decomposition. The solution was intended to have the strength of laudanum. Eighteen minims contain about one-sixth of a grain of the muriate, equivalent to about a grain of opium. W. MORPHIA SULPHAS. U. S. Sulphate of Morphia. " Take of Morphia, in powder, an ounce; Distilled Water half a pint; Diluted Sulphuric Acid a sufficient quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Water, then carefully drop in the Acid, constantly stirring till the Morphia is saturated and dissolved. Evaporate the solution by means of a water- bath, so that it may crystallize upon cooling. Dry the crystals upon bibu- lous paper." U. S. In this process the morphia is known to be saturated when it is wholly dissolved by the water. To ascertain whether the acid is added in excess, litmus paper may be resorted to. If the morphia employed contain narco- tina, this will remain in the mother liquor, and will not contaminate the pro- duct. The mother liquor remaining after the first crystallization may be evaporated so as to obtain a fresh supply of the sulphate ; but if the morphia was not originally quite pure, the second product will contain the impurities, and should not be used till it has undergone farther preparation. When impure morphia is employed, the mother liquor should be mixed with alcohol, or boiled with washed animal charcoal and filtered, and then decomposed by ammonia, which will precipitate the morphia. This may then be converted into the sulphate in the manner directed by the Pharmacopoeia. 1044 Morphia. —Mudlagines. PART II. Another mode of obtaining sulphate of morphia, is to dissolve the alkali in boiling alcohol of 36D Baurne (sp. gr. 0*8428), saturate it while hot with sulphuric acid, add animal charcoal previously washed with muriatic acid, boil for a few minutes, and filter the solution while at the boiling tempera- ture. Upon cooling, it deposits most of the sulphate; and the remainder may be obtained by evaporating the mother liquor. In the evaporation of the solution of this salt, care should be taken not to carry the heat too far; for when pushed to incipient decomposition with an excess of acid, a new substance is formed containing no morphia. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 286.) Sulphate of morphia crystallizes in beautifully white, minute, feathery crystals, which are soluble in cold water, and in twice their weight of boil- ing water. They contain, according to Liebig, in 100 parts, 10*33 of sul- phuric acid, 75*38 of morphia, and 14*29 of water. By exposure to a heat of 248° F. they lose 9*66 parts of the water, but cannot be deprived of the remainder without decomposition. Their equivalent composition is stated to be one equivalent of morphia 292, one of sulphuric acid 40, and six of water 54, of which five are water of crystallization, and maybe expelled by heat. The tests for it are those for sulphuric acid and for morphia. The dose of sulphate of morphia is from an eighth to a quarter of a grain, which may be given in pill or solution. Off. Prep. Liquor Morphiae Sulphatis, U. S. W. LIQUOR MORPHIA SULPHATIS. U.S. Solution of Sulphate of Morphia. "Take of Sulphate of Morphia eight grains; Distilled Water half a pint. Dissolve the Sulphate of Morphia in the Water." U. S. Sulphate of morphia, as found in the shops, is not always entirely soluble in water. This sometimes, perhaps, arises from adulterations; but more frequently, in all probability, from the mode in which the sulphate is pre- pared. In the preparation of this salt, the quantity of water employed for the suspension of the morphia is sometimes insufficient to hold the resulting sulphate in solution; and the consequence is that, upon the addition of sul- phuric acid, the crystallization of the sulphate takes place before the whole of the morphia has been saturated by the acid. A portion of uncombined morphia is therefore necessarily mixed with the salt. This explanation is rendered still more probable by the fact, that the addition of a little sulphuric acid usually remedies the defect, and renders the whole soluble. Pure sul- phate 'of morphia is readily and entirely soluble in water. This solution is very convenient, by enabling the physician to prescribe a minute dose, which, in consequence of the great energy of the preparations of morphia, is often necessary. It has the advantage that it may be kept for a very considerable length of time unchanged. The full dose for an adult is from one to two fluidrachms, containing from an eighth to a quarter of a grain of the sulphate. W. MUCILAGINES. Mucilages. Mucilage, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, and in the sense in which it is employed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, is an aqueous solution of gum or of substances closely allied to it. As used by the British Colleges it appears to signify any bland, viscid, aqueous, vegetable solution, resembling that of gum in sensible properties. W. PART II. Mucilagines. 1045 MUCILAGO ACACIA. U.S. Mucilago. Ed. Mucilago Gummi Arabici. Dub. Mistura Acacia. Lond. Mucilage of Gum Arabic. " Take of Gum Arabic, in powder, four ounces ; Boiling Water half a pint. Add the Water gradually to the Gum, rubbing them together till the mucilage is formed." U. S. The London College takes ten ounces.of powdered gum Arabic, and a pint [Imperial measure] of boiling water, and proceeds as above. The Edinburgh College directs nine ounces of gum Arabic to be dissolved in a pint [Imp. meas.] of cold water, without heat, but with occasional stir- ring, and then to be strained through linen or calico. The Dublin College takes four ounces of the gum, in coarse powder, and four fluidounces of warm water, digests the ingredients with frequent agitation till the gum is dissolved, and-strains the resulting mucilage through linen. Straining through linen is necessary to separate the foreign substances which are often mixed with gum Arabic. This mucilage is semitransparent, almost colourless if prepared from good gum, viscid, tenacious, of a feeble peculiar odour, and nearly tasteless. If the solution of gum should be co- loured, it may be rendered colourless by the addition of a concentrated solu- tion of chlorine; and, by boiling for about half an hour so as to drive off the chlorine and muriatic acid, it may be rendered fit for use..(Guerin). By keeping, mucilage becomes sour in consequence of the spontaneous generation of acetic acid; and this happens even though it be enclosed in well-stopped bottles. But, according to M. Guerin, the aqueous solution of pure gum undergoes no change in vacuo. Heat in its preparation is said to favour the production of acid, in which case the Edinburgh formula is preferable. Mucilage is employed chiefly in the formation of pills, and for the suspension or diffusion of insoluble substances in water. Off. Prep. Mistura Acaciae, Ed.; Mistura Amygdalarum, Ed.; Mistura Cretas, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Mistura Guaiaci, Lond., Ed. W. MUCILAGO AMYLI. Ed., Dub. Decoctum Amyli. Lond. Mu- cilage of Starch. " Take of Starch four drachms; Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Rub the Starch with the Water gradually added; then boil for a short time." Lond. The Edinburgh College takes half an ounce of starch and a pint [Imp. meas.] of water; the Dublin, six drachms of the former and a pint of the latter; both proceed according to the directions of the London College." This mucilage has an opaline appearance, and gelatinous consistence, and is much used as a vehicle for laudanum and other active remedies given in the form of enema. In consequence of its demulcent properties, it maybe usefully employed as an enema in irritation and inflammation of the mucous coat of the rectum and large intestines. Its unpleasant flavour, when it is prepared from ordinary starch, precludes, its employment by the mouth. Off. Prep. Enema Opii, Lond. W. MUCILAGO. TRAGACANTHA. U.S., Ed. Mucilago Gummi Tragacantha. Dub. Mucilage of Tragacanth. "Take of Tragacanth an ounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate the Tragacanth in the Water for twenty-four hours, occasionally stirring ; then triturate it so as to render the mucilage uniform, and strain forcibly through linen." U.S. The Edinburgh College takes two drachms of tragacanth and nine fluid- ounces of boiling water, macerates for twenty-four hours, then triturates, and 89 1046 Mucilagines.— Olea Destillata. part ii. expresses through linen or calico. The Dublin College takes two drachms of tragacanth, in powder, and eight fluidounces of water, macerates in a covered vessel till the gum is dissolved, and then strains through linen. A part only of tragacanth is soluble in water. The remainder swells up and forms a soft tenacious mass, which may be mechanically mixed with water, but does not form a proper solution. Hence trituration is necessary to complete the incorporation of the ingredients. This mucilage is thick and very viscid, but not permanent, as the water separates from the insoluble portion of the tragacanth on standing. It is chiefly used in making pills and troches. In consequence of its great tenacity, it may be advantage- ously employed for the suspension of heavy insoluble substances, such as the metallic oxides, in water. Off.Prep. Trochisci Ipecacuanhas, U. S.; Trochisci Magnesiae, U.S.; Trochisci Menthae Piperitae, U. S. W. OLEA DESTILLATA. Distilled Oils. For an account of the general properties of the volatile, essential, or dis- tilled oils, the reader is referred to the head of Olea Volatilia in the first part of this work. The following are the different officinal directions for preparing them. OLEA DESTILLATA. U. S. "In the preparation of the Distilled Oils, put the substance from which the oil is to be extracted into a retort, or other vessel suitable for distillation, and add enough water to cover it, then distil into a large refrigeratory. Se- parate the Distilled Oil from the water which comes over with it. " In this manner prepare Oil of Anise, from Anise; Oil of Caraway, from Caraway ; Oil of Wormseed, from Wormseed ; Oil of Fennel, from Fennel-seed ; Oil of Partridge-berry, from Partridge-berry [leaves] ; Oil of Pennyroyal [Oleum Hedeomas], from Pennyroyal; Oil of Juniper, from Juniper [berries] ; Oil of Lavender, from Lavender [flowers]; Oil of Peppermint, from Peppermint; Oil of Spearmint, from Spearmint; Oil of Horsemint, from Horsemint; Oil of Origanum, from Origanum [Mar- joram] ; Oil of Pimento, from Pimento; Oil of Rosemary, from Rosemary [tops] ; Oil of Savine, from Savine; and Oil of Sassafras, from Bark of Sassafras Root." U. S. OLEA DESTILLATA. Lond. " Oil of Anise, of Chamomile, of Caraway, of Juniper, of Lavender, of Peppermint, of Pennyroyal [Mentha Pulegium], of Spearmint, of Origanum, of Pimento, of Rosemary, of Elder Flowers. " The fruit of Anise, Caraway, and Juniper, the flowers of Chamomile, Lavender, and Elder, the berries of Pimento, the tops of Rosemary, and the fresh herb of the other plants, are to be employed. Put any one of these into an alembic, and add sufficient Water to cover it; then distil the Oil into a large refrigeratory." Lond. VOLATILE OILS. Ed. "Volatile oils are obtained chiefly from the flowers, leaves, fruits, barks, and roots of plants, by distilling them with water, in which they have been PART II. Olea Destillata. 1047 allowed to macerate for some time. Flowers, leaves, and fruits generally yield the finest oils, and in greatest quantity, when they are used fresh. Many, however, answer equally well if they have been preserved by beating them into a pulp with about twice their weight of muriate of soda, and keeping the mixture in well-closed vessels. "Substances yielding volatile oils must be distilled with water, the pro- per proportion of which varies for each article, and for the several qualities of each. In all instances, the quantity must be such as to prevent any of the material from being empyreumatized before the whole oil is carried over. In operations where the material is of pulpy consistence, other con- trivances must be resorted to for the same purpose. These consist chiefly of particular modes of applying heat, so as to maintain a regulated tempera- lure not much above 212°. On the small scale, heat may be thus conveni- ently applied by means of a bath of a strong solution of muriate of lime, or by means of an oil-bath, kept at a stationary temperature with the aid of a thermometer. On the large scale, heat is often applied by means of steam under regulated pressure. In other operations it is found sufficient to hang the material within the still in a cage or bag of fine net-work; and sometimes the material is not mingled with the water at all, but is subjected to a cuyent of steam passing through it. " The best mode of collecting the oil is by means of the refrigeratory de- scribed in the preface [see page 772]; from which the water and oil drop together into a tall narrow vessel, provided with a lateral tube or lip near the top, and another tube rising from the bottom to about a quarter of an inch below the level of the former. It is evident that, with a receiver of this construction, the water will escape by the lower tube; while the vola- tile oil, as it accumulates, will be discharged by the upper one, except in the very few instances where the oil is heavier than the water. " By attending to the general principles now explained, Volatile Oils may be readily obtained of excellent quality from the flowers of Anthemis nobilis, Lavandula vera, and Ruta graveolens; from the fruit of Ane- thum graveolens bruised, Carum Carui bruised, Eugenia Pimenta bruised, Fceniculum officinale bruised, Juniperus communis bruised, Piper Cubeba ground, and Pimpinella Anisum ground; from the unde- veloped dried flowers of Caryophyllus aromaticus; from the tops of Juniperus Sabina, and Rosmarinus officinalis; from the entire herb of Mentha Piperita, Mentha Pulegium, Mentha viridis, and Origanum Majorana [vulgare 1]; and also from the bruised root of Sassafras offici- nale." Ed. OLEA ESSENTIALIA. Dub. "Oil of Aniseed, of Caraway, of Fennel, from the seeds dried with a medium heat; of Sassafras, from the bark and wood; of Juniper, of Pimento, from the berries; of Lavender, from the flowers; of Peppermint, of Spearmint, of Origanum, of Pennyroyal, of Rosemary, of Rue, from the leaves and flowers of the plant while in flower; of Savine, from the leaves. "Put the substance, previously macerated in water, into an alembic; then, by means of the vapour of boiling water, distil into a receiver. Sepa- rate by a proper apparatus, the Oil which floats on the surface, or sinks to the bottom, according as it is lighter or heavier than water. In distilling the seeds of Caraway and Fennel, the leaves of Peppermint, Spearmint, and Pennyroyal, and the berries of Pimento, the liquor which comes over with 1048 Olea Destillata. PART II. the oil is to be kept for use in the manner directed under the head of Dis- tilled Waters." Dub. The substances from which the volatile oils are extracted may be em- ployed either in the recent or dried state. Certain flowers, however, such as orange flowers and roses, must be used fresh, or preserved with salt, as they afford little or no oil after exsiccation. Most of the aromatic herbs also, as peppermint, spearmint, pennyroyal, and marjoram, are usually dis- tilled while fresh, and are directed in this state by the London College; although it is thought by some that, when moderately dried, they yield a larger and more grateful product. Dried substances, before being submitted to distillation, require to be macerated in water till they are thoroughly penetrated by this fluid; and to facilitate the action of the water, it is necessary that, when of a hard or tough consistence, they should be pro- perly comminuted by slicing, shaving, rasping, bruising, or other similar mechanical operation. The water which is put with the subject of distillation into the alembic, answers the double purpose of preventing the decomposition of the vege- table matter by regulating the temperature, and of facilitating the volatiliza- tion of the oil, which, though in most instances it readily rises with the vapour of boiling water, requires, when distilled alone, a considerably higher temperature, and is at the same time liable to be partially decom- posed. Some oils, however, will not ascend readily with steam at 212°; and in the distillation of these it is customary to use water saturated with common salt, which does not boil under 230°. Recourse may also be had to a bath of strong solution of chloride of calcium, or to an oil-bath, the temperature of which is regulated by a thermometer, as suggested by the Edinburgh College in their general directions (seepage 1047). Other oils again may be volatilized with water at a temperature below the boiling point; and, as heat exercises an injurious influence over the oils, it is de- sirable that the distillation should be effected at as low a temperature as possible. To prevent injury from heat it has been recommended to sus- pend the substance containing the oil in a basket, or to place it upon a perforated shelf, in the upper part of the alembic, so that it may be pene- trated by the steam, without being in direct contact with the water. Another mode of effecting the same object is to distil in vacuo. Dr. Duncan stated that the most elegant volatile oils he had ever seen were prepared in this manner by Mr. Barry, the inventor of the process. The quantity of water added is not a matter of indifference. An excess above what is necessary acts injuriously by holding the oil in solution, when the mixed vapours are condensed; and, if the proportion be very large, it is possible that no oil whatever may be obtained separate. On the contrary, if the quantity be too small, the whole of the oil will not be dis- tilled ; and there will be danger of the substance in the alembic adhering to the sides of the vessel, and thus becoming burnt. Enough water should always be added to cover the solid material, and prevent this latter acci- dent. Dried plants require more water than those which are fresh and succulent. The whole amount of materials in the alembic should not ex- ceed three-fourths of its capacity; as otherwise there would be danger of the liquor boiling over. The form of the alembic has a considerable influ- ence over the quantity of water distilled, which depends more upon the extent of surface than the amount of liquid submitted to evaporation. By employing a high and narrow vessel, we may obviate the disadvantage of an excess of water. The broad shallow alembic, suitable for the distilla- PART II. Olea Destillata. 1049 tion of alcohol and the spirituous liquors, will not answer so well in this case. Sometimes the proportion of oil contained in the substance employed is so small that it is wholly dissolved in the water distilled, even though the proportion of the liquid in the alembic is not greater than is absolutely essential. In this case it is necessary to redistil the same water several times from fresh portions of the plant, till the quantity of oil exceeds its solvent power. This process is called cohobation. The more volatile of the oils pass with facility along with the steam into the neck of the common still; but some which are less volatile are apt to condense in the head, and thus return into the alembic. For the distillation of the latter, a still should be employed with a large and very low head, having a rim or gutter around its internal circumference, into which the oils may be received as they condense, and thence pass into the neck. As, after the distillation of any one oil, it is necessary that the apparatus should be thoroughly cleansed before being used for the preparation of another, it is better that the condensing tube should be straight, than spiral as in the ordinary still. It should be recollected, moreover, that certain oils, such as those of anise and fennel, become solid at a comparatively high tempera- ture ; and that, in the distillation of these, the water employed for refrigera- tion should not be below 42°. F. The mixed vapours are condensed into a milky liquid, which is collected in a receiver, and after standing for some time separates into a clear solu- tion of the oil in water, and into the oil itself, the latter floating on the sur- face, or sinking to the bottom, according as it is lighter or heavier than water. The distillation should be continued so long as the fluid which comes over has this milky appearance. The last step in the process is to separate the oil from the water. For this purpose the Florence receiver may be used. This is a conical glass vessel, broad at the bottom and narrow towards the top, and very near its base furnished with a tubulure or opening, to which is adapted, by means of a pierced cork, a bent tube so shaped as to rise perpendicularly to seven- eighths of the height of the receiver, then to pass off from it at right angles, and near the end to bend downwards. The condensed liquid being admitted through the opening at the top of the receiver, the oil separates, and rising to the top, occupies the upper narrow part of the vessel, while the water remains at the bottom and enters the tube affixed to the receiver. When the surface of the liquid attains in the receiver a higher level than the top of the tube, the water will necessarily begin to flow out through the latter, and may be received in bottles. The oil thus accumulates so long as the process con- tinues; but it is evident that the plan is applicable only to the oils lighter than water. For the heavier oils, cylindrical vessels may be employed, to be renewed as fast as they are filled. But, as all the water cannot be removed by these plans, it is necessary to resort to some other method of effecting a complete separation. An instrument called a separatory is usually employed for this purpose. It consists of a glass funnel, bulging at the top, where it is furnished with a stopper, and prolonged at the bottom into a very narrow tube. (See figure, page 758.) The lower opening being closed, the mixed liquids are introduced and allowed to stand till they separate. The orifice at the bottom is then opened, and the stopper at top being a little loosened so as to admit the air, the heavier liquid slowly flows out, and may be sepa- rated to the last drop from the lighter, which floats above it. If the oil is heavier than the water, it passes out of the separatory; if lighter it remains within. Another mode of separating the oil is to introduce into the vessel 89* 1050 Olea Destillata. PART II. containing the two liquids, one end of a cord of cotton, the other end hang- ing out, and terminating in a suitable receptacle beneath the level of that immersed in the liquid. The oil at top passes through the cord, and may thus be wholly removed. The last drops may be collected by pressing the cord between the fingers'. The water saturated with oil should be preserved for future distillations, as it can now dissolve no more of the oil, and will therefore yield a larger product. When first procured, the oil has a disagreeable empyreumatic odour, from which it may be freed by allowing it to stand for some days in vessels loosely covered with paper. It should then be introduced into small opaque bottles, which should be well stopped so as to exclude the air. When altered by exposure to air, the oils may sometimes be nearly or quite re- stored to their original appearance and quality by agitation with a little recently heated animal charcoal; and the same method may be employed for freeing oils from adhering water. The volatile oils have the medical properties of the plants from which they are derived; and, as their remedial application has been mentioned under the heads of these plants respectively, it will be unnecessary to treat of it in this place. They may be administered dropped on a lump of sugar; or triturated with at least ten times their weight of sugar, forming an oleo- saccharum, and then dissolved in water; or made into an emulsion with water, sugar, and gum Arabic. They are frequently kept dissolved in alcohol under the name of essences. W. OLEUM ANETHI. Ed. Oil of Dill. The fruit of dill yields about 3*5 per cent, of volatile oil. This is of a pale yellow colour, with the odour of the fruit, and a hot sweetish taste. Its specific gravity is stated at 0*881. It is employed to prepare dill water, and may be given as a carminative in the dose of three or four drops; but it is little used in this country. W. OLEUM ANISI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Oil of Anise. The product of oil from anise is variously stated from 1*56 to 3*12 per cent. The oil employed in this country is almost all imported. It is colour- less or yellowish, with the peculiar odour and taste of the seed. At 50° it crystallizes in flat tables, and does not melt under 62°. Its sp. gr. increases with age, and is variously given from 0*9768 to 0*9903. It is soluble in all proportions in alcohol of 0*806 ; but alcohol of 0*840 dissolves at 77° only 42 per cent. It consists of two oils, one solid at ordinary temperatures and heavier than water (stearoptene), the other liquid and more volatile (eleop- tene), both of which are said to have the same atomic constitution, and to consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C10HBO). It absorbs oxygen from the air, and becomes less disposed to concrete. Oil of anise is said to be sometimes adulterated with spermaceti, wax, or camphor. The first two may be detected by their insolubility in cold alcohol, the last by its odour. The dose of the oil is from five to fifteen drops. Its comparative mildness adapts it to infantile cases. The oil of star aniseed (oleum badiani), which resembles it in flavour, is frequently substituted for it in this country. Off Prep. Syrupus Sarsaparillas Compositus, U. S.; Tinctura Opii Am- moniata, Ed.; Tinct. Opii Camphorata, U. S._, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tro- chisci Glycyrrhizas et Opii, U. S. W. OLEUM ANTHEMIDIS. Lond., Ed. Oil of Chamomile. This is never prepared and little used in this country. Baume obtained PART II. Olea Destillata. 1051 thirteen drachms of the oil from eighty-two pounds of the flowers. It has the peculiar smell of chamomile, with a pungent somewhat aromatic taste. When recently distilled it is of a sky-blue colour, which changes to yellow or brownish on exposure. The sp. gr. of the English oil is said to be 0*9083. It has sometimes been used in spasms of the stomach, and as an adjunct to purgative medicines. The dose is from five to fifteen drops. On the continent of Europe, an oil extracted from the Matricaria Cha- momilla is employed under the name of oil of chamomile. It is dark blue, thick, and nearly opaque, becoming brown and unctuous by time. It has the odour of the plant from which it is derived, and an aromatic taste. W. OLEUM CARI. U.S. Oleum Carui. Lond., Ed., Dub. Oil of Caraway. This oil is prepared to a considerable extent by our distillers. The fresh fruit yields on an average about 4*7 per cent. (Recluz); but the product is very variable. The oil of caraway is somewhat viscid, of a pale yellow colour becoming brownish by age, with the odour of the fruit, and an aro- matic acrid taste. Its sp.gr. is 0*946 according to Baume, 0*931 according to Brande. Its constituents are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is much used to impart flavour to medicines, and to correct their nauseating and griping effects. The dose is from one to ten drops. Off. Prep. Confectio Scammonii, Lond., Dub.; Electuarium Sennas, Dub.; Pilulas Aloe's Compositae, Lond., Dub.; Pilulae Rhei Compositae, Lond. W. OLEUM CHENOPODII. U. S. Oil of Wormseed. This oil is peculiar to the United States. It is of a light yellow colour when recently distilled, but becomes deeper yellow, and even brownish by age. It has in a high degree the peculiar flavour of the plant. Its sp. gr. is 0*908. It is used as an anthelmintic, in the dose of from four to eight drops for a child, repeated morning and evening for three or four days, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. W. OLEUM COPAIBA. Ed. Oil of Copaiba, "Take of Copaiva one ounce; Water one pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Distil, preserving the water; when most of the water has passed over, heat it, return it into the still, and resume the distillation; repeat this process so long as a sensible quantity of oil passes over with the water." Ed. This oil is sufficiently described under Copaiba, page 271. W. OLEUM FCENICULI. U.S., Ed. Oleum Funiculi Dulcis. Dub. Oil of Fennel. Fennel seeds yield about 2*5 per cent, of oil. That used in this country is imported. It is colourless or yellowish, with the odour and taste of the seeds. Its sp. gr. is 0*997. It congeals below 50° into a crystalline mass, separable by pressure into a solid and liquid oil (stearoptene and eleoptene), the former heavier than water, and less volatile than the latter, which rises first when the oil is distilled. As found in the shops, therefore, the oil of fennel is not uniform; and Dr. Montgomery found that a specimen which he examined did not congeal at 22°. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; its formula being, according to Blanchet and Sill, CiaHs02. The dose is from five to fifteen drops. Off. Prep. Aqua Foeniculi, U. S. W. 1052 Olea Destillata. part ii. OLEUM GAULTHERIA. U.S. Oil of Partridge-berry. This oil is a product of the United States, and is prepared chiefly in New Jersey. It is directed by the Pharmacopoeia to be prepared from the leaves of the Gaultheria procumbens ; but the whole plant is usually em- ployed. It has been obtained by Mr. Wm. Procter, jun., of Philadelphia, from the bark of the Betula lenta, and has been supposed to exist also in the root of the Polygala paucifolia, and the roots and stems of the Spiraea ulmaria, Spiraea lobata, and Gaultheria hispidula, which have its peculiar flavour. The oil of partridge-berry when freshly distilled is nearly colourless, but as found in the shops has a brownish-yellow or reddish colour. It is of a sweetish, slightly pungent, peculiar taste, and a very agreeable charac- teristic odour, by which it may be readily distinguished from all other offici- nal oils. It is the heaviest of the known essential oils, having the sp. gr. 1*173. Its boiling point is 412°. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., iii. 199, and xiv. 213.) Its unusual weight affords a convenient test of its purity. Mr. Procter proved it to possess acid properties, and to be closely analogous to saliculous acid, one of the results of the decomposition of salicin by sul- phuric acid and bichromate of potassa, and an ingredient in the oil of Spiraea ulmaria. (See Salix, page 623.) By M. Cahours it has since been shown to have the same composition as the saliculate of methylene; and a product having its properties was obtained by distilling a mixture of pyroxylic spirit, saliculic acid, and sulphuric acid. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 211, and xv. 241.) Oil of gaultheria is used chiefly, on account of its pleasant flavour, to cover the taste of other medicines. Off. Prep. Syrupus Sarsaparillas Compositus, U. S. W. OLEUM HEDEOMA. U.S. Oil of Pennyroyal. This, though analogous in properties to the oil of European penny- royal, is derived from a distinct plant—Hedeoma pulegioides—peculiar to North America. It has a light yellow colour, with the odour and taste of the herb. Its sp. gr. is 0*948. It may be used as a remedy in flatulent colic and sick stomach, to correct the operation of nauseating or griping medicines, and to impart flavour to mixtures. The dose is from two to ten drops. W. OLEUM JUNIPERI. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Oil of Juniper. The proportion of oil which juniper berries afford is stated very dif- ferently by different authors. Trommsdorff obtained one per cent. The highest quantity given in the table of Recluz is 2*34, the lowest 0*31 per cent. The berries are most productive when bruised. The oil of juniper consumed in this country is brought from Europe. It is colourless, or of a light greenish-yellow, with a terebinthinate odour, and a hot acrid taste. Its sp.gr. is 0*911. It is not very soluble in alcohol. According to Blanchet, it contains two isomeric oils, of which one is colourless, and the other coloured and less volatile. It is, when pure, a carbo-hydrogen, and is said to have the same composition as oil of turpentine (C10HB); but it does not form a solid compound with muriatic acid. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 80.) Oil of turpentine is often fraudulently added, but may be detected by the specific gravity of the mixture, which is considerably less than that of the unadulterated oil of juniper. This oil is stimulant, carminative, and diuretic; and may be employed advantageously in debilitated dropsical cases, in connexion with other medi- cines, especially digitalis. It is this oil which imparts to Holland gin its PART II. Olea Destillata. 1053 peculiar flavour and diuretic power. The dose is from five to fifteen drops two or three times a day, and may be considerably increased. W. OLEUM LAVANDULA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Oil of La- vender. Dried lavender flowers yield from 1 to 1*5 per cent, of a very fluid, lemon-yellow oil, having the fragrance of the flowers, and an aromatic, burning taste. That met with in commerce has the sp. gr. 0*898 at 68° F., which is reduced to 0-877 by rectification. (Berzelius.) According to Brande, the sp. gr. of the oil obtained from the whole herb is 0*9206. Al- cohol of 0.830 dissolves the oil of lavender in all proportions : that of 0*887, only 42 per cent. (Berzelius.) Proust states that, when allowed to stand in imperfectly stopped bottles, it Jets fall a crystalline deposit (stearoptene), which often amounts to one-fourth of the weight of the oil. It is said that the portion of oil first distilled is most agreeably fragrant, and is often kept separate, and sold at a higher price. The oil of lavender is used chiefly as a perfume, though possessed of carminative and stimulant properties, and sometimes useful in cases of nervous languor and headache. The dose is from one to five drops. The oil of spike is procured from the broad-leaved variety of lavender which grows wild in Europe, the Lavandula Spica of De Candolle. Its odour is less fragrant than that of the common oil of lavender, and is some- what analogous to that of oil of turpentine, with which it is said to be often adulterated. It is much used by artists in the preparation of varnishes. Off. Prep. Tinctura Ammonias Composita, Lond. W. OLEUM MENTHA PIPERITA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Oleum Men- tha Piperitidis. Dub. Oil of Peppermint. Peppermint varies exceedingly in the quantity of oil which it affords. Four pounds of the fresh herb yield, according to Baume, from a drachm and a half to three drachms of the oil. The product is generally less than one per cent. This oil is largely distilled in the United States. It is of a greenish-yellow colour or nearly colourless, but becomes reddish by age. Its odour is strong and aromatic; its taste, warm, camphorous, and very pun- gent, but succeeded, when air is admitted into the mouth, by a sense of cool- ness. Its sp. gr. is stated differently from 0*902 to 0*920; its boiling point at 365°. Upon long standing it deposits a stearoptene, which, according to Kane, has the same composition as the oil, viz., C21H20O2. Berzelius states that at 8° below zero the oil deposits small capillary crystals. Oil of peppermint is stimulating and carminative, and is much used in flatulence, nausea, spasmodic pains of the stomach and bowels, and as a corrigent or adjuvant of other medicines. The dose is from one to three drops, and is most conveniently given rubbed up with sugar and then dis- solved in water. The oil is also very frequently employed in the form of essence of peppermint, prepared by dissolving two fluidounces in a pint of alcohol, and given upon sugar in the dose often or twenty drops. This is now officinal under the name of Tinctura Olei Menthas Piperitae. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthas Piperitas, U. S., Lond.; Pilulae Rhei Compositae, U.S.,Ed.; Spiritus Menthas Piperitae, Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Olei Menthae Piperitas, U. S.; Trochisci Menthas Piperitae, U. S. W. 1054 Olea Destillata. PART II. OLEUM MENTHA PULEGII. Lond. Oleum Pulegii. Ed., Dub. Oil of European Pennyroyal. About 1 part of this oil on an average is obtained from 100 parts of the plant. It is yellowish when freshly distilled, but becomes reddish by age. Its sp. gr. is stated differently from 0*925 to 0*978. It possesses medical properties similar to those of the oil of peppermint; but is seldom used in this country. The dose is from one to five drops. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthas Pulegii, Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Menthae Pulegii, Lond., Dub. W. OLEUM MENTHA VIRIDIS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Oil of Spearmint. According to Lewis, ten pounds of spearmint yield an ounce of oil; by others the product is stated not to exceed one part from five hundred. The oil is largely distilled in this country. It is pale yellow or greenish when recently prepared, but becomes red with age, and ultimately almost of a mahogany colour. Its flavour is analogous to that of the oil of peppermint, but is less agreeable and less pungent. Its sp. gr. is stated differently from 0*914 to 0*975; its boiling point, at 320°. Kane gives the formula CgjH^O, as representing its Composition. It is used for the same purposes as the oil of peppermint, in the dose of from two to five drops. An essence of spear- mint is prepared by dissolving two fluidounces of the oil in a pint of alcohol, and may be given in the quantity of from twenty to forty drops, upon a lump of sugar. This was introduced among the officinal tinctures in the last edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. Off. Prep. Aqua Menthas Viridis, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Infusum Menthae Compositum, Dub.; Spiritus Menthae Viridis, Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Olei Menthae Viridis, U. S. W. OLEUM MONARDA. U. S. Oil of Horsemint. This is prepared by our distillers from the fresh herb of Monarda punc- tata. It has a reddish-amber colour, a fragrant odour, and a warm, very pungent taste. It sometimes deposits a crystalline body, having the odour and taste of the oil, for which Mr. Procter proposes the name of monardin. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 87.) Applied to the skin it acts as a power- ful rubefacient, quickly producing heat, pain, redness, and even vesica- tion, This property of the oil was made known to the profession by Dr. Atlee, of Philadelphia, who employed it externally with advantage in low forms of typhus fever, cholera infantum, chronic rheumatism, and other affections in which rubefacients are indicated. In ordinary cases it should be diluted before being applied. It may be given internally as a stimulant and carminative, in the dose of two or three drops mixed with sugar and water. W. OLEUM ORIGANI. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Oil of Origanum. This is obtained from the common marjoram, Origanum vulgare, and is frequently called oil of marjoram. The plant varies exceedingly in the proportion which it affords. The mean product may be stated at from four to six parts from a thousand. The recent oil, when properly prepared, is of a yellow colour; but if too much heat is used in the distillation, it is said to be reddish, and it acquires the same tint by age. It may be obtained colourless by rectification. It has the odour of the plant, and a hot acrid taste. Kane gives its sp. gr. 0*867, its boiling point 354°, and its compo- sition CsoHwO. According to Lewis, its sp. gr. is 0*940, according to Brande 0*909. It is sometimes used as an external irritant, and to allay PART II. Olea Destillata. 1055 the pain of toothache, by being introduced, on lint or cotton, into the cavity of a carious tooth. It is not employed internally. It can scarcely be doubted that the oil directed by the Edinburgh College from the Origanum Majorana, or sweet marjoram, was intended for that of the O. vulgare; as the latter plant is indicated, under the name of Ori- ganum, in the Materia Medica list of the College, where the former is not mentioned ; and the oil is referred to in the Index of the Pharmacopoeia with the title of Oleum Origani. The oil of sweet marjoram is obtained from the plant by distillation, in the quantity of from 2*5 to 6 parts from 1000. It is of a lemon-yellow colour, light, and camphorous, and is said upon long standing to deposit a substance resembling camphor. It is not used in this country. Off. Prep. Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum, U. S. W. OLEUM PIMENTA. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Oil of Pimento. The berries yield from 1 to more than 4 per cent, of oil, which, as found in the shops, has a brownish-red colour, and the odour and taste of pimento, though warmer and more pungent. It is said, when freshly distilled, to be colourless or yellowish. Nitric acid reddens it. Bonastre states that it combines with salifiable bases like the oil of cloves. Its sp.gr. has been stated at 1*021, but varies. It consists, like the oil of cloves, of two dis- tinct oils, a lighter and heavier, the former of which comes over first in dis- tillation. They may be separated by distilling the oil with caustic potassa. The light oil comes over, and the heavy remains combined with the potassa. The latter may be obtained by distilling the residue with sulphuric acid. The light oil is lighter than water, and is a pure carbo-hydrogen. The heavy has the acid property of forming crystalline compounds with the alkalies. The two are closely analogous to the light and heavy oils of cloves. (Pereira.) The oil of pimento may be given for the same purposes with the other aromatic stimulant oils. The dose is from three to six drops. Off. Prep. Aqua Pimentae, Lond.; Emplastrum Aromaticum, Dub. W. OLEUM ROSMARINI. U.S., Lond., Ed. Oleum Rorismarini. Dub. Oil of Rosemary. The fresh leaves of rosemary yield, according to Baume, 0*26 per cent. of oil; but the product is stated much higher by other authors. According to Brande, a pound of the fresh herb yields about a drachm of the oil, which is about one per cent. This oil is colourless, with an odour similar to that of the plant, though less agreeable. Its sp. gr. is 0*911, but is reduced to 0*8^^6 by rectification. It is soluble in all proportions in alcohol of 0*830; but requires for solution at 64°, forty parts of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0*887. (Berzelius.) Kane gives its sp. gr. 0*897, its boiling point 365°, and its composition C45H3803. Kept in bottles imperfectly stopped, it deposits a stearoptene analogous to camphor, and sometimes amounting, according to Proust, to one-tenth of the oil. Bucholz states that it affords camphor when digested with from one-half its weight to an equal weight of potassa, and distilled. It is said to be sometimes adulterated with the oil of turpentine, which may be detected by mixing the suspected liquid with an equal volume of pure alcohol. The oil of rosemary is dissolved, and that of turpentine left. This oil is possessed of stimulant properties, but is employed chiefly as an ingredient of rubefacient liniments. The dose is from three to six drops. Off. Prep. Linimentum Opii, Ed.; Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum, U. S., Ed.; Spiritus Ammonias Aromaticus, Ed.; Spiritus Rosmarini, U.S., Lond., Dub.; Tinctura Saponis Camphorata, U. S., Ed. W. 1056 Olea Destillata. PART II. OLEUM RUTA. Ed., Dub. Oil of Rue. Rue yields a very small proportion of a yellow or greenish oil, which becomes brown with age. It has the strong unpleasant odour of the plant, and an acrid taste. Kane gives its sp. gr. 0*837, its boiling point 446°, and its composition CagHaaOg. It is stimulant and supposed to be antispas- modic, and has been given in hysteria, convulsions, and amenorrhoea. The dose is from two to five drops. W. OLEUM SABINA. U. S., Ed., Dub. Oil of Savine. The statements in relation to the proportion of volatile oil obtained from savine vary exceedingly. While according to Hoffmann and Murray the leaves afford about 16 per cent., others state the product at considerably less than 1 per cent. The highest percentage in Recluz's table, next to Hoffmann's, is about 1*7, in Christison's table 2*5. (Dispensatory.) The oil is nearly colourless or yellow, limpid, strongly odorous, and of a bitter- ish, extremely acrid taste. Kane gives its sp.gr. 0*915, its boiling point 315°, and it's composition C10H8, equivalent to that of oil of turpentine. According to Winckler, it is converted by sulphuric acid into an oil not distinguishable from that of thyme. (Chem. Gaz., Jan. 1847, p. 11.) The oil of savine is stimulant, emmenagogue, and actively rubefacient; and may be given for the same purposes as the plant in substance. It has been much employed empirically in amenorrhoea, and with a view to produce abortion, and in some instances with fatal effects. The dose is from two to five drops. W. OLEUM SAMBUCI. Lond. Oil of Elder Flowers. Elder flowers yield but a very small proportion of volatile oil, which is of a butyraceous consistence when cold, and scarcely deserves a place in the Pharmacopoeia. Off. Prep. Aqua Sambuci, Lond. W. OLEUM SASSAFRAS. U. S., Ed., Dub. Oil of Sassafras. The proportion of oil yielded by the root of sassafras is variously stated from less than 1 to somewhat more than 2 per cent. The bark of the root, directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, would afford a larger quantity. The oil is of a yellow colour, becoming reddish by age. It has the fragrant odour of sassafras, with a warm, pungent, aromatic taste. It is among the heaviest of the volatile oils, having the sp.gr. 1*094. According to Bo- nastre, it separates, by agitation with water, into two oils, one lighter, the other heavier than water. Berzelius states that the first is often nothing more than oil of turpentine existing as an adulteration in the oil of sassafras. Nitric acid colours it red, and fuming nitric acid inflames it more readily than most other oils. It has the useful property of dissolving caoutchouc. When kept for a long time it deposits transparent crystals, having the same odour as the liquid oil. It is stimulant, carminative, and supposed to be diaphoretic; and maybe employed for the same purposes with the bark from which it is derived. The dose is from two to ten drops. Off.Prep. Syrupus Sarsaparillas Compositus, U.S. W. OLEUM SUCCINI. U. S., Dub. Oil of Amber. " Take of Amber, in powder, any quantity. Put the Amber, previously mixed with an equal weight of sand, into a glass retort, which is to be only half filled; then distil, by means of a sand-bath, with a gradually in- creasing heat, an acid liquor, an oil, and a concrete acid impregnated with oil. Separate the Oil from the other matters, and keep it in well-stopped bottles." U.S. The unrectified oil of amber is not among the preparations directed by PART II. Olea Destillata. 1057 the London College. The Dublin College obtains it by the same process by which succinic acid is prepared. (See Acidum Succinicum.) The amber in this process undergoes decomposition, and affords, among other products, an empyreumatic oil, which floats in the receiver upon the surface of an acid liquor. The heat requisite for the complete decomposi- tion of the amber cannot be supported by a glass retort, and, in order that all the oil which it is capable of yielding may be collected, the distillation should be performed in a tubulated iron or earthenware retort, which may be placed immediately upon the fire. The sand is added to prevent the amber from swelling too much. The oil may be separated from the acid liquor by means of the separating.funnel. As first procured, it is a thick, very dark-coloured liquid, of a peculiar strong empyreumatic odour. In this state it is occasionally employed as a liniment; but for internal use it should be rectified. It is said that the scrapings of copal and the resin dammar are often substituted for amber, and yield an oil scarcely distin- guishable from the genuine. (Pereira's Mat. Med.) Off. Prep. Oleum Succini Rectificatum, U.S., Dub. W. OLEUM SUCCINI RECTIFICATUM. U.S., Dub. Oleum Suc- cini. Lond. Rectified Oil of Amber. " Take of Oil of Amber a pint; Water six pints. Mix them in a glass retort, and distil until four pints of the Water shall have passed with the oil into the receiver; then separate the Oil from the Water, and keep it in well stopped bottles." U. S. The Dublin College employs a pound of oil of amber and six pints of water; distils until two-thirds of the water have passed into the receiver; and then separates the oil. "Put Amber into an alembic, and distil from a sand-bath, with a heat gradually increased, an Acid Liquor, an Oil, and a Salt contaminated with oil; then distil the Oil a second and third time." Lond. By successive distillations the oil of amber is rendered thinner and more limpid, till at length it is obtained colourless. I'he- first portions which distil are less coloured than those which follow, and may be separated for keeping, while the remainder is submitted to another distillation. For practical purposes, however, the oil is sufficiently pure when once redis- tilled, as directed in the processes of the U. S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. As usually found in the shops, the rectified oil is of a light yellowish-brown or amber colour. When quite pure it is colourless, as fluid as alcohol, of the sp.gr. 0*758 at 75°, and boils at 186°. It has a strong, peculiar, un- pleasant odour, and a hot, acrid taste. It imparts these properties in some degree to water without being perceptibly dissolved. It is soluble in eight parts of alcohol of the sp.gr. 0-847 at 55°, in five parts ofthesp.gr. 0-825, and in all proportions in absolute alcohol. The fixed oils unite with it. On exposure to the light and air, it slowly changes in colour and consistence, becoming ultimately black and solid. It appears, when quite pure, to be a carbo-hydrogen, consisting, according to Dr. Doppingof 88*46 parts of carbon and 11*51 of hydrogen in 100 parts. (Chem. Gaz., Nov. 1845, p. 447.) Medical Properties and Uses. Rectified oil of amber is stimulant and antispasmodic, and occasionally promotes the secretions, particularly that of urine. It has been employed with advantage in amenorrhoea. and in various spasmodic and convulsive affections, as tetanus, epilepsy, hysteria, hooping cough, and infantile convulsions from intestinal irritation, &c. The dose is from five to fifteen drops, diffused in some aromatic water by means of sugar and gum Arabic. Externally applied the oil is rubefacient, and is considerably employed as a liniment in chronic rheumatism and palsy, and 90 1058 Olea Destillata.—Pilula. PART II. in certain spasmodic disorders, as hooping-cough and infantile convulsions. In the latter affection it should be rubbed along the spine, and was highly recommended by the late Dr. Parrish, mixed with an equal measure of laudanum, and diluted with three or four parts of olive oil and of brandy. Off. Prep. Tinctura Ammonias Composita, Lond. W. OLEUM TEREBINTHINA PURIFICATUM. Lond., Ed. Oleum Terebinthinte Rectificatum. Dub. Purified Oil of Turpentine. "Take of Oil of Turpentine a pint; Water four pints. Carefully distil the Oil." Lond. "Take of Oil of Turpentine one pint; Water four pints. Distil as long as Oil comes over with the Water." Ed. " Take of Oil of Turpentine two pints; Water four pints. Distil a pint and a half of the Oil." Dub. Oil of turpentine becomes impure by exposure, in consequence of the absorption of oxygen and the production of resin. From this it may be freed by distillation, as above directed, or by the agency of alcohol. (See Oleum Terebinthinae.) The process for distilling it is attended with some inconvenience, in consequence of the great inflammability of the vapour, and its rapid formation, which causes the liquid to boil over. In this country, the apothecary can almost always purchase the oil sufficiently pure for medical use without the necessity of rectifying it. The presence of a little resin does not interfere with its efficiency as a medicine. W. PILULE. Pills. These are small globular masses of a size convenient for swallowing. They are well adapted for the administration of medicines which are un- pleasant to the taste or smell, or insoluble in water, and do not require to be given in large doses. Deliquescent substances should not be made into pills, and those which are efflorescent should be previously deprived of their water of crystallization. Care should also be taken not to combine mate- rials, the mutual reaction of which may result in a change of form. Some substances have a consistence which enables them to be made im- mediately into pills. Such are the softer extracts and certain gum-resins; and the addition of a little water to the former, and a few drops of spirit to the latter, will give them the requisite softness and plasticity, if previously wanting. Substances which are very soft, or in the liquid state, are formed into the pilular mass by incorporation with dry and inert powders, such as crumb of bread, wheat flour, starch, and powdered gum Arabic. Powders must be mixed with soft solid bodies, as extracts, confections, soap, &c, or with tenacious liquids, as syrup, molasses, honey, or mucilage. Heavy metallic powders are most conveniently made into pills with the former; light vegetable powders with the latter. Mucilage is very often used; but pills made with it are apt when kept to become hard, and of difficult solu- bility in the liquors of the stomach, and, if metallic substances are mixed with it, the mass does not work well. A mixture of syrup and powdered gum Arabic is not subject to the same inconveniences, and is an excellent material for the formation of pills. Conserve of roses and molasses are among the best excipients, when the pills are to be long kept. For the same purpose of keeping the pill soft, a small portion of some fixed oil or deliquescent salt has been recommended as an addition to the mass. Many powders require only the addition of water. Such are all those which contain ingredients capable of forming an adhesive or viscid solution with PART II. Pilula. 1059 this liquid. Care should always be taken, that the matter added be not incompatible with the main ingredients of the pill. The materials should be accurately mixed together, and beat in a mortar till formed into a perfectly uniform and plastic mass. This should be of such a consistence that the pills may preserve their form, without beino- so hard as to resist the solvent power of the gastric liquors. As pills often become very hard by time, it is convenient, in some instances, to keep the mass in a state fit to be divided when wanted for use. This may be done by wrapping it in bladders, putting it in covered pots, and occasionally moistening it as it becomes dry. The mass, having been duly prepared, is made into pills by rolling it with a spatula into a cylinder of precisely the same thickness throughout, and of a length corresponding to the number of pills required. It is then divided as equally as possible by the hand, or more accurately by a machine made for the purpose. The pills receive a spherical form by being rolled between the fingers. In order to prevent their adhesion to one another, or to the sides of the vessel in which they may be placed, it is customary to agitate them with some dry powder, which gives them an external coating, that serves also to conceal their taste. For this purpose, carbonate of magnesia,, starch, or powdered liquorice root may be used. Carbonate of magnesia is sometimes incompatible with one of the ingredients of the pills, starch is almost too light, and liquorice root will, as a general rule, be found the best. The powder of lycopodium is much employed oh the continent of Europe; and it was formerly the custom to give the pill a coating of gold or silver leaf. It has been proposed by M. Garot to cover pills with gelatin, which answers the purpose of concealing their taste and odour, and counteracting deliquescence or chemical change from exposure to the air, without inter- fering with their solubility in the stomach. He dips each pill, sustained on the point of a pin,into melted gelatin, withdraws it with a rotary motion, then fixes the pin in a paste so as to allow the coating to dry in the air, and, having prepared about fifty pills in this way, proceeds to complete the operation by holding the pin in the flame of a taper so as to melt the gelatin near its point, and then withdrawing it from the pill so as to close up the orifice. The purest glue should be selected for this purpose, melted with the addi- tion of two or three drachms of water to an ounce of the glue, and kept liquid by means of a salt-bath. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 229.) Another plan of attaining the same objects, less effectual, but more con- venient than the above, is to introduce the pills into a spherical box, to drop on them enough syrup simply to moisten their surface, then to give a rotary movement to the box until the pills are uniformly covered, and finally to add by degrees a powder consisting of equal parts of gum, sugar, and starch, shaking the box with each addition, and continuing the process until nothing more will adhere to the pills. The investing material may be rendered agreeable to the taste and smell by aromatic additions, if deemed advisable. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., x. 32.) Pills which are to be long kept should be put into glass bottles with accurately fitting stoppers, so as to prevent the escape of moisture. Though the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, in almost every instance, orders the mass to be divided into pills; yet it should be understood rather as indicating the number of pills to be made from a certain quantity of the mass when particular directions are not given by the physician, than as requiring the division to be made immediately after the materials have been mixed. It will generally be found convenient by the apothecary to keep a portion of the mass undivided. W. 1060 Pilula. PART II. PILULA ALOES. U.S., Ed. Aloetic Pills. " Take of Aloes, in powder, Soap, each, an ounce. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U. S. The Edinburgh College directs equal quantities of Socotrine or East India aloes and Castile soap to be beat with conserve of red roses into a mass fit for forming pills. The soap, in this formula, not only serves to impart a proper consistence to the aloes, but is thought to qualify its operation and diminish its liability to irritate the rectum. Five pills, containing ten grains of aloes, may be given with a view to their purgative, effect; but the preparation is usually employed as a laxative in habitual costiveness, in the quantity of one, two, or three pills, taken before breakfast or dinner, or at bedtime. W. PILULA ALOES COMPOSITA. Lond., Dub. Compound Pills of Aloes. "Take of Aloes [Hepatic Aloes, Dub.], in powder, an ounce; Extract of Gentian half an ounce; Oil of Caraway forty minims; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Beat them together, till they are thoroughly incorporated." Lond., Dub. A reaction takes place between the aloes and extract of gentian when rubbed together, which renders the mass so soft as sometimes to require the addition of a light powder. The use of syrup is therefore unnecessary and improper. This combination is well adapted as a laxative to the costive- ness of sedentary and dyspeptic persons. The dose is from five to twenty grains, according to the degree of effect desired.* W. PILULA ALOES ET ASSAFCETIDA. U.S., Ed. Pills of Aloes and Assafetida. " Take of Aloes, in powder, Assafetida, Soap, each, half an ounce. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into one hundred and eighty pills." U. S. The Edinburgh College takes equal parts of Socotrine or East India aloes, assafetida, and Castile soap, and beats them into a mass with conserve of red roses. These pills are peculiarly adapted, by the stimulant and carminative pro- perties of the assafetida, to cases of costiveness attended with flatulence and debility of the digestive organs. Each pill contains about four grains of the mass. From two to five may be given for a dose. W. PILULA ALOES ET FERRI. Ed. Pills of Aloes and Iron. "Take of Sulphate of Iron three parts; Barbadoes Aloes two parts; Aro- * The following is the formula for the aloetic pills usually called dinner pills, or Lady Webster's pills. They are the pilula stomachicte of the fifth edition of the Paris Codex, A. T>. 1758. Take of the best Aloes six drachms; Mastich and Red Roses, each, two drachms; Syrup of Wormwood sufficient to form a mass, to be divided into pills of three grains each. Common syrup may be substituted for the syrup of wormwood. One or two of these pills, taken shortly before a meal, will usually produce one free evacuation. The Philadelphia College of Pharmacy has adopted the following formulae for the compound aloetic preparations commonly called Hooper's and Anderson's pills. " Hooper's female pills. R Aloe's Barbadensis ^viij., Ferri Sulphatis Exsiccati |ij., giss., vel Ferri Sulphatis Crystal, giv., Extracti Hellebori gij., Myrrhae §ij., Saponis gij., Canellas in pulv. trita; gj., Zingiberis in pulv. trit. gj.—Beat them well together into a mass with water, and divide into pills, each containing two and a half grains." {Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., v. 25.) "Anderson's Scots' pills. R Aloes Barbadensis ^xxiv., Saponis ^iv., Colocynthidis gj., Gambogice ^j., Olei Anisi f^ss. Let the aloes, colocynth, and gamboge be reduced to a very fine powder; then beat them and the soap with water into a mass, of a proper con- sistence to divide into pills, each containing three grains." Ibid. PART II. Pilula. 1061 matic Powder six parts; Conserve of Red Roses eight parts. Pulverize the Aloes and Sulphate of Iron separately; mix the whole ingredients ; and beat them into a proper mass; which is to be divided into five grain pills." Ed. It is said that the laxative power of aloes is increased, and its tendency to irritate the rectum diminished, by combination with the sulphate of iron. (Christison's Dispensatory.) This combination is useful in constipation with debility of stomach, especially when attended with amenorrhoea. The dose is from one to three pills. W. PILULA ALOES ET MYRRHA. U. S., Ed. Pilule Aloes cum Myrrha. Lond., Dub. Pills of Aloes and Myrrh. "Take of Aloes, in powder, two ounces; Myrrh, in powder, an ounce ; Saffron half an ounce; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Beat the whole toge- ther so as to form a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills." U.S. The processes of the London and Dublin Colleges differ from the above only in directing a double proportion of saffron, in the specification of hepatic aloes by the latter, and in not dividing the mass. The Edinburgh College takes four parts of Socotrine or East India aloes, two parts of myrrh, and one part of saffron ; and beats them with conserve of red roses. This composition has been long in use, under the name of Rufus's pills. It is employed as a warm stimulant cathartic in debilitated states of the sys- tem, attended with constipation, and retention or suppression of the menses. From three to six pills, or from ten to twenty grains of the mass may be given for a dose. W. PILULA ASSAFCETIDA. U. S. Assafetida Pills. " Take of Assafetida an ounce and a half; Soap half, an ounce. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U. S. Each of these pills contains three grains of the gum-resin. They are a convenient form for administering assafetida, the unpleasant odour and taste of which render it very offensive in the liquid state. W. PILULA CALOMELANOS COMPOSITA. Ed., Dub. Pilulje Hydrargyri Chloridi Composite. Lond. Compound Calomel Pills. Compound Pills of Chlonde of Mercury. " Take of Chloride of Mercury [Calomel], Oxysulphuret of Antimony, each, two drachms; Guaiacum Resin [guaiac], in powder, half an ounce; Molasses two drachms. Rub the Chloride of Mercury with the Oxysul- phuret of Antimony, then with the Guaiacum Resin and Molasses, so that they may be incorporated." Lond. The Edinburgh College takes of calomel and golden sulphuret of anti- mony, each, one part; guaiac, in fine powder, and treacle, each, two parts; mixes the solids in fine powder, then the treacle, and beats the whole into a mass, to be divided into six grain pills. The Dublin College agrees with the London, employing half the quantity of the active ingredients, and a sufficient quantity of molasses. We prefer the title "compound calomel pills" of the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias ; as, though not scientific, it is not, like the London name, liable to be confounded with that of corrosive sublimate. The anti- moniai employed by the Colleges is the same, though under different names, and is identical with the U. S. precipitated sulphuret. According to Vogel, a reaction takes place between the calomel and sulphuret of anti- mony, resulting in the production of chloride of antimony and sulphuret of 90* 1062 Pilula. PART II. mercury. (Annal. der Pharm., xxviii. 236.) The preparation was origi- nally introduced to the notice of the profession by Dr. Plummer, who found it useful as an alterative, and upon whose authority it was at one time much employed under the name of Plummer's pills. The combination is well adapted to the treatment of chronic rheumatism, and of scaly and other eruptive diseases of the skin, especially when accompanied with a syphilitic taint. Four grains of the mass contain about one grain of calomel. From three to six grains or more may be given morning and evening. W. PILULA CALOMELANOS ET OPII. Ed. Pills of Calomel and Opium. " Take of Calomel three parts ; Opium one part; Conserve of Red Roses a sufficiency. Beat them into a proper mass, which is to be divided into pills, each containing two grains of Calomel." Ed. . The proportion in which opium is united with calomel To meet different indications is so various, that such a combination as the abrj*e is scarcely a proper subject for officinal direction. W. PILULA CATHARTICA COMPOSITA. U. S. Compound Cathartic Pills. " Take of Compound Extract of Colocynth, in powder, half an ounce ; Extract of Jalap, in powder, Mild Chloride of Mercury [calomel], each three drachms; Gamboge, in powder, two scruples. Mix them together; then with water form them into a mass, to be divided into one hundred and eighty pills." U. S. This cathartic compound was first made officinal in the second edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. It was intended to combine smallness of bulk with efficiency and comparative mildness of purgative action, and a peculiar tendency to the biliary organs. Such an officinal preparation was much wanted in this country, in which bilious fevers, and other complaints at- tended with congestion of the liver and portal circle generally, so much abound. The object of smallness of bulk is accomplished by employing extracts and the more energetic cathartics; that of a peculiar tendency to the liver, by the use of caiomel; and that of efficiency with mildness of operation, by the union of several powerful purgatives. It is a fact abund- antly proved by experience, that drastic cathartics become milder by combination, without losing any of their purgative power. Nor is it diffi- cult, in this Case, to reconcile the result of observation with physiological principles. Cathartic medicines act on different parts of the alimentary canal and organs secreting into it. In small doses, both the irritation which they occasion and their purgative effect are proportionably lessened. If several are administered at the same time, each in a diminished dose, it is obvious that the combined purgative effect of all will be experienced; while the irritation, being feeble in each part affected, and diffused over a large space, will be less sensible to the patient, and will more readily subside. In the com- pound cathartic pills, most of the active purgatives in common use are associated together in proportions corresponding with their respective doses, so that an excess of any one ingredient is guarded against, and violent irri- tation from this cause prevented. The name of the preparation may at first sight seem objectionable, as it might be applied to any compound pills possessing cathartic properties; but when it is considered that the ingre- dients cannot all be expressed in the title, that no one is sufficiently promi- nent to give a designation to the whole, and that the preparation is intended as the representative of numerous cathartics, and calculated for a wide range of application, the name will not be considered an inexcusable devia- tion from ordinary medical nomenclature. PART II. Pilula. 1063 Three of the pills, containing 10§ grains of the mass, are a medium dose for an adult. In this quantity are four grains of compound extract of colocynth, three of extract of jalap, three of calomel, and two-thirds of a grain of gam- boge. A single pill will generally be found to operate as a mild laxative. In a full dose, the preparation acts vigorously on the bowels, producing bilious stools, generally without much pain or disorder of the stomach. It may be employed in most instances where a brisk cathartic is required; but is particularly applicable to the early stages of bilious fevers, to hepatitis, jaundice, and all those derangements of the alimentary canal or of the gene- ral health which depend on congestion of the portal circle. W. PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA. Dub, PiLULiE Colocynthidis. Ed. Compound Pills of Colocynth. "Take of Socotrine or East India Aloes, and Scammony, of each, eight parts; Colocynth four parts; Sulphate of Potash and Oil of Cloves, of each, one part; Rectified Spirit a sufficiency. Pulverize the Aloes, Scam- mony, and Sulphate of Potash together; mix with them the Colocynth pre- viously reduced to fine powder; add the Oil of Cloves; and with the aid of a small quantity of Rectified Spirit beat the whole into a proper pill mass; which is to be divided into five |rrain pills." Ed. " Take of Hepatic Aloes, Scammony, each, an ounce; Pulp of Colocynth half an ounce; Castile Soap two drachms; Sulphate of Potassa, Oil of Cloves, each, a drachm; Molasses a sufficient quantity. Reduce the Aloes and Scammony to powder with the Sulphate of Potassa; then mix the Pulp of Colocynth and the Oil, and lastly, rub all together into a mass with the Soap and Molasses." Dub. The sulphate of potassa is intended to promote the more complete division of the aloes and scammony. Rectified spirit is directed in the Edinburgh . Pharmacopoeia, because it is believed to be retained by the mass more firmly than water, and thus to preserve the due consistence longer. The prepara- tion is actively cathartic in the dose of from eight to sixteen grains. W. PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS ET HYOSCYAMI. Ed. Pills of Colocynth and Henbane. "Take of the Colocynth-pill mass two parts; Extract of Hyoscyamus one part. Beat them well together, adding a few drops of Rectified Spirit if necessary; and divide the mass into five grain pills." Ed. It is asserted that the compound pill and compound extract of colocynth are almost entirely deprived of their griping tendency by combination, as above, with the extract of hyoscyamus, without losing any of their purgative power. The dose is from five to twenty grains. W. PILULA CONII COMPOSITA. Lond. Compound Pills of Hem- lock. "Take of Extract of Hemlock five drachms; Ipecacuanha, in powder, a drachm; Mixture [Mucilage] of Gum Arabic a sufficient quantity. Beat them together until they are incorporated." Lond. An anodyne and expectorant combination, useful in chronic bronchial dis- eases. The dose is five grains three times a day. W. PILULA COPAIBA. U. S. Pills of Copaiba. "Take of Copaiba two ounces ; Magnesia, recently prepared, a drachm. Mix them, and set the mixture aside till it concretes into a pilular mass, which is to be divided into two hundred pills." U. S. When copaiba is mixed with pure magnesia, it gradually losesrits fluidity, forming at first a soft tenacious mass, and ultimately becoming dry, hard, and brittle. The quantity of magnesia, and the length of time requisite for 1064 Pilula. part ii. this change, vary with the condition of the copaiba; being greater in pro- portion to the fluidity of this substance, or, in other words, to its amount of volatile oil. The quantity of magnesia directed by the Pharmacopoeia, one- sixteenth of the weight of the copaiba, is sufficient to solidify the latter, as it is often found in the shops, in the course of six or eight hours; but, when the copaiba is fresh, or has been kept in closely stopped bottles, and retains, therefore, nearly the whole of its oil, it is necessary either to augment the proportion of magnesia, or to expose the mixture for a much longer time, or to diminish the volatile oil of the copaiba by evaporation. The magnesia combines chemically with the resin, but, in relation to the volatile oil, acts merely as an absorbent; for, when the solidified mass is submitted to the action of boiling alcohol, a part is dissolved, abandoning the magnesia with which it was mixed, while the resin combined with another portion of the earth remains undissolved. (Journ. de Pharm., xvii. 105.) According to Guibourt,copaiba not solidifiable by magnesia, may be madeso by adding one- sixth of Bordeaux or common European turpentine. (Ibid., xxv. 499.) The magnesia employed should not have been allowed to become hydrated by exposure to a moist air or otherwise. (Ibid., 3e ser., v. 475.) In the pre- paration of the pills of copaiba, care should be taken to divide the mass before it has become too hard. The advantage of this preparation is, that the copaiba is brought to the state of pill with little increase of bulk. Each pill contains nearly five grains of copaiba, and from two to six may be taken for a dose twice or three times a day. Hydrate of lime produces the same effect as magnesia, and, as stated by M. Thierry, in a shorter time, if employed according to his formula. He takes 15 parts of copaiba and 1 part of slaked lime, mixes them in a marble mortar, transfers the mixture to an open vessel, places this upon a sand-bath, and sustains the heat for four hours, occasionally stirring. The hydrate of lime must have been freshly prepared from recently burnt lime. The mixture loses only a twenty-fourth of its weight, which is chiefly the water of the hydrate. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., i. 310.) W. PILULA CUPRI AMMONIATI. Ed. Pills of Ammoniated Copper. "Take of Ammoniated Copper, in fine powder, one part; Bread-crumb six parts ; Solution of Carbonate of Ammonia a sufficiency. Beat them into a proper mass, and divide it into pills, containing each half a grain of ammoniated copper." Ed. This is a convenient form for administering ammoniated copper. One pill may be given night and morning, and the dose gradually increased to five or six pills. W. PILULA DIGITALIS ET SCILLA. Ed. Pills of Digitalis and Squill. t "Take of Digitalis and Squill, of each, one part; Aromatic Electuary two parts. Beat them into a proper mass with Conserve of Red Roses; and divide the mass into four grain pills." Ed. These pills combine the diuretic properties of digitalis and squill, and may be given in dropsy. One or two pills constitute a dose. W. PILULA FERRI CARBONATIS. U.S., Ed. Pills of Carbonate of Iron. Vallefs Ferruginous Pills. " Take of Sulphate of Iron four ounces; Carbonate of Soda^e ounces; Clarified Honey two ounces and a half; Syrup, Boiling Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron and carbonate of Soda, each, in a pint of the Water, and to each solution add a fluidounce of Syrup; part n. Pilula. 1065 then mix the two solutions in a bottle just large enough to contain them, close it accurately with a stopper, and set it by that the carbonate of iron may subside. Pour off the supernatant liquid, and, having washed the precipi- tate with warm water, sweetened with Syrup in the proportion of a fluid- ounce of the latter to a pint of the former, until the washings no longer have a saline taste, place it upon a flannel cloth, and express as much of the water as possible; then immediately mix it with the Honey. Lastly, heat the mix- ture, by means of a water-bath, until it attains a pilular consistence." U. S. "Take of the Saccharine Carbonate of \xon four parts; Conserve of Red Roses one part. Beat them into a proper mass, to be divided into five grain pills." Ed. The effect of saccharine matter in protecting iron from oxidation has been explained under the heads of Ferri Carbonas Saccharatum and Liquor Ferri Iodidi. The U. S. pill of carbonate of iron is another example of a ferruginous preparation, in which the iron is protected from oxidation by the same means. The salts employed are the same as those used for obtaining the officinal subcarbonate of iron ; but, in forming that preparation, the car- bonate which first precipitates absorbs oxygen, and loses nearly all its car- bonic acid in the processes of washing and drying. When, however, as in the U.S. formula, above given, the reacting salts are dissolved in weak syrup instead of water, and the washing is performed with the same sub- stance, the absorption of oxygen and loss of carbonic acid, during the sepa- ration of the precipitate, are almost completely prevented. It only remains, therefore, to preserve it unaltered, and to bring it to the pilular consistence, and this is effected by admixture with honey, and evaporation by means of a water-bath. Of course it is essential to the success of this process, that the sulphate of iron should be pure; otherwise some sesquioxide will be present in the product. The process just explained is that of M. Vallet, of Paris, after whom the preparation is popularly called. The Edinburgh pill of carbonate of iron is made in a different manner. The saccharine carbonate, a preparation peculiar to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, is brought to a pilular consistence by being mixed with conserve of roses. This pro- cess is inferior to that of Vallet; for, in the first place, the saccharine car- bonate is admitted to contain sesquioxide of iron, and secondly, conserve of roses is a Jess efficient preservative of the pilular mass than honey. (See Ferri Carbonas Saccharatum.) Properties. The U. S. preparation is in the form of a soft pilular mass, of a uniform black colour and strong ferruginous taste. When carefully prepared, it is wholly and readily soluble in acids. It contains nearly half its weight of carbonate of protoxide of iron. The Edinburgh pill may be supposed to contain one-third of ferruginous matter. Medical Properties and Uses. The U. S. pill of carbonate of iron, or Vallet's ferruginous mass, is admirably adapted to cases in which ferruginous preparations are indicated. It is considered particularly useful in chlorosis, amenorrhoea, and other female complaints, and appears to act favourably by increasing the colouring matter of the blood, causing the capillary system to become more fully injected, and the lips to assume a redder colour. It may be given in divided doses to the extent of from ten to thirty grains in the course of the day, and continued for a month or six weeks, if improvement takes place. As the mass is not divided in the U. S. formula, it is necessary in prescription to indicate the weight of each pill, which may vary from three to five grains, according to the views of the prescriber. There can be but little doubt, that, in cases in which the alterative effects of iron are called for, Vallet's preparation is superior to any other derived from that metal. 1066 Pilula. PART II. Its chief merits are its unchangeableness and ready solubility in acids. For further information respecting it, see the favourable report made on Vallet's ferruginous pills to the French Royal Academy of Medicine, in 1837, by M. Soubeiran, republished in the Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 244, and the paper on carbonate of iron by Mr. Wm. Procter, jun., contained in the same journal, x. 272. B. PILULA FERRI COMPOSITA. U. S., Lond,, Dub. Compound Pills of Iron. "Take of Myrrh, in powder, two drachms; Carbonate of Soda, Sulphate of Iron, each, a drachm; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Rub the Myrrh with the Carbonate of Soda; then add the Sulphate of Iron, and again rub them; lastly, beat them with the Syrup so as to form a mass, to be divided into eighty pills." U. S. The directions of the British Colleges are essentially the same as the above. The London College orders a drachm of molasses, the Dublin, a drachm of brown sugar, instead of the syrup. With brown sugar alone, the reaction of the materials in our climate does not always produce suffi- cient moisture to give the mass a pilular consistence. The direction for dividing the mass into pills is peculiar to our Pharmacopoeia. This preparation is closely analogous to the Mistura Ferri Composita in properties and composition. It is a good emmenagogue and antihectic tonic. As its peculiar advantages depend upon the presence of carbonate of prot- oxide of iron, which speedily changes into the sesquioxide on exposure, it is proper that only so much of the mass should be prepared as may be wanted for immediate use. It is said that the iron will be better preserved in the state of protoxide, if, instead of mixing the ingredients as directed in the Pharmacopoeia, the operator should first dissolve the sulphate of iron, finely powdered, in the syrup, with a moderate heat, then add the carbonate of soda, stirring till effervescence ceases, and lastly incorporate the myrrh. From two to six pills may be given at a dose, three times a day. W. PILULA FERRI SULPHATIS. Ed. Pills of Sulphate of Iron. "Take of Dried Sulphate of Iron two parts; Extract of Taraxacum five parts; Conserve of Red Roses two parts; Liquorice-root powder three parts. Beat them together into a proper mass, which is to be divided into five grain pills." Ed. There may be some doubt of the propriety of mixing the sulphate x»f iron with the confection of roses, by the tannic acid of which it must be decom- posed. The dose is from five to twenty grains. W. PILULA GALBANI COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Dub. Pilule AssAFCETiDiE. Ed. Compound Pills of Galbanum. " Take of Galbanum, Myrrh, each, an ounce and a half; Assafetida half an ounce; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Beat them together so as to form a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills." U. S. The London College directs of Galbanum an ounce, of Myrrh and Saga- penum, each, an ounce and a half, of Assafetida half an ounce, and of Syrup a sufficient quantity; and orders them to be beaten together until thoroughly incorporated. The Dublin College gives the same directions, substituting molasses for the syrup. The Edinburgh College takes of assafetida, galbanum, and myrrh, each, three parts, conserve of red roses four parts or a sufficient quantity, mixes them, and beats them into a proper pilular mass. This compound is given as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue in chlo- rosis and hysteria. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. W. PART II. Pilula. 1067 PILULA GAMBOGIA COMPOSITA. Dub. Pilule Cambo- GiiE Composite. Lond. Pilulas Cambogias. Ed. Compound Pills of Gamboge. " Take of Gamboge, in powder, a drachm; Aloes, in powder, a drachm and a half; Ginger, in powder, half a drachm; Soap two drachms. Mix the powders together; then add the Soap, and beat the whole together till they are thoroughly incorporated." Lond. The Dublin formula differs from the above only in designating hepatic aloes, and in the addition of molasses to impart more readily the pilular consistence. The Edinburgh College takes of gamboge, East India or Barbadoes aloes, and aromatic powder, each, one part, and of Castile soap two parts ; pulver- izes the gamboge and aloes separately, mixes all the powders, adds the soap, and then a sufficiency of syrup; and beats the whole into a proper pill mass. This is an active purgative pill; and may be given in the dose of ten or fifteen grains. The formula is that of Dr. George Fordyce simplified. W. PILULA HYDRARGYRI. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Mercurial Pills. Blue Pills. " Take of Mercury an ounce ; Confection of Roses an ounce and a half; Liquorice Root, in powder, half an ounce. Rub the Mercury with the Confection till all the globules disappear; then add the Liquorice Root, and beat the whole into a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills." U.S. The process of the London College is the same with the above, one quarter only of the quantity of materials being used. The Dublin process differs from the London only in substituting extract of liquorice root for the root itself. Neither of these Colleges orders the mass to be divided into pills. The Edinburgh process corresponds with that of the U. S. Phar- macopoeia, except that the relative quantity of the ingredients is expressed in parts, and the mass is divided into five grain pills. This preparation is very generally known by the name of blue pill. The mercury constitutes one-third of the mass ; and consequently the pill of our Pharmacopoeia, which weighs three grains, contains one grain of the metal. The precise condition of the mercury in this preparation is somewhat uncertain. By far the greater portion is in a state of minute mechanical division, and not chemically altered. Some maintain that the whole of the metal is in this state, others, that a small portion is converted during the trituration into protoxide, and that this is the ingredient upon which the activity of the pill depends. The supposed oxidation is attributed partly to the influence of the air upon the surface of the metal, greatly extended by the separation of its particles, partly to the action of the substance used in the trituration. If the mercury be not oxidized during the trituration, there can be little doubt that it becomes so to a slight extent by subsequent exposure. The obvious changes which the mass undergoes by time can be explained in no other way ; and protoxide of mercury is asserted to have been actually extracted from old mercurial pill. Nevertheless, it scarcely admits of dispute, that the metal, quite independently of oxidation out of the body, is capable of producing the peculiar mercurial effects when intro- duced into the stomach, probably undergoing chemical changes there. Ac- cording to M. Mialhe, mercury is slowly converted into corrosive sublimate in the stomach, under the combined agency of air and chloride of sodium. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., ii. 440.) All agree that the efficacy of the preparation is proportionate to the extinction of the mercury, in other words, to the degree in which the metallic globules disappear. This extinction 1068 Pilula. part n. may be effected by trituration with various substances, and manna, syrup, honey, liquorice, mucilage, soap, guaiac, and extract of dandelion have been recommended, among others, for this purpose ; but the confection of roses has been adopted in all the Pharmacopoeias, as less liable to objection than any other. The mercury is known to be completely extinguished, when, upon rubbing a small portion of the mass with the end of the finger upon a piece of paper or glass, no globules appear. Powdered liquorice root is added in order to give due consistence to the mass. As the trituration re- quires to be long continued, and renders the process very laborious, it is customary in Great Britain to prepare the mass by machinery; and at Apo- thecaries' Hall, in London, the trituration is effected by the agency of steam. The machine there employed consists of "a circular iron trough for the re- ception of the materials, in which revolve four wooden cylinders, having also a motion on their axis." The preparation slowly changes colour upon being kept, assuming an olive and sometimes even a reddish tint, in con- sequence, probably, of the further oxidation of the mercury. Much of the mercurial pill employed in this country is imported from England.* Medical Properties and Uses. These pills are among the mildest of the mercurials, being Jess liable than most others to act upon the bowels, and exercising the peculiar influence of the remedy upon the system with less irritation. They are much employed for producing the sialagogue and alterative action of mercury. For the former purpose, one pill may be • given two or three times a day ; and in urgent cases the dose may be in- creased. Even this preparation sometimes disturbs the bowels. It should then be given combined with a little opium, or in very minute doses, as half a grain or a grain of the mass repeated every hour or two through the day, so as to allow of its absorption before a sufficient quantity has been administered to act as an irritant. With a view to the alterative effect upon the digestive organs, one pill may be given every night, or every other night, at bedtime, and followed in the morning, if the bowels should not be opened, by a small dose of laxative medicine. From five to fifteen grains of the mass are occasionally given as a cathartic, in cases requiring a peculiar im- pression upon the liver; but, when used for this purpose, it should always either be combined with or speedily followed by a more certain purgative. The blue mass may frequently be administered with advantage, suspended in water by the intervention of thick mucilage; and it forms an excellent addition to the chalk mixture in diarrhoea, particularly that of children, when the biliary secretion is deficient, or otherwise deranged. W. PILULA HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI MITIS. U.S. Pills of Mild Chloride of Mercury. Calomel Pills. "Take of Mild Chloride of Mercury [calomel] half an ounce; Gum Arabic, in powder, a drachm; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Mix together * This preparation is very apt to contain less than the due proportion of mercury. The fraud may be detected by the following plan of estimating the proportion of mer- cury, suggested by Prof. Re id of New York, and modified by a committee of the Phila- delphia College of Pharmacy. A certain weight of the mercurial pill, say fifty grains, is mixed with about one-fourth of its weight of iron filings, and introduced into a small green glass bulb, at the end of a somewhat curved tube, the open extremity of which is inserted, through a cork, into alcohol contained in a broad-mouthed glass vial; another tube, open at both ends, passing through the cork in order to permit the escape of uncondensed gases. Heat is then applied to the bulb by means of a spirit lamp, is gradually increased until the glass becomes red-hot, and continued for an hour. The alcohol in the vial dis- solves the empyreumatic products, and by being allowed to rise in the tube, and then expelled, serves to wash out any mercury that may be condensed upon its sides. The alcohol is poured off from the condensed mercury, which is then washed with fresh alcohol, dried, and weighed. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 309 and 151.) PART II. Pilula. 1069 the Chloride of Mercury and the Gum ; then beat them with the Syrup so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U. S. This is a convenient form for administering calomel, of which one grain is contained in each pill. Soap, which was directed in the preparation of this pill in the first edition of the Pharmacopoeia, is objectionable on account of its chemical incompatibility with calomel. Mucilage of gum Arabic alone does not form a sufficiently plastic mass; but gum and syrup united, as in the officinal formula, answer admirably well, forming a mass which is easily made into pills, and which readily yields to the solvent power of the stomach. w_ PILULA HYDRARGYRI IODIDI. Lond. Pills of Iodide of Mercury. " Take of Todide of Mercury a drachm; Confection of the Dog Rose three drachms; Ginger, in powder, a drachm. Beat them together until they are incorporated." Lond. The dose of this preparation is from five to ten grains. W. PILULA IPECACUANHA COMPOSITA. Lond. Compound Pills of Ipecacuanha. " Take of Compound Powder of Ipecacuanha [Dover's powder] three drachms; Squill, recently dried, Ammoniac, each, a drachm; Mixture [Mucilage] of Gum Arabic a sufficient quantity. Beat them together until they are incorporated." Lond. An anodyne, somewhat stimulating, and expectorant combination, appli- cable to cases of chronic bronchial disease. The dose is from five to ten grains. W. PILULA IPECACUANHA ET OPII. Ed. Pills of Ipecacuanha and Opium. " Take of Powder of Ipecacuanha and Opium three parts; Conserve of Red Roses one part. Beat them into a proper mass, which is to be divided into four grain pills." Ed. This is merely the Dover's powder in a pilular form; as there can scarcely be a doubt, that the College intended by the name "powder of ipecacuanha and opium," to designate the preparation which they now call "compound powder of ipecacuanha." These pills are narcotic and sudorific. The quantity of the mass equivalent to a grain of opium is about thirteen grains; but it is usually employed in smaller doses. W. PILULA OPII. U. S. Pilulas Opii sive Thebaicje. Ed. Pills of Opium. " Take of Opium, in powder, a drachm; Soap twelve grains. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into sixty pills." U.S. "Take of Opium one part; Sulphate of Potassa three parts; Conserve of Red Roses one part. Beat them into a proper mass, which is to be divided into five grain pills." Ed. The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is designed merely to furnish a convenient formula for putting opium into the pilular form, preferable to the mode sometimes practised of making the pills directly from the unpow- dered mass of opium as found in commerce. The soap answers no other purpose than to give a due consistence, and is therefore in small proportion. Each pill contains a grain of opium. The object intended to be answered by the Edinburgh preparation is somewhat uncertain. The proportion of the opium corresponds with that in the Pilulae Saponis Compositae of the other Pharmacopoeias, but the 91 1070 Pilula. PART II. name given to the preparation indicates that there could be no intention to conceal its nature; while the direction to divide the mass into pills of five grains, each containing a grain of opium, shows that the design was not to offer the means of exhibiting small doses of that narcotic in the pilular form. The object probably was merely to separate the particles of opium by the intervention of sulphate of potassa, and thus to render it more soluble in the gastric liquors. In this case, the preparation ranks rather with the U.S. pills of opium, with which we have placed it, than with the com- pound pills of soap. Of either of these pills, one is a medium dose in reference to the full effects of opium. W. PILULA PLUMBI OPIATA. Ed. Opiate pills of Lead. "Take of Acetate of Lead six parts; Opium one part; Conserve of Red Roses about one part. Beat them into a proper mass, which is to be divided into four grain pills. This pill may be made also with twice the quantity of opium." Ed. This pill would be better left to extemporaneous prescription; the requi- site proportion of opium to the acetate of lead varying constantly in different cases. Besides, to have two preparations under the same name, one con- taining twice as much opium as the other, must lead to great confusion, and is altogether objectionable. The tannic acid of the confection of roses will decompose a portion of the acetate; but the resulting tannate of lead is not inert. Each pill contains three grains of acetate of lead, which is generally too much for a commencing dose. W. PILULA QUINIA SULPHATIS. U. S. Pills of Sulphate, of Quinia. " Take of Sulphate of Gluinia an ounce; Gum Arabic, in powder, two drachms; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Mix together the Sulphate of Gluinia and the Gum; then beat them with the Syrup so as to form a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills." U.S. Each pill contains a grain of sulphate of quinia, and twelve are equiva- lent to an ounce of good Peruvian bark. W. PILULA RHEI. U. S., Ed. Pills of Rhubarb. " Take of Rhubarb, in powder, six drachms; Soap two drachms. Beat them with water so as to form a mass, to be divided into one hundred and twenty pills." U. S. "Take of Rhubarb, in fine powder, nine parts; Acetate of Potash one part; Conserve of Red Roses five parts. Beat them into a proper mass, and divide it into five grain pills." Ed. Rhubarb is so often given in the pilular form, that it is convenient both for the physician and apothecary to have an officinal formula, indicating the mode of preparing the pills, as well as the quantity of rhubarb to be contained in each. Soap, as directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, has stood the test of long experience as a good excipient for rhubarb. The medicine is sufficiently disposed to constipate without the addition of the confection of roses, ordered by the Edinburgh College. The acetate of potassa directed by the College is probably intended to keep the pill soft. The U.S. formula is decidedly preferable. According to both, each pill contains three grains of rhubarb. W. PILULA RHEI COMPOSITA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Compound Pills of Rhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb, in powder, an ounce; Aloes, in powder, six drachms; Myrrh, in powder, half an ounce; Oil of Peppermint half a fluidrachm; PART II. Pilula. 1071 Syrup of Orange Peel a sufficient quantify. Beat the whole together so as to form a mass, to be divided into two hundred and forty pills." U. S. The London College takes the same quantities of powdered rhubarb, aloes, and myrrh; mixes them; then adds a drachm of soap, half a flui- drachm of oil of caraway, and sufficient syrup; and beats them all together. The Edinburgh College takes of rhubarb twelve parts, aloes nine parts, myrrh and Castile soap, each, six parts, oil of peppermint one part, and conserve of red roses five parts; mixes them, and beats them into a mass, which is divided into five grain pills. This College also allows the pills to be made without oil of peppermint, when so preferred. This is a warm tonic laxative, useful in costiveness with debility of sto- mach. From two to four pills, or from ten to twenty grains of the mass, may be taken twice a day. VV. PILULA RHEI ET FERRI. Ed. Pills of Rhubarb and Iron. " Take of Dried Sulphate of Iron four parts; Extract of Rhubarb ten parts; Conserve of Red Roses five parts. Beat them into a proper pill mass, and divide it into five grain pills." Ed. Tonic and laxative in the dose of two or three pills. W. PILULA SAGAPENI COMPOSITA. Lond. Compound Pills of Sagapenum. " Take of Sagapenum an ounce; Aloes half a drachm; Syrup of Ginger a sufficient quantity. Beat them together until they are incorporated." Lond. A stimulant, antispasmodic, and laxative preparation, which may be used in cases of flatulent colic, with costiveness dependent on deficient irrita- bility of the bowels. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. W. PILULA SAPONIS COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond. Pilule Sapo- nis cum Opio. Dub. Compound Pills of Soap. " Take of Opium, in powder, half an ounce; Soap two ounces. Beat them together so as to form a pilular mass." U. S. The directions of the London and Dublin Colleges correspond with those of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. This preparation is useful by affording the opportunity of conveniently administering opium, in a pilular and readily soluble form, in small frac- tions of a grain. The name adopted in the U. S. and London Pharma- copoeias was probably intended to conceal the nature of the preparation from the patient. That of the Dublin College is inappropriate; as opium, though in small proportion as to quantity, is yet the ingredient of greatest import- ance, and that which gives character to the pill. One grain of opium is contained in five of the mass. W. PILULA SCILLA COMPOSITA. U. S., Lond., Dub. Pilule Scillas. Ed. Compound Pills of Squill. " Ttflke of Squill, in powder, a drachm; Ginger, in powder, Ammoniac, in powder, each, two drachms; Soap three drachms; Syrup a sufficient quantity. Mix the powders together; then beat them with the Soap, and add the Syrup so as to form a mass, to be divided into one hundred and twenty pills." U. S. The London College employs the same materials, in the same quantities, and proceeds in the same manner, except that the mass is not divided into pills. The Dublin process differs from the London only in employing three drachms of ginger, in adding the ammoniac without previously pow- dering it, and in giving the due consistence by molasses instead of syrup. 1072 Pilula.—Plumbum. PART II. The Edinburgh College takes of squill, in fine powder, five parts ; ammo- niac, ginger in fine powder, and Spanish soap, each, four parts ; conserve of red roses two parts; mixes the powders; then adds the other ingredients; and beats them into a uniform mass, which is divided into five grain pills. This is a stimulant expectorant compound, depending for its virtues chiefly on the squill, and applicable to the treatment of chronic affections of the bronchial mucous membrane. From five to ten grains may be given three or four times a day. The preparation should be made when wanted for immediate use, as the squill which it contains is liable to be injured by keeping. W. PILULA STYRACIS COMPOSITA. Lond. Pilulas Styracis. Ed. Pilulas e Styrace. Dub. Compound Pills of Storax. "Take of Storax, strained, three drachms; hard Opium, in powder, Saffron, each, a drachm. Beat them together, until they are thoroughly incorporated." Lond. The process of the Dublin College is essentially the same as the above. The Edinburgh College takes of opium and saffron, each, one part, and of extract of storax two parts, and beats them into a uniform mass, which is divided into five grain pills. In these pills the storax and saffron are added merely to conceal the taste and smell of the opium, as the name of the pills is intended to conceal their real character. This contrivance is deemed necessary ; as some individuals have a prejudice against the use of opium, which reason cannot overcome. Five grains of the mass contain a grain of opium. W. PLUMBUM. Preparations of Lead. LIQUOR PLUMBI SUBACETATIS. U.S. Liquor Plumbi Diacetatis. Lond. Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor. Dub. Plumbi Diacetatis Solutio. Ed. Solution of Subacetate of Lead. "Take of Acetate of Lead sixteen ounces ; Semivitrified Oxide of Lead, in fine powder, nine ounces and a half; Distilled Water four pints. Boil them together in a glass or porcelain vessel for half an hour, occasionally adding Distilled Water so as to preserve the measure, and filter through paper. Keep the solution in closely stopped bottles." U. S. The sp.gr. of this solution is 1*267. " Take of Acetate of Lead two pounds and three ounces; Oxide of Lead [litharge], rubbed into powder, a pound and four ounces ; Water six pints [Imperial measure]. Boil for half an hour, occasionally stirring, and, when the solution has cooled, add enough Distilled Water to make it fill six pirffs ; lastly filter." Lond. The sp. gr. of the solution is 1*260. " Take of Acetate of Lead six ounces and six drachms ; Litharge, in fine powder,/owr ounces ; Water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Boil the Salt and Litharge with the Water for half an hour, stirring occasionally. When the solution is cold add Water, if necessary, to make up a pint and a half; and then filter. Preserve the solution in well-closed bottles." Ed. " Take of Semivitrified Oxide of Lead one part; Distilled Vinegar twelve parts. Boil together in a glass vessel until eleven parts of the fluid re- main; then let the liquor rest, and when the impurities have subsided, let it be filtered." Dub. Crystallized acetate of lead consists of one equivalent of acetic acid 51, PART II. Plumbum. 1073 one of protoxide of lead 111*6, and three of water 27= 189*6. Litharge, as usually found in the shops, is an impure protoxide of lead. When a solu- tion of the former, is boiled with the latter, a large quantity of the protoxide is dissolved, and a subacetate of lead is formed, which remains in solution. The precise composition of the subacetate varies with the proportions of acetate of lead and of litharge employed. When the quantity of the latter exceeds that of the former by one-half or more, the acetic acid of the acetate unites, according to the highest chemical authorities, with two additional equivalents of protoxide, forming a trisacetate; when the two substances are mixed in proportions corresponding with their equivalent numbers, that is, in the proportion of 189*6 of salt to 111*6 of oxide, or 10 to 6 nearly, only one. additional equivalent of protoxide unites with the acid, and a diacetate of lead is produced. As the quantity of litharge directed in the former U.S. Pharmacopoeia was intermediate between these proportions, it is pro- bable that the solution which resulted contained both the diacetate and tris- acetate. In the present edition, the proportions have been so arranged as to result in the production of the diacetate; and the preparation is thus rendered identical or nearly so with those of the London and Edinburgh Colleges. The former of these Colleges originally prepared this solution by boiling together vinegar and litharge; but, at the last revisal of their Pharmacopoeia, a process was adopted analogous to that of our national standard. The preparation was newly introduced into the last edition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. In executing the process, the litharge should be employed in the state of very fine powder, and, according to Thenard, should be pre- viously calcined in order to decompose the carbonate of lead, which it always contains in greater or less proportion, and which is not dissolved by the solution of the acetate. The process of the Dublin College also results in the production of a subacetate of lead, one equivalent of the acetic acid of the vinegar com- bining directly with two equivalents of the protoxide of the litharge, to form a diacetate. That a trisacetate is not produced may be inferred from the fact, ascertained by Dr. Barker, that distilled vinegar dissolves only about one- twelfth of its weight of the litharge, which is not nearly sufficient to afford three equivalents of protoxide to one of the acid. Besides, according to Phillips and Duncan, the resulting salt has been proved by the analysis of Dr. Bostock to be composed of one equivalent of acid and two of base. The strength of the solution necessarily varies with the strength of the vinegar, and this is an objection against the Dublin process, to which the others are not equally liable. We are told by Phillips, that the sp. gr. of the solution prepared with distilled vinegar of 1*007 is 1*220, with that of 1*009 is 1*309; while Dr. Barker states the specific gravity of the saturated solu- tion, prepared by himself with distilled vinegar, to be only 1*118 at 68°. Common vinegar yields a dark brown solution, and is therefore not employed. Properties. The solution of subacetate of lead of the U. S., Edinburgh, and London Pharmacopoeias is colourless, that of the Dublin College has a pale greenish-straw colour, arising from impurities in the distilled vinegar. Its taste is sweetish and astringent. When concentrated by evaporation, it deposits on cooling crystalline plates, which, according to Dr. Barker, are flat rhomboidal prisms with dihedral summits. It has an alkaline reaction, tinging the syrup of violets green, and reddening turmeric paper. One of its most striking properties is the extreme facility with which it is decom- posed. Carbonic acid throws down a white precipitate of carbonate of lead, and this happens by mere exposure to the air, or by mixture even with dis- tilled water, if this has had an opportunity of absorbing carbonic acid from 91* 1074 Plumbum. PART IJ. the atmosphere. It affords precipitates also with the alkalies, alkaline earth?, and their carbonates, with sulphuric and muriatic acids free or combined, with hydrosulphuric acid and the hydrosulphates, with the soluble iodides and chlorides, and, according to Thenard, with solutions of all the neutral salts. Solutions of gum, tannin, most vegetable colouring principles, and many animal substances, particularly albumen, produce with it precipitates consisting of the substance added and oxide of lead. It should be kept in well-stopped bottles. It is known to contain a salt of acetic acid by emitting an acetous smell when treated with sulphuric acid; and a salt of lead by yield- ing a white precipitate with an alkaline carbonate, a yellow one with iodide of potassium, and a black one with hydrosulphuric acid. It is distinguished from the solution of acetate of lead by being precipitated by gum Arabic. Medical Properties and Uses. This solution is astringent and sedative, but is employed only as an external application. It is highly useful in inflammation arising from sprains, bruises, burns, blisters, &c, to which it is applied by means of linen cloths, which should be removed as fast as they become dry. It always, however, requires to be diluted. From four flui- drachms to a fluidounce, added to a pint of distilled water, forms a solution sufficiently strong in ordinary cases of external inflammation. When applied to the skin denuded of the cuticle, the solution should be still weaker; as constitutional effects might result from the absorption of the lead. Paralysis is said to have been produced by its local action; but we have not witnessed such an effect. The solution has the common name of Goulard's extract, derived from a surgeon of Montpellier by whom it was introduced into gene- ral notice, though previously employed. Off.Prep. Ceratum Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S., Lond.; Ceratum Saponis, U.S.; Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus, U. S., Lond., Dub.; Plumbi Oxydum Hydratum, Lond. W. LIQUOR PLUMBI SUBACETATIS DILUTUS. U. S. Liquor Plumbi Diacetatis Dilutus. Lond. Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor Compositus. Dub. Diluted Solution of Subacetate of Lead. Lead- water. "Take of Solution of Subacetate of Lead two fluidrachms; Distilled Water a pint. Mix them." U. S. The London College mixes a fluidrachm and a half of the solution with a pint [Imperial measure] of distilled water, and two fluidrachms of proof spirit; the Dublin, a fluidrachm of the solution, with a pint of distilled water, and a fluidrachm of proof-spirit. This preparation is convenient; as, in consequence of the subsidence of the carbonate of lead usually formed on the dilution of the strong solution, it enables the apothecary to furnish clear lead-water when it is called for. The strength,though doubled in the last edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, might be still further increased without disadvantage. The British prepara- tions are much too feeble. The old French Codex directed two drachms of the strong solution to a pound of distilled water, and an ounce of alcohol of 22° Baume, and thus formed the vegeto-mineral water of Goulard. The minute proportion of proof-spirit added by the British Colleges can have little sensible effect. W. PLUMBI CHLORIDUM. Lond. Chloride of Lead. " Take of Acetate of Lead nineteen ounces; boiling Distilled Water three pints [Imperial measure]; Chloride of Sodium six ounces. Dissolve sepa- rately the Acetate of Lead and Chloride of Sodium, the former in three vints of Distilled Water, the latter in one pint of Distilled Water. Then PART II. Plumbum. 1075 mix the solutions, and wash the precipitate, after it has become cool, with Distilled Water, and dry it." Lond. In this process, a mutual decomposition of the acetate of lead and chloride of sodium takes place; the sodium of the latter changing place with the lead of the former, so as to produce acetate of soda which remains in solution, and chloride of lead which is precipitated. Chloride of lead is soluble in thirty parts of water at 60°, and in twenty- two parts at 212°, and from its saturated boiling solution separates in small, brilliant, anhydrous crystals. It is colourless and fusible, and, upon cooling after fusion, assumes a horn-like appearance, from which it has received the name of horn lead. The London College gives as characters of it, besides its relation with water above mentioned, that it becomes yellow with heat, and black upon the addition of hydrosulphuric acid. It was introduced into the last edition of the London Pharmacopoeia merely as one of the substances employed in the preparation of muriate of morphia. W. PLUMBI IODIDUM. Lond., Ed. Iodide of Lead. """ " Take of Acetate of Lead nine ounces; Iodide of Potassium seven ounces; Distilled Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Acetate of Lead in six pints of the Water and filter; and to these add the Iodide of Potas- sium previously dissolved in two pints of the Water. Wash the precipitate and dry it." Lond. "Take of Iodide of Potassium and Nitrate of Lead, of each, an ounce; Water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the salts separately, each in one-half of the Water; add the solutions; collect the precipitate on a filter of linen or calico, and wash it with water. Boil the powder in three gallons of water acidulated with three fluidounces of Pyroligneous Acid [acetic acid]. Let any undissolved matter subside, maintaining the tem- perature near the boiling point; and pour off the clear liquor, from which the Iodide of Lead will crystallize on cooling." Ed. In the process of the London College, the acetate of lead gives up its metal to the iodine from which it receives the potassium—the operation taking place between single equivalents of the several ingredients. The acetate of potassa thus formed remains in solution, while the iodide of lead is preci- pitated. The saturating proportions of crystallized acetate of lead and iodide of potassium are 189*6 of the former and 165 45 of the latter, or 9 to 7*83; so that the acetate is slightly in excess. The proportions should be as nearly as possible those of exact saturation. An excess of the iodide of potassium has the disadvantage of holding a portion of the iodide of lead in solution ; while, according to Christison, an excess of lead over the iodine disposes to the formation of the lemon-yellow insoluble oxyiodide of lead. The latter result is very apt to take place; as the acetate of lead is liable to contain an excess of oxide, and the iodide of potassium is often impure. To obviate the disadvantage of an excess of oxide in the acetate, it is re- commended to add a little acetic acid to the solution of this salt before mixing it with the iodide of potassium. Besides the oxyiodide above mentioned, a carbonate of lead is liable to be formed from the frequent presence of the carbonate of potassa in the iodide of potassium of the shops. It is to free the precipitated iodide of lead from these impurities that the Edinburgh College directs it to be boiled with water acidulated with acetic acid, which readily dissolves any carbonate or acetate of lead present, as well as the iodide, and deposits only the last upon cooling. The Edinburgh College employs the nitrate instead of the acetate of lead as more easily obtained pure; but the advantage of the former salt oyer the latter is scarcely sufficient to warrant the introduction of a new officinal for 1076 Plumbum. PART II. this sole purpose. In the Edinburgh process, a double decomposition takes place, as in the London, resulting in the production of nitrate of potassa which is retained in solution, and iodide of lead which falls. The saturating proportions are 165*6 of the nitrate and 165*45 of the iodide, or almost precisely equal quantities. As obtained by the London process, iodide of lead is in the form of a bright yellow, heavy, tasteless, and inodorous powder. It is soluble in 1235 parts of cold water (Soubeiran, Trait, de Pharm.), and is considerably more soluble in boiling water, which, on cooling, deposits it in minute, shining, golden-yellow, crystalline scales. In this form it is presented by the Edin- burgh process. It melts by heat, and is dissipated in vapours which are at first yellow, and ultimately violet in consequence of the disengagement of the iodine. It consists of one equivalent of iodine 126*3. and one of lead 103*6=229*9. As a test of its purity, the Edinburgh College state that five grains are entirely dissolved, with the aid of heat, by a fluidrachm of their pyroligneous acid, diluted with a fluidounce and a half of distilled water; and golden crystals are copiously deposited when the solution cools. Medical Properties and Uses. This compound is supposed to have the resolvent properties of iodine, combined with those which are peculiar to lead, and was at one time recommended in tuberculous diseases, in which, however, it has proved wholly inefficient. It is said to have been usefully employed in the discussion of scrofulous tumours and other indolent swell- ings, and in the cure of obstinate ulcers; and for these purposes has been used both internally, and locally in the form of an ointment. According to Dr. Cogswell, if given for some time in small doses, it produces the effects of lead, but not those of iodine, upon the system. (Christison's Dispensa- tory.) The dose is from half a grain to three or four grains. Dr. O'Shaugh- nessy states that ten grains are borne without inconvenience. Off. Prep. Unguentum Plumbi Iodidi, Lond. W. PLUMBI NITRAS. Ed. Nitrate of Lead. "Take of Litharge four ounces and a half; Diluted Nitric Acid a pint [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Litharge to saturation with the aid of a gentle heat. Filter and set the liquor aside to crystallize. Concentrate the residual liquid to obtain more crystals." Ed. In this process the nitric acid unites directly with the protoxide to form the nitrate. This is in beautiful white, nearly opaque, tetrahedral or octohe- dral crystals, which are permanent in the air, of a sweet astringent taste, soluble in water and alcohol, and composed of one equiv. of nitric acid, 54, and one of protoxide of lead 111*6, without Water of crystallization. When heated the salt first melts and is then decomposed, with the evolution of nitrous fumes, and a residue of metallic lead. Nitrate of lead is not employed as a medicine, and was introduced into the Edinburgh Pharrriacopceia merely as one of the substances employed in the preparation of the iodide of lead. Off. Prep. Plumbi Iodidum, Ed. W. PLUMBI OXYDUM HYDRATUM. Lond. Hydrated Oxide of Lead. "Take of Solution of Diacetate of Lead six pints; Distilled Water three gallons; Solution of Potassa six pints, or as much as may be required to precipitate the Oxide. Mix them, and wash the precipitate with water until nothing alkaline remains." Lond. In this process the potassa takes the acetic acid of the diacetate and sepa- rates the protoxide of lead, which becomes a hydrate by uniting with a por- tion of water at the moment of separation, and, being insoluble, is precipitated PART II. Plumbum.—Potassa. 1077 in the form of a white powder. It was introduced by the London College into their Pharmacopoeia as one of the substances employed in their pro- cess for preparing sulphate of quinia; but, as this process has not been practically adopted, the hydrated oxide of lead may be considered as altoge- ther useless in pharmacy. W. POTASSA. Preparations of Potassa. LIQUOR POTASSA. U. S., Lond. Potassje Aqua. Ed. Potassje Causticas Aqua. Dub. Solution of Potassa. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa a pound; Lime half a pound; Boiling Distilled Water a gallon. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in half a gallon of the Water. Pour a little of the Water on the Lime, and when it is slaked, add the remainder. Mix the hot liquors, and boil for ten minutes, stirring constantly; then set the mixture aside, in a covered ves- sel, until it becomes clear. Lastly, pour off the supernatant liquor, and keep it in well stopped bottles of green glass." U.S. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa fifteen ounces; Lime eight ounces; boil- ing Distilled Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in half a gallon of the Water. Sprinkle a little of the Water upon the Lime in an earthen vessel, and, the Lime being slaked, add the remainder of the Water. The liquors being immediately mixed together in a close vessel, shake them frequently until they are cold. Then set the mixture by, that the carbonate of lime may subside. Lastly, pour off the supernatant liquor, and keep it in a well stopped green glass bottle." Lond. "Take of Carbonate of Potash (dry) four ounces; Lime, recently burnt, two ounces; Water forty-five fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Let the Lime be slaked and converted into milk of lime with seven fluidounces of the Water. Dissolve the Carbonate in the remaining thirty-eight fluidounces of Water; boil the solution, and add to it the milk, of lime in successive portions, about an eighth at a time, boiling briskly for a few minutes after each addition. Pour the whole into a deep narrow glass vessel for twenty- four hours; and then withdraw with a syphon the clear liquid, which should amount to at least thirty-five fluidounces, and ought to have a dens- ity of 1*072." Ed. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlash, fresh burnt Lime, each, two parts; Water fifteen parts. Sprinkle one part of the Water, pre- viously heated, on the Lime, placed in an earthen vessel; and when it is slaked, mix the salt with it immediately, and then add the remainder of the Water. When the mixture has cooled, put it into a well-stopped bottle, and, shaking it frequently, keep it for three days. When the car- bonate of lime has subsided, decant the supernatant liquor, and keep it in green glass bottles, well stopped. The specific gravity of this solution is 1*080." Dub. The object of these processes is to separate carbonic acid from the carbo- nate of potassa, so as to obtain the alkali in a caustic state. This is effected by hydrate of lime; and the chemical changes which take place are most intelligibly explained by supposing the occurrence of a double decomposi- tion. The lime of the hydrate of lime, by its superior affinity, combines with the carbonic acid, and precipitates as carbonate of lime; while the water of the hydrate unites with the potassa, and remains in solution as 1078 Potassa. PART II. hydrate of potassa. The proportion indicated by theory for this decompo- sition would be 69-15 of the dry carbonate to 28*5 of lime, or one eq. of each; but in practice it is found necessary to use an excess of lime. In the U. S. and Edinburgh formulas the alkaline salt is treated with half its weight of lime; in the London, with eight-fifteenths; and in the Dublin, with its own weight; proportions, the lowest of which exceeds the theoretical quan- tity. The disadvantages of using a large excess of lime, as is done by the Dublin College, are the necessity of employing larger vessels, on account of the bulk of the materials, and the loss of a portion of alkaline solution which is retained by the spongy residuum. The proportion of water employed has a decided influence on the result. If the water be deficient in quantity, the decomposing power of the lime, on account of its sparing solubility, will be lessened; and more of it will be required to complete the decomposition of the carbonate than if the solutions had been more dilute. The quantity ordered is ample, in the U.S., London, and Edinburgh for- mulas, but is deficient in the Dublin process. Thus, taking the lime at the same quantity in each formula, the quantity of water directed is expressed by the following numbers nearly; 59 Ed., 58 U. S., 52Lond.,and 22Dub. Straining must not be used; as the operation causes a prolonged contact with the air, and risk of the absorption of carbonic acid, and is apt, more- over, to introduce organic matter into the solution derived from the strainer. The direction to keep the solution in green glass bottles is judicious; as white flint glass is slightly acted on. As the solution of potassa is frequently made by the manufacturingchemist in considerable quantities, the following details, taken from Berzelius, of the best mode of conducting the process, may not be without their use. Dis- solve one part of carbonate of potassa in from seven to twelve parts of water in a bright iron vessel, and decant the solution after it has become clear by standing. Boil the solution in an iron vessel, and while it is boiling, add, at intervals, small quantities of slaked lime reduced to a thin paste with water; allowing the solution to boil a few minutes after each addition. One and a half parts of pure lime will be more than sufficient to decompose one part of the carbonate. When about half the hydrate of lime has been added, take out about a teaspoonful of the boiling solution, and after dilution and filtration through paper, test it by adding it to some nitric acid, or by mixing it with an equal bulk of lime-water. If the solution has not been completely freed from carbonic acid, the first reagent will cause an effervescence, and the second a milky appearance; in either of which events the addition of the lime must be continued as before, until the above-mentioned tests give negative indications. In conducting the process, two advantages are gained by keeping the solution constantly boiling. One is that the carbonate of lime formed is in this way rendered granular and heavy, and more disposed to subside; and the other, that it prevents the precipitated carbonate from coalescing into a mass at the bottom of the vessel, an occurrence which causes the ebullition, when subsequently renewed, to take place imper- fectly and by jerks. The process here described is essentially the same with that introduced into the last edition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Properties, 8fc. Solution of potassa is a limpid, colourless liquid, with- out smell, and having an acrid caustic taste, and alkaline reaction. It acts rapidly on animal and vegetable substances, and when rubbed between the fingers, produces a soapy feel, in consequence of a partial solution of the cuticle. It dissolves gum, resins, and extractive matter, and by union with oily and fatty bodies forms soap. The officinal solution is never perfectly pure, but contains either some undecomposed carbonate, or free lime, in PART II. Potassa. 1079 addition to minute portions of sulphate of potassa, chloride of potassium, silica, and alumina, impurities usually present in the carbonate of potassa obtained from pearlash, which is used in its preparation. Undecomposed carbonate may be detected in the manner explained in the preceding para- graph, and free lime, by the production of a milky appearance on the addition of a few drops of carbonate of potassa, which serves to precipitate the lime as a carbonate. When saturated with nitric acid, it gives -little or no precipitate with carbonate of soda, chloride of barium, or nitrate of silver. It is incompatible with acids, acidulous salts, and all metallic and earthy preparations held in solution by an acid ; as also with all ammoniacal salts, and with calomel and corrosive sublimate. The officinal solutions of potassa vary in strength; the U.S. solution having the specific gravity of 1*056; the London, of 1*063; the Edinburgh, of 1*072; and the Dublin, of 1*080. These solutions are quite dilute; for, according to a table given by Dalton, a solution having the sp.gr. 1*06, contains only 4*7 per cent, of alkali. On account of its strong attraction for carbonic acid, the solution of potassa should be carefully preserved from contact with the air. B. Medical Properties and Uses. Solution of potassa is antacid, diuretic, and antilithic. It has been much employed in calculous complaints, under the impression that it has the property of dissolving urinary concretions in the kidneys and bladder ; but experience has proved that the stone once formed cannot be removed by remedies internally administered, and the most that the alkaline medicines can effect, is to correct that disposition to the superabundant secretion of uric acid, or the insoluble urates, upon which gravel and stone often depend. For this purpose, however, the carbonated alkalies are preferable to caustic potassa, as they are less apt to irritate the stomach, and to produce injurious effects when long continued. It has been proposed to dissolve calculi by injecting immediately into the bladder the solution of potassa in a tepid stale, and so much diluted that it can be held in the mouth; but this mode of employing it has not been found to answer in practice. This solution has also been highly recommended in lepra, psoriasis, and other cutaneous affections ; and is said to have proved pecu- liarly useful in scrofula ; but in all these cases it probably acts simply by its antacid property, and is not superior to the carbonate of potassa or of soda. Externally it has been used in a diluted state as a stimulant lotion in rachitis and arthritic swellings, and concentrated, as an escharotic in the bite of rabid or venomous animals. The dose is from ten to thirty minims, repeated two or three times a day, and gradually increased in cutaneous affections to one or two fluidrachms; but the remedy should not be too long continued, as it is apt to debilitate the stomach. It may be given in sweet- ened water or some mucilaginous fluid. Veal broth and table beer have been recommended as vehicles ; but the fat usually present in the former would be liable to convert the alkali into soap, and the acid in the latter would neutralize it. In dyspeptic cases it may be associated with the simple bitters. In excessive doses it irritates, inflames, or corrodes the stomach. Oils and the milder acids, such as vinegar and lemon-juice, are the anti- dotes to its poisonous action. They operate by neutralizing the alkali. It is employed pharmaceutically in the preparation of the Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony (U. S., Lond., Ed.), Tartrate of Iron and Potassa (U. S„ Lond.), Ethereal Oil (U. S., Lond.), Binoxide of Mercury (Lond.), Black Oxide of Mercury (Dub.), and Hydrated Oxide of Lead (Lond.). Off.Prep. Potassa, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassa cum Calce, Ed., Dub. W. 1080 Potassa. PART II. POTASSA. U.S., Ed. Potassas Hydras. Lond. Potassa Caus- tica. Dub. Potassa. Hydrate of Potassa. Caustic Potassa. " Take of Solution of Potassa a gallon. Evaporate the water rapidly, in a clean iron vessel, over the fire, till ebullition ceases, and the Potassa melts. Pour this into suitable moulds, and keep it, when cold, in well- stopped bottles." U. S. The London formula is essentially the same with the above. " Take any convenient quantity of Aqua Potassas; evaporate it in a clean and covered iron vessel, increasing gradually the heat, till an oily-looking fluid remains, a drop of which, when removed on a rod, becomes hard on cooling. Then pour out the liquid upon a bright iron plate, and as soon as it solidifies, break it quickly, and put it into glass bottles secured with glass stoppers." Ed. " Take of Water of Caustic Potassa any quantity. Evaporate it over the fire in a perfectly clean silver or iron vessel, until the ebullition shall have ceased, and the saline matter, on increasing the heat, shall remain perfectly at rest in the vessel. Pour out the liquefied Potassa on a silver or iron plate, and, whilst concreting, cut it into pieces of a proper size, which are immediately to be introduced into a well stopped bottle. The operator should carefully avoid the drops which are ejected from the vessel during the evaporation." Dub. The concrete alkali, obtained by these processes, is the hydrate of potassa, sufficiently pure for medical purposes. The solution of the alkali freed from carbonic acid having been obtained by another formula (see Liquor Potassae), the formation of the present preparation requires merely the evaporation of this solution, until the whole of its uncombined water is driven off. The evaporation is required to be performed in metallic vessels, as those of glass or earthenware are acted on by the alkali; and it should be completed as quickly as possible, in order to abridge the period during which the solution would be liable to absorb carbonic acid from the atmos- phere. When poured out on a metallic plate, the cake, just as it concretes, may be marked with a knife in the directions in which it is to be divided, and when cold it readily breaks in those directions. A better plan, how- ever, is to run the fused alkali into suitable moulds, as directed in the U.S. and London formulas. These should be made of iron and have a cylindrical shape, which is the most convenient form of the alkali for the use of the surgeon. Green glass bottles with ground stoppers are the best adapted for preserving this preparation, as white flint glass is slightly acted on. Properties, fyc. In its officinal impure form, potassa is usually in sticks which have a fibrous fracture, a dingy gray or greenish colour, occasionally a bluish tint, and the peculiar odour of slaking lime. It is extremely caustic and very deliquescent, and dissolves in less than its weight of water. It is also readily soluble in alcohol. When exposed to a low red heat it melts, and at bright redness is volatilized. On account of its deliquescent property, and its strong attraction for carbonic acid, it requires to be kept in very accurately stopped bottles. In the state here described, the alkali always contains combined water as a part of its composition. It contains also several impurities, which, however, do not interfere with its medicinal value, such as sulphate of potassa, chloride and teroxide of potassium, sesquioxide of iron, lime, silica, alumina, and a portion of the alkali itself still in a car- bonated state. The insoluble impurities, according to the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia, should not exceed 1*25 per cent. It may be freed from impurity by digestion in alcohol, which takes up only the pure hydrated alkali, eva- porating the alcoholic solution to dryness, and fusing the dry mass obtained. PART II. Potassa. 1081 Pure hydrate of potassa, when thus procured, is usually called alcoholic potassa. It is generally in the form of flat white pieces, which are dry, hard, and brittle, and extremely caustic. Its other properties are similar to those of the impure hydrate above described. It may be discriminated from the other fixed alkalies (soda and lithia) by affording, when in solution, a crystalline precipitate (cream of tartar) with an excess of tartaric acid, and a yellow one with chloride of platinum. The officinal potassa, apart from impurities, consists of one eq. of dry potassa 47*15, and one of water 9= 56*15. Dry potassa is formed of one eq. of potassium 39*15, and one of oxygen 8=»47*15. (See Potassium.) B. Medical Properties and Uses. This is the old causticum commune acer- rimum, or strongest common caustic. It is a very powerful escharotic, quickly destroying the life of the part with which it comes in contact, and extending its action to a considerable depth beneath the surface. In this latter respect, it differs from the nitrate of silver or lunar caustic, to which it is, therefore, preferred for the purposes of forming issues and opening abscesses. It has been used for removing stricture of the urethra ; but in consequence of its tendency to spread, it may, unless carefully applied, pro- duce such a destruction of the lining membrane, as to open a passage for the urine into the cellular tissue, and thus involve the patient in danger. The most convenient mode of employing the caustic for the formation of an issue, is to apply to the skin a piece of linen spread with adhesive plaster, having a circular opening in its centre corresponding to the intended size of the issue, and then to rub upon the skin, within the opening, a piece of the caustic previously moistened at one end. The application is to be continued till the life of the part is destroyed, when the caustic should be carefully washed off with a wet sponge or wet tow, or neutralized by vinegar. The pre- paration is also employed for forming solutions of potassa of definite strength, whether for medicinal or pharmaceutic use. A solution of one drachm and a half of caustic potassa in two fluidounces of distilled water, is highly recom- mended by Dr. Hartshorne, of Philadelphia, as an application to the spine in tetanus. It may be applied by means of a sponge attached to the end of a stick, which should be drawn quickly along the back from the nape of the neck to the sacrum. It produces a very powerful rubefacient effect. The U.S. Pharmacopoeia employs caustic potassa in the preparation of the black oxide of mercury. Off. Prep. Potassa cum Calce. Lond. W. POTASSA CUM CALCE. Lond., Ed. Potassa Caustica cum Calce. Dub. Potassa with Lime. " Take of Hydrate of Potassa, Lime, each, an ounce. Rub them together, and keep them in a well-stopped vessel." Lond. " Take any convenient quantity of Aqua Potassas; evaporate it in a clean, covered iron vessel to one-third of its volume; add slaked Lime till the fluid has the consistence of firm pulp. Preserve the product in carefully covered vessels." Ed. " Evaporate Water of Caustic Potassa to one-fourth ; then add as much fresh burnt Lime, in powder, as will form a mass of the proper consistence, which is to be preserved in a well-stopped bottle." Dub. The London preparation is a mere mixture of hydrate of potassa with lime. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges employ the solution of potassa, which is first concentrated, and then thickened by the addition of lime until the mixture becomes a pulpy mass, consisting of the mixed hydrates of potassa and lime. 92 1082 Potassa. PART II. The Edinburgh and Dublin " potassa with lime," like the officinal potassa, is used as a caustic; but it is more manageable than the latter preparation, owin-T to the presence of the lime, which renders it milder, slower in its operation, and less deliquescent, and causes it to spread less beyond the part intended to be affected. This preparation was formerly called causticum commune mitius, or milder common caustic. The London preparation is a powder sometimes called Vienna caustic, and is still slower in producing an eschar. It is prepared for use by being made up into a paste with a little alcohol. The paste is applied to the part to be cauterized for ten or fifteen minutes, and is conveniently limited in its operation by a piece of adhesive plaster, in the manner explained under potassa. Dr. Filhos has improved the Vienna caustic by forming it in sticks. , To prepare it thus, the potassa is perfectly fused in an iron spoon, and one-third of its-weight of quicklime is added in divided portions; the whole being stirred with an iron rod. The fused mass is then run into lead tubes, closed at one end, about three inches long, and from a quarter to half an inch in diameter in the clear. The sticks are kept, still enclosed in the lead tubes, with the open end downwards, in thick glass tubes, containing some powdered quicklime, and closed with a cork, between which and the stick some cotton is put to steady the caustic. When employed, as much of the caustic is uncovered at the end, by scraping off the lead, as it is proposed to use. This form of caustic is particularly recommended for cauterizing the neck of the uterus. (Journ, de Pharm., 3e ser., iv. 137.) B. POTASSA ACETAS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Acetate of Po- tassa. " Take of Acetic Acid a pint; Carbonate of Potassa a sufficient quantity. Add the Carbonate of Potassa gradually to the Acetic Acid till it is satu- rated ; then filter, and evaporate cautiously, by means of a sand-bath, until a dry salt remains. Keep this in closely stopped bottles." U. S. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa a pound; Acetic Acid twenty-six fluid- ounces [Imp. meas.]; Distilled Water twelve fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. To the acid, previously mixed with the Water, add the Carbonate of Potassa to saturation ; then strain. Evaporate the liquor in a sand-bath, with a heat cautiously applied, until the salt is dried." Lond. " Take of Pyroligneous Acid a pint and a half [Imp. meas.]; Carbonate of Potash (dry) seven ounces or a sufficiency. Add the Carbonate gradually to the Acid till complete neutralization is accomplished. Evaporate the solution over the vapour-bath till it is so concentrated as to form a concrete mass when cold. Allow it to cool and crystallize in a solid cake ; which must be broken up and immediately put into well closed bottles." Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Crystals of Tartar any required quantity. Pour on it, by repeated additions, Distilled Vinegar of a medium heat, and in quantity about five times the weight of the salt. When the effervescence shall have ceased, and the liquor have been evaporated for some time, repeat the addition of Distilled Vinegar at intervals until effer- vescence shall have completely ceased. Evaporate to dryness, and, by cautiously raising the heat, liquefy the salt. When the salt has cooled, dissolve it in water, filter the solution, and boil it down, until, when removed from the fire, it shall form, on cooling, a mass of crystals, which should be perfectly white. Put these immediately into bottles, which should be care- fully stopped." Dub. The process for forming acetate of potassa is a case of single elective affinity. The form of acid employed for generating the salt in the several Pharmacopoeias, is acetic acid (U.S. and London), pyroligneous acid (Edin- PART II. Potassa. 1083 burgh), corresponding nearly with the U.S. and London acetic acid, and distilled vinegar (Dublin). (Seepage 781.) Distilled vinegar is not proper for forming this salt, on account of its containing organic matter, which gives the solution, when concentrated, a reddish or brownish colour. This colour- ing matter is destroyed in the Dublin process by fusing the salt, dissolving it in water, and concentrating the solution so that it may concrete into a mass on cooling. When this process is followed, great care must be taken not to us'e too high a heat in effecting the fusion; otherwise part of the acetic acid will be decomposed, and a colourless salt will not be obtained. H. Oenicke, in order to avoid this decomposition, and to get the salt white, recommends the solution of a small portion of the fused salt, as a test, in the smallest possible quantity of water. If the solution is colourless, the salt has been heated long enough. The salt is then dissolved in the smallest adequate portion of water, is acidulated with a little acetic acid, and evaporated in a water-bath to dryness. (Pharm. Cent. Blatt., 1843, p. 351.) In the other formulas, a pure acid being used, it forms, when saturated with the carbonate of potassa, a colourless solution. This is evaporated to dryness, according to the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, and to such a degree as to concrete into a mass when cold, according to the Edinburgh. The quantity of car- bonate necessary for saturation cannot be accurately determined beforehand, and, therefore, it is injudicious in the London College to attempt to fix it in the formula. A better plan is that of the U. S. formula, in which a suffi- cient quantity for saturation is directed to be taken, the exact amount to be determined in the process. The same plan is adopted by the Edinburgh College, with the addition of indicating about the quantity required. As a sufficiency of the carbonate is thus ordered, it would seem quite unnecessary for the College to direct that it should be dry. For drying the acetate of potassa, Dr. Christison considers the heat of a vapour-bath too low, and that of a sand-bath apt to become too high. He, therefore, recommends the use, when operating on a small scale, of a bath of chloride of calcium. In conducting this process, it is best to have the solution always slightly acid; for if the alkali predominate, it will react upon the acetic acid when the solution is concentrated, and give rise to discoloration. Acetate of potassa may be obtained, also, by double decomposition be- tween acetate of lead and sulphate of potassa. When thus procured it is very white and pure, but liable to the objection, for medical use, that it may possibly contain lead. Another method by double decomposition is between acetate of lime and sulphate of potassa. Properties, fyc. Acetate of potassa, when pure, is a white salt, perfectly neutral to test paper, unctuous to the touch, and possessing a warm, pungent, saline taste. When unskilfully prepared, it is apt to be more or less coloured. Its state of aggregation differs with the manner in which it is prepared. As obtained by evaporating the solution to dryness, agreeably to the directions of the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias, it is in the form of soft fibrous masses. As usually prepared and found in the shops, it has a foliated tex- ture, which is given to it by fusion and cooling. On account of this appear- ance it was formerly called foliated earth of tartar. This salt is extremely deliquescent, and, if exposed to the air, becomes converted into a liquid of an oleaginous appearance. It is on account of this property that it must always be preserved in well-stopped bottles. It dissolves in about half its weight of water, and twice its weight of alcohol. Any thing remaining undissolved by these menstrua is impurity. Heated above its point of fusion it is decomposed into acetone and carbonate of potassa; the acetic acid being resolved into this volatile liquid and carbonic acid. When treated with sulphuric acid, acetic acid vapours are copiously evolved, and sulphate of 1084 Potassa. PART II. potassa is formed. The most usual impurities contained in it are the sul- phate and tartrate of potassa, chloride of potassium, and the salts of lead and copper. A soluble sulphate may be detected by chloride of barium; and chloride of potassium, or any soluble chloride, by nitrate of silver added to a dilute solution. If tartrate of potassa be present, it will remain undis- solved when the salt is acted on by alcohol. Lead and copper may be detected by sulphuretted hydrogen and ferrocyanuret of potassium; the former test producing with the lead a blackish, and the latter with the cop- per a brown precipitate. Since the introduction of the cheap method of obtaining pure acetic acid from wood, this salt has scarcely been subject to adulteration. Acetate of potassa is incompatible with the mineral acids, which expel the acetic acid; with sulphate of soda and sulphate of magnesia; with corrosive sublimate and nitrate of silver; and with several other earthy and metallic salts. This salt exists in the juices of many plants, and espe- cially in the sap of trees; and is the source of the carbonate of potassa existing in the ashes of wood. It consists of one eq. of acetic acid 51, one of potassa 47*15, and two of water 18=116*15. Medical Properties and Uses. Acetate of potassa acts as a diuretic in doses of from a scruple to a drachm, and as a mild cathartic when given to the extent of two or three drachms. It is employed in dropsies, and often with good effect. The late Dr. Duncan considered it to be a medicine of great efficacy, and one of our best saline deobstruents. We have ourselves used it in dropsical affections, and can bear testimony to its powers. The acetate, ready prepared, being an expensive preparation, the salt, equally efficacious, may be made extemporaneously in the liquid form by saturating distilled vinegar with the carbonate of potassa. Two drachms of the car- bonate saturated with vinegar, will sometimes produce in hydropic cases ten or twelve stools, and a copious discharge of urine. (Duncan.) Acetate of potassa, like the other alkaline salts containing a vegetable acid, may be given in the uric acid diathesis, to render the urine alkaline; for the experi- ments of Wohler have shown that the acid of these salts undergoes decom- position in the digestive and assimilating processes, while the alkali enters the current of the circulation. From the decided property which this salt possesses of increasing the secretion of the kidneys, it was formerly called sal diureticus or diuretic salt. Off.Prep. Acidum Aceticum, Dub.; Ferri Acetatis Tinctura, Dub.; Hydrargyri Acetas, Dub.; Pilulse Rhei, Ed.; Tinctura Acetis Ferri cum Alcohol, Dub.; Zinci Acetatis Tinctura, Dub. B. POTASSA CARBONAS. U.S., Lond., Ed. " Potassas Carbo- nas e Lixivo Cinere. Dub. Carbonate of Potassa. Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlash. "Take of Impure Carbonate of Potassa [pearlash] three pounds; Water two pints and a half. Dissolve the Impure Carbonate of Potassa in the Water, and filter the solution; then pour it into a clean iron vessel, and evaporate the water over a gentle fire till the solution thickens; lastly, remove it from the fire, and stir it constantly with an iron spatula till the salt granulates." U. S. "Take of Impure Carbonate of Potassa two pounds ; Distilled Water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Impure Carbonate of Potassa in the Water, and strain ; then pour off the solution into a proper vessel, and evaporate the water that the liquor may thicken ; afterwards stir it constantly with a spatula until the salt concretes. Carbonate of Potassa may be prepared more pure from the crystals of Bicarbonate of Potassa heated to redness." Lond. PART II. Potassa. 1085 " Take of Pearlash, in coarse powder, cold Water, each, one part. Mix them by trituration, and macerate for a week, in a wide vessel, with occa- sional agitation. Then filter the lixivium, and evaporate it to dryness in a very clean silver or iron vessel. Towards the end of the evaporation, stir the saline mass constantly with an iron spatula. Having in this manner reduced it to a coarse powder, preserve it in close vessels. If the Pearlash is not sufficiently pure, roast it in a crucible until it becomes white, before dissolving it in the Water." Dub. The Edinburgh College, in the last edition of its Pharmacopoeia, has re- moved carbonate of potassa from among the "Preparations," and placed it in the Materia Medica list with this note. "Carbonate of potash not quite pure, obtained by lixiviating, evaporating, and granulating by fusion and refrigeration the potashes [pearlash] of commerce." The object of the above processes is to purify the impure carbonate of potassa or pearlash. This generally contains certain insoluble impurities, as well as small portions of sulphate and silicate of potassa,«and chloride of potassium, as explained under another head. (See Potassae Carbonas Im- purus.) By dissolving it in a due proportion of water, and filtering the solution, the insoluble impurities are got rid of, as well as the greater part of the foreign salts, which, being much less soluble than the carbonate of potassa, are excluded by the superior affinity of this salt for the water. The proper way of conducting the purification is to mix the impure carbonate with an equal weight of cold water, and to allow the mixture to stand for a day or two, stirring it frequently to promote the action of the water. The clear liquor, obtained by decantation or filtration, is then evaporated to dry- ness. The different officinal processes are conducted very much in this way; cold water being employed, and equal weights of alkali and water being used in the Dublin formula, and about equal weights in the processes of the U. S. and London Pharmacopoeias. The prolonged contact of the water with the salt, and the occasional stirring of the mixture, ordered by the Dublin College, are useful directions. In no case should the undis- solved residue be washed with a fresh portion of water, as, by such a pro- ceeding, the foreign salts, which it is the object of the process to separate, would be dissolved. Iron or silver vessels are directed, because these metals are not acted on by the alkali, while glass is attacked by it. In granulating the salt by stirring, it is better to keep it on the fire until the process is finished than to remove it the moment it thickens. According to Berzelius, a more productive process for purifying pearl- ash, though the salt is not so pure as when obtained in the way just de- scribed, is to dissolve the impure salt in more than its weight of water, to evaporate the solution till it has the density of 1*52, and then to put it in a cool place, that the foreign salts, principally sulphate of potassa and chlo- ride of potassium, may crystallize. The solution is then decanted, and evaporated to dryness. Properties, #b. Carbonate of potassa, as found in the shops, is in the form of a coarse granular white powder, having a nauseous, alkaline taste, and acting as an alkali on vegetable colours. It is very soluble in water, dissolving in its weight of that liquid; but is insoluble in alcohol. It is extremely deliquescent, and hence a portion of it, exposed to the air for some time, attracts so much water as completely to dissolve into an oily liquid, called by the older chemists, oleum tartari per deliquium. On ac- count of this property, carbonate of potassa should be kept in bottles with accurately ground stoppers. If exposed, in its usual state, to a red heat, it retains its carbonic acid, but loses about sixteen per cent, of water. When 92* 1086 Potassa. PART II. pure it is completely soluble in water; but, generally, a small insoluble portion is left of earthy matter. An aqueous solution, when saturated with an acid, slowly deposits a slight gelatinous precipitate, derived from silica. The usual impurities are earthy matter, sulphate of potassa, chloride of po- tassium, and silica in the state, probably, of silicate of potassa. When dis- solved in water and supersaturated with nitric acid, it affords a faint cloudi- ness with chloride of barium, and a slight precipitate with nitrate of silver; effects showing the presence of minute portions of a sulphate and of a chlo- ride. If the indications of these tests are more decided, the salt is below the officinal standard of purity. It is incompatible with acids and acidulous salts, muriate and acetate of ammonia, lime-water, chloride of calcium, sul- phate of magnesia, alum, tartar emetic, nitrate of silver, ammoniated copper and ammoniated iron, sulphate of iron and tincture of chloride of iron, calomel and corrosive sublimate, acetate and subacetate of lead, and sul- phate of zinc. It is not decomposed by tartrate of iron and potassa, and, therefore, may be associated with it in prescriptions. Composition. Carbonate of potassa, after exposure to a red heat, is an anhydrous salt, consisting of one eq. of carbonic acid 22, and one of potassa 47*15=69*15. As obtained by the officinal formulas, it is, according to Mr. Philips, a sesquihydrate, consisting of two eqs. of carbonate and three of water. B. Medical Properties and Uses. Purified pearlash is the form of carbo- nate of potassa usually employed in this country, where it is frequently, though incorrectly, called salt of tartar, the latter name being strictly appli- cable to the purer carbonate, obtained by decomposing cream of tartar. It is occasionally used as an antacid in dyspepsia, as a diuretic in dropsy, and as an antilithic in gravel attended with red deposits from the urine ; but the purpose to which it is most commonly applied is the formation of the neu- tral mixture and effervescing draught. (See Liquor Potassae Citratis.) It is worthy of observation, that its solution, on exposure to the air, or on the addition of an acid, deposits flocculi consisting of hydrate of silica, resulting from the decomposition of the silicated potassa, which is always present as an impurity. The spontaneous deposition of silica is owing to the absorp- tion of carbonic acid. Carbonate of potassa is also used with much advan- tage in some cases of jaundice, in which it probably operates by entering the circulation and directly exciting the hepatic function. It has enjoyed some popular reputation mixed with cochineal in hooping-cough, and is sup- posed by some, in common with other alkaline remedies, to operate favour- ably in those inflammations in which there is a disposition to the exudation of coagulable lymph, or the formation of false membranes. The dose is from ten to thirty grains, given in some aromatic water sweetened with sugar. In large quantities it acts as a corrosive poison, and is capable of producing death in a few hours. The antidotes are the fixed oils and vegetable acids. Carbonate of Potassa is used in the formulas for Sulphuric Ether (Lond., Dub.), Spirit of Ammonia (Lond.), Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia (U. S., Lond.), and Fetid Spirit of Ammonia (Lond.). Off. Prep. Decoctum Aloe's Compositum, Lond., Ed.; Enema Aloe's, Lond.; Liquor Potassas, U.S., Lond., Ed.; Liquor Potassas Arsenitis, Lond., Ed.; Liquor Potassas Carbonatis, U.S., Lond.; Liquor Potassas Citratis, U. S.; Magnesias Carbonas, Dub.; Mistura Ferri Composita, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassas Acetas, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Potassas Bicarbonas, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassas Bisulphas, Dub.; Potassas Sulphas, Dub.; Potassas Tartras, U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub.; Potassii Bromidum, Lond.; Potassii Iodidum, U.S., Lond.,Ed.; Potassii Sulphuretum, U. S„ Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PART II. Potassa. 1087 POTASSA CARBONAS PURUS. U.S. Potassas Carbonas Purum. Ed. Potassas Carbonas e Tartari Crystallis. Dub. Pure Carbonate of Potassa. Carbonate of Potassa from Crystals of Tartar. Salt of Tartar. " Take of Bitartrate of Potassa [cream of tartar] two pounds; Nitrate of Potassa a pound. Rub them separately into powder; then mix and throw them into a brass vessel heated nearly to redness, that they may undergo combustion. From the residue prepare the Pure Carbonate of Potassa, in the manner directed for the Carbonate." U. S. " Pure Carbonate of Potash may be most readily obtained by heating crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash to redness in a crucible, but more cheaply by dissolving Bitartrate of Potash in thirty parts of boiling Water, separating and washing the crystals which form on cooling, heating these in a loosely covered crucible to redness so long as fumes are discharged, breaking down the mass, and roasting it in an open crucible for two hours, with occasional stirring, lixiviating the product with Distilled Water, filtering the solution thus obtained, evaporating the solution to dryness, granulating the salt towards the close by brisk agitation, and heating the granular salt nearlyto red- ness. The product of either process mustbe kept in well-closed vessels." Ed. " Take of Crystals of Tartar any quantity. Heat them to redness in a silver crucible, loosely covered, until they cease to emit vapours. Reduce the residue to a coarse powder, and roast it for two hours in the same cru- cible, without a cover, stirring it frequently; then boil it with twice its weight of water for a quarter of an hour, and, after the requisite subsi- dence, pour off the clear liquor. Repeat this three times. Filter the mixed solutions, and evaporate them in a silver vessel. Granulate the residual salt by frequently stirring it while it is becoming dry, and then heat it to dull redness. Before it is perfectly cold, take it out of the vessel, and pre- serve it in well-stopped bottles." Dub. The product of the above processes is a carbonate of potassa, purer than that described under the preceding head. In the U. S. formula the salts employed undergo decomposition by the deflagration to which they are sub- jected ; the tartaric and nitric acids are totally decomposed, and sufficient carbonic acid is formed, as one of the products of their decomposition, to saturate the common base of the two salts, and thus to generate carbonate of potassa. The alkali, however, is mixed with a portion of redundant char- coal, which gives to it a black colour; and from its colour and use in this state it was formerly called black flux. It is freed from carbonaceous matter by solution in water, filtration, evaporation, and granulation. The Dublin College forms this carbonate by incinerating the bitartrate without nitre ; and this forms the second process of the Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia. The tartaric acid, which consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen, is decomposed, and gives rise, among other products, to carbonic acid, which combines^ with the potassa. The matter, after ignition, contains, besides carbonate of potassa, certain impurities derived from those pre- existing in the bitartrate. These are carbonate of lime, arising from the decomposition of tartrate of lime, alumina, silica, and minute portions of the oxides of iron and manganese ; and, being all insoluble in water, are left behind when the mass is acted on by that liquid, the alkaline carbonate alone being taken up. The London College does not recognise a separate preparation under the title of " pure carbonate of potassa," but, to the formula for preparing the ordinary carbonate, subjoins directions for obtaining the pure carbonate by igniting the bicarbonate. (Seepreceding article.) When thus prepared, the 1088 Potassa. PART II. second equivalent of carbonic acid, and the water of crystallization of the bicarbonate are expelled, and nothing remains but the carbonate in a very pure state. This is a ready and eligible mode of obtaining a pure carbonate of potassa, and forms the first process given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Properties, fyc. Pure carbonate of potassa, obtained from cream of tartar or from the bicarbonate, differs from the same salt procured from pearlash only in containing fewer impurities. It was formerly called salt of tartar, in allusion to its source; but at present this name is familiarly applied to any pure carbonate of potassa, without reference to its mode of prepara- tion. It may, indeed, be very much doubted whether the real salt of tartar is often kept in our shops ; the ordinary carbonate as purified from pearlash being generally substituted for it, and answering every medicinal purpose that could be expected from the use of the purer salt. Medical Properties and Uses. These are precisely the same with those of the carbonate of potassa described in the preceding article. The pure carbonate furnishes the best material for forming the solution of citrate of potassa, or neutral mixture. Off. Prep. Liquor Potassas Arsenitis, U. S., Dub.; Potassse Acetas,Dub.; Potassae Carbonatis Aqua, Dub. B. LIQUOR POTASSA CARBONATIS. U. S., Lond. Potassas. Carbonatis Aqua. Dub. Solution of Carbonate of Potassa. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa a pound; Distilled Water, twelve fluid- ounces. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the Water, and filter the solution." U. S. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa twenty ounces; Distilled Water a pint [imperial measure]. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the Water, and strain." Lond. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Crystals of Tartar one part; Dis- tilled Water two parts. Dissolve and filter. The specific gravity of this solution is 1*320." Dub. This is simply a solution of carbonate of potassa in water, and furnishes a convenient form for the administration of the salt. An ounce is dissolved in a fluidounce of water in the U. S. formula, and in an imperial fluidounce in the London. This will be understood, when the fact is adverted to that the London pint contains twenty Imperial fluidounces. The London solu- tion is somewhat stronger than that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; because the Imperial fluidounce weighs a little less than a fluidounce, wine measure. Thus, the sp. gr. of the London solution is 1*473; of the U. S. solution, 1*446. The Dublin process differs in using the pure form of the carbonate, and in furnishing a solution considerably weaker. This solution should be colourless and inodorous, and possess the general alkaline qualities of the salt from which it is formed. The dose of the U. S. or London solution is from ten minims to a fluidrachm, sufficiently diluted with water or other bland liquid. Off. Prep. Potassae Hydriodas, Dub. B. POTASSA BICARBONAS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Bicarbonate of Potassa. " Take of Carbonate of Potassa/b?*?* pounds; Distilled Water ten pints. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the Water, and pass Carbonic Acid through the solution till it is fully saturated. Then filter and evaporate the filtered liquor that crystals may form, taking care that the heat does not exceed 160°. Pour off the supernatant liquid, and dry the crystals upon bibulous paper. Carbonic Acid is obtained from Marble by the addition of dilute Sulphuric Acid." U. S. PART II. Potassa. 1089 "Take of Carbonate of Potassa six pounds; Distilled Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the Water; afterwards pass Carbonic Acid through the solution to saturation. Apply a gentle heat, so that whatever crystals have been formed may be again dissolved. Then set aside the solution, that crystals may be again formed; and, having poured off the liquor, dry them. Carbonic Acid is very easily obtained from Chalk, rubbed to powder, and mixed with water to the con- sistence of a syrup, upon which Sulphuric Acid is then poured, diluted with an equal weight of water." Lond. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlash, one part; Distilled Water two parts. Dissolve, and expose the solution, in a suitable apparatus, to a current of Carbonic Acid gas, evolved from white marble by the action of dilute Muriatic Acid, until the liquid becomes turbid. Then filter it,and again expose it to the stream of Carbonic Acid gas, until the alkali is saturated. Lastly, put the solution in a cool place, that crystals may form, which are to be dried without heat, and kept in a well-stopped bottle." Dub. "Take of Carbonate of Potash six ounces; Carbonate of Ammonia three ounces and a half. Triturate the Carbonate of Ammonia to a very fine powder; mix it with the.Carbonate of Potash; triturate them thoroughly together, adding by degrees a very little water, till a smooth and uniform pulp be formed. Dry this gradually at a temperature not exceeding 140°, triturating occasionally towards the close; and continue the desiccation till a fine powder be obtained, entirely free of ammoniacal odour." Ed. In these processes, the monocarbonate of potassa, consisting of one eq. of acid and one of base, is combined with an additional equivalent of car- bonic acid. In the U.S., London, and Dublin processes the combination is effected by passing a stream of this acid through a solution of the car- bonate, so long as it is absorbed. The solution employed is directed of different strengths. In the U.S. formula, the distilled water taken is about three times the weight of the carbonate; in the London and Dublin pro- cesses, it is twice the weight of the latter. As the bicarbonate of potassa requires four times its weight of water to dissolve it, the quantity of water ordered in these processes would seem not to be sufficient to dissolve the new salt; unless it be assumed that the solution becomes heated in conse- quence of the reaction. The non-solution of the whole of the new salt is not material, in case filtration is not practised, which would remove part of the bicarbonate with the impurities. The London College omits filtration, applies a gentle heat to dissolve any crystals which may have formed, and allows them to form again more perfectly by the slow cooling of the solu- tion. In conducting the process filtration is not necessary, provided the carbonate of potassa employed is perfectly pure; but the Pharmacopoeias order the carbonate, as procured from pearlash, and when thus obtained it always contains silica. As, during the progress of the saturation, the silica is deposited, this should be got rid of by straining, conducted in such a way as to avoid the removal of a part of the bicarbonate. These two objects might, probably, be effected by heating the solution before filtration, taking care that the temperature does not exceed 160°. A heat thus regulated would keep the bicarbonate in solution, without risk of its decomposition. In the U.S. process filtration is performed after the saturation is completed; in the Dublin, so soon as the solution becomes turbid by the liberation of silica. If it be questionable whether the proportion of water used in the U.S. formula is sufficient, the lesser quantity ordered by the Dublin Col- lege must be quite inadequate to hold in solution the generated salt. On a small scale this process is best performed in a Wolfe's apparatus of three bottles, the first containing water, to wash the carbonic acid gas, the two 1090 Potassa. part ii. others, solutions of the carbonate. The bottles should be connected by means of wide tubes, to prevent their being obstructed by the crystals formed. On a large scale, the saturation is performed in strong vessels, into which the carbonic acid is driven under pressure. Sulphuric acid is always used by the manufacturing chemist for generating the carbonic acid; but for small operations, muriatic acid, diluted with twice its bulk of water, is more convenient; inasmuch as it generates with the marble or chalk a soluble salt (chloride of calcium), which does not interfere with the extrication of the carbonic acid as the insoluble sulphate of lime does. In the Edinburgh process, carbonate of ammonia, in very fine powder, is thoroughly incorporated with carbonate of potassa, by the assistance of a little water, so as to form a uniform pulp, which is dried by a gentle heat. By the combined influence of the volatility of the ammonia, and the affinity of the carbonate of potassa for carbonic acid, the carbonate of ammonia is totally decomposed; its carbonic acid generating the bicarbonate with the potassa, and its ammonia being evolved during the drying of the pulp, which is thus reduced to the state of a fine powder. This process is alleged by Dr. Christison to be superior to the other process, " in point of economy, dispatch, and certainty in small operations." Mr. Brande gives the following proportions for the preparation of bicar- bonate of potassa on the large scale; " 100 lbs. of purified carbonate of potassa are dissolved in 17 gallons of water, which, when saturated with carbonic acid, yield from 35 to 40 lbs. of crystallized bicarbonate; 50 lbs. of carbonate of potassa are then added to the mother liquor, with a sufficient quantity of water to make up 17 gallons, and the operation repeated." Wohler states that charcoal, when mixed with the carbonate, facilitates, by its porosity, in a remarkable degree, the formation of the bicarbonate. Thus he found that when crude tartar was charred in a covered crucible, and the carbonaceous mass, after having been slightly moistened with water, was subjected to a stream of carbonic acid, the gas was absorbed with great rapidity, and heated the mass so considerably, as to render it necessary to surround the vessel with cold water, to prevent the decomposition of the bicarbonate that had been formed. When the temperature diminished, the saturation was known to be completed. The mass was lixiviated in the smallest quantity of water at the temperature of from 85° to 100°, and the solution, after filtration and cooling, deposited the greater part of the bicarbonate in fine crystals. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., x. 82, from the Annalen der Physik und Chemie.) M. Behrens has proposed to obtain bicarbonate of potassa by partially saturating the carbonate, dissolved in an equal weight of water, with acetic acid gradually added. Up to a certain point, no carbonic acid is extricated, and a precipitate takes place of pure bicarbonate of potassa, equal to half the weight of the carbonate employed. After the bicarbonate is separated, the saturation may be completed, and acetate of potassa obtained. (Journ, de Pharm., 3e ser., iv. 464.) A similar production of the bisalt takes place when the carbonate is saturated with weak lemon juice, in forming the citrate. (See page 1092.) According to Berzelius, the cheapest method of obtaining the bicarbonate of potassa is to suspend a concentrated solution of the purified carbonate, contained in a stoneware dish, within a cask over a liquid undergoing the vinous fermentation. The alkali is thus surrounded by an atmosphere of carbonic acid, and, by absorbing it, crystallizes into bicarbonate in the course of five or six weeks. Distillers and brewers are enabled with great facility to prepare this salt by suspending the alkaline solution in the fer- menting tun. The salt in powder called sal aeratus, which is made prin- PART II. Potassa. 1091 cipally in the New England States, is, we believe, prepared in this way. In composition it is between a carbonate and bicarbonate. Properties, fyc. Bicarbonate of potassa is in transparent, colourless, in- odorous crystals, slightly alkaline to the taste and to test paper, permanent in the air, and having the shape of irregular eight-sided prisms with two- sided summits. It dissolves in four times its weight of cold water, and in five-sixths of its weight of boiling water, by which it is partially decom- posed, and converted into sesquicarbonate. It is insoluble in alcohol. Ex- posed to a low red heat, it loses 30*7 per cent., comprising half its carbonic acid and the whole of its water of crystallization, and returns to the state of carbonate, which, when thus obtained, is free from silica, and otherwise very pure. This method is now adopted by the Lond. and Ed. Colleges for obtaining the pure carbonate. Supersaturated with nitric acid, it should give a clear solution, the transparency of which is not disturbed by chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, or carbonate of soda. When a perfect bicarbonate, its solution, unless heated, does not precipitate a solution of sulphate of magnesia. This negative indication, however, cannot be depended upon as showing the absence of carbonate; for, according to Dr. Christison, no precipitate will be occasioned, even when fifty per cent, of this impurity is present. Calomel is not decomposed by it, and, when dissolved in 40 parts of water, it produces a white haze merely with a solution of corrosive sub- limate, instead of the brick-red one caused by the carbonate. (Ed. Pharm.) Bicarbonate of potassa consists of two eqs. of carbonic acid 44, one of potassa 47*15, and one of water 9= 100*15. Medical Properties. The medicinal properties of this salt are the same as those of the carbonate, to which it is preferable on account of its milder taste, and greater acceptability to the stomach. The dose is from twenty grains to a drachm. Off. Prep. Liquor Potassas Effervescens, Lond., Ed.; Pulveres Effer- vescentes, Ed. B. LIQUOR POTASSA EFFERVESCENS. Lond. Potassas Aqua Effervescens. Ed. Effervescing Solution of Potassa. " Take of Bicarbonate of Potassa a drachm; Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Bicarbonate of Potassa in the Water; and pass into it Carbonic Acid, compressed by force, more than is sufficient for saturation. Keep the solution in a well-stopped vessel." Lond. The Edinburgh formula is the same as the above. This preparation maybe considered as the bicarbonate of potassa dissolved in carbonic acid water. It is, however, altogether superfluous in this coun- try, in consequence of the general introduction into the shops of carbonic acid water (artificial Seltzer water), which may be readily employed for dis- solving any desired proportion of the bicarbonate, with the result of forming a much brisker preparation. This solution has the general sparkling qua- lities and acidulous taste of carbonic acid water; the alkaline taste being covered in a great measure by the large excess of carbonic acid. The after- taste is more purely saline than that of the corresponding preparation made with soda. (See Liquor Sodae Effervescens.) B. LIQUOR POTASSA CITRATIS. U.S. Solution of Citrate of Potassa. Neutral Mixture. " Take of fresh Lemon-juice half a pint; Carbonate of Potassa a sufficient quantity. Add the Carbonate of Potassa gradually to the Lemon-juice till it is perfectly saturated; then filter. Or, " Take of Citric Acid half an ounce; Oil of Lemons two minims; Water half a pint; Carbonate of Potassa a sufficient quantity. Rub the Citric. 1092 Potassa. PART II. Acid with the Oil of Lemons, and afterwards with the Water till it is dis- solved ; then add the Carbonate of Potassa gradually till the Acid is perfectly saturated ; lastly, filter." U. S. These are equivalent preparations; the solution of citric acid flavoured with oil of lemons being intended as a substitute for fresh lemon-juice when this cannot be had. In both, the potassa of the carbonate unites with the citric acid, and the carbonic acid is liberated. A portion of the latter remains in the solution, and a portion escapes with effervescence. The result, there- fore, is a solution of citrate of potassa in water impregnated with carbonic acid. When lemon-juice is employed, the solution has a greenish colour; but prepared with the pure acid it is colourless. A flocculent precipitate is, in either case, apt to exhibit itself in small quantity, owing to the silicate of potassa generally present as an impurity in the carbonate of potassa. This gives up its base to the citric acid, and the silica is deposited in the state of a hydrate. It is to separate this impurity that the solution is directed to be filtered. About 33 grains of pure and perfectly dry carbonate of potassa, or 45 grains of the hydrated salt found in the shops, are sufficient to saturate a fluidounce of good lemon-juice; but the strength of the juice is variable,and the carbonate is apt to absorb moisture from the air, so that precision as to quantities cannot be readily attained. Hence the propriety of the direction to add the alkaline carbonate to saturation. The point of saturation may be determined by the cessation of effervescence, the absence of either an acid or alkaline taste, and still more accurately by the test of litmus paper, which should not be rendered bright-red by the solution, nor restored to its blue colour if previously reddened by an acid. The bicarbonate of potassa has been sometimes employed instead of the carbonate to saturate the acid. It is recommended by its greater purity; and, as it contains no silicate of potassa, it produces no precipitate of hydrate of silica. But as the carbonate is less expensive, and the impurities which it contains are not such as affect its medicinal efficacy, it has been preferred in the arrangement of the officinal formula. About one-third more of the bicarbonate is required than of the dry carbonate to saturate the acid. The inequality of strength in the lemon-juice renders the neutral mixture more or less uncertain; though, if the apothecary select ripe and sound fruit, and express the juice himself, the preparation will be found to approach suf- ficiently near a uniform standard for all practical purposes. Nevertheless, if the physician wish absolute precision, he may order the neutral mixture to be made with crystallized citric acid as directed in the second officinal formula; or he may pursue the following plan suggested in former editions of this work. Dissolve two drachms of bicarbonate of potassa in two fluid- ounces of water; saturate the solution with good fresh lemon-juice, and strain; and lastly add enough water to make the mixture measure six fluid- ounces. A fluidounce of this solution, containing the alkali in twenty grains of the bicarbonate, may be given for a dose. Effervescing draught. Under this name, the citrate of potassa is often prepared extemporaneously, and given in the state of effervescence. The most convenient mode of exhibition, is to add to a fluidounce of a mixture consisting of equal parts of lemon-juice and water, half a fluidounce of a solution containing fifteen grains of carbonate of potassa, or twenty grains of the bicarbonate. Should effervescence not occur, as sometimes happens, when the carbonate is used, in consequence of the weakness of the lemon- juice, more of the juice should be added; as, unless sufficient acid is pre- sent to neutralize the potassa, part of the carbonate passes into the state of bicarbonate, and the gas is thus prevented from escaping. A solution of citric acid of the strength of that directed in the officinal formula may be PART II. Potassa. 1093 substituted for lemon-juice, if this is not to be had. The fifteen grains of carbonate of potassa above mentioned are scarcely sufficient to saturate the lemon-juice, if of ordinary strength; but a little excess of the acid renders the preparation more agreeable to the taste. Some prefer the bicarbonate in the preparation of the effervescing draught, because it will always effervesce with lemon-juice, no matter what may be the strength of the latter. But this is an objection. The carbonate serves, by the absence of effervescence, to indicate when the lemon-juice is very weak in acid; and the defect may then be easily remedied by the addition of more juice. When the bicarbonate is used, if there should be a deficiency of acid, it is not discovered; and the patient takes a considerable portion of undecomposed bicarbonate, instead of the full quantity of citrate intended. The citrate of potassa in substance has within a few years been intro- duced into notice, and is now kept in many shops. It is very readily obtained by evaporating to dryness a solution of citric acid saturated by carbonate of potassa. It is a deliquescent and very soluble salt, of difficult crystallization. Its solution in water was proposed by Mr. Scattergood as a substitute for the neutral mixture, which is liable to the disadvantage, when prepared with lemon-juice, of being of uncertain strength. According to Mr. Scattergood, fifty grains of it equal the amount of the salt contained in a fluidounce of ordinary lemon-juice saturated with potassa. (Journ. of the Phil, Col. of Pharm,, v. 16.) Medical Properties and Uses. The solution of citrate of potassa has long been used under the name of neutral mixture, saline mixture, or effervescing draught. It is an excellent refrigerant diaphoretic, adapted to almost all cases of fever with a hot dry skin, and especially to the paroxysms of oujr remittent and intermittent fevers. The effervescing draught is pecu- liarly useful. The carbonic acid serves to cover the taste of the citrate of potassa, and adds to the diaphoretic powers of the salt its own cordial influ- ence over the stomach. No preparation with which we are acquainted is equally efficacious in allaying irritability of stomach, and producing diapho- resis, in our remittent fevers. It is usually also very grateful to the patient. In order to increase the sedative and diaphoretic properties of the neutral mixture, it is customary to add to it a portion of tartar emetic; and a little sweet spirit of nitre will be found an excellent adjuvant in fevers with nervous disturbance. Should the solution irritate the bowels, as occasion- ally happens, it may be combined with a little laudanum or solution of sulphate of morphia. Sugar may be added if desired by the patient. The dose of the officinal solution is a tablespoonful or half a fluidounce, which should be somewhat diluted when taken. The whole of each effer- vescing draught, prepared as above stated, is to be taken at once. The solid citrate may be given in the quantity of twenty-five grains, dissolved in a fluidounce of water. Each dose should be repeated every hour, two, or three hours, according to the urgency of the symptoms. W. POTASSA NITRAS PURIFICATUM. Dub. Purified Nitrate of Potassa. " Take of Nitrate of Potassa one part. Dissolve it in two parts of boil- ing Water, filter the solution and set it aside, so that, on cooling, crystals may form." Dub. The purified nitre of commerce is sufficiently pure for medicinal use; so that this formula of the Dublin College is entirely unnecessary. The pro- perties of nitre, and the manner in which it is purified, have been fully explained under another head. (See Potassae Nitras.) Off. Prep. Ather Nitrosus, Dub. B. 93 1094 Potassa. PART II. POTASSA SULPHAS CUM SULPHURE. Ed. Sulphate of Potassa with Sulphur. "Take of Nitrate of Potash and Sulphur equal parts. Mix them thoroughly; throw the mixture in small successive portions into a red-hot crucible; and when the deflagration is over, and the salt has cooled, reduce it to powder, and preserve it in well-closed bottles." Ed. When the mixture, indicated in this formula, is thrown into a red-hot crucible, each successive portion melts, and the sulphur floats on the sur- face of the nitre with the appearance of a brown oil, burns vividly, and gives rise to a copious evolution of sulphurous acid gas. The product of the deflagration is a grayish-white friable mass, intermixed apparently with undecomposed sulphur. The nature of this preparation has not been well determined. On the supposition that it is the sulphate of potassa, mixed with a portion of sul- phur, as the Edinburgh name implies, its formation may be thus explained. By the combined influence of the sulphur and of the heat employed, the nitric acid of the nitre is totally decomposed, and is thus enabled to furnish sufficient oxygen to convert a portion of the sulphur into sulphuric acid, which, as soon as formed, combines with the base of the nitre, to form the sulphate of potassa. This is left mixed with a portion of sulphur which has escaped combustion; but the greater part of the latter undergoes ordi- nary combustion, and is dissipated as'sulphurous acid fumes. Supposing the saline matter to be a sulphate containing a little free sul- phur, this combustible is evidently used in great excess; but whether this excess is necessary to obtain the exact preparation desired by the Edinburgh College, it is not easy to determine. The late Dr. Duncan ascertained that the product amounted only to four-tenths of the materials employed. It is, therefore, smaller than it ought to be, even supposing that the residue con- sisted of nothing but sulphate of potassa. Dr. Duncan was of opinion that the preparation under consideration can- not be viewed as a sulphuretted sulphate, and for the following satisfactory reasons. In the first place, it is more soluble in water than sulphate of potassa, and forms a yellowish solution, the water leaving undissolved only a small residue of a black colour, which is not sulphur. In the second place, it exhales during solution a sulphurous smell, and its taste is sulphurous. These facts seem to show that a small portion of sulphite of potassa is pre- sent in the preparation, or at least some sulphurous acid in a state of loose combination. It does not yield sulphuretted hydrogen on the addition of an acid, and is not precipitated by the salts of lead. These characters are inconsistent with the opinion of Mr. John Mackay, of Edinburgh, who believes that this preparation contains sulphuret of potassium. (See his remarks on it, in the Pharm. Journ. and Trans, for Jan., 1842.) Properties, fyc. This salt has an acid and sulphurous taste, and an acid reaction with test paper. When pulverized, it yields a pale yellowish- white powder. It is soluble in eight times its weight of cold water. It is, however, not a uniform preparation ; different specimens, apparently pre- pared with equal care, exhibiting some points of difference in properties. It was called by the earlier chemists sal polychrestus Glaseri, or sal poly- chrest. Its other properties coincide generally with those of sulphate of potassa, which may be considered as its basis. Medical Properties and Uses. The medical effects of this preparation differ but little, if at all, from those of sulphate of potassa. Its action on the system is stated by Dr. Duncan to resemble that of the sulphurous mineral waters which contain a portion of neutral salt. The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm. B. PART II. Potassa. 1095 POTASSA BISULPHAS. Lond., Ed., Dub. Bisulphate of Potassa. " Take of the Salt which remains after the distillation of Nitric Acid two pounds; Sulphuric Acid a pound; boiling Water six pints [Imperial mea- sure]. Dissolve the Salt in the Water, and add the Acid to it, and mix. Lastly, boil down the solution, and set it aside that crystals may form." Lond. The Edinburgh formula is the same with the London, the sulphuric acid being merely taken by measure, equivalent to a pound by weight. "Take of commercial Sulphuric Acid two parts; Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlash a sufficient quantity; Water six parts. Mix one part of the Sulphuric Acid with the Water, and saturate the mixture with the Carbonate of Potassa; then add the other part of the Acid to the liquor, and evaporate it, so that on cooling crystals may form." Dub. The Dublin process for forming this bisalt is more precise than those of the London and Edinburgh Colleges, but at the same time less economical. The object being to obtain a salt, containing twice as much sulphuric acid as exists in the neutral sulphate, it is plain that by dividing the acid em- ployed into two equal parts, and saturating one of these parts with potassa, the resulting neutral sulphate must be converted into a bisulphate by the addition of the other part. By this process a pure bisulphate cannot be obtained in crystals. If the attempt be made to procure them by allowing a moderately concentrated solution to cool, crystals of neutral sulphate will be chiefly deposited. In order to get the bisulphate pure by the Dublin process, the solution must be so far concentrated as to form on cooling a uniform crystalline mass. In explaining the other formulas, it is only neces- sary to recall to the reader's attention a part of the explanations given under the head of Nitric Acid. It was there stated that, for the proper decompo- sition of nitre for the purpose of obtaining nitric acid, it is necessary to use two eqs. of sulphuric acid to one of the salt. Consequently, the salt which remains after the distillation of nitric acid is really a bisulphate, and would seem only to require to be dissolved, and the solution filtered and duly eva- porated, in order to obtain the salt in crystals. But Mr. Phillips states that, when the bisulphate of potassa is dissolved in water, and the solution is allowed to crystallize, some sulphate and much sesquisulphate are obtained instead of bisulphate, owing to the water retaining a part of the excess of acid in solution. This result is prevented by the sulphuric acid directed to be added by the London and Edinburgh Colleges, and, consequently, the real bisulphate is obtained in crystals. Properties, 8,-c. Bisulphate of potassa is a white salt, having the form of a right rhombic prism, so flattened as to be tabular, and a bitter and ex- tremely acid taste. It is soluble in twice its weight of cold water, and in less than its weight of boiling water. Alcohol does not dissolve it, but when added to an aqueous solution, precipitates the neutral sulphate. Exposed to the air, it effloresces slightly on the surface, and, when moderately heated, readily melts, and runs like oil. At a red heat it loses water and the excess of acid, and is reduced to the state of neutral sulphate. From its excess of acid, it acts precisely as an acid on the carbonates, causing them to effervesce. It is incompatible with alkalies, earths, and their carbonates, with many of the metals, and most oxides. This salt was formerly called sal enixum. It consists of two eqs. of sulphuric acid 80, one of potassa 47*15, and two of water 18=145*15. Medical Properties and Uses. Bisulphate of potassa unites the proper- ties of an aperient with those of a tonic, and may be given in cases of con- stipation with languid appetite, such as often occur in convalescence from acute diseases. Dr. Paris states that it forms a grateful adjunct to rhubarb. 1096 Potassa. part ii. • It answers, also, according to Dr. Barker, for preparing an aperient effer- vescing draught at little expense. Equal weights, a drachm for instance, of the bisulphate and of carbonate of soda, may be dissolved separately, each in two fluidounces of water, then mixed, and taken in the state of effervescence. The dose of the bisulphate is one or two drachms. B. POTASSA TARTRAS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tartrate of Potassa. Soluble Tartar. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa sixteen ounces; Bitartrate of Potassa [cream of tartar] in fine powder, three pounds or a sufficient quantify; Boiling Water a gallon. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the Water; then gradually add the Bitartrate of Potassa to the solution till it is perfectly saturated, and boil. Filter the liquor, evaporate it until a pellicle forms, and set it aside to crystallize. Pour off the liquid, and, having dried the crystals on bibulous paper, keep them in closely stopped bottles." U. S. " Take of Bitartrate of Potassa, powdered, three pounds; Carbonate of Potassa sixteen ounces, or a sufficient quantity; boiling Water six pints [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potassa in the boiling Water; then add the Bitartrate of Potassa, and boil. Strain the liquor, and afterwards boil it down till a pellicle appears, and set it aside that crystals may form. The liquor being poured off, dry these, and again evaporate the liquor that crystals may form." Lond. The Edinburgh process is the same as the London. "Take of Carbonate of Potassa from Pearlash five parts; Bitartrate of Potassa fourteen parts ; boiling Water forty-five parts. Add gradually the Bitartrate of Potassa, in very-fine powder, to the Carbonate of Potassa, dis- solved in the Water. Filter the solution through paper, and evaporate it, so that on cooling crystals may form." Dub. In these processes, the excess of acid in the bitartrate is saturated by the potassa of the carbonate, the carbonic acid is extricated with effervescence, and the neutral tartrate of potassa is obtained. On account of the greater solubility of the carbonate than of the bitartrate, the former is first dissolved, and the latter added to the solution to full saturation. As the bitartrate is gradually added, the mutual action of the salts should be promoted by constant stirring; and the addition should be continued so long as effervescence takes place, which is a better mode of proceeding than to add any specified quan- tity of the bisalt; since, from its variable quality, it is impossible to adjust precisely the proportions applicable to all cases. It is necessary that the solution should be exactly neutral, or a little alkaline; and hence, if inad- vertently too much bitartrate has been added, the proper state may be restored by adding.a little of the alkaline carbonate. When the saturation has been completed, the solution is filtered in order to separate the tartrate of lime, which appears in white flocks, and which is always present in cream of tartar as an impurity. The evaporated liquor should then be placed in warm earthenware vessels, to ensure a slow refrigeration; and, after remaining at rest for several days, the crystals begin to form. In order that the crystallization should proceed favourably, it is necessary, according to Baume, that the solution should be somewhat alkaline. Iron vessels should not be used in any part of the process; as this metal is apt to discolour the salt. Tartrate of potassa is sometimes made in the process for preparing tartaric acid. When thus obtained, the excess of acid in the bitartrate is neutralized by means of carbonate of lime. This generates an insoluble tartrate of lime, and leaves the neutral tartrate in solution, from which it may be obtained by evaporation and crystallization. (See Acidum Tartaricum.) PART II. Potassa. 1097 Properties, fyc. Tartrate of potassa, prepared according to the officinal processes, is in white crystals, which are slightly deliquescent, and usually in the form of irregular six-sided prisms with dihedral summits. Its taste is saline and bitter. It dissolves in about twice its weight of cold water, and in much less boiling water, and is nearly insoluble in alcohol. Exposed to heat it undergoes fusion, swells up, blackens, and is decomposed; being converted into carbonate of potassa. For medicinal use, it should always be crystallized; but, as it ordinarily occurs in the shops, it is in a white granular powder, obtained by evaporating the solution to dryness, while it is constantly stirred. In this state it is said to require four times its weight of water for solution. It is never purposely adulterated ; but if it be obtained by evaporation to dryness, it is liable to contain an excess of carbonate or of bitartrate of potassa, when it will have either an alkaline or acid reaction. It is decomposed by all the strong acids, and by many acidulous salts, which cause the precipitation of minute crystals of bitartrate of potassa, by abstract- ing one eq. of alkali from two of the salt. Acetate of lead occasions a white precipitate of tartrate of lead, distinguishable from sulphate of lead by being wholly soluble in diluted nitric acid. Tartrate of potassa is composed of one eq. of tartaric acid 66, and one of potassa 47*15=113*15. According to Berzelius, the crystals contain no water of crystallization. Medical Properties and Uses. Tartrate of potassa is a mild cooling purgative, operating, like most of the neutral salts, without much pain, and producing watery stools. It is applicable to febrile diseases, and is occa- sionally combined with senna, the griping effects of which it. has a tendency to obviate. The dose is from a drachm to an ounce, according to the degree of effect desired. B. POTASSII BROMIDUM. Lond. Bromide of Potassium. "Take of Bromine two ounces; Carbonate of Potassa two ounces and a drachm; Iron Filings an ounce; Distilled Water three pints [Imperial mea- sure]. First add the Iron, and afterwards the Bromine, to a pint and a half of the Distilled Water. Set them by for half an hour, frequently stirring them with a spatula. Apply a gentle heat, and when a greenish colour oc- curs, pour in the Carbonate of Potassa dissolved in the remainder of the Water. Strain,.and wash what remains in two pints [Imperial measure] of boiling Distilled Water, and again strain. Evaporate the mixed liquors, so that crystals may form." Lond. In the first step of this process, a solution of bromide of iron is formed; and this, by the addition of the solution of carbonate of potassa, is decom- posed so as to generate carbonate of the protoxide of iron which precipi- tates, and bromide of potassium in solution. By straining, the precipitated carbonate is separated, and from the strained liquor crystals of bromide of potassium are obtained by due evaporation. Properties, fyc. Bromide of potassium is a permanent, colourless, anhy- drous salt, crystallizing in cubes or quadrangular prisms, and having a pun- gent, saline taste, similar to that of common salt, but more acrid. It is very soluble in cold water, more so in hot, and but slightly soluble in alcohol. When heated it decrepitates, and, at a red heat, fuses without decomposition. The following characters are given of bromide of potassium by the London Colleo-e. "Totally soluble in water. It does not alter the colour of litmus or turmeric. Chloride of barium throws down nothing from the solution. Sulphuric acid and starch added together render it yellow. Subjected to heat it loses no weight. Ten grains of this salt decompose just 14*28 grains of nitrate of silver, and precipitate a yellowish bromide of silver, which is dissolved by ammonia, and but very sparingly by nitric acid." The object 93* 1098 Potassa. PART II. of adding sulphuric acid along with the starch is to set the bromine free. If iodine be set free at the same time, the starch will give rise to a violet or feeble blue colour. To test for iodine in this salt, Lassaigne recommends to add to its solution a few drops of a weak solution of chlorine, and then to introduce a piece of starched white paper. If iodine be present, the starch will become violet, or faintly blue. If the salt decomposes more nitrate of silver than is above stated, its saturating power is greater than it should be, and the presence of a chloride, probably of potassium or sodium, may be suspected. Bromide of potassium consists of one eq. of bromine 78*4, and one of potassium 39*15=117-55. Medical Properties. Bromide of potassium is deemed alterative and resolv- ent. In 1828, Pourche used it with benefit, both internally and in the form of ointment, in the treatment of bronchocele and scrofula. It was intro- duced into the London Pharmacopoeia of 1836, in consequence of the favour- able results obtained by Dr. Williams, of London, from its use as an internal remedy in several cases of enlarged spleen. According to Ricord, it pro- duces the same effects in secondary syphilis as the iodide of potassium, but acts more slowly. (See page 1104.) It may be given in the form of pill, or dissolved in water, in doses of from three to ten grains, three times a day. The ointm.ent may be made by mixing from a scruple to two drachms of the bromide with an ounce of lard. Of this from half a drachm to a drachm may be rubbed on a scrofulous tumour, or other part where its local action is desired, once in twenty-four hours. Sometimes'bromine is added to this ointment in the proportion of thirty minims to the ounce of lard. B. POTASSII CYANURETUM. U.S. Cyanuret of Potassium. "Take of Ferrocyanuret of Potassium, in powder, eight ounces; Dis- tilled Water six fluidounces. Expose the Ferrocyanuret to a moderate heat until it becomes nearly white, and is wholly deprived of its water of crystal- lization. Put the residue in an earthen retort, with the beak loosely stopped, and expose it to a red heat for two hours, or till gas ceases to be disengaged. Withdraw the retort from the fire, close the orifice with lute, and then let the whole remain until quite cold. Break the retort, remove the black mass, reduce it to coarse powder, introduce it into a bottle of the capacity of twelve fluidounces,and then add the Distilled Water. Agitate the mixture occasion- ally for half an hour, throw it on a filter, evaporate the filtered solution rapidly to dryness, and keep the dry mass in a closely stopped bottle." U. S. In order to understand the process adopted for obtaining this new officinal of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, it is necessary to bear in mind that the ferro- cyanuret of potassium consists of two eqs. of cyanuret of potassium, one of cyanuret of iron, and three of water. The salt is first deprived of its water of crystallization by exposure to a moderate heat, and then calcined at a red heat for two hours, in order to decompose the cyanuret of iron. The pro- duct of the calcination is a black, porous mass, consisting of cyanuret of potassium, mixed with carburet of iron and charcoal. As the cyanuret is very prone to absorb oxygen, especially when hot, whereby it is decom- posed, atmospheric air is excluded from the retort, while it is cooling, by luting its orifice. When the whole is cold, the black mass is reduced to coarse powder, and exhausted by cold distilled water, which dissolves the cyanuret of potassium, and leaves the carburet of iron and charcoal behind. The filtered liquor, therefore, is an aqueous solution of cyanuret of potas- sium, which is obtained in a solid state by a rapid evaporation to dryness. During the evaporation, a small portion of the cyanuret is decomposed, attended with the evolution of ammonia, and the production of formiate of potassa. A portion of this salt, therefore, contaminates the cyanuret, as obtained by this process; but the quantity is too small to interfere with its PART II. Potassa. 1099 medicinal action. The decomposition here referred to takes place between one eq. of cyanuret of potassium and four of water, and is represented by the following equation, in which the cyanogen is expressed by its full symbol NC2, and formic acid by C2H03;—KJMC2-f4HO=NH3+KO,CaH03. This decomposition is avoided by exhausting the black mass with boiling alcohol of 60 per cent. (0*896) instead of water. The alcoholic solution, by evaporation to a pellicle, Jets fall the salt, upon cooling, as a crystalline precipitate, perfectly white and pure. According to the process of the French Codex, this cyanuret is obtained in the dry way, without the use of any solvent. The calcination is per- formed in a coated stone-ware retort, half-filled with the ferrocyanuret, to which a tube is attached for collecting the gaseous products. When these cease to be disengaged, the heat is gradually raised to a very high tem- perature, at which it is kept for a quarter of an hour. When the calcina- tion is thus conducted, the retort will be found to contain a black matter, covered by a fused layer of pure cyanuret of potassium, resembling white enamel. This is detached by means of a knife, and immediately trans- ferred to a bottle, with an accurately fitting stopper. The black matter, under the name of black cyanuret, is also kept for medicinal use; but the dose of this cannot be accurately fixed, on account of its containing, at dif- ferent times, more or Jess impurity. The French Codex process is commended by Mr. Donovan, of Dublin, as being the best for obtaining this salt. He has modified it by substituting an iron mercury bottle for the stoneware retort. The details of his mode of proceeding are given by him in the Pharm. Journ. and Trans., ii. 578. The process of Wiggers, which is said to excel all others, consists in passing hydrocyanic acid into a receiver, containing an alcoholic solution of potassa. The hydrocyanic acid is formed by slowly distilling: two parts of ferrocyanuret of potassium, contained in a retort, with one and a half parts of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with an equal weight of water and allowed to cool. The acid is made to pass into a cooled receiver, furnished with a safety tube, and containing one part of pure hydrate of potassa, dis- solved in three or four parts of alcohol of 90 per cent. (0*822). As soon as the ebullition slackens, the operation should be stopped; and the liquor in the receiver will be found thick from the precipitated cyanuret of potassium, mixed with the alcoholic solution of the undecomposed potassa. The preci- pitate is then collected on a filter, freed from the mother-water, washed with alcohol, and, without being removed from the filter, pressed and dried. (Pharm. Trans., Dec, 1841.) The ferrocyanuret of potassium yields about a tenth of its weight of cyanuret by this process. It will be noticed that the hydrocyanic acid is here generated by the same process as that adopted for obtaining it in the last U. S., Lond., and Ed. Pharmacopoeias; but, instead of being condensed by itself, it is allowed to pass into a solution of potassa. (See page 786.) Liebig has proposed the following process, which gives a large product of cyanuret of potassium, but contaminated with cyanate of potassa. Mix eight parts of ferrocyanuret of potassium, well dried, with three of dry carbonate of potassa, and throw the mixture into a red-hot Hessian crucible, which is to be maintained at this heat. The melted mass becomes succes- sively brown and yellow; and finally, when it becomes white, which will be known by its concreting in a brilliant white mass on a warm glass rod dipped into the liquid.it is to be poured out into a warm porcelain capsule to solidify. Two eqs. of ferrocyanuret of potassium react with two eqs. of carbonate of potassa. The iron is set free, the carbonic acid evolved, and a compound of five eqs. of cyanuret of potassium and one of cyanate of potassa is formed. The reaction is explained by the following equation:—2(FeCy, 1100 Potassa. PART II. 2KCy)-f2(KO,C02)=5KCy-f KO,CyO+2Fe+2C03. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., Aug. 1842.) The cyanate of potassa may be readily detected by saturating the cyanuret, as thus obtained, with an acid, which will cause an effervescence of carbonic acid, and the generation of a salt of ammonia. Properties. Cyanuret of potassium is a white substance, having a sharp, somewhat alkaline and bitter-almond taste, and an alkaline reaction. If yel- low it contains iron. It is deliquescent in moist air, very soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in strong alcohol. The salt and its solution, when exposed to the air, exhale the odour of hydrocyanic acid, and become weaker; but the change takes place slowly. Orfila found that the salt, after fourteen days' exposure, by which it was almost entirely liquefied, still possessed energetic poisonous properties. He thinks, therefore, that the bad effects of opening the containing bottle, in dispensing the medicine, have been exaggerated. Unfortunately, the salt varies in quality as found in the shops, independently of the effects of time and exposure. Mr. David Stewart, of Baltimore, examined six samples of this cyanuret, on sale for medicinal use, and found them to vary considerably in purity. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 134, from the Maryland Med. and Surg. Journ.) Besides water, the usual impurities are carbonate, cyanate, and formiate of potassa. Effervescence on the addition of an acid shows a carbonate or cyanate, and a blackening when heated, the presence of a formiate. Cyanuret of potas- sium consists of one eq. of cyanogen and one of potassium. Medical Properties. Cyanuret of potassium is pre-eminently poisonous, acting precisely like hydrocyanic acid as a poison and as a medicine. (See Acidum Hydrocyanicum.) The grounds on which it has been proposed as a substitute for that acid by Robiquet and Villerme, are its uniformity as a chemical product, and its less liability to undergo decomposition. The dose is the eighth of a grain, dissolved in half a fluidounce of distilled water, to which may be added half a fluidrachm of syrup of lemons, if the prescriber wishes to set free hydrocyanic acid. (Donovan.) The spurious cyanuret, formed by calcining dried muscular flesh with potash, consists principally of carbonate of potassa, and is but slightly poisonous. (Orfila.) A solution, made with from one to four grains to the fluidounce of water, has been recommended in neuralgic and other local pains, applied by means of pieces of linen. Mr. Guthrie found that a solution of from three to six grains to the fluidounce of distilled water, formed an admirable remedy, applied hydrops every other day, for removing the olive-coloured stains of the conjunctiva, caused by nitrate of silver. B. POTASSII IODIDUM. U.S., Lond., Ed. Potassas Hydriodas. Dub. Iodide of Potassium. Hydriodate of Potassa. "Take of Iodine six ounces; Iron Filings three ounces; Carbonate of __ -7 O —* t Potassa four ounces, or a sufficient quantity; Distilled Water four pints. Mix the Iodine with three pints of the Distilled AVater, and add the Iron Filings, stirring frequently with a spatula for half an hour. Apply a gentle heat, and, when the liquor assumes a greenish colour, add gradually the Carbonate of Potassa, previously dissolved in half a pint of the Distilled Water, until it ceases to produce a precipitate. Continue the heat for half an hour, and then filter. Wash the residuum with half a pint of the Dis- tilled Water boiling hot, and filter. Mix the filtered liquors, and evaporate so that crystals may form. Pour off the liquid, and dry the crystals on bibulous paper." U. S. The London College takes six ounces of iodine, two ounces of iron filings, four ounces of carbonate of potassa, and six pints [Imp. meas.] of distilled water, and proceeds as above; except that the quantity of carbonate of potassa in solution, added to the solution of iodide of iron, is taken af. a PART II. Potassa. 1101 fixed weight, and not left to be determined by the amount necessary to complete the precipitation, and that, after the precipitation of the carbonate of iron, heat is not applied for some time before the liquid is filtered. " Take of Iodine (dry)^fe ounces; fine Iron Wire three ounces; Water four pints [Imp. meas.]; Carbonate of Potash (dry) two ounces and six drachms. With the Water, Iodine, and Iron Wire prepare the solution of iodide of iron as directed [under Ferri Iodidi Syrupus]. Add immediately, while it is hot, the Carbonate of Potash previously dissolved in a few ounces of water, stir carefully, filter the product, and wash the powder on the filter- with a little water. Concentrate the liquor at a temperature short of ebulli- tion, till a dry salt be obtained, which is to be purified from a little red oxide of iron and other impurities, by dissolving it in less than its own weight of boiling water, or still better by boiling it in twice its weight of rectified spirit, filtering the solution, and setting it aside to crystallize. More crystals will be obtained by concentrating and cooling the residual liquor." Ed. " Take of Iodine one part; Sulphuret of Iron, in coarse powder, five parts; Sulphuric Acid seven parts; Distilled Water forty-eight parts; Water of Carbonate of Potassa a sufficient quantity; Rectified Spirit six parts. Mix the Iodine by trituration with sixteen parts of the Water, and put the mixture into a glass vessel. Pour the Acid, previously diluted with thirty- two parts of the Water, on the Sulphuret, contained in a matrass; and by means of a tube adapted to the neck of the matrass, and reaching to the bot- tom of the vessel containing the Iodine and Water, transmit the gas through the mixture, until the Iodine entirely disappears. Filter the liquor, and im- mediately evaporate it, by a superior heat, to one-eighth part, and again filter it. Then gradually add as much Water of Carbonate of Potassa as will be sufficient to saturate the acid, which is known by the cessation of the effervescence. Then expose the mixture to heat until the residual salt is dry and of a white colour. On this pour the Spirit, and digest by the aid of heat. Lastly, from the remaining salt, pour off the solution, evaporate it to dryness, and keep the residuum in a close vessel." Dub. In the last edition of the U.S.Pharmacopoeia, the process of Baup and Caillot'was substituted for that previously adopted for obtaining iodide of po- tassium. The French Codex and London Pharmacopoeia had previously adopted this process : and the Edinburgh College, upon making this iodide officinal for the first time in the last edition of its Pharmacopoeia, has selected it also. The first step of the process is to form the iodide of iron in solution, precisely as is done in the formula for that compound ; and the second to de- compose it by carbonate of potassa, which gives rise to iodide of potassium in solution, and a precipitate of carbonate of protoxide of iron. The solution of iodide of potassium is then separated by filtration from the precipitated car- bonate, and evaporated so that crystals may form. As the precipitated car- bonate, after the filtration, still retains a portion of the solution of iodide of potassium, it is washed, in order to dissolve this portion, and the resulting solution, after filtration, is added to that first obtained. Messrs. T. and H. Smith, of Edinburgh, instead of washing the precipitate, prefer the plan of pressing it strongly in a cloth, in order to extract the remains of the solution. The mass left is broken up in a portion of distilled water equal to about two-thirds of the weight of the iodine employed, and pressed a second time. Proceeding thus, less water is used, and less evaporation is necessary. The London College takes the iron at one-third the weight of the iodine, instead of one-half as in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia ; and the Messrs. Smith prefer the London proportion, which still gives the iron in excess. The London pro- cess varies disadvantageously, in several particulars, from that of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. In the first place it is not easy to fix beforehand the quantity 1102 Potassa. PART II. of carbonate of potassa necessary to decompose the iodide of iron, on account of the variable quality both of iodine and the alkaline carbonate. It is, there- fore, better to add the alkaline solution only so long as it produces a precipi- tate ; and, this rule being adopted, thequantity added in different operations will be found sometimes more and sometimes less. The direction of the London College to strain immediately after the addition of the alkaline car- bonate, gives rise to the inconvenience of obtaining a liquid, which becomes turbid from a fresh formation of the ferruginous precipitate, and which requires a new filtration before it can be submitted to evaporation. This inconve- nience is avoided by continuing the heat for half an hour after the addition of the alkaline solution, during which interval the salts fully react on each other, and the precipitate is rendered less bulky, and more easily separable by the subsequent filtration. The London College has erred in using in the different steps of its process, a quantity of water inconveniently large, which causes a waste of time and fuel in bringing the solution of the iodide of potassium to the necessary degree of concentration. The Edinburgh College, for no obvious reason, abandons the proportion of the iodine to the iron of 2 to 1, given in its formula for Ferri Iodidi Syrupus, and adopts the ratio of 2 to 1*2, thus using a still greater excess of metal. The carbonate of potassa is ordered in less proportion than in the U.S. and London formulas, because it is directed to be dry. We have already expressed our preference of the plan of using a quantity of the alkaline carbonate, just adequate to complete the decomposition of the iodide of iron; and the use of the pure carbonate, obtained by igniting the crystallized bicarbonate, as is done by the Messrs. Smith, would form an improvement in the process. The pro- portion of alkaline carbonate taken by the London and Edinburgh Colleges is not in excess, provided the iodine be dry; but if it contain considerable moisture, the carbonate ordered will be more than sufficient to decompose the iodide of iron formed. The solution of iodide of potassium, obtained by filtration, is directed by the Edinburgh College to be evaporated to dryness, and the dry salt is purified from iron and other impurities by solution in water or alcohol, filtration, and crystallization. The evaporation to dryness here directed would be unnecessary, if the plan had been adopted of com- pleting the reaction between the iodide of iron and alkaline carbonate, by the application of heat for a short time before filtratipn. However carefully the alkaline solution may be added, so as just to decompose the iodide of iron, the concentrated solution prepared for crystallization will show an alkaline reaction. This excess of alkali is best neutralized by gradually adding a solution of iodide of iron, until the liquid ceases to restore the blue colour of reddened litmus. A new filtration must now be practised to separate the additional precipitate. By the Messrs. Smith this solution is evaporated to dryness, and the dry salt carefully fused in an iron pot, in order to free it from colour. It is then dissolved ; and the solution, by filtration, concentra- tion, and cooling, furnishes a perfectly pure iodide nearly to the very last. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iii. 14.) In the Dublin process, a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas being passed through water in which iodine is diffused, the gas is decomposed, its sulphur is precipitated, and its hydrogen, by combining with the iodine, generates hydriodic acid which remains in solution. The sulphur being separated by filtration, and the solution duly concentrated, the acid is converted into iodide of potassium by saturating it with carbonate of potassa. By evaporation to dryness the iodide is obtained in the solid state. But lest it should be contaminated with some iodate and carbonate of potassa, the dry mass is digested with rectified spirit, which takes up the iodide,and leaves these salts behind. The alcoholic solution is then evaporated to dryness, and the pure PART II. Potassa. 1103 iodide obtained in the solid state. This process is not an eligible one ; a3 it requires the formation of hydriodic acid, and the use of alcohol. The simplest process for preparing iodide of potassium in quantity, is to add iodine to a hot solution of caustic potassa until the alkali is neutralized, when iodide of potassium and iodate of potassa will be generated, to evapo- rate to dryness, and to fuse the dry mass by a gentle red heat, in order to decompose the iodate. The fused mass is then dissolved in water, and the solution obtained crystallized. According to Mr. Scanlan, the deoxidation of the iodate is easily effected by the intermixture of powdered charcoal with the two salts before they are subjected to heat. (Pereira.) Properties, 8,'C. Iodide of potassium is in opaque white or transparent crystals, permanent in a dry air, slightly deliquescent in a moist one, and having a sharp saline taste. According to the Messrs. Smith, of Edinburgh, it is not at all deliquescent when perfectly pure. It generally crystallizes in cubes. It is soluble in about two-thirds of its weight of cold water, and freely in rectified spirit. Its solution imparts a blue colour to starch upon the addition of sulphuric acid, which acts by setting the iodine free. The aqueous solution is capable of taking up a large quantity of iodine, forming a liquid, containing the ioduretted iodide, of a deep brown colour. Exposed to heat it fuses, without losing weight, into a crystalline and pearly mass, and at a red heat is volatilized without decomposition. The most usual impurities contained in this salt are the chlorides of potassium and sodium, bromide of potassium, and iodate and carbonate of potassa. The presence of a chloride may be determined by the use of nitrate of silver. This test will throw down nothing from the pure salt but iodide of silver, which is scarcely soluble in ammonia; while chloride of silver is readily soluble in it. If then a solution of the iodide be precipitated by an excess of nitrate of silver, and agitated with ammonia, the latter will dissolve any chloride which may have been thrown down, and yield it again as a white precipi- tate on being saturated with nitric acid. If, on the other hand, the iodide of potassium be pure, the ammonia will only take up a minute quantity of iodide of silver, and the addition of the nitric acid will scarcely disturb the transparency of the solution. The present low price of bromide of potas- sium, compared with that of the iodide, has caused the former to be used to adulterate the latter. In order to detect bromine, M. Personne first pre- cipitates from an aqueous solution of the suspected iodide, the whole of the iodine as protiodide of copper, by successively adding, in excess, a solution of sulphate of copper, and aqueous sulphurous acid; and then treats the filtered liquid with ether and chlorine water, the whole being shaken together and left at rest. If-bromine be present, the ether, which rises to the surface, will be tinged of a reddish-yellow colour. The iodate and car- bonate may be detected by their insolubility in alcohol. The iodate may be detected also by adding a solution of tartaric acid to a solution of tlit- suspected iodide. Bitartrate of potassa will be precipitated, and, if the iodide be pure, a yellow colour is soon developed from the action of the air on the liberated hydriodic acid; but if any iodate be present the test will set free both iodic and hydriodic acid, which, by their reaction, will instantly develope free iodine. (Pereira.) Carbonate of potassa is generally present in the proportion of from one to ten per cent. Dr. Christison has detected 74£ per cent, of this impurity, and Dr. Pereira as high as 77 per cent. An adulteration by the carbonate under ten per cent, does not alter the crystal- line appearance of the iodide, but gives it a greater tendency to deliquesce; but when it is larger it renders the salt granular and highly deliquescent. This impurity may be detected by lime-water, which causes a milkiness (carbonate of lime), and by tincture of iodine, the colour of which is de- 1104 Potassa. PART II. stroyed. Iodide of potassium consists of one eq. of iodine 126*3, and one of potassium 39* 15 = 165*45. It contains no water of crystallization. Medical Properties and Uses. This salt produces very marked effects on the secretions in general, which it increases, and into which it readily passes. It has a tendency to irritate the mucous membrane of the air-passages, as is shown by its sometimes occasioning an affection like cold in the head. When its use is long continued, it occasionally excites ptyalism, distinguish- able from that produced by mercury by the absence of inflammation and fetor. Its obvious effects on the system are very variable, arising probably either from peculiarities of constitution, or from the unequal quality of the medicine itself. Thus, in some cases it produces nausea, pain in the stomach, and diarrhoea, in moderate doses; and in others is borne in large doses without inconvenience. Sometimes it increases the appetite and the flesh. By some practitioners it is preferred for the purpose of producing the constitutional effects of iodine. Dr. De Renzy, of Carnew, used it with great success in hasmoptysis, and Dr. Graves, of Dublin, employed it with advantage in a very obstinate erythematic swelling of the hand. Dr. Williams, of London, considers it applicable to the treatment of various forms of secondary syphilis. He used it with success, in a majority of cases, in removing hard periosteal nodes, and found it beneficial in the treatment of tubercular forms of venereal eruptions. It is also considered as one of the best alterative remedies in mercurio-syphilitic sorethroat. Ricord bears testimony to its valuable powers in the treatment of secondary syphilis. Dr. Isaac Parrish, of this city, em- ployed it successfully in several cases of strumous inflammation of the eye, given in the compound syrup of sarsaparilla. It appeared promptly to re- lieve the severe neuralgic, circumorbital pain. MM. Guillot and Melsens gave it with advantage, in doses of from a drachm to a drachm and a half daily, in mercurial tremors and lead poison. Dr. G. L. Upshur, of Vir- ginia, recommends its use in the suppurative stage of pneumonia. The dose is from two to ten grains or more, three times a day, given in solution. Ricord rarely exceeded three scruples a day. Some practitioners have reported the exhibition of enormous doses, such as two, four, and even six drachms daily without inconvenience. Dr. Buchanan, of Glasgow, assures us that he has given the pure salt in doses of half an ounce, without any precaution being observed by the patient, except that of drinking freely of diluents. Notwithstanding this testimony, Dr. Lawrie, of the same city, reports several cases of dryness and irritation of the throat, ending in severe spasmodic croup, and one case of death following the sudden occurrence of dyspnoea, caused by the use of small doses of this iodide. There are cer- tainly wanting new facts to explain these discrepancies. Iodide of potassium passes quickly into the urine, in which it may be detected by first adding to the cold secretion a portion of starch, and then a few drops of nitric acid, when a blue colour will be produced. According to Ricord, this salt produces in some constitutions peculiar effects; such as various eruptions of the skin, excessive diuresis, vascular injection of the conjunctiva and tumefaction of the eyelids, cerebral excite- ment like that produced by alcoholic drinks, and discharges from the urethra and vagina, resembling blennorrhagia. These effects go off upon the sus- pension of the medicine. Iodide of potassium is employed as an external application in the form of ointment, either alone or mixed with iodine. (See Unguentum Potassae Hydriodatis, and Unguentum Iodini Compositum.) Off.Prep. Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, U.S.; Liquor Iodini Compo- situs, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Plumbi Iodidum, Lond., Ed.; Tinctura Iodini PART II. Potassa. 1105 Composita, U. S., Lond.; Unguentum Iodini Compositum, U. S., Lond., Ed.; Unguentum Potassae Hydriodatis, Dub. B. POTASSII SULPHURETUM. U. S., Lond., Ed. Potassas Sul- phuretum. Dub. Sulphuret of Potassium. Sulphuret of Potassa. " Take of Sulphur an ounce; Carbonate of Potassa two ounces. Rub the Carbonate of Potassa, previously dried, with the Sulphur; melt the mixture in a covered crucible over the fire ; then pour it out, and when it is cold put it into a bottle, which is to be well stopped." U. S. " Take of Sulphur an ounce ; Carbonate of Potassa/bwr ounces. Rub them together, and place the mixture over the fire in- a covered crucible, until they unite." Lond. The Edinburgh and Dublin processes are essentially the same as that of the London College. When carbonate of potassa is melted with half its weight of sulphur, as in the U. S. process, the carbonic acid is expelled. Four eqs. of potassa and ten of sulphur may be supposed to react on each other. Three eqs. of potassa are decomposed into three eqs. of potassium and three of oxygen. The three eqs. of potassium unite with nine eqs. of sulphur to form three eqs. of tersulphuret of potassium. The three eqs. of oxygen, by uniting with the remaining eq. of sulphur, form sulphuric acid, which combines with the undecomposed eq. of potassa to form sulphate of potassa. Thus the U. S. preparation may be considered to be a mixture of tersulphuret of potassium with sulphate of potassa ; and the French Codex sulphuret, made from the same proportion of carbonate and sulphur, is stated in that work to have the same composition. It may be presumed that the product of the processes of the British Pharmacopoeias has the same constituents,plus a cer- tain proportion of undecomposed carbonate of potassa, on account of the large excess of alkali taken. In performing the process, the mass, after it has become completely fused, should be poured out on a marble slab, and, as soon as it concretes, should be broken into pieces, and immediately trans- ferred to a well-stopped bottle. The different Pharmacopoeias use the carbonate of potassa from pearlash ; but this is considered by some as not sufficiently pure. In the process of M. Henry, which is stated to be the best that has yet been devised, the pure carbonate of potassa is employed. His formula is as follows : Mix two parts of real salt of tartar with one of roll sulphur reduced to powder, and put the mixture into flat-bottomed matrasses, which should be only two-thirds filled by it. These are placed on a sand-bath, at equal distances, and the fire is applied, so as, at first, to produce only a gentle heat, which is afterwards increased. Care must be taken that the necks of the ma- trasses do not become obstructed. The heat is continued until the matter is brought to the state of tranquil fusion, when it is allowed to cool. The mass obtained, which is compact, smooth, and of a fine yellow colour, is broken into pieces, and preserved in well-stopped bottles. Properties, eye. Sulphuret of potassium, when properly prepared, is a hard brittle substance, having a nauseous, alkaline, and bitter taste. Its colour is liver-brown, and hence its former name of hepar sulphuris ox liver of sulphur. The colour of the surface of a fresh fracture is brownish-yellow. It is inodorous when dry, but emits a slightly fetid smell when moist, owing to the extrication of a small portion of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. It is completely soluble in water, forming a liquid of an orange-yellow colour, and exhaling the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. By exposure to the air it attracts oxygen, and the sulphuret of potassium is gradually converted into 94 1106 Potassa. part ii. sulphate of potassa, when the preparation«becomes inodorous, and white on the surface. The solution is decomposed by the mineral acids, which extricate sulphuretted hydrogen, and precipitate the excess of sulphur in the state of hydrate. It is also incompatible with solutions of most of the metals,, which are precipitated as sulphurets. B. Medical Properties and Uses. Sulphuret of potassium is a local irritant, and, in small and repeated doses, is said to increase the frequency of the pulse, the heat of skin, and the different secretions, especially the mucous. Occasionally it vomits and purges. It acts, moreover, as an antacid, and pro- duces the alterative effects of sulphur. By some it is maintained to be se- dative, and directly to reduce the action of the heart. It probably does so, when taken in considerable quantities, by the developement of sulphuretted hydrogen. In over doses, it acts, according to Orfila, as a violent poison, corroding the stomach, and depressing the powers of the nervous system. The complaints in which it has been most advantageously employed are chro- nic rheumatism and gout, and various cutaneous affections. It has been given also in painters' colic, asthma, and chronic catarrh, and acquired a short-lived reputation as a remedy in croup, after the publication of the essay to which the prize offered by Napoleon for the best dissertation on that disease was awarded. It is said, in some cases of cancer, to have as- sisted the palliative operation of hemlock. In consequence of forming inso- luble sulphurets with the metallic salts, it has been proposed as an antidote for some of the mineral poisons; but Orfila has proved that it does not pre- vent their effects. Dissolved in water it has proved very efficacious as an ex- ternal application in cutaneous diseases, and in scabies is an almost certain remedy. It may be used for this purpose in the form of lotion, bath, or ointment. For a lotion it may be dissolved in water in the proportion of from fifteen to thirty grains to the fluidounce, and for a bath, the same quan- tity or rather more may be added to a gallon of water. A very small pro- portion of muriatic or sulphuricacid may in either case be added to the solution. The ointment is made by mixing half a drachm of the sulphuret with an ounce of lard. The dose of sulphuret of potassium is from two to ten grains, repeated several times a day, and given in pill with liquorice, or in solution with syrup. In infantile cases of croup, from one to four grains were given every three or four hours. W. POTASSA SULPHURETI AQUA. Dub. Water of Sulphuret of Potassa. "Take of Washed Sulphur one part; Water of Caustic Potassa eleven parts. Boil for ten minutes, and filter through paper. Keep the liquor in well stopped bottles. The specific gravity of this solutionis 1*117." Dub. When sulphur is boiled with a solution of caustic potassa, sulphuret of potassium and hyposulphite of potassa are formed in solution. Accordingly, this preparation is not a solution of sulphuret of potassa, as it is called by the Dublin College ; neither is it identical with an aqueous solution of the preceding preparation. Properties, Q-c. This liquid has an unctuous feel and a deep orange colour. It is decomposed by acids, which cause an effervescence of hydro- sulphuric acid, and a milky appearance from the precipitation of sulphur. Upon exposure to the air it is gradually converted into a solution of the sul- phate of potassa. It is similar in medical properties to the last preparation, and is used internally and externally for the most part in cutaneous eruptions. The dose is' from ten minims to a fluidrachm, diluted with water, and given two or three times a day. When used as a bath it imparts an orange colour to the skin. B. PART II. Pulpa. 1107 PULP^. Pulps. The following general directions are given in the Pharmacopoeias in rela- tion to the extraction of pulps. " Fruits of which the pulps are to be extracted, if unripe, or ripe and dry, are'to be boiled in a little water until they become soft. Then the pulps, expressed through a hair sieve, are to be slowly evaporated to a proper con- sistence." Dub. " Set pulpy fruits, if unripe, or ripe and dry, in a moist place to soften; then express the pulps through a hair sieve ; afterwards boil them with a gentle fire, frequently stirring; lastly, evaporate the water by means of a water-bath, until the pulps become of a proper consistence. Of fruits which are ripe and fresh, express the pulp or juice through a sieve, without boiling." Lond. There are very few fruits the pulps of which are now employed in phar- macy. For these few the directions of the Dublin College are preferable to those of the London, which are, indeed, impracticable; as dried fruits often do not become sufficiently moist, by mere exposure in a damp place, to admit of the subsequent treatment ordered, and, besides, would almost always become mouldy. W. CASSIA FISTULA PULPA. U.S. Cassia. Lond. Cassias Pulpa. Ed. Cassia Fistula. Dub. Pulp of Purging Cassia. " Take of Purging Cassia, bruised, a convenient quantity. Pour boiling water on the bruised pods so that the pulp may be softened; then strain, first through a coarse sieve, and afterwards through a hair one, and evaporate by means of a water-bath to the proper consistence." U. S. "Pour boiling Water upon bruised Cassia Pods,so that the pulp maybe washed out, and press this first through a coarse sieve, and afterwards through a hair sieve ; then evaporate by means of a water-bath until the pulp acquires a proper consistence." Lond. Cassia pulp has a blackish colour, a slight rather sickly odour, and a sweet mucilaginous taste. It is apt to become sour by exposure. For its composition and effects, see Cassia Fistula. Off. Prep. Confectio Cassias, Lond.; Confectio Sennas, U.S., Lond. W. PRUNI PULPA. U. S. Pulp of Prunes. " Take of Prunes a convenient quantity. Soften the Prunes in the va- pour of boiling water, and, having separated the stones, beat the remainder in a marble mortar, and press it through a hair sieve." U. S. The prunes may be softened, as above directed, by placing them on a per- forated plate or diaphragm, or a wire sieve, or suspending them in a net, over boiling water. Off. Prep. Confectio Sennas, U. S. W. TAMARINDI PULPA. U. S. Tamarindus. Lond., Ed. Tama- rindus Indica. Dub. Pulp of Tamarinds. "Take of Tamarinds a convenient quantity. Digest them with a small quantity of water until they become of a uniform consistence; then separate the seeds and filaments by pressing through a hair sieve." U. S. They should be digested in an unglazed earthenware vessel over hot ashes, or by means of a sand-bath. Off. Prep. Confectio Cassias, Lond.; Confectio Sennas, U. S., Lond. M * W. 1108 Pulveres. PART II. PULVERES. Powders. The form of powder is convenient for the exhibition of substances which are not given in very large doses, are not very disagreeable to the taste, have no corrosive property, and do not deliquesce rapidly on exposure. As the effect of pulverization is to expose a more extended surface to the action of the air, care should be taken to keep substances which are liable to be injured by such exposure in closely stopped bottles. In many instances it is also important to exclude the light, which exercises a very deleterious influence over numerous medicinal agents when minutely divided. In relation to substances most liable to injury from these causes, the best plan is to powder them in small quantities as they are wanted for use. Powders may be divided into the simple, consisting of a single substance, and the compound, of two or more mixed together. The latter only are embraced under the present head. In the preparation of the compound pow- ders, the ingredients, if of different degrees of cohesion or solidity, should be pulverized separately and then united. An exception, however, to this rule, is the employment of one substance to facilitate by its hardness the minute division of another, as in the powder of ipecacuanha and opium. Deliquescent substances, and those containing fixed oil in large proportion, should not enter into the composition of powders; the former, because they render the preparation damp and liable to spoil; the latter,because they are apt to become rancid, and impart an unpleasant odour and taste. The lighter powders may in general be administered suspended in water or other thin liquid; the heavier, such as those of metallic substances, re- quire a more consistent vehicle, as syrup, molasses, honey, or some of the confections. Resinous powders, if given in water, require the intervention of mucilage or sugar. The Dublin College gives the following general directions for the prepara- tion of powders: "The substances to be powdered, having been previously dried,are to be beaten in an iron mortar. The powder is then to be separated, by sifting it through a hair sieve, and is to be kept in close vessels." These directions, are not sufficiently explicit. The whole substance in the mortar should not be beaten till completely pulverized; as the portion already pow- dered interferes with the action of the pestle upon the remainder, while the finer matter is apt to be dissipated; so that there is a loss both of time and ma- terial. The proper plan is to sift off the fine powder after a short trituration, then to return the coarser parts to the mortar, and to repeat several times this alternate pulverization and sifting, until the process is completed. W. PULVIS ALOES COMPOSITUS. Lond., Dub. Compound Pow- der of Aloes. "Take of Aloes an ounce and a half; Guaiacum Resin an ounce; Com- pound Powder of Cinnamon half an ounce. Rub the Aloes and the Guai- acum Resin, separately, into powder; then mix them with the Compound Powder of Cinnamon." Lond. The Dublin College gives the same directions, particularizing the hepatic aloes, and substituting their own aromatic powder for the compound powder of'cinnamon of the London College. The tendency of pulverized guaiac to concrete, and the excessively bitter taste of aloes, which is but imperfectly concealed by the aromatic addition, render the form of powder ineligible for the exhibition of these medicines. PART II. Pulveres. 1109 The preparation is a warm stimulant cathartic, but is little used. The dose is from fifteen to thirty grains. W. PULVIS ALOES ET CANELLA. U.S. Pulvis Aloes cum Canella. Dub. Powder of Aloes and Canella. Hiera Picra. " Take of Aloes [hepatic, Dub.] a pound; Canella three ounces. Rub them separately into a very fine powder, [into powder, Dub.] and mix them." U. S., Dub. This preparation has long been known under the name of hiera picra. The canella serves to correct the griping property, and imperfectly to cover the taste of the aloes; but the bitterness of the latter is still very obvious in the mixture, which would be better given in the form of pill. It is a popular remedy in amenorrhoea, and may be used for all the purposes to which aloes is applied. It is sometimes administered in domestic practice, infused in wine or spirit. The dose is from ten to twenty grains. W. PULVIS ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS. Ed. Compound Powder of Alum. " Take of Alum four ounces ; Kino one ounce. Mix them and reduce them to fine powder." Ed. A solution of alum is decomposed by a solution of kino, and it is probable that the same effect takes place when the two substances, mixed in the state of powder, are introduced into the stomach; but whether their astringency is materially affected by the change is uncertain. The preparation maybe employed in diarrhasa, menorrhagia, and hemorrhage from the stomach or bowels, and externally to suppress hemorrhage, or as an astringent applica- tion to flabby ulcers. The dose is from five to twenty grains. W. PULVIS AROMATICUS. U.S., Ed., Dub. Pulvis Cinnamomi Compositus. Lond. Aromatic Powder. " Take of Cinnamon, Ginger, each, two ounces ; Cardamom deprived of the capsules, Nutmeg, grated, each, an ounce. Rub them together into a very fine powder." U. S. The London College directs two ounces of cinnamon, an ounce and a half of cardamom, an ounce of ginger, and half an ounce of long pepper; the Edinburgh, equal parts of cinnamon, cardamom, and ginger; the Dub- lin, two ounces of cinnamon, an ounce of cardamom seeds freed from their capsules, an ounce of ginger, and a drachm of long pepper. The cardamom seeds should always be separated from their capsules be- fore pulverization ; and the powder, when prepared, should be kept in well- stopped bottles. The London and Dublin preparations are more pungent than those of the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, in consequence of the long pepper which they contain. These powders are stimulant and carminative, and may be given in the dose of from ten to thirty grains, in cases of enfeebled digestion accompanied with flatulence; but they are chiefly used as corrigents and adjuvants of other medicines. Off. Prep. Confectio Aromatica, U. S., Ed.; Confectio Opii, U. S„ Ed; Pilulas Aloes et Ferri, Ed.; Pilulae Cambogias, Ed.; Pulvis Aloes Comp., Lond., Dub. W. PULVIS ASARI COMPOSITUS. Dub. Compound Powder of Asarabacca. " Take of dried Leaves of Asarabacca an ounce; dried Lavender Flowers a drachm. Rub them together to powder." Dub. This is an agreeable and efficacious errhine, useful in some cases of ob- stinate headache, toothache, and chronic ophthalmia. Five or six grains 94* 1110 Pulveres. part ii. snuffed up the nostrils at bedtime, excite sneezing and a copious discharge of mucus, which continues to flow on the following day. W. PULVIS CRETA COMPOSITUS. Lond., Ed., Dub. Compound Powder of Chalk. " Take of Prepared Chalk half a pound ; Cinnamon four ounces; Tor- mentil, Gum Arabic, each, three ounces; Long Pepper half an ounce. Rub them separately into very fine powder, and then mix them," Lond., Dub. " Take of Prepared Chalk four ounces; Cinnamon, in fine powder, one drachm and a half; Nutmeg, in fine powder, a drachm. Triturate them well together." Ed. In the Edinburgh preparation, the aromatics are in too small a quantity to serve any other purpose than to give an agreeable flavour to the chalk, which is the only active ingredient. The powder of the London and Dub- lin Colleges is, on the contrary, warm, stimulant, and astringent, as well as antacid; and is well calculated for diarrhoea, connected with acidity and without inflammatory symptoms. In such a combination, however, the proper proportion, and even the choice of the ingredients, vary so much with the symptoms of the case, that they might with propriety be left to extemporaneous prescription. The dose is from ten to twenty grains, given in mucilage or sweetened water, and frequently repeated. Off. Prep. Pulvis Cretae Comp. cum Opio, Lond., Ed., Dub. W. PULVIS CRETA COMPOSITUS CUM OPIO. Lond., Dub. Pulvis Creta: Opiatus. Ed. Compound Powder of Chalk with Opium. " Take of Compound Powder of Chalk six ounces and a half; hard Opium, in powdex, four scruples. Mix them." Lond., Dub. " Take of Compound Chalk Powder six ounces; Powder of Opium four scruples. Triturate them together thoroughly." Ed. The addition of the opium greatly increases the efficacy of the compound powder of chalk in diarrhoea; and its equal diffusion through the powder presents this advantage, that it may be conveniently given in minute doses applicable to infantile cases. Two scruples of the London or Dublin powr der, and thirty-seven grains of the Edinburgh, contain a grain of opium. In the diarrhoea of adults from ten to twenty grains may be given for a dose, and repeated several times a day, or after each evacuation. W. PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES. Ed. Effervescing Powders. " Take of Tartaric Acid one ounce; Bicarbonate of Soda one ounce and 54 grains, or Bicarbonate of Potassa one ounce and 160 grains. Reduce the Acid and either Bicarbonate separately to fine powder, and divide each into sixteen powders. Preserve the acid and alkaline powders in separate papers of different colours." Ed. This is a formula, introduced into the last edition of the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia, for a preparation which has been long in use under the name of Soda powders. The common soda powders contain the ingredients in some- what different proportions'; consisting of twenty-five grains of the acid in one paper, and thirty of the bicarbonate in the other. They are always prepared with the bicarbonate of soda; while the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia allows a choice between that and the bicarbonate of potassa. This want of precision is highly objectionable in officinal formulas. If it was thought ad- visable that the practitioner should have the opportunity of prescribing either of these preparations at his option, they should have had different names. The powders are administered in solution. An acid and an alkaline powder may be dissolved in separate portions of water and then mixed; or PART II. Pulveres. 1111 they may be thrown together, or successively into the same portion of water. The whole draught should be half a pint or somewhat less. It may be rendered more agreeable by adding two or three fluidrachms of syrup of ginger or orange peel to the water before dissolving the powders. The rationale is simple. The tartaric acid seizes the alkali of the bicar- bonate, forming a tartrate of soda or of potassa as the case' may be, while the carbonic acid escapes with effervescence. The effervescing powders are refrigerant and very slightly laxative; and afford an agreeable and refreshing drink, suitable to febrile complaints. W. PULVIS IPECACUANHA ET OPII. U. S. Pulvis Ipecacuanha: Compositus. Lond., Ed., Dub. Powder of Ipecacuanha and Opium. Dover's Powder. "Take of Ipecacuanha, in powder, Opium, in powder, each, a drachm; Sulphate of Potassa an ounce. Rub them together into a very fine pow- der." U. S. All the British Colleges employ the same ingredients as above, and in the same proportions. The London College having ordered them in the state of powder, simply directs them to be mixed together. The Edin- burgh College orders eight times the amount of the materials, and directs them to be triturated thoroughly together. The Dublin College first rubs the opium and sulphate of potassa together into powder, and then mixes the pulverized ipecacuanha with them. The sulphate of potassa in this preparation serves, by the hardness of its particles, to promote that minute division and consequent thorough intermix- ture of the opium and ipecacuanha, upon which the peculiar virtues of the compound depend. It also serves to dilute the active ingredients, and thus allow of their division into minute doses adapted to the complaints of chil- dren. This composition, though usually called Dover's powder, does not precisely correspond with that originally recommended by Dr. Dover, which was prepared as follows. Four ounces of nitrate of potassa and the same quantity of sulphate of potassa were mixed together in a red-hot crucible, and afterwards very finely powdered; one ounce of opium, sliced, was then added, and ground to powder with the saline mixture; lastly, an ounce of ipecacuanha and an ounce of liquorice root, in powder, were mixed with the other ingredients. This process was adopted in the former French Codex, and has been retained with very slight change in the present. This powder is anf admirable anodyne diaphoretic, not surpassed, per- haps, by any other combination in its power of promoting the cutaneous secretion. Opium itself has a strong" tendency to the skin, evinced both by the occasional diaphoresis, and by the itching and tingling sensation which it excites. While the vessels of the skin are stimulated by this in- gredient, the secreting orifices are relaxed by the ipecacuanha, and the com- bined effect is much greater than that which results from either separately. At the same time the general stimulating influence of the opium, and its tendency to operate injuriously on the brain, are counteracted; so that the mixture may be given with safety in cases which might not admit of the use of opium alone. The preparation is applicable to all cases not attended with much fever, or cerebral disease, or sick stomach, in which there is an indication for profuse diaphoresis, especially in painful affections, or those connected with unhealthy discharges. It is admirably adapted to the phleg- masia?, particularly rheumatism and pneumonia, when complicated with a typhoid tendency,or after sufficient depletion. Under similar circumstances, it is useful in dysentery, diarrhoea, and the various hemorrhages, espe- cially that from the uterus. It is sometimes also given in dropsy. In bowel 1112 Pulveres. part ii. affections, and whenever the hepatic secretion is deranged, it is frequently combined with small doses of calomel. Ten grains of the powder contain one grain of opium. The dose is from five to fifteen grains, given diffused in water, or mixed with syrup, or in the form of bolus, and repeated at intervals of four, six, or eight hours, when it is desirable to maintain a continued diaphoresis. Its action may be materially promoted by warm drinks, such as lemonade, or balm tea, which, however, should not be given immediately after the powder, as they might provoke vomiting. Off. Prep. Pilulae Ipecacuanhas Compositae, Lond.; Pilulae Ipecacuanhas et Opii, Ed. W. PULVIS JALAPA COMPOSITUS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Com- pound Powder of Jalap. "Take of Jalap, in powder, an ounce; Bitartrate of Potassa, in powder, two ounces. Mix them." U. S. The London College takes three ounces of jalap, six ounces of bitartrate of potassa, and two drachms of ginger. The Edinburgh and Dublin Col- leges take the same ingredients in the same proportion as the U. S. Phar- macopoeia, and direct them to be rubbed together to a very fine powder. The bitartrate, by being rubbed with the jalap, is thought to favour its more minute division, while it increases its hydragogue effect. A combi- nation of these two ingredients, though with a larger proportion of cream of tartar (see Jalapa), is much used in this country as a cathartic in dropsy and scrofulous affections of the joints and glands. The dose of the offi- cinal powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. W. PULVIS KINO COMPOSITUS. Lond., Dub. Compound Powder of Kino. "Take of Kino fifteen drachms; Cinnamon half an ounce; hard Opium a drachm. Rub them separately to a very fine powder, and then mix them." Lond., Dub. This is an anodyne astringent powder, useful in some forms of diarrhoea, but of which the composition would be better left to extemporaneous pre- scription, as the proportion of the ingredients should vary with the circum- stances of the case. Twenty grains contain one grain of opium. The dose is from five grains to a scruple. W. PULVIS PRO CATAPLASxMATE. Dub. Powder for a Cataplasm. "Take of Flaxseed which remains after the expression of the oil one part; Oatmeal two parts. Mix them." Dub. This is a good material for the formation of poultices, but hardly deserves a place among the officinal preparations. The unpressed flaxseed meal is preferable to that which has been pressed, as the oil which it contains causes it to retain longer a soft consistence. W. PULVIS RHEI COMPOSITUS. Ed. Compound Powder of Rhubarb. " Take of Magnesia one pound; Ginger, in fine powder, two ounces; Rhubarb, in fine powder,/owr ounces. Mix them thoroughly, and preserve the powder in well closed bottles." Ed. This is a very good antacid laxative combination, well adapted to bowel complaints, especially in children. The dose for an adult is from half a drachm to a drachm ; for a child two or three years old, from five to ten grains. W. PART II. Pulveres.— Quinia. 1113 PULVIS SALINUS COMPOSITUS. Ed., Dub. Compound Saline Powder. "Take of Pure Muriate of Soda, Sulphate of Magnesia, each, four ounces; Sulphate of Potassa three ounces. Dry the salts separately with a gentle heat, and pulverize each, then triturate them well together, and preserve the mixture in well closed vessels." Ed. The Dublin process is essentially the same as the above. This is an aperient powder, and may be given with advantage in costive habits, in the dose of two or three drachms, dissolved in half a pint of water or carbonic acid water, before breakfast. W. PULVIS SCAMMONII COMPOSITUS. Lond., Ed., Dub. Com- pound Powder of Scammony. " Take of Scammony, hard Extract of Jalap, each, two ounces ; Ginger half an ounce. Rub them separately to a very fine powder; and then mix them." Jyond., Dub. "Take of Scammony, and Bitartrate of Potash, equal parts. Triturate them together to a very fine powder." Ed. It should be observed, that the compound of the Edinburgh College is essentially different from that of the London and Dublin Colleges; but we do not think that either of them is an eligible preparation. The cream of tartar in the former can serve little other purpose than to assist in the pul- verization of the scammony, which does not require any peculiar care in this respect. In the latter, though the ginger may tend to correct the griping property of the purgative ingredients, the extract of jalap too closely resembles the scammony in its mode of operation to exert any important modifying influence upon it. The dose of the London powder is from ten to twenty grains, of that directed by the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, from fifteen to thirty grains. W. PULVIS TRAGACANTHA COMPOSITUS. Lond., Ed. Com- pound Powder of Tragacanth. "Take of Tragacanth, in powder, Gum Arabic, in powder, Starch, each, an ounce and a half; Sugar [refined] three ounces. Rub the Starch and Sugar together to powder, then add the Tragacanth and Gum Arabic, and mix them all." Lond. The Edinburgh process corresponds with the above. This is applicable to the general purposes of the demulcents; but is chiefly employed in Great Britain as a vehicle for heavy insoluble powders. The dose is from thirty grains to a drachm. W. QUINIA. Preparations of Quinia. QUINIA SULPHAS. U. S. Quina: Disulphas. Lond. Quina: Sulphas. Ed. Quininas Sulphas. Dub. Sulphate of Quinia. "Take of Yellow Bark, in coarse powder, four pounds; Muriatic Acid three fluidounces; Lime, in powder, five ounces; Water five gallons; Sul- phuric Acid, Alcohol, Animal Charcoal, each, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Bark in one-third of the Water mixed with one-third of the Muriatic Acid, and strain through linen. Boil the residue twice successively with the same quantity of Water and Acid as before, and strain. Mix the decoctions, and, while the liquor is hot, gradually add the Lime, previously mixed with two'pints of water, stirring constantly until the quinia is completely preci- pitated. Wash the precipitate with distilled water, and, having pressed and 1114 Quinia. PART II. dried it, digest it in boiling Alcohol. Pour off the liquor and repeat the digestion several times, until the Alcohol is no longer rendered bitter. Mix the liquors, and distil off the Alcohol, until a brown viscid mass remains. Upon this substance, removed from the vessel, pour about half a gallon of Distilled Water, and, having heated the mixture to the boiling point, add as much Sulphuric Acid as may be necessary to dissolve the impure alkali. Then add an ounce and a half of Animal Charcoal, boil for two minutes, filter the liquor while hot, and set it aside to crystallize. Should the liquor, before filtration, be entirely neutral, acidulate it very slightly with Sulphuric Acid; should it, on the contrary, change the colour of litmus paper to a bright red, add more Animal Charcoal. Separate the crystals from the liquor, dissolve them in boiling water slightly acidulated with Sulphuric Acid, add a little Animal Charcoal, filter, and set aside to crystallize. Wrap the crystals in bibulous paper, and dry them with a gentle heat. The mother-waters may be made to yield an additional quantity of Sulphate of Gluinia by precipitating the Gluinia with Solution of Ammonia, and treating the precipitated alkali with Water, Sulphuric Acid, and Animal Charcoal, as before." U.S. The London College exhausts yellow bark by water acidulated with sul- phuric acid, throws down the acid by hydrated oxide of lead, washes the precipitate with distilled water, boils down the liquors to a fourth part, filters, adds water of ammonia in order to decompose the kinate of quinia, washes the precipitated quinia till the water ceases to be rendered alkaline, saturates the residue with diluted sulphuric acid, digests with animal charcoal, filters, and finally, having thoroughly washed the charcoal, cautiously evaporates the liquor so that it may crystallize. This process, however, has not been found to answer well in practice. It may not be irrelevant to mention here that the London College, though it thus gives a process for the preparation of sulphate of quinia, places the alkali itself, under the name of Quina, in its catalogue of the Materia Medica. " Take of Yellow Bark, in coarse powder, one pound; Carbonate of Soda eight ounces; Sulphuric Acid half a fluidounce; Purified Animal Charcoal two drachms. Boil the bark for an hour in four pints [Imperial measure] of water, in which half the carbonate of soda has been dissolved; strain and express strongly through linen or calico; moisten the residuum with water and express again; and repeat this twice. Boil the residuum for half an hour with four pints of water and half the Sulphuric Acid; strain, express strongly, moisten with water, and express again. Boil the residuum with three pints of water and a fourth part of the Acid; strain and squeeze as before. Boil again the residuum with the same quantity of water and Acid, strain and squeeze as formerly. Concentrate the whole acid liquids to about a pint; let the product cool; filter it, and dissolve in it the remainder of the Carbonate of Soda. Collect the impure quinia on a cloth, wash it slightly, and squeeze out the liquor with the hand. Break down the moist precipitate in a pint of dis- tilled water, add one fluidscruple of Sulphuric Acid, heat it to 212°, and stir occasionally. Should any precipitate retain its gray colour, and the liquid be neutral, add Sulphuric Acid drop by drop, stirring constantly, till the gray colour disappears. Should the liquid redden litmus, neutralize it with a little carbonate of soda. Should crystals form on the surface, add boiling distilled water to dissolve them. Filter through paper, preserving the funnel hot; set the liquid aside to crystallize; collect and squeeze the crystals; dissolve them in a pint of distilled water heated to 212°; digest the solution for fifteen minutes with the Animal Charcoal; filter and crystallize as before. Dry the crystals with a heat not exceeding 140°. The mother liquors of each crystallization will yield a little more salt by concentration and cooling." Ed. The Imperial measure is employed in the above process. part ii. Quinia. 1115 The Dublin College exhausts the bark by digestion with water acidulated with sulphuric acid,adds to the liquorsufficientlime to saturate the acid,dries the precipitate on blotting paper, digests it with rectified spirit, filters, distils to dryness, adds diluted sulphuric acid to the residuum in slight excess, and finally crystallizes by concentration and cooling. The present U. S. process, which is essentially that of the French Codex, differs from the one given in the Pharmacopoeia of 1830, in the use of muri- atic instead of sulphuric acid for acidulating the water first employed, and in the greater minuteness of the details. Both this and the French Codex process, as well as that of the Dublin College, are modifications of the plan originally-proposed by M. Henry, jun., of Paris, for which he received a prize from the French Academy of Sciences, and which has been almost universally employed where alcohol is not too expensive. Henry's process, with all its details, may be found in previous editions of this work. An expla- nation of the several directions given in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia will be useful to the student, by enabling him to comprehend each step of the process. The yellow bark (Calisaya, or royal yellow) is the variety selected,because this contains quinia in the largest proportion, and most free from admixture with cinchonia. The alkali exists in the bark combined with kinic acid, and probably also with one or more of the colouring principles, as suggested by M. Henry. As in this latter state it is of difficult solubility, if it be not insoluble in water, the whole of the quinia cannot be extracted from the bark by means of that liquid alone. Berzelius, however, attributes the difficulty of exhausting the bark to the circumstance, that water converts the native neutral kinates into soluble superkinates which are dissolved, and insoluble subkinates which remain. By adding muriatic or sulphuric acid to the water in such quantities as to be in excess in relation to the quinia, the whole of the alkali combines with the acid to form a very soluble muri- ate or sulphate, in which state it exists, together with various impurities, in the decoctions procured by the first steps of the process. By the addition of lime to the filtered and mixed decoctions, the salt of quinia is decom- posed, giving up its acid to the lime, while the quinia is liberated, and, being insoluble in water, is precipitated—the water retaining most of the impuri- ties. If sulphuric acid was employed in the commencement of the pro- cess, sulphate of lime is deposited along with the quinia; but if muriatic acid was employed, the resulting chloride of calcium is retained in solution ; and a reason is thus afforded for the preference of the latter acid. But, in either case, the excess of lime, and a compound formed of the lime and colour- ing matter, which is insoluble both in water and alcohol, are thrown down with the alkali. The precipitate having been washed in order to remove from it everything soluble in water, the next step is to separate the quinia from the insoluble impurities. This is accomplished by the agency of alcohol, which dissolves the former, and leaves most of the latter behind. The whole of the alkali having been abstracted, the alcoholic solution of quinia is then concen- trated so as to afford a brown viscid mass, which is impure quinia. Portions of this may be reserved, if thought advisable, for the preparation of other salts of quinia. The mass is treated with boiling distilled water acidulated with sulphuric acid, which forms a disulphate (the officinal sulphate) with the quinia, and, being somewhat in excess, enables the salt to be readily dis- solved. The animal charcoal now added should be the unpurified bone- black, the carbonate of lime contained in which neutralizes a portion of the sulphuric acid, and thus facilitates the crystallization of the sulphate of qui- nia when the solution cools. Should the quantity of the bone-black added be sufficient to render the solution quite neutral, so as in no degree to affect 1116 Quinia. PART II. litmus paper, as much sulphuric acid should be added as will give the paper a slightly vinous tint; for otherwise the crystallization may com- mence before the liquor is completely filtered. If, on the contrary, the bone-black has been deficient, and the solution colours litmus paper cherry- red, more of that substance is to be added. This, however, is merely an incidental advantage of the animal charcoal; its chief use being to decolor- ize the liquid. The second crystallization is necessary to obtain the salt of qujinia free from colour; and sometimes, it cannot be rendered perfectly white without a third. It is essential that the heat employed in drying the crystals "should be gentle, in order to prevent their efflorescence. The small quantity of cinchonia contained in Calisaya bark is extracted in this pro- cess along with the quinia; but, as the sulphate of the former alkali is more soluble than that of the latter, it remains in the mother liquors. According to M. Calvert, the proportion of sulphate of quinia obtained from bark is never certain when muriatic acid is employed as the solvent, and lime as the precipitant; for quinia is dissolved by a solution of chloride of calcium, and by lime-water ; and a portion, therefore, remains in the liquid unprecipitated, which is greater when the lime employed is in excess. Hav- ing ascertained by experiment that quinia is not dissolved by a solution of soda, and in scarcely appreciable proportion by chloride of sodium, he pro- poses to substitute this alkali for the lime; first neutralizing the excess of acid by the carbonate, and then precipitating the quinia by caustic soda. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser., ii. 388.) The Edinburgh process was contrived so as to avoid the use of alcohol, which is so costly in Great Britain as materially to affect the economy of the operation. The object of the first boiling with water and carbonate of soda, is to get rid of the colouring principles, resin, and kinic acid, while the quinia is left behind. The residuum is next exhausted by means of water acidulated with sulphuric acid, which affords an impure solution of sulphate of quinia. This, after being sufficiently concentrated, is decomposed by car- bonate of soda, which seizes the acid and precipitates the quinia with some colouring matter. The remaining steps of the operation are similar to those of the U. S. process, except that animal charcoal is employed only previous to the last crystallization; and the advantage incidentally obtained from it, of neutralizing the acid when in excess, is gained in the Edinburgh pro- cess by the use of carbonate of soda. Both Pereira and Christison speak favourably of this process. According to the French Codex, 1000 parts of yellow bark ought to yield from 29 to 30 parts of sulphate of quinia, when treated by the process first described. But this amount is not often reached. The late Mr. John Farr, of Philadelphia, who was largely concerned in the manufacture of sulphate of quinia, informed us that the Calisaya bark employed by him yielded an average product of about two per cent, of the salt. Sulphate of quinia may be obtained from any of the varieties of Peruvian bark by the above processes; but should any other than the Calisaya bark be employed, a large proportion of sulphate of cinchonia will result, and, being much more soluble than the sulphate of quinia, will remain dissolved in the residuary liquor after the crystallization of the latter. To obtain the cinchonia separate, the following method, originally suggested by Pelletier and Caventou, may be employed. Magnesia, lime, or a solution of potassa is added to the mother waters in excess. The cinchonia is precipitated together with a portion of quinia which has remained in the solution, and with the excess of magnesia or lime, if one of these earths has been eim* ployed. The precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with hot water, PART II. Quinia. 1117 then dried, and treated with boiling alcohol, which dissolves the vegetable alkalies. The alcoholic solution is filtered while hot, and the residue after- wards treated in the same manner with successive portions of alcohol, till quite exhausted. The solutions having been mixed, are concentrated by the distillation of the alcohol, and allowed to cool, when they deposit cin- ch°n'a m tne crystalline state. Successive evaporations and refrigerations afford new crops of crystals, and the process should be continued till no more can be obtained. The cinchonia thus procured, if impure, should be reconverted .into a sulphate and treated as before, animal charcoal being employed to free it from colour. The quinia remaining in the "mother liquors, as it will not crystallize, may be obtained by evaporation to dry- ness, or may be converted into the crystallizable sulphate by the addition of sulphuric acid. To obtain the sulphate of cinchonia, mix the alkali with a small quantity Of water, heat the mixture, and add gradually dilute sulphuric acid sufficient to saturate it; then boil with animal charcoal pre- viously washed with muriatic acid, and filter the liquor while hot. Upon cooling it will deposit crystals of the sulphate, and, by repeated evaporation and crystallization, will yield all the salt which it holds in solution.* Properties. Sulphate of quinia is in fine silky, slightly flexible, needle- shaped crystals, interlaced among each other, or grouped in small star-like tufts. Its taste is intensely bitter, resembling that of the yellow bark. It effloresces slightly on exposure to the air, and, at a moderate heat, loses its crystalline form in consequence of the escape of its water of crystallization. At the temperature of 212° it becomes luminous, especially when rubbed. At about 240° it melts, assuming the appearance of wax. It is very slightly soluble in cold water, requiring, according to M. Baup, 740 parts at 54° F. for solution, while at the boiling point it is dissolved in thirty parts of water, * Quinoidine or Amorphous Quinia. Upon the evaporation of the mother liquor left after the crystallization of Sulphate of quinia in the preparation of that salt, a dark coloured substance is obtained, having the appearance of an extract. This was habitually em- ployed by the, late Dr. Emlen and one of the authors of this work, so early as about the year 1824, in the cure of intermittent fever, in which it proved equally effectual with the pure sulphate, though only about half as strong. It was adopted in the edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia for 1830, under the name of "impure sulphate of quinia," but was abandoned in the edition of 1840, on account of the difficulty of ascertaining its purity. Serturner supposed that he had discovered a new alkaline principle in this product; but his conclusions were invalidated by the experiments of MM. Henry and Delondre, which went to prove that the alkaline matter contained in it consisted of quinia and cinchonia, obscured by admixture with a yellowish substance that interfered with their crystalliza- tion. Nevertheless, under the name of quinoidine, or chinoidine, given to the supposed new alkali by Serturner, there is employed in Europe a substance precipitated from the mother liquor of sulphate of quinia by means of an alkaline carbonate, having a yel- lowish-white or brownish colour, and, when moderately heated, agglutinating into a mass of a resinous appearance. This substance has recently been examined by Liebig, and found to contain an uncrystallizable alkaline principle, having the same composition as quinia, and differing from that alkali only in the want of the property of crystallization, and in forming uncrystallizable salts with the acids. He supposes it to bear the same relation to ordinary quinia that uncrystallizable sugar bears to the crystallizable. This substance has been found equally effectual with quinia in the cure of intermittents. In an economical point of view, it is highly important that it should be employed. There can be little doubt that it enters into some of the extracts of bark, which have been put forth as peculiarly valuable preparations for the cure of intermittents. It must not be confounded with the substance obtained by evaporating the mother liquors, which is of uncertain composition and strength. The chief objection to it is its liability to adultera- tion. The amorphous quinia, as Liebig calls it, is entirely soluble in dilute sulphuric acid and in alcohol; and, if its solution in a dilute acid yield upon the addition of ammonia exactly as much precipitate as there was of the original substance dissolved, it may be considered pure. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. IS I.)—JS'ote to 1th edition. 95 1118 Quinia. PART II. which deposits it upon cooling. Its cold solution is opalescent. It is solu- ble in about 60 parts of cold alcohol of 0*835, but only to a very small ex- tent in ether. The diluted acids, even tartaric and oxalic acids in excess, dissolve it with great facility. With an additional equivalent of sulphuric acid it forms another sulphate, which is much more soluble in water than the officinal salt, and crystallizes from its solution with much greater diffi- culty. This is now generally believed to be strictly neutral, and therefore entitled to the name of sulphate of quinia; while the officinal salt is thought to contain two equivalents of base to one of acid, and is therefore properly a subsulphate or disulphate of quinia. The latter name has been adopted by the London College. In the U. S., Dublin, and Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeias, as well as in the French Codex, the name of sulphate of quinia, ori- ginally given to the officinal salt, under the impression that it was neutral, is still applied to it. Hence has arisen a confusion of nomenclature which must be embarrassing to the student. It is the proper sulphate, formerly called super sulphate, which remains in the mother waters when an excess of acid is added in the process for procuring the sulphate of quinia. According to M. Baup, it is soluble in 11 parts of water at 54° F., and in its own water of crystallization at the boiling point. It is very soluble in diluted, and somewhat less so in absolute alcohol. It may be obtained by adding to a boiling concentrated solution of the ordinary sulphate, as much sulphuric acid as already exists in the salt, and then evaporating the solution. Composition. The officinal sulphate of quinia, the disulphate of chemists, is the only one used in medicine, and to this we have allusion in the present work whenever sulphate of quinia is mentioned without any distinguishing epithet. In the crystalline form it is stated to Consist of one equivalent of sulphuric acid 40, two eqs. of quinia 324, and eight eqs. of water 72=436. On exposure to the air, or to a heat of 212°, it effloresces, losing one-half of its water of crystallization (according to Soubeiran, six eqs.); and at 240° it loses one-half of the remainder, retaining two eqs. or about 4 per cent, of water, of which it cannot be deprived without decomposition. (Phillips.) Incompatibles and tests. Sulphate of quinia is decomposed by the alka- lies, their carbonates, and the alkaline earths. In solution, it affords white precipitates with potassa, soda, and ammonia, which are partly soluble in an excess of alkali. It is also precipitated by astringent infusions, the tan- nic acid of which forms a white insoluble compound with quinia. The soluble salts of lead and of baryta occasion precipitates ; and that produced by the salts of baryta is insoluble in the acids. A freshly prepared solution of chlorine, added to a solution of the sulphate of quinia, and followed by the addition of water of ammonia, occasions an emerald-green colour, and, in certain proportions, the deposition of a green precipitate. Adulterations. Sulphate of quinia has often been adulterated. Sulphate of lime, and other alkaline or earthy salts, gum, sugar, mannite, starch, stearin or margarin, caffein, salicin, and sulphate of cinchonia, are among the substances which are said to have been fraudulently added. By attend- ing to the degree of solubility of the sulphate in different menstrua, and to its chemical relations with other substances already described, there can be little difficulty in detecting these adulterations. The presence of any mineral substance not readily volatilizable, may be at once ascertained by exposing the salt to a red heat, which will completely dissipate the sulphate of quinia, leaving the mineral behind. A volatile ammoniacal salt may be detected by the smell of ammonia emitted upon the addition of potassa. Gum and starch are left behind by alcohol, and fatty matters by water aci- dulated with sulphuric acid. Sugar and mannite cause a solution of the PART II. Quinia. 1119 salt in acidulated water to have a sweet taste, after the precipitation of the quinia by an alkaline carbonate. Salicin imparts the property of becoming red upon the contact of sulphuric acid; but, according to Pelletier, this change of colour does not take place unless the proportion of salicin exceeds one-tenth. If only in this proportion, the salicin must be isolated. To 1 part of the suspected salt, 6 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid may be added, and to the brown liquid which results, 125 parts of water. The salicin is thus separated, and may be obtained by filtration, in the form of a bitter white powder, becoming bright red with sulphuric acid. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 156.) Caffein alters the solubility of the medi- cine in different menstrua. According to M. Calvert, a saturated solution of sulphate of quinia in cold water gives, with a solution of chloride of lime, a precipitate soluble in an excess of the latter; while a solution of sulphate of cinchonia of the same strength, treated in the same manner, gives a pre- cipitate which is insoluble in a great excess of the reagent. The same effect is produced with lime-water, and solution of ammonia ; and solution of chloride of calcium, while it furnishes a precipitate with a solution of sulphate of cinchonia, yields none with a solution of sulphate of quinia. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., ii. 394.) The Edinburgh College gives the following mode of testing the purity of sulphate of quinia. "A solution of ten grains in a fluidounce of distilled water and two or three drops of sul- phuricacid, if decomposed by a solution of half an ounce of carbonate of soda in two waters [twice its weight of water], and heated till the precipitate shrinks and fuses, yields on cooling a solid mass, which when dry weighs 7*4 grains, and in powder dissolves entirely in solution of oxalic acid." Medical Properties and Uses. Sulphate of quinia produces upon the system, so far as we are enabled to judge by observation, the same effects with Peruvian bark, without being so apt to nauseate and oppress the sto- mach. (See Cinchona.) Its effects upon the brain are even more striking than those of cinchona, probably because it is given in larger proportional doses. Even in ordinary doses, it often produces considerable cerebral disturbance, evinced by a feeling of tightness or distension in the head, ringing, buzzing, or roaring in the ears, hardness of hearing, &c. Some individuals are more liable to these effects than others, and in some even small doses produce them. A certain degree of this observable action on the brain is rather desirable than otherwise, as the evidence that the medi- cine is affecting the system. In very large quantities, as from a scruple to a drachm or more, besides the phenomena mentioned, it has been observed to occasion severe headache, vertigo, deafness, diminution or loss of sight, dilated and immovable pupil, loss of speech, general tremblings, intoxication or delirium, coma, and great prostration. In some instances the pulse has been remarkably diminished in frequency, down to fifty or even less in. the minute. In an instance recorded by Giacomini, in which a man took by mistake about three drachms, the patient became insensible, and some hours afterwards was found by the physician in a state of general prostration, from which he recovered under the use of laudanum and aromatic waters. (Ann. de Therap.,A.D. 1843, p. 170.) Besides its effects on the brain, sulphate of quinia sometimes occasions great gastric and intestinal irritation, marked by oppression at stomach, nausea, abdominal pains, vomiting, and purging. In general these effects of excessive doses gradually pass off, although partial deafness often continues for several days, and sometimes much longer. It is even said that permanent deafness has resulted. We have seen no well- authenticated case of death from the direct action of sulphate of quinia in health. Given largely in diseased states it has been the obvious cause of fatal results, not so much however by its peculiar action, as by co-operating 1120 Quinia. PART II. with the disease in establishing intense local irritation or inflammation. Though capable, therefore, of doing mischief if improperly used, sulphate of quinia can scarcely be ranked among the poisons. From its occasional effect in diminishing the frequency of the pulse and the general strength, it has been supposed to be essentially sedative in .large doses. Such an opinion, unless well founded, might lead to hazardous practice. In most instances in which the effect was observed the patient was in a morbid state, sometimes labouring under malignant diseases; and in such cases it is well known that powerful stimulants often have the effect of diminishing the frequency of the pulse. In the case observed by Giaco- mini, the patient was not seen until some hours after taking the sulphate, and might have been in the condition of universal prostration which follows all excessive excitement. Besides, stimulants in large doses sometimes produce apparent prostration by an overwhelming influence upon one of the organs essential to life. In the present state of our knowledge, it is safest to consider the sulphate of quinia in a greater or less degree excitant, in whatever dose it may be taken. Sulphate of quinia may be substituted for cinchona in all diseases to which the latter is applicable; and, in the treatment of intermittents, has almost entirely superseded the bark. It has the advantage over that remedy, not only that it is more easily administered in large doses, and more readily retained by the stomach, but that in cases which require an impression to be made through the rectum or the skin, it is much more effectual, because, from the smallness of its bulk, it is more readily retained in the former case, and more speedily absorbed in the latter. Still we cannot be certain that there are not other active principles in bark besides the quinia and cinchonia, the latter of which possesses properties analogous to those of the former; nor that the mode of combination in which these principles exist, may not in some measure modify their therapeutic effects. The question can be solved only by careful and long-continued observation. In the mean time, we may resort to the bark if the sulphate of quinia should not answer the ends in view; and instances have occurred, under our own notice, in which it has proved successful in intermittents after the salt has failed. Sulphate of quinia may be given in pill or solution, or suspended in water by the intervention of syrup and mucilage. The form of pill is usually pre- ferred. (See Pilulae Quiniae Sulphatis.) The solution may be readily effected by the addition of a little acid of almost any kind to the water. Eight grains of the sulphate will dissolve in a fluidounce of water, acidulated with about twelve minims of the diluted sulphuric acid, or aromatic sulphuric acid of the Pharmacopoeias; and this is the most eligible mode of exhibiting the medicine in the liquid form. The addition of a small proportion of sulphate of morphia or of laudanum will often be found advantageous, when the sto- mach is disposed to be sickened, or the bowels to be disturbed by the quinia. Twelve grains of the sulphate of quinia are equivalent to about an ounce of good bark. The dose varies exceedingly, according to the circumstances of the patient and the object to be accomplished. As a tonic simply, a grain may be given three or four times a day, or more frequently in acute cases. In intermittents, from twelve to twenty-four grains should be given between the paroxysms, divided into smaller or larger doses according to the condition of the stomach, or the length of the intermission. From one to four grains may be given at once, and some even advise the whole amount. In malig- nant intermittents and remittents, the quantity may be increased to thirty grains or even a drachm between the paroxysms. M. Maillot gave one hundred and twenty-eight grains, in the course of a few hours, in a case of malignant fever occurring in Northern Africa, with the happiest results. PART II. Quinia.—Soda. 1121 The caution, however, is necessary, not to employ this heroic practice against easily conquerable diseases. Very large doses of the sulphate have recently been given in acute rheumatism, and with great asserted success; but the oc- currence of at least one fatal case from inflammation of the brain should lead to some hesitation in this employment of the remedy. When the stomach will not retain the medicine, it may be administered with nearly as much efficacy by enema ; from six to twelve grains, with two fluidounces of liquid starch, and from twenty to forty drops of laudanum, being injected into the rectum, in ordinary cases, every six hours. Should circumstances render this mode of application impracticable, an equal quantity, diluted with arrow root or other mild powder, may be sprinkled, at the same intervals, upon a blistered sur- face denuded of the cuticle. The epigastrium, or the inside of the thighs and arms, would be the proper place for the blister. The sulphate has also been employed by friction in the form of ointment, in cases of malignant intermittent. The ointment should be made by incorporating a saturated alcoholic solution of the salt with lard, and should be applied to the inside of the thighs and arms. It is said that quinia is more readily absorbed when united with a fatty acid. This union may be effected by mixing solutions of soap and of a salt of quinia. The quinia soap is precipitated. Off. Prep. Pilulce Quinige Sulphatis, U. S. W. SODA. Preparations of Soda. SODM CARBONAS EXSICCATUS. U. S. Soda: Carbonas Ex- siccata. Lond. Soda; Carbonas Siccatum. Ed., Dub. Dried Car- bonate of Soda. " Take of Carbonate of Soda a convenient quantity. Expose it to heat, in a clean iron vessel, until it is thoroughly dried, stirring constantly with an iron spatula ; then rub it into powder." U. S. The London College takes a pound of the salt, exposes it to heat in a proper vessel, until it is dried, and, having subjected it to a red heat, rubs it to powder. The Edinburgh College heats any convenient quantity in a shallow vessel till it is dry, then urges it with a red heat in a crucible, and reduces it to powder when cold. "Liquefy the crystals of Carbonate of Soda in a silver crucible over the fire. Then, having increased the heat, stir the liquefied salt, until by the evaporation of the water, it becomes dry. Reduce the residual salt to fine powder, and keep it in close vessels." Dub. Carbonate of soda contains ten equivalents of water of crystallization, and when heated, readily undergoes the watery fusion. Upon continuing the heat, the water is dried off, and a white porous mass remains, which is easily reduced to powder. The London and Edinburgh Colleges expose the dry mass to a red heat before powdering it. Dried carbonate of soda is in the form of a white powder, and differs in no respect from the carbonate, except in being devoid of water of crystallization. (See Sodae Carbonas.) Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation was introduced into regular practice on the recommendation of Dr. Beddoes, who extolled its virtues in calculous complaints. It is applicable to the cure of such affec- tions only when dependent on a morbid secretion of uric acid. Its advantage over the common carbonate is that it admits of being made up into pills, in consequence of being in the dried state. As the water of crystallization forms more than half of the carbonate, the dose of the dried salt must be 95* 1122 Soda. PART II. reduced in proportion. From five to fifteen grains may be given three times a day in the form of pill, prepared with soap and aromatics. The general medical properties of this salt have been given under another head. (See Sodae Carbonas.) Off. Prep. Sodae Bicarbonas, Ed. B. SOD^ CARBONATIS AQUA. Duo. Water of Carbonate of Soda. " Take of Carbonate of Soda any quantity. Dissolve it in Distilled Water so as to form a solution of the specific gravity 1*024. A solution of ihis density is obtained by dissolving an ounce of Carbonate of Soda in a pint of Distilled Water." Dub. This preparation furnishes a solution of carbonate of soda of determinate strength, each fluidounce of which contains half a drachm of the salt. It is convenient for prescribing the alkali in solution, and forming effervescing draughts, each fluidounce being saturated, on an average, by half a fluid- ounce of lemon juice. The dose is from one to two fluidounces, sufficiently diluted with water, and given two or three times a day. B. SOD^E BICARBONAS. U. S., Ed., Dub. Soda: Sesquicarbonas. Lond. Bicarbonate of Soda. Sesquicarbonate of Soda. " Take of Carbonate of Soda, in crystals, a convenient quantity. Break the crystals in pieces, and put them into a wooden box, having a transverse partition near the bottom pierced with numerous small holes, and a cover which can be tightly fitted on. To a bottle having two tubulures, and half filled with water, adapt two tubes, one connected with an apparatus for gene- rating carbonic acid and terminating under the water in the bottle, the other commencing at the tubulure in which it is inserted, and entering the box by an opening near the bottom, beneath the partition. Then lute all the joints, and cause a stream of Carbonic Acid to pass through the water into the box until the Carbonate of Soda is fully saturated. Carbonic Acid is obtained from Marble by the addition of dilute Sulphuric Acid." U. S. " Fill with fragments of Marble a glass jar, open at the bottom and tubu- lated at the top ; close the bottom in such a way as to keep in the Marble without preventing the free passage of a fluid ; connect the tubulature closely by a bent tube and corks with an empty bottle, and this in like manner with another bottle, filled with one part of Carbonate of Soda and two parts of Dried Carbonate of Soda well triturated together; and let the tube be long enough to reach the bottom of the bottle. Before closing the last cork closely, immerse the jar to the top in diluted Muriatic Acid, contained in any convenient vessel; when the whole apparatus is thus filled with car- bonic acid gas, secure the last cork tightly ; and let the action go on till next morning, or till the gas is no longer absorbed by the salt. Remove the damp salt which is formed, and dry it, either in the air without heat, or at a temperature not above 120°." Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Soda seven pounds; Distilled Water a gallon [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in the Water, and strain ; then pass Carbonic Acid into the solution to saturation, that the salt may subside. Dry this with a gentle heat, after it has been wrapped and pressed in a linen cloth." "Take of Carbonate of Soda, two parts; Water five parts. Dissolve, and in a proper apparatus, expose the solution to a stream of Carbonic Acid gas, evolved during the solution of White Marble in dilute Muriatic Acid, until it ceases to absorb gas; and let it remain at rest that crystals may be formed. Then, with a heat not exceeding 120°, evaporate the solution that crystals may again be formed, which are to be mixed with those first ob- tained, dried, and preserved in a close vessel." Dub. PART II. Soda. 1123 The object of these processes is to combine the soda with an additional equivalent of carbonic acid, whereby it becomes converted into the bicar- bonate. The officinal processes are different, and, therefore, require a sepa- rate notice. The process adopted in the last U. S. Pharmacopoeia, is that which has been practised for many years in the United States, and which was described in 1830, by Dr. Franklin R. Smith, in the first volume of the Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. This process is attributed to Dr. Smith by Soubeiran, who characterizes it as the best that can be employed. (Nouv. Traite de Pharm.) It was adopted in the French Codex on its revision of 1837. A stream of carbonic acid is passed into a suitable vessel, containing the crystallized carbonate placed on a diaphragm, pierced with numerous holes. As the bicarbonate combines with much less water of crystallization than is contained in the carbonate, it follows that, during the progress of the saturation of the carbonate, a considerable quantity of water is liberated. This water would finally dissolve the bicarbonate formed, were it not for the diaphragm, through which it is allowed to drain off, holding in solution a part of the carbonate. When the saturation is completed, the pieces of crystals, still supported on the diaphragm, are found to have retained their original form, but to have become of a porous texture. The process newly adopted in the last Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is that of Berzelius, described in former editions of this Dispensatory. In the U. S. process, the excess of water over the quantity necessary for the bicarbonate is allowed to drain off; but it holds a certain portion of carbonate in solution, which thus escapes the action of the carbonic acid. To avoid this result it is only necessary to prepare a carbonate, containing just sufficient water of crystallization to accommodate the bicarbonate; and the process recommended by Berzelius accomplishes this purpose. Thus the salt which he prepares to be submitted to the carbonic acid, is an intimate mixture, in fine powder, of four parts of effloresced carbonate, with one of the crystallized salt. The proportion adopted by the Edinburgh College is different; namely, two parts of the dried carbonate to one of the crystallized carbonate, and is such as to afford a slight excess of water over that required to constitute the bicarbonate. Hence the Edinburgh process furnishes a damp salt, which is dried in the air without heat, or at a temperature not exceeding 120°. The apparatus employed by the College for generating the carbonic acid is precisely the self-regulating reservoir devised by Dr. Hare on the prin- ciple of Gay-Lussac's. The empty bottle, placed between the generating apparatus and that containing the salt, is intended to detain any impurity which may be carried over with the stream of carbonic acid. Artus has given a process for obtaining bicarbonate of soda, similar to that of Wohler for forming the corresponding salt of potassa. (Seepage 1090.) In this process, the effloresced monocarbonate, mixed with half its weight of freshly ignited and finely powdered charcoal, is saturated by a stream of car- bonic acid, derived from the fermentation of sugar. The presence of the char- coal greatly promotes the absorption. (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1843, p. 254.) The London College employs the old process of dissolving the carbonate in water before submitting it to the action of carbonic acid. The solution, when saturated, lets fall the sparingly soluble bicarbonate in minute crystals, which are pressed in a linen cloth, and dried by a gentle heat. In this pro- cess, the mother-water is not evaporated, although it contains a considerable portion of bicarbonate. The reason of this omission is, no doubt, the diffi- culty of applying heat in such a manner as not to decompose the salt. The Dublin process is similar to the London. The points of difference are that a weaker alkaline solution is employed, and that the mother water is evapo- 1124 Soda. PART II. rated at a heat not exceeding 120° for the production of a second crop of crystals. Both these processes are unproductive, and, besides, furnish an imperfect bicarbonate. At present they are superseded by processes similar to those of the U.S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias. Properties, fyc. As obtained by the U. S. formula, bicarbonate of soda is in opaque, porous masses, made up of numerous, aggregated crystalline grains, and having a snow-white colour. For the convenience of the apo- thecary these masses are reduced to powder. As procured by the Edin- burgh process, it is in small, white, opaque, irregular scales. The London and Dublin preparation is in minute, colourless, indistinct crystals. Bicar- bonate of soda is permanent in the air, and slightly alkaline to the taste and to turmeric paper. It is soluble in thirteen parts of cold water. When the solution is exposed to heat, the salt gradually parts with carbonic acid, and, at the temperature of 212°, is converted into sesquicarbonate. At a red heat, the water of crystallization and the second equivalent of carbonic acid are expelled, and the anhydrous monocarbonate is left. One eq., or 84*3 parts of the crystallized bicarbonate, should lose, by complete decom- position by dilute sulphuric acid, two eqs. or 44 parts of carbonic acid. The salt is seldom so perfect as to withstand this test; as good commercial samples generally contain from two to three per cent, of carbonate. The presence of this impurity may be known by a decided alkaline taste and reaction, by a cold solution of the salt yielding a precipitate with sulphate of magnesia, and by a solution in forty parts of water, affording, without agitation, an orange-coloured or reddish-brown precipitate with corrosive sublimate; whereas the pure salt produces a slight opalescence only with the latter test. This test is adopted in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and, according to Dr. Christison, readily detects one per cent, of carbonate. The pure bicarbonate is not precipitated by chloride of platinum, or, when supersaturated with nitric acid, by chloride of barium or nitrate of silver. The non-action of these tests proves the absence of salts of potassa, and of sulphates and chlorides. The incompatibles of this salt are the same as those of the carbonate, except sulphate of magnesia in the cold, which de- composes the carbonate, but not the bicarbonate. Composition. Bicarbonate of soda, when perfect, consists of two eqs. of carbonic acid 44, one of soda 31*3, and one of water 9 = 84*3; but, as found in the shops, it seldom contains so large a proportion of carbonic acid. The London College calls the product of its formula, a sesquicarbonate; but, though it may contain less carbonic acid than the bicarbonate, it by no means has a constant composition corresponding with that of the sesquisalt. Indeed, it has been proved by Hermann, that the sesquicarbonate, called trona when native, cannot be formed by crystallization from aqueous solu- tions. The London name for this salt should, therefore, be abandoned, as an unsuccessful attempt to express its composition when imperfectly made. It is admitted that the bicarbonate is now made nearly perfect on a large scale; and the U. S. and Edinburgh processes furnish a pure salt. Medical Properties and Uses. This salt has the general medical pro- perties of the carbonate; but, from its mild taste and less irritating qualities, proves more acceptable to the palate and stomach. It is often resorted to in calculous cases, characterized by predominant uric acid. When the car- bonate is given in these cases, its continued use is liable to induce phos- phatic deposits, after the removal of the uric acid. According to D'Arcet, who made the observation at the springs of Vichy, this objection does not lie to the bicarbonate, especially when taken in carbonic acid water; for this salt, by its superabundant acid, has the power of maintaining the phos- phates in solution, even after the alkali has caused the uric acid to disap- PART II. Soda. 1125 pear. The same remark is applicable to the bicarbonate of potassa. Bicar- bonate of soda has been given in infantile croup, with apparent advantage in promoting the expectoration of the false membrane, in the dose of a grain every five minutes, dissolved in milk and water. The dose for an adult is from ten grains to a drachm, and is taken most conveniently in a glass of carbonic acid water. This salt is principally consumed in making what are called soda and Seidlitz powders. (See page 52.) It is sometimes made into lozenges. (See Trochisci Sodae Bicarbonatis.) Off. Prep. Liquor Sodae Effervescens, Lond., Ed.; Pulveres Efferves- centes, Ed.; Trochisci Sodae Bicarbonatis, Ed. B. LIQUOR SODE EFFERVESCENS. Lond. Sodas Aqua Effer- vescens. Ed. Effervescing Solution of Soda. " Take of Sesquicarbonate of Soda a drachm; Distilled Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in the Water, and pass into it, compressed by force, more Carbonic Acid than is sufficient for saturation. Keep the solution in a well-stopped vessel." Lond. The Edinburgh formula corresponds with the above. This is merely a solution of bicarbonate of soda in carbonic acid water, in the proportion of three grains to the Imperial fluidounce. Such a solu- tion, however, is not a proper object of officinal direction. The names given to it are incorrect. Indeed, the authors of the London Pharmacopoeia appear to have been undecided what to call this preparation ; as they have denominated it by another name, " Sodae Carbonatis Liquor Effervescens," in their " Notes." B. AQUA CARBONATIS SOD^E ACIDULA. Dub. Acidulous. Wa- ter of Carbonate of Soda. " Take of Carbonate of Soda any quantity. Dissolve it in such a quan- tity of Water that each pint may contain a drachm of Carbonate of Soda. Then, in an apparatus adapted for retaining the gas, subject it to a stream of carbonic acid gas, evolved during the solution of pieces of White Marble in Muriatic Acid, diluted with six times its weight of water, until the car- bonic acid is in excess." Dub. This preparation is a solution of carbonate of soda in carbonic acid water. As, however, an excess of carbonic acid is passed into the solution, the alkali may be presumed to become a bicarbonate; and if so, the preparation is equivalent to that last described. It corresponds with the solution for- merly called soda water, which was made by impregnating, under strong pressure, a weak solution of carbonate of soda with carbonic acid; but at present, this name is applied, in popular language, to carbonic acid water without soda. This solution, however, is superfluous as an officinal prepa- ration ; as it may be made extemporaneously by adding any desired quan- tity of carbonate of soda to carbonic acid water. B. LIQUOR SODM CHLORINATE. U. S., Lond. Solution of Chlo- rinated Soda. Solution of Chloride of Soda. Labarraque's Disinfect- ing Soda Liquid. ' "Take of Chlorinated Lime a pound; Carbonate of Soda two pounds; Water a gallon and a half. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in three pints of the Water, with the aid of heat. To the remainder of the Water add, by small portions at a time, the Chlorinated Lime previously well triturated, stirring the mixture after each addition. Set the mixture by for several hours that the dregs may subside; then decant-the clear liquid, and mix it with the solution of Carbonate of Soda. Lastly, decant the clear liquor from the precipitated carbonate of lime, pass it through a linen cloth, and keep it in bottles secluded from the light." U. S. 1126 Soda. PART II. " Take of Carbonate of Soda a pound; Distilled Water forty-eight fluid- ounces [Imperial measure]; Chloride of Sodium four ounces; Binoxide of Manganese three ounces; Sulphuric Acid four ounces. Dissolve the Carbo- nate of Soda in two pints of Water. Then put the Chloride of Sodium and Binoxide of Manganese, rubbed to powder, into a retort; and add to them the Sulphuric Acid, previously mixed with three fluidounces of Water and cooled. Heat the mixture, and pass the chlorine first through five fluid- ounces of Water, and afterwards into the solution of Carbonate of Soda above directed." Lond. This solution was first brought into notice as a disinfecting agent by La- barraque, an apothecary of Paris; It was afterwards used as a medicine, and found to possess valuable properties. The process of the U. S. Phar- macopoeia is that of Payen, which was adopted in the French Codex of 1837. It consists in decomposing a solution of carbonate of soda by one of chlorinated lime. Carbonate of lime is precipitated and the chlorinated soda remains in solution. The proportion employed gives an excess of carbonate of soda, the presence of which renders the solution more perma- nent. The London process is that of Labarraque. All the chlorine gene- rated from the prescribed quantity of the materials for forming that gas, is passed into the solution of carbonate of soda; and when the gas is limited to this quantity, no carbonic acid is disengaged. The chlorine is first passed through water to free it from muriatic acid, which, if suffered to come over, would convert the alkali into common salt. Properties. The U. S. solution is a colourless liquid. The London preparation has a pale-yellow colour, and a sharp, saline, astringent taste. When it is boiled, chlorine is not given off, nor is its bleaching property sensibly impaired; and, when carefully evaporated, a mass of damp crys- tals is obtained, which, when redissolved in water, possess the properties of the original liquid. Both solutions contain an excess of carbonated alkali, and, therefore, have an alkaline reaction. Hence they are precipitated by lime-water, which throws down carbonate of lime. They both decolorize the solution of sulphate of indigo, and emit a slight odour of chlorine. When dilute muriatic acid is added to them, carbonic acid and chlorine are extricated. Exposed to the air, carbonic acid is absorbed, and chlorine slowly evolved. It is on this property of gradually evolving chlorine that their disinfecting power depends. Nature and Composition. The chemical nature of these solutions is different.. Assuming the chlorinated lime to be essentially hypochlorite of lime with chloride of calcium (see page 151), the U.S. solution will con- tain hypochlorite of soda with chloride of sodium. Besides these there will be present more or less carbonate of soda, according as there happens to be in the chlorinated lime less or more chlorine to decompose it. In all cases, however, there will be an excess of carbonate ; as the best chlorinated lime does not contain sufficient chlorine to effect its entire decomposition, in the proportion in which it is taken in the formula. The constitution of the London preparation is more complicated. As it is a peculiarity in its formation that no carbonic acid is evolved, it is necessary to assume the pre- sence of all the carbonic acid of the carbonate of soda ; and hence it is con- sidered to be a combination of hypochlorite of soda, chloride of sodium, and bicarbonate of soda. The reaction is supposed to take place between four eqs. of carbonate of soda and two of chlorine. By a transfer of carbonic acid from two eqs. of carbonate to the remaining two eqs. of the same salt, two eqs. of bicarbonate are formed, and two of soda left. The sodium and oxygen of one eq. of soda, unite, each, with one eq. of chlorine, so as to form one eq. of chloride of sodium, and one of hypochlorous acid. This PART II. Soda. 1127 acid then unites with the remaining eq. of soda to form hypochlorate of soda. The. view here taken makes these solutions analogous in constitution ; but differing in one containing the carbonate, the other the bicarbonate of soda. In the London preparation, half the soda is bicarbonated; in the U. S. so- lution, from a half to a third is monocarbonated, according to the quality of the chlorinated lime used. According to Millon's views, both solutions con- tain oxychloride of sodium (Na202Cl), or, which is the same thing, chloride of soda, containing two eqs. of soda to one of chlorine (2 NaO+C1), thus making the compound assimilate in constitution to the sesquioxide of sodium (Na203). Mr. B. Kavanagh, of Dublin, finds that a solution of alum lets fall its alumina upon being added to the London chlorinated soda liquid, without effervescence of carbonic acid, but with the evolution of chlorine on the ap- plication of heat. Hence he infers that the soda, not combined with carbonic acid in the preparation, is united with chlorine and not with hypochlorous acid, and accordingly conceives that he has proved the correctness of Mil- Jon's views. The London solution, though made on Labarraque's plan, is considerably stronger than his preparation; for the London College dissolves the carbonate in about three times its weight of water, before transmitting the chlorine; whereas Labarraque dissolved it in four times its weight. Medical Properties and Uses. Solution of chlorinated soda is stimulant, antiseptic, and resolvent. Internally it has been employed in diseases termed putrid or malignant, as typhus fever, scarlatina maligna, &c. The conditions which indicate the propriety of its use are great prostration of strength, fetid evacuations, and dry and furred tongue. Under such cir- cumstances it promotes urine, creates a moisture on the skin, and improves the secretions and evacuations. It has also been given in dysentery, ac- companied with peculiarly fetid stools, in dyspepsia attended with putrid eructations, and in glandular enlargements and chronic mucous discharges. Other diseases in which it has been recommended, are secondary syphilis, scrofula, bilious disorders, and chronic diseases of the skin. M. Chailly speaks in praise of it in suppressed or deficient menstruation. In asphyxia from sulphuretted hydrogen it forms, like chlorinated lime, an efficacious antidote. The dose of the U. S. solution is from thirty drops to a teaspoon- ful, given in a cupful of water or mild aqueous liquid, and repeated every two or three hours. As a local remedy it is susceptible of many valuable applications. It is found useful in all affections attended with fetor, such as gangrenous, can- cerous, scrofulous, and syphilitic ulcers, ulceration of the gums, carbuncle, ozaena, mortification, putrid sorethroat, &c. In these cases it is applied, as a gargle, wash, ingredient of poultices, or imbibed by lint. In the slough- ing of the fauces attendant upon severe cases of scarlatina, Dr. Jackson, late of Northumberland, found it efficacious, used as a gargle, or injected into the throat. In the sore mouth from ptyalism, it forms a good mouth-wash, when diluted with eight parts or more of water. In fetid discharges from the vagina, uterus, and bladder, it has been employed with advantage as an injection, diluted with from fifteen to thirty parts of water for the vagina and uterus, and with sixty parts when the object is to wash out the bladder by means of a double canula. The solution of chlorinated soda has also been applied successfully to burns, and to cutaneous eruptions, particularly psoriasis, tinea capitis, scabies, and obstinate herpetic affections. In these cases it is diluted with from ten to thirty parts of water, the strength vary- ing according to circumstances. For the cure of sore nipples, Dr. Chopin found nothing so successful as frequently repeated lotions with this solution. Solution of chlorinated soda is a powerful disinfectant; and is better suited for disinfecting operations than chlorinated lime; as it does not, 1128 Soda. part ii. when exposed to the air, become covered with a crust of carbonate of lime. Yet the comparative expensiveness of chlorinated soda will limit its use to disinfecting operations on a small scale. In the bed-chambers of the sick, especially with infectious diseases, it will be found highly useful, sprinkled on the floor or bed, and added to the vessels intended to receive the excre- tions. B. SODE ET POTASSE TARTRAS. U. S., Dub. Sodas Potas- sio-Tartras. Lond. Potassa: et Soda: Tartras. Ed. Tartrate of Potassa and Soda. Tartarized Soda. Rochelle Salt. " Take of Carbonate of Soda a pound; Bitartrate of Potassa [cream of tartar], in powder, sixteen ounces; Boiling Water five pints. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in the Water, and gradually add the Bitartrate of Potassa. Filter the solution, and evaporate until a pellicle forms; then set it aside to crystallize. Pour off the liquor, and dry the crystals on bibulous paper. Lastlv, again evaporate the liquor, that it may furnish more crys- tals." U.S. The London and Edinburgh processes correspond with the above. " Take of Carbonate of Soda five parts ; Bitartrate of Potassa, in very fine powder, seven parts ; boiling Water fifty parts. Dissolve the Carbo- nate of Soda in the Water, and gradually add the Bitartrate of Potassa. Filter the liquor through paper, evaporate, and set it aside, so that on slow cooling crystals may form." Dub. This is a double salt, consisting of tartrate of potassa combined with tar- trate of soda. The theory of its formation is exceedingly simple, being merely the saturation of the excess of acid in the bitartrate of potassa by carbonate of soda, the carbonic acid of which is extricated with effer- vescence. The proper quantities of the materials for mutual saturation are 143*3 parts of carbonate to 188*15 of bitartrate, or one eq. of each. This gives the ratio of 10 to 13*1. The proportion adopted in the U. S., London, and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, is as 10 to 13*33, which is very near the theoretical quantities. As the salts employed are apt to vary in composi- tion and purity, the carbonate from the presence of more or less water of crystallization, and the bitartrate from that of tartrate of lime, it is, perhaps, best in all cases, after indicating the nearest average proportion as a general guide, to present to the operator the alternative of using the cream of tartar to the point of exact saturation. Berzelius states that this salt may be formed by saturating six parts of cream of tartar by means of carbonate of potassa, and then adding to the resulting tartrate a solution of five parts of crystallized sulphate of soda. On evaporation, sulphate of potassa will first crystallize, and afterwards the tartrate of potassa and soda. The rationale is obvious. Properties. Tartrate of potassa and soda is in the form of colourless, trans- parent, slightly efflorescent crystals, often very large, and having the shape, when carefully prepared, of right prisms, with ten or twelve unequal sides. As ordinarily crystallized, they are generally in half prisms, as if split in the direction of their axis. The salt is of a saline and slightly bitter taste. It dis- solves in five times its weight of cold water, and in much less boiling water. Any undissolved residue is impurity, probably tartrate of lime or bitartrate of potassa, or both. When exposed to a strong heat, the tartaric acid is de- stroyed, and a mixture of the carbonates of potassa and soda is left. It sometimes contains tartrate of lime, which maybe removed by solution and crystallization; but when the crystals are large and well defined, it maybe assumed to be pure. It is incompatible with most acids, and with all acidu- lous salts except the bitartrate of potassa. It is also decomposed by the PART II. Soda. 1129 acetate and subacetate of lead, by the soluble salts of lime, and by those of baryta, unless the solution of the tartrate be considerably diluted. The way in which acids act in decomposing it, is by combining with the soda, and throwing down bitartrate of potassa as a crystalline precipitate. This double salt was discovered by Seignette, an apothecary of Rochelle; and hence it is frequently called Seignette's salt, or Rochelle salt. Composition. Tartrate of potassa and soda consists of two eqs. of tartaric acid 132, one of potassa 47*15, one of soda 31*3, and eight of water 72-^= 282* 15; or, considered as a double salt, of one eq. of tartrate of potassa 113* 15, and one of tartrate of soda 97*3, with the same quantity of water. Medical Properties and Uses. This salt is a mild, cooling purgative, well suited to delicate and irritable stomachs, being among the least unpalatable of the neutral salts. As it is not incompatible with tartar emetic, it may be associated with that salt in solution. It is an ingredient in the effervescing aperient called Seidlitz powders. (See page 52.) The dose as a purge is from half an ounce to an ounce. Given in small and repeated doses it does not purge, but is absorbed, and renders the urine alkaline. When this happens, the tartaric acid may be presumed to be digested. (Millon and Laveran, Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., vi. 222.) B. SODiE MURIAS PURUM. Ed. Pure Muriate of Soda. Pure Chloride of Sodium. " Take any convenient quantity of Muriate of Soda; dissolve it in boiling water; filter the solution, and boil it down over the fire, skimming off the crystals which form. Wash the crystals quickly with cold water and dry them." Ed. This new formula of the Edinburgh College is unnecessary. If com- mercial samples of chloride of sodium cannot be found pure enough to form muriatic acid, the salt may be purified as a preparatory step to the process for obtaining that acid ; as is ordered by the College in the formula for Acidum Muriaticum Purum, where the directions for purifying the salt are unnecessarily repeated, after the admission of a distinct formula for that purpose. Pure muriate of soda is ordered by the College, with needless refinement, as an ingredient in the compound saline powder. Off.Prep. Pulvis Salinus Compositus, Ed. B. SODvE PHOSPHAS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Phosphate of Soda. " Take of Bone, burnt to whiteness and powdered, ten pounds ; Sulphuric Acid six pounds; Carbonate of Soda a sufficient quantity. Mix the pow- dered Bone with the Sulphuric Acid in an earthen vessel; then add a gallon of water, and stir them well together. Digest for three days, occasionally adding a little water to replace that which is lost by evaporation, and fre- quently stirring the mixture. At the expiration of this time, pour in a gallon of boiling water, and strain through linen, gradually adding more boiling water, until the liquid passes nearly tasteless. Set by the strained liquor that the dregs may subside, from which pour off the clear solution, and boil it down to a gallon. To this solution, poured off from the dregs and heated in an iron vessel, add by degrees the Carbonate of Soda pre- viously dissolved in hot water, until effervescence ceases, and the phos- phoric acid is completely neutralized ; then filter the liquor, and set it aside to crystallize. Having removed the crystals, add, if necessary, a small quan- tity of Carbonate of Soda to the liquor, so as to render it slightly alkaline; then alternately evaporate and crystallize, so long as crystals are produced. Lastly, preserve the crystals in a well stopped bottle." U. S. The Edinburgh College takes the same materials and in the same pro- 96 1130 Soda. PART II. portion, and proceeds substantially as above. The two pints and four fluidounces (Imperial measure) of sulphuric acid ordered by the College weigh six pounds. The London College made this salt officinal for the first time in its Pharmacopoeia for 1836, but has placed it in the list of the Materia Medica. "Take of burnt Bones, in powder, ten parts; Commercial Sulphuric Acid seven parts. Mix the powder, in an earthen vessel, with the Sul- phuric Acid, add gradually seven parts of water, and stir the mixture. Digest for three days, occasionally adding more water to prevent the mix- ture from becoming dry, and continue the stirring: then add seven parts oi boiling water, and strain through linen, repeatedly pouring on boiling water, until all the acid is washed out. Set the liquor by that the dregs may sub- side, from which pour it off when clear, and reduce it by evaporation to one- half. Then add eight parts of Carbonate of Soda, dissolved in hot water, and filter ; and by alternate evaporation and refrigeration, let crystals be formed, which are to be kept in a well-stopped vessel. If the salt be not sufficiently pure, dissolve it again in water and recrystallize." Dub. The incombustible part of bones, or bone-earth, is obtained by burning them to whiteness, and consists of a peculiar phosphate of lime, called bone- phosphate, associated with some carbonate of lime, &c. (See Os.) When this is mixed with sulphuric acid, the carbonate of lime is entirely decom- posed, giving rise to effervescence. The phosphate of lime undergoes par- tial decomposition; the greater part of the lime, being detached, precipitates as sulphate of lime, while the phosphoric acid, set free, combines with the undecomposed portion of the phospbate, and remains in solution as a super- phosphate of lime, holding dissolved a certain portion of the sulphate of lime. In order t6 separate the superphosphate from the precipitated mass of sul- phate of lime, boiling water is added to the mixture, the whole is strained^ and the sulphate washed as long as superphosphate is removed, which is known by the water passing through in an acid state. The different liquids which have passed the strainer, consisting of the solution of superphosphate of lime, are mixed and allowed to stand, and by cooling a portion of sul- phate of lime is deposited, which is got rid of by decantation. The bulk of the liquid is now reduced by evaporation, and from the diminution of the water, a fresh portion of sulphate of lime is deposited, which is separated by subsidence and decantation as before. The superphosphate of lime solution, being heated, is now saturated by means of a hot solution of car- bonate of soda. The carbonic acid is extricated with effervescence, and the alkali, combining with the excess of acid of the superphosphate, generates phosphate of soda; while the superphosphate of lime, by the loss of its excess of acid, becomes the neutral phosphate, and precipitates. It is re- commended by the editor of the Dublin Hospital Gazette to have both solu- tions boiling hot, in order to insure, the full extrication of the carbonic acid, and the complete precipitation of the phosphate of lime. The phos- phate of lime is separated by a new filtration ; and the filtered liquor, con- sisting of the solution of phosphate of soda, is evaporated so as to crystallize. In the U. S. and Edinburgh process, the calcined bone is to the acid as 10 to 6 ; in the Dublin process as 10 to 7. The proportion recommended by Berzelius is intermediate—as 10 to 6*66. The acid, in the officinal pro- cesses, is added to the calcined bone in the concentrated state, and after- wards diluted with more or less water. In the process given by Berzelius it is first diluted with twelve times its weight of water. The Dublin Col- lege prescribes the quantity of carbonate of soda to effect the saturation ; but the exact quantity cannot be known beforehand, and must vary under PART II. Soda. 1131 different circumstances. All the writers state that this salt crystallizes more readily by allowing its solution to be slightly alkaline ; and a remarkable fact is that a neutral solution, when it crystallizes, leaves a supernatant liquid which is slightly acid and uncrystallizable. Hence it is necessary, after getting each successive crop of crystals, to render the mother water neutral or slightly alkaline, before it will furnish an additional quantity. M. Funcke, a German chemist, has given the following method for obtain- ing phosphate of soda, which is stated to be cheaper and more expeditious than the process above described. Add to the powdered calcined bone, diffused in water, sufficient dilute sulphuric acid to decompose all the car- bonate of lime which it contains. As soon as the effervescence has ceased, the matter is acted on with nitric acid, which dissolves the phosphate of lime, and leaves the sulphate. The nitric solution of the phosphate is then treated with sulphate of soda, equal in quantity to the bone employed ; and, after the reaction is completed, the nitric acid is recovered by distillation. In consequence of a double decomposition, sulphate of lime and phosphate of soda are formed, the latter of which is then separated from the sulphate by the action of water, and crystallized in the usual manner. Properties, fyc. Phosphate of soda is in large, colourless crystals, which are transparent at first, but quickly effloresce and become opaque when ex- posed to the air, and which have the shape of oblique rhombic prisms. It possesses a pure saline taste, resembling that of common salt. With tests it displays a slight alkaline reaction. It dissolves in four parts of cold water, and two of boiling water, but is insoluble in alcohol. Before the blowpipe it first undergoes the aqueous fusion, and afterwards, at a red heat, melts into a globule of limpid glass, which becomes opaque on cooling. It is not liable to any adulterations, but sometimes contains carbonate of soda, from this salt being added in excess; in which case it will effervesce with acids. If it contain sulphate of soda, or any other soluble sulphate, the precipitate caused by chloride of barium will be a mixture of sulphate and phosphate of baryta, and will not be totally soluble in nitric acid. If a chloride be pre- sent, the ye/low precipitate caused by nitrate of silver will be a mixed one of chloride and phosphate of silver, not entirely soluble in the same acid. It is incompatible with soluble salts of lime, with which it gives a precipitate of phosphate of lime, and with neutral metallic solutions. Phosphate of soda is found in several of the animal secretions, particularly the urine. When crystallized it consists of one eq. of phosphoric acid 71*4, two of soda 62*6, and twenty-five of water 225=359. When heated gently, it loses twenty- four eqs. of water, retaining one which acts the part of a base. At a red heat the remaining eq. of water is driven off, and the salt is altered in its properties, and becomes pyrophosphate of soda, which is characterized by giving a white precipitate with nitrate of silver. Medical Properties and Uses. This salt was introduced into regular practice about the year 1800, on the recommendation of Dr. Pearson, of London. It is a mild purgative, and, from its pure saline taste, is well adapted to the cases of children, and of persons of delicate stomach. The dose is from one to two ounces, and is best given in gruel or weak broth, to which it communicates a taste, as if seasoned with common salt. Off. Prep. Ferri Phosphas, U. S. B. 1132 Spintus. FART II. SPIRITUS. U. S., Lond., Dub. Spirits. Ed. Spirits, according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, are alcoholic solutions of volatile principles, obtained by distillation. They are prepared chiefly from aromatic vegetable substances, the essential oils of which rise with the vapour of alcohol, and condense with it in the receiver. Some of the oils, however, will not rise at the temperature of boiling alcohol, but maybe distilled with water. In this case it is necessary to employ proof spirit or diluted alcohol, with the water of which the oil comes over in the latter part of the process. As the proof spirit of the shops is often impregnated with foreign matters, which give it an unpleasant flavour, it is better to use alcohol which has been carefully rectified, and to dilute it with the due proportion of water, as directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. In preparing the spirits, care should be taken to avoid the colour and empyreumatic flavour arising from the decomposition of the vegetable matter by heat. Sufficient water must, there- fore, be added to cover the vegetable,matter after the alcohol shall have been distilled; and, as a general rule, the heat should be applied by means of a water-bath, or of steam. The aromatic should be macerated for some days with the alcohol, before being submitted to distillation; as the oil, being thus dissolved, rises more readily with the spirituous vapour than when confined in the vegetable tissue. It is necessary, during the process, frequently to renew the water in the refrigeratory, as otherwise a considerable portion of the vapour will escape condensation. A good apparatus for the purpose is described and figured in page 112. The aromatic spirits are used chiefly to impart a pleasant odour and taste to mixtures, and to correct the nauseating and griping effects of other medi- cines. They serve also as carminatives in flatulent colic, and agreeable stimulants in debility of stomach; but their frequent use may lead to the formation of intemperate habits, and should, therefore, be avoided. W. SPIRITUS ANISI. Lond. Spirit of Aniseed. "Take of Anise [seeds], bruised, ten ounces; Proof Spirit a gallon [Imperial measure]; Water two pints [Imperial measure]. Mix them; then with a gentle fire, distil a gallon." Lond. SPIRITUS ANISI COMPOSITUS. Dub. Compound Spirit of Aniseed. "Take of Anise Seeds, bruised, Angelica Seeds, bruised, each, half a pound; Proof Spirit a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distil a gallon." Dub. The dose of this and the preceding preparation, as stomachics and car- minatives, is one or two fluidrachms. The compound spirit is a simplifi- cation of the Irish usquebaugh. W. SPIRITUS ARMORACIA COMPOSITUS. Lond., Dub. Com- pound Spirit of Horse-radish. " Take of Horse-radish [root], sliced, Dried Orange Peel, each, twenty ounces; Nutmeg, bruised, five drachms; Proof Spirit a gallon [Imperial measure]; Water two pints [Imp. measure]. Mix them; then, with a slow fire, distil a gallon." Lond. The Dublin College takes of horse-radish and orange peel, each, a pound; bruised nutmeg half an ounce; proof spirit a gallon; and water sufficient to prevent empyreuma; macerates for twenty-four hours, and distils a gallon. part ii. Spiritus. 1133 This may be used advantageously as an addition to diuretic remedies, in dropsy attended with debility, especially in the cases of drunkards. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms. Off. Prep. Infusum Armoraciae Compositum, Lond. W. SPIRITUS CARUI. Lond., Ed., Dub. Spirit of Caraway. " Take of Caraway [seeds], bruised, twenty-two ounces; Proof Spirit a gallon [Imperial measure]; Water two pints [Imperial measure]. Mix them ; then with a slow fire distil a gallon." Lond. "Take of Caraway Seeds, bruised, a pound; Proof Spirit a gallon; Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours and distil a gallon." Dub. " Take of Caraway, bruised, half a pound; Proof, Spirit seven pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate for two days in a covered vessel; add a pint and a half [Imp. meas.] of water; and distil off seven pints." Ed. The dose as a carminative is one or two fluidrachms. SPIRITUS CASSIA. Ed. Spirit of Cassia. " Take of Cassia, in coarse powder, one pound. Proceed as for the spirit of caraway." .Erf. (See Spiritus Carui.) This is essentially the same as the spirit of cinnamon. SPIRITUS CINNAMOMI. Lond., Ed., Dub. Spirit of Cinna- mon. "Take of Oil of Cinnamon two drachms; Proof Spirit, a gallon [Im- perial measure]; Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Mix them; then with a slow fire distil a gallon." Lond.. ' "Take of Cinnamon Bark, bruised, a pound; Proof Spirit a gallon^ Water sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distil a gallon." Dub. By the Dublin College the spirit is also prepared by distilling together six scruples of the oil, and a gallon of proof spirit. The Edinburgh Col- lege prepares it from a pound of cinnamon, in coarse powder, in the same manner as spirit of caraway. (See Spiritus Carui.) The spirit of cinnamon is an agreeable aromatic cordial, and may be given in debility of the stomach in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. Off.Prep. Infusum Digitalis,Ed.; Infus. Rhei,Ed.; MisturaCxet&,Ed. SPIRITUS JUNIPERI COMPOSITUS. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Compound Spirit of Juniper. " Take of Juniper [berries], bruised, apound; Caraway [seeds], bruised, Fennel-seed, bruised, each, an ounce and a half; Diluted Alcohol a gallon; Water two pints. Macerate the Juniper, Caraway, and Fennel-seed in the Diluted Alcohol for twenty-four hours; then add the Water, and with a slow fire distil a gallon." U. S. "Take of Juniper Fruit, bruised, fifteen ounces; Caraway [seeds], bruised, Fennel [seeds], bruised, each, two ounces; Proof Spirit a gallon [Imperial measure]; Water two pints [Imperial measure]. Mix them; then with a slow fire distil a gallon." Lond. The Dublin and Edinburgh processes are essentially the same with that of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia; the Edinburgh directing seven pints [Imp. meas.] of Proof Spirit, and two pints [Imp. meas.] of water, macerating for two days, and distilling seven Imperial pints. This spirit is a useful addition to diuretic infusions and mixtures in de- bilitated cases of dropsy. The dose is from two to four fluidrachms. Off. Prep. Mistura Creasoti, Ed. W. 90* 1134 Spintus. PART II. SPIRITUS LAVANDULAE. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Spirit of Lavender. "Take of Fresh Lavender [flowers] two pounds; Alcohol a gallon; Water two pints. Mix them, and with a slow fire distil a gallon." U. S. The London College takes two pounds and a half of the fresh flowers, a gallon [Imperial measure] of rectified spirit, and two pints of water; mixes them; and distils a gallon. The Dublin College employs two pounds of the flowers, a gallon of proof spirit, and sufficient water to prevent em- pyreuma; macerates for twenty-four hours; and distils five pints. The Edinburgh College takes two pounds and a half of the fresh flowers, and a gallon [Imp. meas.] of rectified spirit; mixes them, and with the heat of a vapour-bath distils seven pints. „ The Dublin process, in which proof spirit is employed, is said to yield a product less highly impregnated with the oil of lavender than the others. Mr. Brande asserts that the dried flowers produce as fragrant a spirit as the fresh. Spirit of Lavender is used chiefly as a perfume, and as an in- gredient in other preparations. The perfume usually sold under the name of lavender water is not a distilled spirit, but an alcoholic solution of the oil, with the addition of other odorous substances. The following is given by Mr. Brande as one of the most approved recipes for preparing it. " Take of rectified spirit of wine five gallons, essential oil of lavender twenty ounces, essential oil of bergamot five ounces, essence of ambergris [made by digesting one drachm of ambergris and eight grains of musk in Haifa pint of alcohol] half an ounce. Mix." Off. Prep. Linimentum Camphorae Compositum, Lond., Dub.; Mistura Ferri Composita, U. S.; Spiritus Lavandulae Compositus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. SPIRITUS LAVANDULA COMPOSITUS. U.S.,Ed.,Dub. Tinc- tura Lavandula: Composita. Lond. Compound Spirit of Lavender. "Take of Spirit of Lavender three pints; Spirit of Rosemary a pint; Cinnamon, bruised, an ounce; Cloves, bruised, two drachms; Nutmeg, bruised, half an ounce; Red Saunders, rasped, three drachms. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U.S. The London College takes a pint and a half [Imperial measure] of spirit of lavender, half a pint [Imp. meas.] of spirit of rosemary, two drachms and a half of bruised cinnamon, the same quantity of bruised nutmegs, and five drachms of sliced red saunders; and proceeds as above. The Edinburgh College takes two pints [Imp. meas.] of spirit of lavender, twelve fluidounces of spirit of rosemary, an ounce of cinnamon in coarse powder, tivo drachms of bruised cloves, half an ounce of bruised nutmeg, and three drachms of red saunders; macerates for seven days, and then strains the liquor through calico. The Dublin College orders half an ounce only of cinnamon, and an ounce of red saunders, and digests for ten days; but in other respects conforms with the directions of the U. S. Pharma- copoeia. This is a delightful compound of spices, much employed as an adjuvant and corrigent of other medicines, and as a remedy for gastric uneasiness, nausea, flatulence, and general languor or faintness. The dose is from thirty drops to a fluidrachm, and is most conveniently administered on a lump of sugar. Off. Prep. Aqua Laurocerasi, Ed.; Liquor Potassas Arsenitis, U. S., Lond., Ed. W. PART II. Spiritus. 1135 SPIRITUS MENTH/E PIPERITA. Lond., Dub. Spiritus Men- tha:. Ed. Spidt of Peppermint. " Take of Oil of Peppermint three drachms; Proof Spirit a gallon [Im- perial measure]; Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Mix them; then with a slow fire distil a gallon." Lond. The Edinburgh College prepares this spirit from one pound and a half of fresh peppermint, in the same manner as spirit of caraway. (See Spiritus Carui.) "Take of Oil of Peppermint, by weight, half an ounce; Rectified Spirit a gallon. Add the Spirit to the Oil, and pour on them as much water as will prevent empyreuma, after distillation ; then by a gentle fire, distil a gal- lon." Dub. The spirit of peppermint has no advantage over a simple solution of the oil in alcohol. Such a solution is usually kept in the shops, under the name of essence of peppermint, and was adopted among the officinal prepa- rations, at the last revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, with the title of tincture of oil of peppermint. (See Tinctura Olei Menthae Piperitae.) W. SPIRITUS MENTHA PULEGII. Lond., Dub. Spirit of European Pennyroyal. This is prepared by the London College from the oil of European penny- royal, in the manner directed by the same College for the preparation of spirit of peppermint. The Dublin College prepares it by distilling together six scruples of the oil and a gallon of proof spirit. It is never used in this country. W. SPIRITUS MENTHA VIRIDIS. Lond., Dub. Spirit of Spear- mint. This is prepared by the London and Dublin Colleges from the oil of spearmint, in the manner directed by the two Colleges respectively for the preparation of the spirit of peppermint. The two spirits are used for the same purposes, in the dose of from thirty drops to a fluidrachm. W. SPIRITUS MYRISTICA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Spiritus Nucis Mos- chata:. Dub. Spirit of Nutmeg. "Take of Nutmeg, bruised, two ounces; Diluted Alcohol a gallon; Water a pint. Mix them, and with a slow fire distil a gallon." U. S. The London and Edinburgh Colleges take tiro ounces and a half of bruised nutmegs, a gallon [Imp. meas.] of proof spirit, and a pint [Imp. meas.] of water; mix them; and distil a gallon. The Dublin College mace- rates together for twenty-four hours two ounces of bruised nutmeg, a gallon of proof spirit, and enough water to prevent empyreuma, and then distils a gallon. The spirit of nutmeg is used chiefly for its flavour, as an addition to other medicines. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. Off.Prep. Mistura Ferri Composita, Lond., Ed. W. SPIRITUS PIMENTO. U. S., Lond, Ed., Dub. Spirit of Pi- mento. "Take of Pimento, bruised, two ounces; Diluted Alcohol a gallon; Water a pint. Macerate the Pimento in the Diluted Alcohol for twenty- four hours; then add the Water, and with a slow fire distil a gallon." U. S. The London College orders it to be prepared in the same manner as spirit of nutmeg; the Edinburgh, from half a pound of bruised pimento, in the same manner as spirit of caraway. The Dublin macerates together for 1136 Spiritus.—Spongia. PART II. twenty-four hours three ounces of bruised pimento, a gallon of proof spirit, and sufficient water to prevent empyreuma, and then distils a gallon. This preparation may be used for the general purposes of the aromatic spirits, in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. W. SPIRITUS ROSMARINI. U.S., Lond., Ed. Spiritus Rorisma- rini. Dub. Spirit of Rosemary. " Take of Oil of Rosemary [by weight] two drachms; Alcohol a gallon; Water a pint. Mix them, and with a slow fire distil a gallon." U.S. The London College takes two drachms of oil of rosemary, a gallon (Imperial measure) of rectified spirit, and a pint (Imp. meas.) of water; mixes them; and then, with a slow fire, distils a gallon. The Edinburgh College takes two pounds and a half of rosemary, and proceeds as for the spirit of lavender. The Dublin College employs a pound and a half of the fresh tops and a gallon of proof spirit, and distils five pounds with a moderate heat. This College also prepares the spirit by distilling together six scruples of the oil, and a gallon of proof spirit. Spirit of rosemary is a grateful perfume, and is used chiefly as an ingre- dient in lotions or liniments. Off. Prep. Linimentum Ammoniae Compositum, Ed.; Linimentum Sa- ponis, Lond., Dub.; Spiritus Lavandulas Compositus, U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. W. SPONGIA. Preparation of Spo?ige. SPONGIA USTA. U.S. Pulvis Spongia: Usta:. Dub. Burnt Sponge. " Take of Sponge a convenient quantity. Cut it into pieces, and beat it, that any extraneous matters may be separated; then burn it in a close iron vessel until it becomes black and friable; lastly, rub it into very fine powder." U.S. The Dublin process does not materially differ from the above. The sponge is decomposed, the volatile matters being driven off by the heat, and a black friable coal remaining. Preuss found that, of 1000 parts of sponge submitted to calcination, 343*848 were dissipated; and the residue consisted of 327*0 parts of carbon and insoluble matters, 112*08 of chloride of sodium, 16*43 of sulphate of lime, 21*422 of iodide of sodium, 7*57 of bro- mide of magnesium, 103*2 of carbonate of lime, 35*0 of phosphate of lime, 4*73 of magnesia, and 28*72 of protoxide of iron. (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1837, 169.) Herberger found in burnt sponge one per cent, of iodide of potassium, and 0-5 per cent, of bromide of potassium. (Annal. der Pharm., xx. 204.) As the remediate value of burnt sponge depends chiefly upon the presence of iodine, it cannot be esteemed good unless it afford purple fumes when acted on by sulphuric acid assisted by heat. It is said that the preparation is most efficient as a remedy, when the sponge is kept on the fire no longer than is necessary to render it friable. The powder is then of a much lighter colour. Guibourt recommends that the sponge selected for burning should be un- washed, of a strong odour, firm, and compact, that it should be put into a roaster similar to that sometimes used for coffee, and heated over a moderate fire till it becomes of a blackish-brown colour, that it should then be removed, powdered, and enclosed in a well-stopped glass bottle. It is best when re- cently prepared; as the iodine is dissipated by time, and the specimens at first richest in this principle, contain little of it at the end of a year. (Journ. part ii. Spongia.—Stannum.—Strychnia. 1137 de Chim. Med., Dec. 1831.) According to Herberger, the fine and coarse sponges do not materially differ in the proportion of their organic consti- tuents; so that the coarse may be selected for this operation. Burnt sponge has been highly recommended in goitre, glandular swellings of a scrofulous character, and obstinate cutaneous eruptions. It is most conveniently administered mixed with syrup or honey, in the form of an electuary, with the addition of some aromatic, as powdered cinnamon. The dose is from one to three drachms. W. STANNUM. Preparation of Tin. PULVIS STANNI. U.S. Stanni Pulvis. Ed., Dub. Powder of Tin. " Take of Tin a convenient quantity. Melt it in an iron vessel over the fire, and, while it is cooling, stir it until it is reduced to a powder, which is to be passed through a sieve." U. S. "Melt tin in an iron vessel; pour it into an earthenware mortar, heated a little above the melting point of the metal; triturate briskly as the metal cools, ceasing as soon as a considerable proportion is pulverized; sift the product, and repeat the process with what remains in the sieve." Ed. " Take of very pure Tin any quantity. Having melted it over the fire, agitate it strongly while congealing, so that it may be converted into a pow- der, which, when cold, is to be passed through a sieve." Dub. Tin, being a very fusible metal, is easily granulated by fusion and subse- quent agitation when in the act of congealing. The process is most conve- niently performed, on a small scale, in a wooden box, the inside of which has been well rubbed with chalk. This should be afterwards washed away by water; and, as the granulated powder is of unequal degrees of fineness, the coarser particles must be separated by a sieve. For the properties of this metal and the tests of its purity, see Stannum. Medical Properties and Uses. Powder of tin is used exclusively as an anthelmintic, and is supposed to act by its mechanical properties. It is con- sidered particularly adapted to the expulsion of the Ascaris lumbricoides, and is sometimes employed to expel the tapeworm, though for this purpose oil of turpentine is more efficacious. For internal exhibition it should be free from oxidation. The dose is half an ounce, mixed with molasses, given for several successive mornings, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. Dr. Alston was in the habit of administering larger doses for the expulsion of the tape worm. He began by giving an ounce on an empty stomach, which was followed, for two successive days, by half an ounce each day, and finally by a brisk purge. B. STRYCHNIA. Strychnia. STRYCHNIA. U.S., Lond. Strychnia. "Take of Nux Vomica, rasped, four pounds; Lime, in powder, six ounces; Muriatic Acid three fluidounces ; Alcohol, diluted Sulphuric Acid, Solution of Ammonia, Purified Animal Charcoal, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Digest the Nux Vomica in two gallons of Water, acidulated with a fluidounce of the Muriatic Acid, for twenty-four hours; then boil for two hours, and strain with expression through a strong linen bag. Boil the resi- duum twice successive^ in the same quantity of acidulated Water, each time 1138 Strychnia. part ii. straining as before. Mix the decoctions and evaporate to the consistence of thin syrup; then add the Lime previously mixed with a pint of Water, and boil for ten minutes, frequently stirring. Pour the mixture into a double linen bag, and, having washed the precipitate well with water, press, dry, and powder it. Treat the powder repeatedly with boiling Alcohol, until deprived of its bitterness; mix the liquors; and distil off the Alcohol by means of a water-bath. Mix the residue with Water, and, having applied heat, drop in sufficient Diluted Sulphuric Acid to neutralize and dissolve the Strychnia; then add Purified Animal Charcoal, boil for a few minutes, filter, evaporate, and crystallize. Dissolve the crystals in Water, and add sufficient Solution of Ammonia to precipitate the Strychnia. Lastly, dry the precipitate on bibulous paper." U. S. " Take of Nux Vomica, bruised, two pounds ; Rectified Spirit three gal- lons [Imperial measure]; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Magnesia, Solution of Ammonia, each, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Nux Vomica with a gallon of the Spirit, for an hour, in a retort, with a receiver fitted to it. Pour off the liquor, and boil the residue again, and a third time, with another gallon of the Spirit, and with the Spirit recently distilled, and pour off the liquor. Press the Nux Vomica, and, having mixed and filtered the liquors, distil the Spirit. Evaporate the residue to the proper consistence of an extract. Dis- solve this in cold water and filter. Evaporate the solution, with a gentle heat, to the consistence of syrup. To this, while yet warm, gradually add the Magnesia to saturation, shaking them together. Set aside for two days, and then pour off the supernatant liquor. Press what remains wrapped in a linen cloth. Boil it in Spirit, then filter, and distil the spirit. Add to what remains a very little Diluted Sulphuric Acid mixed with water, and macerate with a gentle heat. Set it aside for twenty-four hours that crystals may form. Press these and dissolve them. To their solution in water add Ammonia, occasionally shaking, that the Strychnia may be thrown down. Lastly, dissolve this in boiling Spirit, and set it aside that pure crystals may form." Lond. " Take of Nux Vomica one pound; Quicklime one ounce and a half; Rectified Spirit a sufficiency. Subject the Nux Vomica for two hours to the vapour of steam, chop or slice it, dry it thoroughly in the vapour-bath, or hot air-press, and immediately grind it in a coffee-mill. Macerate it for twelve hours in two pints [Imperial measure] of water and boil it; strain through linen or calico, and squeeze the residuum; repeat the maceration and decoc- tion twice with a pint and a half of water. Concentrate the decoctions to the consistence of thin syrup; add the Lime in the form of milk of lime; dry the precipitate in the vapour-bath; pulverize it, and boil it with succes- sive portions of Rectified Spirit till the spirit ceases to acquire a bitter taste. Distil off the Spirit till the residuum be sufficiently concentrated to crystallize on cooling. Purify the crystals by repeated crystallizations." Ed. It should be recollected that the British Imperial measure is employed by the London and Edinburgh Colleges throughout these processes. In preparing strychnia, the first step is properly to comminute the nux vomica. This may be done by rasping the seeds, or, as directed in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, by first softening them by steam, then slicing, drying, and grinding them. The next object is to extract the strychnia. For this purpose water acidulated with muriatic acid is employed in the U. S. process, alcohol in the London, and water alone in the Edinburgh. In the two latter, the native igasurate of strychnia is taken up, in the first, the muriate, which is a very soluble salt. The menstruum of the U. S. Phar- macopoeia is less costly than the London, and probably more effective than the Edinburgh. Besides, when alcohol is used, it is necessary to evaporate PART II. Strychnia. 1139 the tincture, and then treat the extract with water, in order to get an aqueous solution of the alkali. The salt of strychnia existing in the solution is next decomposed either by lime, as in the U. S. and Edinburgh processes, or by magnesia, as in the London. The alkaline base is precipitated along with the excess of lime or magnesia and impurities. The strychnia is extracted from the precipitate by boiling alcohol, and may be obtained in crystals by the concentration of the solution. But in this state it is much coloured and impure. The Edinburgh College contents itself with directing it to be puri- fied by repeated solution and crystallization. In the two other processes, the impure strychnia is converted into a sulphate by the addition of sulphuric acid, and precipitated again by ammonia; being, while in the state of the sul- phate, decolorized, according to the directions of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, by means of animal charcoal. The London College proceeds one step further, and obtains the alkali in crystals by dissolving the precipitated powder in boiling alcohol, and setting the solution aside to crystallize. Throughout the process, the brucia contained in the nux vomica attends the strychnia, and is only left behind in the mother liquors, when the latter alkali crystallizes from the alcoholic solution upon cooling ; brucia being much more soluble than strychnia in cold alcohol. It would, therefore, be better to conclude the U.S. process by one or more solutions and crystallizations in alcohol, as directed by the London and Edinburgh Colleges. With this addition, we should give the preference to our own officinal process. To free the strychnia entirely from brucia requires repeated crystallizations, and a little of the latter principle is consequently almost always retained; but the impurity is not injurious; as the effects of the two alkalies upon the system are very similar. The bean of St. Ignatius yields strychnia more easily and more largely than nux vomica; but is less plentiful. If thought desirable, brucia may be in great measure separated from the strychnia of the shops, by dissolving the latter in very dilute nitric acid, filtering, and concentrating to the point of crystallization. The nitrate of brucia crystallizes in short, thick, dense prisms, grouped together; the nitrate of strychnia in radiated tufts of Jong, light, capillary needles. By gentle agitation with water, the latter salt is suspended and may be poured off, leaving the former. The alkalies may be obtained by dissolving the salts separately in water, and precipitating with ammonia. • (Christison.) As usually kept in the shops, strychnia is a grayish-white powder. When rapidly crystallized from its alcoholic solution, it has the form of a white, granular powder; when slowly crystallized, that of elongated octohedra, or quadrilateral prisms with quadrilateral terminations. It is permanent in the air, inodorous, but excessively bitter, with a metallic after taste. So intense is its bitterness, that one part of it is said to communicate a sensible taste to 000,000 parts of water. It melts like a resin, but is not volatile, being de- composed at a comparatively low temperature. It is soluble in 6667 parts of water at 50°, and about 2000 at the boiling point. Boiling officinal alco- hol dissolves it without difficulty, and deposits it upon cooling. In absolute alcohol and in ether it is very sparingly soluble. The volatile oils dissolve it freely. It has an alkaline reaction on test paper, and forms salts with the acids. Nitric acid does not redden it if perfectly pure, but almost always reddens it as found in the shops, in consequence of the presence of brucia. M. Eugene Marchand proposes the following test, by which a very minute proportion of strychnia may be detected. If a little of the alkali be rubbed with a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid containing one- hundredth of nitric acid, it will be dissolved without change of colour; but if the least quantity of peroxide of lead be added to the mixture, a magni- ficent blue colour will be instantly developed, which will pass rapidly into 1140 Strychnia.—Styrax. PART II. violet, then gradually to red, and ultimately become yellow. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iv. 200.) Professor Otto recommends as a test a minute quantity of solution of chromate of potassa, which, added to the solution of strychnia in concentrated sulphuric acid, produces a splendid violet colour. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xix. 77.) Strychnia consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; but the proportion of its constituents is very differ- ently given by different authors. Liebig states the composition to be NaC^HagO^ The salts of strychnia are for the most part soluble and crys- tallizable. Their solution is decomposed by the alkalies and their carbo- nates, and by tannic, but not by gallic acid; and is not affected by the salts of sesquioxide of iron. Strychnia is apt to contain impurities, of which the chief, besides brucia, are colouring matter, and lime or magnesia. The Edinburgh College gives the following test of its purity. " A solution of 10 grains in 4 fluidrachms of water by means of a fluidrachm of pyrolig- neous acid, when decomposed by one fluidounce of concentrated solution of carbonate of soda, yields on brisk agitation a coherent mass, weighing when dry 10 grains, and entirely soluble in solution of oxalic acid." Medical Properties and Uses, fyc. The effects of strychnia upon the system are identical in character with those of nux vomica, and it is em- ployed for the same purposes as a medicine. (See Nux Vomica, page 478.) It operates in the same way by whatever avenue it may enter into the circu- lation; but is said to act most powerfully when injected into the veins or applied to a fresh wound. The blood of ah animal under its influence pro- duces similar effects in another if transfused into its veins. In over-doses it is a most violent poison. Pelletier and Caventou killed a dog in half a minute with one-sixth of a grain of the pure alkali. One grain or even less might prove fatal in the human subject. According to M. Duclos, the poi- sonous effects of strychnia upon animals subside under the application of negative electricity, while they are aggravated by the positive. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 154.) Different persons are very differently suscep- tible to its action, and some are powerfully affected by the smallest doses. Besides, being more or less impure as kept in the shops, it cannot be relied on with certainty. Hence the necessity of great caution in prescribing it, and of carefully watching the patient during its use. The best plan is always to begin with very small doses, and gradually increase till its effects are observed. From one-twelfth to one-sixth of a grain internally, and from a quarter to half a grain externally, upon a blistered surface, may be employed at first; but, if the alkali is very pure, the dose may be still fur- ther reduced with propriety. It is most conveniently administered in the form of pjll. It may be given also in the saline state, which is produced by dissolving it in water acidulated with sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, or acetic acid. W. STYRAX. Preparation of Storax. STYRAX PURIFICATA. U. S. Styrax Colatus. Lond, Ex- tractum Styracis. Ed. Purified Storax. " Take of Storax, Alcohol, each, a sufficient quantify. Dissolve the Storax in the Alcohol, and strain the solution; then distil off the alcohol with a gentle heat, until the Storax acquires the proper consistence." U. S. The purification of storax is directed by the London College, in a similar manner, under the head of the gum-resins. " Take any convenient quantity of Storax, in fine powder. Exhaust it by boiling it in successive quantities of Rectified Spirit; filter the spirituous PART II. Styrax.—Sulphur. 1141 solutions; distil off the greater part of the spirit; evaporate the remainder over the vapour-bath to the consistence of a thin extract." Ed. Storax, as found in the shops, is usually so much adulterated as to render its purification necessary, before it can be applied to the purposes for which it is officinally directed. As it is wholly soluble in alcohol, and little of its active matter is driven off at the boiling point of that fluid, there can be no chemical objection to the above process. Another method, sometimes fol- lowed, is to express, between heated iron plates, the balsam from the foreign matters with which it is associated ; but, if the process be not very carefully conducted, the heat employed to melt the storax will be sufficient to dissi- pate a portion of the benzoic acid, which is one of its essential ingredients. Off.Prep. Pilulae Styracis Compositae, Lond., Ed., Dub.; Tinctura Ben- zoini Composita, U. S., Lond., Dub. W. SULPHUR. Preparations of Sulphur. SULPHUR PR^CIPITATUM. U. S. Lac Sulphuris. Precipi- tated Sulphur. Milk of Sulphur. " Take of Sulphur [sublimed] a pound; Lime a pound and a half; Water two gallons ; Muriatic Acid a sufficient quantity. Slake the Lime with a small portion of the Water, and, having mixed it with the Sulphur, add the remainder of the Water, boil for two or three hours, occasionally adding water so as to preserve the measure, and filter. Dilute the filtered liquor with an equal bulk of water; then drop into it sufficient Muriatic Acid to precipitate the Sulphur. Lastly, wash the precipitate repeatedly with water till the washings are tasteless, and dry it." U. S. In this process two eqs. of lime react with six of sulphur, so as to form two eqs. of bisulphuret of calcium, and one of hyposulphurous acid, which latter then unites with one eq. of lime to form hyposulphite of lime. On the addition of the muriatic acid, six eqs. of sulphur are precipitated (four from the two eqs. of bisulphuret of calcium and two from the one eq. of hyposulphurous acid), and the calcium and oxygen unite with the muriatic acid, so as to form chloride of calcium and water. This acid is the most eligible precipitant for the sulphur, as it gives rise to chloride of calcium, which is a very soluble salt, and easily washed away. Sulphuric acid is altogether inadmissible; as it generates sulphate of lime, which, from its sparing solubility, becomes necessarily intermingled with the precipitated sulphur. According to Schweitzer, the best material from which to preci- pitate the sulphur is the sulphuret of potassium, formed by boiling sulphur with caustic potassa. Dr. Otto, of Brunswick, finds that the sulphuret of potassium is apt to contain sulphuret of copper, and, therefore, prefers sul- phuret of calcium. (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, Jan., 1845.) Properties, tfc. Precipitated sulphur is in friable lumps having a white colour, with a pale yellowish-green tint, and consisting of finely divided par- ticles, slightly cohering together. When recently prepared, it is devoid of taste, but possesses a peculiar smell. When long exposed, in a moist state, to the air, it becomes strongly contaminated with sulphuric acid. (Annalen der Pharm., xx. 151.) From its colour it was formerly called lac sulphuris ox milk of sulphur. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in a boiling solu- tion of caustic potassa. When of a brilliant white colour, the presence of sulphate of lime may be suspected, in which case the sulphur will not be wholly volatilized by heat. If pure it communicates a harsh feel when 97 1142 Sulphur.—Syrupi. PART II. rubbed between the fingers, owing to the friction between the crystalline particles. (Dr. Bridget.) We have seen a sample of so-called precipitated sulphur, which consisted almost entirely of sulphate of lime. Precipitated sulphur differs from sublimed sulphur, in being in a state of more minute division, and in presenting, after fusion, a softer and less brittle mass. Its peculiarities are supposed to depend upon a portion of water, which, how- ever, is present in too small a quantity to constitute a regular hydrate. According to Rose, its white colour is occasioned by the presence of a small proportion of bisulphuretted hydrogen. Soubeiran states that it always contains some sulphuretted hydrogen, which causes it to differ as a thera- peutic agent, from sublimed sulphur. Medical Properties and Uses. Precipitated sulphur possesses similar medical properties with sublimed sulphur, but is preferred by some practi- tioners on account of its freedom from colour. Its state of extreme division renders it more readily suspended in liquids than sublimed sulphur; but its liability to become acid by keeping is an objection to it. It is sometimes selected for forming ointments, which have the advantage of appearance, in being of a lighter colour than when made of sublimed sulphur. The dose is from two to three drachms. (See Sulphur.) . B. SULPHURIS IODIDUM. U. S. Iodide of Sulphur. "Take of Iodine four ounces; Sulphur an ounce. Rub the Iodine and Sulphur together in a glass, porcelain, or marble mortar until they are tho- roughly mixed. Put the mixture in a matrass, close the orifice loosely, and apply a gentle heat so as to darken the mass without melting it. When the colour has become uniformly dark throughout, increase the heat so as to melt the Iodide; then incline the matrass in different directions, in order to return into the mass any portions of Iodine whjch may have condensed on the inner surface of the vessel; lastly, allow the matrass to cool, break it, and put the Iodide into bottles, which are to be well stopped." U. S. The above process is that of the French Codex. The combination may be conveniently effected in a Florence flask. The resulting iodide has a grayish-black colour, and radiated crystalline appearance like sulphuret of antimony. Its smell resembles that of iodine, and it stains the cuticle in a similar manner. It is entirely volatilized by heat, and when boiled with wrater is decomposed, iodine escaping with the steam, and sulphur being deposited nearly pure. It has not been analyzed, but is probably a bisul- phuret. Iodide of sulphur has been used by Biett, Rayer, Lugol, and others, as an external application in various skin diseases, such as tinea capitis, lupus, lepra, &c. It is applied in the form of ointment, made by mixing from ten to thirty grains of the iodide with an ounce of lard. Of this a drachm may be used at each friction. B. SYRUPI. Syrups. Syrups are concentrated solutions of sugar in watery fluids, either with or without medicinal impregnation. When the solution is made with pure water, it is named syrup or simple syrup, when with water charged with one or more medicinal agents, it is called in general terms amedicatedsyrup, and receives its particular designation from the substance or substances added. Medicated syrups are prepared by incorporating sugar with vegetable infusions, decoctions, expressed juicesj fermented liquors, or simple aqueous PART II. Syrupi. 1143 solutions. When the active matter of the vegetable is not readily soluble in water, or is volatilized or decomposed by a heat of 212°, it is sometimes extracted by diluted alcohol, the spirituous ingredient of which is subse- quently driven off. Medicated syrups are also occasionally prepared by adding a tincture to simple syrup, and evaporating the alcohol. Since the introduction into use of the process of filtration by displacement, it has been applied very advantageously to the preparation of various syrups, espe- cially of those made from vegetables of which the active principle is injured or dissipated by decoction. But, unless the operator be at once skilful and very careful, there will be great danger of imperfectly extracting the active matters, and thus making a feeble preparation. For the mode of properly conducting this process the reader is referred to pages 763 and 769. The quality and quantity of the sugar employed are points of import- ance. Refined sugar should always be preferred, as it often saves the necessity of clarification, and makes a clearer and better flavoured syrup than the impure kinds. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia simply directs sugar, but explains that it is the purified or refined sugar which is indicated by that term. In relation to the quantity of sugar, if in too small proportion, fermentation is apt to occur; if too abundant, crystallization. The proper proportion is about two parts to one of the liquid. A somewhat smaller quantity will answer where an acid, such as lemon juice or vinegar, is used. As it is desirable, in many instances, that the active matters should be in as concentrated a state as possible in the syrup, it is often necessary to eva- porate a large proportion of the watery fluid in which they are dissolved. This may be done either before the addition of the sugar or afterwards. In either case, care is requisite not to apply a heat too great or too long con- tinued, lest the active principles should be injured. When these are very volatile or easily decomposed by heat, it is necessary to dispense with con- centration altogether. Some substances which are volatilized or decomposed at the temperature of boiling water, remain fixed and unaltered at that which is necessary for the evaporation of alcohol. These, as before observed, may be dissolved in diluted alcohol, and the concentration effected by evaporating the spirituous part of the solvent. Independently of the injury which the medicinal ingredient of the syrup may sustain, the syrup itself is apt to be- come brown by a long-continued application of heat, even when the degree is not excessive. It is recommended, therefore, that syrups which admit of concentration, should be boiled briskly over a lively fire, so as to accomplish the object as quickly as possible. It is important to be able to ascertain positively when they have attained the due consistence. An operator skilled in their preparation can judge with sufficient accuracy by various familiar signs;—such as theslowness with which the parts of adropof syrup coalesce, when previously separated by the edge of a blunt instrument; and the re- ceding of the last portion of each drop, when the syrup, after being cooled, is poured out drop by drop. A pellicle forming upon the surface of the syrup when it cools, indicates that it has been too much boiled. But these signs are not to be relied on except by those who have acquired much ex- perience. The easiest method of ascertaining the. proper point of concen- tration is by the use of Baume's hydrometer. This should stand at 30° in boiling syrup (30£ in hot weather) and at 35? in the syrup when it is cool. Another very accurate though less ready method is to ascertain the sp.gr. by weighing a portion of the liquid. Syrup when boiling should have a sp.gr. of about 1*261—when cold, about 1*319. Thomson and Duncan are mistaken in giving the proper sp.gr. of cold syrup as 1-383. We found that of a specimen of simple syrup made with two pounds and a half of 1144 Syrupi. part ii. sugar to a pint of water, to be 1*326 at 68° F.; and this consistence is rather too great for practical convenience in cold weather. A third method of ascer- taining the proper point of concentration is by the thermometer, which, in boiling syrup of the proper consistence, stands at 221° F. This indication is founded on the fact, that the boiling point of syrup rises in proportion to the increase of its density. When carefully prepared with double refined sugar, syrups generally require no other clarification than to remove any scum which may rise to their surface upon standing, and to,pour them off from any dregs which may subside. Should they, however, want the due degree of clearness, they may be filtered through flannel, or, when not likely to be injured by the treatment, may be clarified by means of the white of eggs or animal charcoal, as mentioned under the head of Syrupus. The medicated syrups are liable to undergo various alterations, according to their nature and mode of preparation. The acid syrups, when too much boiled, often let fall a copious white precipitate, which is said to be a saccha- rine matter analogous to the sugar of grapes, produced by the reaction of the acid upon the sugar. It has been shown that, even at ordinary tempera- tures, acids slowly convert common sugar into the sugar of grapes, which, being less soluble than the former, is gradually deposited in the form of crystalline grains. Syrups which contain too little sugar are apt to pass into the vinous fermentation, in consequence of the presence of matters which act as a ferment. Those which contain too much, deposit a portion in the crystalline state; and the crystals, attracting the sugar remaining in solution, gradually weaken the syrup, and render it liable to the same change as when originally made with too little sugar. The want of a due proportion of saccharine matter frequently also gives rise to mouldiness, when air has access to the syrup. It is said that syrups, enclosed, while they are still hot, in bottles, are apt to ferment; because the watery vapour, rising to the surface and there condensing, diminishes the proportion of sugar, so as to produce a commencement of chemical action, which gradu- ally extends through the whole mass. When syrups undergo the vinous fermentation, they become covered at the surface with froth, produced by the disengagement of carbonic acid, and acquire a vinous odour from the presence of alcohol; while their consistence is diminished by the loss of a portion of the sugar, which has been converted into that liquid. When the quantity of alcohol has increased to a certain point, the fermentation ceases or goes on more slowly, owing to the preservative influence of that prin- ciple; and, as the active ingredient of the syrup has frequently undergone no material change, the preparation may often be recovered by boiling so as to drive off the alcohol and carbonic acid, and concentrate the liquid suf- ficiently. A syrup thus revived is less liable afterwards to undergo change, because the principles which acted as ferments have been diminished or consumed. It is obvious that syrups which depend for their virtues upon a volatile ingredient, or one readily changeable by heat, cannot be restored to their original condition. At best, syrups are too apt to change, and various measures have been proposed for their preservation. According to Dr. Macculloch, the addition of a little sulphate of potassa, or of chlorate of potassa, which is tasteless, prevents their fermentation. M.Chereau has found sugar of milk effectual to the same end, in the instance of the syrup of poppies; and it may prove useful in others. The proportion which he employs is 32 parts of the sugar of milk to 1000 of the syrup. Mr. E. Durand has found that 1*3 per cent, of Hoffmann's anodyne (Spiritus AEtheris Sulphurici Compositus), added to syrups, has the property of completely arresting or preventing part n. Syrupi. 1145 fermentation, probably through the agency chiefly of the oil of wine which it contains. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 185.) But the best plan is to make small quantities of syrups at a time, and to keep them, unless when wanted for immediate use, in bottles quite full and well stopped, which should be put in the cellar or other cool place. The following general officinal directions are given in relation to syrups. "Syrups whose density is not precisely determined by the process,should have the specific gravity 1*261 when boiling, and about 1*319 at ordinary temperatures." U. S. " Let the syrups be preserved in a place where the heat never exceeds 55°." Lond. It would be difficult to comply exactly with such a rule in this country. "When no mention is made of the weight of sugar or the mode of dis- solving it, syrups are to be prepared according to the following rule. Take of Refined Sugar, in fine powder, twenty-nine ounces; of the Liquor pre- scribed a pint. Add the Sugar by degrees, and digest it with a medium heat [from 100° to 200° F.] in a covered vessel, frequently shaking, till it is dissolved; then set aside the solution for twenty-four hours; remove the scum, and pour off the syrup from the dregs if there be any." Dub. W. SYRUPUS. U. S., Lond. Syrupus Simplex. Ed., Dub. Syrup. Simple Syrup. "Take of Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half; Water a pint. Dis- solve the Sugar in the Water with the aid of heat, remove any scum which may form, and strain the solution while hot." U. S. " Take of Sugar [refined] ten pounds; Water three pints [Imperial mea- sure]. Dissolve the Sugar in the Water with a gentle heat." Lond. " Take of Pure Sugar ten pounds; boiling Water three pints [Imperial measure]. Dissolve the Sugar in the Water with the aid of a gentle heat." Ed. " Take of Refined Sugar, finely powdered, twenty-nine ounces; Water a pint. Add the Sugar gradually to the Water, and digest it with a medium heat [from 100° to 200° F.] in a close vessel till it is dissolved, frequently stirring; afterwards pour off from the dregs if there be any." Dub. This syrup, when properly prepared, is inodorous, of a sweet taste without peculiar flavour, thick, viscid, nearly colourless, and perfectly transparent. If somewhat turbid, as it is apt to be when made with sugar not well refined, it may be clarified by beating the white of an egg to a froth with three or four ounces of water, mixing this with the syrup, boiling the mixture for a short time that the albumen may coagulate, and taking off the scum which rises to the surface, or separating it by filtration through paper or flannel. Two gallons of the syrup may be thus clarified. Any colour and peculiar flavour which it may possess, may be removed by treating it, at the same lime, with a small proportion (about 5 per cent.) of animal charcoal. The white of egg is beaten to a froth in order that, when it coagulates, it may be rendered by the air which it contains specifically lighter than the syrup, and thus rise to the surface. If not thus treated, it floats, when coagulated, in the syrup, or sinks to the bottom. Now it is obvious that, if the syrup and albumen be heated together, the latter must be deprived of a portion of the air which it contains, before the point of coagulation is attained, and thus be rendered Jess disposed to rise to the surface. Guibourt, therefore, recommends that the albumen should not be added till the syrup is boiling hot, and should then be poured into it from a height, in order to increase the quantity of air entangled in it. 1146 Syrupi. part II. M. Salles, an apothecary of Clermond-Ferrand, in France, recommends that syrups which require clarification should be treated in the following manner. Allow the liquor with which the syrup is to be prepared, without previously decanting or filtering it, to become quite cold; then mix with it the white of eggs unbeaten, in the proportion of one egg for every five or six pounds (avoirdupois) of sugar employed; and, having added the sugar or honey, boil the whole for half an hour, or until a portion of the syrup upon cooling exhibits flocculi of albumen floating in a transparent medium. During the ebullition care must be taken to agitate the syrup in such a manner as to prevent the formation of foam upon its surface. When allowed to cool, the coagulated albumen with impurities subsides, and the clear syrup floats above, and may be drawn off or decanted. In this process the albumen sinks because not incorporated with air. M. Salles calls it clarification per descensum, and states that it is applicable to all syrups of a density below 30° Baume at the boiling point. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 490.) Syrup is very useful in the formation of pills and mixtures, and in various other pharmaceutical operations in which sugar in solution is required. Off. Prep. Confectio Opii, Lond., Dub.; Infusum Catechu, Ed.; Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus, U. S.; Syrupus Tolutani, U. S., Ed., Dub.; Syrupus Zingiberis, U. S. W. SYRUPUS ACETI. Ed. Syrup of Vinegar. " Take of Vinegar, French in preference, eleven fluidounces ; Pure Sugar fourteen ounces. Boil them together." Ed. Syrup of vinegar forms with water a refrigerant and grateful drink in febrile complaints. It may be added to barley water and other farinaceous and mucilaginous beverages and mixtures, when a vegetable acid is not contra-indicated. W. SYRUPUS ALLII. U. S. Syrup of Garlic. "Take of Fresh Garlic, sliced, six ounces; Distilled Vinegar a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Macerate the Garlic in the Vinegar, in a glass vessel, for four days; then express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside ; lastly, add the Sugar to the clear liquor, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup." U. S. This preparation is made upon correct principles, as vinegar is a much better solvent of the active matter of garlic than water. In the last edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, the proportion of garlic was judiciously in- creased to three times its former amount. The syrup is given in chronic catarrhal affections of the lungs, and is particularly beneficial in infantile cases, by the stimulus which it affords to the nervous system. A teaspoon- ful may be given for a dose to a child a year old. W. SYRUPUS ALTH^/E. Lond., Ed., Dub. Syrup of Marsh- mallow. "Take of Marshmallow Root, bruised, eight ounces; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half; Water four pints [Imperial measure]. Boil down the Water with the Root to one-half, and express the liquor when cool. Set it by for twenty-four hours that the dregs may subside; then pour off the liquor, and having added the Sugar, boil down to the proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh process corresponds with the above, except that it closes with dissolving the sugar with the aid of heat, without boiling down the syrup. The Dublin College takes half a pound of the fresh root, two pounds of PART II. Syrupi. 1147 refined sugar, and four pints of water, and proceeds in the same manner as the London College. This syrup contains a considerable quantity of starch, besides mucilage, and is very liable to ferment. The French prepare it with cold water, and thus avoid the starch. It is simply demulcent; but is inferior to the muci- lage of gum Arabic, and in this country is very seldom prepared. W. SYRUPUS AMYGDALAE. U. S. Syrup of Almonds. Syrup of Orgeat. " Take of Sweet Almonds a pound ; Bitter Almonds/owr ounces : Water three pints ; Sugar six pounds. Having blanched the Almonds, rub them in a mortar to a very fine paste, adding during the trituration, three fluid- ounces of the Water and a pound of the Sugar. Mix the paste thoroughly with the remainder of the Water, strain with strong expression, add the remainder of the Sugar to the strained liquor, and dissolve it with the aid of a gentle heat. Strain the Syrup through fine linen, and, having allowed it to cool, put it into bottles, which must be well stopped, and kept in a cool place." U.S. This process corresponds closely with that of the French Codex. Orange- flower water, however, which is an ingredient of the French preparation, is wanting in ours. It may be added to the syrup in the quantity of half a pint immediately after the sugar is dissolved. This is an elegant syrup much employed in Europe, and occasionally in this country. It is demulcent, nutritive, and, inconsequence of the hydro- cyanic acid of the bitter almonds, somewhat sedative. It is said very much to impair the odour of musk and of assafetida, when mixed with them. (Annuaire de The rap., 1843, p. 59.) It may be added to cough mixtures, or used for flavouring drinks administered in complaints of the chest. W. SYRUPUS AURANTII CORTICIS. U. S. Syrupus Aurantii, Lond., Ed., Dub. Syrup of Orange Peel. , "Take of Orange Peel, bruised, two ounces; Boiling Water a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half. Macerate the Orange Peel in the Water, in a covered vessel, for twelve hours, and strain ; then add the Sugar, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup." U. S. The British Colleges direct the fresh peel of Seville Oranges. The Lon- don College takes two ounces and a half of the fresh peel, a pint [Impe- rial measure] of boiling water, and three pounds of refined sugar; mace- rates the peel in the water for twelve hours, in a lightly covered vessel; then pours off the liquor, and adds the sugar to it. The Edinburgh Col- lege takes the same materials in the same quantities; infuses the peel in the water for twelve hours in a covered vessel, pours off the liquor, filters if necessary, adds the sugar, and dissolves it with the aid of heat. The Dublin College employs eight ounces of the peel, six pints of boiling water, and the quantity of sugar in its general directions (page 1145); and dis- solves the sugar without heat. In the preparation of this syrup, the solution of the sugar in the infusion of orange peel should be effected with as little heat as possible, in conse- quence of the volatile nature of the active principle of the peel; and to facilitate the solution, the sugar should be previously powdered. The syrup has an agreeable flavour, for which alone it is employed. A fluidounce of the tincture of orange peel added to a pint of simple syrup, affords a preparation little inferior to the officinal, though the presence of the spirit may in some instances be objectionable. Off. Prep. Confectio Aromatica, U. S., Ed.; Electuarium Cassiae, Dub.; Pilulae Rhei Compositae, U. S. W. 1148 Syrupi. part ii. SYRUPUS CROCI. Lond., Ed. Syrup of Saffron. " Take of Saffron ten drachms ; boiling Water a pint [Imperial mea- sure]; Sugar [refined] three pounds. Macerate the Saffron in the Water for twelve hours, in a lightly covered vessel; then strain the liquor, and add the Sugar." Lond. The Edinburgh College takes the same materials, in the same quantities, and proceeds in the manner directed for syrup of orange peel. This is slightly stimulant, but is valued chiefly for its fine colour. W. SYRUPUS IPECACUANHA. U.S., Ed, Syrup of Ipecacu- anha. "Take of Ipecacuanha, in coarse powder, an ounce; Diluted Alcohol a pint; Syrup two pints. Macerate the Ipecacuanha in the Alcohol for fourteen days, and filter. Evaporate the filtered liquor to two fluidounces, and again filter; then mix it with the syrup, and evaporate by means of a water bath to the proper consistence. " Syrup of Ipecacuanha may also be prepared by putting the Ipecacuanha, ^previously moistened with Diluted Alcohol, into an apparatus for displace- ment; pouring upon it gradually Diluted Alcohol until a pint of filtered liquor is obtained ; then evaporating to two fluidounces, and completing the process as above directed." U.S. " Take of Ipecacuanha, in coarse powder,y*owr ounces ; Rectified Spirit one pint [Imperial measure]; Proof Spirit and Water, of each, fourteen fluidounces: Syrup seven pints. Digest the Ipecacuanha in fifteen fluid- ounces of the Rectified Spirit at a gentle heat for twenty-four hours; strain, squeeze the residuum and filter. Repeat this process with the residuum and Proof Spirit, and again with the Water. Unite the fluids, and distil off the Spirit, till the residuum amount to twelve ounces; add to the residuum five fluidounces of the rectified spirit, and then the Syrup." Ed. By the U. S. process, a tincture of ipecacuanha is first formed with diluted alcohol, then concentrated, and incorporated with syrup. The alternative of preparing the tincture by maceration or percolation is allowed ; but the latter mode should be resorted to only by those experienced in the process. The tincture is b}^ concentration reduced chiefly to an aqueous solution of the active principles of ipecacuanha ; and the water contained in it is evaporated after incorporation with the syrup. The French Codex dissolves the alco- holic extract of ipecacuanha in water, and then mixes it with syrup; but it is obvious that the U. S. process is preferable, as it spares the continued heat requisite to reduce the tincture to dryness. The Edinburgh process is unnecessarily complex ; and the addition of the rectified spirit to the syrup, if thought necessary for its preservation, might have been dispensed with, had the direction been given to concentrate the syrup. This syrup is chiefly applicable to the cases of children. One fluidounce of it, prepared according to the U. S. formula, should contain the virtues of fifteen grains of ipecacuanha. The dose of it, as an emetic, is for an adult from one to two fluidounces, for a child a year or two old, from one to two fluidrachms, to be repeated every fifteen or twenty minutes till it operates. As an expectorant, the dose for an adult is one or two fluidrachms, for a child from five to twenty minims. The Edinburgh syrup is somewhat, but not materially weaker. W. SYRUPUS KRAMERIA. U. S. Syrup of Rhatany. " Take of Extract of Rhatany two ounces; Water a pint; Sugar two pounds and a half. Dissolve the Extract in the Water and filter; then add the Sugar, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup." U. S. In making this syrup care should be taken to select the extract of rhatany PART II. Syrupi. 1149 as free as possible from insoluble matter ; and that prepared according to the U. S. process will be found the best. (See Extractum Krameriae.) This preparation affords a convenient mode of exhibiting rhatany to infants. The dose for an adult is half a fluidounce, for a child a year or two old, twenty or thirty minims. W. SYRUPUS LIMONIS. U.S., Dub. Syrupus Limonum. Lond., Ed. Syrup of Lemons. "Take of Lemon-juice, strained, a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Add the Sugar to the Juice, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup." U.S. "Take of Juice of Lemons, strained, a pint [Imp. meas.]; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half. Dissolve the Sugar in the Lemon Juice, with a gentle heat; then set it aside for twenty-four hours; afterwards remove the scum, and pour off the clear liquor from the dregs, if there be any." Lond. Take of Lemon-juice, freed from impurities by subsidence and filtration, a pint [Imp. meas.]; Sugar two pounds and a half. Dissolve the Sugar in the Lemon-juice with'the aid of a gentle heat, and after twenty-four hours' rest remove the scum, and pour the clear liquor from the dregs." Ed. " Take of Juice of fresh Lemons two pints. As soon as the dregs have subsided, put the Juice into a matrass, and subject it for fifteen minutes to the heat of boiling water. When cold, strain it through a sieve, and form a syrup." Dub. This syrup forms a cooling and grateful addition to beverages in febrile complaints, and serves to conceal the taste of saline purgatives given in solution. W. SYRUPUS MORI. Lond. Syrup of Mulberries. "Take of Mulberry Juice, strained, a pint [Imperial measure]; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half. Dissolve the Sugar in the Mulberry Juice, with a gentle heat, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup of Lemons." Lond. This may be used for the same purposes with lemon syrup. In like man- ner syrups may be prepared from various succulent fruits, such as straw- berries, raspberries, pineapples, 8,-c. When the juice is thick, it may be diluted with from one-third of its bulk to an equal bulk of water, previously to the addition of the sugar. In the preparation of raspberry syrup, which, as ordinarily made, is apt to gelatinize, M. Blondeau recommends that the strained juice be allowed to stand from eight to fifteen hours, according to the temperature, in order to ferment. The juice separates into two por- tions, the upper thick, the lower clear. The latter is to be separated by straining and made into a syrup with the usual proportion of sugar. These syrups are employed to flavour drinks, and are much used as grateful addi- tions to carbonic acid water. W. SYRUPUS PAPAVERIS. Lond., Ed. Syrupus Papaveris Som- niferi. Dub. Syrup of Poppies. " Take of Poppy [capsules] three pounds ; Sugar [refined] five pounds; boiling Wafer five gallons [Imperial measure]. Boil down the Capsules in the"Water to two gallons, and press strongly. Boil dowrLfthe strained liquor again to four pints, and strain it while hot. Set it by fof twelve hours that the dregs may subside, then boil down the clear liquor to two pints, add the Sugar, and dissoke." Lond. "Take of Pqpp|0i&cls, without the seeds, one pound and a lialj; boiling Water^eenjDw^Imperial measure]; Pure Sugar three pounds. Slice the 1150 Syrupi. PART II. Poppy-heads, infuse them in the Water for twelve hours, boil down to five pints, strain and express strongly through calico, boil again down to two pints and a half; then add the Sugar and dissolve it with the aid of heat." Ed. "Take of the Capsules of the White Poppy, dried, deprived of their seeds, and bruised, seventeen ounces; boiling Water two gallons. Macerate the Capsules in the Water for twenty-four hours ; then, by means of a water- bath, boil down to a gallon, and strongly express. Boil down the strained liquor again to two pints, and strain it while bot. Set it by for twelve hours that the dregs may subside; then boil down the clear liquor to a pint and form a syrup." Dub. As the capsules contain variable proportions of the narcotic principle, the syrup prepared from them is necessarily of variable strength. It is, more- over, very apt to spoil. Its place might, with great propriety, be supplied by a syrup prepared from one of the salts of morphia, which would keep well and have the advantage of uniform strength. Four grains of the sul- phate of morphia dissolved in a pint of syrup, would afford a preparation at least equal to the average strength of the syrup of poppies, and much more certain in its operation. Mr. Southall recommends that the syrup of poppies should be prepared with a cold infusion made by percolation; the same proportions being employed as directed by the London Pharmacopoeia. The virtues of the capsules are thus extracted without those principles which cause the syrup to ferment speedily. (Am. Journ. of Pharm,, xv. 140, from Lond. Pharm. Transact.) The syrup of poppies is employed, chiefly in infantile cases, to allay cough, quiet restlessness, relieve pain, and promote sleep. The dose is from half a fluidrachm to a fluidrachm for an infant, from half a fluidounce to a fluidounce for an adult. W. SYRUPUS RHAMNI. Lond., Ed., Dub. Syrup of Buckthorn. " Take of fresh Juice of Buckthorn [berries] four pints [Imperial mea- sure]; Ginger, sliced, Pimento, in powder, each, six drachms; Sugar [re- fined] four pounds. Set by the Juice for three days that the dregs may subside, and then strain it. To a pint of the clear Juice add the Ginger and Pimento; then macerate for four hours with a gentle heat, and strain. Boil down the remainder of the Juice to a "pint and a half; mix the liquors; add the Sugar and dissolve it." Lond. The Edinburgh process is the same as the above. " Take of the fresh Juice of Buckthorn Berries two pints and a half; Ginger Root, sliced, Pimento Berries, in powder, each, three drachms. Set by the Juice that the dregs may subside, and then strain it. Add the Ginger and Pimento to ten ounces of the clear Juice, macerate for twenty- four hours, and filter. Boil down the remaining Juice to a pint, mix the liquors, and form a syrup." Dub. The syrup of buckthorn is a bri^k cathartic, but, having an unpleasant taste, and being apt to gripe violently, is very seldom employed. In Europe it is used occasionally as an adjunct to other medicines in cathartic and diuretic mixtures. The dose is from half a fluidounce to a fluidounce. The patient should drink freely of thin gruel, or other demulcent beverage, during its operation. W. SYRUPUS RHEI. U. S. Syrup of Rhubarb. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two ounces; Boiling Water a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Macerate the Rhubarb in the Water for twenty-four hours, and strain; then add the Sugar, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup." U.S. PART II. Syrupi. 1151 This is a mild cathartic, adapted to the cases of infants, to whom it may be given in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. It has been proposed to form the syrup of rhubarb in the manner directed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia for the aromatic syrup, by first preparing a tincture with diluted alcohol, then evaporating the spirituous portion by means of a water-bath, and incorporating the remainder with sugar. It is questionable, however, whether this would be an improvement on the offi- cinal formula; as, though a stronger syrup might be obtained, there would be some risk that a portion of the alcohol might remain, and render the preparation too stimulating to meet the indication for which it was originally intended. W. SYRUPUS RHEI AROMATICUS. U.S. Aromatic Syrup of Rhu- barb. "Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two ounces and a half; Cloves, bruised, Cinnamon, bruised, each, half an ounce; Nutmeg, bruised, two drachms; Diluted Alcohol two pints; Syrup six pints. Macerate the Rhubarb and Aromatics in the Diluted Alcohol for fourteen days, and strain; then, by means of a water-bath, evaporate the liquor to a pint, and, while it is still hot, mix it with the Syrup previously heated. " Aromatic Syrup of Rhubarb may also be prepared by putting the Rhu- barb and Aromatics, previously reduced to coarse powder and moistened with Diluted Alcohol, into an apparatus for displacement; pouring upon them gradually Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are ob- tained ; then evaporating to a pint, and completing the process as above directed." U. S. Of these two modes of proceeding, the first should always be preferred by those not experienced in conducting the process of filtration by displace- ment. In preparing the syrup, the apothecary should be careful to employ aromatics of the best quality, and to effect the evaporation of the tincture, according to the officinal direction, by means of a water-bath. The aromatic syrup of rhubarb is a warm stomachic laxative, too feeble for adult cases, but well calculated for the bowel-complaints of infants, which are so frequent in our cities during the summer season, and as a remedy for which this preparation, or one analogous to it, has been long in use under the name of spiced syrup of rhubarb. The dose for an infant with diarrhoea is a fluidrachm, repeated every two hours till the passages indicate by their colour that the medicine has operated. W. SYRUPUS RHCEADOS. Lond., Ed. Syrupus Papaveris Rhce- adis. Dub. Syrup of Red Poppy. "Take of Red Poppy [petals] a pound; boiling Water a pint [Imperial measure]; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half. To the Water heated by a water-bath, gradually add the Petals, occasionally stirring; then, hav- ing removed the vessel, macerate for twelve hours ; express the liquor, and when the dregs have subsided add the Sugar, and dissolve it." Lond. The Edinburgh process is a close imitation of the London. "Take of the fresh Petals of the Red Poppy a pound; boiling Water twenty fluidounces. Add the Petals gradually to the boiling Water; then, having removed the vessel from the fire, macerate with an inferior heat [between 90° and 100°] for twelve hours; express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs may subside; lastly, add the Sugar, and form a syrup." Dub. The object of introducing the petals into water heated by a water-bath, is that they may shrink by being scalded, as otherwise they could not be completely immersed in the quantity of water directed. After this has been 1152 Syrupi. PART II. accomplished, they should be immediately removed from .the fire, lest the liquor should become too thick and ropy. The fine red colour of this syrup is its only recommendation. It has no medical virtues, and is very liable to ferment. W. SYRUPUS ROSA. Lond., Dub. Syrupus Rosa: Centifolia:. Ed. Syrup of Roses. "Take of Hundred-leaved Roses, dried, seven ounces; Sugar [refined] six pounds; boiling Water three pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate the petals in the water for twelve hours, and strain. Evaporate the strained liquor, by means of a water-bath, to two pints; then add the Sugar, and dis- solve it." Lond. The Dublin process differs from the above only in having four pints [wine measure] of water, evaporating to two pints and a half, and using the proportion of sugar directed in its general formula. (Seepage 1145.) " Take of fresh Damask-rose Petals one pound; boiling Water three pints [Imp. meas.]; Pure Sugar three pounds. Infuse the Petals in the Water for twelve hours, strain the liquor, and dissolve the Sugar in it with the aid of heat." Ed. This syrup is gently laxative, and, on account of its mildness, may be given with advantage to infants and persons of delicate habit. It is without the fragrance of the rose ; but has a reddish colour which is rendered bright red by acids, and green or yellow by alkalies. The dose is from two flui- drachms to one or two fluidounces. Off. Prep. Confectio Cassiae, Lond.; Confectio Scammonii, Lond. W. SYRUPUS ROSA GALLICA. Ed. Syrup of Red Roses. "Take of dried Red-rose Petals two ounces; boiling Water one pint; Pure Sugar twenty ounces. Proceed as for the Syrup of damask-rose." Ed. The syrup of red roses is mildly astringent; but is valued more for its fine red colour, on account of which it is occasionally added to mixtures. Off. Prep. Electuarium Catechu, Ed. W. SYRUPUS SARSAPARILLA. Dub. Syrupus Sarza:. Lond., Ed. Syrup of Sarsaparilla. "Take of Sarsaparilla, sliced,fifteen ounces; boiling Water a gallon Smperial measure]; Sugar fifteen ounces. Macerate the Sarsaparilla in e Water for twenty-four hours ; then boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot; afterwards add the Sugar and evaporate to the proper consistence." Lond. The Edinburgh process is the same as the above. The Dublin College obtains in the same manner four pints of a concen- trated strained decoction, and prepares a syrup with this, according to the general directions of the College. (See page 1145.) This syrup is necessarily a weak if not inert preparation; the virtues of sarsaparilla being only partially extracted by water, at least by the quantity of this menstruum ordinarily employed, and being injured or destroyed by long boiling. It is scarcely used in this country, our own compound syrup being preferred. W. SYRUPUS SARSAPARILLA COMPOSITUS. U.S. Compound Syrup of Sarsaparilla. "Take of Sarsaparilla, bruised, two pounds; Guaiacum Wood, rasped, three ounces; Hundred-leaved Roses, Senna, Liquorice Root, bruised, each, two ounces; Oil of Sassafras, Oil of Anise, each, five minims; Oil of Par- tridge-berry three minims; Diluted Alcohol ten pints; Sugar eight pounds. PART II. Syrupi. 1153 Macerate the Sarsaparilla, Guaiacum Wood, Roses, Senna, and Liquorice Root in the Diluted Alcohol for fourteen days; then express and filter. Evaporate the tincture by means of a water-bath to four pints, filter, add the Sugar, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup. Lastly, having rubbed the Oils with a small quantity of the Syrup, mix them thoroughly with the remainder. "Compound Syrup of Sarsaparilla may also be prepared in the follow- ing manner:—Take of Sarsaparilla, ground into coarse powder, two pounds; Guaiacum Wood, rasped, three ounces: Hundred-leaved Roses, Senna, Liquorice Root, each, in coarse powder, two ounces; Oil of Sassafras, Oil of Anise, each,yn;e minims; Oil of Partridge-berry three minims; Water a sufficient quantity; Sugar eight pounds. Mix the Sarsaparilla, Guai- acum Wood, Roses, Senna, and Liquorice Root with three pints of Water, and allow the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours. Then transfer the whole to an apparatus for displacement, and pour on water gradually until one gallon of filtered liquor is obtained. Evaporate this to four pints; then add the Sugar, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup. Lastly, having rubbed the Oils with a small portion of the Syrup, mix them thoroughly with the remainder." U. S. In the original edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia published in 1820, a process for a syrup of sarsaparilla was adopted, intended to represent the famous French Sirop de Cuisinier. This was very much improved in the revised edition published in 1830; and the amended process is retained with little alteration in the present edition, being the first of the two quoted above. In the original process, the sarsaparilla was subjected to long decoction with water. Now it has been proved that diluted alcohol more thoroughly extracts the acrid principle of the root, upon which its activity probably depends, than water, and that this principle is either dissipated or destroyed by the long-continued application of a boiling heat.* In the present formula, therefore, which employs diluted alcohol as the menstruum, the root is more completely exhausted of its active matter; while the heat applied to the concentration, being no higher than is requisite for the evaporation of the alcohol, is insufficient to injure the preparation. The spirituous menstruum has, moreover, the advantage of not dissolving the inert fecula, which encumbers the syrup prepared by decoction, and renders it liable to spoil. At the last revision of the Pharmacopoeia, the pale or hundred-leaved roses were very properly substituted for the red; as their slightly laxative property accords better with the character of the preparation. The operator should be careful to comply exactly with the directions of the Pharmacopoeia in relation to the period of maceration, and the use of the water-bath. The essential oils, being intended solely to communicate an agreeable flavour, are used in very small proportion. The only objection to this process is that a portion of the resin, extracted by the alcohol from the guaiacum wood, is deposited during the evaporation of the tincture; but this is separated by the filtration directed, and is therefore of no disadvantage to the preparation. It is perhaps unfortunate that the second process above quoted was adopted by the revisers of the Pharmacopoeia. It yields a handsome syrup, containing a certain amount of the active matter of the sarsaparilla; but has been shown by the experiments of Mr. Husband to have less of the sensible properties, and consequently, in all probability, of the medical virtues of the * See a paper by J. Hancock, M. D., republished in the Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., i. 295; a communication by M. Beral to the Journal de Pharmacie, xv. 657; another byM. Soubeiran in the same Journal, xvi. 38 ; and a paper by T. J. Husbaad in die American Journ. of Pharm., xv. 6. 98 1154 Syrupi. PART II. root, than the syrup prepared with diluted alcohol. (Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 6.) We would strongly advise an adherence to the first of the two officinal formulas. But the practitioner should be aware that much of the sarsaparilla as it exists in the market is nearly or quite inert, and should be prepared to meet with disappointment in the use of this or any other prepara- tion, unless satisfied of the good quality of the drug from which it is made. Corrosive sublimate, which is often given in connexion with this syrup, is said to be completely decomposed by it, being converted into calomel. M. Lepage, of Gisors, proposes as a substitute the iodo-hydrargyrate of potassium (see Appendix), which he has found not to undergo decomposi- tion. (Journ. de Pharm., Se ser., viii. 03.) The dose of the syrup of sarsaparilla is half a fluidounce, equivalent to somewhat less than a drachm of the root, to be taken three or four times a day. W. SYRUPUS SCILLA. U. S., Ed. Syrup of Squill. " Take of Vinegar of Squill a pint; Sugar [refined] two pounds. Add the Sugar to the Vinegar of Squill, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup." U. S. " Take of Vinegar of Squill three pints; Pure Sugar, in powder, seven pounds. Dissolve the Sugar in the Vinegar of Squill, with the aid of a gentle heat and agitation." Ed. This syrup is much employed as an expectorant, especially in combina- tion with a solution of tartarized antimony. The dose is about a fluidrachm. In infantile cases of catarrh and other pectoral complaints, it is sometimes given, in the same dose, as an emetic. W. SYRUPUS SCILLA COMPOSITUS. U.S. Compound Syrup of Squill. Hive-syrup. "Take of Squill, bruised, Seneka, bruised, each, four ounces; Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa forty-eight grains; Water four pints; Sugar three pounds and a half. Pour the Water upon the Squill and Seneka, and having boiled to one-half, strain and add the Sugar; then evaporate to three pints, and, while the Syrup is still hot, dissolve in it the Tartrate of Anti- mony and Potassa. " Compound Syrup of Squill may be advantageously prepared in the following manner by those familiar with the process of displacement:— " Take of Squill, in coarse powder, Seneka, in coarse powder, each, four ounces; Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa forty-eight grains; Alco- hol half a pint; Water a sufficient quantity; Sugar three pounds and a half. Mix the Alcohol with two pints and a half of Water, and macerate the Squill and Seneka in the mixture for twenty-four hours. Put the whole into an apparatus for displacement, and add as much Water as may be neces- sary to make the filtered liquor amount to three pints. Boil the liquor for a few minutes, evaporate to one-half, and strain; then add the Sugar, and evaporate until the resulting Syrup measures three pints. Lastly, dissolve the Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa in the Syrup, while' it is still hot." This is intended as a substitute for that very popular preparation called Coxe's hive-syrup, from which it differs chiefly in containing sugar instead of honey. Prepared according to the directions of the former Pharma- copoeia, it invariably fermented from the want of sufficient concentration. This defect was corrected at the last revision of the Pharmacopoeia, when sugar was also substituted for honey, in consequence of the uncertain con- sistence and constitution of the latter. It will be observed that two for- PART II. Syrupi. 1155 rnulse are given above, in the former of which the virtues of the squill and seneka are extracted by long boiling with water, in the latter, by percolation with water to which a small portion of alcohol has been added. Either of them will furnish an efficient product; but the latter is preferable when skil- fully performed; as it avoids in great measure the injurious influence of boiling upon the seneka, exhausts both this and the squill more readily in consequence of the addition of alcohol to the menstruum, and affords a solu- tion of their active principles less embarrassed with inert matters calculated to favour fermentation. In this process, the filtered liquor is raised to the boiling point in order to coagulate the albumen, after which the evaporation should be conducted at a lower temperature. But the inexperienced operator should follow the first formula; for, if the percolation be not properly effected, the syrup will inevitably be weaker than it is designed to be.* The compound syrup of squill combines the virtues of seneka, squill, and tartar emetic, of the last of which it contains one grain in every fluidounce. It is emetic, diaphoretic, expectorant,and frequently cathartic, and maybe given with advantage in mild cases of croup, in the latter stages of severe cases when the object is to promote expectoration, and in other pectoral affections in which the same indication is presented. As an emetic in inflam- matory croup and infantile catarrh, we decidedly prefer a simple solution of tartar emetic in water. The dose of the compound syrup of squill is, for children, from ten drops to a fluidrachm, according to the age, and should be repeated in cases of croup every fifteen or twenty minutes till it vomits. As an expectorant for adults the dose is twenty or thirty drops. W. SYRUPUS SENEGA. U. S. Syrup of Seneka. "Take of Seneka, bruised, four ounces; Water a pint; Sugar [refined] a pound. Boil the Water with the Seneka to one-half, and strain; then add the Sugar, and proceed in the manner directed for Syrup. Syrup of Seneka may also be prepared in the following manner:— "Take of Seneka, in coarse powder, four ounces; Water a sufficient quantity; Sugar fifteen ounces. Mix the Seneka with four fluidounces of Water, and allow the mixture to stand for twelve hours; then put it into an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pour Water upon it until the liquid passes nearly tasteless. Evaporate the filtered liquor to half a pint, strain, and, having added the Sugar, proceed in the manner directed for Syrup." U.S. The latter of these processes is preferable for an experienced operator, as it avoids the injury to the seneka resulting from long boiling; but they who are not practically acquainted with the process of percolation should employ the former. This is an active preparation, and affords a very convenient mode of exhibiting seneka in pectoral complaints. It may be given as a stimulant expectorant in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. W. * In the Pharmacopoeia of 1830, this preparation was named Mel Scilla Compositum, or compound honey of squill. The following was the officinal process : '• Take of Squill, bruised, Seneka, bruised, each, four ounces; Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa forty-eight grains; Clarified Honey two pounds. Pour the Distilled Water upon the Squill and Se- neka, and boil to one-half; strain, and add the Clarified Honey; then boil down to three pints, in which dissolve the Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa." The preparation thus made was insufficiently concentrated, measuring only 20£o Baum6, instead of 30°, which is the proper standard of density for syrup. It therefore speedily fermented. By boiling, however, down to two pints instead of three, it will have the proper consistence, and will keep much better. But in this case only 32 grains of tartar emetic should be added, so that there may still be one grain of the antimoniai to each fluidounce of the syrup. 1156 Syrupi. PART II. SYRUPUS SENNA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Syrup of Senna. "Take of Senna two ounces; Fennel-seed, bruised, an ounce; Boiling Water a pint; Sugar fifteeyi ounces. Digest the Senna and Fennel-seed in the Water, with a gentle heat, for an hour; then Strain, add the Sugar, and evaporate to the proper consistence." U. S. "Take of Senna two ounces and a half; Fennel [seeds], bruised,Yen drachms; Manna three ounces; Sugax [refined] fifteen ounces; boiling Water a pint [Imperial measure]. Macerate the Senna and Fennel in the Water with a gentle heat for an hour. Strain the liquor, and mix with it the Manna and Sugar; then boil down to the proper consistence." Lond. " Take of Senna four ounces ; boiling Water one pint and four fluid- ounces [Imperial measure]; Treacle forty-eight ounces. Infuse the Senna in the Water for twelve hours; strain and express strongly through calico, so as to obtain a pint and two fluidounces at least of liquid. Concentrate the Treacle in the vapour-bath as far as possible, or till a little taken out upon a rod becomes nearly concrete on cooling; and, while the Treacle is still hot, add the infusion, stirring carefully, and removing the vessel from the vapour- bath as soon as the mixture is complete. If Alexandrian Senna be used for this preparation, it must be carefully freed of Cynanchum leaves by picking it." Ed. The molasses in the Edinburgh syrup almost completely covers the taste of the senna; and the preparation, according to Dr. Christison, is very effectual, and seldom occasions nausea or griping. The U. S. and London processes are liable to the objection, that considerable evaporation is neces- sary to bring the syrup to the proper consistence; so that, if a boiling heat be employed, the senna may be injured. This syrup is intended chiefly as a cathartic for children, to whom it may be given in the dose of one or two fluidrachms.* W. SYRUPUS TOLUTANI. U.S. Syrupus Tolutanus. Lond., Ed. Syrupus Balsami Tolutani. Dub. Syrup of Tolu. " Take of Tincture of Tolu a fluidounce ; Syrup a pint and a half. Mix the Tincture with the Syrup, and by means of a water-bath evaporate to the proper consistence." U. S. " Take of Balsam of Tolu ten drachms; boiling Water a pint [Imp. meas.]; Sugar [refined] two pounds and a half. Boil the Balsam in the Water for half an hour, in a lightly covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and strain the liquor when cold; then add the Sugar and dissolve it." Lond. The Edinburgh College prepares this syrup by adding gradually one ounce of the tincture of tolu to two pounds of simple syrup just prepared, and before it has become cold. The Dublin College pursues the same plan, using an ounce of the tincture to a pint and a half of syrup. * Under the name of fluid extract of senna, a preparation, originally suggested by Mr. Charles Ellis, has been considerably used in this city. The following is the formula, as modified by the late Mr. Duhamel.—Macerate eight ounces of coarsely powdered senna with a pint of diluted alcohol for twelve hours; then introduce it into a dis- placement apparatus, and gradually pour in water until three pints of liquid shall have passed. Evaporate with a gentle heat to five fluidounces, and, while the liquor is still hot, dissolve in it five ounces of sugar. Strain the liquor, and when it is cold add for each fluidounce two drops of the oil of fennel, dissolved in a little Hoffmann's ano- dyne. The last-mentioned ingredient serves to prevent the fluid extract from fermenting. Haifa fluidounce is the dose for an adult. {Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 290.) A fluid ex- tract is now largely prepared in England by concentrating the infusion in vacuo. (See, for Mr. Duncan's formula, published by Dr. Christison, the Philadelphia Medical Exami- ner, vi. 250.) PART II. Syrupi. 1157 The London process affords a syTup with a finer flavour than that pre- pared with the tincture. The same portion of balsam is, according to Mr. Brande, usually employed in successive operations, and it long continues to impart odour and taste to boiling water. The quantity of the balsam is rather less than two grains in a fluidounce of the syrup, prepared according to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, which is about equal in strength to the Edin- burgh and Dublin, and much stronger than the London. The syrup of tolu may, therefore, be considered inert as a medicine ; and its only use is to communicate its agreeable flavour to mixtures. W. SYRUPUS VIOLA. Ed., Dub. Syrup of Violets. "Take of fresh Violets one pound; boiling Water two pints and a half [Imp. meas.] ; Pure Sugar seven, pounds and a half. Infuse the flowers for twenty-four hours in the Water, in a covered glass or earthenware vessel; strain without squeezing, and dissolve the Sugar in the filtered liquor." Ed. " Take of the fresh Petals of the Violet two pounds; boiling Watex five pints. Macerate for twenty-four hours ; then filter the liquor through fine linen, without expression ; lastly add the Sugar [twenty-nine ounces for every pint of liquor], and form a syrup." Dub. This syrup has a deep blue colour and an agreeable flavour. It is said that its colour is most beautiful when it is prepared in well-cleaned pewter vessels ; but the action of the metal has not been satisfactorily explained. As it is apt to fade by time, it is sometimes counterfeited with materials the colour of which is more permanent. The fraud may usually be detected by the addition of an acid or alkali, the former of which reddens the syrup of violets, the latter renders it green, while they produce no such change upon the counterfeit. The syrup acts as a gentle laxative when given to infants in the dose of one or two fluidrachms ; but it is used chiefly as a test of acids and alkalies. For the latter purpose, a syrup prepared from the juice of the red cabbage may be substituted in its place. It is very seldom kept in our shops. W. SYRUPUS ZINGIBERIS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Syrup of Ginger. "Take of Tincture of Ginger four fluidounces; Syrup a gallon. Mix the Tincture with the Syrup, and by means of a water-bath evaporate to the proper consistence." U. S. The London College macerates two ounces and a half of sliced ginger, for four hours, in a pint (Imperial measure) of boiling water, and, having strained the infusion, adds two pounds and a half of refined sugar, and dissolves it. The Edinburgh College infuses two ounces and a half of bruised ginger, for four hours, in a pint (Imperial measure) of boiling water, strains, adds two pounds and a half of pure sugar, and dissolves it with the aid of heat. The Dublin College macerates four ounces of the bruised root, for twenty-four hours, in three pints of boiling water, filters the liquor, and adds twenty-nine ounces of refined sugar to each pint. The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is the most easy, and affords a syrup in every respect equal to the others, without being like them encum- bered with the mucilage and starch of the root. In order that it may be of the proper strength, it is necessary that the tincture should have been made with the best Jamaica ginger. The syrup of ginger is much used as a warm stomachic addition to tonic and purgative infusions or mixtures, and to impart flavour to drinks, particularly to carbonic acid water. Off. Prep. Electuarium Catechu Compositum, Dub.; Electuarium Opii, Ed.; Pilulae Sagapeni Compositas, Lond. W. 98* 1158 Syrupi.— Tinctures. part ii. TINCTURE. Tinctures. Tinctures, in the pharmaceutical sense of the term, are solutions of me- dicinal substances in alcohol or diluted alcohol, prepared by maceration, digestion, or percolation. Solutions in spirit of ammonia and ethereal spirit are embraced under the same denomination, but are severally distin- guished by the titles of ammoniated tinctures and ethereal tinctures. The advantages of alcohol as a menstruum are, that it dissolves principles which are sparingly or not at all soluble in water, and contributes to their preservation when dissolved; while it leaves behind some inert substances which are dissolved by water. In no instance, however, is absolute alcohol employed. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs it of the sp. gr. 0*835 ; the London and Edinburgh, 0*838 ; and the Dublin, 0*840. When of these densities it contains water, and is capable of dissolving more or less of sub- stances which are insoluble in anhydrous alcohol; while its solvent power, in relation to bodies soluble in that fluid, is sufficient for all practical pur- poses. Diluted alcohol or proof spirit is often preferable to officinal alcohol; as it is capable of extracting a larger proportion of those active principles of plants which require an aqueous menstruum, at the same time that it is strong enough to prevent spontaneous decomposition, and has the advan- tages of being cheaper and less stimulating. The diluted alcohol of the different Pharmacopoeias is not of the same strength, that of the United States consisting of equal measures of officinal alcohol and water, and hav- ing the sp. gr. 0.935; while that of London has the sp. gr. 0*920, that of Edinburgh 0*912, and that of Dublin 0-919. The difference, however, is not very material. Alcohol or rectified spirit is preferred as the solvent, when the substance to be extracted or dissolved is nearly or quite insoluble in water, as in the instances of the resins, guaiac, camphor, and the essen- tial oils. The presence of water is here injurious, not only by diluting the menstruum, but by exercising an affinity for the alcohol which interferes with its solvent power. Thus water, added to an alcoholic solution of one of these bodies, produces a precipitate by abstracting the alcohol from it. Diluted alcohol or proof spirit is employed, when the substance is soluble both in alcohol and water, or when one or more of the ingredients are solu- ble in the one fluid, and one or more in the other, as in the case of those vege- tables which contain extractive or tannin, or the native salts of the organic alkalies, or gum united with resin or essential oil. As these include the greater number of medicines from which tinctures are prepared, diluted alcohol is most frequently usedv In the preparation of the tinctures, the medicine should be in the dry state, and properly comminuted by being bruised, sliced, or pulverized. It is usually better in the condition of a coarse than of a very fine powder; as in the latter it is apt to agglutinate, and thus present an impediment to the penetration of the menstruum. When several substances differing in solu- bility are employed, they should be added successively to the spirit, those least soluble first, those most so last; as otherwise the menstruum might become saturated with the ingredient for which it has the strongest affinity, and thus be rendered incapable of dissolving a due proportion of the others. Until recently, tinctures have been universally prepared by maceration or digestion. The Edinburgh College directs digestion to be continued usually for seven days. Our own Pharmacopoeia follows that of London, in direct- ing maceration at ordinary temperatures, and extending the period to two part II. Tinctures. 1159 weeks. The latter plan is preferable, as it is more convenient and equally effectual, the lower temperature beingcompensatedby the longer maceration. When circumstances require that the tincture should be speedily prepared, digestion may be resorted to. Care should always be taken to keep the vessel well stopped, in order to prevent the evaporation of the alcohol. The materials should be frequently shaken during the digestion or maceration; and this caution is especially necessary when the substance acted on is in the state of powder. The tincture should not be used till the maceration is completed; when it should be separated from the dregs either by simply filtering it through paper, or, when force is requisite, by first expressing it through linen, and subsequently filtering. The plan of preparing tinctures by percolation or displacement has re- cently been extensively adopted ; and has been found to answer an excellent purpose, when skilfully executed. In the last editions of the U. S. and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, this mode of preparation has been given as an alternative in numerous instances; and would probably have been exclusively recommended in some, except for its liability to fail in the hands of inexpe- rienced persons. The reader will find rules for the proper management of this process at pages 763 and 769. Another mode of exhausting medicines by spirit, has been proposed by Dr. H. Burton. It consists in suspending in the solvent, immediately under its surface, the solid matter contained loosely in a bag. The liquid in contact with the bag, becoming heavier by impregnation with the matters dissolved, sinks to the bottom; its place is supplied with a fresh portion, which in its turn sinks ; and thus a current is established, which continues until the solid substance is exhausted or the liquid saturated. During the maceration, the bag should be occasionally raised above the surface of the liquor in the bottle, beneath the cover, and allowed to drain, and then again immersed. It is asserted that the period of maceration is much shortened in this way. (Lond. Med. Gaz., Aug. 30, 1844.) Tinctures have been Jong in use on the Continent of Europe, and have recently been brought into notice in Great Britain, prepared by adding alcohol to the expressed juices of plants. They are sometimes called in England preserved vegetable juices. The tinctures of some of the narcotic plants might no doubt be advantageously prepared in this way, as those of conium, hyoscyamus, and belladonna. Mr. Squire and Mr. Bentley have paid par- ticular attention to these preparations. According to Mr. Squire, the leaves only of the plants should be used, and in the case of biennial plants those exclusively of the second year's growth; and they should always be pre- ferably collected when the plant is in full flower. Mr. Bentley recommends the following mode of preparation. To the expressed juice, after it has stood for twenty-four hours, and deposited its feculent matter, alcohol of 0*838 is to be added in the proportion of one part by measure to four of the juice; and, after another period of twenty-four hours, the liquor is to be filtered. The proportion of alcohol mentioned has been found sufficient for the preservation of the juice, while it causes the precipitation of all the suspended mucilaginous matter. Tinctures should be kept in bottles accurately stopped, in order to pre- vent evaporation, which might, in some instances, be attended with serious inconvenience, by increasing their strength beyond the officinal standard. Medicines are most conveniently administered in tincture, which act powerfully in small doses; as the proportion of alcohol in which they are dissolved is too minute to produce an appreciable effect. Those which re- quire to be given in large doses should be cautiously employed in this form, 1160 Tinctures. part ii. lest the injury done by the menstruum should more than counterbalance their beneficial operation. This remark is particularly applicable to chronic cases of disease, in which the use of tinctures is apt to result in the establish- ment of fatal habits of intemperance. The tinctures of the weaker medicines are more frequently given as adjuvants of other remedies than with the view of obtaining their own full effects upon the system. The following general directions are given in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. "Tinctures, when prepared by maceration, should be frequently shaken during the process, which should be conducted in glass vessels well stopped. When displacement is employed, great care should be taken to observe the directions given at page 4 [page 769, U. S. Dispensatory], so that the sub- stances treated may be, as far as possible, exhausted of their soluble prin- ciples, and a perfectly clear tincture obtained. To those not familiar with this process, the plan of maceration is recommended." The London College states that "all tinctures should be prepared in closed glass vessels, and frequently shaken during the maceration." The general directions of the Edinburgh College, which relate to the process of perco- lation, have been given at page 770. W. TINCTURA ACONITI. U.S. Tincture of Aconite. "Take of Aconite four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Aco- nite, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for twenty-four hours, then transferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are ob- tained." U. S. This is a good preparation of aconite when made from the recently dried leaves, and may be given in the dose of twenty or thirty drops. A saturated tincture prepared from the root is now considerably used. It is much stronger than the officinal tincture, being given in the dose of five minims. (See Aconitum,page 55.) Care should always be taken to distinguish these tinctures in prescription. W. TINCTURA ALOES. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Aloes. " Take of Aloes, in powder, an ounce; Liquorice [extract] three ounces; Alcohol half a pint; Distilled Water a pint and a half. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. The London process differs from the above only in the use of the Impe- rial, instead of tbe wine measure. The Edinburgh College takes an ounce of Socotrine or Indian Aloes, three ounces of liquorice, twelve fluidounces of rectified spirit, and twenty-eight fluidounces of water; digests for seven days; and filters the liquor, separated from the sediment. The Dublin Col- lege dissolves an ounce and a half of liquorice in eight ounces of boiling water; then adds half an ounce of Socotrine aloes and eight fluidounces of proof spirit, digests the whole for seven days, and filters. The tincture of aloes of the former U. S. Pharmacopoeia was prepared with the officinal diluted alcohol, without the addition of water. In the present edition it has been made to correspond with the tincture of the British Col- leges. It is little more than an infusion, with the addition of sufficient alcohol to prevent spontaneous decomposition. The liquorice is added to cover the taste of the aloes; but it answers the end imperfectly; and the preparation, on account of its unpleasant bitterness, is little used, aloes being generally administered in the form of pill. The dose is from half a fluid- ounce to a fluidounce and a half. W. PART II. Tinctures. 116.1 TINCTURA ALOES ET MYRRHA. U. S., Ed. Tinctura Aloes Composita. Lond., Dub. Tincture of Aloes and Myrrh. "Take of Aloes, in powder, three ounces; Saffron an ounce; Tincture of Myrrh two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. The London College takes four ounces of aloes, two ounces of saffron, and two pints (Imperial measure) of tincture of myrrh, and proceeds as above. The directions of the Dublin College correspond with those of our Pharmacopoeia, except that Socotrine aloes is specified and the saffron omitted. The Edinburgh College takes four ounces of Socotrine or Indian aloes, two owices of saffron, and two pints (Imperial measure) of tincture of myrrh; digests for seven days; and filters the clear "superincumbent" liquor. This tincture is a modification of the elixir proprietatis of Paracelsus. The saffron, which has been retained in compliance with former prejudices, can add little to the efficacy of the preparation ; and, being very expensive, has with great propriety been much reduced in the present U.S. formula. It serves, however, to impart a richness to the tincture, the want of which might be considered a defect by those accustomed to its use. The tincture is purgative, tonic, and emmenagogue; and is considerably employed in chlorosis, and other disordered states of health in females, connected with suppressed, retained, or deficient menstruation, and with a constipated state of bowels. It may also be used as a stomachic laxative in cold, languid habits, independently of menstrual disorder. The dose is from one to two fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA AMMONIA COMPOSITA. Lond. Compound Tinc- ture of Ammonia. " Take of Mastich two drachms; Rectified Spirit nine fluidrachms; Oil of Lavender/owr/een minims; Oil of Amber four minims; Stronger Solu- tion of Ammonia a pint [Imperial measure]. Macerate the Mastich in the Spirit that it may be dissolved, and pour off the clear tincture; then add the other ingredients, and shake them all together." Lond. This is the Spiritus Ammoniae Succinatus of the former London Phar- macopoeia, and was intended as a substitute for the eau de luce. The tinc- ture has a milky appearance, owing to the separation of the mastich from its alcoholic solution by the water of ammonia. Its properties are essen- tially those of its ammoniacal ingredient; the mastich having no medical action, and the oils of lavender and amber being in too small proportion to serve any other purpose, than that of imparting flavour. It is used chiefly as a powerful stimulant applied to the nostrils, in cases of fainting and torpor. It had at one time considerable reputation as an antidote to the bite of venomous animals, but is not relied on at present. The dose for internal use is from ten to thirty drops, very largely diluted with water. W. TINCTURA ANGUSTURA. Dub. Tinctura Cusparia:. Ed. Tincture of Angustura Bark. "Take of Angustura Bark, in coarse powder, two ounces; Proof Spirit two pints. Macerate for fourteen days; then filter." Dub. The Edinburgh College takes four ounces and a half of the bark, and two pints (Imperial measure) of proof spirit, and proceeds as for the tinc- ture of Peruvian bark. This tincture contains the active principles of Angustura bark, and may be given in the dose of one or two fluidrachms. W. 1162 Tinctures. part ii. TINCTURA ASSAFCETIDA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Tinctura Assa> fcetidje. Dub. Tincture of Assafetida. "Take of Assafetida, four ounces; Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. The London College takes five ounces of assafetida, and two pints (Im- perial measure) of rectified spirit, and proceeds as above. The Edinburgh College, with the same quantity of materials, digests for seven days, and filters the clear liquor. The Dublin process differs from that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia only in triturating the assafetida with half a pint of water previously to the addition of the alcohol. This tincture becomes milky on the addition of water, in consequence of the separation of the resin. It possesses all the virtues of assafetida. The medium dose is a fluidrachm. Off. Prep. Enema Foetidum, Dub. W. TINCTURA AURANTII. Lond., Ed. Tincture of Orange Peel. "Take of dried Orange Peel three ounces and a half; Proof Spirit tiro pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. "Take of Bitter Orange Peel, dried, three ounces and a half; Proof Spirit two pints [Imp. measure]. Digest for seven days, strain and ex- press strongly, and filter the liquor. This tincture may be prepared by percolation, by cutting the Peel into small fragments, macerating it in a little of the Spirit for twelve hours, and beating the mass into a coarse pulp before putting it into the percolator." Ed. It is the peel of the Seville orange which is intended by the London Col- lege; and the outer part only should be used, the inner whitish portion being inert. The tincture of orange peel is employed as a grateful addi- tion to infusions, decoctions, and mixtures. It was omitted by mistake in the last edition of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, as it is an ingredient in one of the officinal preparations of that work. Off. Prep. Mistura Ferri Aromatica, Dub. W. TINCTURA BELLADONNA. U. S. Tincture of Belladonna. "Take of Belladonna [leaves]four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. "This Tincture may also be prepared by thorougbly moistening the Belladonna, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for twenty-four hours, then transferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. This tincture is an efficient preparation when made from the recently dried leaves; but the imported leaves are of very uncertain strength, and a tincture prepared from them is less to be relied upon than the extract. The dose is from fifteen to thirty drops. W. TINCTURA BENZOINI COMPOSITA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Tinc- tura Benzoes Composita. Dub. Compound Tincture of Benzoin. "Take of Benzoin three ounces; Purified Storax two ounces; Balsam of Tolu an ounce; AIo'js, in powder, half an ounce; Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper." U. S. The London College takes three ounces and a half of benzoin, two ounces and a half of strained storax, ten drachms of balsam of Tolu^ue drachms of aloes, and two pints (Imperial measure) of rectified spirit, and proceeds as above. The Edinburgh College, takes four ounces of benzoin, two ounces and a half of balsam of Peru, half an ounce of East India PART II. Tinctures. 1163 aloes, and two pints (Imp. meas.) of rectified spirit, digests for seven days, pours off the clear liquor, and filters it. The Dublin process corresponds with that of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, except that digestion for seven days is employed instead of maceration for fourteen. This tincture is a stimulating expectorant, occasionally used in chronic catarrhal affections, but more frequently as a local application to indolent ulcers. It is the balsamum traumaticum of the older Pharmacopoeias, and may be considered as a simplified form of certain complex compositions, such as baume de commandeur, Wade's balsam, Friar''s balsam, Jesuits' drops, fyc, which were formerly in repute, and are still esteemed among the vulgar as pectorals and vulneraries. Turlington's balsam, which is a popular remedy in this country for such purposes, consists, as usually pre- pared in Philadelphia, of the ingredients of the officinal tincture, with the addition of Peruvian balsam, myrrh, and angelica root.* It is scarcely ne- cessary to state, that the application of these remedies to fresh wounds must frequently prove injurious, by inducing too much inflammation, and thus preventing union by the first intention. The compound tincture of benzoin is decomposed by water. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms. A variety of court plaster is made by applying to black silk, by means of a brush, first a solution of isinglass, and afterwards an alco- holic solution of benzoin. W. TINCTURA BUCHU. Dub. Tinctura Bucku. Ed. Tincture of Buchu. " Take of the Leaves of the Diosma crenata two ounces; Proof Spirit a pint. Macerate for seven days, and filter." Dub. " Take of Bucku five ounces; Proof Spirit two pints. Digest for seven days, pour off the clear liquor, and filter it. This tincture may be conve- niently and quickly made also by the process of percolation." Ed. This tincture has the virtues of buchu leaves, and may be given in the dose of from one to four fluidrachms, either simply diluted with water, or as an addition to the infusion of the leaves. W. TINCTURA CAMPHORA. U. S., Lond., Ed. Tinctura Campho- ra: sive Spiritus Camphoratus. Dub. Tincture of Camphor. " Take of Camphor/owr ounces; Alcohol two pints. Dissolve the Cam- phor in the Alcohol." U. S. The Dublin process corresponds with the above. The London College dissolves five ounces of camphor in two pints (Imperial measure) of recti- fied spirit; the Edinburgh, two ounces and a half in tico pints (Imperial measure). This is used chiefly as an anodyne embrocation in rheumatic and gouty pains, chilblains, and the inflammation resulting from sprains and bruises. It may also be employed internally, due regard being paid to the stimulant properties of the alcohol. The camphor is precipitated by the addition of water, but may be suspended by the intervention of sugar. The dose is from five drops to a fluidrachm, first added to sugar, and then mixed with water. Off. Prep. Linimentum Ammoniae Compositum, Ed. W. * The following is the formula for Turlington's balsam adopted by the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. " Take of Alcohol Oviij., Benzoin -xij., Liquid Storax giv., Socotrine Aloes 5J., Peruvian Balsam gij., Myrrh 3J., Angelica Root 3~s., Balsam of Tolu giv.. Extract of Liquorice Root giv. Digest for ten days and strain." Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., v. 28. 1164 Tinctures. PART II. TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Spanish flies. " Take of Spanish Flies, bruised, an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Flies, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing them to stand for twenty-four hours, then transferring them to an apparatus for displacement, and gradu- ally pouring upon them Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. The London College takes four drachms of the flies and two pints (Im- perial measure) of proof spirit, macerates for fourteen days, and filters ; the Dublin, two drachms of the former and a pint and a half of the latter, and digests for a week. ■ The Edinburgh College takes the same proportions as the London, digests for seven days, strains, expresses the residuum strongly, and filters; or prepares the tincture by percolation, having pre- viously moistened the coarsely powdered flies with a little of the spirit, and allowed them to stand for twelve hours. This tincture is one of the most convenient forms for the internal use of Spanish flies, the virtues of which it possesses to their full extent. (See Cantharis.) It is occasionally employed externally as a rubefacient; but its liability to vesicate should be taken into consideration. The British tinctures are all too feeble; the strongest containing the virtues only of three quarters of a grain of cantharides in a fluidrachm. The dose of the U. S. tincture is from twenty drops to a fluidrachm, repeated three or four times a day. W. TINCTURA CAPSICI. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Cay- enne Pepper. " Take of Cayenne Pepper an ounce; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Ma- cerate for fourteen days, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Cayenne Pepper, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, putting it into an ap- paratus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. The Dublin College prepares this tincture according to the first of the above formulae. The London College takes ten drachms of bruised Cay- enne pepper and two pints (Imperial measure) of proof spirit, macerates for fourteen days, and filters; the Edinburgh takes the same proportions as the London, digests for seven days, strains, expresses, and filters; or prepares the tincture by percolation, having previously made the capsicum into a pulp with a little of the spirit. This form of capsicum is a useful stimulant in very low states of the system with great gastric insensibility, as in malignant scarlet, and typhus fevers, and in the cases of drunkards. It may also be used as a gargle, diluted with rose water or some mucilaginous fluid. (See Capsicum.) Applied by means of a camel's hair pencil to the relaxed uvula, it some- times produces contraction, and relieves prolapsus of that part. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA CARDAMOMI. U. S., Lond., Ed. Tincture of Car- damom. " Take of Cardamom, bruised,four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Car- PART II. Tinctures. 1165 damom, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for twenty- four hours, then transferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gra- dually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U.S. The London College takes three ounces and a half of bruised cardamom, and two pints [Imperial measure] of proof spirit, macerates for fourteen days, and filters. The Edinburgh College takes four ounces and a half of the bruised seeds, and two pints [Imp. meas.] of proof spirit, digests for seven days, strains, expresses, and niters ; or prepares the tincture by per- colation, first grinding the seeds in a coffee-mill, and making them into a pulp with a little of the spirit. This tincture is an agreeable aromatic, and may be advantageously added to tonic and purgative infusions. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. Off. Prep. Tinctura Conii. Ed. W. TINCTURA CARDAMOMI COMPOSITA. Lond., Ed., Dub. Com- pound Tincture of Cardamom. " Take of Cardamom, Caraway, each, in powder, two drachms and a half; Cochineal, in powder, a drachm; Cinnamon, bruised, five drachms; Rai- sins five ounces; Proof Spirit two pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. The Edinburgh College, taking the same materials in the same quantities as the London, but bruised instead of powdered, digests for seven days, strains, expresses strongly, and filters. The same College allows the tinc- ture to be prepared also by percolation; the solid materials being first beaten together, moistened with a little spirit, and allowed to stand for twelve hours before being introduced into the instrument. The Dublin College takes of cardamom seeds freed from their husks, and caraway, each, two drachms, of cinnamon half an ounce, and two pints of proof spirit, and proceeds in the same manner as the London College. This is a very agreeable aromatic tincture, occasionally used as a car- minative in the dose of one or two fluidrachms, but more frequently as an addition to mixtures, infusions, &c, which it renders pleasant to the taste, and acceptable to the stomach. Off. Prep. Decoctum Aloe's Compositum, Lond, Ed.; Mistura Gentianae Composita. Lond. W. TINCTURA CASCARILLA. Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Cas- carilla. " Take of Cascarilla, in powder, five ounces; Proof Spirit two pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. The Edinburgh College employs five ounces of the bark, in moderately fine powder, and two pints [Imp. measure] of proof spirit; and proceeds by percolation or digestion as directed for the tincture of Peruvian bark. (See Tinctura Cinchonae.) The Dublin, takes four ounces of the bark in coarse powder, and two pints of the menstruum, and macerates for seven days. This tincture has the properties of cascarilla, but is seldom if ever used in this country. w# TINCTURA CASSIA. Ed. Tincture of Cassia. " Take of Cassia [Chinese cinnamon], in moderately fine powder, three ounces and a half; Proof Spirit two pints [Imperial measure]. Digest for seven days, strain, express the residuum strongly, and filter. This tincture is more conveniently made by the process of percolation, the Cassia being 99 1166 Tinctures. PART II. allowed to macerate in a little of the Spirit for twelve hours before being put into the percolator." Ed. The properties of this tincture are identical with those of tincture of cin- namon. (See Tinctura Cinnamomi.) W. TINCTURA CASTOREI. U. S., Lond., Ed. Tinctura Castorei Rossici. Dub. Tincture of Castor. "Take of Castor, bruised, two ounces; Alcohol two pints. Macerate for seven days, express, and filter through paper." U. S. The London College takes two ounces and a half of powdered castor, and two pints [Imperial measure] of rectified spirit, and macerates for fourteen days. The Dublin College directs two ounces of Russian castor, two pints of proof spirit, and maceration for a week. The Edinburgh College directs two ounces and a half of bruised castor, and two pints [Imp. meas.] of rec- tified spirit, and allows the tincture to be prepared either by digestion or per- colation, like the tincture of cassia. As castor yields little if any of its virtues to water, alcohol is a better sol- vent than proof spirit. It is said also to form a more grateful preparation. The Russian castor should always be preferred when attainable. This tincture is used for the same purposes with castor in substance. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA CASTOREI AMMONIATA. Ed. Ammoniated Tinc- ture of Castor. "Take of Castor, bruised, two ounces and a half; Assafetida, in small fragments, ten drachms; Spirit of Ammonia two pints [Imperial measure]. Digest for seven days in a well closed vessel; strain and express strongly the residuum; and filter the liquor." Ed. This is an active stimulant and antispasmodic, applicable to cases of severe spasm of the stomach, and to various hysterical and other nervous affections, unattended with inflammatory symptoms. The dose is from thirty minims to two fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA CATECHU. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Catechu. " Take of Catechu three ounces; Cinnamon, bruised, two ounces; Di- luted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper." U. S. The Dublin process differs from the above only in the period of mace- ration, which is seven days. The London College takes three ounces and a half of catechu, two ounces and a half of cinnamon, and two pints [Im- perial measure] of proof spirit, and macerates for fourteen days. The Edinburgh College takes three ounces and a half of catechu, in moderately fine powder; two ounces and a half of cinnamon, in fine powder; and two pints [Imp. meas.] of proof spirit; digests for seven days, strains, ex- presses strongly, and filters. This College prepares the tincture also by percolation, introducing the mixed powders into the percolator without pre- viously moistening them with spirit. This is a grateful astringent tincture, useful in all cases to which catechu is applicable, and in which small quantities of spirit are not objectionable. It may often be advantageously added to cretaceous mixtures in diarrhoea. The dose is from thirty minims to three fluidrachms, which may be given with sweetened water or some mucilaginous liquid, or in Port wine when this is not contra-indicated. W. PART II. Tinctures. 1167 TINCTURA CINCHONA. U. S, Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Peruvian Bark. " Take of Peruvian Bark, in powder, six ounces ; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Bark with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for forty-eight hours, then trans- ferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. "Take of Yellow Bark, in fine powder (or of any other species of Cinchona, according to prescription), eight ounces; Proof Spirit two pints [Imperial measure]. Percolate the Bark wTith the Spirit, the Bark being previously moistened with a very little Spirit, left thus for ten or twelve hours, and then firmly packed in the cylinder. This tincture may also be prepared, though much less expeditiously, and with much greater loss, by the usual process of digestion, the bark being in that case reduced to coarse powder only." Ed. The London College orders eight ounces of yellow bark and two pints [Imp. meas.] of proof spirit, and macerates for fourteen days; the Dublin, four ounces to two pints, and digests for a week. Of these tinctures, all, except the Dublin, are very properly made with a large proportion of bark; as, in the bitter tinctures, it is important that the alcohol should bear as small a proportion to the tonic principle as possible. Even the strongest, however, cannot, in ordinary cases, be given in doses sufficiently large to obtain the full effect of the bark, without stimulating too highly. The tincture of cinchona is used chiefly as an adjunct to the infusion or decoction of bark, or the solution of sulphate of quinia, to a dose of which it may be added in the quantity of from one to four fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA CINCHONA COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Compound Tincture of Peruvian Bark. "Take of Peruvian Bark, in powder, two ounces; Orange Peel, bruised, an ounce and a half; Virginia Snake Root, bruised, three drachms; Saffron cut, Red Saunders rasped, each a drachm; Diluted Alcohol twenty fluid- ounces. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. "Compound Tincture of Peruvian Bark may be prepared from the same dry materials, by beating them well together, moistening them thoroughly with Diluted Alcohol, allowing them to stand for forty-eight hours, then transferring them to an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon them Diluted Alcohol until twenty fluidounces of filtered liquor are obtained." U.S. " Take of Cinchona lancifolia [pale bark], in powder, four ounces; dried Orange Peel threeounces; Virginia Snakeroot, bruised, six drachms; Saffron two drachms; Cochineal, in powder, a drachm; Proof Spirit two pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate for fourteen days, and filter." Lond. The Edinburgh College takes the same materials in the same quantities as the London, but specifies yellow bark, which it orders in coarse powder, if digestion, in fine powder, if percolation be employed. The serpentaria is directed in moderately fine powder. The process is conducted either by digesting for seven days, straining, expressing strongly, and filtering; or by percolation in the same way as compound tincture of cardamom. The Dublin College'specifies the pale bark, and directs two scruples of cochi- neal in place of the red saunders, and half an ounce of orange peel; in 1168 Tinctures. part II. other respects the process corresponds with the first formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. This is the preparation commonly known by the name of Huxham's tincture of bark. It is an excellent stomachic cordial, and, though too feeble in the principles of cinchona to serve as a substitute for that tonic when its full effect upon the system is required, maybe very usefully em- ployed as an addition to the decoction or infusion, or to the salts of quinia, in low forms of fever, particularly in malignant intermittents, and typhoid remittents. Huxham was in the habit of uniting with it the elixir of vitriol, the aromatic sulphuric acid of the Pharmacopoeias. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA CINNAMOMI. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Cinnamon. "Take of Cinnamon, bruised, three ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Cin- namon, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for forty-eight hours, then transferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are ob- tained." U. S. The London College takes three ounces and a half of cinnamon, and two pints [Imperial measure] of proof spirit, and macerates for fourteen days; the Dublin, three ounces and a half of cinnamon and two pints of proof spirit, and macerates for fourteen days; the Edinburgh, three ounces and a half of the former, in moderately fine powder, and two pints [Imp. meas.] of the latter, and proceeds by percolation or digestion, as in the preparation of tincture of cassia. This tincture has the aromatic and astringent properties of cinnamon, and may be used as an adjuvant to cretaceous mixtures, and astringent infusions or decoctions. The dose is from one to three or four fluidrachms. Off. Prep. Infusum Digitalis, U. S. W. TINCTURA CINNAMOMI COMPOSITA. U.S., Lond., Ed. Compound Tincture of Cinnamon. "Take of Cinnamon, bruised, an ounce; Cardamom [seeds], bruised, half anpunce ; Ginger, bruised, three drachms ; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. "Compound Tincture of Cinnamon may be prepared from the same dry materials, in the state of powder, by moistening them thoroughly with Diluted Alcohol, allowing them to stand for forty-eight hours, then trans- ferring them to an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon them Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. The London College orders an ounce of cinnamon, half an ounce of cardamom, two drachms and a half of long pepper, the same quantity of ginger, and two pints [Imperial measure] of proof spirit, and macerates for two weeks. The Edinburgh College directs an ounce of cinnamon in coarse or fine powder, according as digestion or percolation is followed, an ounce of bruised cardamom seeds, three drachms of finely ground long pepper, and two pints [Imp. meas.] of proof spirit; and allows the tinc- ture to be prepared either by digestion for seven days, straining, expressing, and filtering, or by percolation in the manner directed for compound tinc- ture of cardamom; preferring, however, the latter mode. This is a very warm aromatic tincture, useful in flatulence, spasm of the stomach, and gastric debility. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. W. PART II. Tinctures. 1169 TINCTURA COLCHICI COMPOSITA. Lond. Compound Tinc- ture of Colchicum. "Take of Colchicum Seeds, bruised, five ounces; Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia two pints [Imperial measure]. Macerate for fourteen days and filter." Lond. This is the Spiritus Colchici Ammoniatus of the former London Phar- macopoeia. It may be employed for the same purposes as the wine of col- chicum, in cases which require or admit of an active stimulant. The dose is from thirty drops to a fluidrachm. W. TINCTURA COLCHICI SEMINIS. U. S. Tinctura Colchici. Lond., Ed. Tinctura Seminum Colchici. Dub. Tincture of Col- chicum Seed. "Take of Colchicum Seed, bruised,four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Colchicum Seed, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for twenty-four hours, then transferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gradually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. The London College orders five ounces of the bruised seeds, two pints [Imperial measure] of proof spirit, and maceration for two weeks ; the Dublin, two ounces of the former and a pint of the latter, and the same maceration. The Edinburgh College takes five ounces of the seeds finely ground in a coffee-mill, and two pints [Imp. meas.] of proof spirit; and prepares the tincture in the same manner as the tincture of Peruvian bark, either by percolation or digestion ; preferring, however, the former process. This tincture possesses the active properties of colchicum, and may be given whenever that medicine is indicated; but the wine, which contains less alcohol, is generally preferred. The dose is from half a fluidrachm to two fluidrachms. The tincture is sometimes used as an embrocation in rheumatic, gouty, and neuralgic pains. W. TINCTURA COLOMBA. U.S., Dub. Tinctura Calumba:. Lond., Ed. Tincture of Columbo. "Take of Columbo, bruised four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Columbo, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for twenty- four hours ; then transferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gra- dually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. The London College takes three ounces of sliced columbo, and two pints [Imperial measure] of proof spirit; the Dublin, two ounces and a half of the former, and two pints of the latter; and both macerate for four- teen days. The Edinburgh College takes three ounces of columbo, in small fragments or moderately fine powder, according as digestion or per- colation is followed, and two pints [Imp. meas.] of proof spirit; and pre- pares the tincture either by digesting for seven days, decanting, expressing, and filtering, or by the process of percolation, allowing the powder to be macerated with a little spirit for six hours before being put into the cylinder. The tincture of columbo of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia was, with great propriety, considerably increased in strength at the last revision. The larger the proportion of the tonic is to the alcohol in these bitter tinctures, the better are they calculated to meet the indications for which they are 99* 1170 Tinctures. PART II. usually prescribed. When the proportion is very small, the tonic power of the bitter is overwhelmed by the stimulant influence of the alcohol. The tincture of columbo may be added to tonic infusions or decoctions, to in- crease their stimulant power; but, like all the other bilter tinctures, should be used with caution. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA CONII. U.S.,Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture of Hemlock. "Take of Hemlock Leaves four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Hemlock Leaves, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing them to stand for twenty-four hours, then transferring them to an apparatus for displace- ment, and gradually pouring upon them Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U. S. The London College takes five ounces of the dried leaves, an ounce of bruised cardamom, and two pints [Imperial measure] of proof spirit, and macerates for fourteen days ; the Dublin, two ounces, of the leaves, an ounce of the seeds, and a pint of proof spirit, and macerates for a week. "Take of fresh leaves of Conium twelve ounces; Tincture of Carda- mom half a pint; Rectified Spirit one pint and a half. Bruise the Hem- lock Leaves, express the juice strongly ; bruise the residuum, pack it firmly in a percolator: transmit first the Tincture of Cardamom, and then the Rectified Spirit, allowing the spirituous liquors to mix with the expressed juice as they pass through; add gently water enough to the percolator for pushing through the spirit remaining in the residuum. Filter the liquor after agitation." Ed. The tincture of hemlock necessarily partakes of the uncertainty of the dried leaves from which it is prepared. There can be little doubt that the tincture of the Edinburgh College, made from the fresh leaves and their expressed juice, is the most efficient. A preparation made by adding one measure of alcohol to four of the expressed juice, has been used in England under the name of preserved juice of hemlock, and is probably quite equal to the Edinburgh tincture. (Seepage 1159.) The U. S. Pharmacopoeia has very properly excluded cardamom from this preparation ; as it can have little influence upon its medical effects, and tends to obscure the odour which is an indication of the activity of the tincture. A strong odour of conia should be emitted by the tincture upon the addition of potassa. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm. W. TINCTURA CROCI. Ed. Tincture of Saffron, "Take of Saffron, chopped fine, two ounces; Proof Spirit two pints [Imperial measure]. This Tincture is to be prepared like Tincture of Cin- chona, either by percolation or by digestion, the former method being the most convenient and expeditious." Ed. This tincture possesses all the properties of saffron ; but is of little other use than to impart colour to mixtures. The dose is from one to three fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA CUBEBA. U. S., Lond. Tinctura Piperis Cu- beba:. Dub. Tincture of Cubebs. "Take of Cubebs, bruised, four ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through paper. " This Tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Cubebs, in powder, with Diluted Alcohol, allowing it to stand for twenty- four hours, then transferring it to an apparatus for displacement, and gra- PART II. Tinctures. 1171 dually pouring upon it Diluted Alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained." U.S. ^ The London College takes five ounces of powdered cubebs, and two pints [Imperial measure] of proof spirit; the Dublin,four ounces of the former and two pints of the latter; and both macerate for fourteen days. This may be used as a carminative, and has been applied with advantage to the treatment of gonorrhoea in the advanced stages. The dose is one or two fluidrachms. W. TINCTURA DIGITALIS. U.S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Tincture, of Foxglove. "Take of Foxglove/otut the size and shape of a small egg, and of an orange-yellow colour, contains the nut embedded in a fibrous fleshy envelope, and invested with a brittle shell which adheres to the exterior flesh. The kernel, which is the betel-nut of commerce, is of a roundish conical shape, rather larger than a chestnut, externally of a deep-brown, diversified with a fawn colour, so as to present a reticular appearance, internally brownish red with whitish veins, very hard, of a feeble odour when broken, and of an astringent, somewhat acrid taste. It abounds in tannin, and contains also gallic acid, a fixed oil, gum, a little volatile oil, lignin, and various saline substances. It yields its astringency to water; and, in some parts of Hindostan, an extract is prepared from it having the appearance and pro- perties of catechu. Immense quantities are consumed in the East, mixed with the leaves of the Piper Betel, and with lime, forming the masticatory so well known by the name of betel. The red colour which this mixture imparts to the saliva and the excrements is owing to the Areca nut, which is also powerfully astringent, and, by its internal use, tends to counteract the relaxation of bowels to which the heat of the climate so strongly predisposes. The nut is used in this country almost exclusively in the preparation of tooth-powder, for which purpose it is first reduced by heat to the state of charcoal. The 104* 1230 Appendix. superiority of this form of charcoal over that from other sources is probably owing to its hardness. ARSENIATE OF AMMONIA. Ammonia' Arsenias. This salt is obtained in crystals by saturating a concentrated solution of arsenic acid with ammonia or carbonate of ammonia, and allowing it to evaporate spontaneously. It has been used with advan- tage by Biett in several inveterate diseases of the skin. It is given in solution, formed by dissolving a grain of the salt in a fluidounce of distilled water. Of this the dose is from twenty to twenty-five drops, given in the course of the day, and gradually increased. ARSENIATE OF IRON. Ferri Arsenias. This salt may be formed by double de- composition, by adding a solution of sulphate of iron to one of arseniate of soda. It precipitates in the form of a dirty-green powder. It has been used by Carmichael,diluted with four times its weight of phosphate of iron, as a caustic application to cancerous ulcers. It may be made into ointment by being mixed with twelve times its weight of spermaceti cerate. Internally it has been given in cancerous affections, in the form of pill, in the dose of a sixteenth of a grain, three times a day. ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS. Asparagus. This well-known garden vegetable is a native of Europe. It is perennial and herbaceous. The root, which is inodorous, and of a weak sweetish taste, was-formerly used as a diuretic, aperient, and purifier of the blood ; and it is stated to be still employed to a considerable extent in France. It is given in the form of decoction, made in the proportion of one or two ounces of the root to a quart of water. Hayne asserts that, in the dried state, it is wholly inert. The young shoots are much used as food. Before being boiled they have a disagreeable taste ; and their juice was found by Robiquet and Vauquelin to contain a peculiar crystallizable principle, called asparagin (see p. 76), which, however, is not known to exert any spe- cial influence on the system. The sprouts themselves are not without effect, as the urine acquires a disagreeable odour very soon after they have been eaten. They are considered by some writers as diuretic, aperient, and deobstruent, and as constituting a very wholesome and useful article of diet, early in the spring, when so few vegetables are to be obtained. Broussais thought that they exerted a sedative influence over the heart, and recommended them especially in hypertrophy and other diseases of that organ, attended with excessive action, and without phlogosis of the stomach. M. Gendrin, how- ever, after much experience with asparagus, affirms that he has neyer found it to exer- cise the slightest influence over the actions of the heart, and ascribes its palliative effects, in diseases of that organ, to its diuretic action. From the experiments of M. Gendrin it appears, that this medicine operates powerfully on the kidneys. He found it, in all the cases in which he administered it, to increase the quantity of urine, which, in some instances, was quintupled. The most convenient forms for exhibition are those of syrup and extract, prepared from the shoots. The former may be given in the dose of one or two fluidounces, the latter of half a drachm or a drachm. The syrup may be made by adding a sufficient quantity of sugar to the expressed juice of the shoots, previously deprived of its albumen by exposure to heat and by filtration; the extract by evaporat- ing the same juice to the consistence of a pilular mass. The berries are capable of under- going the vinous fermentation, and affording alcohol by distillation. In their unripe state they possess the same properties as the shoots, and probably in a. much higher degree. We have employed a syrup prepared from them, with apparent advantage, in a case of diseased heart. ASPLENIUM FILIX FCEMINA. R. Brown. Female Fern. x This is the Polypodium Filix fmmina of Linn., the Aspidium Filix fcemina of Swartz, and the Athyrium Filix famina of Roth. It has a root analogous in character to that of the male fern {Aspidiimi Filix mas'), and has been supposed to possess similar vermifuge properties. At present, however, it is not used. The vulgar name of female fern has also been bestowed upon the Pteris aquilina, or common brake, which is asserted by some authors to have the pro- perty of destroying the tape-worm. The leaves of two species of Asplenium, the A. Trichomanes or common spleenwort, and A. Adiantum-nigrum, or black spleenwort, are some- what mucilaginous, and have been used as substitutes for the Maidenhairs {Adianlum Capillus Veneris and A. pedatam) as pectorals, though destitute of the aromatic flavour, which is the chief recommendation of these plants. BALM OF GILEAD. Balsam of Gilead. Balsamum Gileadense. Baume de la Mecque, Fr. The genuine balm of Gilead is the resinous juice of the Amyris Gilea- densis of Linn., the Balsamodendron Gileadense of Kunth, a small evergreen tree, grow- ing on the Asiatic and African shores of the Red Sea. It was in high repute with the ancients, and still retains its value in the estimation of the eastern nations, among whom it is employed both as a medicine and cosmetic. In western Europe, and in Appendix. 1231 this country, it is seldom found in a state of purity, and its use has been entirely aban- doned. It is described as a turbid, whitish, thick, gray, odorous liquid, which be- comes solid by exposure. It possesses no medical properties which do not exist in other balsamic or terebinthinate juices. It was formerly known by the name of opobal- samum; while the dried twigs of the tree were called xylobalsamum, and the dried fruit, carpobalsamum. BALSAM OF SULPHUR. This name was formerly given to a substance resulting from the reaction of sulphur upon olive oil at a high temperature. It was directed in the old Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, under the name of Oleum Sidphuratum ; but was dis- charged from that work at the last revision. The directions of the College were to boil eight parts of olive oil and one part of sublimed sulphur together, with a gentle fire, in a large iron pot, stirring them constantly till they unite. The iron pot should be large enough to hold three times the quantity of the materials employed, as the mixture might otherwise boil over. As the vapours which rise are apt to take fire, a lid should be at hand to cover the pot, and thus extinguish the flame if necessary. Sulphur is soluble to a considerable extent in heated oil, from which, if the solution be saturated, it is de- posited in a crystalline state on cooling. But it is not a mere solution which this pro- cess is intended to effect. The oil is partly decomposed, and the resulting preparation is an extremely fetid, acrid, vispid, reddish-brown fluid. In order that it may be ob- tained, the oil must be heated to the boiling point. Sulphurated oil or balsam of sulphur was formerly thought useful in chronic catarrh, consumption, and other pectoral com- plaints ; but inconvenience has arisen from its acrid properties, and its internal use has been abandoned. It is said to be sometimes applied as a stimulant to foul ulcers. The dose is from five to thirty drops. BAPTISIA TINCTORIA. Sophora tinctoria. Linn. Podalyria tinctoria. Michaux. Wild Indigo. This is an indigenous perennial plant, found in all parts of the United States, growing abundantly in woods and dry barren uplands. It is from one to three feet high, with a smooth, very branching stem, small, ternate, cuneate-obovate, bluish- green leaves, and yellow flowers, which appear in July and August, and, like the whole plant, become black when dried. The root, which is the part most highly recommended, is of a dark-brown colour, inodorous, and of a nauseous, somewhat acrid taste. Its vir- tues appear to reside chiefly in the cortical portion. In large doses, it is said to operate violently as an emetic and cathartic ; in smaller, to produce only a mild laxative effect. It is said to have proved useful in scarlatina, typhus fever, and iii that state of system which attends gangrene or mortification. Dr. Thacher speaks highly of its efficacy as an external application to obstinate and painful ulcers: and Dr. Comstock, of Rhode Island, found it extremely useful, both as an internal and external remedy, in threatened or existing mortification. By the latter physician it was given in decoction, made in the proportion of an ounce of the root to a pint of water, of which half a fluidounce was administered every four or eight hours, any tendency to operate on the bowels being checked with laudanum. It may be used externally in the form of decoction or cata- plasm. The stem and leaves possess the same virtues as the root, though in a less de- gree. A pale blue colouring substance has been prepared from the plant as a substitute for indigo, but is greatly inferior. BASSORA GUM. The plant which yields this substance is unknown. It came into commerce originally from the neighbourhood of Bassora, on the Gulf of Persia, but is frequently found mixed with gum brought from other countries, and is probably not the product of one plant exclusively. It is in irregular pieces, of various sizes, never very large, white or yellow, intermediate in the degree of its transparency between gum Arabic and tragacanth, inodorous, tasteless, and possessed of the property of yielding a slight sound when broken under the teeth. But a small portion of it is soluble in water, whether hot or cold. The remainder swells up considerably, though less than traga- canth, and does not, like that substance, form a gelatinous mass, as it consists of inde- pendent granules which have little cohesion. The soluble^portion is pure gum, or, as it is now sometimes named, arabin; and, according to M. Guerin. constitutes 11-2 per cent. The insoluble portion consists of a peculiar principle called bassorin, associated with a small proportion of various saline substances, which yield, when the gum is burnt, 5-6 per cent, of ashes. The gum is useless both in medicine and pharmacy, and is de- scribed here only as an object to be avoided, and as affording a principle which enters into the composition of several medicinal substances. Bassorin is insoluble in water, alcohol, andether, but softens and swells up in hot or cold water. Diluted nitric and muriatic acids, with the aid of heat, dissolve it almost entirely. The acidulous solution, concentrated by evaporation, and treated with alco- 1232 Appendix. hoi, lets fall a flocculent precipitate which has all the characters of pure gum, into which the bassorin appears to have been converted by the action of the acid. This does not, however, constitute more than a tenth part of the bassorin dissolved. By gra- dually evaporating the alcoholic acidulous solution, a thick bitterish liquid is obtained, which exhales a strong odour of ammonia when treated with potassa. Strong nitric acid converts bassorin into mucic and oxalic acids; and, treated with sulphuric acid, it yields a sweet crystalline substance which is incapable of the vinous fermentation. (Guerin.) Vauquelin was the first to call attention to this principle, upon which he conferred its present name, from having first observed it in the Bassora gum. Bucholz afterwards discovered the same or a closely analogous principle in tragacanth; and John, a principle which was supposed to be the same, in the gum of the cherry tree; hence it has sometimes been called tragacanthin and cerasin. M. Guerin, however, has demonstrated that the insoluble principle of the cherry gum is essentially different from bassorin. Berzelius considers the latter as belonging to the class of substances which he associates together under the name of mucilage, and of which examples are fur- nished in the mucilages of flaxseed and of quince seed. (See Linum, p. 429.) BDELLIUM. This name has been given to two different gum-resins, distinguished as Indian and African bdellium. Dr. Royle was informed that the former was obtained from the Amyris Commiphora of Roxburgh, growing in India and Madagascar. The lat- ter is said to be the product of the Hcudelotia Africana, which grows in Senegal. Bdel- lium sometimes comes mixed with gum Arabic and gum Senegal. It is either in small roundish pieces, of a reddish colour, semi-transparent, and brittle with a wax-like frac- ture, or in larger irregular lumps, of a dark brownish-red colour, less transparent, some- what tenacious, and adhering to the teeth when chewed. It has an odour and taste like those of myrrh, but weaker. It is infusible and inflammable, diffusing while it burns a balsamic odour. According to Pelletier it consists of 59 per cent, of resin, 9-2 of gum, 30-6 of bassorin, and 1*2 of volatile oil including loss. In medical properties it is ana- logous to myrrh, and was formerly used for the same purposes; but it is now scarcely ever given internally. In Europe, it is still occasionally employed as an ingredient in plasters. The dose is from ten to forty grains. BEAN OF ST. IGNATIUS. Faba Sancti Ignatii. This is the product of the Ignatia amara of the younger Linnaeus, which is now generally considered by botanists a spe- cies of Strychnos, and entitled S. Ignatia. (See Nux Vomica.) It is a tree of middling size, with numerous long, cylindrical, glabrous, vine-like branches, which bear opposite, nearly sessile, oval, pointed, entire, and very smooth leaves. The flowers are white, tubular, fragrant, and arranged in short axillary racemes. The fruit is of the size and shape of a pear, with a smooth, whitish, ligneous rind, enclosing about twenty seeds embedded in a dry pulpy matter, and lying one upon the other. These seeds are the part used. The tree is a native of the Phillipine Islands, where the seeds were highly esteemed as a medicine, and, having attracted the attention of the Jesuits„were honoured with the name of the founder of their order. They are about an inch long, rather less in breadth, still less in thickness, convex on one side, obscurely angular, with two, three, or four faces on the other, and marked at one end with a small depression indicating their point of attachment. They are exter- nally of a pale-brown colour, apparently smooth, but covered in fact with a short down or efflorescence, which may be removed by scraping them with a knife. They are some- what translucent, and their substance is very hard and horny. They have no smell, but an excessively bitter taste. To Pelletier and Caventou they afforded the same constitu- ents as nux vomica, and among them 1*2 per cent, of strychnia. MM. Magendie and Delile have proved that they act. on the human system in the same manner as the nux vomica. In the Phillipines they have been employed for the cure of obstinate intermittents, and in numerous other diseases. It is probable that in small doses they act as a tonic. In this country they are never used. We have noticed them here on account of their comparatively large proportion of strychnia, which is triple that contained in the nux vomica. In France they are profitably employed for the extraction of this principle: BEBEERU BARK. The bark of a tree growing in British Guiana, which has re- cently been brought into notice as a powerful tonic and febrifuge. The tree is a species of Nectandra, and has been named by Sir Robert Schomburgh, N. Rodiei, in honour of Dr. Rodie, by whom it was first described. The bark is in flat pieces, three or four lines thick, smooth, grayish, hard, heavy, and brittle. The fruit is as large as a small apple, obcordate or obovate, somewhat compressed, consisting of an exterior brittle shell, and an interior fleshy kernel. Both the bark and the fruit are intensely bitter. They contain two alkaline principles discovered by Dr. Rodie, and named respectively bebeerin and Appendix. 1233 sipeenn. These are extracted together, in the form of sulphates, by a process similar to that for preparing sulphate of quinia. The preparation is of a dark colour, and has the appearance of an extract. Messrs. Maclagan and Tilley obtain pure bebeerin by the fol- lowing process. The impure sulphate is dissolved in water, and precipitated by ammonia. The precipitate, mixed with an equal weight of recently precipitated oxide of lead, and dried, is treated with absolute alcohol, which, being evaporated, leaves the two alkalies in, the form of a translucent resinoid mass. The bebeerine is separated by means of ether, which yields it by evaporation. It is pale yellow, of a resinous appearance, un- crystallizable ; very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether, and very slightly soluble in water. It softens and melts with heat, and at a higher temperature takes fire. Its salts are uncrystallizable. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., x. 89.) The sulphate, above referred to, has been employed, with great asserted success, in the treatment of intermittent and remittent fevers. From a scruple to a drachm may be given between the paroxysms, in doses of two grains. {Lond. and Ed. Month. Journ. of Med. Sci., July and Aug., 1843.) BEDEGUAR. Fungus Rosarum. An excrescence upon the sweet briar or eglantine, and upon other species of Rosa, produced by the puncture of insects, especially by one or more species of Cynips. It is of irregular shape, usually roundish, about an inch in diameter, with numerous cells internally, in each of which is the larva of an insect. It has little smell, and a slightly astringent taste. Though formerly considered diuretic, anthelmintic, and lithontriptic, and employed as a remedy for toothache, it has fallen into disuse. It was given in doses of from ten to forty grains. BENZOIN ODORIFERUM. Nees. Laurus Benzoin. Linn. Spice-wood. Spice-bush. Fever-bush. An indigenous shrub, from four to ten feet high, growing in moist, shady places, in all parts of the United States. Its flowers appear early in spring, long before the leaves, and are succeeded by small clusters of oval berries, which, when ripe, in the latter part of September, are of a shining crimson colour. All parts of the shrub have a spicy, agreeable flavour, which is strongest in the bark and berries. The small branches are sometimes used as a gently stimulant aromatic, in the form of infusion or decoction. They are said to be employed in this way by the country people as a vermifuge, and an agreeable drink in low fevers; and the bark has been used in intermittents. The berries, dried and powdered, were Sometimes substituted, during the revolutionary war, for all- spice. According to Dr. Drake, the oil of the berries is used as a stimulant. BERBERIS VULGARIS. Barberry. A shrub growing wild in Europe and the United States, and sometimes cultivated in gardens on account of its berries. These grow in loose bunches, are oblong and of a red colour, have a grateful, sour, astringent taste, and contain malic and citric acids. They are refrigerant, astringent, and antiscor- butic, and are used in Europe, in the form of drink, in febrile diseases and diarrhoeas. An agreeable syrup is prepared from the juice; and the berries are sometimes preserved for the table. The root and inner bark have been used for dyeing yellow, and are said to have been employed beneficially in jaundice. They owe their colouring property to a peculiar crystallizable principle, which has been named berberin, and which is said, in the dose of from one to ten grains, to be tonic and purgative. {Journ. de Pharm., xxi. 309.) It is a vulgar error to suppose that the vicinity of this plant is injurious to wheat. The American plant differs slightly from the European, and is described by Pursh as a distinct species, under the name of B. Canadensis. It grows in mountains and hilly districts from Canada to Virginia. The berries are smaller and much less juicy than those of the gar- den barberry. BETONICA OFFICINALIS. Wood Betony. A perennial European herb, belonging to the labiate plants. It has a pleasant but feeble odour, and a warm, somewhat astrin- gent, and bitterish taste. By the ancients it was much esteemed, and employed in numerous diseases; but it is at present little used. It is slightly warming and corroborant, but is inferior in this respect to many other plants of the same family. The root has been considered emetic and purgative. BETULA ALBA. Common European Birch. Various parts of this tree have been applied to medical uses. The inner bark, which is bitterish and astringent, has been employed in intermittent fever. The epidermis is separable into thin layers, which may be employed as a substitute for paper, and are applied to various economical uses. The bark contains a peculiar principle, called betulin, which is ranked among the sub- resins. When the bark is distilled, it yields an empyreumatic oil, having the peculiar odour of Russia leather, in the preparation of which it is employed. The leaves, which have a peculiar, aromatic, agreeable odour, and a bitter taste, have been employed in die form of infusion, in gout, rheumatism, dropsy, and cutaneous diseases. The same 1234 Appendix. complaints, particularly dropsy, are said to have been successfully treated by enveloping the body in the fresh leaves, which thus applied excite perspiration. When the stem of the tree is wounded, a saccharine juice flows out, which is considered useful in com- plaints of the kidneys and bladder, and is susceptible, upon the addition of yeast, of the vinous and acetous fermentations. A beer, wine, spirit, and vinegar are prepared from it, and habitually used in some parts of Europe. Of the American species of birch, the Betula lenta, variously called sweet birch, black birch, cherry birch, and mountain mahogany, is remarkable for the aromatic flavour of its bark and leaves, which have the odour and taste of Gaultheria procumbens, and are sometimes used in infusion, as an agreeable, gently stimulant, and diaphoretic drink. An oil is obtained by distillation from the bark, which has been proved by Mr. Procter to be identical with the oil of gaultheria. {Am. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 243.) This species also affords a saccharine liquor, which, indeed, appears to be common to all the birches. The bark of B. papyracea is much employed by the Northern Indians for making canoes; and thin layers of the epidermis are placed inside of boots to prevent the access of moisture. BEZOAR. This name has been applied to concretions which form in the stomach or intestines of animals, and which were at one time thought to possess extraordinary medical virtues. Numerous varieties have been noticed; but they were all arranged in two classes, the oriental bezoars {Lapis bezoar orientalis), and western bezoars {lapis bezoar occidentalis), of which the former were most highly esteemed. They have fallen into merited neglect. BIRD-LIME. A viscid substance existing in various plants, particularly in the bark of the Viscum album, and Ilex aquifolium or European holly, from the latter of which it is usually procured. The process for preparing it consists in boiling the middle bark for some hours in water, then separating it from the liquid, and placing it in proper vessels in a cool situation, where it is allowed to remain till it becomes viscous. It is then washed to separate impurities, and constitutes the substance in question. Bird-lime thus prepared is greenish, tenacious, glutinous, bitterish, and of an odour analogous to that of flaxseed oil. Exposed to the air in thin layers it becomes dry, brown, and puiverizable, but re-acquires its viscidity upon the addition of water. It is a complex substance, but is thought to owe its characteristic properties to a peculiar principle, identical with that which exudes spontaneously from certain plants, and is called glu by the French che- mists. This principle is without odour or taste, extremely adhesive, fusible by heat, inflammable, insoluble in water, nearly insoluble in alcohol, but dissolved freely by sul- phuric ether, and the oil of turpentine. According to M. Macaire, it is insoluble in the fixed oils, either hot or cold. This property distinguishes it from the resins, to which Berzelius is disposed to attach it. M. Macaire proposes for it the name of viscin. {Journ. de Pharm., xx. 18.) Bird-lime is, so tenacious, that it may be employed to catch small birds, which, when they alight on a stick thickly covered with it, are unable to escape. BISULPHURET OF CARBON. Carburet of Sulphur. This compound is formed by passing the vapour of sulphur over charcoal, heated to redness in a porcelain tube. It is a transparent, colourless, exceedingly volatile liquid, having a pungent, somewhat aromatic taste, and a very fetid smell. Its sp. gr. is 1-272. In composition it is a bisul- phuret. It acts as a diffusible stimulant, accelerating the pulse, augmenting the animal heat, and exciting the secretions of the skin, kidneys, and genital organs. It was formerly employed in obstinate rheumatic and arthritic affections, in paralysis and cutaneous erup- tions, and more recently as a resolvent in indolent tumours. It is used both internally and externally. For internal exhibition in gout and rheumatism, Dr. Otto, of Copenhagen, employed an alcoholic solution, in the proportion of two drachms to the fluidounce, of which four drops were given every two hours. At the same time the affected parts were rubbed with a liniment, made by dissolving the bisulphuret in the same proportion in olive oil. Dr. Krimer applied it to an indolent tumour, by allowing forty or fifty drops to fall upon it three times a day. This treatment, which may be supposed to act by the cold produced, assisted by the internal use of animal charcoal and cicuta,and the employ- ment of warm alkaline baths, was attended with success. He also succeeded in reducing several strangulated hernias, by applying some drops of the bisulphuret to the hernial tumour. By Dr. Turnbull the vapour of this substance was found useful, applied to indurated lymphatic glands, and for the removal of deafness, when dependent on want of nervous energy, and deficiency of wax. It is applied by means of a bottle with a proper sized mouth, containing a fluidrachm of the bisulphuret, imbibed by a piece of sponge. The skin over the gland is first well moistened with water. When the vapour is applied to the ear, the bottle, having a small neck to fit the meatus, is held close to the organ until considerable warmth is produced. {Pharm. Journ. and Trans., ii. 352.) Appendix. 1235 BOLE ARMENIAN. The term bolus or bole wa3 formerly applied to various forms of argillaceous earth, differing in colour, or place of origin. Such are the Armenian, Lem- nian, and French boles, and the red and white boles. Some of these substances were so highly valued as to be formed into small masses and impressed with a seal, and hence received the name of terra sigillata. They were all similar in effect, though the small proportion of oxide of iron contained in the coloured boles may have given them greater activity. The only one at present kept in the shops is that called bole Armenian, from its resemblance to the substance originally brought from Armenia. It is prepared, by tritu- ration and elutriation, from certain native earths existing in different parts of Europe. It is in pieces of various sizes, reddish, soft, andunctuous, adhesive to the tongue, and capa- ble of forming a paste with water. It consists chiefly of alumina and silica, coloured with oxide of iron. The boles were formerly employed as absorbents and astringents; and they were undoubtedly useful in some cases of acidity of the stomach and relaxed bowels. The bole Armenian is used chiefly as a colouring ingredient in tooth-powders. BORAGO OFFICINALIS. Borage. This is an annual, hairy, succulent European plant, one or two feet high, with fine blue flowers, on account of which it is sometimes cultivated in our gardens. All parts of it abound in mucilage, and the stem and leaves contain nitrate of potassa with other salts. To these constituents the plant owes all its virtues. It is much used in France. An infusion of the leaves and flowers, sweetened with honey or syrup, is employed as a demulcent, refrigerant, and gently diaphoretic drink in catarrhal affections, rheumatism, diseases of the skin, &c. The expressed juiee of the stem and leaves is also given in the dose of from two to four ounces. The flowers are sometimes applied externally as an emollient. A distilled water, extract, and syrup were formerly used, but have fallen into neglect. Borage is scarcely known in this coun- try as a medicinal plant. BRAZIL WOOD. A red dye-wood, the product of different species of Csesalpina, growing in the West Indies and South America. Two varieties are known in com- merce:—1. The proper Brazil-wood said to be derived from the Casalpina echinata, and sometimes called Pernambuco or Fernambuco wood, from the province of Brazil, where it is collected; 2. the brasiletto, produced by the C. Brasiliensis and C. Crista, which grow in Jamaica and other parts of the West Indies. The former is the most highly valued. The sappan or sampfenwood may be referred to the same head, being obtained from the Ccesabjina Sappan, and possessing properties analogous to those of the brasiletto. The Nicaragua or peach wood is also analogous to the brasiletto, and is said by Bancroft to be derived from a species of Cspsalpina. It is produced in the East Indies. Brazil wood is nearly inodorous, has a slightly sweetish taste, stains the saliva red, and imparts its colouring matter to water. It was formerly used in medicine; but has been abandoned as inert. In pharmacy it serves to colour tinctures, &c.; but its chief use is in dyeing. A red lake is prepared from it, and it is an ingredient in a red ink. Its dyeing properties are owing to a crystallizable colouring principle, named breselin. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e set:, v. 198.) BROMIDE OF IRON. Ferri Bromidum. This bromide is obtained by heating gently in thirty parts of water, two parts of bromine, and one of iron filings. When the liquid becomes greenish, it is filtered and evaporated to dryness in an iron vessel; and the dry mass, again dissolved and evaporated to dryness, furnishes the bromide. Bromide of iron is a brick-red deliquescent salt, very soluble, and extremely styptic. It is employed as a tonic and alterative, in aqueous solution, protected by saccharine matter, in the dose of a grain twice a day. It is said to be used extensively in Pittsburg. It is formed as the first step of the process for preparing the officinal bromide of potassium. BROMIDES OF MERCURY. The protobromide is formed by adding bromide of po- tassium to nitrate of protoxide of mercury. It falls as a white curdy precipitate. The bibromide may be obtained by digesting the protobromide with water containing bromine. It is in the form of colourless crystals, soluble in water and alcohol. Exposed to heat it enters into fusion and sublimes. These bromides are analogous in composition and me- dicinal properties to the corresponding iodides of mercury. (See pages 992 and 993.) The protobromide is given in the dose of a grain daily, gradually increased. The bibromide, like corrosive sublimate, is an irritant poison, and may be administered in doses of the sixteenth of a grain, gradually increased to a fourth, either in the form of pill, or in ethe- real solution, made by dissolving a grain in a fluidrachm of ether. BRYONY. White Bryony. This is the root of the Bryonia alba, or white bryony, a perennial, climbing, herbaceous plant, growing in thickets and hedges in different parts of Europe. It bears rough, heart-shaped, five-lobed leaves, small yellow monoecious flowers arranged in racemes, and roundish black berries about the size of a pea. Anothet 1236 Appendix. species called B. dioica, with dioecious flowers and red berries, bears so close a resem- blance in character and properties to the preceding, that it is considered by some botan- ists merely a variety. The roots of both plants are gathered for use. When fresh they are spindleshaped, sometimes branched, a foot or two in length, as thick as the arm, or even thicker, externally yellowish-gray and circularly wrinkled, within white, succulent, and fleshy, of a nauseous odour, which is lost in great measure by drying, and of a bitter, acrid, very disagreeable taste. The peasants are said sometimes to hollow out the top of*the root, and to employ the juice which collects in' the cavity as a drastic purge. {Merat and De Lens.) The berries of the plant are also purgative, and are used in dyeing. As kept in the shops, the root is in circular transverse slices, externally yellowish-gray and longitudinally wrinkled, internally of a whitish colour, becoming darker by age, con- centrically striated, light, brittle, and readily puiverizable, yielding a whitish powder. Besides a peculiar bitter principle called bryonin, the root contains starch in considerable proportion, gum, resin, sugar, a concrete oil, albumen, and various salts It yields its active properties to water. Bryony is an active hydragogue cathartic, in large doses sometimes proving emetic, and disposed, if too largely administered, to occasion inflammation of the alimentary mucous membrane. The recent root is highly irritant, and is said, when bruised and applied to the skin, to be capable of producing vesication. The medicine was well known to the ancients, and has been employed by modern physicians, but is now nearly superseded by jalap, which is more certain, and less liable to lose its strength by age. The dose of the powdered root is from a scruple to a drachm. CAHINCA. This medicine attracted at one time considerable attention. The name of cahinca or cainca was adopted from the language of the Brazilian Indians. The Por- tuguese of Brazil call the medicine raiz pretta or black root. When first noticed in Europe it was supposed to be derived from the Chiococca racemosa of Linnaeus, which was known to botanists as an inhabitant of the West Indies. But Martius, in his " Specimen Materiae Medicae Brasiliensis," describes two other species of Chiococca, the C. anguifuga and C. densifolia, which afford roots having the properties of that ascribed to the C. racemosa; and, as the medicine was brought from Brazil, there seemed to be good reason for ascrib- ing it to one or both of the plants named by that botanist. A. Richard, however, re- ceived from more than one source in Brazil specimens of the C. racemosa as the cahinca plant. A specimen brought into this market consisted of cylindrical pieces, varying in size from the thickness of a straw to that of the little finger, somewhat bent or contorted, slightly wrinkled longitudinally, with occasional small asperities, internally ligneous, ex- ternally covered with a thin brittle reddish-brown bark, having a light-brown or brown- ish ash-coloured epidermis. The cortical portion, which was of a resinous character, had a bitter disagreeable taste, somewhat acrid and astringent; the ligneous part was quite tasteless. The virtues of the root reside almost exclusively in its bark. They are ex- tracted by water and alcohol. Cahinca has been analyzed by several chemists. Four distinct principles were discovered in it by Pelletier and Caventou:—1. a crystallizable bitter substance, believed to be the active principle, and called cahincic acid; 2. a green fatty matter of a nauseous odour; 3. a yellow colouring matter; and 4. a coloured viscid substance. Cahincic acid is white, without smell, of a taste at first scarcely perceptible, but afterwords extremely bitter and slightly astringent, of difficult solubility in water,but readily soluble in alcohol, permanent in the air, and unaltered at 212°. It reddens vege- table blues, and unites with the alkalies, but does not form crystallizable salts. It is thought to exist in the root as subeahincate of lime. Medical Properties, Cahinca is tonic, diuretic, purgative, and emetic. In moderate doses it gently excites the circulation, increases the discharge of urine, and produces evacuations from the bowels; but is rather slow in its operation. It may be made to act also as a diaphoretic, by keeping the skin warm, using warm drinks, and counteracting its purgative tendency. In some patients it occasions nausea and griping, and in very large doses always acts powerfully both as an emetic and cathartic. In Brazil it has long been used by the natives as a remedy for the bites of serpents; and its Indian name is said to have been derived from this property. According to Martius, the bark of the fresh root is rubbed with water till the latter becomes charged with all its active mat- ters; and the liquid, while yet turbid, is taken in such quantities as to produce the most violent vomiting and purging, preceded by severe spasmodic pains. Patrick Brown speaks of the root of the C. racemosa as very useful in obstinate rheumatisms. But the virtues of cahinca in dropsy, though well known in Brazil, were first communicated to the European public in the year 1826, by M. Langsdorff, Russian Consul at Rio Janeiro. Achille Richard afterwards published a few observations in relation to it in the Journal Appendix. 1237 deChimie Medicate,■ and its properties were subsequently investigated by numerous prac- titioners. M. Fran-jois, of Paris, contributed more than any other physician to its reputa- tion. It was considered by him superior to all other remedies in dropsy. General experience appears to have been in its favour, but by no means to the extent of the partial estimate of Dr. Francois; and, having been found equally liable with other diu- retics to the charge of uncertainty, it is now little used. It may be employed in sub- stance, decoction, extract, or tincture. The powdered bark of the root may be given as a diuretic and purgative, in a dose varying from a scruple to a drachm; but in this form the remedy is considered very uncertain. The aqueous or spirituous extract is usually preferred. The dose of either of these is from ten to twenty grains. Dr. Francois recommends that, in the treatment of dropsy, a sufficient quantity should be given at once to produce a decided impression, which should afterwards be maintained by. smaller doses, repeated three or four times in the twenty-four hours. CALENDULA OFFICINALIS. Marygold. This well-known garden plant was formerly much employed in medicine. It has a peculiar, rather disagreeable odour, which is lost by drying, and a bitter, rough, saline taste. Among its constituents is a peculiar principle, called calendulin, discovered by Geiger most abundantly in the flowers, and considered by Berzelius as analogous to bassorin, though soluble in alcohol. The plant was thought antispasmodic, sudorific, deobstruent, and emmenagogue, and was given in low forms of fever, scrofula, jaundice, amenorrhoea, &c. Both the leaves and flowers were used; but the latter were preferred, and were usually administered in the recent state, in the form of tea. An extract was also prepared, and employed with sup- posed" advantage in cancerous and other ulcers, sick stomach, &c. At present marygold is very seldom if ever used in regular practice. CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA. Brown. Asclepias gigantea, Linn. Under the name of tnadar, or mudar, a medicine has been employed in the East Indies, with great asserted advantage, in numerous complaints. It is the bark of the root of a species of Calotropis, which has been generally considered as the C. gigantea; but which is asserted by Dr. Casanova to be a distinct species, and has received from him the name of C. Madarii Indico-orientalis. The C. gigantea is a native of Hindostan, and has been introduced into the West Indies, where it is now naturalized. The bark, as employed, is destitute of epidermis, of a whitish colour, nearly or quite inodorous, and of a bitter, somewhat nau- seous taste. It appears to have the general properties of many other acrid medicines; in small doses, increasing the secretions, and in larger, producing nausea and vomiting. According to Dr. Casanova, who published an essay upon the subject at Calcutta, it is especially directed to the skin, the capillaries and absorbents of which it stimulates to increased action. It is chiefly recommended as a remedy in the obstinate cutaneous diseases of tropical climates, such as elephantiasis and leprosy. It has been employed also with advantage in syphilis, dropsy, rheumatism, and hectic fever. It is given in substance in the dose of from three to twelve grains, three times a day, and gradually increased till it affects the system. CAM WOOD. A red dye-wood, procured from the Baphia nitida of De Candolle, a leguminous tree, growing on the Western Coast of Africa. The wood is usually kept in the shops in the ground state. It yields its colouring matter scarcely at all to cold water, slightly to boiling water, and readily to alcohol and alkaline solutions. This colouring principle is considered by M. Preisser as identical with santalin. (See Journ. de Pharm., 3eser., v. 211.) CANARY SEED. The seeds of the Phalaris Canariensis, an annual plant, belonging to the grasses originally from the Canary Islands, but now growing wild in Europe and the United States, and cultivated in many places. The seeds are ovate, somewhat com- pressed, about two lines long, shining and of a light yellowish-gray colour externally, and brownish within. Their chief constituent is starch. They were formerly esteemed medi- cinal, but are now used only for emollient cataplasms. They are nutritive, and their meal is said to be mixed, in some places, with wheat flour, and made into bread. They are used as food for Canary birds. CANNABIS SATIVA. Hemp. An annual plant, originally from Asia, but now culti- vated in various parts of Europe and North America. Some consider the hemp cultivated in the East as specifically different from the common hemp; and name it Cannabis Indica; but most botanists think the two plants identical. It is, however, generally admitted, that the India plant is much more powerful in its action on die system; the difference being ascribed to the influence of climate. Hemp possesses narcotic properties, and is employed in Persia and the East Indies, in the form of infusion, as an intoxicating drink. It is also smoked, in these and other countries of the East, in the same manner 105 1238 Appendix. as tobacco, with which it is frequently mixed. A resinous exudation from the plant is much employed for the same purpose. Even the odour of the fresh plant is stated to be capable of prodacing vertigo, headache, and a species of intoxication. In Hindostan the tops of the plant are cut when in flower, dried, and sent into the market in bundles, under the name of gunjah. The larger leaves and capsules, without the stems, are called bang. The concrete resinous exudation is known in India by the name of churrus. Ac- cording to Dr. O'Shaughnessy, of Calcutta, who has experimented with this narcotic, it alleviates pain, exhilarates the spirits, increases the appetite, acts decidedly as an aphrodi- siac, produces sleep, and, in large doses, occasions intoxication, a peculiar kind of delirium, and catalepsy. Its operation, in the hands of Dr. Pereira, appeared to resemble very much that of opium. Numerous trials have been made with it as a remedy; and the general result appears to be that it is capable of producing most of the therapeutical effects of opium, and may be employed as a substitute for that narcotic, when found to disagree with a patient from some peculiarity of constitution. Very favourable reports have been made of its effects in cholera, neuralgia, rheumatism, tetanus, and insanity. It is wrongly called Indian hemp; as this name has long been appropriated, in the United States, to the Apocynum cannabinum. The preparation most used is an alcoholic extract of the dried tops. It is of very variable strength. When of good quality, half a grain or a grain will affect the system, while of that found in the shops 10 or 12 grains will some- times be requisite. The proper plan is to begin with a dose of a grain or two, repeated at intervals of two, three, or four hours, and increased, if necessary, till its effects are experienced. Another preparation employed is a spirituous solution or tincture of the extract, made by dissolving three grains in a fluidrachm of proof spirit. The dose of this must correspond with that of the extract. Dr. O'fchaughnessy gave ten drops of it every half hour in cholera. From twenty to forty minims may be given, as a commencing dose, when the full effects of the remedy are required. The Messis. Smith, of Edin- burgh, prepare the resin of hemp, freed from inert accompaniments, by a process which may be seen at length in the Am. Journal of Pharmacy, vol. xix., p. 39. They state that two-thirds of a grain operated as a powerful narcotic on themselves, and one grain pro- duced intoxication. The seeds of hemp have also been used in medicine. They are about the eighth of an inch long, roundish-ovate, somewhat compressed, of a shining gray colour, inodorous, and of a disagreeable, oily, sweetish taste. They yield by expression a. considerable quantity of fixed oil, which is used in the arts. They contain also un- crystallizable sugar and albumen, and when rubbed with water afford an emulsion, which may be used advantageously in inflammations of the mucous membranes, though it is not superior to a similar preparation from other emulsive seeds. They are much used as food for birds, which are fond of them. CAOUTCHOUC. Gum elastic. This substance is the concrete juice of the Siphonia Cahuchu of Schreber and Willdenow, identical with the Siphonia elastica of Persoon, the Jatropha elastica of the younger Linnaus, and the Hevea Guianensis of Aublet. This is a large tree growing in Brazil, Guiana, and .probably also in Central America. {Journ. Phil. Col. of Pharm., iii. 292.) On being wounded, it emits a milky juice, which con- cretes on exposure, and constitutes the substance in question. A similar product is afforded.by several other lactescent plants; and a product, named Gutta Percha, is ob- tained from an unknown tree in the East Indies, which possesses valuable properties, and is likely to come into use. (See Chem. Gazette, March, 1846, p. 92.) But hitherto it is only the concrete juice of the Siphonia that has been extensively collected as an article of commerce. Caoutchouc comes to us in large flat pieces, or moulded into various shapes. These are formed by applying successive layers of the juice upon models of clay, which are broken and removed when the coating lias attained a sufficient thickness and con- sistence. In the drying of these layers ihey are exposed to smoke, which gives t6 the concrete mass a blackish colour. The juice, when it concretes by exposure to the air, assumes on the outer surface a yellowish-brown colour, while the mass remains white or yellowish-white within. The recent juice contains, according to Faraday, 1-9 per cent, of vegetable albumen, traces of wax, 7-13 per cent, of a bitter azotized substance soluble in water and alcohol, 29 of a substance soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol, 56-37 of water with a little free acid, and only 317 of the pure elastic principle to which chemists have given the name of caoutchouc. Besides these principles the concrete juice, as it reaches us, generally contains soot derived from the smoke used in drying it. Pure caoutchouc is nearly colourless, and in thin layers transparent. It is highly elastic, lighter than water, without taste and smell, fu.-ible at about 24 8°, remaining unctuous and adhesive upon cooling, inflammable at a higher temperature, insoluble in water, alcohol, the weak acids, and alkaline solutions, soluble in ether when entirely freed from alcohol, soluble also in most of the fixed and volatile oils, though at the expense of its Appendix. 1239 elasticity. It is said, however, that the oils of lavender and sassafras dissolve it without change, and that, when precipitated by alcohol from its solution in cajeput oil, it is still elastic. But its best solvent, for practical purposes, is either coal-naphtha, an empyreu- matic oil obtained by distilling caoutchouc itself, or oil of turpentine modified by one or two distillations. Caoutchouc is not affected by common air, chlorine, muriatic or sul- phurous acid gas, or ammonia. It consists, according to Faraday, of 87-2 parts of carbon, and 12-8 of hydrogen. Caoutchouc is used for erasing pencil marks; in the formation of flexible tubes for the laboratory, and of catheters and bougies for surgical purposes; in the melted state, as a luting to the joints of chemical apparatus; in the shape of thin layers, for covering the mouths of bottles, and for other purposes in which the exclusion of air and moisture is requisite; in the manufacture of waterproof cloth;, and for numerous other objects, to which its elasticity, and the resistance which it offers to the ordinary solvents, and to other powerful chemical agents peculiarly adapt it. It is brought to the state of thin layers, by softening the small flasks of it in ether containing alcohol, or by boiling them in water for fifteen minutes, and then distending them by means of air forced into them. Tubes of caoutchouc may be made from its ethereal solution, or from the juice imported in the liquid state. A court-plaster prepared with caoutchouc has been con- siderably used, and from its impermeability by moisture is sometimes valuable. (See Amer. Journ. of Pharm., xv. 38.) Small thin pieces of caoutchouc may be very advan- tageously employed to suppress hemorrhage from leech-bites, &c, by first softening one surface of the piece by a taper, and when cool applying it firmly over the bleeding point. The cavity of a decayed tooth may be lined with caoutchouc, so as to prevent the access of air, and thus relieve pain, by fastening a piece firmly around the end of a rod, liquefying the surface by heat, then introducing it with pressure into the cavity, and again withdrawing it.—{Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1843, p. 911.) Caoutchouc has been given internally in phthisis, in the dose of one or two grains, gradually increased.—{Ann. Therap.,A.D. 1847, p. 73) CAPPARIS SPINOSA. Caper-bush. A low, trailing shrub, growing in the South of Europe and North of Africa. The buds or unexpanded flowers, treated with salt and vinegar, form a highly esteemed pickle, which has an acid, burning taste,- and is consi- dered useful in scurvy. The dried bark of the root -was formerly officinal. It is in pieces partially or wholly quilled, about one-third of an inch in mean diameter, trans- versely wrinkled, grayish externally, whitish within, inodorous, and of a bitterish, some- what acrid, and aromatic taste. It is considered diuretic, and was formerly employed in obstructions of the liver and spleen, amenorrhcea, and chronic rheumatism. CARANNA. Gum Caranna. A resinous substance, in pieces of a blackish-gray colour externally, dark-brown internally, somewhat shining and translucent, brittle and puiverizable when dry, but, in the recent state, soft and adhesive like pitch, easily fusible, of an agreeable balsamic odour when heated, and of a bitterish resinous taste. {Geiger.) It is said to be derived from the Amyris Caranna of Humboldt, a tree growing in Mexico and South America. Geiger refers it also to the Bursera gurnmifera of the West India Islands; but the resin obtained from this tree is described by the French writers under the name of resine de Gomart, or resine de chibou or cachibou, and is said to bear a close resemblance to the resin tacamahac. CARBURET OF IRON. Ferri Carburetum. Plumbago. Black Lead. This substance has been used both internally and externally in cutaneous affections. For medical use it is reduced to very fine powder, and purified by being boiled with water, and digested with dilute nitromuriatic acid. The dose is from five to fifteen grains or more, three or four times a day, given in the form of powder or pill. The ointment is made by mixing from two to six drachms with an ounce of lard. CATALPA CORDIFOLIA. Bignonia Catalpa. Linn. Catalpa tree, or Catawba tree. This is a beautiful indigenous flowering tree, occasionally cultivated for ornamental pur- poses. It has been introduced into the gardens of Europe. It is reputed to be poisonous. The seeds have been employed by several practitioners of Continental Europe in asthma. M. Automarchi recommends a decoction made by boiling twelve ounces of water with three or four ounces of the seeds down to six ounces, the whole to be given morning and night. CEANOTHUS AMERICANUS. New Jersey Tea. Red-root. A small indigenous shrub, growing throughout the United States. The root is astringent, and imparts a red colour to water. It is said to be useful in syphilitic complaints, in which it is given in the form of decoction, made in the proportion of two drachms of the root to a pint of water. Schoepf states that it is purgative. The leaves were used during the revolu- 1240 Appendix. tionary war as a substitute for tea. Dr. Hubbard recommends a strong infusion of the dried leaves and seeds, as a local application in aphthous affections of the mouth and fauces, and the sorethroat of scarlatina, and as an internal remedy in dysentery. {Bos- ton Med. and Surg. Journ., Sept. 30, 1835.) CHELIDONIUM MAJUS. Celandine. A perennial herbaceous plant, growing wild in this country, about old houses and in rocky places; but supposed to have been intro- duced from Europe, where it is indigenous. It is one or two feet high, bears pinnate leaves and small peduncled umbels of yellow flowers, and, when wounded, emits a yellow, opaque juice. The whole plant is used. It has a faint unpleasant odour, and a bitter, acrid, durable taste, which is stronger in the roots than in the leaves. The odour is nearly lost by drying, but the taste remains. The yellow juice is bitter and exceedingly acrid, and when applied to the skin produces inflammation and even vesi- cation. The plant, analyzed by MM. Chevalier and Lassaigne, afforded a bitter resinous substance of a deep yellow colour; a kind of gum-resin of an orange-yellow colour, and bitter, nauseous taste; mucilage; albumen; and various saline substances, besides free malic acid and silica. Dr. Probst, of Heidelberg, has more recently found in it a pecu- liar acid denominated chelidonic acid; two alkaline principles, one of which forms neutral salts with the acids and is called chekrythrin in consequence of the intense redness, of its salts, the other unites with but does not neutralize the acids, and is named chelidonin; and lastly a neuter, crystallizable, bitter principle, which from its yellow colour he calls chelidoxanthin. Chelerythrin appears to be an acrid narcotic poison. {Annal. der Pharm., xxix. 113.) Celandine is an acrid purgative, possessed also of diuretic, and perhaps diaphoretic and expectorant properties. In over-doses, it produces unpleasant effects, and is by some considered poisonous. By the ancients it was much esteemed as a remedy in jaundice; and it has been found useful in the same complaint by some modern physicians. It was the chief ingredient of the old decoctum ad ictericos of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. It has been given also, with asserted advantage, in other complaints, especially those of a scrofulous character, affecting the mesenteric and lym- phatic glands, the skin, and the eyes. The yellow juice is often applied to corns and warts, which it destroys by stimulating them beyond their vital powers. The fresh herb is also applied locally about the pelvis, with asserted benefit, in amenorrhoea. The dose of the dried root or herb is from thirty grains to a. drachm, that of the fresh root one or two drachms; and the same quantity may be given in infusion. The watery extract and the expressed juice have also been employed. The dose of the former is from five to ten grains, that of the latter from ten to twenty drops, to be gradually in- creased until the effects of the remedy are experienced. • CHELTENHAM SALT, ARTIFICIAL. Several artificial mixtures have been pre- pared, professing to be exact imitations of the saline ingredients in the chalybeate Chel- tenham water; but the only ones which appear worthy of confidence are those prepared by Robert Alsop, Chemist, of London, and D. B. Smith- and W. Hodgson, jun., chemists and druggists, of this city. The composition of the natural Cheltenham chalybeate is given at p. 113. The imitation of Mr. Alsop, as analyzed by Dr. Faraday, contains the same solid and gaseous constituents as the natural water, except the sulphate of lime, which is very properly omitted; and in the same proportions precisely, with the ex- ception that there is about twice as much free carbonic acid in the artificial preparation. The iron is present in the state of protoxide, and is immediately dissolved by the free carbonic acid, upon adding a sufficient quantity of water. The free carbonic acid pro- bably exists as such in the dry mixture; as there is no obvious agent present to cause it to be disengaged in the mere act of solution. Mr. Alsop's artificial mixture is in the forrp of a powder, nearly white, possessing a saline and slightly ferruginous taste. It forms a good combination, in which the aperient property of the salts present is combined with the tonic virtue of the iron. It is con- sidered to be useful in glandular obstructions, especially of the liver, and in scrofulous affections, attended with feeble digestion, sluggish bowels, and pallidness of skin. It is employed, also, with advantage in sick headache, habitual costiveness, and hemorrhoids. The dose is a teaspoonful, quickly dissolved by brisk stirring in half a pint of cold water, and swallowed immediately, before the iron has time to separate in an insoluble state. This quantity may be taken in the morning, fasting, and repeated once or twice after an interval of twenty minutes, or in the course of the day. To obtain its full tonic and alterative effects, it should be persevered in for a month or six weeks. The artificial Cheltenham salt of Messrs. Smith and Hodgson is deemed by them to be identical with that of Mr. Alsop, and may be used with entire confidence for all the purposes to' which the latter is applied. Appendix. 1241 CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM. Magnesii Chloridum. Muriate of Magnesia. The physiological action of this bitter and very deliquescent salt has been made the subject of a memoir by Dr. Lebert. He finds it to act mildly and favourably as a purgative, pro- ducing a flow of bile, and an increase of appetite. On account of its extreme deliques- cence, he recommends it in the liquid form, prepared by dissolving the salt in its weight of water. Of this solution he gives an ounce, sufficiently diluted, to an adult, and half an ounce to a child from 10 to 14 years of age. {Arch. Gen., Ae ser., iii. 448.) CHLORIDE OF POTASSA, SOLUTION OF. Liquor Potassa Chlorinata. Javelle's Water. Eau de Javelle. This is obtained precisely as the solution of chlorinated soda. (See Liquor Soda Chlorinata.) It is employed for taking out fruit stains, &c, from linen. In chemical constitution it is probably a hypochlorite. CHLORIDE OF SILVER. Argenti Chloridum. This has been already referred to as being inevitably formed when nitrate of silver is given internally. (See page 870.) It is readily prepared by adding a solution of common salt to one of nitrate of silver, as long as it produces a precipitate. As first thrown down it is a white curdy substance, but it soon becomes discoloured when exposed to the light. It has been used rubbed on the tongue in syphilis, and internally in epilepsy, chronic dysentery and diarrhoea, and other diseases in which nitrate of silver has been given. The dose is from one to three grains or more, four or five times a day. Dr. Perry administered it at the Philadelphia hospital, in chronic dysentery, with the immediate +-lK-ct of diminishing the number of stools. The crystallized ammonio-chloride of silver has been given in syphilitic affections, in the dose of the fourteenth of a grain. It is formed by saturating solution of ammonia, by the assistance of heat, with chloride of silver, and allowing the liquid to cool in a stopped bottle. It crystallizes in cubes, and is very liable to decomposition. CHLORINE ETHERS. There appear to be three species of chlorine ether, each consisting of some form of carbohydrogen, united with different proportions of chlorine. The first is called protochlorine ether, and is formed by passing an excess of chlorine through cold alcohol. It consists of one eq. of chlorine and one of etherine. The second, denominated bichlorine ether, consists of two eqs. of chlorine and one of etherine, and is the long known oily liquid of the Dutch chemists, obtained by the action of defiant gas on chlorine. The third species was discovered within a few years by three chemists, independently of each other.—Soubeiran in France, Liebig in Germany, and Guthrie in this country. Dumas has determined its composition to be three eqs. of chlorine to one of bicarburet of hydrogen {formyle), and ascertained that it differs from formic acid, into which it is susceptible of conversion by the action of potassa, in containing an equivalent quantity of chlorine, in place of the oxygen of that acid. On account of its connexion with formic acid, it is called chloroform. ■ Chloroform was obtained by Mr. Guthrie by distilling a gallon from a mixture of three pounds of chloride of lime and two gallons of alcohol of sp. gr. 0-844, and rectifying the product by redistillation, first from a great excess of chloride of lime, and afterwards from strong sulphuric acid. Thenard recommends it to be obtained by dissolving one part of chloride of lime in three parts of water, decanting the solution, adding from one-fifth to one-tenth of alcohol, and distilling from a retort sufficiently capacious to guard against the overflowing of the materials when they swell. In the receiver water will condense, swimming over an oleaginous liquid. The water is decanted, and the oily liquid, after being agitated several times with concentrated sulphuric acid, and rectified from finely powdered baryta, constitutes pure chloroform. This compound is a colourless oleaginous liquid, of a sweetish ethereal odour, and hot, aromatic, peculiar taste. It boils at 142°, and has the sp. gr. of 1-480. It is not inflammable, but renders the flame of an alcohol lamp yellow and fuliginous. It is scarcely acted on by sulphuric acid in the cold, but dissolves readily in alcohol and ether, from its solution in which it is precipitated by water. The alcoholic solution forms when sufficiently diluted with water, an aromatic and saccharine liquid of a very grate- ful taste. , , y. , , . ,- Medical Properties. Mr. Guthrie was led to prepare chloroform by his peculiar pro- cess from noticing a passage in Professor Silliman's Elements of Chemistry, which referred to the chlorine ether of the Dutch chemists as being a grateful diffusible stimu- lant when properly diluted. He supposed that he had fallen upon a cheap and easy process for obtaining this long-known ether, without being aware that in reality he had obtained a new compound. It acts as a diffusible soothing stimulus, in the same manner as sulphuric ether, but with this decided advantage, that, when sufficiently diluted, it possesses a bland, sweet taste, which renders its administration easy, even to children. It has been used with advantage in asthma, spasmodic cough, the sorethroat of scarlet 105* 1242 Appendix. fever, atonic quinsy, and other diseases in which a grateful and composing medicine is indicated. Professor Ives, and Dr. N. B. Ives, of New Haven, speak favourably of its effects. The dose for an adult is a teaspoonful, diluted with water. In affections characterized by difficult respiration, it may be used by inhalation. It is employed for medicinal purposes in alcoholic solution. CHROME YELLOW. This is the neutral chromate of lead, prepared by precipitat- ing a solution of the nitrate of lead with chromate of potassa. It is of a beautiful lemon- yellow colour. The subchromate of lead, consisting of one eq. of acid, and two eqs. of base, is of a red colour, and is sometimes used as a pigment. Chrome green is a mixture of chrome yellow and Prussian blue. CICHORIUM INTYBUS. Succory. A perennial herbaceous plant, indigenous in Europe, but naturalized in this country, where it grows in fields, and in roads along the fences, in neighbourhoods which have been long settled. It is one or two feet high, with large, compound, beautifully blue flowers, which appear in July and August, and serve to distinguish the plant at first sight. The whole plant has a bitter taste, without acrimony, or any very peculiar flavour. The taste is strongest in the root, and weakest in the flowers. The leaves, when young and tender, are said to be sometimes eaten as salad in Europe. Succory is gently tonic without being irritating, and is considered by some authors as aperient and deobstruent. It is said to be useful, if freely taken, in hepatic congestion, jaundice, and ott-sr visceral obstructions in the early stages ; and it is affirmed to have done good even in pulmonary consumption. The usual form of ad- ministration is that of decoction, which is prepared by boiling one or two ounces of the root, or a handful of the herb, in a pint of water. The root dried and roasted is used in certain parts of Europe, as a substitute for coffee. The garden rendive is a species of Cichorium, denominated C. Endivia. CICUTA VIROSA, Water Hemlock. Cowbane. A perennial, umbelliferous European plant, growing on the borders of pools and streams. It is very poisonous, proving fatal to most animals which feed upon it, though said to be eaten with impunity by goats and sheep. Several instances are on record of children who have died from eating the root by mistake for parsnep. It operates as an acrid narcotic, producing inflammation of the stomach, together with symptoms which indicate cerebral disturbance, such as vertigo, intoxication, and convulsions. Infusion of galls is recommended as an antidote, but should not be relied on to the exclusion of emetics. When the plant vomits, as it frequently does, fatal effects are less apt to ensue. It is said to be less poisonous dried than fresh; and it has been inferred that the active principle is volatile. But the volatile oil, obtained by distillation, was found by Simon, of Berlin, not to be poisonous. On the other hand, the alcoholic extract of the dried root operated as a violent poison upon animals. (Annal..der. Pharm., xxxi. 258.) It is at present never used internally as a medicine, having been superseded by the Conium. maculatum. Externally, it is some- times employed as an anodyne poultice in local pains, particularly those of a rheumatic or gouty nature. %The Cicuta maculata or American water hemlock is closely analogous, in botanical character and effects, to the European species. In several instances, children have been fatally poisoned by eating its root. It is never used in medicine. For a full account of this plant, see Bigelow's Medical Botany, vol. i. page 125. In cases of poisoning by either of these plants, vomiting should be induced as speedily as possible, and main- tained till the stomach is thoroughly evacuated. CITRATE OF AMMONIA. Ammonia Citras. This is employed in the liquid form. The solution is made by saturating lemon or hme-juice, or an equivalent solution of citric acid (see page 429), with carbonate of ammonia, and may be given in the dose of a tablespoonful. A more elegant mode of exhibition is that of an extemporaneous effer- vescing draught. To half a fluidounce of lemon-juice mixed with an equal quantity of water, or to a fluidounce of a solution of citric acid containing seventeen grains of the acid, is to be added half a fluidounce of a solution containing thirteen grains of the car- bonate (sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, and the mixture is to be given while effervescing. The dose, in either case, may be repeated every hour, two, or three hours. The prepa- ration is given as a refrigerant diaphoretic in febrile complaints, and is especially appli- cable to typhoid fevers, with a hot and dry skin. CITRATE OF IRON. Ferri Citras. The citrates of iron were first introduced to the notice of the medical profession, inl831, by M. Beral, of Paris. The citrate of the prot- oxide is prepared by digesting iron filings in an aqueous solution of citric acid to satu- ration, and precipitating with alcohol. It is a white, pulverulent, slightly soluble salt, having a strongly chalybeate taste, and absorbing oxygen readily when exposed to the Appendix. 1243 air. The citrate of the sesquioxide is the salt usually recommended for medical use. It is made by saturating a solution of crystallized citric acid in an equal weight of water, heated to about 180°, with moist hydrated sesquioxide of iron, recently prepared. A boiling temperature must be avoided, as it renders the sesquioxide less readily soluble. (Wm. Procter, jun.) The solution is filtered and evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup. It is then spread out on glass or porcelain plates, where it speedily dries in thin layers, which are separated, and broken into fragments. As thus obtained, it is in thin pieces, of a beautiful garnet-red colour. It is an uncrystallizable acid salt, slowly soluble in cold water, readily soluble in'boiling water, and having an acid, not unplea- sant taste. When the excess of acid is neutralized by adding ammonia to its solution, the double salt is formed, called ammonia-citrate of iron. This is in yellowish-green, soft, porous masses, having an acidulous, slightly chalybeate taste. It is much more readily soluble in water than the citrate of the sesquioxide. The citrate of the black or magnetic oxide is an uncrystallizable greenish-yellow salt, susceptible of being formed into trans- parent laminae, very soluble in water, unalterable in solution even when exposed to the air, and having a decidedly chalybeate taste. These different citrates have latterly been used as pleasant chalybeates. The dose is five grains or more, repeated several times a day. The citrate of the sesquioxide is best given in pill; the ammpnio-citrate and the citrate of the black oxide, in solution. The citrate of the sesquioxide may be rendered readily soluble in water, by the addition of a few drops of the officinal liquor ammonia?, which converts it into the ammonio-citrate. CITRATE OF IRON AND QUINIA. Ferri et Quinia Citras. This is made by M. Beral by mixing, in solution, four parts of citrate of protoxide of iron with one of citrate of quinia, and evaporating to dryness in thin layers. It is in the form of minute shining scales, of a garnet-red colour, more or less deep, and is given as a tonic in doses of five grains or more, three times a day, either in solution, or in the form of pill. CIVET. Zibethum. This is an odorous substance, obtained from two animals of the genus Viverra, viz., the V. Civetta or civet-cat of Africa, and the V. Zibetha which inha- bits the East Indies. It is secreted into a cavity which opens between the anus and ex- ternal genitals, and is collected from animals confined for the purpose. It is semi-liquid, unctuous, yellowish, becoming brown and thicker by exposure to the air, of a very strong, peculiar odour, similar to that of musk, though less agreeable and less diffusible, and of a bitterish, subacrid, disagreeable, fatty taste. When heated it becomes quite fluid, and at a higher temperature takes fire, and burns with a clear flame, leaving little residue. It is insoluble in water, and only slightly soluble in ether and cold alcohol; but heated alcohol dissolves it almost entirely, depositing it again upon cooling. It contains, among other ingredients, a volatile oil, fat, and free ammonia. In medicine it was for- merly employed as a stimulant and antispasmodic, like castor and musk; but it is now used exclusively as a perfume. CLEMATIS ERECTA. Upright Virgin's Bower. A perennial European plant. The leaves and flowers have an acrid burning^ taste. When bruised in a mortar they irritate the eyes and throat, giving rise to a flow of tears and to coughing: and applied to the skin they produce inflammation and vesication. Hence the name oi flammula Jovis, by which the plant was known in older pharmacy. The acrimony is greatly diminished by drying. Storek found this species of Clematis useful in secondary syphi- lis, cancerous and other foul ulcers, and severe headaches. He gave it internally, and at the same time applied the powdered leaves to the surface of the sore. It acted as a diuretic and diaphoretic. Two or three drachms of the leaves were infused in a pint of water, of which he administered four ounces three times a day. He also employed an extract, in the dose of a grain or two in the course of a day. At present the plant is not used. Other species of Clematis have the same acrid properties. Among these are the C. Flammula, or sweet-scented virgin's bower, which, though a native of Europe, is cultivated in our gardens, the C. Vitalba or traveller's joy, also a native of Europe, and several indi- genous species, of which the C. Virginica or common virgin's bower, the C. Viorna or leather flower, and the C. crispa have been particularly cited by authors as proper substi- tutes for the C. erecta used by Storck. All these are climbing plants. The C. Vitalba has been used in Europe with success in the cure of itch. For this purpose the roots and stems, bruised, and boiled for a short time to diminish their acrimony, were infused in boiling oil, which, thus impregnated, was applied to the skin several times a day. Twelve or fifteen applications were usually sufficient. COBALT BLUE. This beautiful pigment is a compound of oxide of cobalt and alu- mina obtained by precipitating the mixed solutions of a salt of alumina and of cobalt by 1244 Appendix. means of an alkali, and washing, drying, and strongly calcining the precipitate. {Berzelius?) The cobalt blue of Thenard is made by heating together the hydrated subphosphate of cobalt and hydrate of alumina. It is used in painting. An oxide of cobalt prepared by precipitating the chloride with potassa has been employed in rheumatism. It is emetic in the dose of 10 or 20 grains. The salts of the metal are irritant poisons. COBWEB. Spider's Web. Tela Aranea. The genus Aranea of Linn, has been divided by subsequent naturalists into several genera, of which the Tegeneria of Walkenaer is the one that includes the medicinal species of spider. The T. domestica of Europe, and T. medicinalis of this country (Henz, Journ. Acad, tf Nat. Scien., ii.. 53), are the particular species which have attracted most attention. They inhabit cellars, barns, and other dark places, and are of a brown or blackish colour. It is affirmed that the web of the field spider is inefficacious, while that, collected in the cellars of houses, &c, has extraordinary medical virtues. Several authors speak in very decided terms of its powers as a febri- fuge and antispasmodic. According to Dr. Robert Jackson, it is superior even to bark and arsenic in the cure of intermittents, and is, moreover, highly useful in various spas- modic and nervous diseases, controlling and tranquilizing irregular nervous action, exhila- rating the spirits, and disposing to sleep, without producing any of the narcotic effects of opium on the brain. Among the complaints in which it has been found useful, besides intermittent fever, are periodical headache, hectic fever, asthma, hysteria, and nervous irritations attended with morbid vigilance and irregular muscular action. It will be ob- served that these are, for the most part, affections over which the imagination has much control. The dose of spider's web is five or six grains, to be given in the form of pill, and repeated every three or four hours. Dr. Jackson states that its influence is not in proportion to the quantity administered, and that he obtained the same effects from ten as from twenty grains. This might well be, if the supposition be allowed, that its chief operation is through the imagination. Spider's web has also been used, with asserted advantage, as a styptic in wounds, and a healing application in superficial ulcers. Spiders themselves were formerly employed in the treatment of intermittent fever, and this application of the web is not of recent origin. COCOA. Cacao. Chocolate Nuts. These are the seeds of the Theobroma Cacao, a hand- some tree, from twelve to twenty feet in height, growing in Mexico, the West Indies, and South America, in some parts of which it is largely cultivated, particularly in Guayaquil and Venezuela. The fruit is an oblong ovate capsule or berry, six or eight inches in length, with a thick, coriaceous, somewhat ligneous rind, enclosing a whitish pulp, in which numerous seeds are embedded. These are ovate, somewhat compressed, about as large as an almond, and consist of an exterior thin shell, and a brown oily kernel. Separated from the matter in which they are enveloped, they constitute the cocoa of commerce. They have a slightly aromatic, bitterish, oily taste, and, when bruised or heated, an agreeable odour. They contain a large quantity of fixed oil, together with albumen and bitter extractive. The oil is obtained by hot expression, or by decoction. It is a soft solid, whitish or yellowish, with' a peculiar agreeable odour, and a bland pleasant taste, and is known by the name of cocoa butter. According to Brandes, it has peculiar pro- perties, and yields a peculiar acid when saponified. He calls the oil cocin, and the acid cocinic acid. {Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 652.) The oil is said to be frequently adulterated with animal fats. The chief use to which it is applied, is as an ingredient in cosmetic unguents. A peculiar crystallizable azotized principle, called theobromine, has been found in the seeds by M. Woskresensky. It is said to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than cafe'in. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., i. 136.) The shells of the nuts are sometimes employed in the state of infusion, as a substitute for tea or coffee. They impart to boil- ing water a taste analogous to that of chocolate, but weaker. The. kernel is consumed in great quantities, in the shape of chocolate, or in some analogous form. Chocolate is differently prepared in different countries. In Great Britain and the United States, it usually consists, when pure, exclusively of the cocoa or chocolate nuts, which are first roasted, then deprived of their shell, and lastly reduced, by grinding between heated stones, to the state of a paste, which is moulded into oblong cakes. Not unfrequently rice flour or other farinaceous substance, with butter or lajd, is added; but these must be con- sidered as adulterations. On the continent of Europe, sugar is generally incorporated with the paste, and spices, especially cinnamon, are often added. Vanilla is a favourite addition in South America, France, and Spain. Cocoa is often sold in the state of powder, which is sometimes mingled with other ingredients, such as ground rice, barley flour, sugar, &c. Chocolate is prepared for use by reducing it to powder, and boiling it in milk, water, or a mixture of these fluids! In this state it is much employed as a drink at the morning and evening meals, and serves as an excellent substitute for coffee in dyspeptic cases. It Appendix. 1245 is also a good article of diet for convalescents, and may sometimes be given advan- tageously as a mild nutritive drink in acute disease. COD-LIVER OIL. Oleum Jecoris Aselli. Huile de Morue, Fr. A fixed oil obtained from the livers of Codfish, Gadus Morrhua of naturalists, and from those of other allied species. It is procured by exposing the livers, in tubs or vats, to the sun's rays. The oil flows out spontaneously, and is collected in proper vessels. That which first flows is limpid and of a light-yellowish colour. After the commencement of putrefaction, a darker- coloured, and offensive oil flows out, which is unfit for medical use. The oil is also separated by expression, and by means of heat; and in both ways, if the livers be quite fresh, and proper care be taken, it may be procured of good- quality. Mr. Donovan re- commends the following mode of preparation. The livers, perfectly sound and fresh, are to be placed in a clean iron pot over a slow fire, and stirred until they assume the condition of a pulp, care being taken that the mass be not heated beyond 192°. When this temperature is attained the pot is to be removed from the fire, and its contents intro- duced into a canvas bag, through which water and oil will flow into a vessel beneath. After twenty-four hours, the oil is to be decanted and filtered through paper. In this state it is pale yellow, with little odour, and a bland not disagreeable taste. As ordi- narily found in the market, and employed for manufacturing purposes, the oil is brown, very offensive, and scarcely fit for internal use. On the continent of Europe, three, and according to some, four varieties are distinguished; viz., the white, the yellow, the red, and the brown. It is possible that the colour may sometimes depend upon the species of fish from which the oil is procured; but more commonly the difference arises from the degree of care used in the preparation. If the livers are putrid, or exposed to too great heat, or too strongly expressed, or if they were originally diseased or of bad quality, the oil is more or less inferior. That should be selected for medical use which is least offensive to the palate and nostrils. Cod-liver oil has been found to contain variable proportions of iodine and bromine. Sulphur and phosphorus, also, are among its constituents. (Journ. de. Pharm., 3e ser., vi. 25.) It has been popularly used in various diseases, but has only within a few years attracted the general notice of the profession. It has been much lauded on the con- tinent of Europe, particularly in Germany and Switzerland, as a remedy in chronic gouty and rheumatic affections, scrofula and rickets, chronic pectoral complaints, tabes mesen- terica, obstinate constipation, incontinence of urine, and intestinal worms. The dose is a tablespoonful three Or four times a day for adults, a teaspoonful repeated as frequently for children, which may be gradually increased as the stomach will permit, and continued for a long time. It may be taken alone, or mixed with some mucilaginous liquid. It is sometimes applied externally by friction, and, in cases of ascarides or lumbricoides, is injected into the rectum. It has been recommended also as a local application in para- lysis, various chronic cutaneous eruptions, and opacity of the cornea, after the subsidence of inflammation. In the last-mentioned affection, one or two drops of the oil are applied by means of a pencil to the cornea, and diluted, if found too stimulating, with olive or almond oil. The oil of the liver of the ray {Raia clavata and R. batis) is said to be richer in iodine, and at the same time less offensive than the cod-liver oil. It is preferably em- ployed in the North of France and in Belgium. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., i. 503.) COFFEE. The coffee plant—Coffea Arabica—belongs to the class and order Pentan- dria Monogynia of the sexual system, and to the natural order Cinchonaceae of Lindley. It is a small tree, rising from fifteen to thirty feet in height. The branches are opposite, the lower spreading, the upper somewhat declining, and gradually diminishing in length ' as they ascend, so as to form a pyramidal summit, which is covered with green foliage throughout the year. The leaves are opposite, upon short footstalks, oblong-ovate, acu- minate, entire, wavy, four or five inches long, smooth and shining, of a dark-green colour on their upper surface, paler beneath, and accompanied with a pair of small pointed stipules They are employed in Java and Sumatra as a substitute for Chinese tea, which they are said to resemble. {Chem. Gaz., July, 1845, p. 299.) The flowers are white, with an odour not unlike that of the jasmine, and stand in groups in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is very small, the corolla salverform, with a nearly cylindrical tube, and a flat border divided into five lanceolate, pointed segments. The stamens pro- ject above the tube. The fruit, which is inferior, is a roundish berry, umbilicate at top, at first green, then red, and ultimately of a dark-purple colour. It is about as large as a cherry and contains two seeds surrounded by a paper-like membrane, and enclosed in a yellowish pulpy matter. These seeds, divested of their coverings, constitute coffee This tree is a native of Southern Arabia and Abyssinia, and probably pervades Africa about the same parallel of latitude, as it is found growing wild at Liberia on the western coast of the continent. It is cultivated in various parts of the world where the tempera- 1246 Appendix. hire is sufficiently elevated and uniform. Considerable attention has long been paid to its culture in its native country, particularly in Yemen, in the vicinity of Mocha, from which the demands of commerce were at first almost exclusively supplied. About the year 1690, it was introduced by the Dutch into Java, and in 1718, into their colony of Surinam. Soon after this latter period, the French succeeded in introducing it into their West India islands, Cayenne, and the Isles of France and Bourbon; and it has subsequently made its way into the other West India Islands, various parts of tropical America, Hindostan, and Ceylon. The tree is raised from the seeds, which are sown in a soil properly prepared, and, germinating in less than a month, produce plants which, at the end of the year, are large enough to be transplanted. These are then set out in rows at suitable distances, and in three or four years begin to bear fruit. It is customary to top the trees at this age, in order to prevent their attaining an inconvenient height, and to increase the number of fruit-bearing branches. It is said that they continue productive for thirty or forty years. Though almost always covered with flowers and fruit, they yield most abundantly at two seasons, and thus afford two harvests during the year. Various methods are employed for freeing the seeds from their coverings; but that considered the best, is by means of machinery to remove the fleshy portion of the fruit, leaving the seeds surrounded only by their papyraceous envelope, from which they are afterwards separated by drying, and by the action of peeling and winnowing mills. The character of coffee varies considerably with the climate and mode of culture. Consequently several varieties exist in commerce, named usually from the sources from which they are derived. The Mocha coffee, which.is in small and roundish grains, takes precedence of all others. The Java coffee is highly esteemed in this country; but our chief supplies are derived from the West Indies and South America. Some good coffee has been brought from Liberia. Coffee improves by age, losing a portion of its strength, and thus acquiring a more agreeable flavour. It is said to be much better when allowed to become perfectly ripe upon the tree, than as ordinarily collected. The grains should be hard, and so heavy as readily to sink in water. When soft, light, black or dark coloured, or musty, they are inferior. Coffee has a faint peculiar odour, and a slightly sweetish, somewhat austere taste. A recent analysis, by M. Payen, gives for its constituents, in 100 parts, 34 of cellulose, 12 of hygroscopic water, 10 to 13 of fatty matter, 15-5 of glucose, with dextrine and a vegeta- ble acid, 10 of legumin, 35 to 5 of chlorogenate of potassa and caffein, 3 of a nitrogenous body, 0-8 of free caffein, 0 001 of concrete volatile oil, 0002 of fluid volatile oil, and 6-697 of mineral substances. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., x. 266.) Caffein was first discovered by Runge, and afterwards by Robiquet. According to Payen it exists in the coffee partly free, partly in the form of a double salt, consisting of a peculiar acid, denominated chio- rogenic acid, combined with potassa and caffein. It may be obtained in the following man- ner. Exhaust bruised coffee by two successive portions of boiling water, unite the infu- sions, add acetate of lead in order to precipitate the principles which accompany the caffein, filter, decompose the excess of acetate of lead in the filtered liquor by sulphuretted hy- drogen, and evaporate to the point of crystallization. The crystals which form may be purified by again dissolving them in water and evaporating. This is the process employed by Runge. {Berzelius, Trait, de Chim.) Caffein crystallizes, by the cooling of its concen- trated solution, in opaque, silky, flexible needles; by slow and spontaneous evaporation, in long, transparent prisms. It has a feebly bitter and disagreeable taste, is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, has neither an acid nor alkaline reaction, melts when exposed to heat, and at a higher temperature sublimes, without residue, into needles analogous to those formed by benzoic acid. It is precipitated from its aqueous solution by no reagent except tannic acid, and is remarkable for containing a larger proportion of nitrogen than almost any other proximate vegetable principle, in this respect equalling some of the most highly annualized products. The present views of its composition are represented by the formula N2CgH502 (03 Payen); and it is believed to be identical with the'in, or the peculiar principle of tea. Notwithstanding its large proportion of nitrogen, caffein does not putrefy, even when its solution is kept for some time in a warm place. Pfaff recog- nised, in the precipitate produced by acetate of lead with the decoction of coffee, two peculiar principles, one resembling tannin, and the other an acid, called by him caffeic acid. Coffee undergoes considerable change during the roasting process. It swells up very much, acquiring almost double its original volume, while it loses about 20 per cent, of its weight. It acquires, at the same time, a peculiar odour entirely different from that of the unaltered grains, and a decidedly bitter taste. A volatile oil is developed during the process, and, according to Chenevix, a portion of tannin. The caffein does not appear to undergo material change, as, according to Garot, it may be extracted unaltered from Appendix. 1247 the roasted coffee. The excellence of the flavour of roasted coffee depends much upon the manner in which the process is conducted, and the extent to which it is carried. It should be performed in a covered vessel, over a moderate fire, and the grains should be kept in constant motion. When these have acquired a chestnut-brown colour, the pro- cess should cease. If too long continued, it renders the coffee unpleasantly bitter and acrid, or, by reducing it to charcoal, deprives it entirely of flavour. The coffee should not be burnt long before it is used, and should not be kept in the ground state. Medical and Economical Uses.—More attention has been paid to the effects of coffee on the system in the roasted than in the crude state. Unroasted coffee has been em- ployed by Dr. Grindel, of Russia, in intermittent fevers, and the practice has been fol- lowed by some other physicians; but'the success, though considerable, was not such as to lead to the conclusion that this medicine would answer as a substitute for Peruvian bark. It was given in powder in the dose of a scruple every hour, in decoction pre- pared by boiling an ounce with eighteen ounces of water down to six, or in the state of extract in the dose of from four to eight grains. Whether its operation corresponds with that of the roasted coffee we are unable to say. The following observations relate only to the latter. The action of coffee is directed chiefly to the nervous system. When swallowed it produces a warming cordial impression on the stomach, quickly followed by a diffused agreeable nervous excitement, which extends itself to the cerebral functions, giving rise to increased vigour of imagination and intellect, without any subsequent confusion or stupor such as characterizes the action of narcotic medicines. Indeed one of its most extraordinary effects is a disposition to wakefulness, which continues for several hours after it has been taken. It is even capable of resisting, to a certain extent, the intoxi- cating and soporific influence of alcohol and opium, and may sometimes be advantage- ously employed for this purpose. It also moderately excites the circulatory system, and stimulates the digestive function. A cup of coffee taken after a hearty meal, will often relieve the sense of oppression so apt to be experienced, and enable the stomach to per- form its office with comparative facility. These exhilarating effects of coffee, united with its delicious flavour when suitably qualified by cream and sugar, have given rise to its habitual employment as an article of diet. Its use for this purpose has pre- vailed from time immemorial in Persia and Arabia. In 1517 it was introduced by the Turks into Constantinople, whence it was carried to France and England about the middle of the succeeding century, and has since gradually made its way into almost universal use. It cannot be supposed that a substance capable of acting so energetically upon the system, should be entirely destitute of deleterious properties. Accordingly, if taken in very large quantities, it leaves after its first effects are passed, a degree of nervous derangement or depression equivalent to the previous excitement; and its habitual immoderate employment is well known very greatly to injure the tone of the stomach, and frequently to give rise to troublesome dyspeptic and nervous affections. This result is peculiarly apt to take place in individuals of susceptible nervous systems, and in those of sedentary habits. We have repeatedly known patients, who have long suffered with headache and vertigo, to get rid of them by abstaining from coffee. In the treatment of disease, coffee has been less employed than might have been expected from its effects upon the system. There can be no doubt that it may be ad- vantageously used in various nervous disorders. In a tendency to stupor or lethargy dependent on deficient energy of the brain, without congestion or inflammation, it would be found useful by stimulating the cerebral functions. In light nervous headaches, and even in sick headache not caused by the presence of offending matter in the stomach, it often proves temporarily useful. It has acquired much reputation as a palliative in the paroxysms of spasmodic asthma, and is recommended by some writers in hysterical affections. The Egyptians are said to have formerly employed it as a remedy in ame- norrhcea. Hayne informs us that in a case of violent spasmodic disease, attended with short breath, palpitation of the heart, and a pulse so much increased in frequency that it could scarcely be counted, immediate relief was obtained from a cup of coffee, after the most powerful antispasmodics had been used in vain for several hours. It is said also to have been used successfully in obstinate chronic diarrhoea; and Dr. Chapman, of Phila- delphia, found it highly useful in calculous nephritis. We have heard of its effectual use in croup. In acute inflammatory affections it is contra-indicated. Coffee is usually prepared in this country by boiling the roasted grains, previously ground into a coarse powder, in water for a short time, and then clarifying by the white of an egg. Some prefer the infusion, made by a process similar to that of dis- placement. It has more of the aroma of the coffee than the decoction, with less of its bitterness. The proper proportion for forming the infusion for medical use is an ounce 1248 Appendix. to a pint of boiling water, of which a cupful may be given warm for a dose, and repeated if necessary. COLLINSONIA CANADENSIS. Horse-weed. Horse-balm. Richweed. Heal-all. Stone- root. Knot-root. An indigenous plant, with a perennial, knotty root, and an herbaceous simple stem about two feet high, furnished with two or three -pairs of broad, cordate ovate, smooth leaves, and terminating in a panicle of yellow flowers in branched racemes. The flowers are diandrous and monogynous, with a labiate calyx and corolla, the latter of which has the lower lip fringed. The plant grows in woods from Canada to Carolina, and flowers from July to September. The whole plant has a strong disagreeable odour, and a warm pungent taste. It is considered tonic, astringent, diaphoretic, and diuretic; and the root, in substance, is said to irritate the stomach and produce vomiting even in small doses. The plant is used in numerous complaints in domestic practice. It is pre- ferred in the fresh state, as the active principle is volatile. A decoction of the fresh root is said to have been used with advantage in catarrh of the bladder, leucorrhoea, gravel, dropsy, and other complaints; and the leaves are applied by the country people, in the form of cataplasm or fomentation, to wounds, bruises, and sores, and in cases of internal abdominal pains. COLUTEA ARBORESCENS. Bladder Senna. A shrub, growing spontaneously in the southern and eastern parts of Europe, and cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant. Its leaves are pinnate, consisting of from three to five pairs of leaflets, with an odd one, at the end. The leaflets are obovate, slightly emarginate, smooth, and of a deep- green colour on the upper surface, grayish-green and somewhat pubescent beneath. The flowers are yellow, and the fruit vesicular, whence the plant derived its vulgar name. The leaflets are possessed of purgative properties, and, in some parts of Europe, are used as a substitute for senna, which is said to be sometimes adulterated with them. The bladder senna is comparatively very feeble. It is administered in infusion or decoction, of which the dose is about half a pint, containing the virtues of from one to three ounces of the leaves. COMPTONIA ASPLENIFOLIA. Sweet Fern. A shrubby indigenous plant, named from the resemblance of its leaves to the spleenwort fern, but belonging to the Linnaean class and order Monacia Triandra. It grows in thin sandy or stony'woods, from New England to Virginia. All parts of it possess a resinous spicy odour, which is increased when the plant is rubbed. It is said to be tonic and astringent, and to be occasionally used in domestic practice as a remedy in diarrhoea, and various other complaints. It is employed in the form of decoction. CON VALLARIA MAJALIS. Lily of the Valley. This charming little garden flower is a native of Europe, and is found growing wild in the United States, upon the highest mountains of Virginia and Carolina. The flowers have a strong delightful odour, which is in great measure lost by drying. Their taste is nauseous, bitter, and acrid. Taken internally they are said to be emetic and cathartic, and their extract purges actively in the dose of half a drachm. They were formerly used in epilepsy arid against worms. At present they are employed only as a sternutatory, for which purpose they are dried and reduced to a coarse powder. The root, which is also bitter, has similar purgative properties, and reduced to powder, is said to be sternutatory. CONVALLARIA POLYGONATUM. Linn. Polygonatum uniflorum. Desfontaines. Solomon's Seal. A perennial, herbaceous, European plant, the root of which is horizontal, jointed, white, and marked, at short intervals, with small circular impressions, which bear a remote resemblance to those made by a seal, and have served to give a name to the plant. The root is inodorous, and of a sweetish mucilaginous taste, followed by a slight degree of bitterness and acrimony. It is said to be emetic. In former times it was used externally in bruises, especially those about the eyes, in tumours, wounds, and cutaneous eruptions, and was highly esteemed as a cosmetic. At present it is not em- ployed, though recommended by Hermann as a good remedy in gout and rheumatism. The berries and flowers are said to be acrid and poisonous. The C. multiflora {Poly- gonatum multiflorum, Desf), which grows in this country as well as in Europe, is analo- gous to the preceding in properties. COPAL. A resinous substance, brought from the East Indies, South America, and the western coast of Africa, but most abundantly from the first-mentioned source. It is the concrete juice of different trees, and is furnished by exudation. The East India copal has been ascribed by some writers to the Valeria Indica of Linn., the Elaocarpus copalli- ferus of Retzius; and the Brazilian, by Martius and Hayne, probably with justice, to different species of Hymenaa. There is some reason to believe that the E. India copal is also the product of a Hymenaea; at least a specimen of this resin was collected by Appendix. 1249 M. Perottet from the Hymenaa verrucosa, which he found growing in the Isle of Bourbon. This tree is a native of Madagascar, and probably of the neighbouring parts of Africa; and M. Perottet was informed that the copal of India is taken thither by the Arabs of Muscat, who obtain it from the East coast of Africa. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., i. 406.) Copal varies somewhat in appearance and properties, as procured from different sources. It is in roundish, irregular, or flattish pieces, colourless, yellowish, or brownish-yellow, more or less transparent, very hard, with a shining conchoidal fracture, inodorous and taste- less, of a sp. gr. varying from 1-045 to 1*139, insoluble in alcohol, soluble in ether, and slightly so in oil of turpentine. Some varieties unite with alcohol if suspended in its vapour while boiling. By heat it melts and is partially decomposed, becoming thereby soluble in alcohol and oil of turpentine. It is not a proximate principle, but consists of various resins united in different proportions. The East India copal is in flatter pieces than the American or African, and is whiter, softer, and less transparent. Two kinds are known in the drug market—the crude and the scraped—the former of a dull opaque appearance externally, the latter much clearer and more transparent, in consequence of being deprived of its outer coat. The process of scraping is said to consist in the removal of the exterior portion by means of an alkaline solution, which readily dissolves copal. This resin is used chiefly in.the preparation of varnishes. CORAL. A substance found at the bottom of the Mediterranean and other seas, formerly considered as a plant, but now universally admitted to belong to the animal kingdom. The red coral {Corallium rubrum of Lamarck, Isis nobilis of Linn.) is in the form of a small shrub, a footer two in height, with a stem sometimes an inch or two in thickness, fixed to the rock by an expansion of the base, divided above into branches, and covered with a pulpy membrane, which is properly the living part, and which is removed when the coral is collected. The central portion is extremely hard, of various shades of red, susceptible of a brilliant polish, longitudinally striated, and formed of con- centric layers, which are rendered obvious by calcination. Its chief constituent is car- bonate of lime, which is coloured by oxide of iron, and united, as in similar calcareous products, with more or less animal matter. It was formerly very highly valued as a remedy, but is in no respect superior to prepared oyster-shell, or other form of carbonate of lime derived from the animal kingdom. It was employed in the form of fine powder, or in different preparations, such as troches, syrups, conserves, tinctures, &c. At present it is valued chiefly as an ornament. CORTEX CARYOPHYLLATA. Cassia Caryophyllata. Clove Bark. These names have been given to a bark, brought from the West Indies, and derived from a tree be- longing to the family of the Myrtacese, supposed to be the Myrtus acris of Schwartz. It is usually in cylinders from one to two feet long by an inch in diameter, composed of nu- merous separate pieces rolled around one another, having a dark-brown colour, a pungent taste and an odour similar to that of cloves. It is sometimes in fragments, of a similar colour, taste, and smell, but softer and lighter, and supposed to be derived from older branches A similar bark is said to be derived from the Myrtus caryophyllata of Linn., which grows in Ceylon. The clove bark has aromatic properties not unlike those of the spice from which it derived its name; but it is much inferior, and is now never used m this country. Some authors have confounded with it a wholly different bark produced by a tree growing in the Moluccas, and known by the Indian name of cuhlawan. (bee Culilawan.) CORYLUS ROSTRATA. Beaked Hazel. This is a small indigenous shrub, growing especially in mountainous districts. The nut is invested with a scaly involucre project- ing beyond it like a beak, and thickly covered with short spicute like those of the Mu- cuna pruriens. These spicule have been employed by Dr. Heubener, of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, as an anthelmintic, and found to be efficacious. They operate in the same way as cowhage, and may be administered in the same manner and dose. (See a com- munication from Mr. Duhamel in the Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 280.) CRABS' CLAWS. Chela Cancrorum. These, in a prepared state, were formerly included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, but were very properly omitted upon die last evision of that work. Supposing them identica with the crust of the lobster, they con- sist, in the 100 parts, of 60 parts of carbonate of lime 14 of phosphate of lime, and 26 ot •J-1 ratter Thev are nrepared by levigation and elutnation, so as to bring them to Tnne p'wder. They we'eXmVusedts an absorbent and antacid; but the animal matter in their composition confers on them no peculiar virtues. They are given in the same dose with prepared chalk. . CRABSTONES. Lapilli Cancrorum. Crabs' Eyes These are concretions, foundjntfae- stomach one on each side, of the European crawfish, at the time the ammal is abottt to 106 1250 Appendix. change its shell. They are most abundantly procured in the province of Astracan in Asiatic Russia. The crawfish are bruised with wooden mallets, and laid up in heaps to putrefy. The animal remains are then washed away, and the stones picked out. They are inodorous, insipid bodies, somewhat hemispherical in shape, of a white or reddish colour, hard and stony consistence, and laminated texture. They are very variable in size, weighing from one to twelve grains each. They effervesce with acids,, and, without dissolving, become converted, owing to the animal matter which they contain, into a soft transparent mass, retaining the original shape of the stone. By this character they are distinguished from counterfeit stones, which are sometimes fabricated of chalk, mixed with mucilaginous substances. They consist of carbonate and phosphate of lime, cemented together by animal matter. Crab stones have been used as an absorbent and antacid, given in the same dose with prepared chalk. They were prepared for exhibi- tion by being levigated in the uswal manner. But they are now no longer officinal, having been expunged from the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. CUCURBITA CITRULLUS. Watermelon. The seeds of the watermelon are em- ployed, to a considerable extent, as a domestic remedy in strangury and other affections of the urinary passages. They have the same properties with the seeds of the other Cucurbitacese, of which four different kinds were formerly officinal under the name of the greater cold seeds—viz., those of the Cucurbita Pepo or pumpkin, the Cucurbita Lage- naria or gourd, the Cucumis Melo or muskmelon, and the Cucumis sativus or cucumber. These, when bruised and rubbed up with water, form an emulsion which was formerly thought to possess considerable virtues, and was much used in catarrhal affections, disorders of the bowels and urinary passages, fever, &c; but they have been superseded by other more agreeable demulcents. Watermelon seeds are also esteemed by some diuretic. They are given in infusion, made with one or two ounces of the bruised seeds to a pint of water, and taken ad libitum. CULILAWAN. Cortex Culilaban. An aromatic bark, produced by the Cinnamomum Culilawan {Laurus Culilawan, Linn.), a tree of considerable size growing in the Molucca islands,.Cochinchina, and other parts of the East. It is usually in flat or slightly rolled pieces, several inches long, an inch or more in breadth, and one or two lines thick. Sometimes the bark is thinner and more quilled, bearing considerable resemblance to cinnamon. The epidermis is for the most part removed, but when present is of a light brownish-gray colour, soft to the touch, and somewhat spongy. The colour of the bark itself is a dull dark cinnamon-brown, the odour highly fragrant, the taste agree- ably aromatic, and not unlike that of cloves. The active constituent is a volatile oil, which may be separated by'distillation. Culilawan has the medical properties common to the aromatics, but is scarcely used at present. CUNILA MARIANA. American Dittany. A small indigenous perennial herb, growing on dry, shady hills, from New England to Georgia, and flowering in June and July. The whole herb has a warm pungent taste, and a fragrant odour, dependent on an essential oil. Its medical properties are those of a gently stimulant aromatic, analogous to the mints, pennyroyal, &c. In the shape of warm infusion, it is popularly employed to excite perspiration in colds and slight fevers, to promote suppressed menstruation, to relieve flatulent colic, and for various other purposes to which the aromatic herbs are thought applicable. CUTTLE-FISH BONE. Os Sepia. This is a calcareous body, situated underneath the skin, in the back of the Sepia officinalis, or cuttle fish, which inhabits the seas of Europe, especially the Mediterranean, in the waters of which the bone is not unfre- quently found floating. It is oblong-oval, from five to ten inches long, and from one and a half to three inches broad, somewhat convex on both sides, with thin edges, of a rather firm consistence upon the upper surface, very friable beneath, and composed of numerous layers, loosely connected, so as to give to the mass a porous consistence. It is lighter than water, of a white colour, a feeble odour of sea-plants, and a saline taste. It contains, according to John, from 80 to 85 per cent, of carbonate of lime, besides animal matter, a little common salt, and traces of magnesia. Reduced by levigation and elutriation to a fine powder, it may be given as an antacid like chalk or oyster-shell. It is sometimes used as an ingredient of tooth-powders. Small pieces of it are often put into bird-cages, that the birds may rub their bills against them; and the powder is employed for polish- ing. Another product of the cuttle-fish is a blackish-brown liquor, secreted by a small gland into an oval pouch, communicating externally near the rectum by a long excretory duct, through which the animal is said to have the power of ejecting it at will.. This. when taken from the fish, is dried, and used in the preparation of the water colour called sepia. Appendix. 1251 CYANURET OF ZINC. Zinci Cyanuretum. This cyanuret is precipitated as a white insoluble powder, by adding cautiously, until it ceases to produce a precipitate, a recently filtered solution of cyanuret of potassium, obtained from the impure black cyanuret, to a solution of sulphate of zinc. It is used in Germany as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid, and is said to possess anthelmintic properties. It has been employed in epilepsy, chorea, and neuralgia, in several painful affections of the stomach, and in the colics attendant on difficult menstruation. The dose is a quarter of a grain, gradually increased to a grain and a half, given in mixture. It is included in the officinal list of the French Codex. CYNANCHUM VINCETOXICUM. R. Brown. Asclepias Vincetoxicum. Linn. White Swallow-wort. Vincetoxicum. A perennial herbaceous European plant, the root of which was formerly esteemed a counterpoison, and hence gave origin to the officinal name. It has a bitterish acrid taste, and, when fresh, a disagreeable odour which is diminished by drying. Taken internally, especially in the recent state, it excites vomiting, and is capable in large quantities of producing dangerous if not fatal inflammation of the stomach. Its former reputation as an alexipharmic was wholly without foundation. It is said to be useful in cutaneous diseases, scrofula, &c, but is little employed. The leaves of the plant also are emetic. Feneulle found in the root a peculiar principle analogous to emetin. CYNARA SCOLYMUS. Garden Artichoke. This is a perennial plant, indigenous in the South of Europe, and cultivated in our gardens as a culinary vegetable. The flowers, constituting what are commonly called the heads, are the part used. The receptacle and the lower portion of the fleshy leaflets of the calyx are eaten, and the other parts rejected. When young, the heads; are cut up raw and eaten as salad; when older, they are boiled, and dressed variously. The flowers are said to curdle milk, and the plant to yield a good yellow dye. The leaves and their expressed juice are very bitter, and'have been thought to be actively diuretic. They have long had some reputation in the treatment of dropsies. Dr. Badely, of Chelmsford, England, recommends a tincture and extract pre- pared from the leaves, in rheumatic, gouty, and neuralgic affections. He gives a drachm of the tincture, with five grains of the extract, three times a day, with or without other remedies, as circumstances seem to require. The leaves should be fresh, and the pre- parations made from them quickly used. {Lond. Lancet, 1843, p. 556.) CYNOGLOSSUM OFFICINALE. Hound's Tongue. A biennial plant, common both in Europe and this country, and named from the shape of its leaves. The leaves and root have been employed, but the latter has been generally preferred. The fresh plant has a disagreeable narcotic odour resembling that of mice, which is dissipated by drying. The taste is nauseous, bitterish, and mucilaginous. Different opinions as to its powers have been entertained, some considering it as nearly inert, others as a dangerous poison. Hound's tongue has been used as a demulcent and sedative in coughs, catarrh, spitting of blood, dysentery, and diarrhoea: and has been applied externally in burns, ulcers, scrofulous tumours, and goitre; The pilula de cynoglosso, which are officinal in some parts of Europe, though they contain the root of hound's tongue, owe their properties chiefly to opium. DIAPHORETIC ANTIMONY. Antimonium Diaphoreticum. Potassa Biantimonias. This compound is directed, in the French Codex, to be formed by deflagrating in a red-hot crucible, and keeping red-hot for half an hour, a mixture of pure antimony with twice its weight of nitrate of potassa, both being in fine powder. The product is washed with water and dried, and forms the washed diaphoretic antimony. As thus prepared, M. Oscar Figuier has shown that it contains, besides antimonic acid, both teroxide of antimony and antimonious acid; the nitre not being in sufficient quantity completely to peroxidize the antimony. When, however, the antimony is deflagrated with three times its weight of nitre, and the matter is kept at a red heat for an hour and a half, the whole of the anti- mony is converted into antimonic acid ; and, when the product is thoroughly exhausted by boiling water, the solution obtained contains a large quantity of neutral antimoniate of potassa, and the insoluble residue is impure biantimoniate. M. Figuier rejects this residue, which forms the diaphoretic antimony of the ordinary process, and obtains the preparation from the solution of the neutral antimoniate, by passing through it a stream of carbonic acid gas, which takes away one eq. of potassa from two of the antimoniate, and throws down the biantimoniate in the form of a white powder. He obtained, by this process, a quantity of the preparation equal to three-fourths of the weight of the materials employed. Diaphoretic antimony is a perfectly white powder. When properly prepared, as by the process of M. Figuier, it consists of two eqs. of antimonic acid, one of potassa, and 1252 Appendix. six of water. The dose is two or three drachms. On account of its weak and variable nature, it has been very properly laid aside in practice. DICTAMUS ALBUS. White Fraxinella. Bastard Dittany. This is a perennial European plant, the root of which is bitter and aromatic, and has been used as an anthel- mintic, emmenagogue, and stomachic tonic, though at present little employed in Europe, and not at all in this country. Storck gave it in intermittents, worms, amenorrhoea, hys- teria, epilepsy, and other nervous diseases. The bark of the root is the most active part. The dose is from a scruple to a drachm. DIPPEL'S ANIMAL OIL. Oleum Cornu Cervi. This oil is obtained during the dis- tillation of animal matters, in the processes for obtaining ammoniacal products on a large scale. That portion which first comes over is pale yellow; but, in the progress of the distillation, it becomes gradually deeper coloured and thicker, and at last black and viscid. It is purified and rendered colourless by redistillation, a pyrogenous resin being left behind. Thus rectified it is a colourless liquid, very limpid and volatile, and haying a penetrating extremely fetid odour, and burning taste. By repeating the distillation till a dark resi- duum is no longer left in the retort, it may be obtained free from fetor, and of an agree- able, aromatic odour ; and in this mode it is said to have been prepared by Dippel. Four or five distillations are necessary to this end. {Am. Journ. of Pharm., ix. 244.) The oil is soon altered by the action of air and light, becoming thick, yellow, brown, and finally black. It possesses an alkaline reaction, and probably contains the various principles which have been discovered by Reichenbach in the products of the distillation of organic substances. This oil was formerly much used in medicine, but its repulsive odour and taste, as it is ordinarily prepared, have caused it to be almost entirely laid aside. It acts, in the dose of a few drops, given with water, as a stimulant and antispasmodic. Its presence in the spirit and salt of hartshorn gives to these preparations medicinal properties different from those of the pure spirit and carbonate of ammonia. D1RCA PALUSTRIS. Leather Wood. An indigenous shrub, usually very small, but sometimes attaining the height of five or six feet, growing in boggy woods, and other low wet places, in almost all parts of the United States. The berries, which are small, oval, and of an orange colour, are said to be narcotic and poisonous. The bark has at- tracted most attention. It is extremely tough, and of very difficult pulverization. In the fresh state it has a peculiar rather nauseous odour, and an unpleasant acrid taste, and when chewed excites a flow of saliva. It yields its acrimony completely to alcohol, but imperfectly to water even by decoction. In the dose of six or eight grains, the fresh bark produces violent vomiting, preceded by a sense of heat in the stomach, and often followed by purging. Applied to the skin it excites redness, and ultimately vesicates; but its epispastic operation is very slow. It appears to be analogous in its properties to mezereon, to which it is botanically allied. DRAGON'S BLOOD. Sanguis Draconis. This is a resinous substance obtained from the fruit of several species of Calamus, especially C. Rotang and C. Draco, small palms, growing in the Molucca Islands and other parts of the East Indies. On the surface o. the fruit, when ripe, is an exudation, which is separated by rubbing,pr shaking in a bag, or by exposure to the vapour of boiling water, or finally by decoction. The finest resin is procured by the two former methods. It comes in two forms; sometimes in small oval masses, of a size varying from that of a hazelnut to that of a walnut, covered with the leaves of the plant, and connected together in a row like beads in a necklace; some- times in cylindrical sticks eighteen inches long and from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, thickly covered with palm leaves, and bound round with slender strips of cane. In both these forms, it is of a dark reddish-brown colour, opaquesand readily puiveriza- ble, affording a fine scarlet powder. It sometimes comes also in the form of a reddish powder, and in small irregular fragments or tears. An inferior kind, said to be obtained by boiling the fruit in water, is in flat circular cakes, two or three inches in diameter and half an inch thick. This also yields a fine red powder. A fourth variety, much inferior even to the last mentioned, is in large disks, from six to twelve inches in diameter by an inch in thickness, mixed with various impurities, as pieces of the shell, stem, &c, and supposed to be derived from the fruit by decoction with expression. A substance known by the name of Dragon's blood is derived by exudation from the trunk of the Dracana Draco,a. large tree inhabiting the Canary Islands and the E. Indies, and another from the Pterocarpus Draco, a tree of the West Indies and South America, by incision into the bark. These last, however, are little known in commerce. According to Lieut. Well- stead, much dragon's blood is obtained, in the island of Socotra, by spontaneous exuda- tion from a large tree, growing at a considerable elevation on the mountains. Appendix. 1253 Dragon s blood is inodorous and tasteless, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils; with which it forms red solutions. According to Herberger, it consists of 90-7 parts of a red resin which he calls draconin, 2-0 of fixed oil, 3*0 of benzoic acid, 1*6 of oxalate of lime, and 3-7 of phosphate of lime. It was formerly used in medicine as an astringent, but is nearly or quite inert, and is now never given internally. It is sometimes used to impart colour to plasters, but is valued chiefly as an ingredient of paints and varnishes. DU TCH PINK. A yellow or brownish-yellow paint, consisting of clay, or a mixture of clay and chalk, or carbonate of lime in the form of whiting, coloured by a decoction of woad, French berries, or birch leaves, with alum. EMERY. A very hard mineral, the powder of which is capable of wearing down all other substances except the diamond. As found in commerce, it. is said to be derived chiefly from the island of Naxos in the Grecian Archipelago. It is pulverized by grind- ing it in a steel mill; and the powder is kept in the shops of different degrees of fine- ness. It is used for polishing metals and hard stones. EUPHRASIA OFFICINALIS. Eyebright. A small annual plant, Common to Europe and the United States, without odour, and of a bitterish, astringent taste. It was formerly used in various complaints, and among the rest in disorders of the eyes, in which it was thought to be very efficacious, and in the treatment of which it is still popular in some countries. The probability is that it is nearly inert. FERROCYANURET OF ZINC. Zinci Ferrocyanuretum. This compound is formed by double decomposition between hot solutions of ferrocyanuret of potassium (ferroprus- siate of potassa) and sulphate of zinc. It is thrown down as a white powder. It has similar medical properties to those of the cyanuret, and is used in the same diseases. The dose is from one to four grains, given in pill. FRENCH CHALK. A variety of indurated talc. It is compact, unctuous to the touch, of a greenish colour, glossy, somewhat translucent, soft and easily scratched, and leaves a silvery line when drawn over paper. It is used chiefly for marking cloth, &c, and for extracting grease spots. FUCUS VESICULOSUS. Sea-wrack. Bladder-wrack. This was omitted by mistake in the first part of this work; as it is still retained by the Dublin College. It belongs to Cryptogamia Alga in the sexual system, and to the natural order Algaceae. The follow- ing is the generic character. " Male. Vesicles smooth, hollow, with villose hairs within, interwoven. Female. Vesicles smooth, filled with jelly, sprinkled with immersed grains, prominent at tip. Seeds solitary." This sea-weed is perennial, with the frond or leaf fiat, smooth and glossy, from one to four feet high, from half an inch to an inch and a half broad, furnished with a midrid throughout its length, dichotomous, entire upon the margin, and of a dark olive-green colour. Small spherical vesicles, filled with air, are immersed in the frond near the midrib. The fruit consists, of roundish, compressed re- ceptacles, at the ends of the branches, filled with a clear tasteless mucus. The plant grows upon the. shores of Europe and of this continent, attaching itself to the rocks by its expanded woody root. On the coast of Scotland and of France, it is much used in. the preparation of kelp. It is also employed as a manure, and is mixed with the fodder of cattle. The F. vesiculosus has a peculiar odour, and a nauseous saline taste. Several chem- ists have undertaken its analysis, but the results are not satisfactory. It contains much soda in saline combination, and iodine according to Gaultier de Claubry, in the state of iodide of potassium. These ingredients remain in its ashes, and in the charcoal resulting from its exposure to heat in close vessels. This charcoal, which is sometimes called JEthiops vegetabilis or vegetable ethiops, has long had the reputation of a deobstruent, and been given in goitre and scrofulous swellings. Its virtues were formerly ascribed chiefly to the carbonate of soda, in which it abounds; but since the discovery of the medical properties of iodine, this has been considered as its most active ingredient. The mucus contained in the vesicles was applied externally, with advantage, by Dr. Russel, as a re- solvent in scrofulous tumours. . Other species of Fucus are in all probability possessed of similar properties. Many of them contain a gelatinous matter, and a sweet principle analogous to mannite; and some are used as food in times of scarcity. The F. Helminthocorton {Gigartina Hehainthocorton of Greville) has some reputation in Europe as an anthelmintic. It is one of the ingre- dients in that mixture of marine plants which is sold in Europe under the name of Cor- sican moss or helminthocorton. This is used in decoction, from four to six drachms being boiled in a pint of water, and a wineglassful given three times a day. 106* 1254 Appendix. FULIGOKALI. This preparation, proposed by M. Deschamps, is formed by boiling for an hour, 20 parts of caustic potassa and 100 of shining soot, in powder, in 2 parts or a sufficient quantity of water. The solution, when cold, is diluted, filtered, and evapo- rated to dryness. Fuligokali is in the form of a black powder, or of scales, very soluble in water, and having an empyreumatic odour and mild alkaline taste. It is used in the same affections as anthrakokali. The dose is two or three grains, repeated several times a day. An ointment, containing from sixteen to thirty-two grains to the ounce of lard, was found by Dr. Gibert, of Paris, to be detersive, resolvent, and gently stimulant. (See a notice of these preparations by the late A. Duhamel, in the Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. 284.) FUMARIA OFFICINALIS. Fumitory. A small annual European plant, naturalized in this country, growing in cultivated grounds, and flowering from May to August. It was formerly considerably employed as a medicine, and is still used in Europe. The leaves are the officinal part. They are inodorous, have a bitter saline taste, and are very succulent, yielding by expression a juice which has the sensible and medicinal proper- ties of the plant. An extract prepared by evaporating the expressed juice, or a decoction of the leaves, throws out upon its surface a copious saline efflorescence. The plant, in- deed, abounds in saline substances, and to these, in connexion with its bitter extractive, its medical virtues are to be ascribed. It is gently tonic, in large doses is said to be laxa- tive and diuretic, and is thought, moreover, to have an alterative action. Both in ancient and modern times it has been esteemed as a valuable remedy in visceral obstructions, particularly those of the liver, in scorbutic affections, and in various troublesome eruptive diseases. Cullen speaks favourably of its influence in these last complaints. He gave the expressed juice in the dose of two ounces twice a day. Others have prescribed it in much larger quantities. The leaves either fresh or dried may be used in decoction, with- out precise limitation as regards the dose. The inspissated juice and an extract of the dried leaves have also been employed. FUSTIC. A yellow dye-wood, obtained from the Morus tinctoria {Broussonetia tinc- toria, Kunth), a tree growing in the West Indies and South America. It is not used in medicine or pharmacy. According to Bancroft, two different woods bear in England the name of fustic, one the product of the tree just mentioned, distinguished as old fustic, probably from the greater magnitude of the billets in which it is imported; the other derived from the Rhus Cotinus or Venice sumach, and called young fustic. GALANGAL. Galanga. Two varieties are described by authors, the galanga major and galanga minor, or large and small galangal. They are considered by some as the roots of different plants; but there is reason to believe that they are both derived from the Maranta Galanga of Linn. {Alpina Galanga of Willd.), and that they differ in con- sequence of the different stages of growth at which they are collected. They are brought from the East Indies. The larger variety is cylindrical, three or four inches long, as thick as the thumb or thicker, often forked, reddish-brown externally, slightly striated longi- tudinally, marked with -whitish circular rings, orange-brown internally, rather hard and fibrous, difficultly puiverizable, of an agreeable aromatic odour, and a pungent, hot, spicy, permanent taste. The small galangal resembles the preceding in shape, but is smaller, not exceeding the little finger in thickness, of a darker colour, and of a stronger taste and smell. According to Morin, galangal contains a volatile oil, an acrid resin, extractive, gum, bassorin, and lignin. A. Vogel, jun., found also starch and fixed oil. {Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1844, p. 158.) R. Brandes is said to have found a peculiar crystallizable substance called kempferid. {Annal. der Pharm., xxxii. 311.) The active principles are the volatile oil and acrid resin. Its medical effects are those of a stimulant aromatic. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Arabians, and formerly entered into numerous compound pre- parations. At present it is seldom employed. Its dose is from fifteen to thirty grains in substance, and twice as much in infusion. GALEGA OFFICINALIS. Goat's Rue. A perennial herb, growing in the South of Europe, and sometimes cultivated in gardens. It is without smell unless bruised, when it emits a disagreeable odour. Its taste is unpleasantly bitter and somewhat rough, and when chewed, it stains the saliva yellowish-brown. In former times it was much em- ployed as a remedy in malignant fevers, the plague, the bites of serpents, worms, &c; but it has now fallen into merited neglect. The roots of the Galega Virginiana, which is a native of the United States, are said to be diaphoretic and powerfully anthelmintic. They are given in decoction. GALIUM APARINE. Cleavers. Goose-grass. This is an annual, succulent plant, common to Europe and the United States, growing in cultivated grounds, and along fences and hedges. It is inodorous, and has a bitterish, herbaceous, somewhat acrid taste. Appendix. 1255 The expressed juice is said to be aperient, diuretic, and anti-scorbutic; and has been used in dropsy, congestion of the spleen, scrofula, and scorbutic eruptions. In the last complaint it has been thought peculiarly useful. Three ounces of the juice may be taken twice a day. The fresh herb, in the form of ointment or decoction, has been ap- plied externally to scrofulous swellings with supposed advantage. GALIUM VERUM. Yellow Ladies Bed-straw. Cheese-rennet. This species of Galium is perennial, and a native of Europe. The flowers, which are yellow, have a peculiar, agreeable odour, and have been given in nervous affections, with a view to their sup- posed antispasmodic powers. The herb is inodorous, but has an astringent, acidulous, bitterish taste. The property of coagulating milk was formerly ascribed to it, but is certainly not constant, as the experiment has been frequently tried without success. The bruised plant is sometimes used to colour cheese yellow, being introduced into the milk before coagulation. It is also used for dyeing yellow. The roots of this and of most other species dye red; and the plant eaten by animals colours the bones like madder. This plant was formerly highly esteemed as a remedy in epilepsy and hysteria, and was applied externally in cutaneous eruptions. It may be employed either in the form of the recently expressed juice, or of a decoction prepared from the fresh plant. Its medi- cal properties, however, are feeble. Of the American" species, the G. tinctorium is closely allied in properties to the G. verum. It is said to be useful in cutaneous diseases; and the root is employed by the Indians for staining their feathers and other ornaments red. GALLIC ACID. Acidum Gallicum. This is found in most of the astringent sub- stances which contain tannic acid, of the kind obtained from galls; and is supposed to result from changes which the tannic acid has undergone. When a decoction of galls is exposed to the air, the tannic acid is gradually converted into gallic acid, which is de- posited. To prepare the latter acid, allow the decoction of galls to stand three or four months in a temperature of from 100° to 120° F.; water being from time to time sup- plied, as it evaporates. At the end of this time, collect on a filter the mould and de- posited matter, wash them slightly with cold -water, then boil them with water, and filter the decoction while hot. Treat the crystals which are deposited when the liquid cools, in like manner with an additional quantity of water; and, when they are again deposited, digest them with alcohol and purified animal charcoal for several days, and then heat to the boiling point. Filter the liquid, and evaporate at a very gentle heat. Lastly, wash the crystals which form, with spirit, dissolve them in three parts of boil- ing water, and set the solution aside to crystallize. (See Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 237.) Gallic acid is in delicate silky needles, usually somewhat yellowish, inodorous, and of a harsh slightly astringent taste. It is dissolved, according to Braconnot, in 100 parts of cold and 3 parts of boiling water, is very soluble in alcohol, and but slightly so in ether. It precipitates the salts of sesquioxide of iron of a bluish-black; but does not precipitate gelatin. On exposure to the air, its solution undergoes spontaneous decom- position. Gallic acid was formerly supposed to be the astringent principle of plants; but, after the properties of tannic acid were well ascertained, it lost this reputation, and came to be considered as nearly inert. It has recently again come into notice as a remedy in hemorrhages, particularly from the uterus, and urinary organs. In the Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, for July, 1843, several cases are published by Dr. Stevenson of cures effected by it in menorrhagia and haematuria, and Professor Simpson has found it effectual in some cases of the former complaint of long standing and aggravated character. It may be given in doses of from ten to twenty grains, repeated at intervals of four hours. According to Professor Simpson, it has the advantage of not constipating the bowels. {Med. Exam., vi. 226.) GENISTA TINCTORIA. Dyers' Broom. Dyers' Weed. Green Weed. A low shrub, growing wild in Europe, and sometimes cultivated in this country in gardens. The flowering tops of the plant are employed to dye yellow, whence its name was derived. Both these and the seeds have been used in medicine. They are said to be purgative and even emetic, especially the seeds, which were formerly given as a cathartic in the dose of a drachm and a half. By some authors they are said to be diuretic, and to be useful in dropsy. It has been long used as a preventive of hydrophobia by the peasants of Podolia, the Ukraine, and other provinces of Russia. They employ it in the form of strong decoction, both internally and locally, in connexion with the Rhus coriaria; and persevere with it for six weeks. The trials made with it in other parts of Europe have failed. 1256 Appendix. GERANIUM ROBERTIANUM. Herb Robert. This species of Geranium grows wild both in Europe and the United States, but is rare in this country; and Pursh states that the American plant is destitute of the heavy smell by which the European is so well known, though the two agree in all other respects. The herb has a disagreeable, bitterish, astringent taste, and imparts its virtues to boiling water. It has been used internally in intermittent fever, consumption, hemorrhages, nephritic complaints, jaun- dice, &c, has been employed as a gargle in affections of the throat, and has been applied externally as a resolvent to swollen breasts and other tumours. GLASS OF ANTIMONY. Vitrum Antimonii. This is prepared from the tersulphuret of antimony by a partial roasting and subsequent fusion. The tersulphuret is reduced to coarse powder, and strewed upon a shallow, unglazed, earthen vessel, and heated gently and slowly, being continually stirred to prevent it from running into lumps. White vapours of sulphurous acid arise; and when these cease, the heat is increased a little to reproduce them. The roasting is continued in this manner, until, at a red heat, no more vapours are given off. The matter is then melted in a crucible with an intense heat, and kept in a state of fusion until it assumes the appearance of melted glass, when it is poured but on a heated brass plate. In this process, part of the sulphur of the tersulphuret is driven off by the roasting; while that portion of the antimony which loses its sulphur becomes teroxidized. The roasted matter, accordingly, consists of terox- ide of antimony and undecomposed tersulphuret; and these, by uniting during the fusion, form the glass. Properties. Glass of antimony is in thin irregular pieces, exhibiting a vitreous frac- ture, and having a metallic steel-gray lustre. When well prepared it is transparent, and, upon being held between the eye and the light, appears of a rich orange-red, or garnet colour; but if of inferior quality it is black and opaque. It is hard and brittle, and rings when struck with a hard substance. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in acids and in cream of tartar, with the exception of a few red flocculi. Its essential con- stituents are the teroxide and tersulphuret united in variable proportions. When of good quality it consists of about eight parts of teroxide to.one of tersulphuret. It usually contains abqut five per cent; of silica, and three of sesquioxide of iron, which are dep- rived from the crucible, and to the former of which the vitrification of the product is owing. When good it is dissolved, with the exception of a few red flocculi, in strong muriatic acid. An excess of silica is known by the acid leaving a gelatinous residuum, and the iron may be detected by ferrocyanuret of potassium, and its amount judged of by the bulk of the precipitate and the depth of its blue colour. , Sometimes glass of lead is sold for glass of antimony, a fraud easily detected by the difference between the two substances in sp. gr.; the glass of lead having a density of nearly seven, while that of glass of antimony is not quite five. The London College formerly employed the glass of antimony for making tartar emetic, but dismissed it from the officinal list in 1836, on account of the difficulty of obtaining it, and its liability to adulteration. Medical Properties, fyc. Glass of antimony is an active antimoniai; but, owing to its variable composition and uncertain operation, is at present very seldom used. When the levigated powder is mixed with one-eighth of its weight of melted yellow wax, andL the mixture roasted over a slow fire, with constant stirring until it ceases to exhale vapours, a coal-like puiverizable mass is formed, which is the cerated glass of antimony, a preparation formerly included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. GLECHOMA HEDERACEA. Nepeta Glechoma. Ground-ivy. A small perennial herb, indigenous in Europe and the United States, and growing in shady grassy places, as in orchards and along fences and hedges. It belongs to the family of labiate plants and shares their general properties. The herb was formerly officinal, and still enjoys some credit as a domestic remedy. It has a peculiar disagreeable odour, and a bitterish, rough, somewhat aromatic taste, and imparts its properties to boiling water. From the statements of authors it appears to be gently stimulant and tonic, with, perhaps, a pecu- liar direction to the lungs and kidneys. It has also been considered aperient. The complaints in which it has been most used are chronic affections of the pulmonary and urinary organs; and at one time it had considerable reputation as a remedy in consump- tion. It has also been employed as a vulnerary and errhine. The usual form in which it was administered was that of infusion, of which a quantity was given for a dose containing the virtues of half a drachm or a drachm of the herb. GLUE. An impure form of gelatin, obtained from various animal substances by.boil- ing them in water, straining the solution, and evaporating it till upon cooling it assumes the consistence of jelly. The soft mass which results is then divided into thin slices, Appendix. 1257 which are dried in the open air. Glue, when of good quality, is hard and brittle, of a brown colour, and equally transparent throughout. It softens and swells very much in cold water, without dissolving; but is readily dissolved by hot water. It is employed chiefly for cementing pieces of wood together, being too impure for the purposes of a test, or for internal use. Capsules of Gelatin. Glue has within a few years been applied to an important prac- tical purpose in pharmacy. Certain medicines are so offensive to the taste, and conse- quently so apt to sicken the stomach, that it is highly desirable to .administer them in such a way as to prevent their contact with the tongue and palate. This object is fully accomplished, so far as regards many disagreeable liquid medicines, by the use of the capsules of gelatin, invented by M. Dublanc, of Paris. These are prepared from the purest glue in the following manner. Small pouches made of fine skin, of an oval form, are attached by a waxed thread to the smaller extremity of a hollow elongated metallic cone, which is bent towards its point, and has its base closed by a cover, which is screwed so as to make the instrument air-tight. Into this conical tube sufficient mercury is poured to fill the pouch, which, thus distended, is dipped into a concentrated sweet- ened solution of glue, and afterwards exposed to heat in a vertical position, so as to dry the layer of gelatin which it has received. In the same manner a second coating may be given, and the process again repeated till a sufficient thickness has been obtained. The cone being then reversed, the mercury flows out of the pouch, which collapses, and allows the capsule of gelatin to be removed. Into this the medicine may now be intro- duced, care being taken to avoid any contact with the outer surface of the capsule. The opening is next to be closed by means of a thin lamina of gelatin previously softened by steam; and a solution of the same substance should be applied to the edges by means of a camel's hair pencil. Another mode of preparing the capsules is as follows. Take a cylinder of iron or hard wood, four lines in diameter and a few inches long, and smoothly rounded at one end. Dip half an inch of this end first into a saturated warm alcoholic solution of soap, and afterwards, when the soap has concreted upon the surface, into a concentrated hot solution of gelatin, and repeat the latter immersion once or oftener if it be desired to have a firm capsule. When the glue has concreted, remove the cap- sule. A top for it may be made in the same way, and, after the body has been filled with the liquid to be given, is to be applied and secured by rubbing a camel's hair pencil moistened with hot water over the line of junction. {Med. Exam., N. S., i. 441.) For an account of a process for preparing these capsules, invented and described by Mr. Alfred Guillou, of Philadelphia, the reader is referred to the Am. Journ. of Pharm., vol. ix. p. 20. The capsules may be made of such a capacity as to contain from ten to fifteen grains of copaiba. GNAPHALIUM MARGARITACEUM. Cudweed. Life-everlasting. An indigenous herbaceous perennial, growing in fields and woods, arid flowering in August. The herb of this and of the G. polycephalum, or sweet-scented life-everlasting, is sometimes used in the form of tea by the country people, in' diseases of the chest and qi the bowels, and in hemorrhagic affections, and externally, in the way of fomentation, in bruises, languid tumours, and other local complaints; but it probably possesses little medical virtue. Shoepf says that it is anodyrie. In Europe, different species of Gnaphalium are also occasionally employed for similar purposes. GOLD. Aurum. The preparations of this metal were introduced to the notice of physicians by Dr. Chrestien, of Montpellier, in 1810. They are employed both internally, and by frictions on the tongue and gums. The principal affections in which they have been recommended are secondary syphilis, syphilitic ulcerations, scrofula, and inveterate eruptions, particularly those of a leprous character. The chief preparations which have been employed up to the present time are metallic gold in a finely divided state, the oxide (teroxide or auric acid), the chloride (terchloride), the iodide, the double chloride of gold and sodium, the chloroaurate of ammonia (a compound of terchloride of gold and muriate of ammonia), and the cyanuret (tercyanuret) of gold. Gold in powder may be obtained by rubbing up gold-leaf with 10 or 12 times its weight of sulphate of potassa until bril- liant particle's are no longer visible, and then washing away the sulphate with boiling water. The oxide may be procured by treating the nitromuriatic solution of gold with an excess of magnesia, and washing the precipitate, first with water, and afterwards with dilute nitric acid. M. L. Figuier prefers to obtain the oxide by precipitating the solution of gold by carbonate of soda, as less tedious than the magnesia process. The chloride is obtained by dissolving pure gold in three times its weight of nitromuriatic acid, with the aid of a moderate heat. The solution is evaporated by a gentle heat nearly to dryness, being at the same time stirred with a glass rod. It is in the form of a crystal- line mass of a deep-red colour. Its solution has a fine yellow tint. Being deliquescent, 1258 Appendix. it requires to be kept in ground stoppered bottles. The iodide may be made by precipi- tating a solution of the terchloride of gold by one of iodide of potassium, and washing the precipitate with alcohol to remove the excess of iodine. It is of a greenish-yellow colour, and, when heated in a porcelain crucible, is resolved into iodine vapours and a residue of pure gold. The chloride of gold and sodium is prepared by dissolving four parts of gold in nitromuriatic acid, evaporating the solution to dryness, and dissolving the dry mass in eight times its weight of distilled water. To this solution one part of pure decrepitated common salt is added, previously dissolved in four parts of water. The mixed solution is then evaporated to dryness, being in the mean time constantly stirred with a glass rod. This salt is of a golden yellow colour, and, when crystallized, is in the form of long prismatic crystals, unalterable in the air. The chloroaurate of ammonia is formed by dissolving One part of the terchloride of gold and two parts of muriate of ammonia in distilled water, assisted by a few drops of nitromuriatic acid, and evaporat- ing the solution to' dryness by a gentle heat. The cyanutet is best obtained, according to M. Oscar Figuier,-as follows. Prepare the chloride of gold as neutral as possible by repeated solutions and crystallizations; and to the solution of this salt add, very cau- tiously, avoiding any excess, a solution of pure cyanuret of potassium, so long as any pre- cipitate falls. (See Potassii Cyanuretum.) The precipitate, consisting of cyanuret of gold, is to be washed with pure water and dried in the dark. Gold in powder, and the oxide, chloride, iodide, double chloride, and cyanuret are officinal in the French Codex. The preparations of gold are decidedly poisonous, though in different degrees. The chloride is most virulent, and, according to Dr. Chrestien, is even more active tiian cor- rosive sublimate. In an overdose, it produces pain, inflammation, and even ulceration of the stomach and bowels, and otherwise acts as a corrosive. poison. The general effects of these preparations, in moderate doses, is 'to produce increased fulness and frequency of the pulse, and to augment the urine and insensible perspiration,-without interfering with the appetite or the regular action of the bowels; but if the dose is pushed too far, general irritation is apt to be produced, inflammation seizes upon some organ, according to the predisposition of the individual, and fever is developed. Gold in powder, the oxide, chloride, and. iodide are not as much used as the double chloride of gold and sodium. The oxide may be given in the form of pill, in the dose of a tenth of a grain, in scrofula and lymphatic swellings, beginning with one pill daily, and after- wards gradually increasing to seven or eight in the 24 hours. The iodide is given in the same cases in which the other preparations of gold are administered. The dose is from the fifteenth to the tenth of a grain. Chloride of gold and sodium is the preparation of gold most commonly employed. It may be given in lozenges, each containing the twelfth of a grain, by mixing intimately five grains of the salt with an ounce of powdered sugar, and making the whole with mucilage of-tragacanth into a proper mass, to be divided into sixty lozenges. Pills, containing the same dose, may be formed by dissolving ten grains of the dried salt in a drachm of distilled water, and forming the solution into a pilular mass with a mixture of four drachms of potato starch and one drachm of gum Arabic, to be divided into one hundred and twenty pills. {Journ. de Pharm., xx. 648.) For frictions on the gums and tongue, Chrestieri recommends the following formula:—Crystallized chloride of gold'and sodium, one grain; powdered orris root, deprived of its soluble parts by alcohol and water, and dried, two grains. Mix. At first the fifteenth part of this powder is used daily by frictions; afterwards the fourteenth, the thirteenth, &c, until, increasing gradu- ally, the tenth or eighth part is employed. The use of four grains of the salt in this way is said commonly to cure bad cases of recent syphilis; such," for example, as are characterized by the co-existence of chancres, warts, and buboes. In preparing this powder, lycopodium may be substituted for the orris. Chloroaurate of ammonia has been recommended by Bouchardat in amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea in,debilitated subjects, in the dose of about the tenth of a grain.- A grain may be dissolved in five teaspoonfuls of alcohol and five of water, and a teaspoonful given morning and evening, mixed with sweetened water. , Cyanuret of gold is employed, like the chloride of gold and sodium, mixed with inert powders, in frictions, and in the form of pill. The fifteenth of a grain may be rubbed into the gums daily for fifteen days, next the fourteenth of a grain for fourteen days, and so on, increasing until the dose amounts to the ninth or eighth of a grain. The dose for internal exhibition is the eighteenth of a grain, gradually increased to the eighth. The cyanuret of gold has been found useful in the treatment of syphilis and scrofula by M. Pourche, and is said to be less exciting than the double chloride, when used in those dis- eases. {Journ. de Pharm., xx. 599 and 649.) The different medicinal compounds of gold should not be prepared in pill, powder, or Appendix. 1259 otherwise, until they are wanted for use; as they are liable to undergo decomposition when kept. They should be carefully secluded from the light. GRATIOLA OFFICINALIS. Hedge Hyssop. This is a perennial herb, indigenous in the South of Europe, where it flourishes in meadows and other moist grounds. The whole herb is used. It is nearly inodorous, but has a bitter nauseous taste. Both water and alcohol extract its active properties. It is a drastic cathartic and emetic, possessing also diuretic properties, and is employed on the continent of Europe in dropsy, jaundice, worms, chronic hepatic affections, scrofula, and various other complaints. With us it is almost unknown as a remedy. The dose of the powdered herb is from fifteen to thirty grains; of the infusion made in the proportion of half an ounce to the pint of boiling water, half a fluidounce. HAMAMELTS VIRGINICA. Witch-hazel. An indigenous shrub, from five to fifteen feet high, growing in almost all sections of the United States, usually on hills or in stony places, and frequently on the banks of streams. It is remarkable for.the late appearance Of its yellow flowers, which expand in September or October, and continue till the weather becomes very cold in winter. The fruit, which is a nut-like capsule not unlike the. hazel-nut, ripens in the following autumn, and is often mingled on, the same plant with the new blossoms. The bark has a bitter, astringent, somewhat sweetish and pung- ent taste. It probably first attracted notice as a remedy of the Indians, who are said to have used it as a sedative and discutient to painful tumours, and other cases of external inflammation. It is used in the shape of poultice, or as a wash in the form of decoction, in hemorrhoidal affections and ophthalmia. The leaves are said to possess similar pro- perties, and, in the state of infusion, to be given internally in bowel complaints and hemorrhages. The seeds are black and shining externally, white, oily and farinaceous within, and edible like the hazelnut. HEDERA HELIX. Ivy. This well-known evergreen creeper is a native of Europe. The fresh leaves have a balsamic odour, especially when rubbed, and a bitterish, harsh, unpleasant taste. They are used for dressing issues, and, in the form of decoction, have been recommended in sanious ulcers and cutaneous eruptions, particularly tetter and the itch. Dried and powdered, they have been employed in the.atrophy of children, and in complaints of the lungs, in the dose of a scruple or more. The berries, which have an acidulous, resinous, somewhat pungent taste, are said to be purgative and even emetic. MM. Vandamme and Chevallier discovered in ivy seeds a peculiar alkaline principle, which they called hederin {hederia). It is very bitter, and appears to be closely allied to quinia in febrifuge properties. It is obtained by treating the seeds with hydrate of lime, dissolving the precipitated alkali in boiling alcohol, and evaporating the alcoholic solution. {Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiii. 172.) ■ From the trunks of old ivy plants, growing in the South of Europe and the North of Africa, a resinous substance exudes through incisions in the bark, which has been employed in medicine under the name of ivy gum. It is in pieces of various sizes, of a dark yellowish-brown colour sometimes inclining to orange, more or less transparent, sometimes of a deep ruby-red colour internally, of a vitreous fracture, puiverizable, yielding a lively orange-yellow powder, of a peculiar not disagree- able odour when heated or inflamed, and of a bitterish resinous taste. Its chief constituent is resin, though some pieces contain a considerable proportion of bassorin, and others large quantities of ligneous matter. It was formerly used as a stimulant and emmena- gogue, but is now scarcely employed. Placed in the cavities of carious teeth, it is said to relieve toothache. The wood of the ivy, which is light and porous, is sometimes used for making issue-peas. HELENIUM AUTUMNALE. False Sunflower. Sneezewort. An indigenous peren- nial herb, from three to seven feet high, with large golden-yellow compound flowers, which appear in August. It grows in all parts of the United States, flourishing best in meadows, moist fields, and other low grounds. All parts of it are bitter and somewhat acrid, and, when snuffed up the nostrils in the state of powder, produce violent sneezing. The leaves and flowers have been recommended as an excellent errhine. Clayton says that the plant is thought to be useful in intermittent fevers. HELIANTHEMUM CANADENSE. Michaux. Cistus Canadensis. Willd. Frost-wort. Frost-weed. Rock-rose. An herbaceous perennial plant, from six to eighteen inches high, with a pubescent stem, oblong, somewhat lanceolate leaves about an inch long, and. large yellow flowers, the calyx and peduncles of which, as well as the leaves and branches of the plant, are covered with a white down. Eaton states that, in the months of November and December, he has seen hundreds of these plants sending out, near the roots, broad, thin curved ice crystals, about an inch in breadth, which melted in the day, and were renewed in the morning. {Manual of Botany, 1th ed., p. 246.) For a botanical description 1260 Appendix. the reader is referred to Darlington's Flora Cestrica (p. 313), and to Torrey and Gray's Flora of N. America (i. 151). The plant grows in all parts of the United States, pre- ferring dry sandy soils, and flowering in June in the Middle States. It has an astringent, slightly aromatic, and bitterish taste; and appears to possess tonic and astringent proper- ties. Attention has only recently been attracted to it as a medicine. We have been told that it was first introduced into regular practice by Dr. Ives, of New Haven, Connecticut, who considers it a valuable remedy in scrofula. Dr. Isaac Parrish, of Philadelphia, informs us that he has employed it with much apparent benefit, as an internal remedy, in scrofulous affections of the eyes. In a pamphlet upon the frost-weed by Dr. D: A. Tyler, published at New Haven, A.D. 1846, it is stated that the H. Corymbosum possesses similar properties, and is indiscriminately employed with the H. Canadense. The author found both useful in scrofula, diarrhoea, and secondary syphilis, and locallyas a gargle in scarlatina, and a wash in prurigo. The plant has beeiiiused in the forms of powder, decoction, tincture, and syrup; and may be given freely with impunity. Dr. Tyler, how- ever, has known the strong decoction and the extract to produce vomiting. He considers two grains of the latter as a full dose for an adult. HELLEBORUS FCETlDUS. Bears-foot. This is a perennial European plant, growing in shady places, and flowering in March and April. It derived its botanical designation from its offensive odour. The leaves, which are the part used, have a bitterish, pungent, and acrid taste, and when chewed excoriate the mouth. The foot-stalks are still more acrid. This species of hellebore is said by Allioni to be the most acrid and energetic of the plants belonging to the genus. It is powerfully emetic and cathartic, and in very large doses produces dangerous effects. It has long'been used in Great Britain as a domestic remedy for worms, and was brought before the notice of the profession by Dr. Bisset, who found it an efficacious anthelmintic, and prescribed it also iu asthma, hysteria, and hypochondriasis. M. Decerfs has known it to cause the expulsion of taenia. It is given in powder or decoction. The dose for a child from two to six years old is from five grains to a scruple of the dried leaves, or a fluidounce of the decoction made by boiling a drachm of the dried leaves in half a pint of water. This quantity should be repeated morning and night for two or three days in succession. A syrup made from the juice of the green leaves is used in England. The.remedy is scarcely known in the United States. HEMIDESMUS INDICUS. R. Brown. Periploca Indica. Willd. Asclepias pseudosarsa. Roxburgh. Indian Sarsaparilla. A climbing asclepiadaceous plant, growing in all parts of the peninsula of Hindostan. The root is long, slender, tortuous, cylindrical, and little branched; consisting of a ligneous centre, and a brownish corky bark, which is marked with longitudinal furrows and transverse fissures. It has a peculiar aromatic odour, and a bitterish taste. M. Garden obtained from it a peculiar volatilizable principle with acid properties, which he named smilasperic acid, under the erroneous impression that the root was derived from the Smilax aspera. Pereira proposes to call it hemidesmic acid. It is probably the active principle. The root is used in India as a substitute for sarsaparilla, and has been introduced into Great Britain, where it was known for some time under the name of Smilax aspera. In some instances it is said to have proved successful in syphilis, when that medicine has failed; though it cannot be relied upon. The native practitioners in India are said to employ it in nephritic complaints, and in the sore mouth of children. It is given in infusion or decoction, made in the proportion of two ounces of the root to a pint of water. A pint may be given, in wineglassful doses, in the course of a day. A syrup may be prepared from it, in the same manner as syrup of sarsapa- rilla, and given in tablespoonful doses. HERMODACTYLS. Hermodactyli. Under this name are sold in the shops of Europe the roots or bulbs of an uncertain plant, growing in the countries about the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean. By some botanists the plant is considered a species of Colchicum, and the C. variegatum, a native of the South of Europe and the Levant, is par- ticularly indicated by Fee, Geiger, and others; while by authors not less eminent, the roots are confidently referred to the Iris tuberosa. They certainly bear a considerable resemblance to the bulb of the Colchicum autumnale, being heart-shaped, channeled on one side, convex on the other, and from half an inch to an inch in length, by nearly as much in breadth. As found in the shops, they are destitute of their outer coat, of a dirty yellowish or brownish colour externally, white and amylaceous within, inodorous, and nearly tasteless, though sometimes slightly acrid. They are often worm-eaten. Their chief constituent is starch, and they contain no veratria or colchicia. From this latter circumstance, and from their insipidity, it has been inferred that they are probably not derived from a species of Colchicum; but Geiger observes that they may have lost their acrimony by age. They are in fact almost without action upon the system, and are now Appendix. 1261 seldom used; never, we believe, in this country. It is doubted whether they are the hermodactyli of the ancients, which were certainly a powerful medicine, operating very much in the same manner with our colchicum, and like it proving useful inNgout and rheumatism. Pereira describes a bitter variety of hermodactyls, which was brought from India by Dr. Royle. The bulbs are smaller than the others, of a darker colour, and have externally a striped or reticulated appearance. From their bitter taste they are probably more active as a medicine. HIBISCUS ABELMOSCHUS. Abelmoschus moschatus. Wight and Arnott. An ever- green shrub, growing in Egypt, and in the East and West Indies, and affording the seeds known under the name of semen Abelmoschi, alcea Mgyptiaca, and grana moschata. These are of about the same size as flaxseed, kidney-shaped, striated, of a grayish-brown colour, of an odour like that of musk, and of a warm somewhat spicy taste. They were formerly considered stimulant and antispasmodic; but are now used only in perfumery. The Arabs flavour their coffee with them. They are said to be sometimes employed in the adulteration of musk. Another species, the Hibiscus esculenlus, or Abelmoschus esculentus of Wight and Arnott, is cultivated, under the name of okra, bendee, or gombo, in various parts of the world, for the sake of its fruit, which abounds in mucilage, and is much employed for thickening soup. The leaves are sometimes employed for preparing emol- lient poultices. HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS. Yellow root. Orange root. This is an indigenous plant, growing in different parts of the United States, but most abundantly beyond the Alleghanies. It flourishes best in rich shady woods. It has a perennial root, and an herbaceous stem, from six inches to a foot high, with two unequal leaves, and a single terminal whitish or rose-coloured flower. The root consists of a tortuous caudex and numerous long fibres, and is of a bright yellow colour. It is juicy in the recent state, and loses much of its weight when dried. It has a strong, somewhat narcotic odour, and an exceedingly bitter taste. It probably possesses the ordinary virtues of the vegetable bitters, and is said to be popularly employed as a tonic in some parts of the country. In the form of infusion, it has been used in the Western States as a topical application in ophthalmia; and the Indians are said to employ it in the same manner in old ulcers of the legs. The notion of its efficacy in cancer, originating in a report which reached the late Professor Barton, that it was used in the cure of this complaint by the Cherokees, is probably altogether groundless. The Indians employ the juice of the root to stain their clothing, &c, yellow. HYDRIODIC ACID. Acidum Hydriodicum. Dr. Andrew Buchanan, of Glasgow, recom- mends the following formula for obtaining this acid for medicinal purposes. Take of iodide of potassium 330 grains, tartaric acid 264 grains. Dissolve the salts, separately, each in a fluidounce and a half of distilled water, and mix the solutions. Filter the liquor, in order to separate the bitartrate of potassa which precipitates, and add to it sufficient distilled water to make the whole measure fifty fluidrachms. When of this strength, each fluidrachm of the acid contains five grains of iodine. The solution of hydriodic acid, when thus prepared, is sufficiently pure for medicinal use, although con- taining a little cream of tartar in solution. At first it is limpid, or has only a slight yel- low tinge; but on keeping it assumes, first a wine-yellow, and afterwards a beautiful red colour, in consequence of the disengagement of iodine. Dr. Buchanan considers uncombined iodine to be an irritant, and its alterative powers, when these are manifested, to depend upon its conversion into hydriodic acid, of a strength sufficiently moderate to be readily absorbed, and to pass into the current of the circulation. He conceives that when iodine is given, and proves to be absorbed, it is by being first converted into hydriodic acid by hydrogen derived from the gastric juice, or from the tissues of the stomach, which latter undergo corrosion. A desire to avoid this incidental irritant effect led Dr. Buchanan at first to combine the iodine with starch, which he supposes to furnish the necessary hydrogen while undergoing digestion, and finally to use the hydriodic acid ready formed. In giving the liquid hydriodic acid according to his formula, Dr. Buchanan begins by exhibiting a few drops, and afterwards increases the dose first to a fluidrachm and finally to half a fluidounce three times a day, equal to a drachm of iodine daily. This was his ordinary maximum dose, but sometimes he gave a fluidounce three times a day. In all cases the acid was administered sufficiently diluted with water to reduce it to an agreeable sourness, in which state it possesses no irritant action whatever. When, how- ever, the acid has undergone a change of colour, as previously mentioned, Dr. Buchanan uses a solution of starch as a vehicle, in order to divest the free iodine, the presence of which is indicated by this change, of all irritant qualities. Hydriodic acid, when thus used exhibits the same therapeutic effects as free iodine, with the advantages of having 'l07 1262 Appendix. no irritant property, and of affording the means of introducing much larger quantities of iodine into the system through the medium of absorption, than when given in the ordi- nary form. {Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xx. 210, and 214, from the Med. Gazette.) Dr. Samuel Lewis and Mr. T. J. Husband, of this city, have combined hydriodic acid with several of the organic alkalies, with a view to form new medicinal combinations. {Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvi. 21.) HYDROCYANIC ETHER. Mther Hydrocyanicus. Hydrocyanate of Etherine. Cyanuret of Ethyle. This ether was discovered by Pelouze. It is formed by distilling a mixture of sulphovinate of baryta and cyanuret of potassium. It is a colourless liquid of a pene- trating garlic odour, soluble in alcohol and ether, sparingly soluble in water, boiling at 180°, and weighing specifically 0-78. It is very poisonous, but less so than hydrocyanic acid, with which it agrees in therapeutic action and dose. HYPERICUM PERFORATUM. St. John's Wort. A perennial herb, abundant both in Europe and this country, often covering whole fields, and proving extremely trouble- some to farmers. It is usually from one to two feet high, with leaves, which, from the presence of numerous transparent vesicles, appear as if perforated, and have hence given origin to the botanical designation of the plant. The flowers, which are numerous and of a deep yellow colour, appear during the summer from June to August. The flower- ing summits are the part used, though the unripe capsules are possessed of the virtues of the plant in an equal degree, and the seeds are said to be even stronger. St. John's wort has a peculiar balsamic odour, which is rendered more sensible by rubbing or bruising the plant. Its taste is bitter, resinous, and somewhat astringent. It imparts a yellow colour to cold water, and reddens alcohol and the fixed oils. Its chief consti- tuents are volatile oil, a resinous substance, tannin, and colouring matter. As a medicine, it was in high repute among the ancients, and the earlier modern physicians. Among the complaints for which it was used, were hysteria, mania, intermittent fever, dysentery, gravel, hemorrhages, pectoral complaints, worms, and jaundice; but it was, perhaps, most highly esteemed as a remedy in wounds and bruises, for which it was employed both internally and externally It is difficult to ascertain its exact value as a remedy; but from its sensible properties, and from the character of the complaints in which it has been thought useful, it may be considered, independently of its astringency, as somewhat analogous in medical power to the turpentines. It formerly enjoyed great reputation for the cure of demoniacs; and the superstition still lingers among the vulgar in some coun- tries. At present the plant is scarcely used except as a domestic remedy. The summits were given in the dose of two drachms or more. A preparation was at one time officinal, under the name of oleum hyperici, made by treating them with a fixed oil. It has a red colour, and is still used in many families as a sovereign remedy for bruises. HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA. Soda Hyposulphis. This salt is readily prepared, ac- cording to Walchner, by mixing a pound of dry carbonate of soda, in fine powder, with five ounces of sulphur, heating the mixture gradually in a porcelain vessel until the sul- phur melts, and stirring the agglutinated mass, still kept hot, in order that every portion of it may come in contact with the air. The sulphuret of sodium, first formed, is thus converted into sulphite of soda. This is dissolved in -water, and the filtered solution, being boiled with sulphur, becomes one of hyposulphite of soda, from which, on concen- tration, the salt is deposited in large, colourless, transparent crystals. Hyposulphite of soda is largely used by the Daguerreotypers for the purpose of dissolving the sensitive coating of iodide of silver from the plate, after the action of the light, and thus fixing the image already formed. HYSSOPUS OFFICINALIS. Hyssop. This is a labiate plant, belonging to the class and order Didynamia Gymnospermia of the sexual system. It is perennial, with nume- rous erect, quadrangular, somewhat branching stems, which are woody in their inferior portion, about two feet high, and furnished with opposite, sessile, lanceolate linear, pointed, punctate leaves. The flowers are violet-coloured or blue, sometimes white, turned chiefly to one side, and arranged in half verticillated, terminal, leafy spikes. The upper lip of the corolla is roundish and notched at the apex, the lower is divided into three segments, of which the undermost is obovate. Common hyssop is a native of the continent of Europe, where, as well as in this country, it is also cultivated in gardens. The flowering summits and leaves are the parts used. They have an agreeable aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent, bitterish taste. These properties they owe to an essential oil, which may be obtained separate by distillation with water, and rises also with alcohol. Hyssop is a warm gently stimu- lant aromatic, applicable to the same cases with the other labiate plants. Its infusion has been much employed in chronic catarrhs, especially in old people, and those of a debilitated habit of body. It acts by facilitating expectoration of the mucus which is Appendix. 1263 too abundantly secreted. In this country, however, it is very seldom used by regular practitioners. ILEX Holly. Several species of Ilex are employed in different parts of the world. Ihe /. Aquifohum, or common European holly, has attracted much attention in France. It is usually a shrub, but in some places attains the magnitude of a middling-sized tree. Different parts of it are used. The viscid substance called birdlime is prepared from the inner bark. The leaves, which are of a bitter, somewhat austere taste, were formerly much esteemed as a diaphoretic, and in the form of infusion were employed in catarrh, pleurisy, small-pox, gout, &c. A few years since they gained some reputation in France as a cure for intermittents,and were considered by some as equal to Peruvian bark- but the first reports in their favour have not been fully confirmed. They were used in powder, in the dose of a drachm two hours before the paroxysm; and this dose was sometimes repeated frequently during the apyrexia. Their febrifuge virtues are said to depend on a bitter principle, for which the name of ilicin has been proposed. The ber- ries are about the size of a pea, red and bitter, and are said to be purgative, emetic, and diuretic. Ten or twelve of them will usually act on the bowels and sometimes vomit. Their expressed juice has been used in jaundice. The Ilex opaca, or American holly, is a middling-sized evergreen tree, growing through- out the Atlantic section of the United States, and especially abundant in New Jersey. It is so similar to the European plant, that it is, by some writers, considered as the same species. It is said to possess the same medical properties. The Ilex Paraguaiensis, or I. Mate of St. Hilaire, yields the celebrated Paraguay tea, so extensively consumed as a beverage in the interior of South America. The leaves, which are the part used, have a balsamic odour, and a bitter taste, and are usually at first disagreeable to the palate. They have a pleasant corroborant effect upon the sto- mach; but, when very largely taken, are said to purge and vomit. They are used in the form of infusion. According to the experiments of Mr. Stenhouse, these leaves contain a principle identical with the thein or caffein of tea and of coffee. The Ilex vomitoria of Aiton and Linn., the I. Cassina of Michaux, is a handsome ever- green shrub, growing in our Southern States, and especially abundant along the southern coast of Florida. It is the cassina of the Indians, who formerly employed a decoction made from the toasted leaves, called black drink, both as a medicine, and as a drink of etiquette at their councils. It acts as an emetic. The leaves of the Ilex Dahoon of Walter and Michaux have similar properties, and are also said to have entered into the compo- sition of the black drink. ILLICIUM FLORIDANUM. Florida Anise-tree. This is an evergreen shrub or small tree, growing in Florida, along the coast which bounds the Gulf of Mexico. The bark, leaves, and probably also the seed vessels, are endowed with a spicy odour and taste analogous to those of anise, and might, perhaps, be used for the same purposes as this aromatic. It is a question worthy of investigation, whether the capsules of this plant might not be substituted for those of the Illicium anisatum or star aniseed, which yield much of the oil used in this country under the name of oil of anise. (See Anisum.) An- other species, the I. parviflorum, a shrub found by Michaux in the hilly regions of Georgia and Carolina, has a flavour closely resembling that of sassafras root. IMPATIENS FULVA and IMPATIENS PALLIDA. Touch-me-not. Jewel-weed. Bal- sam-weed. These two species of Impatiens are indigenous, annual, succulent plants, from two to four feet high, growing in low moist grounds in all parts of the Union, and flower- ing in July and August. They may be known by their tender, juicy, almost transparent stems; by their yellow flowers, which in one species are pale and sparingly punctate, in the other, are deeper coloured and crowded with dark spots; and by their capsules, which burst elastically and curl up with the slightest pressure. They probably possess properties similar to those of the /. Noli-me-tangere of Europe, which has an acrid burning taste, and, when taken internally, acts as an emetic, cathartic, and diuretic, though con- sidered dangerous, and therefore little used. The late Dr. Ruan, of Philadelphia, in- formed us that he had employed with great advantage, in piles, an ointment made by boiling the American plants, in their recent state, in lard. The flowers may be used for dyeing yellow. The I. Balsamina or balsam-weed, touch-me-not, 4rc, of the gardens, re- sembles the other species in its effects. IMPERATORIA OSTRUTHIUM. Masterwort. An umbelliferous plant, indigenous in the South of Europe. The root has a strong odour, similar to that of angelica, and a pungent, biting, aromatic taste, attended with a flow of saliva, and followed by a glowing warmth'which remains long in the mouth. It was formerly considered alexipharmic, stomachic, corroborant, emmenagogue, diuretic, and diaphoretic; and was used in a wide 1264 Appendix. circle of complaints with so much supposed success as to have gained for it the title of divinum remedium. The fact, however, appears to be, that it is merely a stimulant aro- matic, analogous but inferior to angelica, which has nearly superseded it in European practice. In this country, it is unknown as a remedy, and its vulgar name has been ap- plied to another plant. INDELIBLE INK. This is prepared by dissolving two drachms of nitrate of silver and a drachm of gum Arabic in a fluidounce of distilled water, coloured with a little Indian ink. It is used for writing with a pen on linen and muslin. The place to be marked is prepared by being moistened with a solution of two ounces of crystallized carbonate of soda, and two drachms of gum Arabic in four fluidounces of water, and then dried. The alkaline solution serves to decompose the nitrate, and to protect the cloth from the action of the free nitric acid. At the end of twenty-four hours, the spot is to be washed. Mr. Redwood of London, proposes the following indelible ink, not requiring the use of a mordant. Dissolve an ounce of nitrate of silver, and an ounce and a half of crys- tallized carbonate of soda, separately, in distilled water, and mix the solutions. Wash the precipitated carbonate of silver, and, having introduced it, still moist, into a Wedg- wood mortar, rub it up with eight scruples of tartaric acid, until effervescence cease. Then add strong solution of ammonia, just sufficient to dissolve the tartrate of silver formed (about two fluidounces). Lastly, having mixed in half a fluidounce of archil, half an ounce of white sugar, and an ounce and a half of powdered gum Arabic, add sufficient distilled water to make the whole measure six fluidounces. Herberger recommends the following indelible ink for other purposes than marking linen. Dissolve wheat-gluten, carefully freed from starch, in a little weak acetic acid, and dilute the solution with rain water, so as to have about the strength of wine vinegar. For every four ounces of the solution, add ten grains of the best lampblack, two grains of indigo, and a little oil of cloves. This ink has a beautiful black colour, and cannot be removed by chlorine or dilute acids. {Chem. Gaz., No. 70, p. 394.) INDIAN RED. A purplish-red pigment, brought from the island of Ormus in the Persian Gulf. It is a red ochre, and owes its colour to the red oxide of iron. INDIAN YELLOW. This is a pigment, manufactured from a yellow substance from India, called purree. Purree occurs in commerce in balls, of from three to four ounces in weight, which are dark-brown externally, and deep-orange within. It has a peculiar smell, closely resembling that of castor. This circumstance gave rise to the belief that it was of animal origin; but Dr. Stenhouse, who examined it chemically, finds that it contains no nitrogen, and from this and other facts is led to the opinion that it is a vegetable substance. Upon analysis he found it to consist almost entirely of a peculiar acid, which he names purreic, forming nearly one-half of the crude substance, and united with magnesia. Purreic acid is in small crystals of a light-yellow colour, dissolving sparingly in cold water, pretty readily in boiling water, and abundantly in hot alcohol. It has at first a sweetish, and then a slightly bitter taste, and possesses, in appearance, considerable resemblance to berberine. Its ultimate constituents are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. From his examination of purree Dr. Stenhouse concludes that it is proba- bly the juice of some plant, saturated with magnesia, and boiled down to a solid consist- ence. (See his paper in the Phil. Mag., xxv. 321.) INDIGO. This well-known and highly important dye-stuff is obtained from various species of Indigofera, especially the I. tinctoria, I. Anil, and I. argentea; and is said to be afforded also by other plants, such as the Wrightia tinctoria, Polygonum tinctorium, Galega tinctoria, &c. In the process of preparing it, the plant is macerated in water; fermenta- tion takes place; the liquor becomes of a greenish colour, and in due time is decanted; the colouring principle dissolved by the water absorbs oxygen from the air, and assumes a blue colour, becoming at the same time insoluble; a gradual precipitation takes place, favoured by the addition of lime-water or an alkaline solution; and finally the precipitated matter, having been washed upon linen filters, is dried, shaped usually into cubical masses, and sent into market. Most of the indigo consumed in dyeing is brought from the East Indies, though considerable quantities are imported also from Guatemala, and the northern coast of South America. It is of an intensely blue colour, but assumes a coppery or bronze hue when rubbed by a smooth hard body, as the nail. Heated to 550°, it emits a reddish-violet vapour, which condenses in minute crystals. It is in- soluble in water or alcohol, but is readily dissolved by sulphuric acid, which, without destroying its blue colour, so far alters its nature as to render it freely soluble in water, and thus affords a convenient method of applying it to the purposes of dyeing. The solution in sulphuric acid is kept in the shops under the name of sulphate of indigo. Appendix. 1265 According to Berzelius, indigo contains, among other ingredients, four distinct princi- ples;—1, a substance resembling gluten; 2, a brown colouring substance; 3, a red colour- ing substance; and 4, a blue colouring substance, which is the principle upon which its value as a material for dyeing depends, and which seldom constitutes so much as one-half of the indigo of commerce. This blue colouring matter is called indigotin. By deoxidizing agents it is deprived of its blue colour, which it recovers by exposure to the air, in consequence of the absorption of oxygen. Chlorine also destroys the blue colour. M. Preisser has concluded, from an elaborate examination of the colouring principles of plants, 1. that these principles are colourless in the young plants, 2. that they acquire colour by combination with oxygen, 3. that all the colouring matters, extracted from any one plant, are produced by the oxidation in different degrees of a single principle, 4. that they are deprived of colour by substances having a strong affinity for oxygen, and reacquire it by contact with oxidizing bodies, and 5. that these colouring principles are acids, and the lakes which they form genuine salts. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., v. 263.) Indigo has recently been introduced to the notice of the profession as a remedial agent. It has hitherto been chiefly employed by the German physicians, from whose statements our knowledge of its physiological action and therapeutical applications is derived. Though without odour and taste, it is said, in most individuals, to produce nausea and vomiting, frequently to operate upon the bowels, giving a bluish-black colour to the stools, to render the urine of a dark-violet or dark-green colour, without increasing its quantity, and sometimes to stimulate the secretory function of the uterus. From these statements it would appear to act as an irritant to the alimentary mucous membrane. The character of its general influence upon the system has not been well ascertained. In some instances, it is asserted to have been given in very large doses without any obvious effect. The complaints in which it has been employed, with sup- posed advantage, are epilepsy, infantile convulsions, chorea, hysteria, and amenorrhoea. It is given, usually in connexion with some aromatic powder, in the dose of a scruple three times a day, which may be increased to a drachm or more; and from half an ounce to an ounce daily has been employed for months together without disadvantage. (See Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xx. 487.) IODIDE OF AMMONIUM. Ammonii Iodidum. Hydriodate of Ammonia. This salt is formed by saturating liquid hydriodic acid with ammonia, and evaporating the solu- tion. It forms a deliquescent saline mass, which crystallizes with difficulty in cubes. It is mentioned by Dr. Pennock, of this city, as a good remedy in some cases of lepra and psoriasis, made up into an ointment. {Amer. Journ. of Med. Sciences, xv. 374.) The proportions employed are from a scruple to a drachm of the salt to an ounce of lard ; the weaker preparation being used when the disease is recent, the stronger when it is chronic. The ointment was employed in frictions in the amount of half an ounce, morning and evening. As the iodide is decomposed by exposure to the air, the ointment should be kept in well-stopped bottles. IODIDE OF ARSENIC. Arsenici Iodidum. This compound is formed by Wacken- roder by digesting in a flask, for about an hour, at a gentle heat, one grain of finely pow- dered sublimed arsenic, and six grains of pure iodine, with about two drachms of water. The solution is then transferred to a porcelain dish, and evaporated at an extremely gentle heat, so as to dissipate the excess of iodine, and to obtain the dry salt. The resulting iodide, dissolved in six fluidounces of water, forms a colourless solution, un- changed by the air, each fluidrachm of which contains the forty-eighth of a grain of arsenic, and about the tenth of a grain of iodine. {Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1843, 21.) Iodide of arsenic is a volatile substance, having the colour of red lead, and consisting of one eq. of arsenic and three of iodine. It has been used by Biett as an external application to corroding tubercular skin diseases. By Dr. A. T. Thomson it has been given internally with advantage in lepra, impetigo, and diseases resembling cancer. Dr. F. C. Crane reports a cure, by its use for nearly eight months, of what he considered cancer of the breast. The ointment used by Biett was composed of three grains of the iodide to an ounce of lard. The dose for internal exhibition is an eighth of a grain, three times a day, given in pill or solution. IODIDE OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY, SOLUTION OF. Liquor Arsenici et Hydrargyri Iodidi. Solution of Hydriodate of Arsenic and Mercury. Donovan's Solution. This combination was introduced to the notice of the medical profession in 1839, by Mr. Donovan, of Dublin, as a therapeutic agent combining the medical virtues of its three ingredients. At present he prepares it by the following corrected formula:— Triturate 6-08 grains of finely levigated metallic arsenic, 14-82 gTains of mercury, and 49 "rains of iodine with a fluidrachm of alcohol, until the mass becomes dry, and 107* 1266 Appendix, from being deep brown has become pale red. Add eight fluidounces of distilled water, and, after trituration for a few moments, transfer the whole to a flask; add half a drachm of hydriodic acid, prepared by the acidification of two grains of iodine, and boil for a few moments. When the solution is cold, if it should measure less than eight fluidounces, add sufficient distilled water to make it fill exactly that measure. Lastly filter. This solution has a pale yellow colour, and a slightly styptic taste. Its sp. gr. is 1-02. It is incompatible with laudanum, and the sulphate, muriate, and acetate of morphia. The iodides of arsenic and mercury, formed by trituration as the first step of the process, are assumed by Mr. Donovan to become, by solution, hydriodates severally of arsenious acid (white oxide of arsenic), and of deutoxide of mercury (peroxide, or red precipitate); and he has taken the solid materials and water in such proportions as that each flui- drachm of the solution, on this theory of change, shall contain an eighth of a grain of arsenious acid, a fourth of a grain of deutoxide of mercury, and about three-fourths of a grain of iodine in the state of hydriodic acid. Those who consult Mr. Donovan's first paper on this solution {Dublin Med. Journ. for Nov., 1839) will not understand it, unless they are aware that he means by protoxide of arsenic, arsenious acid (in composition a teroxide) ; and by protoxide of mercury, deutoxide of mercury or red precipitate. These corrections in his nomenclature he admits to be necessary in his paper of Nov., 1842, in which he states that he used the erroneous terms through inadvertence. In this prepa- ration the iodide of arsenic present is the teriodide, and the iodide of mercury, the red or biniodide. If it be assumed that these iodides are capable of uniting into a double iodide, the proportion will be one eq. of the teriodide 454-3 to one of the biniodide 454-6. On the theory of their conversion into hydriodates by solution, five eqs. of water 45 would be required, three for the arsenical teriodide, and two for the mercurial bin- iodide ; and the result would be one eq. of arsenious acid 99-4, one of deutoxide of mer- cury 218, and five of hydriodic acid 636-5, the latter containing five eqs. of iodine 631-5. The solution here supposed would contain about two and one-fifth times as much deut- oxide of mercury as of arsenious acid, instead of only twice as much, as in Mr. Dono- van's formula. Medical Properties. This preparation has been found decidedly useful as an alterative in the treatment of various diseases of the skin, such as the different forms of psoriasis, impetigo, porrigo, lepra, pityriasis, lupus, and venereal eruptions, both papular and scaly. In support of its efficacy in these affections, Mr. Donovan has adduced the testimony of a number of respectable practitioners, of Dublin and elsewhere, who have communicated to him the results of their experience. The disease in some of the cases cured had existed for a number of years. Dr. E. I. Taylor, of New York, has employed it in a number of cutaneous diseases, and finds that it produces more marked and prompt effects than the remedies usually resorted to in the treatment of lupus, rupia, psoriasis, and secondary venereal. {Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., N.S., v. 319.) In two cases of uterine disease, characterized by patency of the os uteri and vascular turgescence of the cervix, and attended with lumbar and pelvic pains, Dr. Kirby, of Dublin, afforded relief by the use of the solution. The dose is twenty minims three times a day, given preferably in distilled water. This dose contains a twenty-fourth of a grain of arsenious acid, a twelfth of a grain of deutoxide of mercury, and about a quarter of a grain of iodine. Mr. Dono- van originally proposed thirty minims as the dose; but many patients cannot bear this quantity. Dr. Taylor never exceeded five drops, equal to four minims, three times a day. Sometimes the medicine deranges the stomach, confines the bowels, and produces headache, giddiness, and confusion of mind. When these effects are produced, it must be laid aside and a purgative administered. After an interval varying from ten days to three weeks, it may be resumed, but in a smaller dose. The treatment often requires to be persevered in for several months. Sometimes the medicine produces moderate salivation. By some practitioners, the solution, diluted with an equal bulk of water, was used with advantage as an external application to the ulcers or eruptions, at the same time that the medicine was given internally. For further information the reader is re- ferred to the three papers of Mr. Donovan, contained in the Dublin Journal of Med. Science, for Nov., 1839, Sept., 1840, and Nov., 1842. It is the paper of the latter date, that contains his corrected formula which is given in the beginning of this article. IODIDE OF BARIUM. Barii Iodidum. This compound may be formed by double decomposition, by adding carbonate of baryta to a boiling solution of iodide of iron. M. Henry, Jun., obtains it by decomposing a solution of sulphuret of barium (see page 874) by a concentrated alcoholic solution of iodine. Sulphur is precipitated, which is sepa- rated by filtration, and iodide of barium formed in solution, from which it is obtained in the solid state, by a rapid evaporation to dryness. It crystallizes in small, colourless Appendix. 1267 needles, which deliquesce slightly, and are very soluble in water. The solution promptly undergoes decomposition by exposure to the air, carbonate of baryta being precipitated, and iodine set free which colours the solution. It has been used with advantage by Jahn as an alterative, in scrofulous affections and morbid growths. Lugol employed it in scrofulous enlargements. The dose is the eighth of a grain three times a day, gradually increased to three grains. Biett applied it to scrofulous swellings in the form of ointment, made with four grains of the iodide to an ounce of lard. IODIDE OF SILVER. Argenti Iodidum. This compound is formed by double decom- position, by adding a solution of iodide of potassium to one of nitrate of silver. It is a greenish-yellow powder, nearly insoluble in ammonia. It possesses the general medical properties of the nitrate of silver, and, according to Dr. Charles Patterson, of Dublin, may be used without any danger of producing the discoloration of the skin which sometimes follows the use of that salt. Dr. Patterson found it generally successful in curing the stomach affections of the Irish peasantry, in the treatment of which nitrate of silver had been previously found useful. He succeeded with it in curing several cases of hooping cough in a short time, and in greatly relieving a case of dysmenorrhoea of three years' standing. Its effects in epilepsy were least satisfactory. The dose is one or two grains three times a day, given in the form of pill; for children, from an eighth to a fourth of a grain, according to the age. IODIDE OF STARCH. Dr. A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, proposes this compound as a means of administering iodine in large doses without causing irritation of the stomach. He prepares it by triturating twenty-four grains of iodine with a little water, adding gradually an ounce of very finely powdered starch, and continuing the trituration until the compound assumes a uniform blue colour. The iodide is then dried by a gentle heat, and kept in a well-stopped bottle. The dose is a heaped teaspoonful, given in water gruel, three times a day, and afterwards increased to a tablespoonful. No nicety is neces- sary in apportioning the dose. In some cases Dr. Buchanan has given half ounce doses of the iodide three times a day, immediately increased to an ounce. Exhibited in this state of combination, iodine produces, according to this writer, little or no irritation of the alimentary canal, but is freely absorbed, as is proved by its detection in large quantity in the secretions. Dr. Buchanan conceives that, by means of the starch, the iodine is con- verted into hydriodic acid, and in this form of combination enters the circulation. He prefers the iodide of starch to any other preparation of iodine for obtaining the alterative apart from the irritant effects of this substance. {Amer. Journ. of Med. Sci., xx. 213 and 217.) See Hydriodic Acid, page 1261. IODIDE OF ZINC. Zinci Iodidum. This iodide may be formed by digesting an excess of zinc, in small pieces, with iodine diffused in water. Combination takes place, and, by evaporation, a deliquescent, very soluble saline mass is obtained, having a metallic styptic taste, resembling that of sulphate of zinc. It may also be obtained by heating in a matrass a mixture of 20 parts of zinc and 170 of iodine, and subliming into a vial. When thus prepared, it is in the form of white needles. It is very liable to undergo spontaneous decomposition. Iodide of zinc is tonic and astringent. We have not met with any notice of its internal exhibition, but Dr. A. T. Thomson proposes a syrup of it, to protect it from change, made on the same plan as the syrup of iodide of iron. (See page 964.) Dr. J. J. Ross, of Scotland, employed a solution of iodide of zinc, containing from 10 to 30 grains to the fluidounce of water, with great advantage in enlarged tonsils, applied by means of a piece of sponge tied to a quill. After the use of the solution for some time, he ap- plied the iodide, rendered liquid by deliquescence, by means of a camel's hair brush. A solution containing one or two grains to the fluidounce of water, has been used as an astringent injection in gonorrhoea. An ointment, made of a drachm of the iodide, rubbed up with an ounce of lard, has been proposed by Dr. Ure as a substitute for the ointment of iodide of potassium in the treatment of tumours, apphed in the quantity of a drachm twice a day. IODO-HYDRARGYRATE OF POTASSIUM. It has been found by chemists that dif- ferent iodides will unite together, in definite proportions, forming compounds which are called by Berzelius double iodides. Bonsdorff, of Finland, and Dr. Hare, of this city, with 6m one to three inches long, beset with a tuft of soft, light-brown, slender fibres, of an agreeable odour, and a bitter, aromatic taste. It was formerly very highly esteemed as a medi- cine, but is now almost out of use. Its properties are analogous to those of the offiemal valerian. NASTURTIUM OFFICINALE. R. Brown. Sisymbrium Nasturtium. Linn. Watercress. A small, perennial, herbaceous, succulent plant, growing in springs, rivulets, and^ponds^ m North America/Europe, and some parts of Asia. The fresh herb has a quick pene- rating odour, especially when rubbed, and a bitterish, pungent taste, but loses both when dried Ln sensible and medical properties it bears some resemblance to scurvy-grass ffiough milder, and on this account is preferred for the table. It is thought to be usefu n-Sbmic affections, and visceral obstructions. The expressed juice is sometimes £ven inIhe dose of one or two ounces; but the herb is more frequently used in ihe fo^of a "alad Other species of Nasturtium, as the N. palustre, or marsh watv-cress InTthe Nampnibium or water-radish, grow in similar situations with the N. officinale, and possess similar virtues. tv-tV^tt A QATTVA Nutmeg-flower. Small fennel-flower. A small annual plant grow- NIGELLA SAHVA. *£*£%%?• an^ cuitivated in various parts of the world. ing wild in Syria and the South of E^he shops under the name of semen nigella, are The seeds, which are ^mf ^^f,^ ™ J anPd haif as broad, usually three-cornered, ovate, somewhat compressed. »^tal™* 0= brown externally white and oleaginous with two sides flat and one ~™e* b™* hke that of nutrn*gS) and a spicy pungent p,edenominated nigellin, which exists in the seeds in very minute proportion. {Journ. ,fo Pharm., 3e sir., ii. 128.) . , f-Tmu a TV OF SODA Cubic Nitre.—This salt may be formed by treating carbonate of S wfh ni?I a'cTlSL naturally, in inexhaustible quantities, in the desert of 1280 Appendix. Atacama in Peru, where it forms a bed of variable thickness, covered with clay, of one hundred and fifty miles in extent. Considerable quantities have been extracted for the purposes of commerce. Occasionally a cargo is brought to the United States. Nitrate of soda, when pure, is a white salt, crystallizing in rhomboidal prisms, and having a sharp, cooling, and bitter taste. It attracts moisture slightly from the air, and dissolves in about twice its Weight of water at 60°. It has been praised as a remedy in dysentery by two German physicians, Drs. Velsen and Meyer, given in the quantity of from half an ounce to an ounce in the course of the day, dissolved in gum water or other mucilaginous liquid. The crude salt, as it comes from Peru, is in dirty-white saline lumps, rather soft and friable, and damp on the surface. It is cheaper than nitre, for which salt it may be substituted in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and in the prepara- tion of nitric acid, chrome yellow, &c. According to M. Lembert it contains iodine. (See page 40.) As nitrate of soda has been imposed upon our merchants for nitre, it may be useful to mention that the former salt may be distinguished by its giving rise to an orange-yellow flame when thrown on burning coals, and by the rhomboidal shape of its crystals; those of nitre being long six-sided prisms. (See page 569.) NITROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. This compound, discovered by Pelouze in 1835, may be formed by passing nitric oxide through a solution of sulphate of ammonia in five or six times its volume of water of ammonia. A large number of crystals are formed, which must be quickly washed with liquid ammonia previously refrigerated, and dried without heat. Nitrosulphate of ammonia has been used at the Hotel Dieu in Paris, in doses of twelve grains, with apparent advantage, in typhoid fevers. Its com- position corresponds with one eq. of nitric oxide, one of sulphurous acid, and one of ammonia; but as the salt is not precipitated by barytic water, Pelouze conceives that the nitric oxide and sulphurous acid, together, form a peculiar acid -which he calls niirosulr phuric acid, consisting of one eq. of nitrogen, one of sulphur, and four of oxygen. NYMPH^EA ODORATA. Sweet-scented Water-lily. An indigenous herbaceous peren- nial, growing in most parts of the United States, in fresh water ponds and the borders of streams, and distinguished by the beauty and delicious odour of its large, white, many- petaled flowers. Its root is, when fresh, large and fleshy, but becomes light, spongy and friable by drying. It is very astringent and bitter, and, according to Dr. Bigelow, con- tains much tannin and gallic acid. It is sometimes employed, in the form of poultice, as a discutient application. The root of the Nymphaa alba, or European white water-lily, was esteemed aphrodisiac by the ancients, but has long lost this reputation. Like that of the American plant, it is bitter and styptic, and may have been useful by its astringency in some cases of leucorrhoea, gonorrhoea, dysentery, &c, in which it was formerly em- ployed for its reputed sedative virtues. OCHRES. These are native mixtures of argillaceous or calcareous earth and oxide of iron, employed in painting. They are prepared for use by agitating them with water, decanting the turbid liquor after the coarser particles have subsided, then allowing it to rest in order that the finer parts may be deposited, and lastly drying the sediment which forms. The colour of the ochres varies with the state of oxidation of the iron, and with the proportion which it bears to the other ingredients, and is sometimes artificially modi- fied by the agency of heat. Several varieties are kept in our shops under different names, according to their colour or place of origin. Such are the brown ochre, the yellow ochre, the red ochre, the Roman ochre of a brownish-yellow changing by heat to a purple red, the Oxford ochre of a brownish-yellow colour less deep than the Roman, and the French ochre which is yellow. The Indian red from the Persian Gulf, and Spanish brown, may also be ranked in this class of pigments. Sometimes ochres come in a powdery state, and sometimes in hard masses; in the latter state they are called stone ochres. OCIMUM BASILICUM. Basil. An annual plant, a native of India and Persia, and cultivated in Europe and in this country in gardens. The whole plant has a strong, peculiar, agreeable, aromatic odour, which is improved by drying. The taste is aromatic, and somewhat cooling and saline. Basil has the ordinary properties of the aromatic plants, and is in some places considerably used as a condiment. The seeds are said by Ainslie to be used in India, in the form of infusion, as a remedy in gonorrhoea and nephritic affections. CENANTHE CROCATA. Hemlock Water-dropwort. A perennial umbelliferous aquatic European plant, exceedingly poisonous both to men and inferior animals. The root, which has a sweetish, not unpleasant taste, is sometimes eaten by mistake for other roots, with the most dangerous effects; and numerous instances of fatal results are on record. The symptoms produced are such as attend irritation or inflammation of the Appendix. 1281 stomach united with great cerebral disturbance, indicated by giddiness, convulsions, and coma. Externally applied, the root produces redness and irritation of the skin, with an eruptive affection. It is said to be sometimes used empirically as a local remedy in piles; and a case is recorded in which an obstinate leprosy was cured by the continued use oi the juice of the plant. Other species of CEnanthe are poisonous, and the whole genus should be regarded among the suspected plants. We have two or three indige- nous species. The proper remedies, in cases of poisoning from these plants, are emetics, followed, after the stomach has been thoroughly evacuated, by demulcent drinks. (ENOTHERA BIENNIS. Tree Primrose. A biennial indigenous plant, growing in fields and along fences, from Canada to Carolina. It is from two to five feet high, with a rough stem, alternate, ovate-lanceolate leaves, and fine yellow flowers, which make their appearance in July and August. Schoepf states that it is esteemed useful as a vulnerary. Dr. R. E. Griffith, late of the University of Virginia, has found a strong de- coction of the small branches, with the leaves and cortical part of the stem and larger branches, very beneficial ip eruptive complaints, especially tetter. He applies the de- coction several times a day to the affected part. He thinks the virtues of the plant reside in the cortical part, which has a mucilaginous teste, and leaves a slight sensation of acrimony in the fauces. {Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., iv. 292.) OIL OF EUPHORBIA. A fixed oil, obtained from the seeds of the Euphorbia La- thyris, a .biennial plant growing wild in this country, though believed to have been intro- duced from Europe. It is often found near gardens and in cultivated fields, and is gene- rally called mole-plant, under the impression that moles avoid the grounds where it grows. {Pursh.) It is the Caper plant of England. {Loudon's Encyc. of Plants.) Like the other species of Euphorbia, it contains a milky juice, which is extremely acrid; and the whole plant possesses the properties of a drastic purge; but the oil of the seeds is the only part used in regular practice. This may be extracted by expression, or by the agency of alcohol or of ether. In the first case, the bruised seeds are pressed in a canvass or linen bag, and the oil which escapes is purified by decanting it from the whitish floc- culent matter which it deposits upon standing, and by subsequent filtration. By the latter process, the bruised seeds are digested in alcohol or macerated in ether, and the oil is obtained by filtering and evaporating the solution. According to Soubeiran, however, the oils obtained by these different processes are not identical. That procured by ex- pression is probably the purest. Oil of euphorbia is colourless, inodorous, and, when recent, nearly insipid; but it speedily becomes rancid, and acquires a dangerous acrimony. Soubeiran has acerteined that it has a complex composition, containing, besides the pure oil, four distinct proximate principles. {Journ. de Pharm., xxi. 259.) From 40 to 44 parts are obtained by expres- sion from 100 of the seed. This oil is a powerful purge, operating with much activity in a dose varying from five to ten drops. It was, some years since, much used by certain Italian and French physi- cians, who did not find it to produce inconvenient irritation of the stomach and bowels. Its -want of taste, and the smallness of the dose, recommended it especially in the cases of infants. It was said to be less acrid and irritating than the croton oil, over which it also had the advantage of greater cheapness. Some trials which have been made with it on this side of the Atlantic have not tended to confirm these favourable reports. It was found uncertain in its cathartic effect, and very liable to vomit. (Scattergood, Journ. of the Phil. Col. of Pharm., iv. 124.) It may be given in pill with the crumb of bread, or in emulsion. OIL OF JASMINE. This oil is obtained from the flowers of the Jasminum officinale or common white jasmine, and from those also of the /. Sambac and J. grandiflorum. Alter- nate layers of the fresh flowers, and of cotton saturated with the oil of ben (expressed oil of Hyperanthera Moringa), or perhaps other'fixed oil, are exposed in a covered vessel to the warmth of the sun; the flowers being occasionally renewed till the oil becomes im- pregnated with their odour, when it is separated from the cotton by pressure. This method is necessary, as the flowers do not yield their aroma by distillation. The oil of jasmine is used oniy as a perfume. ORANGE RED. Orange Mineral. Sandix. Red oxide of lead, prepared by cal- cining carbonate of lead. It is of a brighter colour than minium, and is used as a pigment. t OROBANCHE VIRGINIANA. Epifagus Americanus. Nuttall. Beech-drops. Cancer- root. This is a parasitic, fleshy plant, with a tuberous, scaly root, and a smooth stem, branched from the base, from twelve to eighteen inches high, furnished with small ovate scales, of a yellowish or purplish colour, and wholly destitute of verdure. It is found in 1282 Appendix. all parts of North America, growing upon the roots of the beech tree, from which it ob- tained its popular name. It is in some places very abundant. The plant has a bitter, nauseous, astringent taste, which is said to be diminished by drying. It has been given internally in bowel affections; but its credit depends mainly upon the idea that it is useful in obstinate ulcers of a cancerous character, to which it is directly applied in the state of powder. The late Professor Barton conjectured that it was an ingredient of a secret remedy, at one time famous as Martin's cancer powder, of which, however, the most active constituent was arsenious acid. Other species of Orobanche, growing in America and Europe, have been employed. They are all parasitic, fleshy plants, without verdure, and of a bitter, nauseous teste. In Europe they are called broom-rape. The O. Americana and 0. uniflora, of this country, are said to be used for the same purposes as the species above noticed, and like it are called cancer-root. ORPIMENT. King's Yellow. A native sulphuret of arsenic, consisting of one equiv. of metal 75-4 and three equiv. of sulphur 48-= 123-4. It is in masses of a brilliant lemon-yellow colour, composed of flexible laminae, and slightly translucent. It exists in various parts of the world, but is obtained for use from Persia and China. {Guibourt.) It is sometimes mixed with realgar, which gives it a reddish or orange hue. A similar sulphuret may be made artificially by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of arsenious acid in muriatic acid. There is reason to believe that neither the native sul- phuret, nor the artificial, when prepared in the manner just mentioned and well washed, is poisonous! at least in a degree at all comparable to other arsenical compounds. Artificial orpiment is prepared for use by fusing together equal parts of arsenious acid and sulphur. {Turner.) In Germany, according to Guibourt, it is prepared by subliming a mixture of these two substances. In this case, however, it retains a large portion of the acid undecomposed, and is therefore highly poisonous. Guibourt found a specimen which he examined to contain 96 per cent, of arsenious acid, and only 6 per cent, of the sulphuret of arsenic. Orpiment is an ingredient of certain depilatories. Atkinson's depilatory is said to consist of one part of orpiment and six parts of quicklime, with some flour and a yellow colouring matter. {Ann. der Pharm., xxxiii. 348.) But this arsenical sulphuret is chiefly used in fireworks, and as a pigment. ORYZA SATIVA. Rice. This is an annual plant, originally, perhaps, derived from the East Indies, but now cultivated in all parts of the globe where the climate and soil are adapted to its growth. The rice of commerce consists of the seeds of the plant de-- prived of their husk. Carolina rice was found by Braconnot to contain 85-07 per cent of starch, 3-60 of gluten, 0-71 of gum, 0-29 of uncrystallizable sugar, 0-13 of fixed oil, 4-80 of vegetable fibre, 500 of water, and 0-40 of saline substances. This grain is highly nutritious and of easy digestion, and constitutes the almost exclusive diet of whole na- tions. Being wholly free from laxative properties, it is admirably adapted to cases of weak bowels, in which there is a strong tendency to diarrhoea. Care, however, should be taken that it be boiled till it becomes soft. A decoction of rice, usually called rice- water, is a good nutritive drink in fevers, and inflammatory affections of the bowels, lungs, and kidneys. There appears to be no ground for the opinion, which has been entertained by some, that a diet of rice is injurious to the eyes. OXALIC ACID. Acidum Oxalicum. This acid is found both in animals and vege- tables. It is generated occasionally in consequence of a diseased action in the kidneys, and deposited in the bladder as oxalate of lime, forming a peculiar concretion, called from its appearance the mulberry calculus In vegetables, it occurs in a free state in the bristles of the chick-pea {Cicer arietinum), combined with potassa as a supersalt in the Rumex acetosa or common sorrel, and the Oxalis Acetosella or wood sorrel, and united with lime in several species of lichen, and in the roots of rhubarb, valerian, and several other plants. It is from the generic appellation Oxalis, that it takes its name. Preparation. The usual process for obtaining oxalic acid, consists in decomposing sugar by nitric acid. Four parts of sugar are acted upon by twenty-four parts of nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1-22, and the mixture heated so long as any nitric oxide is disengaged. A part of the carbon of the sugar is converted into carbonic acid, by oxygen derived from the nitric acid, which is thereby partially converted into nitric oxide. The undecomposed nitric acid, reacting on the remaining elements of the sugar, generates oxalic and saccharic (oxalhydric) acids; the former of which crystallizes as the materials cool, while the latter remains in solution. The crystals being removed, a fresh crop may be obtained by further evaporation. The thick mother-water which now remains is a mixture of saccharic, nitric, and oxalic acids; and, by treatment with six times its weight of nitric acid, the greater part of the saccharic acid will be converted into oxalic acid. The new crop of Appendix. . 1283 crystals, however will have a yellow colour, and contain a portion of nitric acid, the greater part of which may be got rid of by allowing them to effloresce in a warm place. Many substances, besides sugar, yield oxalic acid by the action of nitric acid; as for example molasses, potato starch, gum, wool, hair, silk, and many vegetable acids. In every case in which it is thus generated, the proportional excess of oxygen which it con- teins, compared with every other organic compound, is furnished by the nitric acid. Organic substances yield oxalic acid, also, when heated with potassa. Thus shavings of wood, if mixed with a solution of caustic potassa, and exposed to a heat considerably higher than 212°, will be partially decomposed and converted into oxalic acid, which then combines with the alkali. This process constitutes, perhaps, the cheapest method of obtaining oxalic acid. Properties. Oxalic acid is a colourless crystallized solid, possessing considerable vola- tility, and a strong, sour taste. Its crystals have the shape of slender, flattened, four or six-sided prisms, with two-sided summits; and, when exposed to a very dry atmosphere undergo a slight efflorescence. It dissolves in about nine times its weight of cold and in its own weight of boiling water. The solution of the crystals takes place with slight crepitation. It dissolves, also, but not to the same extent, in alcohol. The presence of nitric acid renders it more soluble in water. It combines with salifiable bases, and forms salts called oxalates. The most interesting of these are the three oxalates of potassa, severally called oxalate, binoxalate, and quadroxalate, and the oxalate of lime. The quadroxalate, sold under the name of binoxalate of potassa or salt of sorrel, sometimes absurdly called the essential salt of lemons, is employed for removing iron moulds from linen, and acts by its excess of acid, which forms a soluble salt with the sesquioxide of iron constituting the stain. Oxalic acid is used for removing ink stains and iron moulds, for cleaning the leather of boot-tops, and for discharging colours in calico-printing. This acid has a very strong affinity for lime, and forms with it an insoluble precipitate consisting of oxalate of lime, whenever the acid and earth are brought into contact. Hence, oxalic acid and its soluble combinations are the best tests we possess for lime; and, conversely, a soluble salt of lime for oxalic acid. When lime is searched for, the oxalate usually employed is the oxalate of ammonia, as being the most convenient. So strong is the mutual attraction between this acid and lime, that the former takes the latter even from sulphuric acid. Hence, the addition of a soluble oxalate disturbs the trans- parency of a solution of sulphate of lime. Oxalic acid is distinguished from all other acids by the form of its Crystals, ahd by its solution yielding a precipitate with lime-water, insoluble in an excess of the acid. Composition. Oxalic acid consists of two eqs. of carbon 12, and tiiree of oxygen 24=36. When crystallized, three eqs. of water 27 must be added, making the eq. of the crystals 63. Two eqs. of this water may be driven off by a regulated heat, by which the acid is made to effloresce, but the third cannot be expelled without destroying the acid itself. Accordingly, as in the case of nitric acid, we have no knowledge of anhy- drous oxalic acid in an uncombined state. From the constitution of oxalic acid, as above given, it is plain that this acid corresponds in composition to carbonic acid and carbonic oxide taken together, and is, therefore, inter- mediate, in the quantity of oxygen which it contains, between that acid and oxide. Not- withstanding that it contains less oxygen than carbonic acid, it is incomparably stronger as an acid, which circumstance may be accounted for by supposing some peculiarity in the mode in which its constituents are combined. The composition of the aoid not only corresponds with the united constituents of carbonic acid and oxide, but there is reason to believe that these two compounds are actually its proximate constituents; for, if treated with strong sulphuric acid, the whole of the water will be abstracted, and the elements of the dry oxalic acid are instantly resolved into equal volumes of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide. Oxalic acid combines with salifiable bases in two principal ways. Sometimes it drops its essential equivalent of water, which at other times it retains. Thus the oxalate of lead is a compound of the dry acid and the protoxide of lead ; while the oxalate of lime retains one equivalent of water. Medical and Toxicological Properties. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, oxalic acid, in small doses, largely diluted with water and sweetened to the taste, forms an agreeable, cooling beverage, which may be used in febrile diseases as a substitute for lemonade. M. Nardo recommends it as an antiphlogistic and anodyne in inflammation of the mucous membranes, given in the dose of a grain and a hah'dissolved in eight fluidounces of liquid. Notwithstanding the safety of its employment in medicinal doses, it is a viru- lent poison, producing death with great rapidity and certainty. Instances are on record of its proving fatal in ten minutes, and few survive the effects of a poisonous dose beyond an hour. As this acid is generally kept in the shops, and not a few instances are on 1284 Appendix. record of its fatal effects, when taken by design, or by mistake for Epsom salt, we shall feel ourselves justifiable in being somewhat full on its toxicological relations. Oxalic acid was first noticed as a poison by Mr. Royston, in 1814 ; since which time « has been principally investigated in this relation by Dr. A.T. Thomson, of London Dr Percy, of Lausanne, Dr. Coindet, of Geneva, and Dr. Christison, of Edinburgh. Since its properties of certainty and rapidity as a poison have been more generally known its employment for committing suicide has become more frequent. From the general resemblance which the crystallized oxalic acid bears to Epsom salt many fatal mistakes have occurred, since the acid has become so extensively an article of commerce, in consequence of its being sold for that saline purgative. Nothing how- ever, can be easier than to distinguish them; for upon testing a minute portion of the acid, which may be done with perfect safety, it will be'found strongly sour, whereas the salt in question is bitter. Unfortunately, however, in the instances of these fatal mistakes no suspicions being awakened, the solution is swallowed with haste, and the mischief is done before the victim is aware of his danger. Oxalic acid acts on the economy in two principal ways, according as its solution is concentrated or dilute. When concentrated, it causes exquisite pain, followed by violent efforts to vomit, then sudden dulness, languor, and great debility, and finally death with- out a struggle. When dilute, it acts in a totally different manner. Dissolved in twenty times its weight of water, it possesses no corrosive and hardly any irritatin- power and yet operates as a deadly poison, causing death by acting on the brain, spinal mar- row, and heart. This statement does not accord with the observations of Dr Letheby who asserts that this acid, whether in strong or weak solution, always exhibits a corrod' ing or softening power. The morbid appearances caused by oxalic acid are various. In a dissection reported SLiI LtJT^ * nC muco"slcoat of the throat and gullet had an appearance as if scalded, and that of the gullet could be easily scraped off. The inner part of the stomach was pultaceous m many points black, in others red, and that of the intestines, similarly but less violently affected. In another case recorded by the same author, the whole villous coat of the stomach was either softened or removed, as well as the inner membrane of tne oesophagus ; so that the muscular coat was exposed, and this coat exhibited a dark gangrenous appearance, being much thickened, and highly injected. The stomach usu- ally contains a dark fluid, resembling coffee-grounds, consisting chiefly of altered blood In a few cases after death by this acid, no morbid appearances have been discovered In the treatment of poisoning by oxalic acid, the remedial measures must be employed with great promptitude. If the antidotes are not at hand and vomiting is not free, emetics will be proper. The stomach pump would be useful, but no delay in the application of other remedies is admissible, in the expectation of its use. Dr. Christison object* to the use of warm water to promote vomiting, from a fear that it would increase the danger by promoting the absorption of the poison ; but it may be a question whether this evil considering the incidental benefit of the water in promoting vomiting, is not less than that of the corrosion of the stomach, which copious dilution has a tendency to prevent Ihe proper antidote is chalk or magnesia, mixed with water; and as soon as either can be procured it must be administered in large and frequently repeated doses. Chalk was first proposed for this purpose by Dr. A. T. Thomson, of London. These substances act by neutralizing the poison, forming with it an insoluble oxalate either of lime or mag- nesia, both of which are inert. The soluble salts of oxalic acid, as the oxalate of am- monia and the oxalates of potassa, are likewise poisonous, and the antidotes for them are the same as for the acid. The best tests for the detection of oxalic acid in the contents of the stomach or in the nE «f ™"er' m TS&S °f susPected Poisoning by this acid, are chloride of calcium, sul- mknowES ni^e "Of silver. The first causes a white precipitate of oxalate of oxaLe of conLf ?!* ^ m T^ add; the seC0nd' a bluish-white precipitate of Tf,f.COpP!r! andthe third, a dense white precipitate of oxalate of silver, which, been fS used d'urf' "T? ^ "* det°nateS ^^ When the antidoteS have" been freely used during hfe, the poison will be in the state of oxalate either of lime or magnesia. Here the oxalate found is to be boiled with a solution of carbonate of potest fi^^ssrwm be generated; and this —*•» be -™ vi?~GtLL' Fd Brnum- The bile of the ox is a viscid fluid, of a green or greenish- yellow colour a peculiar nauseous odour, and a bitter taste. The exact SK, » not yet settled. According to Berzelius, it contains, 1. bilin, 2. chol^rrMn,to which the bile owes its colour, 3. mucus, 4. extractive matters, 5. a peculiar fatty matter origin- ally found m biliary calculi, called cholesterin, 6. oleate margarate, and Ia"a fof S, Appendix. 1285 with a little fatty matter not saponified, 7. chloride of sodium, sulphate, phosphate, and lactate of soda, and phosphate of lime. Of these substances the most abundant and essential is bilin. This when pure is uncrystallizable, colourless, translucent, inodorous, of an acrid and bitter taste, with an after-taste of sweetness, inflammable, soluble in all proportions in water and anhydrous alcohol, insoluble in ether, neither alkaline nor acid, and composed partly of nitrogen. One of its most striking properties is the great facility with which it undergoes decomposition; and hence the numerous principles which dif- ferent chemists have found in bile, many of which are nothing more than metamor- phoses of bilin. Under the action of acids, it is changed into two resinous acids called respectively feUinic acid and cholinic acid, into taurin, and ammonia. The union of these two acids with a portion of bilin, constitutes the choleic acid of M. Demarcay. The colouring principle or cholepyrrhin is also readily changed, and gives rise to various new products, among which are biliverdin, a green colouring matter resulting from the absorp- tion of oxygen, and bilifulvin, a yellow colouring matter, which is a double salt of lime and soda with a peculiar azotized acid. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., iii. 177, from the Journ. fur praktische Chemie.) E. A. Platner has succeeded in separating the chief consti- tuent of bile in a crystalline form, and considers it a compound of soda with a peculiar organic body. Liebig denominates this compound bilate of soda ; but Platner prefers the name of choline-soda, as he does not think the acid properties of the organic body referred to sufficiently proved. {Chem. Gaz., May, 1845, from Muller's Archives, 1844, heft v.) Bile was formerly highly valued as a remedy in numerous complaints, and was con- sidered peculiarly applicable to cases attended with deficient biliary secretion. It is sup- posed to be tonic and laxative. It is prepared for use by evaporating it to the consist- ence of an extract. The dose is from five to ten grains. Refined ox-gall, much used by limners and painters, is prepared, according to Gray, in the following manner. Take of "fresh ox-gall one pint; boil, skim, add one ounce of alum, and keep it on the fire for some time; to another pint, add one ounce of common salt in the same manner; keep them bottled up for three months, then decant off the clear; mix them in an equal pro- portion; a thick yellow coagulum is immediately formed, leaving the refined gall clear and colourless." OXIDE OF SILVER. Argenti Oxidum. This oxide has been proposed as a substitute for nitrate of silver, as having the therapeutic action of the latter, without its escharotic effect, and its objectionable power of discolouring the skin. It is usually prepared by adding a solution of caustic potessa in excess to one of nitrate of silver. The precipitate thrown down is to be carefully washed and dried, and kept from the air and light. When thus obtained it is an olive-brown powder. It may also be obtained by the process of Gregory, namely, by boiling the moist, recently prepared chloride of silver with a very strong solution of caustic potessa (sp. gr. 1*25 to 1-30.) When thus prepared it is a very dense pure-black powder. Oxide of silver consists of one eq. of silver and one of 0XV26J1 Medical Properties. Oxide of silver was first employed in medicine by Van Mons and Sementini. More recently it has been recommended by Mr. C. H. B. Lane, who con- siders it to act as a sedative. Mr. Lane has used it with more or less success in nausea, cardialgia, pyrosis, various painful affections of the stomach independent of organic lesion, dysentery, diarrhoea, night sweats without other obvious affection, dysmenorrhoea, menor- rhagia, leucorrhoea, chronic enlargements of the uterus, attended with flooding, &c It appeared that the oxide exerted a peculiar control over uterine fluxes. Some of the cases treated required the use of tonics after the salutary influence of the oxide had been exerted Dr. Golding Bird has also obtained favourable effects from the use of the oxide of silver, and confirms to a certain extent the results of Mr. Lane, especially as to its valuable powers in menorrhagia. Thus far no case of cutaneous discoloration has occurred, though Mr. Lane has given the oxide repeatedly for two months, and Dr Bird in more than a hundred cases, in one for four months. Mr. Lane has observed one case in which repeated salivation occurred, and Dr. Bird, several in which the gums were affected. In stomach disease, characterized by a glairy d-scharge instead of a watery one, this physician derived not the slightest benefit from the oxide, though he used ft in thirty cases. In epilepsy it is supposed that the oxide will accomplish a 1 that can be expected from the nitrate, with less risk to the stomach, and without incur- ring the danger of blackening the skin. The dose of ox.de of silver is half a grain twice or thriL a day, given in pill. In no case did Mr. Lane carry the dose beyond S grains in the twenty four hours. It has been used in the form of ointment, composed o?i!om five to ten grains to the drachm of lard, as an application to venereal sores, and to the urethral membrane in gonorrhoea, smeared on a bougie. 109 1286 Appendix. PuEONIA OFFICINALIS. Peony. This well known plant is a native of Southern Europe, but is everywhere cultivated in gardens for the beauty of its flowers. The root, flowers, and seeds were formerly officinal. The root consists of a caudex about as thick as the thumb, which descends several inches into the ground, and sends off in all direc- tions spindle-shaped tubers, which gradually taper into thread-like fibres, by which they hang together. It has a strong, peculiar, disagreeable odour, and a nauseous taste, which is at first sweetish, and afterwards bitter and somewhat acrid. The odour disappears or is much diminished by drying. Peony-root was in very great repute among the ancients, who used it both as a charm and as a medicine in numerous complaints, par- ticularly epilepsy. In modern times it has also been given in epilepsy and various nervous affections, but is at present seldom used. The dose of the fresh root is from two drachms to an ounce, boiled in a pint of water down to half a pint, which should be taken daily. It is said to be less active when dried. The expressed juice of the recent root is recommended in the dose of an ounce. It is milky, of a strong odour, and very disagreeable taste. The flowers are usually of a deep-red colour, though in some varieties of a light-red, and even whitish. They have, when fresh, an odour similar to that of the root, but feebler, and an astringent, sweetish, herbaceous taste. When dry, they are inodorous. As a medicine they have little power, and are scarcely used. The seeds are roundish oval, about as large as a pea, externally smooth, shining, and nearly black, internally whitish, inodorous when dry, and of a mild, oleaginous teste. By some authors they are said to be emetic and purgative, and by others are considered antispasmodic. They may be given in the same dose with the root, but are not used in regular practice. PALM OIL. This highly valuable fixed oil is the product of the Elais Guiniensis, a palm growing on the Western coast of Africa, and cultivated in the West Indies and South America. It is among the handsomest trees of its graceful family which flourish in the tropical regions of Africa. The oil is obtained by expression from the fruit. It is brought to this country chiefly from Liberia, and other places on the African coast, though prepared also in the West Indies, Cayenne, and Brazil. It is not improbable that various species of palms contribute to the supply of this article of commerce. Palm oil has the consistence of butter, a rich, orange-yellow colour, a sweetish taste, and an agreeable odour, compared by some to that of violets, by others to that of the Florentine orris. By age and exposure it becomes rancid and of a whitish colour. It melts with the heat of the hand, and when perfectly fluid passes readily through blotting paper. Highly rectified alcohol dissolves it at common temperatures, and in ether it is soluble in all proportions. According to M. Henry, it consists of 31 parts of stearin and 69 of olein. But from the experiments of Fremy and Stenhousex it appears that the stearin has peculiar properties entitling it to be considered as a distinct principle, and it has accordingly received the name of palmitin. This is converted into palmitic acid by saponification. {Kane's Chemistry.) It appears also that a considerable proportion of this acid, together with some glycerin, exists uncombined in the oil, as ascertained by MM. Pelouze and Boudet; so that the changes which are effected in oils, through the agency of alkalies, in the process of saponification, take place, to a certain extent, spontaneously in palm oil. {Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 389.) Hence it is more easily sa- ponified than any other fixed oil. It is said to be frequently imitated by a mixture of lard and suet, coloured with turmeric, and scented with Florentine orris. It is much employed in the manufacture of a toilet soap, which retains its pleasant odour. Palm oil is emollient, and has sometimes been employed in friction or embrocation, though not superior for this purpose to many other oleaginous substances. PARIETARIA OFFICINALIS. Wall Pellitory. A perennial European herb, grow- ing on old walls and heaps of rubbish. It is inodorous, has an herbaceous, somewhat rough and saline taste, and contains nitre derived from the walls where it flourishes. It is diuretic and refrigerant, and is said also, but without good reason, to be demulcent and emollient. The ancients employed it in various complaints, and it is still considerably used on the continent of Europe, especially in domestic practice. It is given in com- plaints of the urinary passages, dropsy, and febrile affections, usually in the form of de- coction. The expressed juice is also used, and the fresh plant is applied in the shape of a cataplasm to painful tumours. PATENT YELLOW. Mineral Yellow. A pigment, consisting of chloride combined with protoxide of lead. It is prepared by mixing common salt and litharge with a suffi- cient quantity of water, allowing the mixture to stend for some time, then washing out the liberated soda, and exposing the white residue to heat. PAULLINIA. Guarana. This is a new medicine introduced into Europe from Brazil, which has attracted some attention from the asserted fact, that it contains a principle Appendix. 1287 identical with caffein. The name of paullinia has been bestowed upon it from the generic title of the plant from which it is obtained. That of guarana by which it was previously known, was derived from a tribe of aborigines, called Guaranis, who are said to use it extensively as a corrigent of their vegetable diet. It is prepared from the seeds of the Paullinia sorbilis of Martius, a climbing shrub, belonging to the class and order Octandria Trigynia of the Linnaean system, and the natural family of the Sapindacege. The seeds, which are contained in a three-celled, three-valved, coriaceous capsule, are lenticular and almost horny, and invested with a flesh-coloured arillus which is easily separable when dry. They are prepared by powdering them in a mortar, or upon a chocolate stone previously heated, mixing the powder with a little water, exposing it for some time to the dew, then kneading it into a paste, mixing with this some of the seeds either whole or merely bruised, and finally forming the mixture into cylindrical or globu- lar masses, which are dried and hardened in the sun or by the smoke of a fire. These masses are of a reddish-brown colour, rugose on the surface, very hard, and of a marbled appearance when broken. Paullinia is of a somewhat astringent and bitterish taste, and in this as well as in its odour, bears some resemblance to chocolate, though not oleagin- ous. It swells up and softens in water, which partially dissolves it. Martius found in it a crystallizable principle which he named guaranin, and which seems to have been proved by the researches of MM. Berthemot and Dechastelus to be identical with caffein. The discovery of caffein in three plants belonging to distinct natural families, namely, the coffee and tea plants, and the Paullinia, is a highly interesting result of recent chemi- cal investigations. It is said to be more abundant in the paullinia than in either of the other vegetables. According to Berthemot and Dechastelus, it exists in the seeds, united with tannic acid, with -which it appears to form two compounds, one crystallizable and soluble in water, the other of a resinoid appearance and insoluble. Besides these ingre- dients, the seeds contain also free tannic acid, gum, albumen, starch, and a greenish fixed oil. {Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 514.) The effocts of paullinia upon the system are said to be those of a tonic; but they do not appear to have been very accurately investigated. It is highly probable, both from its composition and the use made of it by the natives of Brazil, that it has an influence over the nervous system similar to that of tea and coffee. It is habitually employed by the Indians, either mixed with articles of diet, as with cassava or chocolate, or in the form of drink prepared by scraping it and suspending the powder in sweetened water, It is considered by them useful in the prevention and cure of bowel complaints. Dr. Gavrelle, who was formerly physician to Don Pedro, in Brazil, and there became ac- quainted with the virtues of this medicine, called the attention of the profession to it a few years since in France. He had found it advantageous in the diarrhoea of phthisis, sick-headache, paralysis, tedious convalescence, and generally as a tonic. It may be given in substance, in the quantity of one or two drachms, scraped into powder and mixed with sweetened water; but the most convenient form of administration is that of spirituous extract. According to M. Dechastelus, alcohol is the only agent which com- pletely extracts its virtues; ether and water effecting this object but partially. Of the extract eight or ten grains may be given during the day in the form of pills. Paullinia may also be taken along with chocolate as a drink. PHELLANDRIUM AQUATICUM. Linn. CEnanthe Phellandrium. Lamarck. Fine- leaved Water-hemlock. A biennial or perennial, umbelliferous, European water-plant, the fresh leaves of which are said to be injurious to cattle, producing a kind of paralysis when eaten. By drying, they lose their deleterious properties. The seeds have been used in Europe to a considerable extent, in the treatment of disease. They are from a line to a line and a half in length, ovate-oblong, narrow above, somewhat compressed, marked with ten delicate ribs, and crowned with the remains of the calyx, and with the erect or reverted styles. Their colour is yellowish-brown, their odour peculiar, strong, and disagreeable; their teste acrid and aromatic. Among their constituents is a volatile oil, upon which their aromatic flavour depends. By different writers they are described as aperient, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, and sedative. They probably unite mild narcotic properties with the stimulant powers which are common to most of the aromatics, and may be directed, according to circumstances, to different secretory organs. In over-doses they produce vertigo, intoxication, and other narcotic effects. The com- plaint in which they appear to have been used most successfully is consumption, pro- bably of the catarrhal character. They have been given also in asthma, dyspepsia, in- termittent fever, obstinate ulcers, &c. The dose of the seeds, to commence with, is five or six grains, so repeated as to amount to a drachm in twenty-four hours. They should be given in powder. PHLORIDZIN. This is a bitter principle, discovered by Dr. Konink, of Germany, in the bark of the apple, pear, cherry, and plum trees. It is most abundant in the bark of 1288 Appendix. the root, and derived its name from this circumstance. (From two Greek words, 4>Xoi{ bark, and |5-{* a root.) It is light, white, crystallizable in silky needles, of a bitter taste, soluble in about 1000 parts of cold and in all proportions in boiling water, very soluble in alcohol, scarcely soluble in ether cold or hot, dissolved without change by solutions of the alkalies, especially by ammonia, deprived of its water of crystallization at 212°, and fusible at a somewhat higher temperature. It is without acid or alkaline reaction, and consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. To obtain it, the fresh bark of the root of the apple tree should be selected, as the dried bark is said to contain it in much smaller proportion. The bark is to be boiled for an hour or two successively in two separate portions of water, each sufficient to cover it, and the decoctions set aside. At the end of thirty hours they will have deposited a considerable quantity of coloured phloridzin, Which may be purified by boiling for a few minutes with distilled water and animal •< charcoal, filtering, repeating this process two or three times, and then allowing the solu- tion to cool slowly. The phloridzin is deposited in the crystalline state. An additional quantity may be obtained by evaporating the decoction to one-fifth of its bulk, allowing it to cool, and purifying the substance deposited in the same manner as before. Phloridzin is said to possess the anti-intermittent property in a high degree, and to have proved successful where quinia had failed. It was employed by Dr. Konink in the dose of ten or fifteen grains, and in this quantity effected cures in several cases of inter- mittent fever. PHOSPHATE OF AMMONIA. Ammonia Phosphas. There are several phosphates of ammonia; but the one here described is generally called the neutral phosphate, and consists of one eq. of phosphoric acid, two of oxide of ammonium, and one of basic water (2NH4O,HO+P03). It may be made by saturating a somewhat concentrated solution of phosphoric acid with ammonia, applying heat, and setting the solution aside that crystals may form. (See Acidum Phosphoricum Dilutum.) Another method of forming it is to saturate the excess of acid in superphosphate of lime by means of carbonate of ammonia. Phosphate of lime is precipitated, and phosphate of ammonia obtained in solution, which, being duly concentrated by a gentle heat, affords the salt in crystals upon cooling. (See the paper of Mr. Charles Ellis on the mode of procuring this salt, Am. Journ. of Pharm., xviii. 10.) The method of obtaining the superphosphate of lime is given at page 1130. Phosphate of ammonia is a white salt, crystallizing in rhombic prisms with dihedral summits, very soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. Exposed to the air it effloresces, loses ammonia, and becomes acid. This salt was first brought under the notice of the profession, as a remedy for gout and rheumatism, by Dr. T. H. Buckler, of Baltimore, in a paper published in the Am. Journal of the Med. Sciences, for Jan. 1846. In this paper a number of cases are reported of these diseases, -which were treated mainly by this remedy by Dr. Buckler and several of his medical friends, and with apparently good effects. Dr. Buckler was led to employ the salt on theoretical grounds. He conceives that the "matter of gout" consists of two salts, the urates of soda and lime, existing in the blood; and that the phosphate of am- monia, by reacting with them, would give rise to soluble salts. The new salts formed, if the double decomposition should take place, would be urate of ammonia, and the phos- phates of soda and lime. Unfortunately for this theory, as furnishing the means of eliminating uric acid, urate of ammonia is not more soluble than urate of soda. Never- theless, apart from all theory, the therapeutic powers of phosphate of ammonia deserve to be investigated; and the thanks of the profession are due to Dr. Buckler, for having brought it forward as a remedy. The dose of the salt is from ten to forty grains, three or four times a day, dissolved in a tablespoonful of water. PHYSALIS ALKEKENGI. Common Winter Cherry. A perennial herbaceous plant, growing wild in the South of Europe, and cultivated in our gardens. The fruit is a round red berry, about as large as a cherry, enclosed in the calyx, and containing nume- rous flat kidney-shaped seeds. The berries are very juicy, and have an acidulous, bit- terish teste. The calyx is very bitter. By drying they shrink, and become of a brownish- red colour. They are said to be aperient and diuretic, and have been recommended in suppression of urine, gravel, and other complaints of the urinary passages. From six to twelve berries, or an ounce of the expressed juice, may be taken for a dose; and much larger quantities are not injurious. They are consumed to a considerable extent m some parts of Europe as food. The berries of the Physalis viscosa, of this country, are said by Clayton to be remarkably diuretic. PICHURIM BEANS. The seeds of an uncertain tree, growing in Brazil, Guiana, Venezuela, and other parts of South America. The tree has been supposed to be the Ocotea Pichurim of Kunth {Laurus Pichurim, Richard, Aydendron Laurel. Nees); but this is positively denied by F. Nees von Esenbeck; and the brother of that botanist refers the seeds to the Nectandra Puchury. The beans are the kernels of the fruit separated Appendix. 1289 into halves. They are ovate-oblong or elliptical, flat on one side, convex on the other, ol a grayish-brown colour externally, chocolate coloured within, of an aromatic odour between that of nutmegs and sassafras, and of a spicy pungent taste. There are two kinds one about an inch and a half long by half an inch in breadth, the other little more than half as large, rounder, and of a dark-brown colour. Their virtues depend on a vola- tile oil. In medical properties they resemble the common aromatics, and may be em- ployed for the same purposes. They are rare in this country. PIMPINELLA SAXIFRAGA. Small Burnet Saxifrage. Saxifraga. A perennial umbelliferous European plant, growing on sunny hills, and in dry meadows and pastures. The root is officinal in some parts of Europe. It has a strong, aromatic, yet unpleasant odour, and a sweetish, pungent, biting, aromatic, bitterish teste. Its active constituents are volatile oil, and an acrid resin. It is considered diaphoretic, diuretic, and stomachic; and has been used in chronic catarrh, asthma, dropsy, amenorrhcea, &c. The dose in sub- stance is about half a drachm, and in infusion two drachms. The root is used also as a masticatory in toothache, as a gargle in palsy of the tongue and in collections of viscid mucus in the throat, and externally to remove freckles. PINCKNEYA PUBENS. Michaux. A large shrub or small tree, growing in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, in low and moist places along the sea coast. It is closely allied, in botanical characters, to the Cinchonas, with which it was formerly ranked by some botanists. The bark is bitter, and has been used with advantage in intermittent fever. Dr. Law, of Georgia, cured six out of seven cases in which he administered it. The dose and mode of preparation are the same with those of cinchona. The chemical composition and medical properties of this bark deserve a fuller investigation than they have yet received. PLANT AGO MAJOR. Plantain. A well known perennial herb, growing in fields, by the roadsides, and in grass plats, and abounding both in Europe and in this country. The leaves are saline, bitterish, and austere to the taste, the root saline and sweetish. The plant has been considered refrigerant, diuretic, deobstruent, and somewhat astringent. The ancients esteemed it highly, and employed it in visceral obstructions, hemorrhages, particularly from the lungs, consumption, dysentery, and other complaints. In modern times it has been applied to similar purposes, arid the root is said to have proved useful in intermittents. At present, however, it is generally believed to be very feeble, and is little used internally. As an external application it has been recommended in ulcers of various kinds, and in indolent scrofulous tumours. Among the vulgar it is still much used as a vulnerary, and as a dressing for blisters and spres. The dose of the expressed juice is from one to four fluidounces. Two ounces of the fresh root or leaves may be boiled in a pint of water and given during the day. Externally the leaves are applied whole or in decoction. The Plantago media, and the P. lancifolia or rib-grass, which are also indigenous, possess properties similar to those of the P. major, and may be used for the same purposes. Under the name of semen psyllii, the seeds of several species of Plantago, growing in different parts of Europe, are sometimes kept in the shops. The best are obtained from the Plantago Psyllium or fleawort, which grows in the South of Europe and Barbary. They are small, about a line long by half a line in breath, convex on one side, concave on the other, flea-coloured, shining, inodorous, and nearly tasteless, but very mucilaginous when chewed. They are demulcent and emollient, and may be used internally and externally in the same manner as flaxseed, which they closely resemble in medical properties. PLATINUM. In 1826 Prof. Gmelin, of Tubingen, made experiments to determine the action of this metal on the economy. Within a few years Dr. Ferdinand Hoefer has investigated the same subject. The latter experimented chiefly with the bichloride, and the double chloride of platinum and sodium. They are both poisonous; the bichloride in the dose of 15 grains, the double chloride in that of 30 grains. When a concentrated solution of the bichloride is applied to the skin, it produces violent itching, followed by an eruption. Administered internally it irritates the mucous membrane of the stomach, and occasions headache. The double chloride has no action when externally applied, and when given internally, operates on the system in a less sensible manner than the bichloride. It possesses the power of augmenting the urine. Dr. Hoefer ranks the pre- parations of platinum with the alteratives, by the side of those of gold, iodine, and arsenic. He considers them particularly suited to the treatment of syphilitic diseases; the bi- chloride to cases of long standing and inveterate, the double chloride to those which are recent. The dose of the bichloride is from one to two grains twice a day, given in pill. Eight grains may be made into sixteen pills, with a drachm of the extract of guaiacum wood of the French Codex, and sufficient powdered liquorice root. Of these one, two, or 109* 1290 Appendix. three may be taken morning and evening. The double chloride may be prepared for administration by dissolving five grains of the bichloride and eight of pure chloride of sodium in seven fluidounces of gum-water. This quantity may be taken by tablespoonfuls in the course of twenty-four hours. Dr. Hoefer used for frictions on indolent ulcers, an ointment composed of sixteen grains of the bichloride, thirty-two grains of extract of belladonna, and an ounce of lard. {Journ. de Pharm., xxvii. 213.) PLUMBAGO EUROPOZA Leadwort. Dentellaria. A perennial, herbaceous plant, growing in the South of Europe. It has an acrid taste, and, when chewed, excites a flow of saliva. This is particularly the case with the root, which has been long used to relieve toothache. Hence the plant derived the name of dentelaire, by which it is known in France. A decoction of the root in olive oil has been highly recommended for the cure of the itch. Writers differ much in their statements in relation to the activity of the plant, some speaking of it as rubefacient, vesicatory, and caustic, and, when swallowed, as violently emetic and liable to produce dangerous irritation of the alimentary canal; while others consider it nearly inert. Perhaps the difference may be ascribed in part to the use of the plant in the recent state in one case, and dried or long kept in the other. A crystallizable, acrid principle, called plumbagin, has been extracted from the root by Dulong. POLYPODIUM VULGARE. Common Polypody. A fern belonging both to the old and new continents, and growing in the clefts of old walls, rocks, and decayed trunks of trees. The root, which is the part considered medicinal, is rather long, about as thick as a goose- quill, somewhat contorted, covered with brown, easily separable scales, furnished with slender radicles, and marked by numerous small tubercles. As found in the shops, it is sometimes destitute of the scales and radicles. Its colour is reddish-brown with a tinge of yellow, its odour disagreeably oleaginous, its taste peculiar, sweetish, somewhat bitter, and nauseous. The root of the variety growing upon the oak has been preferred, though without good reason. It was deemed purgative by the ancients, who employed it for the evacuation of bile and pituitous humours, in melancholic and maniacal cases. Modern physicians have used it in similar complaints, and as a pectoral in chronic catarrh and asthma. At present, however, it is scarcely ever employed, being considered nearly inert. It was given in doses varying from a drachm to an ounce, usually in connexion with cathartics. POPULUS. Poplar. Several trees belonging to this genus have attracted some atten- tion in a medical point of view. In most of them, the leaf buds are covered with a resinous exudation, which has a peculiar, agreeable, balsamic odour, and a bitterish, bal- samic, somewhat pungent taste. This is abundant in the buds of the Popidus nigra or black poplar of Europe, which are officinal in some parts of that continent. They con- tain resin and a peculiar volatile oil. The buds of the P. balsamifera, growing in the northern parts of N. America and in Siberia, are also highly balsamic; and a resin is said to be furnished by the tree, which is sometimes, though erroneously, called tacamahac. The virtues of the poplar buds are probably analogous to those of the turpentines and balsams. They have been used in pectoral, nephritic, and rheumatic complaints, in the form of tincture; and a liniment, made by macerating them in oil, has been applied externally in local rheumatism. The unguentum populeum of European pharmacy is made, according to the directions of the French Codex of 1837, by bruising in a marble mortar, and boiling in 2000 parts of lard, with a gentle fire, till the moisture is dissipated, 250 parts, each, of the fresh leaves of the black poppy, deadly nightshade, henbane, and black nightshade; then adding of the dried buds of the black poplar, bruised, 375 parts; digesting for 24 hours; straining with strong expression; and finally allowing the oint- ment to cool after defecation. This is an anodyne ointment, occasionally employed in Europe in painful local affections. The bark of some species of poplar is possessed of tonic properties, and has been used in intermittent fever with advantage. Such is the case with that of the P. tre- muloides or American aspen, and of the P. tremula or European aspen. In the bark of the latter, Braconnot found salicin, and another crystallizable principle which he named populin. It is in these, probably, that the febrifuge properties of the bark reside. They may be obtained by precipitating a saturated decoction of the bark with solution of sub- acetate of lead, filtering, precipitating the excess of lead by sulphuric acid, again filtering, evaporating, adding animal charcoal towards the end of the evaporation, and filtering the liquor while hot. Salicin gradually separates, upon the cooling of the liquor, in the form of crystals. If, when this principle has ceased to crystallize, the excess of sulphuric acid in the liquid be saturated by a concentrated solution of carbonate of potassa, the populin will be precipitated. If this be pressed between folds of blotting paper, and redissolved in boiling water, it will be deposited, upon the cooling of the liquid, in the crystalline state. The leaves of the P. tremula also afford populin, and more largely even than the Appendix. 1291 bark. It is probable that both principles exist also in the bark of the P. tremuioides, and other species. Salicin is described under Salix. Populin is very light, purely white, and 01 a bitter, sweetish taste, analogous to that of liquorice. When heated it melts into a colourless and transparent liquid. It is soluble in 2000 parts of cold, and about 70 parts of boiling water; and is more soluble in boiling alcohol. Acetic acid and the diluted mineral acids dissolve it, and, upon the addition of an alkali, let it fall unchanged. PORTULACA OLERACEA. Garden Purslane. An. annual succulent plant, growing in gardens and cultivated grounds in the United States, Europe, and most other parts of the globe. It has an herbaceous, slightly saline taste, and is often used as greens, being boiled with meat, or other vegetables. It is considered a cooling diuretic, and is recom- mended in scurvy, and affections of the urinary passages. The seeds have been thought to be anthelmintic; but they are tasteless and inert. POTENTILLA REPTANS. Cinquefoil. A perennial, creeping, European herb, with leaves which are usually quinate, and have thus given origin to the ordinary name of the plant. The root has a bitterish, styptic, slightly sweetish taste, and was formerly used in diarrhoea and Other complaints for which astringents are usually prescribed. PRUNELLA VULGARIS. Self-heal. Heal-all. A small perennial labiate plant, common both in Europe and the United States, growing especially by the way-sides. It is inodorous, but has an austere bitterish taste. The herb in flower was formerly used, in the state of infusion or decoction, in hemorrhages and diarrhoea, and as a gargle in sorethroat. In this country, it is not employed in regular practice. PULMONARIA OFFICINALIS. Lungwort. An herbaceous perennial, indigenous in Europe, and sometimes cultivated in this country in gardens. The leaves are inodorous, and have an herbaceous, somewhat mucilaginous, and feebly astringent taste. They have been considered pectoral and demulcent, and employed in catarrh, haemoptysis, consumption, and other affections of the chest; but their virtues are doubtful, and they were probably used in pectoral complaints as much on account of the supposed resem- blance of their speckled surface to that of the lungs, as from the possession of any posi- tively useful properties. PUMICE STONE. Pumex. A very light porous stone, found in the vicinity of active or extinct volcanoes, and believed to have been thrown up during their eruption. The pumice stone of commerce is said to be obtained chiefly from Lipari. It is used whole, in the manner of a file, for removing the outer surface of bodies, or for rubbing down inequalities, and, in the state of powder, for polishing glass, metals, stones, &o, purposes to which it is adapted by the hardness of its particles. PYRETHRUM PARTHENIUM. Willd. Matricaria Parthenium. Linn. Chrysan- themum Parthenium. Persoon. Feverfew. A perennial herbaceous plant, about two feet high, with an erect, branching stem, pinnate leaves, oblong, obtuse, gashed, and dentate leaflets, and compound flowers borne in a corymb upon branching peduncles. It is a native of Europe, but cultivated in our gardens. The whole herbaceous part is used. The plant has an odour and taste analogous to those of chamomile, which it resembles also in the appearance of its flowers, and in its medical properties. Though little em- ployed, it is undoubtedly possessed of useful tonic properties. PYROACETIC SPIRIT. Pyroacetic Ether. Acetone. Erroneously called Naphtha and Wood-naphtha. This substance may be obtained by carefully distilling acetate of lime, and rectifying the product by repeated distillations from quicklime in a water bath, until its boiling point becomes constant, whereby it is freed from water and empyreumatic oil. It is a colourless, volatile, inflammable liquid, having a peculiar penetrating smell, and a pungent taste like that of peppermint. Its sp. gr. is 0-7922 and boiling point 132°. As found in the shops, its density is generally not lower than 0-820. It is miscible with water, ether, and alcohol in all proportions. It should not become turbid when mixed with water. When water produces this effect, it has not been freed from empyreumatic oil Its formula is C3H30. Pyroacetic spirit has been recommended by Dr. John Hast- ings as a remedy in pulmonary consumption; but it has no control whatever over that disease Recently, he has employed it, with great asserted success, in gout, and in acute and chronic rheumatism. As a substance possessing activity it deserves investigation by the profession. The dose is from ten to forty drops, three times a day, sufficiently diluted with water. REALGAR. This is the bisulphuret of arsenic, consisting of one eq. of arsenic 75-4 and two of sulphur 32-=*= 107-4. It is found native in Saxony, Bohemia, Transyl- vania and in various volcanic regions. Realgar is artificially made by melting arsenious acid with about half its weight of sulphur. {Turner.) Thus prepared, it is of a crystal- line texture, of a beautiful ruby-red colour, of a uniform conchoidal fracture, somewhat 1292 Appendix. transparent in thin layers, and capable of being sublimed without change. Native realgar is said to be innocent when taken internally, while that artificially prepared is poisonous, in consequence, according to Guibourt, of containing a little arsenious acid. Realgar is used only as a pigment. RED CHALK. Reddle. A mineral substance of a deep-red colour, of a compact tex- ture, dry to the touch, adhering to the tongue, about as hard as chalk, soiling the fingers when handled, and leaving a lively red trace when drawn over paper. It consists of clay and oxide of iron, and is intermediate between bole and red ochre, containing more oxide of iron than the former, and less than the latter. It is used for drawing fines upon wood, &c, and is sometimes made into crayons by levigating and elutriating it, then form- ing it into a paste with mucilage of gum Arabic, moulding this into cylinders, and drying it in the shade. It has been used internally as an absorbent and astringent. RESEDA LUTEOLA. Weld. Dyers' Weed. An annual European plant, naturalized in the United States. It is inodorous, and has a bitter taste, which is very adhesive. Chevereul obtained from it by sublimation a peculiar yellow colouring matter, which he called luteolin. In medicine it has been employed as a diaphoretic and diuretic, but is now neglected. On the continent of Europe it is much employed for dyeing yellow, and, before the introduction of quercitron into England, was extensively apphed to the same purpose in that country. The whole plant is used. RHODODENDRUM CRYSANTHUM. Yellow-flowered Rhododendron. This is a beau- tiful evergreen shrub, about a foot high, with spreading branches, and oblong, obtuse, thick leaves, narrowed towards their footstalks, refiexed at the margin, much veined, rugged and deep-green upon their upper surface, ferruginous or glaucous beneath, and surround- ing the branches upon strong petioles. The flowers are large, yellow, on long peduncles, and in terminal umbels. The corolla is wheel-shaped, with its border divided into five roundish, spreading segments. The plant is a native of Siberia, delighting in mountainous situations, and flowering in June and July. The leaves are the part used. When fresh, they have a feeble odour, said to resemble that of rhubarb. In the dried state they are inodorous, but have an austere, astringent, bitterish taste. They yield their virtues to water and alcohol. They are stimulant, narcotic, and diaphoretic, producing, when first taken, increase of heat and arterial action, subsequently a diminished frequency of the pulse, and, in large doses, vomiting, purging, and delirium. They have been long employed in Siberia as a remedy in rheumatism, and their use has extended to various parts of Europe. Their action is said to be accompanied with a sensation of creeping or pricking in the affected part, which subsides in a few hours, leaving the part free from pain. They have been recommended also in gout, lues venerea, and palsy. In Siberia they are prepared by infusing two drachms of the dried leaves in about ten ounces of water, in a close vessel, and keeping the liquid near the boiling point during the night. The strained liquor is taken in the morning; and a repetition of the dose three or four days successively gene- rally effects a cure. The remedy is not used in this country. RIGA BALSAM. Balsamum Carpaticum. Balsamum Libani. This is a product of the Pinus Cembra, a large tree growing in the mountainous regions and northern latitudes of Europe and Asia. The juice exudes from the extremities of the young twigs, and is collected in flasks suspended from them. It is a thin white fluid, having an odour analogous to that of juniper, and possessing the ordinary terebinthinate properties. In this country it is very rare; but it is occasionally brought from Riga or Cronstadt in bottles. A similar product, called Hungarian Balsam, is obtained in the same manner from the Pinus Pumilw, growing on the mountains of Switzerland, Austria, and Hungary. It is scarcely known in the United States. ROTTEN STONE. Terra Cariosa. An earthy mineral, occurring in light, dull, friable masses, dry to the touch, of a very fine grain, and of an ash-brown colour. It is obtained from Derbyshire in England, and is used for polishing metals. SALEP. Though not directed by any of the British Colleges, nor by our national Pharmacopoeia, this substance deserves a slight notice, as it is frequently mentioned by writers on the materia medica, and is occasionally to be found in the shops. The name is given to the prepared bulbs of the Orchis mascula and other species of the same genus. The male orchis is a native of Europe, the Levant, and northern Africa. Its bulbs, which are two in number, oval or roundish, internally white and spongy, are prepared by re- moving their epidermis, plunging them into boiling water, then stringing them together, and drying them in the sun or by the fire. By this process they acquire the appearance and consistence which distinguish them as found in the shops. They were formerly procured exclusively from Asia Minor and Persia, but are now prepared in France, and perhaps other parts of Europe. Appendix. 1293 Salep is in small, oval, irregular masses, hard, horny, semi-transparent, of a yellowish colour, a feeble odour, and a mild mucilaginous taste. It is sometimes kept in the state of powder. In composition and relation to water it is closely analogous to tragacanth, consisting of a substance insoluble, but swelling up in cold water {bassorin), of another in much smaller proportion, soluble in cold water, and of minute quantities of saline mat- ters, it also occasionally contains a little starch. It is highly nutritive, and may be em- ployed for the same purposes with tapioca, sago, &c. The reputation which it enjoyed among the ancients, and still enjoys in the East, of possessing aphrodisiac properties, is wholly without foundation. SANDARACH. Sandaraca. This is a resinous substance obtained from the Thuya artwulata, an evergreen tree growing in the North of Africa. It is in small irregular, roundish oblong grains or tears, of a pale-yellow colour, sometimes inclining to brown, more or less transparent, dry and brittle, breaking into a powder under the teeth, of a faint agreeable odour increased by warmth, and of a resinous slightly acrid teste. It melts with heat, diffusing a strong balsamic odour, and easily inflames. It is almost entirely soluble in ordinary alcohol, and entirely so in that liquid when anhydrous, and in ether. Heated oil of turpentine also dissolves the greater part of it, but very slowly. According to Unverdorben, it consists of three different resins, varying in their relations to alcohol, ether, and the oil of turpentine. The sandaracin of Geise, which remains after sandarach has been exposed to the action of ordinary alcohol, is a mixture of two of these resins. Sandarach was formerly given internally as a medicine, and enters into the composition of various ointments and plasters. At present it is used chiefly as a varnish. It is sometimes employed as incense, and its powder is rubbed upon paper in order to prevent ink from spreading, after letters have been scratched out. SANICULA MARILANDICA. Sanicle. An indigenous, umbelliferous, perennial, herbaceous plant, two or three feet in height, growing in woods and thickets, in almost all parts of the United States, as far south as S. Carolina. For its botanical character see Eaton's Botany, and Torrey and Gray's N. Am. Flora, vol. i., p. 601. The root is the part used, and is popularly known in some parts of the country by the name of black snakeroot. It is fibrous, of an aromatic taste, and has been used as a domestic remedy in intermittent fever. Dr. J. B. Zabriskii has found it highly effectual in chorea. He considers it most efficient in substance, and gives the powder to children of eight or ten years old in the dose of half a drachm three times a day. {Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., N. S., xii. 374.) SAPONARIA OFFICINALIS. Soapwort. A perennial herbaceous plant, growing wild in this country, in the vicinity of cultivation, but ptobably introduced from Europe. It is commonly known by the vulgar name of bouncing bet. It is one or two feet high, with smooth lanceolate leaves, and clusters of conspicuous whitish or slightly purplish flowers, which appear in July and August. The root and leaves are employed. They are inodorous, and of a taste at first bitterish and slightly sweetish, afterwards somewhat pungent, continuing long, and leaving a slight sense of numbness on the tongue. They impart to water the property of forming a lather when agiteted, like a solution of soap, whence the name of the plant was derived. This property, as well as the medical virtues of the plant, resides in a peculiar extractive matter, obtained from the root by Bucholz, and called by him saponin. This principle constitutes, according to Buc- holz, 34 per cent, of the dried root, which contains also a considerable quantity of gum and a little bassorin, resin, and altered extractive, besides lignin and water. Saponin is obtained, though not absolutely pure, by treating the watery extract with alcohol and evaporating. It is brown, somewhat translucent, hard and brittle, with a sweetish taste, followed by a sense of acrimony in the fauces. It is soluble in water and officinal alco- hol, but is insoluble in anhydrous alcohol, ether, and the volatile oils. Its watery solu- tion froths when agitated. Soapwort has been much used in Germany as a remedy in venereal and scrofulous affections, cutaneous eruptions, and visceral obstructions. It appears to act as an alterative, like sarsaparilla, to which it has been deemed superior in efficacy by some physicians. The plant is given in the form of decoction and extract, which may be freely taken. From two to four pints of the decoction daily are recom- mended in lues. The inspissated juice, given in the quantity of half an ounce in the course of a day, is said by Andry generally to cure gonorrhoea in about two weeks, with- out any other remedy. According to Dr. Bonnet and M. Malapert, this and other plants containing saponin are capable of producing poisonous effects. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., x. 339.) SARCOCOLLA. A peculiar vegetable product, exuding spontaneously from the Penaa Sarcocolla, P. mucronata, and other species of Penaa, small shrubs growing at the Cape of Good Hope, in Ethiopia, Arabia, &c. It is in the form of small, roundish, irregular grains sometimes agglutinated in masses, friable, opaque or semi-transparent, of a yel- 1294 Appendix. lowish or brownish-red colour, inodorous unless heated, when they have an agreeable smell, and of a peculiar, bitter, sweetish, and acrid tester Sarcocolla, according to Pelle- tier, consists of 65-3 per cent, of a peculiar substance, considered by Dr. Thomson, as holding an intermediate place between gum and sugar, and called sarcocollin or pure sarcocolla, 4-6 of gum, 3-3 of a gelatinous matter having some analogy with bassorin, and 26*8 of lignin, &c. It is said to be purgative, but at the same time to produce serious inconvenience by its acrid properties. The Arabian physicians used it internally, and by the'ancients it was employed as an external application to wounds and ulcers, under the idea that it possessed the property of agglutinating the flesh, whence its name was derived. It is at present out of use. . SASSA GUM/ This name has been applied by Guibourt to a gum, occasionally brought into market from jthe East, and answering so exactly to Bruce's description of the product of a tree which he calls sassa, that there is reason to believe in their identity. According to Guibourt's description, it is in mammillary masses, or in convoluted pieces resembling an ammonite, of a reddish colour, and somewhat shining surface, and more transparent than tragacanth. Its taste is like that of tragacanth, but slightly acrid. When introduced into water, it becomes white, softens, and swells to four or five times its original bulk; but it preserves its shape, neither like tragacanth forming a mucilage, nor like Bassora gum separating into distinct flocculi. It is rendered blue by iodine. SATUREJA HORTENSIS. Summer Savory. An annual labiate plant, growing spontaneously in the South of Europe and cultivated in gardens as a culinary herb. It has an aromatic odour and teste, analogous to those of thyme, and was formerly used as a. gentle camiinative stimulant; but is now employed only to give flavour to food. The S. montana or winter savory, which is also cultivated in gardens, has similar properties, and is similarly employed. . ■ ■ ■ SCOLOPENDRIUM OFFICINARUM. Smith Asplenium Scolopendrium. Linn. Harts- tongue. A fern indigenous in Europe and America. Its vulgar name was derived from the shape of its leaves, which were the part formerly used in medicine. They have a sweetish, mucilaginous, and slightly astringent taste, and, when rubbed, a disagreeable oily odour. They were used as a deobstruent in visceral affections, as an astringent in hemorrhages and fluxes, and as a demulcent in pectoral complaints; but their properties are feeble, and they have fallen into neglect. SCUTELLARIA LATERIFLORA Scullcap. This is an indigenous perennial herb, belonging to the Linnaean class and order Didynamia Gymrwspermia, and to the natural order Labiata. Its stem is erect, much branched, quadrangular, smooth, and one or two feet high. The leaves are ovate, acute, dentate, subcordate upon the stem, opposite, and supported upon long petioles. The flowers are small, of a pale-blue colour, and disposed in long, lateral, leafy racemes. The calyx has an entire margin, which, after the corolla has fallen, is closed with a helmet-shaped lid. The tube of the corolla is elongated, the upper lip concave and entire, the lower three lobed. The plant grows in moist places, by the sides of ditches and ponds, in all parts of the Union. To the senses it does not indicate, by any peculiar taste or smell, the possession of medicinal virtues. It is even destitute of the aromatic properties which are found in many of the labiate plants. When taken internally, it produces no obvious effects. Notwithstanding this apparent inertness, it obtained, at one period, extraordinary credit throughout the United States, as a preven- tive of hydrophobia, and was even thought to be useful in the disease itself. A strong infusion of the plant was given in the dose of a teacupful, repeated several times a day, and continued for three or four months after the bite was received; while the herb itself was applied to the wound. Strong testimony has been adduced in favour of its prophy- lactic powers; but it has already shared the fate, which in this case is no doubt deserved, of numerous other specifics against hydrophobia, which have been brought into temporary popularity only to be speedily abandoned. The Scutellaria galericulata, or common Eu- ropean scullcap, which also grows wild in this country, has a feeble, somewhat alliaceous odour, and a bitterish teste. It has been employed in intermittents, and externally in old ulcers, but is now out of use. Another indigenous species—the S. integrifolia, of which the & hyssopifolia, Linn., is considered by some as a variety, is intensely bitter, and might probably be found useful as a tonic. SECALE CEREALE. Rye. Syria, Armenia, and the southern provinces of Russia have been severally indicated as the native country of rye. The plant is now cultivated in all temperate latitudes. The grains consist, according to Einhof, of 24-2 per cent, of envelope, 65-6 of flour, and 10-2 of water. The flour, according to the same chemist, consists of 61*07 per cent, of starch, 9-48 of gluten, 3*28 of albumen, 3-28 of uncrystalliz- able 6ugar, 11-09 of gum, 638 of vegetable fibre, besides 562 of loss, comprising an acid, the nature of which was not determined. Rye flour is much used, in the dry state, as an Appendix. 1295 external application to erysipelatous inflammation, and other eruptive affections, the burning and unpleasant tingling" of which it tends to allay, while it absorbs the irritating secretions. In the form of mush it is an excellent laxative article of diet; and, mixed with molasses, it may be given with great advantage in hemorrhoids and prolapsus ani, connected with constipation. SEDUM ACRE. Biting Stone-crop. Small Houseleek. A small, perennial, succulent European plant, growing on rocks and old walls, with stems about as long as thc.fihger, and numerous very minute leaves. It is inodorous, and has a teste at first cooling and herbaceous, afterwards burning and durably acrid. Taken internally it vomits and purges, and, applied to the skin, produces inflammation and vesication. The fresh heri and the expressed juice have been used as an antiscorbutic, emetic, cathartic and diure^- tic, and have been applied locally to old ulcers, warts, and other excrescences; but the plant is at present little employed. It has recently been recommended in Germany as a remedy in epilepsy. Other species are less acrid, and are even eaten as salad in some parts of Europe. Such are the Sedum rupestre and S. album. The S. Telephium was formerly employed externally to cicatrize wounds, and internally as an astringent in dysentery and haemoptysis; and is still esteemed by the common people in France as a vulnerary. SEMPERVIVUM TECTORUM. Common Houseleek. A perennial succulent European plant, growing on rocks, old walls, and the roofs of houses, and remarkable for its tena- city of life. It is occasionally cultivated in this country as an ornament Jo the walls of houses, or as a domestic medicine. The leaves, which are the part-j-ased, are oblong, pointed, from half an inch to two inches in length, thick, fleshy, sudculentfflat-on one side, somewhat convex on the other, smooth, of a light green colour, inodorous, and of a cooling, slightly saline, astringent, and sourish taste. They are employed, in the recent state and bruised, as a cooling application to burns, stings of bees, hornets, &c., ulcers, and other external affections attended with inflammation. They-contain a large propor- tion of supermalate of lime. SENECIO VULGARIS. Common Groundsel. An annual European plant, introduced into this country, andgrowing in cultivated grounds.. The whole herb is used, and should be gathered while in flower. It has, when rubbed, a peculiar rather unpleasant odour, and a disagreeable, herbaceous, bitterish, and saline taste, followed by a sense of acri- mony. It is emetic in large doses, and has been given in convulsive affections, liver complaints, spitting of blood, &c, but is now very little used. The bruised herb is some- times applied externally to painful swellings and ulcers. The plant is employed also as food for birds, which are fond of it. Other species of Senecio have also been medicinally used; and an indigenous species, the S. aureus or ragwort, is said by Schoepf to be a favourite vulnerary with the Indians. SIENNA. Terra di Sienna. An argillaceous mineral, compact, of a fine texture, very light, smooth, and glossy, of a yellowish-brown or coffee-colour, leaving a dull orange trace when moistened and drawn over paper. By calcination it assumes a reddish- brown colour, and is then called burnt sienna. In both the raw and burnt states it is used for painting. The best sienna is brought from Italy, but an inferior kind is found in England. SILENE VIRGINICA. Catchfly. Wild Pink. An indigenous perennial plant, grow- ing in Western Virginia and Carolina, and in the states beyond the Alleghany mountains. Dr. Barton, in his " Collections," states that a decoction of the roots is said to be efficacious as an anthelmintic. We are told that it is considered poisonous by some of the Indians. The S. Pennsylvania, which grows in the Eastern section of the Union from New York to Virginia, probably possesses similar properties. SISYMBRIUM OFFICINALE. Scopoli. Erysimum officinale. Linn. Hedge Mustard. A small annual plant, growing in the United States and Europe, along the roadsides, by walls and hedges, and on heaps of rubbish. It has an herbaceous somewhat acrid taste, which is strongest in the tops and flower-spikes, and resembles that of mustard, though much weaker. The seeds have considerable pungency. The herb is said to be diuretic and expectorant, and has been recommended in chronic coughs, hoarseness, and ulcera- tion of the mouth and fauces. The juice of the plant may be used mixed with honey or sugar or the seeds may be taken in substance. The Sisymbrium Sophia or fltx weed is also among the plants formerly officinal. It is of a pungent odour when rubbed, and of an acrid biting taste. The herb has been used externally in indolent ulcers, and the seeds internally in worms, calculous complaints, &c. SIUM NODIFLORUM. Water-parsnep. A perennial, umbelliferous, aquatic Euro- pean plant, growing also in the Southern section of the United States, where it is supposed to have been introduced. It is commonly considered poisonoHs; but the expressed juice, 1296 Appendix. given by Withering in the dose of three or four ounces every morning, was not found to affect the head, stomach, or bowels. He found it, in this quantity, very advantageous in obstinate cutaneous diseases: and the plant has been usefully employed by others in similar complaints, and in scrofulous swellings of the lymphatic glands. It is considered diuretic. The S. latifolium, which grows in Europe and the United States, and is the common water-parsnep of this country, is positively asserted to be poisonous: and mad- ness and even death are said to have followed the use of the root. The S. Sisarum or skirret, a plant of Chinese origin, cultivated in Europe, has a sweetish, somewhat aromatic root, which is employed as food in the form of salad, and is supposed to be a useful diet in complaints of the chest. SMALT. Azure. When the impure oxide of cobalt, obtained by roasting the native arseniuret of that metal, is heated with sand and potassa, the mixture melts, and a beau- tiful blue glass results, which, when reduced to powder, receives the name of smalt. It is used chiefly in painting. SOOT. Fuligo Ligni. This well known substance has a peculiar smell, and a bitter, empyreumatic, and disagreeable taste. Its composition is very complex. Reduced to powder and treated with water, it affords an infusion of a deep-yellow or brown colour, the colour being deeper if heat be employed. The insoluble portion amounts to about forty-four per cent. The soluble part consists chiefly, according to Berzelius, of a pyro- genous resin united with acetic acid, {acid pyretin,) saturated with potassa, lime, and mag- nesia. It also contains sulphate of lime, chloride of potassium, acetate of ammonia, and traces of nitric acid. If the solution be evaporated to dryness, it furnishes a black extract. This forms with water a blackish-brown solution, which, when treated with any free acid except the acetic, lets fall the acid pyretin, in the form of a black mass re- sembling pitch ; while the acid employed remains in solution with the bases previously in combination with the pyretin. Braconnot thought he had discovered in the pyretin a peculiar principle, to which he gave the name of asbolin; but Berzelius thinks he was mistaken. Besides these substances, Braconnot ascertained the existence in soot of an azotized extractive matter to the amount of twenty per cent. This matter, when submit- ted to dry distillation, afforded a considerable portion of pyrogenous oil. The soot itself, when subjected to a similar distillation, furnished one-fifth of its weight of empyreumatic oil. To the above ingredients of soot must be added creasote, to the presence of which it is supposed to owe its medicinal properties. Soot was formerly officinal with the Edinburgh College, and the Scotch physicians were in the habit of frequently prescribing it as a tonic and antispasmodic in the form of tincture. It went very much out of use in regular practice; and it is only within a few years, that its employment has been revived on account of its containing creasote. At present it is chiefly used as an external remedy in the form of decoction or ointment. In the Revue Med. for June, 1834, M. Blaud details a number of cases of various affections, such as obstinate tetters, porrigo favosa, psora, fistula, cancerous and venereal ulcers, chronic irritations of the lining membrane of the mouth, exudations from the mucous membrane of the nose, herpetic eruptions of the genital organs, and pruritus of the vulva, in which the use of soot effected a cure. The decoction is made by adding two handfuls of soot to a pint of water, boiling for half an hour, and filtering. It is applied as a lotion to the affected parts, or injected into the fistulae, several times a day; and, in the intervals, the part, if accessible, is dressed with an ointment, made by rubbing up a drachm of finely powdered soot with an ounce of lard. In cases of porrigo, the crusts must be removed by poultices before the soot is applied. In scrofulous ophthalmia, M. Caron Duvillards and M. Baudelocque have found a collyrium, made according to the following formula, very useful. Infuse two ounces of soot in boiling water, filter the solution, and evaporate it to dryness. Dissolve the dry residue, with the assistance of heat, in strong white wine vinegar, and add extract of roses in the proportion of twenty-four grains to twelve fluid- ounces of the liquid. It is prepared for use by adding a few drops of the liquid to a glass of water. {Bull. Gin. de Thirapeutique, Mars, 1834.) This formula is not very satisfactory; as it does not indicate the proportion of vinegar to be employed. In a case of severe and extensive burn, in which, after the separation of the sloughs, the patient began to sink from the profuse discharge, Dr. Ebers, of Bordeaux, found advantage from the application, to the granulating surface, of lint soaked in a decoction of soot. It reduced the discharge in a surprising manner and promoted cicatrization. Dr. Hewson, of this city, has found an infusion of soot an efficacious remedy, employed by injection, in cases of ascarides. In one case of long standing in an adult, in which a number of remedies had been tried unsuccessfully, injections of soot daily, persevered in for two weeks, effected a complete cure. The injection was made by adding a cupful of soot to a pint of boiling water, and straining the solution. An infusion of hickory ashes and soot is used in this city as a popular remedy for dyspepsia. It is made by infusing Appendix. 1297 a pint of clean hickory ashes and a gill of soot in half a gallon of boiling water, allowing l nfqV°r , Stand_ for twenty-four hours, and then decanting. Of this a small wine- giassiui is taken three or four times a day. No doubt this infusion has been useful in acidity oi stomach; but its indiscriminate use in the various gastric affections popularly confounded under the name of dyspepsia, is calculated to do much harm. SPANISH BROWN. A brownish-red ochre, much used in painting. SPARTIUM JUNCEUM. Spanish Broom. A small shrub, indigenous in the South ot Europe, and cultivated in our gardens as an ornamental plant. The flowers are large, yellow, and of an agreeable odour. The seeds are in moderate doses diuretic and tome, in large doses emetic and cathartic, and have been used advantageously in dropsy. The dose is from ten to fifteen grains three times a day. They may also be aiven in tincture. J s SULPHATE OF ALUMINA. Alumina Sulphas. The salts of alumina have been ascertained by M. Gannal to be powerful preservatives of animal matter. Among these the sulphate is to be preferred, on account of its easy preparation and moderate price. It may be made by saturating dilute sulphuric acid with hydrated alumina, and evapo- rating. A solution of this salt was found by M. Gannal to be very effectual in preserving bodies for dissection, when injected into the blood-vessels. In the summer season the bodies were preserved fresh for twenty days or more; in the winter, for three months. For use in the winter, a quantity of solution, sufficient for injecting one body, may be made by adding a pound, avoirdupois, of the salt to a quart of water; for use in hot weather, the solution must be made stronger. This salt has been used extensively in the Philadelphia Hospital, at the suggestion of Dr. Dunglison, as an antiseptic and detergent application to ulcers, and with favourable results. Dr. Pennypacker reports several cases in which it proved useful. The strength of the solution employed varied from gijss to §iij of the salt to f^vi of water, according to the state of the ulcer. Dr. G. Johnson, of eorgia, found the solution attended with the happiest effects, used as an injection in fetid discharges from the vagina. {Med. Exam., vi. 63 and 112.) The acetate of alumina and the chloride of aluminium (muriate of alumina) also possess antiseptic powers. SULPHOCYANURET OF POTASSIUM. Potassii Sulphocyanuretum. This salt is prepared by fusing in an iron vessel, at a low red heat, a mixture of two parts of dried ferrocyanuret of potassium, and one part of flowers of sulphur. The mass, when cold, is dissolved in boiling water, and, to decompose some sulphocyanuret of iron, the solution is treated with carbonate of potassa, which throws down the iron as a carbonate, and gives rise to the formation of a fresh portion of sulphocyanuret of potassium. The whole is then boiled for a quarter of an hour, filtered to separate the precipitated iron, and evapo- rated that crystals may form. These are purified from carbonate of potassa by being dissolved in alcohol, which takes up the sulphocyanuret and leaves the carbonate. The alcoholic solution is then allowed to crystallize. Sulphocyanuret of potassium is in long, striated, anhydrous prisms, deliquescent in a moist atmosphere, very soluble in alcohol, and having a cooling, somewhat biting taste. It has been proposed as a medicine by Soemmering, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid and cyanuret of potassium, on the ground that it possesses the same therapeutic properties, without their inconveniences. SWIETENIA FEBRIFUGA. A large tree growing in the East Indies. The bark is the part employed. It is smooth and red internally, rough and gray on the outer surface, of a feeble aromatic odour, and an astringent bitter taste. Water extracts its virtues by infusion or decoction. It is said to have been much used in India as a substitute for Peruvian bark, to which it is somewhat analogous in medical properties. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to half a drachm. The watery extract has the virtues of the bark. The Swietenia Mahagoni or Mahogany tree, which grows in the West Indies and other parts of tropical America, has also a bitter astringent bark, which resembles that of the S. febrifuga in virtues as well as in sensible properties. The wood of this tree is the mahogany so much used in ornamental wood-work. SYMPHYTUM OFFICINALE. Comfrey. A perennial European plant, cultivated in our gardens for medical use. Its root, which is the part used, is spindle-shaped, branched, often more than an inch thick and a foot long, externally smooth and blackish, internally white, fleshy, and juicy. By drying it becomes wrinkled, of a firm horny con- sistence, and of a dark colour within. It is almost inodorous, and has a mucilaginous, feebly astringent taste. Among its constituents are mucilage in great abundance, and a small quantity of tannin. It was formerly highly esteemed as a vulnerary, but has lost its credit in this respect. Its virtues are chiefly those of a demulcent, and it may be ad- vantageously used for all the purposes to which the marshmallow is apphed. It is a no 1298 Appendix. very common ingredient in the domestic cough mixtures employed in chronic catarrh, consumption, and other pectoral affections. The most convenient form of administration is that of decoction, which may be made either from the fresh or dried root. According to Lewis, comfrey root yields to water a larger proportion of mucilage than the root of the Althaea. SYRINGA VULGARIS. Common Lilac. The leaves and fruit of this common gar- den plant have a bitter and somewhat acrid taste, and have been used as a tonic and febrifuge. In some parts of France, they are said to be employed habitually by the country people in the cure of intermittent fever; and they were recommended by Cruveilhier in the treatment of that complaint. The fruit was examined by MM. Petroz and Robinet, who found a sweet and a bitter principle. The latter was afterwards obtained pure by M. Meillet, who gave it the name of lilacin. The green capsules, which yield it in largest proportion, are boiled in water, the decoction is concentrated, subacetate of lead is added, the liquor is evaporated to the consistence of syrup, magnesia is added in excess, and the whole is evaporated to dryness. The residuum is powdered, digested in water at 90° or 100°, and then treated with boiling alcohol, and animal charcoal. The alcoholic solution, being filtered and concentrated, yields lilacin upon cooling. This principle, though not alkaline, is thought by M. Meillet to exist in the fruit combined with mafic acid. It is crystallizable, bitter, and insoluble in water. {Am. Journ. of Pharm., xiv. p. 139, from Journ. de Pharm.) TACAMAHAC. Tacamahaca. The resinous substance, commonly known by this name, is supposed to be derived from the Fagara octandra of Linn. {Elapkrium tomen- tosum, Jacq., Amyris tomentosum, Spreng.), a tree of considerable size, growing in the island of Curatjoa, and in Venezuela. The juice exudes spontaneously, and hardens on exposure. As brought into the market, it is in irregularly shaped pieces of various sizes, some not larger than a mustard seed, others as much as an inch or two inches in diameter. The colour is usually light-yellowish or reddish-brown; but in the larger masses is more or less diversified. The pieces are in general translucent, though fre- quently covered with powder upon their surface, so as to render them apparently opaque. They are heavier than water, brittle, and puiverizable, yielding a pale-yellow powder. Their odour is resinous and agreeable, their taste bitter, balsamic, and sowewhat acrid. Exposed to heat they melt and exhale a stronger odour. Tacamahac is partially soluble in alcohol, and completely so in ether and the fixed oils. It consistsof resin with a little volatile od. Another variety is obtained from the East Indies, and called tacamahaca orientale or tacamahaca in testis. It is supposed to be derived from the Cahphyllum Inophyllum, and comes into the market in gourd-shells covered with rush leaves. It is of a pale-yellow colour inclining to green, slightly translucent, soft and adhesive, of an agreeable odour, and an aromatic bitterish teste. It is at present very rare in commerce. Guibourt describes several other varieties of tacamahac, which, however, are little known. Among them is a soft, adhesive, dark-green resin, said to be procured from the Cahphyllum Tacamahaca, growing in the islands of Bourbon and Madagascar. Tacamahac was formerly highly esteemed as an internal remedy, but is now employed medicinally only in the composition of ointments and plasters, and little even for this purpose. Its properties are analogous to those of the turpentines. It is sometimes used as incense. TANNATE OF LEAD. This is obtained by precipitating a concentrated infusion of oak bark with acetate of lead, added drop by drop. It has been used as an external application with success by Dr. Fantonetti in two cases of white swelling of the knee joint. He employed it at first mixed with a third of its weight of lard, and afterwards pure, the fresh precipitate admitting of application as an ointment. Autenrieth recom- mends it as a dressing to gangrenous sores. With this intention, the precipitate, either uncombined, or mixed, in its dry state, with simple ointment in the proportion of two drachms to the ounce, may be spread on linen and applied to the sore. The preparation here referred to is a bitannate. Other tannates of lead exist. TEA. The plant which furnishes tea—Thea Chinensis—is an evergreen shrub, be- longing to the class and order Monadelphia Polyandria of the Sexual system (Polyandria Monogynia, Linn.), and to the natural order Ternstromiacese. It is usually from four to eight feet high, though capable, in a favourable situation, of atteining the height of thirty feet. It has numerous alternate branches, furnished with elliptical, oblong or lanceolate, pointed leaves, which are serrate except at the base, smooth on both sides, green, shining, marked with one rib and many transverse veins, and supported alternately upon short footstalks. They are two or three inches long, and from half an inch to an inch in breadth. The flowers are either solitary, or supported two or three together at die axils of the leaves. They are of considerable size, not unlike those of the myrtle in appear- Appendix. 1299 Maee, consisting of a short green calyx with five or six lobes, of a corolla with from four to mne large unequal snow-white petals, of numerous stamens with yellow anthers and connected at their base, and of a pistil with a three-parted style. The fruit is a three- eelled and three-seeded capsule. It has not been certainly determined whether more than one species of the tea-plant exists. Linnaeus admitted two species—the T. Bohea and T. viridis—differing in the number of their petals; but this ground of distinction is untenable, as the petals are known to vary very much in the same plant. Hayne makes three species—the T. stricta, T. Bohea, and T. viridis, which are distinguished severally by the shape of their leaves and fruit, and the direction of the footstalk. De Candolle admits but one species, with two varieties—the viridis or green tea, with " lan- ceolate flat leaves, three times as long as they are broad," and the Bohea, with " elliptical oblong, subrugose leaves, twice as long as broad." Lindley recognises the two Linnean species, distinguishing them by the leaves, which, in the T. viridis, are acuminate and emarginate at the apex, and in the T. Bohea are smaller, flatter, darker green, with small serratures, and terminate gradually in a point, but are not at all acuminate or emarginate. {Flora Medica, 120.) The tea-plant is a native of China and Japan, and is cultivated in both countries, but most abundantly in the former. In Japan it forms hedgerows around the rice and corn- fields ; in China, whence immense quantities of tea are exported, whole fields are devoted to its culture. It is propagated from the seeds, which are planted in holes at certain dis- tances, six or eight seeds being placed in each hole, in order to ensure the growth of one. In three years the plant yields leaves for collection, and in six years attains the height of a man. When from seven to ten years old, it is cut down, in order that the numerous shoots which issue from the stump may afford a large product of leaves. These are picked separately by the hand. Three harvests, according to Koempfer, are usually made during the year; the first at the end of February, the second at the beginning of April, and the third in June. As the youngest leaves are the best, the product of the first collection is most valuable, while that of the third, consisting of the oldest leaves, is comparatively little esteemed. Sometimes only one or two harvests are made ; but care is always taken to assort the leaves according to their age; and thus originate numerous commercial varieties of tea. The character of the plant, dependent upon the soil, situation, climate, and culture, has also a great influence upon the value of the leaves. It is said that the be6t tea is procured from the shrubs which grow upon the sides of steep hills with a southern exposure. Though the plant grows both about Pekin in the North and Canton in the South of China, it is said to attain greater perfection in the intermediate country, in the neighbourhood of Nankin, for instance, where the climate is neither so cold as in the first mentioned vicinity, nor so hot as in the second. Some of the commercial varie- ties have their origin in this cause; and it is not impossible, though the fact has not been ascertained, that difference in species may be another source of diversity. After having been gathered, the leaves are dried by artificial heat in shallow iron pans, from which they are removed while still hot, and rolled with the fingers, or in the palm of the hand, so as to be brought into the form in which they are found in commerce. It is stated that the odour of the tea leaves themselves is very slight; and that it is customary to mix; with them the leaves of certain aromatic plants, such as the Olea fragrans and Camellia Sasanqua, in order to render them pleasant to the smell. Tea is brought to this country from the port of Canton. Numerous varieties exist in commerce, differing in the shape communicated by rolling, in colour, in flavour, or in strength; but they may all be arranged in the two divisions of green and black teas, which, at least in their extremes, differ so much in properties, that it is difficult to con- ceive that they are derived from the same species. Properties. Green tea is characterized by a dark green colour, sometimes inclining more or less to blue or brown. It has a peculiar, refreshing, somewhat aromatic odour, and an astringent, slightly pungent, and agreeably bitterish teste. Its infusion has a pale greenish-yellow colour, with the odour and taste of the leaves. According to Mr. Warington, who examined numerous varieties of tea carefully both by the microscope and chemical tests, many of the green teas imported into Great Britain owe their colour to a powdery coating, consisting of sulphate of lime and Prussian blue, others to a mix- ture of these with a yellowish vegetable substance, and others, again, to sulphate of lime alone {Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iv. 37.) Black tea is distinguished by a dark-brown colour It is usually less firmly rolled, and lighter than the green, and contains the petioles of the plant mingled with the leaves. Its odour is fainter and of a somewhat different character, though still fragrant. Its taste, like that of green tea, is astringent and bitterish; but it is less pungent, and to most persons less agreeable. To hot water it imparts a brown colour, with its sensible properties of taste and smell. These vary exceedingly in strength in the different varieties; and some black teas are almost wholly destitute of aromatic or agreeable flavour. 1300 Appendix. According to the analysis of G. J. Mulder, 100 parts of green Chinese tea afforded 0*79 of volatile oil, 2*22 of chlorophylle, 0-28 of wax, 2-22 of resin, 856 of gum, 17-80 of tannic acid, 0-43 of thein. 22-80 of extractive, traces of apotheme, 23-60 of muriatic extract, 300 of albumen, 17-68 of lignin, and 5-56 of salts. The muriatic extract was the matter taken up by diluted muriatic acid from tea, previously exhausted successively by ether, alcohol, and water, and consisted of artificial tannin. The same chemist ob- tained from 100 parts of black Chinese tea 0-60 of volatile oil, 1-84 of chlorophylle, 3-64 of resin, 7-28 of gum, 12-88 of tannic acid, 0-46 of thein, 19-88 of extractive, 1-48 of apotheme, 19-12 of muriatic extract, 2-80 of albumen, 28-32 of lignin, and 5-24 of salts. {Annul, der Pharm., xxviii. 317.) M. Eug. Peligot obtained a much larger proportion of thein than was found by Mulder, the lowest quantity from green tea being 2-4 per cent., and the highest 41 per cent; but even this quantity is too small to represent all the nitrogen contained in tea. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., iv. 224.) The volatile oil is pro- bably the principle upon which the effects of tea upon the nervous system chiefly depend. Hence old teas are less energetic than those recently imported: and it is said that the fresh leaves have often produced dangerous effects in China. Nevertheless, the tannic acid is not without influence upon the system; and it is not improbable that both the extractive and thein contribute to the peculiar influences of this valuable product. Of these active ingredients, the volatile oil, tannic acid, and extractive, are found most largely, according to the analysis of Mulder, in the green tea. Thein is a crystallizable principle discovered by Oudry. It was afterwards proved by Jobst to have the same composition as caffein, and is now generally considered as in all respects identical with that principle. It is also said to exist in the leaves of the Ilex Paraguaiensis or Para- guay tea, and in the seeds of tlie Paullinia sorbilis. (See Coffee, Ilex, and Paullinia.) According to Mulder, thein exists in tea combined with tannic acid. Peligot obtained it by adding to a hot infusion of tea, first subacetate of lead, and then ammonia, filtering the liquid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through it,again filtering, and evaporating with a moderate heat. On cooling, the liquid deposits thein abundantly, and yields an addi- tional quantity by a careful evaporation. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iv., 224.) Thein has a feebly bitter taste; in the state of crystals, is dissolved by 93 parts of water, 158 of alcohol, and 298 of ether; melts at about 350° F., and at 723° sublimes in white vapours which condense in minute needles. From- its watery solution scarcely any reagent pre- cipitates it. Infusion of galls causes a deposit of tannate of thein, which is again, how- ever, dissolved by heating the water. Medical Properties and Uses. Tea is astringent and gently excitant, and in its finer varieties exerts a decided influence over the nervous system, evinced by the feelings of comfort and even exhilaration which it produces, and the unnatural wakefulness to which it gives rise when taken in unusual quantities, or by those unaccustomed to its use. Its properties, however, are not of so decided a character as to render it capable of very extensive application as a medicine; and its almost exclusive use is as a grateful bever- age at the evening and morning meals. Taken moderately, and by healthy individuals, it may be considered as perfectly harmless; but long continued in excessive quantity, it is capable of inducing unpleasant nervous and dyspeptic symptoms, the necessary con- sequences of over excitement of the brain and stomach. Green tea is decidedly more injurious in these respects than black, and should be avoided by dyspeptic individuals, and by those whose nervous systems are peculiarly excitable. As a medicine, tea may sometimes be given advantageously in diarrhoea; and a strong infusion will often be found to relieve nervous headache. The mode of preparing it for use is too well known to require description. An extract is made from it in China, which is said to be useful in fevers. TERNITRATE OF IRON, SOLUTION OF. Liquor Ferri Ternitratis. Ternitrate of Sesquioxide of Iron. Mr. William Kerr {Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ.) recommends the following formula for the preparation of this solution. Take of iron wire, in pieces, an ounce and a half; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-5) three fluidounces; muriatic acid a fluidrachm. Add to the iron, the nitric acid previously diluted with fifteen fluidounces of water, and set the mixture aside until the saturation of the acid with the iron is completed, which generally occupies from seven to twelve hours. Then decant the liquor from the iron remaining undissolved, and strain. Lastly, add the muriatic acid, together with sufficient water to make the whole measure thirty fluidounces. The solution, when properly pre- pared, is transparent, and has a beautiful dark-red colour, and a very astringent but not caustic taste. If it should become turbid upon keeping, it should be rejected. The small portion of muriatic acid added is intended to preserve the solution from decomposi- tion. The ferruginous salt present in it is the ternitrate of sesquioxide of iron, consisting of three eqs. of the acid to one of the sesquioxide. The late Mr. Duhamel {Am. Journ. of Pharm., xvii. 92) considered it a nitrate of the black oxide of iron, and as such liable to deposite sesquioxide on keeping, to prevent which he proposed to form the preparation Appendix. 1301 into a syrup. But if the nitric acid employed be of full strength, there is no doubt the whole of the iron will be sesquioxidized and dissolved. Dr R. J. Graves, of Dublin, {Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xviii. 216, from the Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ.,) praises this solution as a remedy in chronic diarrhoea, especially when occurring m delicate and nervous women, in which there is no thirst, redness of tongue, tenderness of the abdomen on pressure, or other indication of inflammation. According to him it acts as a tonic and astringent. By Mr. Kerr it is considered to possess also the property of diminishing the irritability of the intestinal mucous membrane. Dr. T. C. Adam, of Michigan, {Amer. Journ. of Med. Sci., xxiv. 61,) also reports favourably of this remedy in chronic diarrhoea, considering it, like Mr. Kerr, to act as a sedative as well as astringent. He employed it, likewise, with good effect in menorrhagia, and both in- ternally and by injection in leucorrhoea, when occurring in pale, exsanguine, and feeble subjects. The dose, according to Dr. Graves, is seven or eight drops, gradually increased to fifteen, sufficiently diluted, in the course of the day. Dr. Adam, however, gave it in doses of ten drops, two, three, or four times a day, and sometimes increased it to twenty- five drops. As an injection he employed it sufficiently diluted to cause only a slight heat and smarting in the vagina. TEUCRIUM CHAMADRYS. Germander. Chamadrys. A small, didynamous, labi- ate, perennial, European plant, the leaves and tops of which have an agreeable aromatic odour, diminished by drying, and a bitter, somewhat astringent, aromatic, durable taste. They have been employed as a mild corroborant, in uterine, rheumatic, gouty, and scrofu- lous affections, and intermittent fevers; but are at present little used, and never in this country. Germander was an ingredient in the Portland powder, noted as a remedy in gout. This powder, according to the original prescription, consisted of equal parts of the roots of the Aristolochia rotunda and Gentiana lutea, of the tops and leaves of the Teucrium Chamadrys and Erythraa Centaurium, and of the leaves of the Ajuga Chamapy- tis, or ground pine. The dose was a drachm taken every morning before breakfast, and continued for three months, then two scruples for three months, afterwards half a drachm for six months, and finally half a drachm every other day for a year. {Parr.) Two other species of Teucrium have been used in medicine—the T. Marum, cat thyme, or Syrian herb mastich, which is a native of the South of Europe, and the T. Scordium, or water germander, which grows in the higher latitudes of the same continent. The former is a warm, stimulating, aromatic bitter, and has been recommended in hysteria, amenor- rhoea, and nervous debility; the latter has the odour of garlic, and a bitter somewhat pungent taste, and was formerly highly esteemed as a corroborant in low forms of dis- ease ; but neither of them is now much employed. The T. Marum is errhine, and was formerly an ingredient in the Pulvis Asari Compositus. The dose of either of the three species is about half a drachm. THUJA OCCIDENTALIS. Arbor Vita. An indigenous evergreen tree, growing wild from Canada to Carolina, and cultivated for ornament in gardens. The leaves, or small twigs invested with the leaves, are the part used. They have an agreeable balsamic odour, especially when rubbed, and a strong, balsamic, camphorous, bitter taste. In the state of decoction, they have been used in intermittent fever, and, according to Schoepf, in coughs, fevers, scurvy, and rheumatism. Made into an ointment with lard or other animal fat, they are said to form a useful local application in rheumatic complaints. The distilled water is praised by Boerhaave as a remedy in dropsy. {Schoepf.) A yellowish- green volatile oil, which may be obtained from the leaves by distillation, has been used with success in worms. THYMUS VULGARIS. Thyme. A small well known undershrub, indigenous in ihe South of Europe, and with us cultivated in gardens. The herbaceous portion, which should be gathered when the plant is in flower, has a peculiar, strong, aromatic, agree- able odour, which is not lost by drying, and a pungent, aromatic, camphorous teste. Its active constituent is a volatile oil, which may be separated by distillation. Oil of thyme (oleum thymi) is, when fresh, of a pale-yellow or greenish colour, but as found in the shops is often brown. Its sp. gr. is 0*905. The plant has the aromatic properties of sage lavender, &c, and may be used for the same purposes. It is, however, more em- ployed in cookery than in medicine. The T. Serpillum, or wild thyme of Europe, is analogous in properties to the garden thyme. Both are occasionally used in baths, fomentations, and poultices, along with other aromatic herbs, TONKA BEAN. The seed of the Dipterix odorata of Willd., the Coumarouna odorata of Aublet, a large tree growing in Guiana. The fruit is an oblong-ovate pod, enclosing a single seed, from an inch to an inch and a half long, from two to four lines broad, usually somewhat compressed, with a dark brown, wrinkled, shining, thin, and brittle skin, and a light-brown, oily kernel. The bean has a strong, agreeable, aromatic odour, and a bit- 1302 Appendix. terish, aromatic teste. Its active constituent is a crystallizable, odorous substance, analo- gous to the volatile oils and camphor, and called coumarin by Guibourt. This substance is sometimes found in a crystalline state, between the two lobes of the kernel. The tonka bean is used to flavour snuff, being either mixed with it in the state of powder, or put entire into the snuff-box. TRIGONELLA FOENUMGR^CUM. Fenugreek. An annual plant growing spon- taneously in different parts of the South of Europe, and cultivated in France and Ger- many for the sake of its seeds. These are one or two lines in length, oblong cylindrical, somewhat compressed, obliquely truncated at each extremity, brownish-yellow externally, yellow internally, and marked with an oblique furrow running half their length. They have a strong peculiar odour, and an oily, bitterish, farinaceous taste, and contain fixed and volatile oil, mucilage, bitter extractive, and'a yellow colouring substance. An ounce of the seeds boiled in a pint of water renders it thick and slimy. They yield the whole of their odour and taste to alcohol. Their virtues depend chiefly upon their oil and mucilage. On the continent of Europe they are employed in the preparation of emol- lient cataplasms and enemata, and enter into the composition of some officinal oint- ments and plasters. They are never used internally. TRIPOLI. Terra Tripolitana. An earthy mineral, of a whitish, yellowish, or pale straw colour, sometimes inclining to red or brown, usually friable, often adhesive to the tongue, and presenting the aspect of argillaceous earth, though differing from clay by the roughness and hardness of its particles, and by not forming a paste with water. The Venice Tripoli is said to come from Corfu. Tripoli is sometimes artificially prepared by calcining certain argillites. It is used for cleaning and polishing metals. TRITICUM REPENS. Couch-grass. Dog-grass. Quickens. A perennial European plant, very common in gardens and cultivated grounds, where it is considered a trouble- some weed. The root, which is the part medically used, is horizontal, creeping, jointed, about as thick as a straw or thicker, inodorous, and of an agreeable, sweetish, slightly pungent taste. It is used in some parts of Europe, in the form of decoction, as a slightly aperient and nutritive drink. Great quantities of it are said to be consumed in the hospitals of Paris. The decoction, in consequence of the sugar which it contains, is sus- ceptible of the vinous fermentation. TUTTY. Tutia. Impure Oxide of Zinc. This oxide is formed during the smelting of lead ores containing zinc. It is deposited in the chimneys of the furnaces, in the form of incrustations, moderately hard and heavy, and studded over with small protuberances, of a brownish colour on the outside, and yellowish within. As it occurs in commerce, the pieces occasionally present a bluish cast, from the presence of small particles of metallic zinc. Sometimes a spurious substance is sold for tutty, consisting of a mixture of blue clay and copper filings, made into a paste with water, and dried on an iron rod. It is distinguished from the genuine tutty by its diffusing in water and exhaling an earthy smell, and by its greater friability. Tutty is used as an external application only, as an exsiccant in excoriations. To fit it for medical use it must be reduced to fine powder, which is dusted on the affected part, or applied in the form of ointment. It has been very properly dismissed from the Edinburgh officinal list, its use being superseded by that of the pure oxide. UMBER. Terra Umbria. A mineral of a fine compact texture, light, dry to the touch, shining when rubbed by the nail, and of a fine pale-brown colour, which changes to a peculiar beautiful deep brown by heat. According to Klaproth, it contains 13 parts of silica, 5 of alumina, 48 of oxide of iron, 20 of manganese, and 14 of water in 100. Burnt umber, as well as the mineral in its unaltered state, is used in painting. The umber of commerce is said to be brought chiefly from the island of Cyprus. URTICA DIOICA. Common nettle. A well known perennial herbaceous plant, grow- ing both in Europe and the United States, by the roadsides, in hedges, and gardens. The leaves, seeds, and roots were formerly officinal. They were deemed diuretic and astringent, and were employed in nephritic complaints, hemorrhages, consumption, jaundice, worms, &c. The young shoots are boiled and eaten by the common people as a remedy in scurvy; and the fresh plant is sometimes used to excite external irritation in cases of torpor and local palsy, the part being beaten with it till the requisite degree of action is produced. The U. mens or dwarf nettle, which is an annual plant, and smaller than the former species, has similar properties, and is used for the same purposes. This species also grows wild both in America and Europe. The two plants were for- merly distinguished by the names of urtica major, applied to the U. dioica, and of urtica minor apphed to the U. urens. VALERIANATE OF IRON. Ferri Valerianas. Valerianate of Sesquioxide of Iron. This salt may be formed by adding a cold solution of valerianate of soda to a solution of 3 parts Appendix. 1303 of sesquichloride of iron in 100 of water. The solution of valerianate of soda, proper for the reaction, is made by saturating 5 parts of oily valerianic acid in 60 of water with carbonate of soda, and then boiling the liquid to expel all the carbonic acid. The pre- cipitated valerianate of iron is washed with a little cold water, and dried at a tempera- ture not exceeding 68°. The salt is in the form of a dark tile-red, loose, amorphous powder, having a faint odour and teste of valerianic acid. Cold water does not moisten it, and boiling water extracts all its acid, leaving the sesquioxide of iron behind. (Witt- stein, Chem. Gaz., No. 67, p. 327, from Buck. Rep.) Valerianate of iron has been given in the form of pill, in the dose of about a grain several times a day, in hysterical affections, complicated with chlorosis. VALERIANATE OF ZINC. Zinci Valerianas. This salt is formed by saturating valerianic acid with freshly precipitated carbonate of zinc, the action being promoted by a gentle heat. The liquid is diluted with sufficient distilled water to hold the valerianate in solution while hot, and, after filtration, evaporated in order that crystals may form. It may also be obtained by mixing together hot concentrated solutions of valerianate of soda and sulphate of zinc; whereupon the sparingly soluble valerianate of zinc separates in beautiful white laminae, of a mother-of-pearl lustre. {Henny.) For the method of obtaining valerianate of soda, see page 731. The salt, when pure, is in white, pearly scales, which have a faint odour of the acid, and an astringent metallic teste. It dissolves in 160 parts of cold water, and in 60 of alcohol, of sp. gr. 0-833. The solutions, which have an acid reaction, become turbid on the application of heat, but clear again on cooling. (C. G. Wittstein.) The butyrate of zinc has been sold for some time past in Paris for the vale- rianate, and has physical properties so similar, as not to be distinguished from the latter. The two salts may be chemically distinguished, however, by testing a concentrated solu- tion of the acid of the suspected salt, obtained by distillation with sulphuric acid, with a concentrated solution of acetate of copper. If the acid be the butyric, its addition to the solution of the acetate disturbs the transparency of the latter, by the formation of a bluish- white precipitate ; while, if it be the valerianic, no perceptible change is produced. (Larocque and Huraut, Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir. ix. 430.) Valerianate of zinc is stated to be a powerful antispasmodic, and has been extolled by some of the Italian physicians as a remedy in neuralgic affections. Dr. Francis Devay, of Lyons, found it useful in epi- lepsy, and in the nervous affections which accompany chlorosis. The dose is one or two grains several times a day, given in the form of pill. For the mode of preparing vale- rianic acid, see page 731. See also a paper by Mr. Wm. Procter, jun., in the Am. Journ. of Pharm. for April, 1845. As valerianic acid has been proved to be a product of the slow oxidation of the volatile oil of valerian, it occurred to M. J. Lefort that its quick oxidation might be effected. Accordingly, he finds that 100 parts of the root, when dis- tilled with 500 of water, 10 of sulphuric acid, and 6 of bichromate of potessa, furnish much more valerianic acid for saturation with carbonate of zinc than by any other pro- cess. {Journ. de Pharm., 3e sir., x. 194.) VANILLA. This is the fruit of the Vanilla aromatica of Schwartz, the Epidendrum Vanilla of Linn., a climbing plant, growing in the West Indies, Mexico, and South Ame- rica. It is said also to be cultivated in the Isle of France. The pods are collected before they are quite ripe, dried in the shade, covered over with a coat of fixed oil, and then tied in bundles, which are surrounded with sheet lead, or enclosed in small metallic boxes, and sent into the market. Several varieties of vanilla exist in commerce. The most valuable, called ley by the Spaniards, consists of cylindrical, somewhat flattened pods, six or eight inches long, three or four lines thick, nearly straight, narrowing towards the extremites, bent at the base, shining and dark-brown externally, wrinkled longitudi- nally soft and flexible, and containing within their tough shell, a soft black pulp, in which numerous minute, black, glossy seeds are embedded. It has a peculiar, strong, agreeable odour and a warm, aromatic, sweetish teste. The interior pulpy portion is most aro- matic' Another variety, called simarona by the Spaniards, is smaller, of a lighter colour, and less aromatic. A third variety is the promprona of the Spaniards. In this, the pods are from five to seven inches long, from six to nine lines broad, almost always open, brown soft, viscid, and of a strong odour, but less pleasant than that of the ley, to which •t is considered inferior. According to Bucholz, vanilla does not yield volatile oil when distilled with water. It is employed to flavour chocolate, ice-cream, &c, and as a per- fume It has recently been recommended as a remedy in hysteria and low fevers, in the form of an infusion made in the proportion of about half an ounce to a pint of boiling water, and given in tablespoonful doses. VENETIAN RED. Bolus Veneta. A dull red ochrey substance used in painting. VERBENA OFFICINALIS. Vervain. This is a common European weed, growing on the roadsides, in the vicinity of towns and villages. Its sensible properties do not 1304 Appendix. indicate the possession of medical virtues; as it is nearly inodorous, and has only a slightly astringent bitterish taste. By the ancients it was highly esteemed both as a medicine, and as a sacred plant employed in certain religious rites. In modern times, superstitious notions in relation to its virtues are still entertained; and the suspension of the root around the neck by a white riband, has been gravely recommended for the cure of scrofula. The leaves, bruised, and made into a cataplasm, are used by the vulgar as a remedy in severe headache, and other local pains. The plant, however, is probably inert. An American species, the V. hastata, is more bitter than the European, and is said to be emetic. It is not, however, used in regular practice. Schoepf states that the root of the V. urticifolia, another indigenous species, has been advantageously used in poisoning from the Rhus Toxicodendron. It is prepared by boiling it in milk and water along with the inner bark of the white oak. VERDITER. Two preparations of copper, employed as pigments, are known by this name in commerce, and are distinguished by the epithets of blue and green. Blue ver- diter is prepared in London from the solution of nitrate of copper, obtained in precipita- ting silver by copper. According to Gray, this solution is poured hot upon whiting (car- bonate of lime), and the mixture stirred every day till the liquor loses its colour, when it is decanted, and fresh portions added till the proper colour is obtained. By a process for procuring this pigment, invented by Pelletier, the solution of nitrate of copper is de- composed by quicklime, and the precipitate, after being washed, is incorporated intimately with another portion of quicklime. By the former process, a carbonate of copper is ob- tained, by the latter a mixture of the hydrated oxide of copper and hydrate of lime. Green verditer is prepared by precipitating a solution of nitrate of copper by chalk or a white marl, and consists of carbonate of copper mixed with an excess of the calcareous carbonate. VERONICA OFFICINALIS. Speedwell. Several species of Veronica, common to Eu- rope and this country, have been medicinally employed. Of these the V. officinalis, and V. Beccabunga or brooklime, are the most conspicuous. The V. officinalis has a bitterish, warm, and somewhat astringent taste; has been considered diaphoretic, diuretic, expec- torant, tonic, &c.; and was formerly employed in pectoral and nephritic complaints, hemorrhages, and diseases of the skin, and in the treatment of wounds. The beccabunga, which is very succulent, was used in the fresh state with the view of purifying the blood, and as a remedy in scurvy. Both plants, however, are at present out of use. VISCUM ALBUM. Misletoe. An European evergreen parasitic shrub, growing on various trees, particularly the apple and other fruit trees, and forming a pendent bush from two to five feet in diameter. The plant is famous in the history of druidical super- stition. In the religious rites of the Druids, the misletoe of the oak was employed, and hence was afterwards preferred when the plant came to be used as a remedy; but it is in fhct identical in all respects with those which grow upon other trees. The fresh bark and leaves have a peculiar disagreeable odour, and a nauseous, sweetish, slightly bitter taste. The berries, which are white, and of about the size of a pea, abound in a peculiar viscid principle, and are sometimes used in the preparation of birdlime, of which this principle is the basis. At one time the misletoe was highly esteemed as a remedy in epilepsy, palsy, and other nervous diseases; but it is now out of use. The leaves and wood were given in the dose of a drachm in substance, and of an ounce in decoction. Several species of Viscum grow in the United States, but are not used. WHITING. This is essentially the same as prepared chalk, being made by the pul- verization and elutriation of crude chalk. It is used as a coarse paint, and for various purposes in the arts, for which carbonate of Ume is requisite. Paris white is a variety of the same material. WOORARI. The name of a powerful poison prepared by the aborigines in the interior of British Guiana, and used for arming the points of their weapons. Various opinions have been advanced in relation to its source and preparation; but the most probable account is that of Dr. Hancock, who states, from information derived from the natives, that it is a watery extract from the bark of a gourd -like plant. When this poison is inserted in a wound, the animal speedily falls into a state of stupor, and dies in a few minutes, the heart continuing to act for some time after respiration has ceased. If arti- ficial respiration be resorted to before the heart ceases to act, and be sustained, the animal recovers. Dr. Hancock states that it is swallowed by animals with impunity. It has not been introduced into medicine. For further notice in relation to it, the reader is re- ferred to the Lond. Pharm. Journ. and Trans., iii. 75. ZEA MAYS. Indian Corn. Common Indian corn contains, according to the late Dr. Gorham, of Boston, 77 per cent, of starch, 3 of a principle analogous to gluten, called zein, 2-5 of albumen, 1*45 of sugar, 08 of extractive, 1-75 of gum, 1*5 of sulphate and Appendix. 1305 phosphate of lime, 3 of lignin, and 9 of water. The meal, in the form of mush, makes an excellent emollient poultice, much used in hospitals; and a gruel may be prepared trom it which is sometimes more grateful to the sick than that made from oat-meal. Z^D?ARY' Radix Zedoarue. There are two kinds of zedoary, the long and the round, distinguished by the old officinal titles of radix zedoaria longa, and radix zedoaria rotunda, the former produced by the Curcuma Zedoaria of Roxburgh, the latter, as some suppose, by the Kampferia rotunda of Linn., but according to others, by the Curcuma Zerumbet of Roxburgh. Both kinds come from the East Indies. The long zedoary is in slices, from an inch and a half to three inches in length, and from half an inch to an inch thick, obtuse at the extremities, and exhibiting the remains of the radical fibres; the round is also usually in slices, which are the sections of a roundish root, ending in a point beneath, and divided longitudinally into two parts, each of which is flat on one side, con- vex on the other, and heart-shaped in its outline. Sometimes the root of the latter variety is entire, and sometimes in quarters instead of halves. It is marked with circu- lar rings on the convex surface, and, like the former, with small projecting points which are the remains of radical fibres. Both are grayish-white on the outside, yellowish- brown within, hard, compact, of an agreeable aromatic odour, and a bitterish, pungent, camphorous taste. The round, however, is less spicy than the long. They yield a vola- tile oil when distilled with water. Zedoary is a warm, stimulating aromatic, useful in flatulent colic and debilitated states of the digestive organs. It is not now employed, as it produces no effects which cannot be as well or better obtained from ginger. The dose is from ten grains to half a drachm. ZERUMBET. Cassumuniar. Under these names an East India root was formerly used, having some analogy in sensible and medical properties to ginger, and ascribed to the Zingiber Zerumbet of Roscoe. Some consider the cassumuniar as a distinct root, and refer it to the Zingiber Cassumuniar of Roxburgh. The difference of opinion is of little importance, as neither of the roots, supposing them not to be the same, is at present to be found in the markets. By some authors the zerumbet has been erroneously con- founded with the round zedoary. Geiger describes it as in pieces of the size of a fig or larger, externally grayish brown and wrinkled, internally yellowish, hard and tough, of a biting aromatic teste, and a spicy odour. ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. Lamarck. Rhamnus Zizyphics. Linn. A shrub, or small tree, growing on the shores of the Mediterranean, and cultivated in Italy, Spain, and the South of France. The fruit is the part used. This consists of oval drupes, of the size of a large olive, with a thin, coriaceous, red or reddish-brown skin, a yellowish, sweet, acidu- lous pulp, and an oblong pointed stone in the centre. These have the officinal name of jujuba. By drying, their pulp becomes softer and sweeter, and acquires a vinous teste, evincing the commencement of fermentation. They are nutritive and demulcent, and are used in the form of decoction in pectoral complaints. Jujube paste consists, properly, of gum Arabic and sugar, dissolved in a decoction of this fruit, and evaporated to the proper consistence. As a demulcent, it is in no respect superior to a paste made with gum Arabic and sugar alone; and the preparation commonly sold in this country under the name, contains in fact none of the fruit. • The fruits of two other species of Zizyphus, the Z. Lotus, growing in the North of Africa, and the Z. Jujuba, a native of the East Indies, possess properties similar to those of the first mentioned species, and are used as food by the inhabitants of the countries where they grow. Note.—Of the articles included in the foregoing list, those upon Acetic Ether, Albumi- nate of Iron and Potassa, Ammonio-tartrate of Iron, Anthrakokali, Arseniate of Ammonia, Arseniate of Iron, Bisulphuret of Carbon, Bromide of Iron, Bromides of Mercury, Carburet of Iron Cheltenham Salt, Chloride of Magnesium, Chloride of Potassa, Chloride of Silver, Chlo- rine1 Ethers, Citrate of Iron, Citrate of Iron and Quinia, Crabs' Claws, Crab Stones, Cya- nuret of Zinc, Diaphoretic Antimony, Dippel's Animal Oil, Ferrocyanuret of Zinc, Fuligokali, Glass of Antimony, Gold, Hydriodic Acid, Hydrocyanic Ether, Hyposulphite of Soda, Indelible Ink Indian Yellow, Iodide of Ammonium, Iodide of Arsenic, Iodide of Arsenic and Mercury, Iodide of Barium, Iodide of Silver, Iodide of Starch, Iodide of Zinc, Iodohydrargyrate of Potas- sium Lactate of Iron, Lactic Acid, Muriatic Ether, Artificial Musk, Naphthaline, Niirate of Soda Nitrosulphate of Ammonia, Oxalic Acid, Oxide of Silver, Phosphate of Ammonia, Plati- num Pyroacetic Spirit, Soot, Sulphate of Alumina, Sulphocyanuret of Potassium, Tannate of Lead, Ternitrate of Iron, Tutty, Valerianate of Iron, and Valerianate of Zinc, were written by Dr. Bache; the remainder by Dr. Wood. 1306 Appendix. II. ART OF PRESCRIBING MEDICINES. The physician should be acquainted not only with the properties of medicines, and the diseases to which they are respectively applicable, but also with the art of prescribing them, so that they may be adapted to the peculiarities of individual patients, and, by the mode in which they are administered, may produce the greatest curative effect with the least possible inconvenience. In relation to these points, a few general rules will be useful for the guidance of the young practitioner, although much must be left to his own judgment and discretion. We shall compress the remarks which we have to offer, under the two heads of the quantity or dose in which medicines may be given, and the mode of their exhibition. 1. Dose of Medicines.—In the body of the work, the quantity has been stated in which each medicine must ordinarily be given to produce its pe- culiar effects in the adult patient. But there are various circumstances which modify the dose, and demand attention on the part of the practitioner. The age of the patient is the most important of these circumstances. The young require a smaller dose than those at maturity, to produce an equal effect; and the old, though their systems are, perhaps, less susceptible to the action of medicines than those of the middle-aged, cannot bear an equally forcible impression. The following table of Gaubius, exhibiting the doses proportioned to the age, is frequently referred to. The dose for a person of middle age being 1 or 1 drachm, That of a person from 14 to 21 years will be § or 2 scruples, 7 to 14 " " 5 or 5 a drachm, 4 to 7 " " |or 1 scruple, of 4 years " k or 15 grains, 3 " " i or 10 grains, 2 " " £ or 8 grains, 1 " M TVor 5 grains. We prefer the following simple scheme of Dr. Young, which we extract from Paris's Pharmacologia. " For children under twelve years, the doses of most medicines must be diminished in the proportion of the age to the age increased by 12; thus at 2 two years to ^—viz.,^——-=|. At twenty-one the full dose may be given." To the above rule some exceptions are offered in particular medicines, which require to be given to children in much larger proportional doses than those above stated. Such are castor oil and calomel, a certain quantity of which will in general not produce a greater effect in a child two or three years old than double the quantity in an adult. Sex, temperament, and idiosyncrasy have also an influence upon the dose, and should be kept in view in prescribing. Females usually require some- what smaller doses than males, and those of sanguine temperament than the phlegmatic. Constitutional peculiarities, called idiosyncrasies, often exist in individuals, rendering them more than usually susceptible or insusceptible to the action of certain remedies, the dose of which must be modified accordingly. Appendix. 1307 Thus in some persons a grain or two of calomel will excite salivation, while in others scarcely any quantity which can be safely administered will pro- duce this effect. Sometimes, moreover, a medicine operates on an individual in a manner wholly different from its ordinary mode. In all such cases experience is the only sure guide; but the occasional existence of these peculiarities indicates the propriety of making particular inquiries in relation to the idiosyncrasies of those patients, for whom we may be called for the first time to prescribe. Habit is another important circumstance which modifies the dose of med- icines. Generally speaking, the susceptibility to the action of medicines is diminished by their frequent and continued use; and, in order to maintain a given impression, the quantity must be regularly increased. This is especially true in regard to the narcotics, which are sometimes borne in enormous doses by those habituated to their use. It is a good practical rule in prescribing, when circumstances demand the continuance, for a considera- ble length of time, of some particular effect, to vary the medicine, and em- ploy successively several with the same general powers,so as not too rapidly to exhaust the susceptibility to the action of any individual remedy. Another important practical rule connected with the influence of habit is, when any medicine, which from its nature is of variable strength, has been employed for some time in increasing doses, to reduce the dose upon resorting to a new parcel, until its relative strength has been ascertained. A neglect of this precaution, in cases where the last parcel happened to be more powerful than that previously employed, has sometimes been followed by very serious consequences. 2. Mode of Administering Medicines.—This has reference both to the combination of medicines with one another, and the form in which they are exhibited. Simplicity in prescription is always desirable when no object is to be gained by deviating from it. Remedies should never be mixed together without a definite purpose, nor with the vague hope that out of the number prescribed some one may perchance produce a salutary impression. Those exceedingly complex prescriptions, formerly so much in vogue, of which the ingredients were so numerous as to render altogether impossible a reasonable estimate of their bearing on each other, or their effects on disease, have been generally abandoned by modern practitioners. The only ground upon which any of them can be justifiably retained is that, by very frequent trials, through a long course of years, and in various states of disease, their influence on the system may have been fully ascertained, so that they may be considered rather in the light of a single remedy than a compound of many. Upon this ground, however, no prudent physician would attempt to originate such com- binations. In mixing medicines, we should proceed no further than we should be justified in doing by a clear knowledge of the properties and mutual rela- tions of the several ingredients, and their fitness to answer some particular indication in the treatment of disease. There are certain principles upon which medicines may be advantageously combined, and which it may not be amiss to mention for the benefit of the young practitioner. Remedies of the same general character may be given in connexion, in order to increase their energy, or to render their action more certain. It has been well ascertained that substances thus combined will often act vigorously, when, severally, they would produce comparatively little effect; and it some- times happens that, while their activity is augmented, they are at the same time rendered less irritating, as in the case of the drastic cathartics. (See Pilulae Catharticae Compositae.) 1308 Appendix. Different medicines are very often mixed together, in order to meet dif- ferent and coexisting indications, without any reference to the influence which they may reciprocally exert on each other. Thus in the same patient we not unfrequently meet with debility of stomach and constipation of the bowels, connected with derangement of the hepatic function. To answer the indications presented by these morbid conditions, we may properly combine in the same dose, a tonic, cathartic, and mercurial alterative. For similar reasons we often unite tonics, purgatives, and emmenagogues, anodynes and diaphoretics, emetics and cathartics, antacids, astringents, and tonics; and scarcely two medicines can be mentioned, not absolutely incompatible with each other, which may not occasionally be combined with advantage to counteract coexisting morbid actions. Another very important object of combination, is the modification which is thereby effected in the actions of medicines differing from each other in pro- perties. In this way new powers are sometimes developed, and those pre- viously existing are greatly increased. Examples of such a result are afforded in the officinal powder of ipecacuanha and opium, and in the combination of squill and calomel; the former operating as a diaphoretic, the latter as a diuretic, beyond the capabilities of either of their constituents. The effects of one medicine are, in numerous instances, increased by the influence of another in augmenting the natural susceptibility of the system to its action. Thus bitters enable cathartics to operate in smaller doses; purgatives awaken the dormant susceptibility to the action of mercury; and stimulants excite the torpid stomach, so that it will receive impressions from various medicines before inoperative. In some instances, the action of one medicine is pro- moted by that of another apparently of a nature wholly opposite. Thus, when calomel and opium are given in colic, the purgative operation of the former is facilitated by the relaxation of intestinal spasm produced by the latter. Medicines, in addition to the. effects for which they are administered, very frequently produce disagreeable symptoms, which may be moderated or altogether prevented by combination with other medicines; and this object may usually be accomplished, without in the least degree interfering with the remediate influence desired. Thus the griping produced by cathartics, and the nausea by these and various other medicines, may often be corrected by the simultaneous use of aromatics. To cover the disagreeable taste or odour of certain medicines, and to afford a convenient vehicle for their adminstra- tion, are also important objects of combination ; as upon these circumstances often depend the acceptability of the medicine to the stomach, and even the possibility of inducing the patient to swallow it. Substances should be preferred as vehicles which are calculated to render the medicine acceptable to the palate and stomach, and in other ways to correct its disagreeable effects; as syrups for powders, the aromatic waters for medicines given in the form of mixture, and carbonic acid water for the neutral salts. But in the mixing of medicines, care should be taken that they are neither chemically nor physiologically incompatible; in other words, that they are not such as will react on each other so as to produce new and unexpected combinations, nor such as will exert contrary and opposite effects upon the system. Thus when the operation of an acid is desired, an alkali should not be given at the same time, as they unite to form a third substance en- tirely different from either; nor should a soluble salt of lime, baryta, or lead, be given with sulphuric acid or a soluble sulphate, as decomposition would ensue, with the production of an inert compound. So, also, in relation to physiological incompatibility, diaphoretics and diuretics should not, as a general rule, be united with a view to their respective effects; as these are Appendix. 1309 to a certain extent incompatible, one being diminished by whatever has a tendency to increase the other. There are cases, however, in which we may advantageously combine medicines with a view to their chemical reaction, as in the instance of the effervescing draught; and circumstances sometimes call lor the union of remedies apparently opposite, as in the case of colic before alluded to, in which opium may be advantageously combined with purgatives. Still, such combinations should never be formed, unless with a full understanding of their effects, and a special reference to them. The form in which medicines are exhibited, is often an object of con- siderable importance. By variation in this respect, according to the nature of the medicine, the taste of the patient, or the condition of the stomach, we are frequently enabled to secure the favourable operation of remedies, which, without such attention, might prove useless or injurious. Medicines may be given in the solid state, as in the form of powder, pill, troche, or electuary; in the state of mixture, in which a solid is suspended in a liquid, or one liquid is mechanically mixed with another in which it is insoluble; or in the state of solution, under which may be included the various forms of infusion, decoction, tincture, wine, vinegar, syrup, honey, and oxymel. Of these different forms we have already treated sufficiently at large, under their re- spective heads, in the second part of this work. In writing extemporaneous prescriptions, neatness, order, and precision should always be observed; as, independently of the pleasing moral effect inseparable from these principles in all things, a positive practical advantage results, in the greater accuracy which the habit of attending to them gives to the prescriber, and the comparative certainty which they afford that his directions will be strictly complied with. As a general rule, when medicines are combined in prescription, that should come first in order which is con- sidered as the most prominent and important, next the adjuvant or corrigent, and lastly the vehicle. Sometimes, however, it is important to indicate to the apothecary the succession in which the substances should be combined in reference to the perfection of the mixture, and this may render convenient a deviation from the order above mentioned. The physician should always be careful either to write out the full name of the medicine, or to employ such abbreviations as are not likely, by the misunderstanding of an ill-formed letter, to lead into error. Very serious and even fatal mistakes have been occasioned by a neglect of this precaution. The formulae of the several Pharmacopoeias which are detailed in this work, will serve as good examples for the guidance of the young practitioner. The following table explains the signs and abbreviations habitually used in prescription. The formulae afterwards given will serve to illustrate the ordinary mode of prescribing, while thev exhibit the combinations of medicines frequently employed in practice. 3 W. Ill 1310 Appendix. Table of Signs and Abbreviations. R Recipe. Take. Collyr. Collyrium. An eye-water. Ana. Of each. Cong. Congius vel A gallon or gal- tb Libra vel librae. A pound or Congii. lons. pounds. Decoct. Decoctum. A decoction. I Uncia vel uncia?. An ounce or Ft. Fiat. Make. ounces. Garg. Gargarysma. A gargle. 3 Drachma vel A drachm or Gr. Granum vel A grain or drachmas. drachms. grana. grains. 9 Scrupulus vel A scruple or Gtt. Gutta vel guttae. A drop or drops. scrupuli. scruples. Haust. Haustus. A draught. 0 Octarius vel oc- A pint or pints. Infus. Infusum. An infusion. tarii. M. Misce. Mix. f3 Fluiduncia vel A fluidounce or Mass. Massa. A mass. fluidunciae. fluidounces. Mist. Mistura. A mixture. f3 Fluidrachma vel A fluidrachm or Pil. Pilula vel A pill or pills. fluidrachmae. fluidrachms. pilulae. "l Minimum vel A minim or Pulv. Pulvis vel pul- A powder or minima. minims. veres. powders. Chart. Chartula vel A small paper or Q. S. Quantum suffi- A sufficient Chartulse. papers. cit. quantity. Coch. Cochlear vel A spoonful or S. Signa. Write. cochlearia. spoonfuls. Ss. Semis. A half. Examples of Common Extemporaneous Prescriptions. Powders. R Antimonii et Potassae Tartratis gr. i. Pulveris Ipecacuanhae ^i. Fiat pulvis. S. To be taken in a wineglassful of sweetened water. An active emetic. R Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis, Pul veris Jalapa, aa gr. x. Misce. S. To be taken in syrup or molasses. An excellent cathartic in the commence- ment of bilious fevers, and in hepatic con- gestion. R Pulveris Jalapae gr. x. Potassae Bitartratis 3U- Mi6ce. S. To be taken in syrup or molasses. A hydragogue cathartic, used in dropsy and scrofulous inflammation of the joints. R Sulphuris 3i. Potassae Bitartratis Jii. Misce. S. To be taken in syrup or molasses. A laxative, used in piles and cutaneous diseases. R Pulveris Rhei gr. x. Magnesia; gss. Fiat pulvis. S. To be taken in syrup or molasses. A laxative and antacid, used in diar- rhoea, dyspepsia, &c. R Pulveris Scillae gr. xii. Potassae Nitratis !Ji. Fiat pulvis, in chartulas sex dividen- dus. S. One to be taken twice or three times a day in syrup or molasses. A diuretic employed in dropsy. R Potassae Nitratis gi. Antimonii et Potassae Tartratis gr. i. Hydrarg. Chlorid. Mitis gr. vi. Fiat pulvis, in chartulas sex dividen- dus. S. One to be taken every two hours in syrup or molasses. A refrigerant, diaphoretic, and altera- tive, used in bilious fevers; usually called nitrous powders. R Pulveris Guaiaci Resinae, Potassae Nitratis, aa. gi. Pulveris Ipecacuanhae gr. iii. Opii gr. ii. Fiat pulvis, in chartulas sex dividen- dus. S. One to be taken every three hours in syrup or molasses. A stimulant diaphoretic, used in rheu- matism and gout after sufficient depletion. Appendix. 1311 R Ferri Subcarbonatis, Pulveris Colombae, Pulveris Zingiberis, aa £i. Fiat pulvis, in chartulas sex dividendus. S. One to be taken three times a day in syrup or molasses. A tonic, used in dyspepsia and general debility. Pills. R Pulveris Aloes, Pulveris Rhei, aa gss. Saponis ^i- Misce, et cum aqua fiat massa in pilu- las viginti dividenda. S. Two or three to be taken daily, at bed-time, or before a meal. An excellent laxative in habitual con- stipation. R Massae Pilularum Hydrargyri, Pulveris Aloes, Pulveris Rhei, aa. ^i- Misce, et cum aqua fiat massa in pilu- las viginti dividenda. S. Three to be taken at bed-time. An alterative and laxative, useful in con- stipation with deranged or deficient hepatic secretion. R Pulveris Aloes, Extracti Quassiae, aa, 5Ji. Olei Anisi lT\,x. Syrupi, q. s. Misce, et fiat massa in pilulas triginta dividenda. S. Two to be taken once, twice, or three times a day. A laxative, tonic, and carminative, use- ful in dyspepsia. R Pulveris Scillae 9i. Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis gr. x. Pulveris Acaciae, Syrupi, aa, q. s. Misce, et fiat massa in pilulas decem dividenda. S. One to be taken two or three times a day. A diuretic and alterative, much used in dropsy, especially when complicated with organic visceral disease. R Pulveris Opii gr. iv. t Pulveris Ipecacuanhae gr. xviii. Pulveris Acaciae, Syrupi, aa q. s. Misce, et fiat massa in pilulas duode- cim dividenda. S. One to be taken after each stool. An anodyne diaphoretic, useful in dys- entery and diarrhoea after the use of laxa- tives. R Pulveris Opii, Pulveris Ipecacuanhae, aa gr. iii. Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis gr. vi. Pulveris Acaciae, Syrupi, aa q. s. Misce, et fiat massa in pilulas tres divi- denda. S. One or more to be taken at bed- time, or according to circumstances. An anodyne, diaphoretic, and altera- tive, very useful in diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid pneumonia, and various other dis- eases. R Plumbi Acetatis, in pulverem triti, gr xii. Pulveris Opii gr. i. ■ Pulv. Acaciae, Syrupi, aa q. s. ut fiat massa in pilulas sex dividenda. S. One every two, three, or four hours. An astringent much employed in hae- moptysis and uterine hemorrhage. Mixtures. R Magnesiae gi. Syrupi f§i. Tere simul, et affunde Aquae Acidi Carbonici fgiv. Fiat haustus. S. To be taken at a draught, the mix- ture being well shaken. .An agreeable mode of administering magnesia. R Mannae %i. Foeniculi contusi gi. Aquae bullientis fgiv. Fiat infusum et cola; dein adjice Magnesiae Carbonatis ^ii. Ft. mist. S. One-third to be taken every three or four hours till it operates, the mixture being shaken. An excellent carminative and mild lax- ative in flatulence and pain in the bowels. R Olei Ricini fgi. Pulveris Acaciae, Sacchari, aa. gii. Aquae Menthae Piperitae f^iii- Acaciam et saccharum cum fluiduncia dimidia aquae menthae tere; dein oleum adjice, et contere; denique aquam reli- quam paulatim infunde, et omnia misce. S. To be taken at a draught, the mix- ture being well shaken. 1312 Appendix. R Olei Ricini fg\. Vitellum ovi unius. Tere simul, et adde, Syrupi f^ss. Aquae Menthae Piperitae f^ii. Ft, haust. S. To be taken at a draught, the mix- ture being well shaken. This and the preceding formula afford convenient modes of administering castor oil, when the stomach is irritable. Any other fixed oil may be given in the same way. R Olei Ricini fjiss. Tinctura Opii tti_xxx. Pulv. Acacia?, Sacchari, aa 5Jii. Aquae Menthae Viridis f Sjiv. Acaciam et saccharum cum paululo aquae menthae tere; dein oleum adjice, et iterum tere; denique aquam reliquam pau- latum infunde, et omnia misce. S. A tablespoonful to be taken every hour or two hours till it operates, the mix- ture being each time well shaken. Used as a gentle laxative in dysentery and diarrhoea. It is usually known by the name of oleaginous mixture. R Elaterii gr. i. Spiritus iEtheris Nitrici f^ii. Tincturae Scilla?, Oxymellis Colchici, aa f^ss. Syrupi f^i. Ft. mist. S. A teaspoonful to be taken three or four times a day in a little water. Diuretic, used by Ferriar in dropsy. R Copaiba?, Spiritus Lavandula? Comp. aa f^ii. Mucilaginis Acaciae f^ss. Syrupi f^iii. Simul tere; dein paulatim affunde Aquae f^iv. Misce. • S. A tablespoonful to be taken four times a day or more frequently. Given in chronic catarrhs, and chronic nephritic affections. The dose must be larger in gonorrhoea. Neutral Mixture. R Acidi Citrici gii. Olei Limonis TT\^i. ■ Simul tere, et adde Aquae f§iv. Liqua, et adde Potassa? Carbonatis q. s. ad saturand. Misce et per linteum cola. Or R Succi Limonis recentis f^iv. Potassae Carbonatis q. s. ad saturan- dum. Misce et cola. S. A tablespoonful to be given with an equal quantity of water, every hour or two hours. An excellent diaphoretic in fever. Effervescing Draught. R Potassae Carbonatis ^ii. Aquae f^iv. Liqua. Or R Potassae Bicarbonatis giii. Aquae f^iv. Liqua. S. Add a tablespoonful of the solution to the same quantity of lemon or lime- juice, previously mixed with a tablespoon- ful of water; and give the mixture, in the state of effervescence, every hour or two hours. An excellent diaphoretic and anti-emetic in fever with nausea or vomiting. Brown Mixture". B Pulv. Extract. Glycyrrhiza?, Pulv. Acaciae, aa £ii. Aquae ferventis f|;iv. Liqua, et adde Vini Antimonii f£ii. Tincturae Opii h"Lxx. Ft. mist. S. A ^Sqj^pponful to be taken occa- sionally. Expectorant, demulcent, and anodyne, useful in catarrhal affections. R Antimonii et Potassae Tartratis gr. i. Syrupi Scillae, Liquoris Morphia? Sulphatis, aa. f^ss. Pulveris Acaciae 5Jii. Syrupi f^fss. Aquae fluvialis f^iv. Ft. mist. S. A tablespoonful to be taken occa- sionally. 1 An expectorant and anodyne cough mixture. R Acidi Nitrosi f^i. Tinctura? Opii gtt.xl. Aquae Camphora? f ^ viii. Misce. S. One-fourth to be taken every three or four hours. Hope's mixture, used in dysentery, di- arrhoea, and cholera. R Camphora? 5Ji. Myrrhas Jss. Pulv. Acacia?, Sacchari, aa gii. Aquae f Jvi. Camphoram cum alcoholis paululo in pulverem tere;" dein cum myrrha, acacia, et saccharo contere; denique cum aqu& paulatim instififita misce. Appendix. 1313 S. A tablespoonful to be taken for a dose, the mixture being Well shaken. A convenient form for administering camphor. R Creta? Praeparatae 9iv. Massa-? Pil. Hydrarg. gr. viii. Tincturae Opii gtt.viii. Pulveris Acacia?, Sacchari, aa 5ji. Aquae Cinnamomi, Aquae, aa f^i. Solida simul tere, dein liquida'paulatim inter terendum adjice, et omnia misce. S. A teaspoonful to be taken for a dose, the mixture being well shaken. An antacid and alterative mixture, well adapted to infantile diarrhoea with white stools. The dose mentioned is for a child a year or two old, and may be repeated ibur or six times in twenty-four hours. R Pulveris Kino gii. Aqua? bullientis f ^ vi. Fiat infusum et cola; dein secundum artem ad misce, Creta? Praeparatae SJiii. Tinctura? Opii f :**ss. Spiritus Lavandulae Compositi fgss. Pulveris Acaciae, • Sacchari, aa gii. S. A tablespoonful to be taken for a dose, the mixture being well shaken. Astringent and antacid, useful in diar- rhoea. Solutions. R Magnesiae Sulphatis §i. Syrupi Limonis f l|i. Aquae Acidi Carbonici f^vi. Misce. S. To be taken at a draught. An agreeable mode of administering sulphate of magnesia. R Potassa? Nitratis gi. Antimonii et-Potass39 Tartratis gr.i. Aquae fluvialis f^iv. Liqua. S. A tablespoonful to be taken every two hours. * A refrigerant diaphoretic used in fevers. R Magnesiae Sulphatis §i. Antimonii et Potassae Tartratis gr. i. Succi Limonis recentis f §i. Aquae f ^ iii. Misce. S. A tablespoonful to be taken every two, hours till it operates upon the bowels. Useful in fevers. R Quinia? Sulphatis gr. xii. Acidi Sulphurici Aromatici gtt. xxiv. Syrupi f §ss. Aquae Menthae Piperitae f^i. Misce. S. A teaspoonful to be taken every hour or two hours. A good mode of administering sulphate of quinia in solution. Infusions. R Senna? gin. Magnesia? Sulphatis, Manna?, aa §ss. Foeniculi ^i. Aquae bullientis Oss. Macera per horam in vase leviter clau- so, et cola. ** S. Give a teacupful every three or four hours till it operates. An excellent purgative in febrile com- plaints. R Colomba? contusae, Zingiberis contusi, aa. §ss. Senna? 5Jii. Aquae bullientis Oi. Macera per horam in vase leviter clau- so, et cola. S. A wineglassful to ba taken morning, noon, and evening, or less frequently if it operate too much. . An excellent remedy in dyspepsia with constipation and flatulence. R Spigelia? §ss. Sennae gii. Manna? ^i. Foeniculi gii. Aquae bullientis Oi. Macera per horam in vase leviter clan- so, et cola. S. A wineglassful to be given to a child from two to four years old, three or four times a day. A powerful anthelmintic. , R Pulveris Cinchona? Rubrae %i. Acidi Sulphurici Aromatici f£i. Aqua? Oi. Macera per horas duodecim, subinde agitans. S. A wineglassful of the clear liquid to be taken for a dose. A good method of administering Peru- vian bark in cold infusion. 1314 Appendix. III. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. U. S., Lond., Ed., Dub. Pound. Ounces. Drachms. Scruples. Grains. ibi = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760 I 1 = 8 = 24 = 480 31 = 3 91 = 60 gr. 20 The Imperial Standard Troy weight at present recognised by the British laws, corresponds with the Apothecaries' weight in pounds, ounces, and grains, but differs from it in the division of the ounce, which, according to the former scale, contains twenty pennyweights, each weighing twenty- four grains. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Pound. Ounces. Drachms. Troy grains. ft 1 = 16 = 256 = 7000 oz. 1 = 16 = 437-5 dr. 1 = gr. 27-34375 Relative value of Troy and Avoirdupois Weights. Pound. Pounds. Pound. Oz. Grains. 1 Troy = 0-822857 Avoirdupois =0 13 72-5 1 Avoirdupois = 1-215277 Troy =1 2 280 APOTHECARIES' OR WINE MEASURE. U. S., Dub. Gallon. Pints. Fluidounces. Fluidrachms. Minims. Cubic inches. Cong. 1 = 8 = 128 = 1024 = 61440 = 231 01 = 16 = 128 = 7680 = 28*875 m == 8 f3 l = 480 = ni,60 = 1-8047 = -2256 IMPERIAL MEASURE, Adopted by the London and Edinburgh Colleges. Gallon. Pints. Fluidounees. Fluidrachms. Minims. 1 = 8= 160 = 1280 •= 76800 1 = 20 = 160 = 9600 1 = 8 = 480 1 = 60 Relative Value of Apothecaries' and Imperial Measure. apothecaries' measure. imperial measure. Pints. Fluidounces. Fluidrachms. Minims. 1 gallon = 6 13 2 23 Ipint = 16 5 18 1 fluidounce = 1 0 20 1 fluidrachm = 1 2| Appendix. 1315 apothecaries' measure. Gallon. Pints. Fluidoz. Fluidr. 119 5 1 3 1 7 Minim: 8 38 41 58 IMPERIAL MEASURE. 1 gallon = 1 pint = 1 fluidounce = 1 fluidrachm = Relative Value of Weights and Measures in Distilled Water at 60° Fahrenheit. 1. Value of Apothecaries' Weight in Apothecaries' Measure. Pints. Fluidoz. Fluidr. Minims. 1 pound = 0*7900031 pints = 0 12 5 7-2238 1 ounce = 1-0533376 fluidounces =010 25-6020 1 drachm = 1*0533376 fluidrachms =001 3*2002 1 scruple = 0 0 0 21*0667 1 grain = 0 0 0 1*0533 2. Value of Apothecaries' Measure in Apothecaries' Weight. Pounds. Oz. Dr. Sc. Gr. Grains. 1 ffallon = 10*12654270 pounds = 10 1 4 0 8*88 = 58328*886 1 pint = 1*26581783 pounds = 13 1111-11= 7291-1107 1 fluidounce = 0*94936332 ounces =0071 15-69 = 455-6944 1 fluidrachm = 0*94936332 drachms = 0 0 0 2 16*96 = 56-9618 1 minim = 0*94936332 grains = 9493 3. Value of Avoirdupois Weight in Apothecaries' Measure. Pints. Fluidounces. Fluidrachms. Minims. 1 pound = 0-9600732 pints =0 15 2 ^"|^ 1 ounce ■= 0*9600732 fluidounces =0 0 7 40*8351 4. Value of Apothecaries' Measure in Avoirdupois Weight. 1 gallon = 8*33269800 pounds. 1 pint = 1*04158725 pounds. 1 fluidounce = 1*04158725 ounces. In converting the weights of liquids heavier or lighter than water into measures, or conversely, a correction must be made for specific gravity. In converting weights into measures, the calculator may proceed as if the liquid was water, Ind the obtained measure will be to the true measure in- versely as the specific gravity. In the converse operation, of turning mea- rrestto weights, the same" assumption maybe made, and the obtained weight will be to the true weight directly as the specific gravity. FORMER FRENCH WEIGHTS. Pound. 1 Poids de Marc Marc. = 2 = 1-5 1 Onces. = 16 __ io = Gros. 128 96 Deniers = 3S4 = 288 . i drains. 9216 6912 Troy grains. = 7561 = 5670-5 = Grammes. 489-5058 367-1294 1 Apothecary ■8 ,_ 64 192 = 4608 = 3780-5 = 244-7529 1 8 = 24 = 576 —= 472-5 = 30*5941 1 — 3 = 72 5= 59-1 = 3-8242 1 = 24 1 = 19*7 0-8 __ 1-2747 0530 1316 Appendix. Relative Value of Old French and English Weights. Poids de Marc. Troy Weight. Avoirdupois. Troy grains. 1 pound = 1-312680 lb = 1*080143 tfe = 7561 1 once (ounce) = -984504 oz. = 1*080143 oz.= 472-5625 1 gros (drachm) = -954504 dr. = 59-0703125 1 grain ■= •820421 Troy. Poids de Marc. French Grains. 1 pound = 0*76180 tfe = 7561 1 ounce = 1*01574 onces = 585083 1 drachm = 101574 gros = 73* 135 1 grain = 1*219 Avoirdupois Poids de Marc. French Grains. 1 pound = 0*925803 tfe = 8532*3 1 ounce = 0*925803 once = 533-27 To convert French grains into Troy grains, divide by } 1.21SQ --------Troy grains into French grains, multiply by 3 --------French ounces into Troy ounces, divide by } i.Ait-,704 --------Troy ounces into French ounces, multiply by 5 --------French pounds (poids de marc) into Troy i pounds, multiply by t 1*31268 --------Troy pounds into French pounds, divide by J FRENCH DECIMAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The French metrical system is based upon the idea of employing, as the unity of all measures, whether of length, capacity, or weight, a uniform Unchangeable standard, adopted from nature, the multiples and subdivisions of which should follow in decimal progression. To obtain such a standard, the length of one-fourth part of the terrestrial meridian, extending from the equator to the pole, was ascertained. The ten millionth part of this arc was chosen as the unity of measures of length, and was denominated metre. The cube of the tenth part of the metre was taken as the unity of mea- sures of capacity, and denominated litre. The weight of distilled water, at its greatest density, which this cube is capable of containing, was called kilogramme, of which the thousandth part was adopted as the unity of weight, under the name of gramme. The multiples of these measures, proceeding in the decimal progression, are distinguished by employing the prefixes, deca, hecto, kilo, and myria, taken from the Greek numerals; and the subdivisions, following the same order, by deci, centi, mili, from the Latin numerals. The metre, or unity of length, at 32° = 39-371 The litre, or unity of capacity, = 61-028 The gramme, or unity of weight, = 15-434 English inches at 62°. English cubic inches. Troy grains. Upon this basis the following tables, which we take with some slight alterations from the Edinburgh New Dispensatory, have been constructed. It was ascertained by accurate examination at the London Mint, that the gramme is only 15-434 Troy grains, though sometimes stated at 15*444 grains. Appendix. 1317 MEASURES OF LENGTH. The metre being at 32°, and the foot at 62°. Millimetre Centimetre Decimetre Metre Decametre Hectometre Kilometre Myriametre Millilitre Centilitre Decilitre Litre Decalitre Hectolitre Kilolitre Myrialitre English Inches. •03937 •39371 3-93710 Miles. Fur. Yards. Feet. Inches, 39-37100 = 0 0 10 3*371 393-71000 = 0 0 10 2 9*710 3937-10000 = 0 0 109 1 1*100 39371-00000 = 0 4 213 1 11*000 39371000000 = 6 1 156 1 2-000 MEASURES OF CAPACITY English Cubic Inches. Apothecaries' Measure. •061028 = 16-2318 minims. •610280 = 2-7053 fluidrachms. 6-102800 = 3-3816 fluidounces. 61-028000 = 2-1135 pints. 610-2W0000 = 2-6419 gallons. 6102*800000 61028*000000 610280-000000 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. Troy Grains. •0154 •1543 1-5434 15-4340 lb. oz. dr. gr. 154-3402 = 0 0 2 34-3 1543*4023 => 0 3 1 43-4 154340234 = 2 8 1 14 154340*2344 = 26 9 4 20 Milligramme Centigramme Decigramme Gramme Decagramme Hectogramme Kilogramme Myriagramme Though the decimal system of weights and measures was established by law in France, it was found impossible to procure its general adoption by the people, who obstinately adhered to the old poids de marc and its divi- sions; or, if they adopted the new weights, gave them the names of the old weights to which they most nearly approached. Thus the kilogrammgjjt which is equal to 18,827 jfa French grains, or 2 pounds 5 gros 35 t|f grains poids de marc, was divided into two parts, and the half of it called a pound. One reason for this adherence to the old weights was the con- venience of division into halves, quarters, &c, of which the new were not susceptible. To obviate this difficulty the Imperial government legalized the employment of the half kilogramme as the unity of weight, under the name of pound, and allowed this to be divided into half pounds, quarters, eighths, ounces, &c, as in the old poids de marc. The new pound is distinguished by the name of metrical pound, and has been adopted to a considerable extent; while the old weights are retained by some, particu- larly by the apothecaries and goldsmiths ; so that three systems are now 1318 Appendix. more or less in use in France—the original poids de marc, the decima. pystem, and the metrical pound with its divisions. The following table represents the relative value of these different weights. Decimal System Poids de Marc Metrical Pound. tfe oz. dr. gr- tfe OZ. dr. gr- 1 centigramme — 0 0 0 0-19 = 0 0 0 0*18 1 decigramme = 0 0 0 1-88 = 0 0 0 1-84 1 gramme = 0 0 0 18-83 = 0 0 0 18*43 1 decagramme = 0 0 2 44-27 = 0 0 2 40*32 1 hectogramme = 0 3 2 10*71 = 0 3 1 43*2 1 kilogramme = 2 0 5 3515 = 2 0 0 0 Poids de Marc. Grammes. Metrical Pound. Grammes. 1 grain = 00531 1 grain = 0054 24 grains or 9i = 1*2747 24 grains or 9i = 1*302 72 grains or Jl = 3*8242 72 grains or 5i = 3*906 1 ounce = 30*5941 1 ounce = 31*25 1 pound = 489-5058 1 pound == 500 The following table is taken from Christison's Dispensatory, and was calculated chiefly from data furnished in Soubeiran's Traite de Pharmacie. Table of certain foreign Apothecaries'' Weights, exhibiting the value of their different denominations in Troy Grains. Pound. Ounce. Drachm. Scruple. Grain. French (old) - - 5670*5 472-50 59* 10 19-70 0-820 Spanish 5320-4 443-49 55*44 18*47 0-769 Tuscan - 5240-3 436-67 54-58 1819 0*758 Roman 52350 436-25 54-53 1817 0*757 Austrian - 6495*1 541-25 67-65 22*55 1127 German or 1 Nuremburg L 5524*8 460*40 57-55 19-18 0*960 Russian J Prussian - 54151 451*26 56-40 18-80 0*940 Dutch } Belgian 3 Swedish 5695-8 474-64 59-33 19-78 0*988 - 5500-2 458-34 57-29 19-09 0*954 Piedmontese 4744*7 395-39 49-45 16-48 0*824 Venetian - 4661*4 388-45 48-55 16-18 0*809 Of these weights, all, except the French, Spanish, Tuscan, and Roman, "(first named in the table,) are divided into parts corresponding with those of the English Apothecaries' weight. In these four, the drachm contains 72 instead of 60 grains, and the scruple 24 instead of 20 grains; but, as in the English, there are 3 scruples in the drachm, 8 drachms in the ounce, and 12 ounces in the pound. APPROXIMATE MEASUREMENT. For the sake of convenience, in the absence of proper instruments, we often make use of means of measurement, which, though not precise nor uniform, afford results sufficiently accurate for ordinary purposes. Of this kind are certain household implements, of a capacity approaching to uni- Appendix. 1319 formity, and corresponding to a certain extent with the regular standard measures. Custom has attached a fixed value to these implements, with which it is proper that the practitioner should be familiar; although their capacity, as they are now made, generally somewhat exceeds that at which they were originally and still continue to be estimated. A tea-cup is estimated to contain about four fluidounces, or a gill. A wineglass ... - two fluidounces. A tablespoon (cochlear magnum) - half a fluidounce. A teaspoon (cochlear parvum) - a fluidrachm. Small quantities of liquid medicines are often estimated by drops, each of which is usually considered equivalent to a minim, or the sixtieth part of a fluidrachm. The drop of water and of watery fluids is, on an average, about this size; but the same is by no means the case with all medicinal liquids, and the drop even of the same fluid varies exceedingly in bulk, according to the circumstances under which it is formed. This is, there- fore, an uncertain mode of estimating the quantity of liquids, and should be superseded where minim measures can be had. , , ,T ■& *-» The results stated in the following table were obtained by Mr. k. Du- rand, of Philadelphia. (See Journ. of the Philadelphia College of Phar- macy, i. 169.) They may be relied on as accurate; but should be con- sidered as indicating only the relative number of drops afforded by the several liquids mentioned; for, under other circumstances than those ot Mr. Durand's experiments, entirely different results might be obtained as relates to each liquid. The preparations experimented with were those ot the first edition of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Table, exhibiting the number of Drops of different Liquids equivalent to a Fluidrachm. Acid, Acetic (crystallizable) Acid, Hydrocyanic (medicinal) Acid, Muriatic Acid, Nitric Acid, Nitric, diluted (1 to 7) Acid Sulphuric Acid Sulphuric, Aromatic Acid Sulphuric, Djluted (1 to 7) Alcohol (rectified spirit) Alcohol, Diluted (proof spirit) Arsenite of Potassa, Solution of Ether, Sulphuric Oil of Aniseed, of Cinnamon, of Cloves, of Peppermint, of Sweet Almonds, of Olives Drops. 120 45 54 84 51 90 120 51 138 120 57 150 120 Tincture of Assafetida, of Fox- glove, of Guaiac, of Opium Tincture of Muriate of Iron Vinegar, Distilled Vinegar of Colchicum Vinegar of Opium (black drop) Vinegar of Squill Water, pistilled Water of Ammonia (strong) Water of Ammonia (weak) Wine (Teneriffe) Wine, Antimoniai Wine of Colchicum Wine of Opium Drops. 120 132 78 78 78 78 45 54 45 78 72 75 78 1320 Appendix. IV. ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF, PHARMACEUTICAL EQUIVALENTS.* Name. Acid, acetic..... crystallized - antimonic - antimonious - arsenic - arsenious - - - benzoic - crystallized - boracic - camphoric (protohydrated) carbonic .... chloric..... chlorous .... citric ..... cyanic - gallic (dried at 212°) hydriodic - - - - hydrocyanic (prussic acid) hydrosulphuric (sulphuretted hydrogen) hypochlorous - - - - hyponitrous - - - - hypophosphorous - hyposulphuric ... hyposulphurous iodic ..... kinic (crystallized) - - - meconic (dried at 212°) - muriatic (hydrochloric acid) nitric..... nitrous..... * This table includes all the simple bodies, although a number of them are not used in medicine. It also embraces a few compounds which are not used in pharmacy, but which are inserted on account of their general importance. t By modern chemists, the simple bodies are designated by letters called symbols. The initial letter of the name is the symbol, whenever it is distinctive; but when several simple bodies have names beginning with the same letter, the plan adopted is to repre- sent one of them by the initial letter, and the rest by the initial letter, with some other associated with it. Thus C stands for carbon, Cd for cadmium, Ca for calcium, Ce for cerium, Cl for chlorine, Cr for chromium, Co for cobalt, Cu for copper, &c. The use of these symbols saves time and space in designating the composition of compounds. Where a single equivalent is intended to be designated, the symbol of the body is simply given; but where several equivalents are to be represented, the symbol is preceded by a figure indicating the number. Thus C means one equivalent of carbon; 2C, two equivalents, and so on. Sometimes the number of equivalents is denoted by a small depressed figure following the symbol; and this plan has been adopted, in most instances, in the above table. The group of letters and figures, thus used to denote the composition of any body, is called ihe formula of such body. The symbols given are those employed by Berzelius, and should not be varied from, for fear of destroying their usefulness by creating confu- sion. The equivalents of four elements have been changed since the appearance of the last edition of this work. Chromium is now represented by 26-27, on the authority of M. Berlin, of Stockholm; gold by 196-66, being a corrected number given by Berze- lius; sulphur by 16; and uranium by 60, in accordance with the experiments of Peligot. Symbol or Formula.^ Equivalent. C4H303 C4H303+HO SbOs 51 60 169 Sb04 161 As05 115-4 As03 99.4 C14H503 C14H503 + HO B03 113 122 34*9 C10H8O4 co3 100 22 C105 75*42 C104 67*42 C^HDj, CyO C7H303 HI 165 34 85 127*3 HCy ?n) HS 27 17 CIO 43*42 N03 38 PO 39-4 s2os 72 io5 48 166*3 C7H806 C„H4014 HCl 96 200 36*42 N05 54 N04 46 Appendix. 1321 Name. Acid, oxalic ----- crystallized ... sublimed - - - - phosphoric - phosphorous - - - - prussic. See Acid, hydrocyanic. succinic (anhydrous) sulphuric - liquid (sp.gr. 1*845) sulphurous - tannic (tannin from galls) tartaric..... crystallized - Alcohol...... Alum. See Sulphate of alumina and potassa Alumina..... tersulphate (salt in alum) Aluminium - - - - - Amide...... Ammonia - - - - acetate - - - - - bicarbonate - - - - bihydrosulphate - carbonate - hydrosulphate (hydrosulphuret) muriate (sal ammoniac) nitrate - sesquicarbonate - - - hydrated (medicinal carbonate) sulphate - - - - - Ammonium..... Antimony or Stibium - - - oxychloride (powder of Algaroth) oxysulphuret - - - - tartrate of teroxide - - - terchloride (butter of antimony) - teroxide (medicinal oxide) - tersulphuret (medicinal sulphuret) Arsenic..... bisulphuret (realgar) - tersulphuret (orpiment) Atropia - - - - Barium - - - - chloride - crystallized Baryta - - - carbonate - hydrate - - - " muriate. See Barium, chloride. nitrate - sulphate - - - Benzyle - 112 Symbol or Formula. J Equivalent. ao, 36 CA+3HO 63 ca+ho 45 P05 71-4 po3 55*4 c4ha 50 SO., 40 so3-4-HO 49 ^so, 32 CagH^js 212 c4ha 66 C4HA+HO 75 C4H4-f-2H0 46 AIA 51*4 A1A^S03 171*4 Al 13*7 NHd 16 NH, 17 NH3,C H303 68 NH„2C03 61 NH3,2HS 51 NH3,COa 39 NH..HS 34 NH„HC1 53*42 NH„NOs 71 2NH„3COa 100 2NH3,3CO,+ 2HO 118 NH5,S03 57 NH4 18 Sb 129 9SbO, + 2SbCl3 1847*52 Sb03+5SbS,+ 16HO 1182 SbO„C4HA 219 SbCl3 235*26 Sb03 153 SbS3 177 "* As 75*4 ' AsS3 107*4 AsS., 123*4 NC;t4H^06 289 Ba 68*7 BaCl 10412 BaCl+2HO 122* 12 BaO 76*7 BaO,COa 9b*7 BaO,HO 85*7 BaO,NOs 130*7 BaO.S03 116*7 C14H5Oa 105 1322 . Appendix. B Br NAH Cd NAHA .0, Name. Symbol or Formula Bismuth..... Bi protoxide - BiO trisnitrate of protoxide - - 3Bi0,N0s Black oxide of manganese. See Manganese, deutoxide. oxide of mercury. See Mercury, protoxide. Blue vitriol. See Copper, sulphate of protoxide. Borax. See Soda, biborate. Boron - - - Bromine - Brucia ------ Cadmium - Caffein (also thein and guaranin) Calamine. See Zinc, carbonate of protoxide. Calcium - chloride - crystallized - Calomel. See Mercury, protochloride. Camphene - - - - - Camphor - Carbon Caustic potassa. See Potassa, hydrate. soda. See Soda, hydrate. Cerium - Ceruse. See Lead, carbonate of protoxide. Chalk. See Lime, carbonate. Chlorine - Chromium - Cinchonia - disulphate - sulphate - Cinnabar. See Mercury, bisulphuret. Cobalt...... Codeia ------ Columbium or Tantalum Common salt. See Sodium, chloride. Copper or Cuprum - - - - acetate of protoxide - - - black or protoxide f, diacetate of protoxide (verdigris) red or dioxide - - - - sulphate of protoxide (blue vitriol) crystallized Corrosive sublimate. See Mercury, bichloride Cream of tartar. See Potassa, bitartrate. Creasote - Cyanogen ..... DlDYMIUM - - - - . Epsom salt. See Magnesia, sulphate. Erbium - - - - Ethal..... Ether, acetic - hydric (sulphuric) - - . hyponitrous (nitric) - Ca CaCl CaCl+6H0 C10H8 C10H8O C Ce Cl Cr NCanH1 2NC20H126,SO3 NCa0HuO,SO8 Equivalent. 71 79 291 10*9 78*4 373 55*8 97 20*5 55*92 109*92 68 76 6 ,0 Co NC35H2A Ta Cu CuO,C4H303 CuO 2CuO,C4H303 Cu20 CuO,S03 CuO,S03+5HO C13H8Oa? NCa or Cy D 1 C33R.402 C4H4,C4HA + HO C4H4,HO or C4HsO C4H4,N03+HO 46 35-42 26-27 154 348 194 29-5 284 185 31*6 90*6 39-6 130-2 71-2 79*6 124-6 102 26 i 1 242 88 37 75 Appendix. Name. Symbol or Formula. Ether, muriatic - ... C4H4,HC1 nitric. See Ether, hyponitrous. sulphuric. See Ether, hydric. Ethereal oil. See Sulphate of ether and etherine. Etherine ------ C4H4 Ethyle (ethule).....C4HS Ferrocyanogen FeCy3 Flowers of zinc Fluorine Glauber's salt. . Glucina - - - - - - - Ga° Glucinium - - - - - " ® Gold or Aurum.....-A-u Goulard's extract. See Lead, diacetate of protoxide. Green vitriol. See Iron, sulphate of protoxide. Heavy oil of wine. See Sulphate of ether and etherine Eq uivalcnt. 64*42 See Zinc, protoxide. See Soda, sulphate. Hydrogen protoxide (water) - Ilmenium? - Iodine..... Iridium - - - - - Iron or Ferrum - bitartrate of sesquioxide black oxide (medicinal oxide) bromide - - - - carbonate of protoxide ferrocyanuret (pure Prussian blue) native black oxide - - - protiodide (medicinal iodide) crystallized - - - protocyanuret - - - - protoxide - - - - red or sesquioxide hydrated - sesquichloride - subarseniate of protoxide - sulphate of protoxide (green vitriol) crystallized tartrate of protoxide - tartrate of sesquioxide teracetate of sesquioxide Lantanium Lead or Plumbum - - - * acetate of protoxide (sugar of lead) crystallized - " carbonate of protoxide (white lead) chloride - - - deutoxide (puce oxide) - ■ " diacetate of protoxide (Goulard's extract) iodide nitrate of protoxide protoxide (massicot) - red oxide (red lead or minium) - H HO 11 I Ir Fe FeA*2C4H203 FeA+2FeO FeBr FeO,C02 Fe7Cyq . Fe203+FeO Fel - FeI+5HO FeCy FeO FeA - FeA+2HO Fe9Cls - 4FeO,AsOs FeO,S03 - FeO,S03+7HO - FeO,C4H205 - Fe303,C4HA - Fe203,3C4H303 La Pb - Pb0,C4H303 PbO,C4H303+3HO PbO,C02 PbCl Pb02 2PbO,C4HA Pbl PbO,N03 PbO Pb304 28 29 106 18*68 77 26*5 196*66 9 60*24 126*3 98-8 28 2.12 152 106*4 58 430 116 154*3 199*3 54 36 80 98 162*26 259-4 76 139 102 146 233 4415 103*6 162*6 189*6 133*6 139*02 119*6 274*2 229*9 165*6 111*6 342*8 1324 Appendix. Name. Symbol or Formula. Equivalent. Lime - - CaO 28*5 bone-phosphate - 8CaO,3P05 442*2 carbonate (chalk) - - CaO,COa 50*5 chlorinated - - CaO,Cl 63-92 hydrate (slaked lime) - CaO,HO 37-5 muriate. See Calcium, chloride. oxalate ... - CaO,CA 64-5 tartrate - - Ca0,C4H2O5 94*5 Lithium - - L 6 Lunar caustic. See Silver, nitrate of protoxfde. Magnesia - * - - MgO 20*7 carbonate - - MgO,COa 42*7 sulphate (Epsom salt) - MgO,S03 60*7 crystallized - - MgO,S03+7HO 123*7 Magnesium - - - - - Mg 12*7 Manganese - - Mn 27*7 deutoxide (black oxide) - - Mn02 43*7 Mannite - - c6ha 91 Massicot. See Lead, protoxide. Mercury or Hydrargyrum - - Hg 202 acetate of protoxide - HgO,C4H303 261 ammoniated (white precipitate), HgCl,NHa 253-42 bichloride (corrosive sublimate) HgCl3 272*84 bicyanuret (prussi-ate) - HgCy2 254 biniodide - - Hgl2 454*6 bisulphate of deutoxide - - HgOa,2S03 298 bisulphuret (cinnabar) - HgS3 234 deutoxide (red precipitate) - HgOa 218 nitrate of deutoxide - Hg02,N05 272 nitrate of protoxide - HgO,N05 264 protiodide - - Hgl 328*3 protochloride (calomel) - - HgCl 237*42 protosulphuret - HgS 218 protoxide (black oxide) - - HgO 210 sesquiodide - - Hg2I3 782*9 subsulphate of deutoxide (turpeth mineral) 3HgOa,2S03 734 sulphate of protoxide - HgO,S03 250 Minium. See Lead, red oxide. Molybdenum - - Mo 47*7 Morphia - - NC35H2(A 292 acetate - - - - - - NC^H^AAHA 343 muriate - NC35Hffl06,HCl 328*42 sulphate - - NC^HsA-SO, 332 Narcein - - NC^HgoO^ 298 Nickel - - Ni 29*5 Niobium - . ? ? Nitre. See Potassa, nitrate. Nitrogen - - - - - N 14 Olefiant gas - - C2Ha 14 Orpiment. See Arsenic, tersulphuret. Osmium - - - - - Os 99*7 Oxygen - - 0 8 Appendix. 1325 Name. Palladium Pelopium - . - Phosphorus Platinum - Potassa - - - acetate - bicarbonate crystallized binoxalate (salt of sorrel) bisulphate - - - crystallized bitartrate (cream of tartar) carbonate (salt of tartar) chlorate Symbol or Formula. Pd ? P Pt KO KO,C4H303 KO,2COa KO,2COa+HO K0,2C203 K0,2S03 K0,2S03+2H0 KO,2C4H2Os KO,CO„ KO,C10"5 ferrocyanate. See Potassium, ferrocyanuret. hydrate (caustic potassa) hydriodate. See Potassium, iodide. nitrate (nitre or saltpetre) oxalate - - - - - sesquicarbonate - sulphate (vitriolated tartar) - tartrate (soluble tartar) Potassium or Kalium bromide - - - - chloride - - - - cyanuret - ferrocyanuret - crystallized - - - iodide - iodo-hydrargyrate teroxide _ - - tersulphuret - Prussian blue. See Iron, ferrocyanuret. Prussiate of mercury. See Mercury, bicyanuret Prussic acid. See Acid, hydrocyanic. Puce oxide of lead. See Lead, deutoxide. Gluinia - - ".,",,"•." disulphate (medicinal sulphate) - muriate - sulphate - Realgar. See Arsenic, bisulphuret. Red lead. See Lead, red oxide. precipitate. See Mercury, deutoxide. Rhodium - - - " , , Rochelle salt. See Tartrate of potassa and soda. Ruthenium - - \ . Sal ammoniac. See Ammonia, muriate. Salicin - - - " " Salt of sorrel. See Potassa, binoxalate. of tartar. See Potassa, carbonate. Saltpetre. See Potassa, nitrate. Selenium - Silica - " " KO,HO Equivalent. 53*3 ? 31*4 98*8 4715 9815 9115 10015 119*15 12715 14515 17915 6915 122*57 5615 KO,N05 KO,C203 2KO,3COa KO,S03 KO,C4HA K KBr KC1 KCy 2KCy,FeCy 2KCy,FeCy+3HO KI 2KI,HgI2 K03 KS, JN 020^412'-'2 2NC20H1202,S03 NC20H1202,HC1 NC20H12Oa,S03 R Ru 042rl29U22 Se SiO. 10115 8315 160*3 87*15 11315 3915 117*55 74*57 6515 184*3 211*3 165*45 785*5 6315 8715 162 364 198*42 202 52*2 52*2 k 457 39*6 46-5 1326 Appendix. Name. Symbol or Formula. Equivalent. Silicon...... Si 22*5 Silver or Argentum - - - - Ag 108 chloride..... AgCl 143-42 cyanuret..... -AgCy 134 nitrate of protoxide (lunar caustic) AgO,N05 170 protoxide..... AgO 116 Slaked lime. See Lime, hydrate. Soda.....- - NaO 31*3 acetate - - - - - NaO,C4H303 82*3 biborate (borax) - - - - Na0,2B03 101-1 bicarbonate..... NaO,2COa 75-3 crystallized - - - - NaO,2C02+HO 84*3 carbonate - - - - NaO,COa 53*3 crystallized - - - - NaO,COa-f 10HO 143.3 diphosphate (medicinal phosphate) 2NaO,P05 134 crystallized - - - - 2NaO,P05+25HO 359 hydrate (caustic soda) - - - NaO,HO 40*3 muriate. See Sodium, chloride. nitrate..... NaO,N05 85*3 sesquicarbonate - - - - 2NaO,3C02 128*6 hydrated ... - 2NaO,3C02+4HO 164-6 sulphate (Glauber's salt) - - NaO,S03 71*3 crystallized - NaO,SO3+10HO - 161*3 tartrate.....NaO,C4H205 97*3 Sodium or Natrium ... - Na 23*3 chloride (common salt) - - - NaCl 58*72 sesquioxide - - - - Naa03 70*6 Soluble tartar. See Potassa, tartrate. Starch...... C^H^O.^ 102 Strontia ------ SrO 51*8 Strontium...... Sr 43*8 Strychnia - - - - - - NaC44H,A 347 Sugar, cane ... . C^HiAi 171 of lead. See Lead, acetate of protoxide. Sulphate of alumina and potassa (alum) AlA>3SOa-fKO,S03 258*55 Sulphate of ether and etherine - - C4H50,S03-fC4H4,S03 145 Sulphur...... S 16 Sulphuretted hydrogen. See Acid, hydrosulphuric. Tartar emetic. See Tartrate of antimony and potassa. Tartrate of antimony and potassa - Sb03,C4HaOs+KO,C4HA 332*15 Tartrate of iron and potassa - - FeAAH2Os+KO,C4HA 259*15 Tartrate of potassa and soda - - KO,C4HA-f-NaO,C4HA 210*45 Tellurium..... Te 64*2 Terbium...... ? 1 Thebaina......NC2SHt403 202 Thorina ------ ThO 67-6 Thorium ------ Th 59-6 Tin or Stannum..... Sn 58-9 Titanium...... Ti 24-3 Tungsten or Wolfram ... "W 99-7 Turpeth mineral. See Mercury, subsulphate of deutoxide. Uranium...... U 60 Urea....... NaCaH4Oa 60 Appendix. Name. Vanadium..... Veratria...... Verdigris. See Copper, diacetate of protoxide. Vitriolated tartar. See Potassa, sulphate. Water. See Hydrogen, protoxide. White lead. See Lead, carbonate of protoxide. precipitate. See Mercury, ammoniated. vitriol. See Zinc, sulphate of protoxide. Yttria...... Yttrium..... Zinc...... acetate of protoxide - - - carbonate of protoxide (calamine) chloride - - - - - cyanuret..... iodide..... protoxide (flowers of zinc) sulphate of protoxide (white vitriol) crystallized - sulphuret (blende) Zirconia ...... Zirconium - Symbol or Formula. V NCMH„A YO Y Zn ZnO,C4H303 ZnO,C03 ZnCl ZnCy Znl ZnO ZnO,S03 ZnO,S03+7HO ZnS Zr203 Zr Equivalent. 68*5 288 40-2 32-2 32*3 91-3 62*3 67*72 58*3 158-6 40*3 80*3 143*3 48*3 91-4 33-7 1328 Appendix. V. CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT THER- MOMETERS. In Fahrenheit's thermometer, which is universally employed in this country and Great Britain, the freezing point of water is placed at 32°, and the boiling point at 212°, and the number of intervening degrees is 180. The Centigrade thermometer, which has long been used in Sweden under the name of Celsius's thermometer, and is now most generally em- ployed on the continent of Europe, marks the freezing point zero, and the boiling point 100°. In Reaumur's thermometer, used in France before the revolution, the freezing point is at zero, and the boiling point at 80° In De Lisle's thermometer, used in Russia, the graduation begins at the boiling point, which is marked zero, while the freezing point is placed at 150°. From the above statement it is evident that 180 degrees of Fahrenheit are equal to 100° of the centigrade, 80° of Reaumur, and 150° of De Lisle; or 1 degree of the first is equal to £ of a degree of the second, £ of a degree of the third, and f of a degree of the last. It is easy, therefore, to convert the degrees of one into the equivalent number of degrees of the other; but in ascertaining the corresponding points upon the different scales, it is necessary to take into consideration their different modes of graduation. Thus, as the zero of Fahrenheit is 32° below the point at which that of the centigrade and of Reaumur is placed, this number must be taken into account in the calculation. The following propositions will embrace all the cases which can arise in relation to the three last-mentioned thermo- meters. That of De Lisle is seldom or never referred to in works which are read in this country. 1. If any degree on the centigrade scale, either above or below zero, be multiplied by 9 and divided by 5, or if any degree of Reaumur above or below zero be multiplied by 9 and divided by 4, the quotient will, in either case, be "the number of degrees above or below 32°, or the freezing point of Fahrenheit. 2. The number of degrees between any point of Fahrenheit's scale and 32°, if multiplied by 5 and divided by 9, will give the corresponding point on the centigrade; if multiplied by 4 and divided by 9, will give the cor- responding point on the scale of Reaumur. 3. Any degree of the centigrade multiplied by 4 and divided by 5, will give the corresponding degree of Reaumur; and conversely, any degree oi Reaumur multiplied by 5 and divided by 4, will give the corresponding degree of the centigrade. Appendix. 1329 VI. TABLES, SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY CORRESPONDING WITH THE SEVERAL DE- GREES OF DIFFERENT HYDROMETERS IN USE. Baume's hydrometer is usually employed in France. In this instrument, the sp. gr. of distilled water is assumed as the zero of the descending scale, in relation to fluids heavier than itself, while it is assumed as 10 on the ascending scale, in relation to lighter fluids. In the Pharmacopoeia Batava, a modification of the instrument has been adopted, in which the sp. gr. of distilled water has been assumed as the zero of both scales. Beck's hydro- meter is used in Germany. In the following tables, the specific gravity of liquids is given corresponding with the several degrees of these three hydrometers. For Liquids lighter than Water. Specific Gravity. Specific Gravity. Degreee Degree of hydro- ofhydro- meter. By Baum6. In Pharm. Batava. By Beck. meter. By Baum6. In Pharm. Batava. By Beck. 0 1000 1*0000 32 0*8638 819 0.8415 1 993 0*9941 33 0*8584 • 814 0*8374 2 987 0*9883 34 0*8531 810 0*8333 3 980 0*9826 35 0*8479 805 0*8292 4 974 0*9770 36 0*8428 800 0*8252 5 967 0*9714 1 37 0*8378 796 0*8212 6 961 0*9659 38 0*8329 792 0*8173 7 954 0*9604 39 0*8281 787 0*8133 8 948 0*9550 40 0*8233 782 0*8095 9 941 0*9497 41 0*8186 778 0*8056 10 1-0000 935 0*9444 42 0*8139 774 0*8018 11 0-9930 929 0*9392 43 0*8093 770 0-7981 12 0*9861 923 0*9340 44 0*8047 766 0*7943 13 0*9792 917 0*9289 45 0*8001 762 0*7906 14 0*9724 911 0*9239 46 0*7956 758 15 0*9657 906 0*9189 47 0*7911 754 16 0*9591 900 0*9139 48 0*7866 750 17 0*9526 895 0*9090 49 0*7821 746 18 0*9462 889 0*9042 50 0*7777 742 19 0*9399 884 0*8994 51 0*7733 20 0*9336 878 0*8947 52 0*7689 21 0*9274 873 0*8900 53 0*7646 22 0*9212 868 0*8854 54 0*7603 23 0*9151 863 0*8808 55 0*7560 24 0*9091 858 0.8762 56 0*7518 25 0*9032 852 0*8717 57 0*7476 26 0*8974 847 0*8673 58 0*7435 27 0*8917 842 0*8629 59 0*7394 28 0*8860 837 0.8585 60 0*7354 29 0-8804 832 0.8542 61 0*7314 30 0*8748 828 0.8500 62 0*7251 31 0*8693 i 823 0.8457 ____ 1330 Appendix. For Liquids heavier than Water. Degree [of hydro- meter. Specific Gravity. By Baumfe. In Pharm, Batava. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 1*0000 1*0070 10141 1*0213 1*0286 1*0360 10435 10511 10588 1*0666 1*0745 1*0825 1*0906 1*0988 11071 11155 1*1240 11326 11414 1*1504 1-1596 1*1690 1*1785 1*1882 1*1981 1*2082 1*2184 1*2288 1*2394 1*2502 1*2612 12724 1*2838 1*2954 1*3072 1*3190 1*3311 1*3434 1*3559 1*3686 1*3815 Degree of hydro- Specific Gravity. By Beck. 1000 1007 1014 i 1022 1029 1036 1044 1052 1060 1067 1075 1083 1091 1100 1108 1116 1125 1134 1143 1152 1161 1171 1180 1190 1199 1210 1221 1231 1242 1252 1261 1275 1286 1298 1309 1321 1334 1346 1359 1372 1384 10000 1*0059 1*0119 10180 10241 1*0303 1*0366 1*0429 1*0495 1*0559 1*0625 1*0692 1*0759 1*0828 1*0897 ! 1-0968 1*1039 11111 11184 11258 11333 1*1409 1*1486 1*1465 1*1644 1*1724 1*1806 1*1888 1*1972 1*2057 1*2143 1*2230 1-2319 1*2409 1*2500 1*2593 1*2687 1*2782 1*2879 1*2977 1*3077 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 By Baume\ InPharm. Batava. 1*3947 1*4082 1*4219 1*4359 1*4501 1.4645 1*4792 1*4942 1-5096 15253 15413 1-5576 1*5742 1*5912 1*6086 1*6264 1 -6446 1*6632 1*6823 1*7019 1*7220 1*7427 1*7640 1*7858 1*8082 1*8312 1*8548 1*8790 1*9038 1*9291 1*9548 1*9809 2*0073 20340 20610 By Beck. 1398 1412 1426 1440 1454 1470 1485 1501 1516 1532 1549 1566 1583 1601 1618 1637 1656 1676 1695 1714 1736 1758 1779 1801 1823 1847 1872 1897 1921 1946 1974 2002 2031 2059 2087 2116 1*3178 1*3281 1*3386 1-3492 1*3600 1*3710 1*3821 1*3944 1*4050 1*4167 1*4286 1*4407 1*4530 1*4655 1*4783 1*4912 1*5044 1*5179 1*5315 1*5454 1*5596 1-5741 1*5888 1*6038 1*6190 1*6346 1*6505 1*6667 1*6832 1*7000 1*7172 1*7347 1*7526 1*7708 1*7895 1*8085 1*8280 1*8478 1*8681 1*8889 Appendix. 1331 The French Codex employs Baume's hydrometer to indicate the density ot liquids heavier than water; but for those lighter than water, it has re- course to the instrument of Cartier, as the one most diffused in commerce. This differs from Baume's only in a slight modification of the scale. In both, the lowest point is 10° ; but 30° of Cartier corresponds with 32° of Baume, so that 20 degrees of the former are equivalent to 22 of the latter. Such, at least, was the original relation of the two instruments; but that of Cartier has subsequently undergone some slight modifications. The following table, extracted from the Codex, shows the value of the several de- grees of Baume's scale in those of Cartier's. The centesimal alcoholmeter of Gay-Lussac is applicable only to alcohol. The scale of this instrument is divided into 100 unequal degrees, the zero corresponding to pure water, and 100° to absolute alcohol; and every intermediate degree expresses the per centage of pure alcohol contained in the liquors examined. Thus, when the instrument stands at 40°, in any alcoholic liquid, it indicates that 100 parts of the liquid contain 40 of pure alcohol and 60 of water. But as it was graduated for the temperature of 59° of Fahrenheit, the liquors to be tested should be brought to that temperature. In page 62 of this Dispen- satory is a table indicating the specific gravity corresponding with each per centage of alcohol, and consequently with each degree of the alcoholmeter; and as, in the table given in the next page, the value of Cartier's degrees in those of the alcoholmeter is stated, there can be no difficulty in converting the degrees of any one of these instruments into those of another, or of ascer- taining the specific gravity to which they respectively correspond. Table showing the Value of the Degrees of Baume's Hydrometer in those of Cartier's. Baume. Cartier. BaumtJ. Cartier. Baume\ Cartier. 10 10 23 21*94 36 33-88 11 10-92 24 22-85 37 34-80 12 11-84 25 23-77 38 3572 13 1276 26 24-69 39 36*63 14 13-67 27 2561 40 3755 15 14-59 28 26-53 41 38-46 16 15-51 29 27-44 42 39-40 17 16-43 30 28-38 43 40-31 18 17-35 31 29-29 44 41-22 19 18-26 32 30-31 15 42-14 20 19-18 33 31-13 46 43-06 21 20-10 34 32-04 47 43-98 • 22 21-02 35 32-96 48 44-90 1332 Appendix. Table showing the Value of the Degrees of Cartier's Hydrometer in those of Gay-Lussac's centesimal Alcoholmeter. Centesimal Centesimal Centesimal Cartier. Alcoholmeter. Cartier. Alcoholmeter. Cartier. Alcoholmeter. 10 0-2 22 58-7 34 86-2 11 5-1 23 615 35 88 12 11-2 24 64-2 36 896 13 18-2 25 66-9 37 91-2 14 252 26 69-4 38 92-7 15 31-6 27 71-8 39 94-1 16 36-9 28 74 40 95-4 17 41-5 29 763 41 96-6 18 455 30 78-4 42 97-7 19 49-1 31 80-5 43 98-8 20 52-5 32 82-6 44 99-8 21 55-6 33 84-4 INDEX. Abbreviations, table of 1310 Abelmoschus escu- lentus 1261 Abelmoschus mos- chatus 1261 Abies balsamea 709 Abies Canadensis 544 Abies communis 543 Abies excelsa 543 Abies nigra 710 Abies pectinata 710 Abies picea 543, 710 Abies taxifolia 710 Abietis resina 543 Absinthic acid 5 Absinthium 4 Absolute alcohol 60 Acacia 5 Acacia Adansonii 6 Acacia Arabica 6 Acacia catechu 192 Acacia decurrens 6 Acacia Ehrenbergiana 6 Acacia floribunda 6 Acacia gummifera 6 Acacia karroo 6 Acacia Nilotica 6 Acacia nostras 7 Acacia Senegal 6 Acacia seyal 6 Acacia tortilis 6 Acacia vera 6 Acacia? vers succus 7 Acer saccharinum 614 Aceta '73 Acetate of alumina 1297 Acetate of ammonia, so- lution of 831 Acetate of copper, crys- tals of 291 Acetate of iron 954 Acetate of iron, tincture of 955 Acetate of lead -549 Acetate of mercury 978 Acetate of morphia 1039 Acetate of potassa 1082 Acetate of quinia 239 Acetate of soda 668 Acetate of zinc 1213 Acetate of zinc, tincture of , 1214 Acetated tincture of °Pium -a 780 Acetic acid '»" Acetic acid, aromatic 779 113 Acetic acid, campho- rated Acetic acid, diluted Acetic ether Acetic extract of colchi cum Acetification Acetone Acetosella Acetum Acetum Britannicum Acetum cantharidis Acetum colchici Acetum destillatum Acetum Gallicum Acetum opii Acetum scillae Acetum vini Achillea millefolium Acid, absinthic acetic aconitic amygdalic anchusic antimonic antimonious aromatic acetic Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid 778 783 1222 938 15 782, 1291 12 13 13 775 776 773 13 776 777 13 1222 5 780 54 90 1225 106 106 779 aromatic sulphuric 797 arsenic arsenious asparmic aspartic benzoic boracic cafFeic cahincic 17 17 76 76 784 669 1246 1236 camphorated acetic 778 camphoric carbonic carthamic caryophyllic catechuic cevadic chlorohydric cinnamic citric colophonic coniic crotonic cyanohydric diluted acetic diluted muriatic diluted nitric diluted phosphoric 795 diluted sulphuric 798 elaidic 481 ellagic 341 ethalic 203 155 859 180 488 194 609 31 489 28 5S5 266 503 786 783 792 793 Acid, etherosulphuric 810 Acid, eugenic 488 Acid, ferric 327 Acid, gallic 1255 Acid, gambogic 345 Acid, gentisic 347 Acid, glacial phosphoric 796 Acid, glucic 618 Acid, guaiacic 360 Acid, hircic 662 Acid, hydriodic 1261 Acid, hydrochloric 31 Acid, hydrocyanic 786 Acid, hydrosulphuric 974 Acid, hyperiodic 391 Acid, hypermanganic 445 Acid, hypopicrotoxic 252 Acid, hyposulphuric 696 Acid, hyposulphurous 696 Acid, igasuric 477 Acid, iodic 391 Acid, iodous 391 Acid, kinic 239 Acid, kinovic 236 Acid, krameric 419. Acid, lactic 1272 Acid, lobelic 434 Acid, manganic 445 Acid, margaric 630 Acid, meconic 517 Acid, medicinal hydro- cyanic 789 Acid, melassic 618 Acid, metaphosphoric 796 Acid, muriatic 31 Acid, myronic 665 Acid, nitric 36 Acid, nitromuriatic 793 Acid, oleic 630 Acid, oxalic 1282 Acid, palmic 497 Acid, paratartaric 728 Acid, pectic 179 Acid, picrotoxic 252 Acid, pinic 585 Acid, polygalic 650 Acid, prussic 786 Acid, pure sulphuric 799 Acid, pyroligneous 41 Acid, racemic 728 Acid, rhabarbaric 595 Acid, sabadillic 609 Acid, saccharic 617, 816 Acid, sacchulmic 617 Acid, saliculous 623 Acid, stearic 630 Acid, succinic 796 Acid, sulphovinic 810 1334 Index. Acid, sulphuric 43 Acid, sulphurous 696 Acid, sylvic 585 Acid, tanacetic 704 Acid, tannic 800 Acid, tartaric 49 Acid, turpentinic 500 Acid, ulmic 726 Acid, valerianic 731 Acid, veratric 609 Acid, virgineic 650 Acida 779 Acids 779 Acidulous water of car- bonate of soda 1125 Acidum aceticum 780 Acidum aceticum cam- phoratum 778 Acidum aceticum dilu- tum 783 Acidum arseniosum 17 Acidum benzoicum 784 Acidum citricum 28 Acidum gallicum 1255 Acidum hydriodicum 1261 Acidum hydrochloricum 31 Acidum hydrochloricum dilutum 792 Acidum hydrocyanicum 786 Acidum hydrocyanicum dilutum 786 Acidum lacticum 1272 Acidum muriaticum 31 Acidum muriaticum dilu- tum 792 Acidum nitricum 36 Acidum nitricum dilutum 793 Acidum nitromuriaticum 793 Acidum oxalicum 1282 Acidum phosphoricum dilutum 795 Acidum pyroligneum 41 Acidum succinicum 796 Acidum sulphuricum 43 Acidum sulphuricum aro- maticum 797 Acidum sulphuricum di- lutum 798 Acidum sulphuricum pu- rum 799 Acidum sulphuricum ve- nale 43 Acidum tannicum 800 Acidum tartaricum 49 Acipenser huso 387 Acipenser ruthenus 387 Acipenser stellatus 387 Acipenser sturio 387 Aconite 52 Aconitia 54, 803 Aconitic acid 54 Aconitina 54, 803 Aconitum 52 Aconitum anthora 52 Aconitum cammarum 52 Aconitum lycoctonum 52 Aconitum napellus 53 Aconitum neomontanum 52 Aconitum Neubergense 53 Aconitum paniculatum 52 Aconitum uncinatum 53 Acorus 144 Acorus calamus 145 Actaea alba 1222 Actaea Americana 1222 Actaea racemosa 211 Actaja rubra 1222 Actasa spicata 1222 Adeps 55 Adeps ovtlltis praeparatus 662 Adeps suilius praBparatus 55 Adhesive plaster 921, 922 Adiantum capillus veneris 1222 Adiantum pedatum 1222 Administering medicines, mode of 1307 jErugo 290 iEsculushippocastanum 1223 iEther aceticus 1222 jEther hydrocyanicus 1262 jfEther muriaticus 1276 i-Ether nitrosus 814 jEther sulphuricus 805 j-Etherea 805 Ethiops vegetabilis 1253 Agaric 1223 Agaric of the oak 1223 Agaric, purging 1223 Agaric, white 1223 Agathis Damarra 713 Agathosmas 301 Agathotes chirayta 209 Agave Americana 1224 Agrimonia eupatoria 1224 Agrimony, common 1224 Aix la Chapelle water 113 Ajuga chamaepitys 1224 Ajuga pyramidalis 1224 Ajuga reptans 1224 Alantin 389 Albumen as an antidote for corrosive sublimate 983 Albumen ovi 529 Albumen, vegetable 723 Albuminate of iron 1224 Albuminate of iron and potassa, syrup of 1224 Alceae iEgyptiacae 1261 Alchemilla vulgaris 1225 Alcoates 62 Alcohol, Lond., Ed., Dub. 59,60 Alcohol, U. S. 57 Alcohol, absolute 60 Alcohol, ammoniated 833 Alcohol, as a poison 63 Alcohol, diluted 822 Alcohol dilutum S22 Alcohol, preparations of 822 Alcoholic extract of aco- nite 934 Alcoholic extract of bel- ladonna 936 Alcoholic extract of hem- lock 941 Alcoholic extract of hen- bane 944 Alcoholic fermentation 58 Alcoholic muriatic ether 1276 Alcoholic potassa 1081 Alcoholmeter, Gay-Lus- sac's centesimal 1331 Alcornoque 1225 Aidehyd 15, 816 Aidehyd resin 15, 816 Alder, American 1226 Alder, black 574 Alder, common Euro- pean 1226 Ale 740 Alembic 760 Aleppo scammony 642 Aletris 64 ' Aletris farinosa 64 Alexandria senna 653 Algae and fuci, ashes of 672 Alhagi Maurorum 447 Alisma plantago 1225 Alizarin 602 Alkalimetry 564 Alkanet 1225 Alliaria officinalis 1226 Allium 64 Allium cepa 66 Allium porrum 559 Allium sativum 65 Allspice 539 Allyle 665 Almond confection 892 Almond emulsion 1029 Almond mixture 1029 Almond oil soap 631 Almonds, bitter 88, 90 Almonds, sweet 89, 90 Alnus, glutinosa 1226 Alnus serrulata 1226 Aloe 67 Aloe arborescens 67, 71 Aloe Barbadensis 67 Aloe commelyni 67 Aloe hepatica 67 Aloe Indica 67, 71 Aloe multiformis 67 Aloe purpurascens 67, 71 Aloe Socotrina 68 Aloe spicata 67 Aloe vera 68 Aloe vulgaris 68 Aloes 67 Aloes, Barbadoes 71 Aloes, Bethelsdorp 69 Aloes, caballine 72 Aloes, Cape 69 Aloes, fetid 72 Aloes, hepatic 71 Aloes, horse 72 Aloes, Mocha 72 Aloes, shining 69 Aloes, Socotrine 69 Aloesin 73 Aloetic pills 1060 Alpinia cardamomum 177 Alpinia galanga 1254 Alteratives 3 Althaea 75 Althaea officinalis 75 Althaea rosea 76 Alum 76 Index. 1335 Alum, ammoniacal 77 Alum cataplasm 883 Alum, dried 823 Alum ores 76 Alum, preparations of 823 Alum-root 369 Alumen 76 Alumen exsiccatum 823 Alumen siccatum 823 Alumina 78 Alumina, sulphate of 1297 Aluminae sulphas 1297 Amber 693 Amber eupione 1277 Ambergris 1226 Ambra grisea 1226 Ambrein 1226 American agave 1224 American aloe 1224 American centaury 611 American columbo 336 American dittany 1250 American gentian 337 American hellebore 734 American ipecacuanha 323, 353 82 84 1288 824 833 897 369 188 710 116 1004 95 1004 974 975 1241 American sanicle American senna American silver fir American spikenard Amide Amidin Amidogen Ammonia 80 Ammonia, bicarbonate of 824 Ammonia, carbonate of 824 Ammonia, hydrochlorate of 84 Ammonia, hydrosulphu- ret of 827 Ammonia, muriate of 84 Ammonia,preparations of 824 Ammonia, sesquicarbo nate of Ammonia, solution of Ammonia, spirit of Ammonia, stronger solu- tion of Ammonia, succinate of Ammonia, water of Ammoniac Ammoniac mixture Ammoniac plaster Ammoniacal alum Ammoniacal ointment, vesicating Ammoniacum Ammoniae acetatis aqua Ammoniae aqua Ammonias aqua fortior Ammoniae arsenias Ammoniae bicarbonas Ammoniae carbonas Ammoniae carbonatis aqua Ammoniae causticae aqua 828 Ammonia: citras 1242 Ammonia; hydrochloras 84 Ammoniae hydrosulphu- retum S27 825 828 832 82 797 S28 86 1029 911 77 83 S6 831 828 82 1230 824 824 S27 Ammoniae liquor fortior Ammoniae murias Ammoniae phosphas Ammoniae sesquicarbo- nas Ammoniated alcohol Ammoniated copper Ammoniated copper, so- lution of 899 Ammoniated iron 974 Ammoniated mercury 1004 Ammoniated tincture of castor 1166 Ammoniated tincture of guaiac 1173 Ammoniated tincture of opium 1180 Ammoniated tincture of valerian 1187 Ammonii iodidum 1265 Ammonio-chloride of iron Ammonio-chloride of iron, tincture of Ammonio-chloride of silver Ammonio-citrate of iron 1243 Ammonio-tartrate of iron 1226 Ammonium 80 Ammonium, chloride of 85 Ammonium, iodide of 1265 Ammonium, oxide of 80 Amomum angustifolium 176 Amomum cardamomum Amomum grana paradisi Amomum maximum Amomum repens Amomum zingiber Amorphous quinia Amygdala amara Amygdala dulcis Amygdalae oleum Amygdalic acid Amygdalin Amygdaline soap Amygdalus communis Amygdalus Persica Amylum Amyris caranna Amyris commiphora Amyris elemifera Amyris Gileadensis Amyris kataf Amyris tomentosum Anacardium occidentale 1227 Anacyclus officinarum 578 Anacyclus pyrethrum Anagallis arvensis Anagallis caerulea Anamirta cocculus Anchusa Italica Anchusa officinalis Anchusa tinctoria Anchusic acid Anderson's pills Andira inermis Andira retusa Andromeda arborea Andromeda mariana 176 176 176 177 749 1117 88, 90 89,90 484 90 90 631 89 93 94 1239 1232 310 1230 474 1298 578 1227 1227 251 1227 1227 1225 1225 1060 349 349 1227 1227 Andromeda speciosa 1227 Anemone, meadow 1227 Anemone nemorosa 1228 Anemone pratensis 1227 Anemone pulsatilla 1228 Anemonin 1228 Anethum 97 Anethum fceniculum 335 Anethum graveolens 97 Angelica 97 Angelica archangelica 98 Angelica atropurpurea 97 Angelica-tree bark 117 Angustura 99 Angustura, false 101 Anhydrous alcohol 60 Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid 789, 790 Animal charcoal 171 Animal charcoal, purified 882 Animal oil 84 Animal oil soda soap 632 Anime 1228 Anise 102 Aniseed, star 103 Anisum 102 Annotta 1228 Anodyne liniment 1021 Anodynes 3 Antacids 3 Anthelmintics 3 Anthemis 103 Anthemis arvensis 103 Anthemis cotula 27S Anthemis nobilis 103 Anthemis pyrethrum 578 Anthemis tinctoria 103 Anthracite 169 Anthrakokali 1228 Anthriscus cerefolium 1229 Antilithics 2 Antimoniai ointment 1192 Antimoniai powder 852 Antimoniai wine 847 Antimonic acid Antimonii et potassae tar- tras Antimonii oxidum Antimonii oxydum nitro- muriaticum Antimonii oxysulphure- tum Antimonii potassio-tar- tras Antimonii sesquisulphu- retum Antimonii sulphuretum Antimonii sulphuretum aureum Antimonii sulphuretum praecipitatum Antimonii sulphuretum praeparatum Antimonious acid Antimonium Antimonium diaphoreti- cum Antimonium tartarizatum 837 Antimony 105 Antimony ash 105 837 835 836 837 106 106 848 848 106 105 1251 1336 Index. Antimony, crocus of 838 Antimony, nitromuriatic oxide of 836 Antimony, oxide of 835 Antimony, oxychloride of 836 Antimony, oxysulphuret of 848 Antimony, precipitated sulphuret of 848 Antimony, preparations of 835 Antimony, prepared sul- phuret of 848 Antimony, sub-oxide of 106 Antimony, sulphuret of 106 Antimony, tartarized 837 Antimony, teroxide of 835 Antirrhinic acid 299 Antirrhinum linaria 1229 Antispasmodics 2 Apis mellifica 198, 455 Apium petroselinum 535 Apocynin 109 Apocynum androsaemifo- lium 107 Apocynum cannabinum 108 Apothecaries' measure 1314 Apothecaries'weight 1314 Apotheme 926 Application of heat 758 Approximative measure- ment 1318 Aqua 109 Aqua acidi carbonici 858 Aqua aluminosa Bateana S24 Aqua ammoniae 828 Aqua anethi 860 Aqua Binelli 1229 Aqua calcis 877 Aqua calcis composita 878 Aqua camphorae 860 Aqua carbonatis sodae acidula 1125 Aqua carui 861 Aqua cassia? 861 Aqua chlorinii 861 Aqua cinnamomi 863 Aqua destillata S55 Aqua riorum aurantii 863 Aqua fluvialis 111 Aqua foeniculi 863 Aqua fontana 111 Aqua fortis 37 Aqua lauro-cerasi 864 Aqua luciae 631 Aqua menthae piperitae 864 Aqua menthae pulegii 864 Aqua menthae viridis 864 Aqua phagedaenica 981, 982 Aqua picis liquidae 865 Aqua pimentae 865 Aqua pulegii 864 Aqua regia 794 Aqua rosae S65 Aqua sambuci 866 Aqua sapphirina 292 Aquae destillatae 856 Aquae medicatae 856 Aquilegia vulgaris 1229 Arabin 9 Aralia hispida Aralia nudicaulis Aralia racemosa Aralia spinosa Araucaria Dombeyi Arbor vitae Arbutus uva ursi Arcanum duplicatum Arctium lappa 116 116 116 117 713 1301 729 571 117 Arctostaphylos uva ursi 729 Ardent spirits of com- merce 59 Areca catechu 1229 Areca nut 1229 Argel 653 Argenti chloridum 1241 Argenti cyanidum 866 Argenti cyanuretum 866 Argenti iodidum 1267 Argenti nitras 866 Argenti nitras fusum 866 Argenti nitratis crystalli 871 Argenti oxidum 1285 Argentine flowers of an- timony 105 Argentum 118 Argol 560 Arica bark 227 Aricina 235 Aristolochia clematitis 657 Aristolochia hastata 659 Aristolochia hirsuta 658 Aristolochia Indica 658 Aristolochia longa 657 Aristolochia pistolochia 657 Aristolochia reticulata 659 Aristolochia rotunda 657 Aristolochia sagittata 659 Aristolochia semper vi- rens 658 Aristolochia serpentaria 658 Aristolochia tomentosa 65S Armoracia 119 Arnica 120 Arnica montana 121 Arnotta 1228 Aromatic acetic acid 779 Aromatic confection 892 Aromatic mixture of iron 1031 Aromatic plaster 912 Aromatic powder 1109 Aromatic spirit of ammo- nia 834 Aromatic spirit of vinegar 779 Aromatic sulphuric acid 797 Aromatic syrup of rhu- barb 1151 Aromatic vinegar 779 Aromatic waters, extem- poraneous 765 Arrow-root 449 Arseniate of ammonia 1230 Arseniate ofiron 1230 Arsenic acid 17 Arsenic, bisulphuret of 1291 Arsenic, metallic 17 Arsenic, preparations of 871 Arsenic, tersulphuret of 1282 Arsenical paste 20 Arsenical solution 871 Arsenical solution of Pearson 18 Arsenici iodidum 1265 Arsenici oxydum album 17 Arsenici oxydum album sublimatum 871 Arsenicum album 17 Arsenious acid 17 Arsenious acid as a poison 20 Arsenious acid, tests for 24 Arsenite of potassa, solu- tion of 871 Art of prescribing medi- cines 1306 Artemisia abrotanum 4 Artemisia absinthium 4 Artemisia Chinensis 466 Artemisia contra 122 Artemisia glomerata 122 Artemisia Indica 466 Artemisia Judaica 122 Artemisia moxa 466 Artemisia pontica 4 Artemisia santonica 122 Artemisia vulgaris 4 Arterial stimulants 2 Artificial camphor 499 Artificial carbonate of zinc 1214 Artificial Cheltenham salt 1240 Artificial musk 1277 Artificial naphtha 533 Artificial Seltzer water 858 Arum 123 Arum maculatum 123 Arum triphyllum 123 Asagraea officinalis 609 Asarabacca 124 Asarin 125 Asarum 124, 125 Asarum Canadense 125 Asarum Europaeum 124 Asbolin 1296 Asclepias, flesh-coloured 126 \sclepias gigantea 1237 Asclepias incarnata 126 Asclepias pseudosarsa 1260 Asclepias Syriaca 126 Asclepias tuberosa 127 Asclepias vincetoxicum 1251 Asiatic pills 20 Asparagin 76 Asparagus 1230 Asparagus officinalis 1230 Asparamide 76 Asparmic acid 76 Aspartic acid 76 Aspen 1290 Asphaltum 534 Aspidium 332 Aspidium filix foemina 1230 Aspidium filix mas 332 Asplenium adiantum ni- grum 1230 Asplenium filix fcemina 1230 Asplenium scolopendri- um 1294 Index. 1337 Asplenium trichomanes 1230 Assafetida 128 Assafetida mixture 1030 Assafetida pills 1061 Assafetida plaster 913 Assafoetida 128 Astragalus aristatus 720 Astragalus Creticus 720 Astragalus gummifer 720 Astragalus massiliensis 720 Astragalus strobiliferus 720 Astragalus tragacantha 720 Astragalus verus 720 Astringents 2 Athyrium filix foemina 1230 Atropa belladonna 137 Atropa mandragora 1274 Atropia 138 Attar of roses 498 Aurantii aqua 863 Aurantii cortex 131 Aurantii oleum 132 Aurantium 131 Aurum 1257 Avena 134 Avena sativa 134 Avenae farina 134 Avens, purple 351 Avens, root of 352 Avens, water 351 Avoirdupois weight 1314 Axungia 55 Aydendron laurel 1288 Azedarach 134 Azure 1296 B Bacher, tonic pills of 943 Balaustines 358 Balm 456 Balm of Gilead 712, 1230 Balsam apple 1275 Balsam, Canada 712 Balsam, Carpathian 709 Balsam, Hungarian 1292 Balsam of copaiva 270 Balsam of fir 712 Balsam of Gilead 1230 Balsam of Peru 473 Balsam of sulphur 1231 Balsam of Tolu 715 Balsam, Riga 1292 Balsam-weed 1263 Balsamina 12/0 Balsamodendron Gilea- dense Balsamodendron myrrha Balsamum Canadense Balsamum Carpaticum Balsamum Gileadense Balsamum Libani Balsamum Peruvianum Balsamum Tolutanum Balsamum traumaticum Balston Spa water Baneberry Baphia nitida Baptisia tinctoria 1230 474 70S 1292 1230 1292 473 715 1163 113 1222 1237 1231 Barbadoes aloes 71 Barbadoes nuts 705 Barbadoes tar 533 Barbary gum Barberry Barii chloridum Barii iodidum Barilla Barium Barium, chloride of Bark, Arica Bark, Calisaya Bark, Carribaean Bark, crown Bark, Cusco Bark, gray Bark, Huamilies Bark, Huanuco Bark, Jaen Bark, Lima Bark, Loxa Bark, Maracaybo Bark, new Bark, pale Bark, Peruvian Bark, pitaya Bark, red Bark, St. Lucia Bark, Santa Martha Bark, silver Bark, yellow Barks, Carthagena Barks, false Barley Barley sugar Barley water Baroselenite Barosma crenata Baryta Baryta, carbonate of Baryta, muriate of Baryta, preparations of Baryta, sulphate of Barytae carbonas Barytae murias Baryta? muriatis aqua Barytae sulphas Barytic water Barytina Basil Basilicon ointment Bassora gum Bassorin Bastard dittany Bateman's drops Bates's alum water Bath water Baume de commandeur 1163 Baume's hydrometer 754 Baume's hydrometer, ta- ble of the value of the degrees of, insp.gr. 1 Bay salt Bay tree berries and leaves Bdellium Bead tree, common Beaked hazel Bean of St. Ignatius 113* 1233 873 1266 671, 673 135 873 227 225 234 222 227 223 225 223 224 223 222 230 233 221 212 234 229 234 232 223 225 230 234 372 617 905 136 301 135 136 873 873 136 136 873 875 136 136 733 1280 889 1231 1231 1252 1181 S24 113 115 677 425 1232 135 1249 1232 Bearberry Bear's-foot Beaver tree Bebeerin Bebeeru bark Beccabunga 729 1260 443 1233 1232 1304 Beck's hydrometer, value of the degrees of, in sp. gr. 1329 Bedeguar 1233 Bedford spring water 113 Beech-drops 1281 Beet sugar 614 Belladonna 137 Belladonnin 138 Bendee 1261 Bengal opium 511 Benne 660 Benne oil 660-i Benzoic acid 784 Benzoin 140 Benzoin, flowers of 784 Benzoin odoriferum 1233 Benzoinum 140 Benzyle 91, 785 Berberin 1233 Berberis Canadensis ,1233 Berberis vulgaris 1233 Bergamii oleum 485 Bergamotae oleum 485 Betel 1229 Betel-nut 1229 Bethelsdrop aloes 69 Betonica officinalis 1233 Betony,wood 1233 Betula alba 1233 Betula lenta 1234 Betula papyracea 1234 Betulin 1233 Bezoar 1234 Biborate of soda 671 Bibromide. of mercury 1235 Bicarbonate of ammonia 824 Bicarbonate of potassa 1088 Bicarbonate of soda 1122 Bichloride of mercury 979 Bicyanide of mercury 991 Bicyanuret of mercury 991 Biferrocyanuret of potas- sium Bignonia catalpa Bilin Biniodide of mercury Binoxalate of potassa 12, 1283 Binoxide of mercury 999 Birch, European 1233 Birch, sweet 1234 Bird-lime 1234 Bismuth 142 Bismuth, magistery of 876 Bismuth, protoxide of 142 Bismuth, sesquioxide of 142 Bismuth, subnitrate of 875 Bismuth, white oxide of 875 Bismuthi subnitras S75 Bismuthi trisnitras 875 Bismuthum 142 Bismuthum album 875 Bistort root 558 787 1239 1285 993 1338 Index. Bisulphate of potassa 1095 Bisulphuret of carbon 1234 Bisulphuret of mercury 1002 Bitartrate of potassa 560 Biting stone-crop 1295 Bitter almonds 88, 90 Bitter cucumber 259 Bitter polygala 558 Bittersweet 304 Bitumen petroleum 533 Bituminous coal 169 Bixa orellana 1228 Black alder 574 Black ash 672 Black cyanuret of potas- sium 1099 Black draught 1016 Black drop 776 Black flux 562, 1087 Black hellebore 365 Black ipecacuanha 401 Black lead 1239 Black mustard seeds 664 Black nightshade 304 Black oxide of iron 966 Black oxide of manganese 445 Black oxide of mercury 994 Black pepper 540 Black pitch 546 Black poplar 1290 Black poppy 506 Black salts 563 Black snakeroot 211, 1293 Black spruce 710 Black sulphuret of mer- cury 1001 Black tea 1299 Blackberry-root 603 Black-oak bark 581 Bladder senna 1248 Bladder-wrack 1253 Blazing star 64 Bleaching powder 149 Blende 746, 1219 Blessed thistle 196 Blistering cloth 887 Blistering paper S87 Blistering plaster 885 Blisters, use of ' 164 Block tin 684 Bloodroot 626 Blue flag 405 Blue gentian 348 Blue pills 1067 Blue stone 291 Blue vitriol 291 Blunt-leaved dock 605 Bole Armenian 1235 Boles 1235 Boletus fomentarius 1224 Boletus igniarius 1223 Boletus laricis 1223 Boletus ribis 1224 Boletus ungulatus 1224 Bolus Veneta 1303 Bone 527 Bone-ash 528 Bone-black 172 Bone-earth 528 Bone-phosphate of lime 528 Boneset 320 c Bone-spirit S4 Bonplandia trifoliata 99 Caballine aloes 72 Boracic acid 670 Cabbage-tree bark 349 Boracic acid, native 669 Cacao 1244 Borage 1235 Caesalpina Braziliensis 1235 Borago officinalis 1235 Caesalpina crista 1235 Borate of soda 669 Caesalpina echinata 1235 Borax 669 Caesalpina sappan 1235 Bordeaux turpentine 711 Caffeic acid 1246 Borneo camphor 156 Caffein 1246 Boswellia serrata 505 Cahinca 1236 Boullay's filter 763 Cahincic acid 1226 Bouncing bet 1293 Cajeput oiL Cajuputi * 486 Brake, common 1230 486 Bran 724 Calamina 748 Brandy 57 Calamina praeparata 1214 Brandy mixture 1033 Calamine 748 Brasiletto 1235 Calamine, prepared 1214 Brass 747 Calamus 144 Brazil wood 1235 Calamus aromaticus 144 Brian?on manna 447 Calamus draco 1252 Brighton water 113 Calamus rotang 1252 Brimstone 694 Calcii chloridum 146 British barilla 673 Calcination 764 British gum 94 Calcined magnesia 1024 British oil 502 Calcined mercury 998 British vinegar 15 Calcis carbonas 283 Bromide of iron 1235 Calcis carbonas praecipi - Bromide of potassium 1097 tatum 878 Bromides of mercury 1235 Calcis hydras 147 Bromine 143 Calcis murias 146 Brominum 143 Calcis muriatis aqua 880 Brooklime 1304 Calcis muriatis solutio 880 Broom 647 Calcis phosphas praecipi Broom, Spanish 1297 tatum 881 Broom-rape 1282 Calendula officinalis 1237 Broussonetia tinctoria 1254 Calendulin 1237 Brown mixture 1312 Calico bush 1269 Brown sugar 613, 618 Calisaya bark 225 Brucea antidysenterica 101 Callicocca ipecacuanha 399 Brucia 477 Calomel 985 Bryonia alba 1235 Calomel, Howard's 987 Bryonia dioica 1236 Calomel, Jewell's 987 Bryonin 1236 Calomel pills 1068 Bryony 1235 Calomel pills, compoun i Bubon galbanum 338 1061 Bucharian rhubarb 59. J, 594 Calomel, precipitated 990 Buchu 301 Calomelas 985 Buckbean 459 Calomelas praecipitatum 990 Buckthorn berries 5S6 Calomelas sublimatum 985 Buena 213 Calophyllum inophyllum 1298 Bugle, common 1224 Calophyllum tacamahaca 1298 Bugle-weed 436 Calotropis gigantea 1237 Bugloss 1227 Calotropis madarii Indicc - Burdock 117 orientalis 1237 Burgundy pitch 542 Calumba 261 Burnt alum 823 Calx 147 Burnt hartshorn 881 Calx chlorinata 149 Burnt sienna 1295 Cambogia 342 Burnt sponge 1136 Camellia sasanqua 1299 Burnt umber 1303 Camphene 155 Bursera gummifera 1239 Camphor 153 Butea frondosa 416 Camphor, artificial 499 Butea gum 416 Camphor, liniment 1020 Butter of zinc 1215 Camphor liniment, com - Buttercup 584 pound 1020 Butterfly-weed 127 Camphor water 860 Butternut 410 Camphora 153 Button snakeroot 318 , 1272 Camphora officinarum 153 Index. 1339 Camphorated acetic acid 778 Camphorated soap lini- ment 1021 Camphorated tincture of opium 1181 Camphorated tincture of soap 1184 Camphoric acid 155 Camwood 1237 Canada balsam 712 Canada fleabane 316 Canada pitch 544 Canada snakeroot 125 Canada turpentine 708,712 Canarium commune 311 Canary seed 1237 Cancer-root 1281 Cane brimstone 695 Cane sugar Canella Canella alba Canna Canna coccinea Canna starch Cannabis Indica Cannabis sativa Cantharides Cantharidin Cantharis Cantharis a?neas Cantharis albida Cantharis aszelianus Cantharis atrata Cantharis cinerea Cantharis marginata Cantharis Nuttalli Cantharis politus Cantharis vesicatoria Cantharis vittata Caoutchouc Cap cement Cape aloes Cape gum Caper-bush Caper plant Caphopicrite Capnomor Capparis spinosa Capsicin Capsicum Capsicum annuum Capsicum baccatum Capsicum frutescens Capsules of gelatin Caramel Caranna Caraway Caraway water Carbo Carbo animalis 614 15S 158 159 159 159 1237 1237 161 162 160 166 166 166 166 165 166 166 166 161 165 1238 761 69 9 1239 1281 595 279 1239 168 167 167 167 167 1257 617 1239 1S1 861 169 171 Carbonate of lead 551 Carbonate of lime 283 Carbonate of lime, preci- pitated 878 Carbonate of magnesia 438 Carbonate of potassa 1084 Carbonate of potassa from crystals of tartar 1087 Carbonate of potassa from pearlash 1084 Carbonate of potassa, im- pure 562 Carbonate of potassa, pure 1087 Carbonate of potassa, so- lution of 1088 Carbonate of soda 673 Carbonate of soda, dried 1121 Carbonate of soda, water Carbo animalis purificatus 882 Carbo ligni 173 Carbo-hydrogens 170 Carbon I69 Carbonate of ammonia 824 Carbonate of baryta 136 Carbonate of iron, pills of 1064 Carbonate of iron, preci- pitated 969 of Carbonate of zinc Carbonated waters Carbonic acid Carbonic acid water Carburet of iron Carburet of sulphur Cardamine Cardamine pratensis Cardamom Cardamomum Cardinal flower Carduus benedictus Carribaean bark Carminative, Dalby's Carminatives Carmine Carnation Carolina pink Carota Carotin Carpathian balsam Carpobalsamum Carrageen Carrageenin Carrot cataplasm Carrot root Carrot seeds Carthagena barks Carthamic acid Carthamine Carthamus Carthamus tinctorius Cartier's hydrometer Carui Carum Carum carui Caryophylli oleum Caryophyllic acid Caryophyllin Caryophyllus Caryophyllus aromaticus Cascarilla Cascarillin Cashew nut Cassava Cassia Cassia acutifolia Cassia ;Ethiopica Cassia Brasiliana Cassia buds 1122 748 112 859 858 1239 1234 174 174 175 175 436 197 234 440 3 253 296 680 17S 179 709 1231 210 210 SS3 179 179 230 180 180 ISO 180 1331 181 181 181 487 Cassia caryophyllata 1249 Cassia elongata 652 Cassia fistula 186 Cassia lanceolata 653 Cassia Marilandica 188 Cassia obovata 652 Cassia ovata «53 Cassia, purging 186 Cassia senna 651 Cassia? fistula; pulpa 1107 Cassias oleum 488 Cassiae pulpa 1107 Cassumuniar 1305 Cassuvium pomiferum 1227 Castanea 189 Castanea pumila 1S9 Castile soap 632 Castillon's powders < 880 Castor 189 Castor fiber 189 Castor oil 494 Castoreum 189 Castorin 190 Cat thyme 1301 Catalpa cordifolia 1239 Catalpa tree 1239 Cataplasma aluminis 883 Cataplasma carbonis ligni 883 183 182 182 1S4 185 1227 705 186, 249 651 653 187 250 Cataplasma conii 883 Cataplasma dauci S83 Cataplasma fermenti 883 Cataplasma lini 884 Cataplasma simplex 884 Cataplasma sinapis 884 Cataplasmata 882 Cataplasms 882 Cataria 191 Catawba tree 1239 Catch-fly 1295 Catechu 191 Catechuic acid 194 Catechuin 194 Catechus, non-officinal 194 Cathartic clyster 923 Cathartics 2 Cathartin 656 Cathartocarpus fistula 186 Catmint 191 Catnep 191 Caustic potassa 1080 Caustics 2 Causticum commune acerrimum 1081 Causticum commune mitius 1082 Cayenne pepper 167 Ceanothus Americanus 1239 Cedar apples 413 Cedar, red 413 Celandine 1240 Cement for broken glass 761 Cement, soft 761 Centaurea benedicta 196 Centaurin 198 Centaurium 197 Centaury, American 611 Centaury, European 197 Centesimal alcoholmeter 755, 1331 Cephaelis ipecacuanha 399 1340 Index. Cera 198 Charcoal 173 Chlorine inhalations 862 Cera alba 199 Charcoal, animal 171 Chlorine water 861 Cera flava 198 Charcoal cataplasm 883 Chloroaurate of ammonia 1258 Cerain 200 Charcoal, pure 169 Chloroform 1241 Cerasin 9 Cheese-rennet 1255 Chlorogenic acid 1246 Cerasus lauro-cerasus 426 Chelae cancrorum 1249 Chlorohydric acid 31 Cerasus serotina 576 Cheledonic acid 1240 Chlorophylle 309 Cerasus Virginiana 576 Chelerythrin 1240 Chocolate 1244 Cerata 885 Chelidonin 1240 Chocolate nuts 1244 Cerate of calamine 891 Chelidonium majus 1240 Chondrus 210 Cerate of carbonate of Chelidoxanthin 1240 Chondrus crispus 210 zinc 891 Cheltenham salt, artifi- Chrome green 1242 Cerate of Spanish flies 885 cial 1240 Chrome yellow 1242 Cerate of subacetate of Cheltenham water 113 Chrysanthemum parthe- lead 888 Chenopodium 206 nium 1291 Cerated glass of antimony Chenopodium ambrosi- Chrysene 693 1256 oides 206 Chrysophyllum glycy- Cerates 885 Chenopodium anthelmin phlaeum 1275 Ceratum 891 ticum 206 Chulariose 613 Ceratum calaminae 891 Chenopodium botrys 206 Cichorium endivia 1242 Ceratum cantharidis, Cherry-laurel 426 Cichorium intybus 1242 Lond. 1193 Cherry-laurel water 864 Cicuta 265 Ceratum cantharidis, Chervil 1229 Cicuta maculata 1242 U.S. 885 Chian turpentine 708, 713 Cicuta virosa 1242 Ceratum cetacei 888 Chillies 167 Cicutine 266 Ceratum hydrargyri com - Chimaphila 207 Cider 740 positum 888 Chimaphila maculata 208 Cimicifuga 211 Ceratum plumbi acetatis 1203 Chimaphila umbellata 207 Cimicifuga racemosa 211 Ceratum plumbi compo- China root 634 Cimicifuga serpentaria 211 situm 888 Chinese cinnamon 249 Cincholin 23S Ceratum plumbi subace- Chinese rhubarb 591 Cinchona 212 tatis 888 Chinoidine 1117 Cinchona acutifolia 217 Ceratum resinae 889 Chinquapin 189 Cinchona angustifolia 215 Ceratum resinae composi - Chiococca anguifuga 1236 Cinchona bicolorata 234 turn 889 Chiococca densifolia 1236 Cinchona caducifiora 218 Ceratum sabinae 889 Chiococca racemosa 1236 Cinchona cava 218 Ceratum saponis 890 Chirayta 209 Cinchona cinerea 212 223 Ceratum simplex, Ed. 888 Chiretta 209 Cinchona Condaminea 215 Ceratum simplex, U. S. 891 Chironia angularis 611 Cinchona cordifolia 216 Ceratum zinci carbonatis 891 Chironia centaurhim 197 Cinchona coronae 212 Cerevisiae fermentum 201 Chlorate of potassa 565 Cinchona crassifolia 218 Cerin 199 Chloride of aluminium 1297 Cinchona dichotoma 218 Ceroxylon Andicola 200 Chloride of ammonium 80, 85 Cinchona flava 212 ,225 Ceruse 551 Chloride of barium 873 Cinchona glandulifera 217 Cerussa acetata 549 Chloride of barium, solu - Cinchona hirsuta 217 Cervus elaphus 276 tion of 875 Cinchona Humboldtiana 217 Cervus Virginianus 276 Chloride of calcium 146 Cinchona lanceolata 217 Cetaceum 202 Chloride of calcium, sol u- Cinchona lancifolia 215 Cetin 203 tion of 8S0 Cinchona lucumaefolia 217 Cetraria 203 Chloride of gold 1257 Cinchona macrocalyx 218 Cetraria Islandica 204 Chloride of gold and so- Cinchona macrocarpa 21S Cetraric acid 205 dium 1258 Cinchona magnifolia 216 Cetrarin 204 Chloride of iron, tincture Cinchona micrantha 215 Cevadic acid 609 of 975 Cinchona Muzonensis 218 Cevadilla 608 Chloride of lead 1074 Cinchona nitida 217 Ceylon cardamom 175 Chloride of lime 149 Cinchona oblongifolia Ceylon cinnamon 249 Chloride of magnesium 1241 216 , 21S Chaerophyllum sativum 1229 Chloride of potassa, so- Cinchona ovalifolia 217 Chalk 283 lution of 1241 Cinchona ovata 217 Chalk mixture 1031 Chloride of silver 1241 Cinchona pallida 212 ,221 Chalk, prepared 879 Chloride of soda, solu- Cinchona Pavonii 218 Chalk, red 1292 tion of 1125 Cinchona pelalba 218 Chalybeate bread 1271 Chloride of sodium 677 Cinchona pubescens 217 Chalybeate waters 112 Chloride of sodium, pure 1129 Cinchona purpurea 217 Chamaedrys 1301 Chloride of zinc 1215 Cinchona rotundifolia 218 Chamaemelum 103 Chlorinated lime 149 Cinchona rubra 212 ,229 Chamaepitys 1224 Chlorinated soda, solu- Cinchona scrobiculata 215 Chamomile 103 tion of 1125 Cinchona stenocarpa 218 Chamomile, German 454 Chlorine 862 Cinchona villosa 218 Chamomile, wild 279 Chlorine ethers 1241 Cinchonia 237, 11J6 Index. 1341 Cinchonia, kinate of 240 Cinchonia, sulphate of 238,1117 Cinchonic red 237 Cinchovatin 235 Cinnabar 1002 Cinnabaris 1002 Cinnamic acid 489 Cinnamomi oleum 488 Cinnamomum 245 Cinnamomum aromati- cum 247 Cinnamomum cassia 247 Cinnamomum culilawan 247,1250 Cinnamomum Loureirii 247 Cinnamomum nitidum 2 17 Cinnamomum rubrum 247 Cinnamomum sintoc 247 Cinnamomum tamala 247 Cinnamomum Zeylanicum 246 Cinnamon 245 Cinnamon water 863 Cinquefoil 1291 Cissampelina 532 Cissampelos pareira 532 Cistus Canadensis 1259 Cistus Creticus 1269 Cistus ladaniferus 1269 Cistus laurifolius 1269 Citrate of ammonia 1242 Citrate of iron 1242 Citrate of iron and quinia 1243 Citrate of potassa 1093 Citrate of potassa, solu- tion of 1091 Citrate of quinia 239 Citric acid 28 Citrine ointment 1199 Citron 428 Citrus acris 429 Citrus aurantium 131 Citrus decumana 131 Citrus limetta 485 Citrus limonium 429 Citrus medica 428 Citrus vulgaris 132 Civet 1243 Claret 738 Clarification 758 Clarified honey 1025 Clarry 625 Cleansing of vessels 767 Cleavers 1254 Clematis crispa 1243 Clematis erecta 1243 Clematis flammula 1243 Clematis viorna 1243 Clematis Virginica 1243 Clematis vitalba 1243 Clove bark 1249 Clove pink, flowers of 296 Cloves 182 Club-moss 1274 Clyster, cathartic Clyster of aloes Clyster of colocynth Clyster of opium 923 923 923 Clyster of turpentine Clysters Cnicin Cnicus benedictus Cobalt blue Cobweb Coccoloba uvifera Cocculus Cocculus Indicus Cocculus lacunosus Cocculus Levanticus Cocculus palmatus Cocculus Plukenetii Cocculus suberosus Coccus Coccus cacti Coccus lacca Cochineal Cochinilin Cochlearia armoracia Cochlearia officinalis Cocin Cocinic acid Cocoa Cocoa butter Codeia Cod-liver oil Coffea Arabica Coffee Cohobation Cohosh Cohosh, red Cohosh, white Coke Colchici cormus Colchici radix Colchici semen Colchicia Colchicum autumnale Colchicum root Colchicum seed Colchicum variegatum Colcothar Cold bath Cold cream Collinsonia Canadensis Colocynth Colocynthin Colocynthis Colomba Colombin Colophonic acid Colophony Colouring principles Coltsfoot Columbine Columbo Columbo, American Colutea arborescens Comfrey Commercial carbonate of soda 671 Common caustic, milder 1082 Common caustic, strong- est 1081 | Common European tur- pentine 711 Common groundsel 1295 I Common houseleek 1295 924! 922 197 196 1243 1244 415 251 251 251 251 261 251 251 252 252 1270 ■252 253 119 254 1244 1244 1244 •1244 515 1245 1245 1245 765,1049 211 1222 1222 170 255 256 258 257 255 255 255 1260 45, 968 115 1192 1248 259 260 259 261 262 585 712 1265 725 1229 261 336 1248 1297 Common lilac 1298 Common silkweed 126 Compound calomel pills 1061 Compound camphor lini- ment 1020 Compound cathartic pills 1062 Compound cerate of mer- cury 888 Compound decoction of aloes 900 Compound decoction of barley 905 Compound decoction of broom 909 Compound decoction of guaiacum wood 904 Compound decoction of mallows 905 Compound decoction of sarsaparilla 908 Compound extract of co- locynth 939 Compound galbanum plaster 915 Compound honey of squill 1155 Compound infusion of catechu 1008 Compound infusion of gentian 1012 Compound infusion of mint % 1013 Compound infusion of orange peel 1008 Compound infusion of Peruvian bark 1010 •Compound infusion of roses 1014 Compound lime-water 878 Compound liniment of ammonia 1019 Compound liniment of mercury 1021 Compound mixture of cascarilla 1031 Compound mixture of gentian 1032 Compound mixture of iron 1032 Compound ointment of galls 1195 Compound ointment of iodine 1202 Compound ointment of lead 1203 Compound pills of aloes 1060 Compound pills of chlo- ride of mercury 1061 Compound pills of colo- cynth 1063 Compound pills of galba- num 1066 Compound pills of gam- boge 1067 Compound pills of hem- lock 1063 Compound pills of ipeca- cuanha 1069 Compound pills of iron 1066 1342 Index. Compound pills of rhu- barb 1070 Compound pills of saga- penum 1071 Compound pills of soap 1071 Compound pills of squill 1071 Compound pills of storax 1072 Compound plaster of Spanish flies 914 Compound powder of aloes 1108 Compound powder of alum 1109 Compound powder of antimony 852 Compound powder of asarabacca 1109 Compound powder of chalk 1110 Compound powder of chalk with opium 1110 Compound powder of jalap 1112 Compound powder of kino 1112 Compound powder of rhubarb 1112 Compound powder of scammony 1113 Compound powder of tragacanth 1113 Compound resin cerate 889 Compound saline pow- der 1113 Compound soap plaster 922 Compound solution of alum 824 Compound solution of iodine 1018 Compound spirit of ani- seed 1132 Compound spirit of horse- radish 1132 Compound spirit of juni- per 1133 Compound spirit of laven- der 1134 Compound spirit of sul- phuric ether 813 Compound sulphur oint- ment 1205 Compound syrup of sar- saparilla 1152 Compound syrup of squill H54 Compound tincture of ammonia Hg] Compound tincture of benzoin 1162 Compound tincture of cardamom 1165 Compound tincture of cinnamon 1168 Compound tincture of colchicum 1169 Compound tincture of gentian 1172 Compound tincture of iodine 1175 Compound tincture of Peruvian bark 1167 Compound tincture of quassia 1182 Compound tincture of rhubarb 1183 Compound tincture of senna 1185 Comptonia asplenifolia 1248 Concentration 762 Concrete oil of nutmeg 470 Concrete oil of wine 812 Confectio amygdala? 892 Confectio aromatica 892 Confectio aurantii corticis 893 Confectio cassiae 893 Confectio opii 894 Confectio piperis nigri 894 Confectio rosae 895 Confectio rosae canines 895 Confectio rutae 895 Confectio scammonii 896 Confectio sennae 896 Confection, aromatic 892 Confection of black pep- per 894 Confection of cassia 893 Confection of opium 894 Confection of orange peel 893 Confection of roses 895 Confection of rue 895 Confection of scammony 896 Confection of senna 896 Confection of the dog rose 895 Confectiones 891 Confections 891 Conia 266 Conii folia 264 Conii semen 264 Coniic acid 266 Conium 264 Conium maculatum 264 Conserva amygdalarum 892 Conserva aurantii 893 Conserva rosae 895 Conserva rosae fructus 895 Conserva rutae 895 Conservae 891 Conserve of roses 895 Conserves 891 Constantinople opium 510 Contrayerva 26S Convallaria majalis 1248 Convallaria multiflora 1248 Convallaria polygonatum 1248 Convolvulus batatas 94 Convolvulus jalapa 406 Convolvulus orizabensis 408 Convolvulus panduratus 269 Convolvulus scammonia 641 Copaiba 270 Copaibae oleum 271 Copaifera Beyrichii 270 Copaifera bijuga 270 Copaifera cordifolia 270 Copaifera coriacea 270 Copaifera Guianensis 270 Copaifera Jaquini 270 Copaifera Jussieui 270 Copaifera Langsdorffii 270 Copaifera laxa 270 Copaifera Martii 270 Copaifera multijuga 270 Copaifera nitida 270 Copaifera oblongifolia 270 Copaifera officinalis 270 Copaifera Sellowii 270 Copal 1248 Copalchi bark 184 Copalm balsam 1273 Copper 288 Copper as a poison 289 Copper, preparations of 897 Copper, subacetate of 290 Copper, sulphate of 291 Copperas 972 Coptis 274 Coptis teeta 275 Coptis trifolia 274 Coral 1249 Corallium rubrum 1249 Coriander 275 Coriandrum 275 Coriandrum sativum 275 Coriaria myrtifolia 654 Corn poppy 598 Cornine 277 Cornu 276 Cornu ustum 881 Cornua cervina 276 Cornus circinata 276 Cornus Florida 277 Cornus sericea 278 Correspondence between different thermometers 1328 Corrosive chloride of mercury 979 Corrosive sublimate 979 Corsican moss 1253 Cortex caryophyllata 1249 Cortex culilaban 1250 Cortex frangula? 587 Corylus rostrata 1249 Cosmibuena 213 Cotton 356 Cotton, explosive 38 Cotula 278 Coucli grass 1302 Coumarin 1302 Coumarouna odorata 1301 Court plaster 1163 Cowbane 1242 Cowhage 468 Cow-parsnep 368 Crab stones 1249 Crabs' claws 1249 Crabs' eyes 1249 Cranesjjill 350 Cream of tartar 560 Cream of tartar, soluble 670 Cream of tartar whey 562 Creasote 279 Creasote mixture 1031 Creasotum 279 Cremor tartari 560 Creta 283 Creta alba 283 Creta praeparata 879 Crocus 284 Crocus of antimony 838 Index. 1343 Crocus sativus Croton cascarilla Croton Eleutheria Croton lacciferum Croton lineare Croton oil Croton pseudo-china Croton tiglium Crotonic acid Crotonin Crotonis oleum Crowfoot Crown bark of Loxa Crucibles Crude antimony Crude borax Crude sal ammoniac Crude saltpetre Crude sulphur Crude tartar Crystal mineral Crystallization Crystals of acetate of copper Crystals of nitrate of sil ver Crystals of tartar Crystals of Venus Cubeba Cubebin Cubebs Cubic nitre Cubic pyrites Cuckoo-flower Cucumber tree Cucumis colocynthis Cucumis melo Cucumis sativus Cucurbita citrullus Cucurbita lagenaria Cucurbita pepo Cudbear Cudweed Cuichunchulli Culilawan Culver's physic Cumin seed Cuminum Curninum cyminum Cunila mariana Cunila pulegioides Cupels Cupri acetas, Crystalli Cupri ammoniati aqua Cupri ammoniati solutio Cupri ammonio-sulphas Cupri subacetas Cupri subacetas praepara turn Cupri sulphas Cupro-sulphate of ammo nia Cuprum Cuprum ammoniatum Curcuma Curcuma angustifoha Curcuma longa Curcuma rotunda Curcuma zedoaria Curcuma zerumbet 284 185 184 1270 185 502 184 502 503 503 502 583 222 759 107 669 85 569 695 560 569 762 291 402, 871 560 291 286 287 286 1279 974 174 443 259 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 420 1257 1268 1250 1272 295 295 295 1250 365 528 291 899 899 897 290 897 291 288 897 293 450 293 293 1305 1305 Currant wine Cusco bark Cusparia Cusparia febrifuga Cusparin Cuttle-fish bone Cyanide of silver Cyanogen Cyanohydric acid Cyanuret of gold Cyanuret of mercury Cyanuret of potassium Cyanuret of silver Cyanuret of zinc Cycas circinalis Cycas revoluta Cydonia Cydonia vulgaris Cydonin Cyminum Cynanchum argel Cynanchum Monspelia- cum Cynanchum oleaefolium Cynanchum vincetoxi- cum Cynips quercusfolii Cynoglossum officinale Cytisin Cytisus scoparius 740 I 227 1 99 99 100 1250 866 790 786 1258 991 1098 866 1251 620 620 294 294 294 295 653 644 653 1251 340 1251 121 647 901 904 904 905 901 905 906 902 D Daffodil Dalby's carminative Damarra turpentine Danais Dandelion Daphne Alpina Daphne gnidium Daphne laureola Daphne mezereum Daphnin Datura ferox Datura stramonium Datura tatula Daturia Dauci radix Daucus carota Deadly nightshade Decocta Decoction Decoction of aloes, com pound Decoction of barley Decoction of barley, com- pound 90^ Decoction of bittersweet 903 Decoction of broom, com- pound 909 Decoction of cabbage-tree bark 903 Decoction of chamomile 901 Decoction of dandelion 909 Decoction of dogwood 903 Decoction of elm bark Decoction of guaiacum wood, compound 1279 440 713 213 706 461 460 460 460 461 690 688 688 689 178 178 137 899 762 Decoction of Iceland moss Decoction of liquorice root Decoction of logwood Decoction of mallows, compound Decoction of marsh-mal low Decoction of mezereon Decoction of oak bark Decoction of Peruvian bark Decoction of pipsissewa 901 Decoction of pomegran- ate 904 Decoction of poppy 906 Decoction of quince seeds 903 Decoction of sarsaparilla 906 Decoction of sarsaparilla, compound 908 Decoction of seneka 909 Decoction of the woods 904 Decoction of tormentil Decoction of uva ursi Decoction of white helle bore Decoction of white oak bark Decoction of winter green 901 Decoction of Zittmann 908 Decoctions 899 Decoctum ad ictericos 1240 Decoctum aloescomposi- 909 910 910 906 turn Decoctum althaeae Decoctum amyli Decoctum cetrariae Decoctum chamaemeli compositum Decoctum chimaphilae Decoctum cinchonae Decoctum cornus Floridae 903 900 901 1045 901 901 901 902 900 904 909 904 Decoctum cydoniae Decoctum dulcamarae Decoctum geoffroyae Decoctum glycyrrhizae Decoctum granati Decoctum guaiaci compo- situm Decoctum hffimatoxyli Decoctum hordei Decoctum hordei compo- situm Decoctum lichenis Islan- dici Decoctum malvae compo- situm Decoctum mezerei Decoctum papaveris Decoctum pyrolae Decoctum quercus Decoctum quercus alba) Decoctum sarsaparilla Decoctum sarsaparillae compositum Decoctum scoparii com- positum Decoctum senegae 903 903 903 904 904 904 904 904 905 901 905 905 906 901 906 906 906 908 909 909 1344 Index. Decoctum taraxaci 909 Decoctum tormentillas 909 Decoctum ulmi 909 Decoctum uvae ursi 910 Decoctum veratri 910 Decoctum Zittmanni 908 Deer-berry 346 Delphinia 686 Delphinium 295 Delphinium consolida 295 Delphinium exaltatum 296 Delphinium staphisagria 685 Demulcents 2 Dentellaria 1290 Deobstruents 3 Depilatory, Atkinson's 1282 Deshler's salve 889 Dewberry root 603 Dextrine 95 Diachylon 920 Diamond 169 Dianthus caryophyllus 296 Diaphoretic antimony 1251 Diaphoretics 2 Diastase 373 Dictamus albus 1252 Diet drink, Lisbon 908 Digestion 762 Digitalic acid 299 Digitalin 298 Digitalis 297 Digitalis purpurea 297 Dill seeds 97 Dill water 860 Diluted acetic acid 783 Diluted alcohol 822 Diluted muriatic acid 792 Diluted nitric acid 793 Diluted phosphoric acid 795 Diluted solution of sub- acetate of lead 1074 Diluted sulphuric acid 798 Dinneford's magnesia 439 Dinner pills 1060 Diosma 301 Diosma crenata 301 Diospyros 302 Diospyros Virginiana 302 Diplolepis gallae tinctoria? 340 Dippel's animal oil 1252 Dipterix odorata 1301 Dirca palustris 1252 Dispensing of medicines 765 Displacement, method o f 76-2 , 769 Distillation 760 , 772 Distillation, apparatus for 772 Distillation in vacuo 760 Distilled oils 482, 1046 Dock, water 605 Dock, yellow-rooted water 606 Dog-grass 1302 Dog rose 599 Dog's-bane 107 Dog's tooth violet 319 Dogwood 277 Dogwood, round leaved 276 Dogwood, swamp 278 Dolichos puriens 468 Dolomite 441 Dombeya excelsa 713 Dombeya turpentine 713 Donovan's solution 1265 CTftft^na ammoniacum 87 Dorstenia Brasiliensis 268 Dorstenia contrayerva 269 Dorstenia Drakena 268 Dorstenia Houstonia 268 Dose of medicine 1306 Double aqua fortis 37 Dover's powder 1111 Dracaena draco 1252 Draconin 1253 Dracontium 303 Dragon-root 123 Dragon's blood 1252 Dried alum 823 Dried carbonate of soda 1121 Dried sulphate of iron 973 Drops, table of 1319 Dry wines 737 Drying oils 480 Drymis Winteri 744 Dryobalanops aromatica 156 Dryobalanops camphora 156 Dulcamara 304 Dutch pink 1253 Dwarf elder 116 Dwarf nettle 1302 Dyers' alkanet 1225 Dyers' broom 1255 Dyers' madder 602 Dyers' oak 340 Dyers' saffron 180 Dyers' weed 1255, 1292 Distilled verdigris 291 Distilled vinegar 773 Distilled water 855 Distilled waters 856 Dittany, American 1250 Dittany, bastard 1252 Diuretic salt 1084 Diuretics 2 Division, mechanical 755 Dixon's antibilious pills 74 Dock, blunt-leaved 605 East India aloes 71 EaudeJavelle 124] Eau de luce 631,1161 Eau medicinale d'Husson 258 Ecbalium elaterium 307 Effervescing draught 1092, 1312 Effervescing powders 1110 Effervescing solution of potassa 1091 Effervescing solution of soda 1125 Egg 529 Egyptian opium 510 Elaeocarpus copalliferus .1248 Elaidic acid 481 Ela'idin 481 Elai'n 56 Elais Guiniensis ' 1286 Elaphrium elemiferum 311 Elaphrium tomentosum 1298 Elaterin 309 Elaterium 307 Elder flowers 625 Elder ointment 1204 Elder water 866 Elecampane 389 Electuaria 891 Electuaries 891 Electuarium aromaticum 892 Electuarium cassias 893 Electuarium catechu 893 Electuarium opii 894 Electuarium piperis 894 Electuarium scammonii 896 Electuarium sennae 896 Electuary, lenitive 896 Electuary of catechu 893 Elemi 310 Eleoptene 483 Elettaria cardamomum 177 Elixir of vitriol 797 Elixir proprietatis 1161 Elixir sacrum 1183 Elixir salutis 1185,1186 Ellagic acid 341 Elm bark 726 Elm,red 726 Elm, slippery 726 Elm, white 727 Elutriation 756 Emery 1253 Emetia 401 Emetic tartar S37 Emetics 2 Emmenagogues 2 Emollients 2 Emplastra 910 Emplastrum adhaesivum 921 Emplastrum ammoniaci 911 Emplastrum ammoniaci cum hydrargyro 912 Emplastrum aromaticum 912 Emplastrum assafoetidae 913 Emplastrum belladonnae 913 Emplastrum calefaciens 917 Emplastrum cantharidis 885 Emplastrum cantharidis compositum 914 Emplastrum cerae 914 Emplastrum de Vigo cum mercurio 916 Emplastrum epispasticum885 Emplastrum ferri 914 Emplastrum galbani 915 Emplastrum galbani com- positum 915 Emplastrum gummosum 915 Emplastrum hydrargyri 915 Emplastrum lithargyri 918 Emplastrum lithargyri cum resina 921 Emplastrum opii 916 Emplastrum picis 917 Emplastrum picis cum cantharide 917 Emplastrum plumbi 918 Emplastrum resinae 921 Emplastrum roborans 914 Index. 1345 Emplastrum saponis 921 Emplastrum saponis com- positum , 922 Emplastrum simplex 914 Emplastrum thuris 914 Empyreumatic oils 765 Emulsin 90 Emulsio Arabica 1028 Emulsion 1028 Enema aloes 923 Enema anodynum 923 Enema catharticum 923 Enema colocynthidis 923 Enema foetidum 923 Enema opii 923 Enema tabaci 1017 Enema terebinthinas 924 Enemata 922 English port 738 English rhubarb 593 Ens martis 975 Epidendrum vanilla 1303 Epifagus Americanus 1281 Epispastics 2 Epsom salt 440 Equivalents, table of pharmaceutical ■ 1320 Ergot 311 Ergota 311 Ergotastia abortifaciens 312 Ergotin 313 Erigeron Canadense 316 Erigeron heterophyllum 317 Erigeron Philadelphicum 317 Erigeron pusilum 316 Errhines 2 Eryngium 318 Eryngium aquaticum 318 Eryngo, water 318 Erysimum alliaria 1226 Erysimum officinale 1295 Erythraea centaurium 197 Erythraea Chilensis 198 Erythronium 318 ErythroniumAmericanum 319 Erythronium lanceolatum 319 Escharotics 2 Essence de petit grain 133 Essence of ambergris 1134 Essence of bergamot 485 Essence of peppermint 1178 Essence of roses 498 Essence of spearmint 1178 Essence of spruce 710 Essential oils 482, 1046 Essential salt of lemons 12, 1283 Ethal 203 Ethalic acid 203 Ether 805 Ether, hydric 810 Ether, hyponitrous 814 Ether, nitric 814 Ether, nitrous 814 Ether, oenanthic 739 Ether, rectification of 808 Ether, sulphuric 805 Ether, unrectified sulphu- ric 805 Ethereal oil 114 811 Ethereal tincture of lobe- lia H77 Etherification, theory of 809 Etherine 810 Etherole 812 Etherosulphuric acid 810 Ethers 805 Ethiops mineral 1001 Ethule 809 Ethyle 809 Eucalyptus mannifera 447 Eucalyptus resinifera 417 Eugenia caryophyllata 182 Eugenia pimenta 539 Eugenic acid 488 Eugenin 183 Eupatorium 319 Eupatorium aya-pana 320 Eupatorium cannabinum 320 Eupatorium perfoliatum 320 Eupatorium pilosum 319 Eupatorium purpureum 319 Eupatorium teucrifolium 319 Eupatorium verbenaefo- lium 319 Euphorbia antiquorum 324 Euphorbia Canariensis 324 Euphorbia corollata 321 Euphorbia hypericifolia 321 Euphorbia ipecacuanha 323 Euphorbia lathyris 128 I Euphorbia officinarum 324 Euphorbium 324 Euphrasia officinalis 1253 Eupione 279 European centaury 197 European rhubarb 593 Evaporation 762 Everitt's salt 787 Exogonium purga 406 Exostemma 213 Exostemma Caribasa 234 Exostemma floribunda 234 Expectorants 2 Expressed oils 480 Expression 758 Extemporaneous pre- scriptions, examples of 1310 Extract of aconite 933 Extract of aconite, alco- holic 934 Extract of aloes, purified 935 Extract of belladonna 936 Extract of belladonna, al- coholic 936 Extract of bittersweet 941 Extract ofblack hellebore 942 Extract of broom tops 952 Extract of butternut 945 Extract of chamomile 935 Extract of colchicum, acetic 938 Extract of colchicum cormus 938 Extract of colocynth 939 Extract of colocynth, compound 939 Extract of dandelion 953 Extract of foxglove 941 Extract of gentian 941 Extract of hemlock 940 Extract of hemlock, alco- holic 941 Extract of henbane 943 Extract of henbane, alco- holic 944 Extract of hops 943 Extract of jalap 944, 945 Extract of lettuce 946 Extract of logwood 942 Extract of may-apple 949 Extract of nux vomica 947 Extract of oak bark 949 Extract of opium 947 Extract of pareira brava 949 Extract of Peruvian bark 937 Extract of poppy 948 Extract of quassia 949 Extract of rhatany 946 Extract of rhubarb 949 Extract of rue 950 Extract of sarsaparilla 950 Extract of sarsaparilla, fluid 951 Extract of scammony 952 Extract of stramonium leaves 952 Extract of stramonium seed 953 Extract of uva ursi 954 Extract of wormwood 935 Extracta 924 Extracta simpliciora 933 Extractive 925 Extracts 924 Extractum aconiti 933 Extractum aconiti alco- holicum 934 Exlractum aloSs hepatica? 935 Extractum aloes purifi- catum 935 Extractum anthemidis 935 Extractum artemisiae ab- sinthii 935 Extractum belladonnae 936 Extractum belladonna? alcoholicum 936 Extractum chamaemeli 935 Extractum cinchonae 937 Extractum colchici ace- ticum. 938 Extractum colchici cormi 938 Extractum colocynthidis 939 Extractum colocynthidis compositum 939 Extractum conii 940 Extractum conii alcoholi- cum 941 Extractum digitalis 941 Extractum dulcamara? 941 Extractum elaterii 307 Extractum gentiana? 941 Extractum glyeyrrhizae 325 Extractum hasmatoxyli 942 Extractum hellebori 942 Extractum humuli lupuli 943 Extractum hyoscyami 943 Extractum hyoscyami al- coholicum 944 1346 Index. Extractum jalapa? 94< ,945 Ferri et potassa? tartras 957 Fishery salt 678 Extractum juglandis 945 Ferri et quinia? citras 1243 Fixed air 859 Extractum krameria? 946 Ferri ferrocyanuretum 960 Fixed oils 480 Extractum lactuca? 946 Ferri filum 329 Flag, blue 405 Extractum lupuli 943 Ferri iodidi syrupus 964 Flag, sweet 144 Extractum nucis vomica? 947 Ferri iodidum 961 Flake manna 447 Extractum opii 947 Ferri lactas 1270 Flammula Jovis 1243 Extractum opii aquosum 947 Ferri limatura 329 Flax 430 Extractum opii purifica- Ferri muriatis tinctura 975 Flax, purging 432 tum 947 Ferri oxidum hydratum 965 Flaxseed 430 Extractum papaveris 948 Ferri oxidum nigrum 966 Flaxseed cataplasm 884 Extractum pareira? 949 Ferri oxidum rubrum 969 Flaxseed meal 431 Extractum podophylli 949 Ferri oxydum rubrum 968 Flaxseed oil 491 Extractum quassia? 949 Ferri percyanidum 960 Fleabane,Canada 316 Extractum quercus 949 Ferri phosphas 968 Fleabane, Philadelphia 317 Extractum rhei 949 Ferri potassio-tartras 957 Fleabane, various leaved 317 Extractum ruta? 950 Ferri ramenta 329 Fleawort 1289 Extractum sarsaparilla? 950 Ferri rubigo 969 Flesh-coloured asclepias 126 Extractum sarsaparilla? Ferri sesquioxidum 969 Flies, potato 165 fluidum 951 Ferri subcarbonas 969 Flies, Spanish 160 Extractum sarza? 950 Ferri sulphas 971 Flix weed 1295 Extractum sarza? fluidum 951 Ferri sulphas exsiccatum 973 Florence receiver 1049 Extractum scammonii 952 Ferri sulphuretum 973 Florentine orris 404 Extractum spartii scoparii 952 Ferri tartarum 957 Flores martiales 975 Extractum stramonii 953 Ferri valerianas 1302 Flores sulphuris 696 Extractum stramonii fo- Ferric acid 327 Florida anise tree 1263 liorum 952 Ferrocyanate of potassa 572 Flour 722 Extractum stramonii se- Ferrocyanate of quinia 239 Flowering ash 447 minis 953 Ferrocyanide of potas- Flowers of benzoin 784 Extractum styracis 1140 sium 572 Flowers of sulphur 696 Extractum taraxaci 953 Ferrocyanogen 573 Flowers of zinc 1217 Extractum uva? ursi 954 Ferrocyanuret of iron 960 Fluid extract of sarsapa - Eyebright 1253 Ferrocyanuret of potas- rilla 951 sium 572 Fluid extract of senna 1156 Ferrocyanuret of zinc 1253 Fceniculum 334 F Ferroprussiate of potassa 572 Fceniculum dulce 335 Ferrugo 965 Fceniculum officinale 335 Faba Sancti Ignatii 1232 Ferrum 326 Fceniculum vulgare 335 Fagara octandra 1298 Ferrum ammoniatum 974 Foliated earth of tartar 1083 False angustura 101 Ferrum. Oxydi squama? 330 Form in which medicines False barks 234 Ferrum tartarizatum 957 are exhibited 1309 False sarsaparilla 116 Ferula assafoetida 128 Formula? for prescrip- False sunflower 1259 Ferula ferulago 338 tions 1310 Farina 722 Ferula galbanifera 338 Fossil salt 677 Fat lute 761 Ferula Persica 129 Fothergill's pills 74 Fat manna 448 Ferula tingitana 87 Fowler's solution 871 Febure's remedy for car - Fetid aloes 72 Foxglove 297 cer 20 Fetid clyster 923 Frangula? cortex 587 Fel bovinum 1284 Fetid spirit of ammonia 835 Frankincense 505, 543 Female fern 1230 Fever-bush 1233 Frasera 336 Fennel seed 334 Feverfew 1291 Frasera Carolinensis 336 Fennel water 863 Fever-root 721 Frasera Walteri 336 Fenugreek 1302 Fibrin, vegetable 723 Fraxinella, white 1252 Fermentation, alcoholic 58 Ficus 331 Fraxinus excelsior. 446 Fermentation, vinous 58 Ficus carica 331 Fraxinus ornus 447 Fern, male 332 Ficus Indica 1270 Fraxinus parviflora 446 Feronia elephantum 6 Ficus religiosa 1270 French berries 587 Ferri acetas 954 Figs 331 French chalk 1253 Ferri acetatis tinctura 955 Figwort leaves 648 French rhubarb 594 Ferri ammonio-chloridum Filix 332 French .vinegar 15 974 Filix mas 332 Friars' balsam 1163 Ferri ammonio-tartras 1226 Filter, Boullay's 763 Frost-weed 1259 Ferri arsenias 1230 Filters 757 Frostwort 1259 Ferri bromidum 1235 Filtration 757 Fruit sugar 613 Ferri carbonas 969 Filtration at a boiling Fucus crispus 210 Ferri carbonas sacchara heat 757 Fucus helminthocorton 1253 turn 956 Filtration by displace- Fucus vesiculosus 1253 Ferri carburetum 1239 ment 76: ,769 Fuligo iigni 1296 Ferri citras 1242 Fine-leaved water hem- Fuligokali 1254 Ferri cyanuretum 960 lock 1287 Fumaria officinalis 1254 Index. 1347 Fuming sulphuric acid of 45 1254 1276 1277 1223, 1277 1233 757 759 758 59 408 764 1254 1245 1254 1254 338 338 915 Nordhausen Fumitory Fungi Fungic acid Fungin Fungus rosarum Funnel stands Furnace, black lead cru cible Furnaces Fusel oil Fusiform jalap Fusion Fustic G Gadus morrhua Galanga Galangal Galbanum Galbanum officinale Galbanum plaster Galbanum plaster, com- pound Galega officinalis Galega tinctoria Galega Virginiana Galena Galipea cusparia Galipea officinalis Galipot Galium aparine Galium tinctorium Galium verum Galla Gallic acid Galls Gambir Gamboge Gambogia Gambogic acid Garbling of drugs Garcinia cambogia Garcinia morella Garden angelica Garden carrot-root • Garden endive Garden purslane Garlic Gas liquor Gaultheria Gaultheria procumbens Gay feather Gelatin, capsules of Genista tinctoria Gentian Gentian, blue Gentiana Gentiana Catesbaei Gentiana chirayta Gentiana lutea Gentiana macrophylla Gentiana Panonica Gentiana punctata Gentiana purpurea Gentianin Gentisic acid 915 1254 1264 1254 546 99 100 712 1254 1255 1255 340 1255 340 194 342 242 345 753 342 344 98 178 1242 1291 64 84 345 345 1272 1257 1255 346 348 346 348 209 346 347 347 347 347 347 347 Gentisin 347 Geoffroya inermis 349 Geoffroya Surinamensis 349 Geranium 350 Geranium maculatum 350 Geranium Robertianum 1256 German chamomile 454 Germander 1301 Geum 351 Geum rivale 351 Geum urbanum 352 Gigartina helminthocor- ton Gillenia Gillenia stipulacea Gillenia trifoliata Ginger Ginger, wild Ginseng Glacial acetic acid Glacial phosphoric acid Glass of antimony Glass of borax Glass of lead Glauber's salt Glechoma hederacea Glu Glucic acid Glucose Glue Gluten Glycerin Glyceryle Glycion Glycyrrhiza Glycyrrhiza echinata Glycyrrhiza glabra Glycyrrhiza lepidota Glycyrrhizin Gnaphalium margarita- ceum Gnaphalium polycepha- lum Goat's rue Godfrey's cordial Gold, preparations of Golden rod Golden sulphur of anti- mony Goldthread Gombo 1253 353 353 353 749 125 530 783 796 1256 670 1256 675 1256 1234 618 613 1256 723 630, 919 919 355 354 355 354 355 355 1257 1257 1254 1182 1257 679 850 274 1261 Gondret's vesicating oint- ment Goose-grass Gossypium Gossypium herbaceum Goulard's cerate Goulard's extract Grain oil Grain soap Grain tin Grains of paradise Grana Molucca Grana moschata Grana paradisi Grana tiglia Granati fructus cortex Granati radicis cortex Granatum Grape sugar 83 1254 356 356 Gratiola officinalis Gravel-root Gravity, specific Gray bark Green tea Green vitriol Green weed Griffith's antihectic myrrh mixture Groats Gromwell Ground ivy Ground pine Groundsel, common Gruel, oatmeal Guaiac Guaiac mixture Guaiaci lignum Guaiaci resina Guaiacic acid Guaiacin Guaiacum Guaiacum arboreum Guaiacum officinale Guaiacum sanctum Guaiacum wood Guarana Guaranin Guilandina bonduc Guinea grains Gum Gum anime Gum Arabic Gum Arabic emulsion Gum Arabic mixture Gum, Barbary Gum, Bassora Gum, Cape Gum, caranna Gum elastic Gum Galam Gum gedda Gum, India Gum plaster Gum-resins Gum, Senegal Gum turic Gum, Turkey Gummi acacia? Gummi gutt^-** Gummi-resinae Gun cotton Gunjah Gutta percha Gyromia Virginica 1074 59 630 684 176 502 1261 176 502 357 357 357 613 1259 319 754 221 1299 971 1255 1032 134 1273 1256 1224 1295 134 361 1033 359 361 360 362 361 360 359 360 359 1286 1287 209 176 9 1228 5 1028 1028 8 1231 9 1239 1238 915 977 8 7 . 7 5 343 977 38 1238 1238 1275 H Hasmatoxylon _ 363 Haematoxylon Campechi- anum *"" Hamamelis Virginica 1259 Hard water HO Hardhack 682 Harrowgate water 113 Hartshorn 276 Harts-tongue 1294 Heal-all 1248, 1291 Heat, modes of applying 758 1348 Index. Heavy oil of wine 811 Hebradendron cambo- gioides 343 Hedeoma 365 Hedeoma pulegioides 365 Hedera helix 1259 Hederin 1259 Hedge garlic 1226 Hedge hyssop 1259 Hedge mustard 1295 Hedysarum Alhagi 447 Helenin 389 Helenium autumnale 1259 Helianthemum Cana- dense 1259 Helianthemum corym- bosum 1260 Helianthus annuus 467 Hellebore, American 734 Hellebore, black 365 Hellebore, white 732 Helleborus 365 Helleborus foetidus 1260 Helleborus niger 366 Helleborus officinalis 366 Helleborus orientalis 366 Helleborus viridis 366 Helminthocorton 1253 Helonias officinalis 608 Hematin 364 Hemidesmic acid 1260 Hemidesmus Indicus 634, 1260 Hemlock 265 Hemlock cataplasm 883 Hemlock gum 545 Hemlock leaves 264 Hemlock pitch 545 Hemlock seed 264 Hemlock spruce 544 Hemlock water-drop- wort 1280 Hemp 1237 Hemp, Indian 108 Henbane leaves 383 Henbane seed 383 Henry's aromatic spirit of vinegar 779 Henry's magnesia 1023 Hepar sulphuaj* 1105 Hepatic aloes'" 71 Hepatica 367 Hepatica acutiloba 368 Hepatica Americana 367 Hepatica triloba 368 Heptree 599 Heracleum 368 Heracleum gummiferum 86 Heracleum lanatum 368 Herb Christopher 1222 Herb Robert 1256 Hermodactyls 1260 Heuchera 369 Heuchera Americana 369 Heuchera cortusa 369 Heuchera viscida 369 Heudelotia Africana 1232 Hevea Guianensis 1238 Hibiscus abelmoschus 1261 Hibiscus esculentus 1261 Hickory ashes and soot, infusion of 1296 Hiera picra 1109 Hircic acid 662 Hircin 662 Hirudo 369 Hirudo decora 370 Hirudo medicinalis 370 Hive-syrup 1154 Hoffmann's anodyne liquor 813 Holly 1263 Hollyhock 76 Homberg's pyrophorus 78 Honey 455 Honey, clarified 1025 Honey of borax 1026 Honey of roses 1026 Honey, preparations of 1025 Honey, prepared 1026 Hooper's pills 1060 Hops 374 Hordein 373 Hordeum 372 Hordeum distichon 373 Hordeum perlatum 374 Hordeum vulgare 373 Horehound 452 Horehound, wild 319 Horn lead 1075 Horse aloes 72 Horse-balm 1248 Horsechesnut 1223 Horsemint 462 Horse-radish 119 Horse-weed 1248 Hot bath 115 Hound's tongue 1251 Houseleek, common 1295 Houseleek, small 1295 Howard's calomel 987 Huamilies bark 225 Huanuco bark 223 Huile de morue 1245 Humulus 374 Humulus lupulus 374 Hundred-leaved roses 600 Hungarian balsam 1292 Husband's magnesia 1023 Huxham's tincture of bark 1168 Hydracids 780 Hydrargyri acetas 978 Hydrargyri ammonio- chloridum 1004 Hydrargyri bichloridum 979 Hydrargyri bicyanidum 991 Hydrargyri biniodidum 993 Hydrargyri binoxydum 999 Hydrargyri bisulphu- retum 1002 Hydrargyri chloridum 985 Hydrargyri chloridum corrosivum 979 Hydrargyri chloridum mite 985 Hydrargyri cyanuretum 991 Hydrargyri iodidum 992 Hydrargyri iodidum rubrum 993 Hydrargyri murias cor- rosivum 979 Hydrargyri nitrico-oxy- dum 996 Hydrargyri oxidum ni- grum 994 Hydrargyri oxidum ru- brum, U. S. 996 Hydrargyri oxydum, Lond. 994 Hydrargyri oxydum nitri- cum 996 Hydrargyri oxydum ru- • brum, Dub. 998 Hydrargyri oxydum sul- phuricum 1000 Hydrargyri persulphas 999 Hydrargyri precipitatum album 1004 Hydrargyri submurias ammoniatum 1004 Hydrargyri sulphas fla- vus ' 1000 Hydrargyri sulphuretum cum sulphure 1001 Hydrargyri sulphuretum nigrum 1001 Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum 1002 Hydrargyrum 377 Hydrargyrum ammonia- tum 1004 Hydrargyrum cum creta 1005 Hydrargyrum cum Tnag- nesia. 1006 Hydrargyrum praecipita- tum per se 998 Hydrargyrum purificatum 978 Hydrastis Canadensis 1261 Hydrate of lime 147 Hydrate of potassa 1080 Hydrated oxide of iron 965 Hydrated oxide of lead 1076 Hydrated sesquioxide (peroxide) of iron 965 Hydric ether 810 Hydriodate of ammonia 1265 Hydriodate of arsenic and mercury, solu- tion of 1265 Hydriodate of potassa 1100 Hydriodic acid 391,1261 Hydrochlorate of ammo- nia 84 Hydrochlorate of lime 146 Hydrochlorate of mor- phia 1040 Hydrochloric acid 31 Hydrocyanic acid 786 Hydrocyanic acid, anhy- drous 789, 790 Hydrocyanic ether 1262 Hydrogen 1218 Hydrometer, Baume's 754,1329 Hydrosublimate of mer- cury 9S7 Hydrosulphates 974 Hydrosulphuret of ammo- nia 827 Index. 1349 Hydrosulphurets 974 Hydrosulphuric acid 974 Hymenaea courbaril 1228 Hymenaea verrucosa 1249 Hymenodyction 213 Hyoscyami folia 383 Hyoscyami semen 383 Hyoscyamia 384 Hyoscyamus 383 Hyoscyamus albus 384 Hyoscyamus niger 383 Hyperanthera moringa 1281 Hypericum perforatum 1262 Hypermanganic acid 445 Hyperoxy muriate of po- tassa 565 Hypochlorite of lime 149 Hypochlorite of soda 1126 Hyponitrous ether 814 Hypopicrotoxic acid 252 Hyposulphite of soda 1262 Hyssop 1262 Hyssopus officinalis 1262 I Ice plant Iceland moss Ichthyocolla Icica icicariba Ictodes foetidus Idrialine Igasuric acid Ignatia amara Ilex 1275 203 387 310 303 693 477 1232 nex 1263 Ilex aquifolium 1234, 1263 Ilex cassina 1263 Ilex dahoon 1263 Ilex mate 1263 Ilex opaca 1263 Ilex Paraguaiensis 1263 Ilex vomitoria 1263 Ilicin 1263 Illicium anisatum 103, 1263 Illicium Floridanum 1263 Illicium parviflorum 1263 Impatiens balsamina 1263 Impatiens fulva 1263 Impatiens noli-me-tan- gere 1263 Impatiens pallida 1263 Imperatoria ostruthium 1263 Imperial -562 Imperial measure 1314 Impure carbonate of po- tassa •JO/i Impure carbonate of soda 671 Impure oxide of zinc 1302 Impure potassa 562 Impure subcarbonate of potassa 562 Incineration 764 Incitants 2 Indelible ink 1264 India gum ° India opium 511 India senna 655 Indian corn l*n Indian cucumber l^/o Indian hemp 108, 1238 Indian physic 353 Indian poke 734 Indian red 1264 Indian sarsaparilla 1260 Indian tobacco 434 Indian turnip 123 Indian yellow 1264 Indigo 1264 Indigo, wild 1231 Indigofera tinctoria 1264 Indigotin 1265 Infusa 1006 Infusion 762 Infusion of angustura bark 1007 Infusion of broom 1015 Infusion of buchu 1011 Infusion of cascarilla 1008 Infusion of catechu, com- pound 1008 Infusion of chamomile 1007 Infusion of chiretta 1009 Infusion of cloves 1008 Infusion of columbo 1010 Infusion of flaxseed 1012 Infusion of foxglove 1011 Infusion of gentian, com- pound 1012 Infusion of hickory ashes and soot 1296 Infusion of hops 1012 Infusion of horse-radish 1007 Infusion of mint, com- pound 1013 Infusion of mint, simple 1013 Infusion of orange-peel, compound 1008 Infusion of pareira brava 1013 Infusion of Peruvian bark 1009 Infusion of Peruvian bark, compound 1010 Infusion of pinkroot 1017 Infusion of quassia 1014 Infusion of rhatany 1012 Infusion of rhubarb 1014 Infusion of roses, com- pound 1014 Infusion of sarsaparilla 1015 Infusion of seneka 1016 Infusion of senna 1016 Infusion of senna with tamarinds 1016 Infusion of simaruba 1017 Infusion of slippery elm bark 1°17 Infusion of thorough- wort J011 Infusion of tobacco 1017 Infusion of valerian 1017 Infusion of Virginia snakeroot 1016 Infusion of wild-cherry bark 1013 Infusions 1006 Infusions and decoctions, preservation of 765 Infusum angustura? 1007 Infusum anthemidis 1007 Infusum armoracia? 1007 114* Infusum armoracia? com- positum 1007 Infusum aurantii compo- situm 1008 Infusum buchu 1011 Infusum calumba? 1010 Infusum caryophylli 1008 Infusum cascarilla? 1008 Infusum catechu compo- situm 1008 Infusum chamaemeli 1007 Infusum chiretta? 1009 Infusum cinchona? 1009 Infusum cinchonae com- positum 1010 Infusum colomba? 1010 Infusum cuspariae 1007 Infusum digitalis 1011 Infusum diosmae 1011 Infusum eupatorii 1011 Infusum gentiana? com- positum 1012 Infusum humuli 1012 Infusum kramerias 1012 Infusum lini 1012 Infusum lini compositum 1012 Infusum lupuli 1012 Infusum menthae compo- situm 1013 Infusum menthae simplex 1013 Infusum pareira? 1013 Infusum pruni Virgini- ana? 1013 Infusum quassia? 1014 Infusum rhei 1014 Infusum rosae acidum 1014 Infusum rosae composi- tum 1014 Infusum sarsaparilla? 1015 Infusum sarsaparilla? compositum 1015 Infusum scoparii 1015 Infusum senega? 1016 Infusum senna? 1016 Infusum senna? composi- tum 1016 Infusum senna? cum ta- marindis 1016 Infusum ser-jpptaria? 1016 Infusum simaruba? 1017 Infusum spigelia? 1017 Infusum tabaci 1017 Infusum ulmi 1017 Infusum Valerianae 1017 Inspissated juice of elder 950 Inspissated juices 932 Inspissation 762 Inula 389 Inula helenium 389 Inulin 389 Iodic acid 391 Iodide of ammonium 1265 Iodide of arsenic 1265 Iodide of arsenic and mercury, solution of 1265 Iodide of barium 1266 Iodide of gold 1258 Iodide of iron 961 Iodide of iron, sol ution of 964 1350 Index. Iodide of iron, syrup of 964 Iodide of lead 1075 Iodide of mercury 992 Iodide of potassium 1100 Iodide of silver 1267 Iodide of starch 1267 Iodic'e of sulphur 1142 Iodii'e of zinc 1267 Iodine 390 Iodine baths 395, 396 Iodine caustic 395 Iodine, compound, solu- tion of 1018 Iodine inhalation " 396 Iodine lotion 395 Iodine, Lugol's solution of 394 Iodine ointment of Lugol 395 Iodine rubefacient solu- tion 395 Iodinei liquor composi- tus 1018 Iodinii tinctura 1174 Iodinum 390 Iodism 392 Iodo-hydrargyrate of po- tassium 1267 Iodous acid 391 "Ionidium ipecacuanha 402 Ionidium marcucci 402, 1268 Ionidium microphyllum 402 Ionidium parviflorum 402, 1268 Ipecacuanha 398 Ipecacuanha, American 323 Ipecacuanha, black 401 Ipecacuanha, Peruvian 401 Ipecacuanha spurge 323 Ipecacuanha, striated 401 Ipecacuanha, undulated 402 Ipecacuanha, white 402 Ipomasa jalapa 406 Ipomasa macrorhiza 406 Ipomaea purga 406 Iris Florentina 404 Iris foetidissima 404 Iris Germanica 404 Iris pseudo-acorus 404 Iris tuberosa 404, 1260 Iris versicolor^ 405 Irish moss 210 Iron 326 Iron, acetate of 954 Iron, ammoniated 974 Iron, ammonio-chloride of 974 Iron, ammonio-tartrate of 1226 Iron and potassa, tartrate of 957 Iron, black oxide of 966 Iron, bromide of 1235 Iron, dried sulphate of 973 Iron, ferrocyanuret of 960 Iron filings 329 Iron, hydrated oxide of 965 Iron in fine powder 330 Iron, iodide of 961 Iron, phosphate of 968 Iron plaster 914 Iron, precipitated carbo- nate of 969 Iron, preparations of 954 Iron, red oxide of 968 Iron, rust of 969 Iron, saccharine carbo- nate of 956 Iron, sesquioxide of 969 Iron, subcarbonate of 969 Iron, sulphate of 971 Iron, sulphuret of 973 Iron, table of the prepa- rations of 328 Iron, tartarized 957 Iron, tartrate of protoxide of Iron, teroxide of Iron, valerianate of Iron wire Isatis tinctoria Isinglass Isis nobilis Issue peas Ivory-black Ivy Ivy gum 959 327 1302 329 1269 387 1249 132,405, 1259 171 1259 1259 Jaen bark 224 Jaggary 614 Jalap 405 Jalap, fusiform 408 Jalap, male 408 Jalapa 405 Jamaica pepper 539 James's powder 853 Jamestown weed 689 Janipha manihot 705 Jasminum officinale 12S1 Jatropha curcas 705 Jatropha elastica 1238 Jatropha manihot 705 Java cardamom 176 Javelle's water 1241 Jelly, vegetable 179 Jerusalem oak 206 Jervina 733 Jesuits' drops 1163 Jesuits' powder 242 Jewell's calomel 987 Jewel-weed 1263 Juglans 410 Juglans cathartica 410 Juglans cinerea 410 Jujuba? 1305 Jujube paste 1305 Juniper 411 Juniperus 411 Juniperus communis 411 Juniperus lycia 505 Juniperus sabina 612 Juniperus Virginiana 413 K Kaempferia rotunda Kalmia angustifolia Kalmia glauca 1305 1269 1269 Kalmia latifolia Kelp Kempferid Kermes mineral Keyser's pills Kinate of cinchonia Kinate of quinia King's yellow Kinic acid Kino Kinovic acid Kinovic bitter Knives, apothecaries' Knot-grass Knot-root Krameria Krameria ixina Krameria triandra Krameric acid Krimea rhubarb 1269 672 1254 849 979 240 240 1282 239 414 236 236 767 558 1248 418 419 418 419 594 Labarraque's disinfecting soda liquid 1125 Labdanum 1269 Labrador tea 1272 Lac 1270 Lac ammoniaci 1029 Lac assafoetida? 1030 Lac sulphuris 1141 Laccin 1270 Lacmus 420 Lactate of iron 1270 Lactate of quinia 239 Lactic acid 1272 Lactide 1272 Lactin 614 Lactuca 422 Lactuca altissima 423 Lactuca elongata 421 Lactuca sativa 422 Lactuca scariola 422 Lactuca virosa 421 Lactucarium 422 Lactucin 424 Ladanum 1269 Ladies' mantle 1225 Lady Webster's pills 1060 Lake water 111 Lakes 1272 Lana philosophica 1217 Lancaster black drop 777 Lapilli cancrorum 1249 Lapis calaminaris 748 Lappa minor 117 Larch, European 710 Lard 55 Large-flowering spurge 321 Larix Europaea 710 Larkspur 295 Laudanum 1179 Laudanum, Sydenham's 1211 Laurel 1269 Lauri bacca? 425 Lauri folia 425 Lauro-cerasus 426 Laurus benzoin 1233 Laurus camphora 153 Index. 1351 Laurus cassia 247 Laurus cinnamomum 246 Laurus culilawan 1250 Laurus nobilis 425 Laurus pichurim 1288 Laurus sassafras 640 Lavandula 427 Lavandula spica 427 Lavandula vera 427 Lavender 427 Lavender water 1134 Lead 546 Lead, acetate of 549 Lead as a poison 547 Lead, carbonate of 551 Lead, chloride of 1074 Lead, dinoxide of 547 Lead, hydrated oxide of 1076 Lead, iodide of 1075 Lead, nitrate of 1076 Lead plaster 918 Lead, preparations of 1072 Lead, red 554 Lead, red oxide of 554 Lead, semivitrified oxide of 555 Lead, sesquioxide of 547 Lead,sugar of 549 Lead, tannate of 1298 Lead, white 551 Lead-water 1074 Leadwort 1290 Leather flower 1243 Leather wood 1252 Ledum latifolium 1272 Ledum palustre 1272 Leeches •369 Leek root 559 Lee's New London pills 74 Lee's Windham pills 74 Lemon peel 428 Lemons 428 Lenitive electuary 896 Lentisk 453 Leontodon taraxacum 706 Leopard's-bane 120 Leptandra purpurea 1272 Leptandra Virginica 1272 Lettuce 422 Lettuce opium 424 Lettuce, strong scented 421 Lettuce, wild 421 Leucol 238 Levigation 756 Liatris scariosa 1272 Liatris spicata 1272 Liatris squarrosa 1272 Lichen Islandicus 204 Lichen tartareus 420 Lichenin 204 Lichstearic acid 205 Life-everlasting 1257 Light oil of wine 812 Light wines 737 Lignum colubrinum 477 Lignum vita? 360 Ligusticum levisticum 1273 Ligustrin 1273 Ligustrum vulgare 1273 Lilac, common 1295 Lilacin 1298 Lilium candidum 1273 Lily, common white 1273 Lily of the valley 1248 Lima bark 223 Lime 147 Lime, preparations of 877 Limes 429 Limestone 283 Lime-water 877 Lime-water, compound 878 Limon 428 Limonis cortex 42S Limonum oleum 490 Linaria vulgaris 1229 Lini oleum 491 Liniment, anodyne 1021 Liniment, camphorated soap 1021 Liniment of ammonia 1019 Liniment of ammonia, compound 1019 Liniment of lime 1020 Liniment of mercury, compound 1021 Liniment of opium 1021 Liniment of sesquicar- bonate of ammonia 1019 Liniment of Spanish flies 1020 Liniment of turpentine 1022 Liniment, simple 1022 Liniment, volatile 1019 Linimenta 1018 Liniments 1018 Linimentum aeruginis 1027 Linimentum ammonia? 1019 Linimentum ammonia? compositum 1019 Linimentum ammonia? sesquicarbonatis 1019 Linimentum anodynum 1021 Linimentum arcaei 1194 Linimentum calcis 1020 Linimentum camphorae 1020 Linimentum camphora? compositum 1020 Linimentum cantharidis 1020 Linimentum hydrargyri compositum 1021 Linimentum opii 1021 Linimentum saponis 1184 Linimentum saponis camphoratum 1021 Linimentum saponis cum opio 1021 Linimentum simplex 1022 Linimentum terebin- thina; 1022 Linseed 430 Linseed oil 491 Linum 430 Linum catharticum 432 Linum usitatissimum 430 Liquefaction 764 Liquid storax 1273 Liquidambar orientale 691 Liquidambar styraciflua 691, 1273 Liquidamber 1273 Liquids from solids, se- paration of 756 Liquids, separation of 758 Liquor asthereus oleosus 811 Liquor aethereus sulphu- ricus 805 Liquor aluminis compo- situs 824 Liquor ammonia? 828 Liquor ammonia? acetatis 831 Liquor ammonia? fortior 82 Liquor ammonia? sesqui- carbonatis 827 Liquor argenti nitratis 870 Liquor arsenicalis 871 Liquor barii chloridi 875 Liquor calcii chloridi 880 Liquor calcis S77 Liquor cupri ammonio- sulphatis 899 Liquor ferri iodidi 964 Liquor ferri ternitratis 1300 Liquor hydrargyri bichlo- ridi 9S5 Liquor iodini compositus 1018 Liquor morphia? sulpha- tis 1044 Liquor plumbi diacetatis 1072 Liquor plumbi subaceta- tis 1072 Liquor plumbi subaceta- tis dilutus 1074 Liquor potassa? 1077 Liquor potassa? arsenitis 871 Liquor potassa? carbona- tis 1088 Liquor potassa? chlori- nata? 1241 Liquor potassa? citratis 1091 Liquor potassa? efferves- cens 1091 Liquor potassii iodidi compositus 1018 Liquor soda? chlorinata? 1125 Liquor sodae effervescens 1125 Liquor tartari emetici 847 Liquorice 325 Liquorice root 354 Liriodendrin 433 Liriodendron 432 Liriodendron tulipifera 432 Lisbon diet drink 90S Litharge 555 Litharge, gold 556 Litharge plaster 918 Litharge, red 556 Litharge, silver 556 Litharge, yellow 556 Lithargyrum 555 Lithia in mineral waters 112 Lithospermum officinale 1273 Lithospermum tinctorium 1225 Litmus 420 Liver of sulphur 1105 Liverwort 367 Lixiviation 762 Lixivus cinis 562 1352 Index. Lobelia 434 Male fern 332 Lobelia cardinalis 436 Male jalap 408 Lobelia inflata 434 Male orchis 1292 Lobelia syphilitica 436 Mallow, common 444 Lobelic acid 434 Malt 373 Lobelina 434 Malt vinegar 15 Loblolly pine 709 Maltha 534 Logwood 363 Malva 444 Long pepper 542 Malva alcea 76 Long-leaved pine 709 Malva rotundifolia 444 Loosestrife 437 Malva sylvestris 444 Loss by pulverization, Malwa opium 511 table of 755 Mandioca 705 Lovage 1273 Mandragora 1274 Loxa bark 222 Mandragora officinalis 1274 Lozenges 1188 Mandrake 556 1274 Luculia 213 Manganese 445 Lunar caustic 866 Manganese, oxide of 445 Lungwort 1291 Manganesii oxidum 445 Lupulin 375 Manganic acid 445 Lupulina 375 Manna 446 Lupulite 376 Manna, Briancon 447 Lupulus 374 Manna cannulata 447 Luteolin 1292 Mannite 448 Lutes 761 Maracaybo bark 230 Lycopodium 1274 Maranta 449 Lycopodium clavatum 1274 Maranta allouya 450 Lycopus 436 Maranta arundinacea 449 Lycopus Europaeus 437 Maranta galanga 1254 Lycopus Virginicus 436 Maranta Indica 449 Lythrum salicaria 437 Maranta nobilis 450 Lytta 160 Marble 451 M Mace 472 Maceration 762 Macis 472 Macrotys racemosa 211 Madagascar cardamom 176 Madar 1237 Madder 602 Madeira wine 738 Magistery of bismuth 876 Magnesia 1022 Magnesia alba 438 Magnesia, calcined 1024 Magnesia, carbonate of 438 Magnesia, Dinneford's 439 Magnesia, Henry's 1023 Magnesia, preparations of 1022 Magnesia, sulphate of 440 Magnesia? carbonas 438 Magnesia? sulphas 440 Magnesia? sulphas pu- rum 1025 Magnesium 1024 Magnetic pyrites 974 Magnolia 442 Magnolia acuminata 443 Magnolia glauca 442 Magnolia grandiflora 442 Magnolia tripetala 443 Mahogany tree 1297 Mahy's plaster 920 Maidenhair 1222 Malabathri folia 247 Malambo bark 1274 Marbled Castile soap 632 Marbled soap 630 Margaric acid 630 Margarin 56, 4S1 Marine acid 31 Marjoram, common 526 Marjoram, sweet 527 Marmor 451 Marrubium 452 Marrubium vulgare 452 Marseilles vinegar 779 Marsh rosemary 686 Marsh tea 1272 Marsh trefoil 459 Marsh water 111 Marsh water-cress 1279 Marshmallow 75 Martial ethiops 966 Marygold 1237 Massicot 547, 554 Masterwort 368, 1263 Mastich 453 Mastiche 453 Masticin 453 Matias bark 1274 Matico 1274 Matonia cardamomum 177 Matricaria 454 Matricaria chamomilla 454 Matricaria parthenium 1291 May-apple 556 May-weed 278 Mead 740 Meadow anemone 1227 Meadow-saffron 255 Mealy starwort 64 Measurement, approxi- mate 1318 Measures and weights 753, 1314 Mecca senna 655 Mechanical division 755 Mechoacan 408 Meconic acid 517 Meconin 517 Medeola Vij-ginica 1275 Medicated waters S56 Medicated wines 1209 Medicinal hydrocyanic acid 789 Medicines, preservation of 753 Mel 455 Mel ./Egyptiacum 1027 Mel boracis 1026 Mel despumatum 1025 Mel prajparatum 1026 Mel rosa? 1026 Mel scilla? compositum 1155 Melaleuca cajuputi 486 Melaleuca hypericifolia 486 Melaleuca leucadendron 486 Melaleuca minor 486 Melampodium 367 Melassic acid 618 Melia azedarach 135 Melilot 1275 Melilotus officinalis 1275 Melissa 456 Melissa officinalis 456 Mellita 1025 Meloe majalis 160 Meloe niger 166 Meloe proscarabasus 160 Meloe trianthemae 160 Menispermin 252 Menispermum Cana- dense 1275 Menispermum cocculus 251 Menispermum palmatum 261 Mentha piperita 457 Mentha pulegium 458 Mentha viridis 45S Menyanthes 459 Menyanthes trifoliata 459 Mercure doux a la vapeur 987 Mercurial ointment 1195 Mercurial pills 1067 Mercurial plaster 915 Mercurius 377 Mercury 377 Mercury, acetate of 978 Mercury, ammoniated 1004 Mercury, bibromide of 1235 Mercury, bichloride of 979 Mercury, bicyanide of 991 Mercury, biniodide of 993 Mercury, binoxide of 999 Mercury, bisulphuret of 1002 Mercury, black oxide of 994 Mercury, black sulphuret of 1001 Mercury, bromides of 1235 Mercury, calcined 998 Mercury, corrosive chlo- .ride of 979 Mercury, cyanuret of 991 # Index. 1353 991 978 993 1002 381 1005 Mercury, hydrosublimate of 987 Mercury, iodide of 992 Mercury,mild chloride of 985 Mercury, persulphate of 999 Mercury, preparations of 978 Mercury, protiodide of 992 Mercury, protobromide of 1235 Mercury, prussiate of Mercury, purified Mercury, red iodide of Mercury, red oxide of 996, 998 Mercury, red sulphuret of Mercury, table of the preparations of Mercury with chalk Mercury with magnesia 1006 Mercury, yellow sulphate of 1000 Mesembryanthemum crys- tallinum 1275 Metaphosphoric acid 796 Method ofdisplacement 762 Metroxylon sagu 620 Mezerepn 460 Mezereum 460 Mild chloride of mer- cury 985 Mild mercurial ointment 1195 Mild volatile alkali 824 Milder common caustic 1082 Milfoil 1222 Milium solis 1273 Milk of ammoniac 1029 Milk of assafetida 1030 Milk of lime 148 Milk of sulphur 1141 Milk-weed 127, 322 Mimosa Nilotica 5 Mindererus, spirit of 831 Mineral, ethiops 1001 Mineral, kermes 849 Mineral tar 534 Mineral, turpeth 1000 Mineral water 85S Mineral waters 112 Mineral yellow 1286 Minium 554 Mint 458 Misletoe 1304 Mistura acaciae, Ed. 1028 Mistura acaciae, Lond. 1045 Mistura ammoniaci 1029 Mistura amygdalae 1029 Mistura assafoetida? 1030 Mistura camphora? 860 Mistura camphorae cum magnesia Mistura cascarilla? com- posita Mistura creasoti Mistura creta? Mistura ferri aromatica 1031 Mistura ferri composita 1032 Mistura gentiana? com- posita 1032 Mistura guaiaci 1033 905 1033 1033 1033 1028 894 1029 1029 1030 1033 1312 1031 1031 1033 1028 1033 1030 1031 1031 1031 Mistura hordei Mistura moschi Mistura scammonii Mistura spiritus vini Gallici Mistura? Mithridate Mixture, almond Mixture, ammoniac Mixture, assafetida Mixture, brandy Mixture, brown Mixture, chalk Mixture, creasote Mixture, guaiac Mixture, gum Arabic Mixture, musk Mixture, neutral 1091,1312 Mixture of camphor with magnesia 1030 Mixture of cascarilla, compound 1031 Mixture of gentian, compound 1032 Mixture of iron, aromatic 1031 Mixture of iron, com- pound Mixture, oleaginous Mixture, scammony Mixtures Mode of administering medicines Molasses Mole-plant Momordica balsamina Momordica elaterium Monarda Monarda punctata Monesia Monesin Monkshood Montpellier scammony Mora Morphia Morphia, acetate of Morphia, hydrochlorate of Morphia, muriate of Morphia, sulphate of Morphia? acetas Morphia? hydrochloras Morphia? murias Morphia? muriatis solutio v 1043 Morphiae sulphas Morrhua Americana Mortars Morus alba Morus nigra Morus rubra Morus tinctoria Moschus Moschus factitius Moschus moschiferus Mountain laurel Mountain rhubarb Mountain tea Moxa Mucilage 1032 1312 1033 1028 1307 613,618 1281 1275 307 462 462 1275 1276 53 644 463 1033 1039 1040 1040 1043 1039 1040 1040 1043 388 755 463 463 463 1254 463 1277 463 1269 607 346 466 431 875 975 146 Mucilage of gum Arabic 1045 Mucilage of starch 1045 Mucilage of tragacanth 1045 Mucilages 1044 Mucilagines 1044 Mucilago 1045 Mucilago acacia? 1045 Mucilago amyli 1045 Mucilago gummi Ara- bici 1045 Mucilago tragacantha? 1045 Mucuna' 468 Mucuna pruriens 469 Mucuna prurita 469 Mudar 1237 Mugwort 4 Mulberries 463 Mullein leaves 735 Muriate of ammonia 84 Muriate of baryta 873 Muriate of baryta, solu tion of Muriate of iron, tincture of Muriate of lime Muriate of lime, solution of 880 Muriate of magnesia 1241 Muriate of morphia 1040 Muriate of morphia, solu- tion of 1043 Muriate of quinia 239 Muriate of soda 677 Muriate of soda, pure 1129 Muriatic acid 31 Muriatic acid, diluted 792 Muriatic acid gas 34 Muriatic acid, table of the specific gravity of 33 Muriatic ether 1276 Muriatis ferri liquor 975 Muscovado sugar 613 Mushrooms 1276 Musk 463 Musk, artificial 1277 Musk mixture 1033 Must 736 Mustard 663 Mustard cataplasm 884 Mustard seeds, black 664 Mustard seeds, white 664 Mustard, volatile oil of 665 Mylabris cichorii 160 Mylabris pustulata 160 Mynsicht's acid elixir 798 Myrica cerifera 200 Myricin 199 Myristica 470 Myristica moschata 470 Myristica officinalis 470 Myristica? adeps 470 Myristica? oleum 492 Myristicin 492 Myrobalani 127S Myrobalans 1278 Myronic acid 664, 665 Myrospermum peruife- rum 473 Myrosyne 664,666 Myroxylon 473 1354 Index. Myroxylon peruiferum 473 Myroxylon toluiferum 715 Myrrh 474 Myrrha 474 Myrtle wax 200 Myrtus acris 1249 Myrtus caryophyllata 1249 Myrtus pimenta 539 N Naphtha 533, 1291 Naphtha, artificial 533 Naphthaline 1278 Naples yellow 1279 Narcein 516 Narcissus pseudo-nar- cissus 1279 Narcotics 2 Narcotin 513 Narcotina 513 Nard 1279 Nasturtium amphibium 1279 Nasturtium officinale 1279 Nasturtium palustre 1279 Native soda 671 Natron 672 Nauclea gambir 194 Neats-foot oil 485 Nectandra puchury 1288 Nectandra Rodiei 1232 Nepeta cataria 191 Nepeta glechoma 1256 Nephrodium filix mas 332 Neroli 132 Nettle, common 1302 Nettle, dwarf 1302 Neutral mixture 1091, 1312 New bark 233 New Jersey tea 1239 Nicaragua wood 1235 Nicotia 699 Nicotiana fruticosa 698 Nicotiana paniculata 698 Nicotiana quadrivalvis 698 Nicotiana rustica 698 Nicotiana tabacum 697 Nicotianin 700 Nicotin 699 Nicotina 699 Nigella sativa 1279 Nigellin 1279 Nightshade, black 304 Nightshade, common 304 Nightshade, deadly 137 Nightshade, woody 305 Nihil album 1217 Nitrate of lead 1076 Nitrate of potassa 567 Nitrate of potassa, puri- fied 1093 Nitrate of silver 866 Nitrate of silver, crys- tals of 871 Nitrate of silver, solu- tion of 870 Nitrate of soda 1279 Nitre 567 Nitre-beds, artificial 567 Nitre, sweet spirit of 817 Nitric acid 36 Nitric acid, diluted 793 Nitric acid fumigation 41 Nitric acid, table of the specific gravity of 39 Nitric ether 814 Nitromuriatic acid 793 Nitromuriatic oxide of antimony 836 Nitrosulphate of ammo- nia 1280 Nitrosulphuric acid 1280 Nitrous ether 814 Nitrous powders 570,1310 Nopal 252 Nordhausen, fuming sul- phuric acid of 45 Nutmeg 470 Nutmeg, concrete oil of 471 Nutmeg-flower 1279 Nux moschata 470 Nux vomica 476 Nymphaea alba 1280 Nymphaea odorata 1280 0 Oak bark 582 Oatmeal 134 Oatmeal gruel 134 Ochres 1280 Ocimum basilicum 1280 Ocotea pichurim 1288 CEnanthe crocata 1280 Oil of fennel Oil of horsemint Oil of jasmine Oil of juniper Oil of lavender Oil of lemons Oil of mace Oil of marjoram Oil of mustard Oil of nutmeg Oil of origanum CEnanthe phellandrium 1287 (Enanthate of ether 739 CEnanthic ether 739 CEnothera biennis 1281 Officinal directions, gene- ral 768 Oil, benne 499, 660 Oil, cajeput 486 Oil, castor 494 Oil, cod-liver 1245 Oil, croton 502 Oil, ethereal 811 Oil, flaxseed 491 Oil, neats-foot 485 Oil of almonds 484 Oil of amber 1056 Oil of amber, rectified 1057 Oil of anise. 1050, 1263 Oil of ben 1281 Oil of benne 661 Oil of bergamot 485 Oil of bitter almonds 91 Oil of camphor 156 Oil of caraway 1051 Oil of cassia 489 Oil of chamomile 1050 Oil of cinnamon 488 Oil of cloves 487 Oil of copaiba 271, 1051 Oil of cubebs 490 Oil of dill 1050 Oil of elder flowers 1056 Oil of ergot 313, 316 Oil of euphorbia 1281 1051 1054 1281 1052 1053 490 471 1054 664 492 1054 Oil of partridge-berry 1052 Oil of pennyroyal, Ame- rican 1052 Oil of pennyroyal, Eu- ropean 1054 Oil of peppermint 1053 Oil of pimento 1055 Oil of rosemary 1055 Oil of roses 498 Oil of rue 1056 Oil of sassafras 1056 Oil of savine 1056 Oil of spearmint 1054 Oil of spike 1053 Oil of sweet marjoram 1055 Oil of tar 545 Oil of turpentine 499 Oil of turpentine, puri- fied 1058 Oil of vitriol 43 Oil of wine 811 Oil of wine camphor 812 Oil of wine, concrete 812 Oil of wine, heavy 811 Oil of wine, light 812 Oil of wormseed 1051 Oil, olive 492 Oil, palm 1286 Oil, phosphorated 537 Oils 480 Oils, distilled 482, 1046 Oils, drying 480 Oils, empyreumatic 765 Oils, essential 482 Oils, expressed 480 Oils, fixed 480 Oils, volatile 482, 1046 Ointment, antimoniai 1192 Ointment, citrine 1199 Ointment, compound sulphur 1205 Ointment, elder 1204 Ointment, mercurial 1195 Ointment, mercurial, mild 1195 Ointment, mercurial, strong 1195 Ointment of acetate of lead 1203 Ointment of ammonia- ted mercury 1198 Ointment of biniodide of mercury 1198 Ointment of black pep- per 1203 Ointment of black pitch 1202 Ointment of bromide of potassium 1098 Index. 1355 Ointment of carbonate of lead 1203 Ointment of cocculus Indicus 1193 Ointment of creasote 1194 Ointment of elemi 1194 Ointment of figwort 1204 Ointment of galls 1195 Ointment of galls, com- pound 1195 Ointment of hemlock 1194 Ointment of hydriodate of potassa 1203 Ointment of iodide of lead 1203 Ointment of iodide of mercury 1198 Ointment of iodine 1201 Ointment of iodine, compound 1202 Ointment of lead, com- pound 1203 Ointment of mezereon 1202 Ointment of naphthaline 1279 Ointment of nitrate of mercury 1199 Ointment of nitric acid 1191 Ointment of oxide of zinc 1206 Ointment of red oxide of mercury 1201 Ointment of rose water 1192 Ointment of Spanish flies 1192 Ointment of stramo- nium 1204 Ointment of subacetate of copper 1194 Ointment of sulphuric acid 1191 Ointment of the powder of Spanish flies 1193 Ointment of white helle- bore 1206 Ointment of white pre- cipitate 1198 Ointment, simple 1204 Ointment, spermaceti 1193 Ointment,( sulphur 1205 Ointment,'tar 1202 Ointment, tartar emetic 1192 Ointment, tobacco 1205 Ointments U91 Okra 1261 Old field pine 709 Olea 480 Olea destillata 1046 Olea essentialia 1047 Olea Europoea 492 Olea expressa 480 Olea fixa 480 Olea fragrans 1299 Olea volatiha 48i Oleaginous mixture 1312 Oleic acid 630 Olein 56> 481 Oleo-saccharum ow Oleum aethereum 811 Oleum amygdala? 484 Oleum anethi i-JO" Oleum anisi 1050 Oleum anthemidis 1050 Oleum bergamii 485 Oleum bubulum 485 Oleum cajuputi 486 Oleum camphoratum 1020 Oleum cari 1051 Oleum carui 1051 Oleum caryophylli 487 Oleum chenopodii 1051 Oleum cinnamomi 488 Oleum copaiba? 1051 Oleum cornu cervi 1252 Oleum cubeba? 490 Oleum foeniculi 1051 Oleum gaultheria? 1052 Oleum hedeoma? 1052 Oleum hyperici 1262 Oleum jecoris aselli 1245 Oleum juniperi ' 1052 Oleum lavandulas 1053 Oleum limonis 490 Oleum lini 491 Oleum menthae piperitae 1053 Oleum menthae pulegii 1054 Oleum menthae viridis 1054 Oleum monardae 1054 Oleum myristica? 492 Oleum oliva? 492 Oleum origani 1054 Oleum phosphoratum 537 Oleum pimenta? 1055 Oleum pulegii 1054 Oleum ricini 494 Oleum rosa? 498 Oleum rosmarini 1055 Oleum ruta? 1056 Oleum sabinae 1056 Oleum sambuci 1056 Oleum sassafras 1056 Oleum sesami 499, 660 Oleum succini 1056 Oleum succini rectifi- catum 1057 Oleum sulphuratum 1231 Oleum tartari per de- liquium 1085 Oleum terebinthina? 499 Oleum terebinthina? puri- ficatum 1058 Oleum thymi 1301 Oleum tiglii 502 Olibanum 505 Oliva? oleum 492 Olive oil 492 Olive oil soda soap 632 Olivile 493 0"ion , ,„™ Opiate pills of lead 1070 Opium 506 Opium, Bengal 511 Opium, Constantinople 510 Opium, Egyptian 510 Opium, India 511 Opium, Malwa 511 Opium, Persia 512 Opium plaster 916 Opium, Smyrna 509 Opium, Turkey 509 Opobalsamum 1231 Opodeldoc 1021 Opopanax 525 Opopanax chironium 525 Opuntia cochinillifera 252 Orange berries 132 Orange flower water 863 Orange mineral 1281 Orange peel 131 Orange red 1281 Orange root 1261 Oranges 133 Orchill 420 Orchis mascula 1292 Orenburgh gum 710 Orgeat, syrup of 1147 Origanum 526 Origanum majorana 527 Origanum majoranoides 527 Origanum vulgare 526 OrJeana 1228 Orobanche Americana 1282 Orobanche uniflora 1282 Orobanche Virginiana 1281 Orpiment 1282 Orpiment, artificial 1282 Orris, Florentine 404 Oryza sativa 1282 Os 527 Os sepia? 1250 Ossa 527 Ostrea edulis 714 Otolithus regalis 388 Otto of roses 498 Ovum 529 Oxacids 780 Oxalate of potassa 1283 Oxalhydric acid 816 Oxalic acid 1282 Oxalis acetosella 12 Oxalis crassicaulis 13' Oxalis violacea 12 Ox-gall 1284 Oxide of antimony 835 Oxide of gold 1257 Oxide of manganese 445 Oxide of silver 1285 Oxide of zinc 1216 Oxychloride of antimony 107, 836 Oxymel 1027 Oxymel colchici 1027 Oxymel cupri subacetatis 1027 Oxymel of colchicum 1027 Oxymel of squill 1027 Oxymel of subacetate of copper 1027 Oxymel scilla? 1027 Oxymuriate of lime 149 Oxysulphuret of antimony Ovster 714 Oyster-shell 714 Oyster-shell, prepared 879 Paeonia officinalis Pale bark 1286 221 1356 Index. Palm oil 1286 Persulphate of mercury 999 Pills of gamboge, com- Palm soap 631 Peruvian bark 212 pound 1067 Palm sugar 614 Peruvian ipecacuanha 401 Pills of hemlock, com- Palma Christi 494 Peter's pills 74 pound 1063 Palmic acid 497 Petroleum 533 Pills of iodide of mercury 1069 Palmin 497 Petroleum Barbadense 533 Pills of ipecacuanha ant Palmitic acid 1286 Petroselinum 535 opium 1069 Palmitin 1286 Petroselinum sativum 535 Pills of ipecacuanha, Panacea lapsorum 121 Phalaris Canariensis 1237 compound 1069 Panax 530 Phallandrium aquaticum 1287 Pills of iron, compound 1066 Panax quinquefolium 530 Pharmaceutical equiva- Pills of lead, opiate 1070 Panax schinseng 530 lents, table of 1320 Pills of mild chloride of Pansy 743 Philadelphia fleabane 317 mercury 1068 Papaver 531 Phloridzin 1287 Pills of opium 1069 Papaver orientale 506 Phoenix farinifera 620 Pills of rhubarb 1070 Papaver rhoeas 598 Phosphate of ammonia 1288 Pills of rhubarb and iron 1071 Papaver somniferum 506 Phosphate of iron 968 Pills of rhubarb, compound Paraffine 279 Phosphate of lime, pre- 1070 Paraguay tea 1263 cipitated 881 Pills of sagapenum, com - Paramenispermin 252 Phosphate of quinia 239 pound 1071 Paramorphia 516 Phosphate of soda 1129 Pills of soap, compound 1071 Paratartaric acid 728, 736 Phosphorated oil 537 Pills of squill, compound 1071 Paregoric elixir 1181 Phosphoric acid, dilutee 795 Pills of storax, compound 1072 Pareira 532 Phosphorus 535 Pills of sulphate of iron 1066 Pareira brava 532 Phosphorus, ethereal Pills of sulphate of quinia 1070 Parietaria officinalis 1286 solution of 537 Pills, Vallet's ferruginous Pariglin 637 Phyllanthus emblica 1278 1065 Parillinic acid 637 Physalis alkekengi 1288 Pilulae 1058 Paris white 1304 Physalis viscosa 1288 Pilulas aloes 1060 Parsley root 535 Physeter macrocephalus 202 Pilula? aloes compositae 1060 Partridge-berry 345 Phytolacca decandra 537 Pilula? aloes et assafoetic a? Pastel 1269 Phytolacca? bacca? 537 1060 Pastinaca opopanax 525 Phytolacca? radix 537 Pilula? aloes et ferri 1060 Patent yellow 1286 Picamar 279 Pilulae aloes et myrrha? 1061 Paullinia 1286 Pichurim beans 1288 Pilulae assafoetida? 1061, 1066 Paullinia sorbilis 1287 Picraena excelsa 579 Pilulae calomelanos com Peach leaves 93 Picroglycion 306 posita? 1061 Peach wood 1235 Picrotoxic acid 252 Pilulae calomelanos et of ii Pearl barley 374 Picrotoxin 251 1062 Pearl sago 621 Pills 1058 Pilula? cambogiae com- Pearl white 876 Pills, aloetic 1060 positae 1067 Pearlash 562 Pills, Asiatic 20 Pilulae catharticae com- Pearson's arsenical solu Pills, assafetida 1061 positas 1062 tion 18 Pills, blue 1067 Pilulas colocynthidis Pectic acid 179 Pills, calomel 1068 composita? 1063 Pectin 179 Pills, compound calomel 1061 Pilula? colocynthidis et Pellitory 578 Pills, compound cathartic hyoscyami 1063 Penaea mucronata 1293 1062 Pilula? conii composita? 1063 Panasa sarcocolla 1293 Pills, mercurial 1067 Pilulae copaibae 1063 Pennsylvania sumach 598 Pills of aloes and assa- Pilulae cupri ammoniati 1064 Pennyroyal 365 fetida 1060 Pilula? de cynoglosso 1251 Pennyroyal, European 458 Pills of aloes and iron 1060 Pilula? digitalis et scilla? 1064 Pennyroyal water 864 Pills of aloes and myrrh 1061 Pilulae e styrace 1072 Peony 1286 Pills of aloes, compound 1060 Pilula? ferri carbonatis 1064 Pepper, black 540 Pills of ammoniated cop . Pilula? ferri composita? 1066 Pepper, Cayenne 167 per 1064 Pilulae ferri sulphatis 1066 Pepper, long 542 Pills of calomel and opium Pilulae galbani composita 1066 Pepper, white 540 1062 Pilula? gambogiae com- Peppermint 457 Pills of carbonate of iron 1064 positas 1067 Peppermint water 864 Pills of chloride of mer- Pilulas hydrargyri 1067 Percolation 769 cury, compound 1061 Pilula? hydrargyri chlo- Periploca Indica 1260 Pills of colocynth and ridi composita? 1061 Periploca secamone 643 henbane 1063 Pilula? hydrargyri chlo- Pernambuco wood 1235 Pills of colocynth, com- ridi mitis 1068 Peroxide of manganese 445 pound 1063 Pilulae hydrargyri iodidi 1069 Perry 740 Pills of copaiba 1063 Pilulas ipecacuanhae com- Persea camphora 153 Pills of digitalis and squ 11 positae 1069 Persia opium 512 1064 Pilulae ipecacuanha? et opii Persica vulgaris 93 Pills of galbanum, com- 1069 Persimmon 302 pound 1066 Pilulae opii 1069 Index. 1357 Pilula? plumbi opiatae 1070 Pilulae quiniae sulphatis 1070 Pilula? rhei 1070 Pilula? rhei compositas 1070 Pilula? rhei et ferri 1071 Pilulae sagapeni compo- sita? 1071 Pilula? saponis composita? 1071 Pilula? saponis cum opio 1071 Pilulae scillae composite 1071 Pilula? stomachica? 1060 Pilulae styracis composita? 1072 Pilulae Thebaica? 1069 Pimenta 539 Pimento 539 Pimento water 865 Pimpernel, scarlet 1227 Pimpinella anisum 102 Pimpinella saxifraga 1289 Pinckneya 213 Pinckneya pubens 1289 Pine nuts 709 Pinic acid 585 Pink,Carolma 680 Pink, wild 1295 Pinkroot 6S0 Pinus abies 543 Pinus australis 709 Pinus balsamea 710 Pinus Canadensis 544 Pinus cembra 709, 1292 Pinus Damarra 713 Pinus Lambertiana 447 Pinus larix 710 Pinus maritima 709 Pinus nigra 710 Pinus palustris 709 Pinus picea 710 Pinus pinaster 709 Pinus pinea 709 Pinus pumilio 709, 1292 Pinus rigida 545 Pinus sylvestris 709 Pinus taeda 709 Piper 540 Piper angustifolium 1274 Piper betel 196 Piper caninum 287 Piper cubeba 287 Piper longum 542 Piper methisticum 1274 Piper nigrum 540 Piperin 541 Pipsissewa 207 Pistacia lentiscus 453 Pistacia terebinthus 710 Pitaina 234 Pitaya bark 234 Pitch, 546 Pitch, black 546 Pitch, Burgundy 542 Pitch, Canada 544 Pitch, hemlock 545 pitch pine 709 Pitch plaster 917 Pittacal 280 Pix abietis 542 pix arida 546 115 Pix Burgundica Pix Canadensis Pix liquida Pix nigra Plantago lancifolia Plantago major Plantago media Plantago psyllium Plantain Plantain, water Plants, collecting of Plants, drying of Plaster, adhesive Plaster, aromatic Plaster, blistering Plaster measurer Plaster of ammoniac with mercury Plaster of belladonna Plaster of carbonate of lead Plaster of pitch with Spanish flies Plaster of Spanish flies Plaster of Spanish flies, compound Plaster, strengthening Plaster, warming Plasters Plasters, spreading of 765,911 Platinum 1289 Pleurisy-root 127 Plumbagin 1290 Plumbago 169, 1239 Plumbago Europasa 1290 Plumbi acetas 549 Plumbi carbonas 551 Plumbi chloridum 1074 Plumbi diacetatis solutio 1072 Plumbi iodidum 1075 Plumbi nitras 1076 Plumbi oxidum rubrum 554 Plumbi oxidum semivit- reum 555 Plumbi oxydum hydra- tum 1076 Plumbi subacetatisliquor 1072 Plumbi subacetatis liquor 512 544 545 54C 1289 1289 1289 1289 1289 1225 752 752 921,922 912 KS5 765 912 913 920 917 913 914 914 917 910 compositus Plumbum Plummer's pills Plunket's caustic Podalyria tinctoria Podophyllin Podophyllum Podophyllum peltatum Poison-oak Poison-vine Poke berries Poke root Polychroite Polygala, amara Polygala, bitter Polygala polygaraa Polygala rubella Polygala senega Polygala vulgaris Polygallic acid Polygonatum multiflorum 1074 546 1062 20 1231 557 556 556 717 717 537 537 285 558, 649 558 558 558 649 649 650 124S Polygonatum un;florum 1248 Polygonum aviculare 558 Polygonum bistorta 558 Polygonum fagopyrum 559 Polygonum hydropiper 558 Polygonum hydropipe- roides 558 Polygonum persicaria 558 Polygonum punctatum 559 Polygonum tinctorium 1264 Polypodium filix foemina 1230 Polypodium filix mas 332 Polypodium vulgare 1290 Polypody, common 1290 Pomegranate rind 357 Pomegranate root, bark of 357 Pompholix 1217 Pontefract cakes ' 326 Poplar 433, 1290 Poppy, black 506 Poppy capsules 531 Poppy, corn 598 Poppy,red 598 Poppy, white 506 Poppv-heads 531 Populin 1291 Populus 1290 Populus balsamifera 1290 Populus nigra 1290 Populus tremula 1290 Populus tremuloides 1290 Porrum 559 Port, English 738 Port wine 738 Portable soup 528 Porter 740 Portland arrowroot 124 Portland powder 1301 Portland sago 124 Portulaca oleracea 1291 Potash 563 Potashes, varieties of 564 Potassa 1080 Potassa, acetate of 1082 Potassa, alcoholic 1081 Potassa alum 77 Potassa, bicarbonate of 108S Potassa, binoxalate of 12, 1283 Potassa, bisulphate of 1095 Potassa, bitartrate of 560 Potassa, carbonate of 1084 Potassa, caustic 1080 Potassa caustica 1080 Potassa caustica cum calce 1081 Potassa, chlorate of 565 Potassa cum calce 1081 Potassa, dry 560 Potassa, effervescing solu- tion of 1091 Potassa, ferrocyanate of 572 Potassa, hydrate of 1080 Potassa, hydriodate of 1100 Potassa, impure carbo- nate of 562 Potassa, nitrate of 567 Potassa, preparations of 1077 Potassa, pure carbonate of 1087 1358 Index. ■Potassa, pure hydrate of 1081 Potassa, sesquicarbonate of 1091 Potassa, solution of 1077 Potassa, sulphate of 571 Potassa, sulphuret of 1105 Potassa, tartrate of 1096 Potassa with lime 1081 Potassa? acetas 1082 Potassa? aqua 1077 Potassa? aqua effervescens 1091 Potassa? biantimonias 1251 Potassa? bicarbonas 1088 Potassa? bisulphas 1095 Potassa? bitartras 560 Potassa? carbonas 1084 potassa? carbonas e Iixivo cinere 1084 Potassa? carbonas e tartari crystallis 1087 Potassa? carbonas impurus 562 Potassa? carbonas purus 1087 Potassa? carbonatis aqua 1088 Potassas caustica? aqua 1077 Potassae chloras 565 Potassa? et soda? tartras 1128 Potassa? hydras 1080 Potassae hydriodas 1100 Potassae nitras 567 Potassa? nitras purificatum 1093 Potassa? sulphas 571 Potassa? sulphas cum sul- phure 1094 Potassa? sulphureti aqua 1106 Potassa? sulphuretum 1105 Potassas tartras 1096 Potassii bromidum 1097 Potassii cyanuretum 1098 Potassii ferrocyanidum 572 Potassii ferrocyanuretum 572 Potassii iodidum 1100 Potassii sulphocyanure- tum 1297 Potassii sulphuretum 1105 Potassium 559 Potassium, bromide of 1097 Potassium, cyanuret of 1098 Potassium, ferrocyanuret of 572 Potassium, iodide of 1100 Potassium, sulphuret of 1105 Potassium, teroxide of 560 Potato 305 Potato flies 165 Potato starch 96 Potentilla reptans 1291 Potentilla tormentilla 716 Pothos 303 Powder, antimoniai 852 Powder*, aromatic 1109 Powder, compound saline 1113 Powder, Dover's 1111 Powder folder 766 Powder for a cataplasm 1112 Powder of Algaroth 836 Powder of aloes and ca- nella 1109 Powder of aloes, com- pound 1108 Powder of alum, com- pound 1109 Powder of asarabacca, compound 1109 Powder of chalk, com- pound 1110 Powder of chalk with opium, compound 1110 Powder of ipecacuanha and opium 1111 Powder of jalap, com- pound 1112 Powder of kino, com- pound 1112 Powder of rhubarb, com- pound 1112 Powder of scammony, compound 1113 Powder of tin 1137 Powder of tragacanth, compound 1113 Powder, Portland 1301 Powdering, methods of 755 Powders 1108 Powders, effervescing 1110 Powders, Seidlitz 52 Powders, soda 1110 Precipitate per se 998 Precipitated calomel 990 Precipitated carbonate of iron 969 Precipitated carbonate of lime 878 Precipitated phosphate of lime 881 Precipitated sulphur 1141 Precipitated sulphuret of antimony 848 Precipitating jars 756 Precipitation 756, 763 Prepared calamine 1214 Prepared carbonate of zinc 1214 Prepared chalk «, 879 Prepared honey 1026 Prepared oyster-shell 879 Prepared subacetate of copper 897 Prepared sulphuret of an- timony 848 Prescribing medicines, art of 1306 Prescriptions, formula? for 1310 Preservation of infusions, &c. 765 Preservation of medicines 753 Preserved vegetable juices 1159 Prickly ash 117, 745 Pride of China 135 Pride of India 135 Prinos 574 Prinos verticillatus 574 Privet 1273 Proof spirit 59, 822 Proof vinegar 15 Protein 7*24 Protiodide of mercury 992 Protoxide of lead 547 Protoxide of manganese 445 Protoxide of tin 685 Prunella vulgaris 1291 Prunes 575 Pruni pulpa 1107 Prunum 575 Prunus domestica 575 Prunus lauro-cerasus 426 Prunus spinosa 7 Prunus Virginiana 576 Prussian blue 960 Prussiate of mercury 991 Prussic acid 786 Pseudomorphia 517 Psychotria emetica 401 Psyllii semen 12S9 Pteris aquilina 1230 Pterocarpus 628 Pterocarpus draco 1252 Pterocarpus erinaceus 416 Pterocarpus marsupium 414 Pterocarpus santalinus 628 Puccoon 627 Puce oxide of lead' 547 Pulmonaria officinalis 1291 Pulp of prunes 1107 Pulp of purging cassia 1107 Pulp of tamarinds 1107 Pulpae 1107 Pulps 1107 Pulveres . 1108 Pulveres effervescentes 1110 Pulverization 755 Pulvis aloes compositus 1108 Pulvis aloes et canella? 1109 Pulvis aluminis compo- situs 1109 Pulvis antimonialis 852 Pulvis antimonii compo- situs 852 Pulvis aromaticus 1109 Pulvis asari compositus 1109 Pulvis Capucinorum 610 Pulvis cinnamomi compo- situs 1109 Pulvis comitissa? 242 Pulvis cornu cervini usti 881 Pulvis cretas compositus 1110 "Pulvis creta? compositus cum opio 1110 Pulvis creta? opiatus 1110 Pulvis hydrargyri cinereus 995 Pulvis ipecacuanhae com- positus 1111 Pulvis ipecacuanha? et opii 1111 Pulvis jalapa? compositus 1112 Pulvis kino compositus 1112 Pulvis pro cataplasmate 1112 Pulvis rhei compositus 1112 Pulvis salinus compositus 1113 Pulvis scammonii compo- situs 1113 Pulvis spongios usta? 1136 Pulvis stanni 1137 Index. 1359 Pulvis tragacantha? com . Quercus virens 582 Refrigeratory 772 positus Pumexn Pumice stone Punica granatum Punicin 1113 Quickens 1302 Regulus of antimony 105 1291 Quicklime 147 Remijia R.enealmia cardamomur 213 1291 Quicksilver 377 a 177 357 Quina 238 Reseda Juteola 1292 358 Quince seeds 294 Resin 585 Pure carbonate of potassa Quinia 238 Resin cerate 889 1087 Quinia, amorphous 1117 Resin cerate, compound 8S9 Pure chloride of sodium 1129 Quinia, kinate of 240 Resin of jalap 945 Pure muriate of soda 1129 Quinia, preparations of 1113 Resin of scammony 952 Pure Prussian blue 960 Quinia, sulphate of 1113 Resin plaster 921 Pure sulphate of mag - Quinia? sulphas 1113 Resin, white 586 nesia 1025 Quirioicftne 1117 Resin, yellow 585 Pure sulphuric acid 799 Quinoleina 23S Resina 585 Pure water 109 Resina alba 585 Purging cassia 186 Resina flava 585 Purging flax 432 R Resina jalapa? 945 Purging nuts 705 Resina scammonii 952 Purified animal charcoal 882 Racemic acid 728 Resine de chibou 1239 Purified extract of aloes 935 Radcliff's elixir 74 Resine de Gomart 1239 Purified mercury 978 Radical vinegar 783 Rhabarbaric acid 595 Purified nitrate of potassa Radices colubrina? 477 Rhabarbarin 595 1093 Radix caryophyllata? 352 Rhabarbarum 588 Purified oil of turpentine 1058 Radix zedoaria? 1305 Rhamnin 587 Purified storax 1140 Ragwort 1295 Rhamnus 586 Purified sugar • 616 , 618 Raia batis 1245 Rhamnus catharticus 586 Purple avens 351 Raia clavata 1245 Rhamnus frangula 587 Purple willow-herb 437 Rain water 111 Rhamnus infectorius 587 Purree ' 1264 Raisins 727 Rhamnus zizyphus 1305 Purreic acid 1264 Ranunculus 583 Rhapontic rhubarb 594 Pursla'ne, garden 1291 Ranunculus acris 584 Rhatany 418 Pyrethrum 578 Ranunculus bulbosus 584 Rhein 595 Pyrethrum parthenium 1291 Ranunculus flammula 584 Rheum 587 Pyretin, acid 1296 Ranunculus repens 584 Rheum australe 589 Pyretine 546 Ranunculus sceleratus 584 Rheum Caspicum 590 Pyrmont water 113 Raspberry syrup 1149 Rheum compactum 589 Pyroacetic spirit 782, 1291 Rattlesnake's master 1272 Rheum crassinervium 590 Pyrola umbellata 207 Ray, oil of 1245 Rheum emodi 589 Pyroligneous acid 41 Realgar 1291 Rheum hybridum 590 Pyrophosphate of soda 1131 Rectification 765 Rheum leucorrhizum 590 Pyroxyline 38 Rectification of ether 808 Rheum Moorcraftianum 590 Pyrrole 830 Rectified oil of amber 1057 Rheum palmatum 589 Pyrus cydonia 294 Rectified spirit 57 Rheum Rhaponticum 590 Red bark 229 Rheum Russicum vel Red cedar 413 Turcicum 592 a Red chalk . 1292 Rheum Sinense vel Red coral 1249 Indicum 591 Quadroxalate of potassa 1283 Red elm 726 Rheum speciforme 590 Quassia 579 Red iodide of mercury 993 Rheum undulatum 589 Quassia amara 579 Red lead 554 Rheum Webbianum 590 Quassia excelsa 579 Red oxide of iron 968 Rhododendrum crysan- Quassia simaruba 662 Red oxide of lead 554 thum 1292 Quassin Queen's-root Quercin Quercitrin Quercitron Quercus Quercus aegilops Quercus alba 581 Quercus cerris Quercus excelsa Quercus falcata Quercus ilex Quercus infectoria Quercus montana Quercus pedunculata 580 Red oxide of manganese 445 Rhoeas 598 687 Red oxide of mercury, Rhubarb 587 582 Dub. 998 Rhubarb, Bucharian 592 583 Red oxide of mercury, Rhubarb, Chinese 591 583 581 U.S. Red pepper 996 167 Rhubarb, English Rhubarb, European 593 593 340 ,582 Red poppy Red precipitate 598 996 Rhubarb, French Rhubarb, Krimea 594 594 340 340 Red roses Red saunders 600 628 Rhubarb, mountain Rhubarb, Rhapontic * 607 594 5S1 340 340 581 581 581 ,581 Red sulphuret of mer-cury Red tartar Red wine vinegar Red wines Reddle 1002 560 16 737 1292 Rhubarb, Russian Rhubarb,Turkey Rhus coriaria Rhus cotinus Rhus glabrum Rhus pumilum 592 592 1255 1254 598 719 Quercus prinus Quercus robur 340 Quercus tinctoria 581 Red-root 1-239 Rhus radicans 717 ,582 Refrigerants 3 Rhus toxicodendron ,718 1360 Index. Rhus vernix 718 S Saltpetre 567 Rib grass 1289 Salvia 624 Rice 1282 Sabadilla 608 Salvia officinalis 624 Richardsonia Braziii- Sabadillia 610 Salvia pratensis 625 ensis 402 Sabadillic acid 609 Salvia sclarea 625 Richardsonia emetica 402 Sabbatia 611 Sambucus 625 Richardsonia scabra 402 Sabbatia angularis 611 Sambucus Canadensis 625 Richweed 1248 Sabina 612 Sambucus nigra 625 Ricini oleum 494 Sacchari fasx 613 Samovey isinglass 387 Ricinus communis 494 Saccharic acid 617, 816 Sampfen wood 1235 Riga balsam 1292 Saccharine carbonate of Sandaraca 1293 River water 111 iron 956 Sandarach 1293 Roccella tinctoria 420 Saccharine fermentation 58 Sandaracin 1293 Roche alum 78 Saccharine iodide of iron 965 Sand-bath 759 Rochelle salt 1128 Saccharum 613 Sandix 1281 Rock oil 533 Saccharum commune 613 Sanguinaria 626 Rock-rose 1259 Saccharum officinarum 614 Sanguinaria Canadensis 627 Roll sulphur 695 Saccharum saturni 549 Sanguinarina 627 Roman alum 78 Sacchulmic acid 617 Sanguis draconis 1252 Roman cement 761 Sacchulmin 617 Sanguisuga medicinalis 370 Roman chamomile 104 Sacred elixir 1183 Sanguisuga officinalis 370 Rosa canina 599 Safflower 180 Sanicle 1293 Rosa centifolia 600 Saffron 284 Sanicula Marilandica 1293 Rosa damascena 498 Saffron, dyers' ISO Santa Martha bark 232 Rosa Gallica 600 Sagapenum 619 Santalin 629 Rosa moschata 498 Sage 624 Santalum 628 Rosae oleum 493 Sago 620 Santonin 122 Rose, dog 599 Sago meal 621 Sap green 587 Rose water 865 Sago, pearl 621 Sapo 629 Rosemary 601 Saguerus Rumphii 620 Sapo durus 62£ ,631 Roses, hundred leaved 600 Sagus lasvis 620 Sapo guaiacinus 363 Roses, red 600 Sagus Ruffia 620 Sapo mollis 62S , 631 Rosin 585 Sagus Rumphii 620 Sapo vulgaris 62£ , 631 Rosin soap 631 Saint John's wort 1262 Saponaria officinalis 1293 Rosmarinus 601 Saint Lucia bark 234 Saponification 629 Rosmarinus officinalis 601 Sal absinthii 5 Saponin 1293 Rosmarinus sylvestris 1272 Sal aeratus 1090 Sappan wood 1235 Rotten stone 1292 Sal alembroth 981 Saratoga water 114 Roucou 1228 Sal ammoniac 84 Sarcocolla 1293 Rouge 180 Sal de duobus 571 Sarcocollin 1294 Rough wines 737 Sal diureticus 1084 Sarsaparilla 634 Round-leaved dogwood 276 Sal enixum 1095 Sarsaparilla, false 116 Rubefacients 2 Sal gemma? 677 Sarsaparilla, Indian 1260 Rubia 602 Sal polychrestus Glaseri 1094 Sarsaparillin 637 Rubia tinctorum 602 Sal prunelle 569 Sarza 634 Rubus trivialis 603 Salep 1292 Sassa gum 1294 Rubus villosus 60c , 604 Salicin 623 Sassafras medulla 639 Rue 607 Salicornia 672 Sassafras officinale 640 Rufus's pills 1061 Salicule 623 Sassafras pith 63£ , 640 Rumex 605 Saliculous acid 623 Sassafras radicis cortex 639 Rumex acetosa 605 Saline mixture 1093 Sassafras root, bark of 641 Rumex acetosella 605 Saline waters 112 Satureja hortensis 1294 Rumex acutus 606 Saliretin 623 Satureja montana 1294 Rumex Alpinus 606 Salix 622 Saunders, red 628 Rumex aquaticus 605 ,606 Salix alba 622 Savine 612 Rumex Britannica 605 , 606 Salix Babylonica 622 Savine cerate 889 Rumex crispus 606 Salix caprea 622 Savon vert 629 Rumex obtusifolius G05 ,606 Salix fragilis 622 Savory 1294 Rumex patientia 606 Salix helix 624 Saxifraga 1289 Rumex sanguineus 606 Salix nigra 622 Scabious 318 Rumex scutatus 606 Salix pentandra 622 Scales of the oxide of Rumicin 606 Salix purpurea 622 iron 330 Russian rhubarb 592 Salix Russeliana 622 Scammonium 641 Rust of iron 969 Salseparine 637 Scammony 641 Ruta 607 Salsola 672 Scammony mixture 1033 Ruta graveolens 607 Salt, common 677 Scandix cerefolium 1229 Rutulin 623 Salt of sorrel 12, 1283 Scarlet pimpernel 1227 Rye 1294 Salt of tartar 1087 Schuylkill water 112 Salt of wisdom 981 Scilla 645 Salt of wormwood 5 Scilla maritima 645 Index. 1361 Scillitin Sclerotium clavus Scolopendrium officina- rum Scoparius Scotch fir Scrophularia nodosa Scullcap Scurvy-grass Scutellaria galericulata . Scutellaria hyssopifolia 1294 Scutellaria integrifolia 1294 Scutellaria lateriflora Sea salt Sea water Sealing wax Sea-wrack Secale cereale Secale cornutum Sedum acre Seed lac Seidlitz powders Seidlitz water Seignette's salt Self heal Seltzer water Seltzer water, artificial Semen abelmoschi Semen contra Semen nigella? Semen psyllii Semivitrified oxide of lead 646 311 1294 647 709 648 1294 254 1294 1294 677 114 1270 1253 311, 1294 311 1295 1270 52 113 1129 1291 113 858 1261 122 1279 1289 555 Sempervivum tectorum 1295 Senecio aureus 1295 Senecio vulgaris 1295 Senega 649 Senegal gum Senegin Seneka Seneka oil Senna Senna, American Senna, fluid extract of Separation of liquids Separation of solids from liquids 756 Separatory 75S, 1049 649 649 534 651 1SS 1156 758 1250 1250 657 660 661 661 Sepia Sepia officinalis Serpentaria Sesamum Sesamum Indicum Sesamum orientale Sesquicarbonate of am- monia Sesquicarbonate of po- tassa Sesquicarbonate of soda 672, 1122 825 1091 Sesquioxide of iron Sevum Sheep-laurel Shell lac Sherry wine Shining aloes Sialagogues Siberian rhapontic root Siberian rhubarb Sienna 969 662 1269 1270 737 69 2 594 594 1295 Sieves 756 Signs and abbreviations, table of 1310 Silene Virginica 1295 Silicate of zinc 748 Silk-weed, common 126 Silurus glanis 387 Silver 118 Silver bark 223 Silver, cyanide of 866 Silver, cyanuret of 866 Silver fir, American 710 Silver fir, European 710 Silver, nitrate of 866 Silver, preparations of 866 Simaruba 662 Simaruba amara 662 Simaruba excelsa 579 Simaruba officinalis 662 Simple cataplasm 884 Simple cerate 891 Simple infusion of mint 1013 Simple liniment 1022 Simple ointment 1204 Simple syrup 1145 Sinapis 663 Sinapis alba 663 Sinapis nigra 663 Sinapisin 665 Sinapisms 884 Single aqua fortis 37 Sipeerin 1233 Siphonia cahuchu 1238 Siphonia elastica 123S Sirop de cuisinier 1153 Sisymbrium nasturtium 1279 Sisymbrium officinale 1295 Sisymbrium sophia 1295 Sium latifolium 1296 Sium nodiflorum 1295 Sium sisarum 1296 Skirret 1296 Skunk cabbage 303 Slippery elm bark 726 Small burnet saxifrage 1289 Small fennel-flower 1279 Small houseleek 1295 Smalt 1296 Smilacin 637 Smilasperic acid 1260 Smilax aspera 634 Smilax China 634 Smilax Cumanensis 634 Smilax medica 63o Smilax officinalis bdo Smilax papyracea bdO Smilax sarsaparilla bd4 Smilax syphilitica *>•£> Smooth sumach »«» Smyrna opium ou» Smyrna scammony 04^ Snakeroot, black 211 1293 Snakeroot, button 318,l^/- Snakeroot, Canada 12o Snakeroot, seneka t>49 Snakeroot, Virginia bo7 Sncezewort 1259 Snow water HI , 629 Soap °~ Soap, almond oil 631 115* Soap, amygdaline 631 Soap balls 631 Soap, Castile 632 Soap cerate 890 Soap, common 629, 631 Soap, common yellow 631 Soap, grain 630 Soap liniment 1185 Soap liniment, campho- rated 1021 Soap, marbled 630 Soap of guaiac 363 Soap, palm 631 Soap plaster 921 Soap plaster, compound 922 Soap, rosin 631 Soap, soft 629, 631, 632 631 631 631 630 630 1293 69 668 671 1122 669 673 Soap, Starkey's Soap, transparent Soap, Windsor Soaps, insoluble Soaps, soluble Soapwort Socotrine aloes Soda, acetate of Soda, biborate of Soda, bicarbonate of Soda, borate of Soda, carbonate of Soda, dried carbonate of 1121 Soda, effervescing solu- tion of H25 Soda, hypochlorite of 1126 Soda, impure carbonate of 671 Soda liquid, Labarraque's 1125 Soda, muriate of 677 Soda, native 671 Soda of commerce, arti- ficial 672 Soda of vegetable origin 672 Soda, phosphate of 1129 Soda powders 1110 Soda, preparations of 1121 Soda, sesquicarbonate of 672, 1122 Soda soap, animal oil 632 Soda soap, olive oil 632 Soda, sulphate of 675 Soda, tartarized 1128 Soda, vitriolated 675 Soda water 858, 1125 Soda? acetas 668 Soda? aqua effervescens 1125 Sodae bicarbonas H22 Sodae boras 669 Soda? carbonas 673 Soda? carbonas exsiccatus 1121 Sodae carbonas impura 671 Soda? carbonas venale 671 Soda? carbonatis aqua 1122 Soda? et potassa? tartras 1128 Sodae hyposulphis 1262 Sodas murias 677 Sodae murias purum 1129 Soda? phosphas 1129 Soda? potassio-tartras 1128 Sodae sesquicarbonas 1122 Soda? sulphas 675 1362 Index. Sodii chloridum 677 Sodium ■• 667 Sodium, chloride of 677 Sodium, sesquioxide of 667 Soft soap 629,631,632 Soft water 110 Solania 306 Solanum dulcamara 305 Solanum nigrum 304 Solanum tuberosum 305 Solidago 679 Solidago odora 679 Solidago virgaurea 679 Solids from liquids, sepa - ration of 756 Solomon's seal 1248 Soluble cream of tartar 670 Soluble tartar 1096 Solutio baryta? muriatis 875 Solution of acetate of ammonia 831 Solution of ammonia 828 Solution of ammoniated copper 899 Solution of arsenite of potassa 871 Solution of bichloride o f mercury 985 Solution of carbonate of ammonia 827 Solution of carbonate of potassa 1088 Solution of chloride of barium 875 Solution of chloride of calcium SSO Solution of chloride of potassa 1241 Solution of chloride of soda 1125 Solution of chlorinated soda 1125 Solution of citrate of po tassa 1091 Solution of hydriodate o r arsenic and mercury 1265 Solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia 827 Solution of iodine, com- pound 1018 Solution of muriate of baryta 875 Solution of muriate of lime 880 Solution of muriate of morphia 1043 Solution of nitrate of sil ver 870 Solution of potassa 1077 Solution of sesquicarbo- nate of ammonia 827 Solution of subacetate o f lead 1072 Solution of subacetate of lead, diluted 1074 Solution of sulphate of morphia 1044 Solution of ternitrate of iron 1300 Soot 1296 Sophora tinctoria 1231 Soporifics 3 Sorrel 605 Sorrel tree 1227 South American saltpetre 569 Southernwood 4 Southernwood, Tartarian 122 Spa water 113 Spanish broom 1297 Spanish brown 1297 Spanish flies 160 Sparkling wines 737 Spartium junceum 1297 Spartium scoparium 647 Spearmint 458 Spearmint water 864 Specific gravity 754 Specific gravity bottle 755 Speediman's pills 74 'Speedwell 1304 Speltre 747 Spermaceti 202 Spermaceti cerate 888 Spermaceti ointment 1193 Sphacelia segetum 312 Sphaerococcus crispus 210 Spice-wood 1233 Spiced syrup of rhubarb 1151 Spider's web 1244 Spigelia 680 Spigelia anthelmintica 680 Spigelia Marilandica 680 Spikenard 1279 Spikenard, American 116 Spikenard, small 116 Spiraea 682 Spiraea tomentosa 682 Spirit lamps 759 Spirit of ammonia 832 Spirit of ammonia, aroma- tic 834 Spirit of ammonia, fetid 835 Spirit of aniseed 1)32 Spirit of aniseed, com- pound 1132 Spirit of caraway 1133 Spirit of cassia 1133 Spirit of cinnamon 1133 Spirit of hartshorn 276 Spirit of horse-radish, compound 1132 Spirit of juniper, com- pound 1133 Spirit of lavender 1134 Spirit of lavender, com- pound 1134 Spirit of Mindererus 831 Spirit of nitre 36 Spirit of nitric ether 817 Spirit of nutmeg 1135 Spirit of pennyroyal 1135 Spirit of peppermint 1135 Spirit of pimento 1135 Spirit of rosemary 1136 Spirit of sea-salt 31 Spirit of spearmint 1135 Spirit of sulphuric ether 813 Spirit of turpentine 499 Spirit of wine 57 Spirit, proof* 59, 822 Spirit, pyroacetic 7S2, 1291 Spirits 1132 Spirituous wines 737 Spiritus 1132 Spiritus aethereus nitro- sus 817 Spiritus aetheris nitrici 817 Spiritus astheris sulphu- rici 813 Spiritus aetheris sulphu- rici compositus 813 Spiritus ammonias 832 Spiritus ammonias aro- maticus 834 Spiritus ammonia? foetidus 835 Spiritus ammonias succi- natus 1161 Spiritus anisi 1132 Spiritus anisi compositus 1132 Spiritus armoracia? com- positus 1132 Spiritus camphoratus 1163 Spiritus carui 1133 Spiritus cassia? 1133 Spiritus cinnamomi 1133 Spiritus colchici ammo- niatus 1169 Spiritus juniperi compo- situs 1133 Spiritus Lavandula? 1134 Spiritus lavandulae com- positus 1134 Spiritus menthas piperita? 1135 Spiritus menthas pulegii 1135 Spiritus menthas viridis 1135 Spiritus Mindereri 831 Spiritus myristica? 1135 Spiritus nitri dulcis 817 Spiritus nucis moschatae 1135 Spiritus pimenta? 1135 Spiritusrectificatus 57 Spiritus jpsmarini 1136 Spiritus tenuior 822 Spiritus vini Gallici 57 Spleenwort, black 1230 Spleenwort, common 1230 Spleenwort fern 1248 Sponge 683 Sponge, burnt 1136 Spongia 683 Spongia officinalis 683 Spongia usta 1136 Spotted winter green 208 Spring water 111 Spruce beer 710 Spruce, essence of 710 Spruce fir 543 Spunk 1223 Spurge,ipecacuanha 323 Spurge, large-flowering 321 Spurge laurel 460 Spurred rye 311 Squill 645 Squilla maritima 645 Squirting cucumber 307 Stalagmitis cambogioides 342 Stanni pulvis 1137 Stannic acid 685 Stannum 684 Staphisagria 685 Index. 1363 Star aniseed 103, 1263 Star grass 64 Starch 94 Starkey's soap 631 Statice 686 Statice Caroliniana 686 Statice limonium 686 Stavesacre 685 Stearic acid 630 Stearin 56, 481 Stearoptene 483 Steel 328 Stibium 105 Stick lac 1270 Still and worm, common 760 Still, small 760 Stillingia 687 Stillingia sylvatica 687 Stimulants 2 Stizolobium pruriens 469 St. John's wort 1262 St. Lucia bark 234 Stone-crop, biting 1295 Stone-pine 709 Stone-root 1248 Storax 691 Storax, purified 1140 Stoved salt 678 Strainers 757 Stramonii folia 688 Stramonii radix 688 Stramonii semen 688 Stramonium 688 Strasburg turpentine 713 Strengthening plaster 914 Striated ipecacuanha 401 Strong mercurial oint- ment 1195 Stronger solution of am- monia 82 Strongest common caus- tic 1081 Strong-scented lettuce 421 Strychnia 477,1137 Strychnos colubrina 477 Strychnos Ignatia 1232 Strychnos nux vomica 476 Styracine 1273 Styrax 691 Styrax benzoin 141 Styrax colatus 1140 Styrax officinale 691 Styrax purificata 1140 Subacetate of copper 290 Subacetate of copper, prepared 897 Subacetate of lead, solu- tion of 1072 Subcarbonate of iron 969 Sublimate 760 Sublimation 760 Sublimatus corrosivus 979 Sublimed sulphur 694, 096 Sublimed white oxide of arsenic °7I Subnitrate of bismuth S7-) Succi spissati 9.24, 936 Succinate of ammonia 7J7 Succinic acid 7Jb Succinum wi Succory 1242 Succus spissatus aconiti 933 Succus spissatus bella- donna? 936 Succus spissatus conii 940 Succus spissatus hyos- cyami 943 Succus spissatus sambuci 950 Suet 662 Sugar 613 Sugar, barley 617 Sugar, brown 613, 618 Sugar cane 614 Sugar, Havana 615 Sugar maple 614 Sugar, muscovado 6l3 Sugar of grapes 613 Sugar of lead 549 Sugar of milk 614 Sugar, purified 616, 618 Sugar, uncrystallizable 613 Sugar, white 616, 618 Sugar-candy 617 Sugar-house molasses 616,618 Sulphate of alumina 1297 Sulphate of alumina and potassa 76 Sulphate of baryta 136 Sulphate of cinchonia 238, 1117 Sulphate of copper 291 Sulphate of ether and etherine Sll Sulphate of indigo 1264 Sulphate of iron 971 Sulphate of iron, dried 973 Sulphate of magnesia 440 Sulphate of magnesia, pure 1025 Sulphate of morphia 1043 Sulphate of morphia, solution of 1044 Sulphate of potassa 571 Sulphate of potassa with sulphur 1094 Sulphate of quinia 1113 Sulphate of soda 675 Sulphate of zinc 1218 Sulphocyanuret of po- tassium 1297 Sulpho-salts 696 Sulpho-sinapisin 665 Sulphovinic acid 810 Sulphur 694 Sulphur antimoniatum fuscum 84^ Sulphur, crude 69o Sulphur, flowers of 695, 696 Sulphur, iodide of 1142 Sulphur lotum 694 Sulphur, milk of * 1141 Sulphur, native 694 Sulphur ointment 1205 Sulphur praecipitatum 1141 Sulphur, precipitated 1141 Sulphur, preparations of 1141 Sulphur, roll 695 Sulphur sublimatum 694 Sulphur, sublimed 694, 696 Sulphur vivum 695 Sulphur, washed 694, 696 Sulphurated oil 1231 Sulphuret of antimony 106 Sulphuret of iron 973 Sulphuret of mercury with sulphur 1001 Sulphuret of potassa 1105 Sulphuret of potassium 1105 Sulphuretted hydrogen 696, 974 Sulphuretted waters 112 Sulphuric acid 43 Sulphuric acid, diluted 798 Sulphuric acid, pure 799 Sulphuric acid, table of the specific gravity of 47 Sulphuric ether 805 Sulphuric ether, unrec- tified 805 Sulphuric ethereal liquor 805 Sulphuris iodidum 1142 Sulphurous acid 696 Sumach 598 Sumach, swamp 718 Sumatra camphor 156 Summer savory 1294 Suspansion of substances, means of 736 Swamp dogwood 278 Swamp hellebore 734 Swamp sumach 718 Swamp-laurel 1269 Sweet almonds 89,90 Sweet bay 443 Sweet fern 1248 Sweet flag 144 Sweet marjoram 527 Sweet principle of oils 630 Sweet spirit of nitre 817 Sweet wines 737 Sweet-gum 1273 Sweet-scented water-lily 1280 Swietenia febrifuga 1297 Swieteniamahagoni 1297 Sydenham's laudanum 1211 Sylvic acid 586 Symphytum officinale 1297 Svmplocarpus foetidus 303 Synaptase 90 Syrian herb mastich 1301 Syringa vulgaris 1298 Syrup 617,1145 Syrup of albuminate of iron and potassa 1224 Syrup of almonds 1147 Syrup of buckthorn 1150 Syrup of garlic 1146 Syrup of ginger 1157 Syrup of iodide of zinc 1267 Syrup of ipecacuanha 1148 Syrup of lemons 1149 Syrup of marshmallow 1146 Svrup of mulberries 1149 Syrup of orange peel 1147 Syrup of orgeat 1147 Syrup of pineapples 1149 Syrup of poppies 1149 Syrup of raspberries 1149 Syrup of red poppy 1151 1364 Index. Syrup of red roses 1152 Syrup of rhatany 1148 Syrup of rhubarb 1150 Syrup of rhubarb, aro- matic 1151 Syrup of roses 1152 Syrup of saffron 1148 Syrup of sarsaparilla 1152 Syrup of sarsaparilla, compound 1152 Syrup of seneka 1155 Syrup of senna 1156 Syrup of squill 1154 Syrup of squill, com- pound 1154 Syrup of strawberries 1149 Syrup of tolu 1156 Syrup of vinegar 1146 Syrup of violets 1157 Syrup of wild-cherry bark 577 Syrup, simple 1145 Syrupi 1142 Syrups 1142 Syrupus 1145 Syrupus aceti 1146 Syrupus allii 1146 Syrupus althaea? 1146 Syrupus amygdala? 1147 Syrupus aurantii corticis 1147 Syrupus balsami Tolutani 1156 Syrupus croci 1148 Syrupus empyreumaticus 613 Syrupusipecacuanha 1148 Syrupus krameria; 1148 Syrupus limonis 1149 Syrupus mori 1149 Syrupus papaveris 1149 Syrupus papaveris rhoeadis 1151 Syrupus rhamni 1150 Syrupus rhei 1150 Syrupus rhei aromaticus 1151 Syrupus rhoeados 1151 Syrupus rosa? 1152 Syrupus rosae Gallicae 1152 Syrupus sarsaparilla? 1152 Syrupus sarsaparilla? compositus 1152 Syrupus scillae ' 1154 Syrupus scillae com- positus 1154 Syrupus senegae 1155 Syrupus sennae 1156 Syrupus simplex 1145 Syrupus tolutani 1156 Syrupus violas 1157 Syrupus zingiberis 1157 Tabacum 697 Table of Baume's and Cartier's hydrometer 1331 Table of Cartier's hy- drometer and the cen- tesimal alcoholmeter 1332 Table of drops 1319 Table of pharmaceuti- cal equivalents 1320 Table of signs and ab- breviations 1310 Tables of the value in sp. gr. of Baume's and Beck's hydro- meter degrees 1329 Tables of weights and measures 1314 Tacamahac 1298 Tacca oceanica 450 Tacca pinnatifida 450 Tamarindi pulpa 1107 Tamarinds 702 Tamarindus 702 Tamarindus Indica 702 Tamarix Gallica 446 Tanacetic acid 704 Tanacetum 703 Tanacetum vulgare 703 Tannate of lead 1298 Tannate of quinia 239 Tannic acid 800 Tannin S00 Tansy 703 Tapioca 704 Tar 545 Tar, Barbadoes 533 Tar, mineral 534 Tar ointment 1202 Tar water 865 Taraxacin 707 Taraxacum 706 Taraxacum dens-leonis 706 Tartar 49, 560 Tartar, cream of 560 Tartar, crude 560 Tartar, crystals of 560 Tartar emetic S37 Tartar emetic ointment 1192 Tartar, red 560 Tartar, salt of 1087 Tartar, soluble 1096 Tartar, white 560 Tartarian southernwood 122 Tartaric acid 49 Tartarized antimony 837 Tartarized iron 957 Tartarized soda 1128 Taitarum emeticum 837 Tartarum vitriolatum 571 Tartrate of antimony and potassa S37 Tartrate of iron and potassa 957 Tartrate of potassa 1096 Tartrate of potassa and soda 1128 Tartrate of protoxide of iron 959 Taschkent rhubarb 592 Tasteless ague drop 872 Tea 1298 Tea berry 346 Tegeneria domestica 1244 Tegeneria medicinalis 1244 Tela aranea? 1244 Temperature, officinal, for different operations 769 Teneriffe wine 738 Tephrosia Apollinea 654 Tepid bath 115 Terebinthina 708,711 Terebinthina Canadensis 70S Terebinthina Chia 708 Terebinthina Veneta 708 Terebinthina vulgaris 708 Terebinthina? oleum 499 Terminalia bellirica 1278 Terminalia benzoin 140 Terminalia chebula 1278 Ternitrate of iron, solu- tion of 1300 Teroxide of antimony 835 Terra cariosa 1292 Terra di sienna 1295 Terra foliata tartari 668 Terra Japonica 192, 194 Terra Tripolitana 1302 Terra Umbria 1302 Terra? sigillata? 1235 Tersulphuret of antimony 107 Testa 714 Testa prasparata 879 Testa? 714 Teucrium chamaedrys 1301 Teucrium marum 1301 Teucrium scordium 1301 Thallochlor 205 Thea bohea 1299 Thea Chinensis 1298 Thea stricta 1299 Thea viridis 1299 Thebaina 516 Thein 1300 Theobroma cacao 1244 Theobromin 1244 Theriaca 894 Thermometers, compara- tive value of the de- grees of 1328 Thieves' vinegar 779 Thornapple 688 Thoroughwort 319 Thridace 423 Thus. 543 Thuja occidentalis 1301 Thuya articulata 1293 Thyme 1301 Thymus serpillum 1301 Thymus vulgaris 1301 Tiglii oleum 502 Tin 684 Tin, powder of 1137 Tincal 669 Tinctura acetatis ferri cum alcohol 955 Tinctura aconiti 1160 Tincfura aetherea cum phosphoro 537 Tinctura aloes 1160 Tinctura aloes composita 1161 Tinctura aloes et myrrha? 1161 Tinctura ammonia? com- posita 1161 Tinctura angustura? 1161 Index. 1365 Tinctura assafoetidae 1162 Tinctura aurantii 1162 Tinctura balsami Tolu- tani 1186 Tinctura belladonna? 1162 Tinctura benzoini compo- sita 1162 Tinctura buchu 1163 Tinctura calumba? 1169 Tinctura camphora? 1163 Tinctura camphora? com- posita -, 1181 Tinctura cantharidis 1164 Tinctura capsici 1164 Tinctura cardamomi 1164 Tinctura cardamomi com- posita 1165 Tinctura cascarilla? 1165 Tinctura cassia? 1165 Tinctura castorei 1166 Tinctura castorei ammo- niata 1166 Tinctura catechu 1166 Tinctura cinchona? 1167 Tinctura cinchona? com- posita 1167 Tinctura cinnamomi 1168 Tinctura cinnamomi composita 1103 Tinctura colchici 1169 Tinctura colchici com- posita 1169 Tinctura colchici seminis 1169 1169 1170 1170 1170 1161 1171 Tinctura colomba? Tinctura conii Tinctura croci Tinctura cubebas Tinctura cusparia? Tinctura digitalis Tinctura ferri ammonio- chloridi 975 Tinctura ferri chloridi 975 Tinctura ferri sesqui chloridi Tinctura galbani Tinctura gallae Tinctura gentiana? com- posita 1172 Tinctura guaiaci 1172 Tinctura guaiaci ammo- niata Tinctura hellebori Tinctura humuli Tinctura hyoscyami Tinctura iodini Tinctura iodini compo- sita Tinctura jalapa? Tinctura kino Tinctura krameria? Tinctura lactucarii Tinctura lavandula? com- posita J134 Tinctura lobelia? H77 Tinctura lobeliasastherea 1177 Tinctura lupuli IJ73 Tinctura lupulina? 1J77 Tinctura moschi 1177 Tinctura myrrha? H'S 975 1171 1171 1173 1173 1173 1174 1174 1175 1176 1176 1176 1176 Tinctura nucis vomicae 117S Tinctura olei menthae piperita? 1178 Tinctura olei menthae viridis 1178 Tinctura opii 1179 Tinctura opii acetata 1180 Tinctura opii ammoniata 1180 Tinctura opii camphorata! 181 Tinctura quassiae 1182 Tinctura quassias compo- sita 1182 Tinctura rhei 1182 Tinctura rhei composita 1183 Tinctura rhei et aloes 1183 Tinctura rhei et gentiana? 1183 Tinctura rhei et senna? 1184 Tinctura sanguinaria? 1184 Tinctura saponis cam- phorata 1184 Tinctura scilla? 1185 Tinctura senna? compo- sita 1185 Tinctura senna? et jalapae 11S5 Tinctura serpentaria? 1186 Tinctura stramonii 1186 Tinctura Thebaica 1179 Tinctura tolutani 1186 Tinctura Valerianae 1187 Tinctura Valeriana? ammo- niata 1187 Tinctura zingiberis 1187 Tinctura? 1158 Tincture of acetate of iron 955 Tincture of acetate of iron with alcohol 955 Tincture of acetate of zinc 1214 Tincture of aconite 11$0 Tincture of aloes 1160 Tincture of aloes and myrrh H61 Tincture of ammonia, compound 1161 Tincture of ammonio- chloride of iron 975 Tincture of angustura bark 1161 Tincture of assafetida 1162 Tincture of belladonna 1162 Tincture of benzoin, compound 1162 Tincture ofblack helle- bore I173 Tincture of blood-root 1184 Tincture of buchu 1163 Tincture of camphor 1163 Tincture of cardamom 1164 Tincture of cardamom, compound 1165 Tincture of cascarilla 1165 Tincture of cassia 1165 Tincture of castor 1166 Tincture of castor, ammoniated 1166 Tincture of catechu 1166 Tincture of Cayenne pepper 1164 Tincture of chloride of iron 975 Tincture of cinnamon 1168 Tincture of cinnamon, compound 1168 Tincture of cloves 184 Tincture of colchicum, compound 1169 Tincture of colchicum seed 1169 Tincture of columbo 1169 Tincture of cubebs 1170 Tincture of foxglove 1171 Tincture of galbanum 1171 Tincture of galls 1171 Tincture of gentian, compound 1172 Tincture of ginger 1187 Tincture of guaiac 1172 Tincture of guaiac, ammoniated 1173 Tincture of hemlock 1170 Tincture of henbane 1174 Tincture of hops 1173 Tincture of iodine 1174 Tincture of iodine, compound 1175 Tincture of jalap 1176 Tincture of kino 1176 Tincture of lactucarium 1176 Tincture of lobelia 1177 Tincture of lobelia, ethereal 1177 Tincture of lupulin 1177 Tincture of muriate of iron 975 Tincture of musk 1177 Tincture of myrrh 1178 Tincture of nux vomica 1178 Tincture of oil of pep- permint 1178 Tincture of oil of spear- mint 1178 Tincture of opium 1179 Tincture of opium, ace- tated 1180 Tincture of opium, am- moniated 1180 Tincture of opium, cam- phorated 1181 Tincture of orange peel 1162 Tincture of Peruvian bark 1167 Tincture of Peruvian bark, compound 1167 Tincture of quassia 1182 Tincture of quassia, com- pound 1182 Tincture of rhatany 1176 Tincture of rhubarb 1182 Tincture of rhubarb and aloes 1183 Tincture of rhubarb and gentian 1183 Tincture of rhubarb and senna 1184 Tincture of rhubarb, compound 1183 Tincture of saffron 1170 1366 Index. Tincture of senna and Trochisci 1188 Unguentum calamina? 891 jalap 11S5 Trochisci acacia? 1189 Unguentum cantharidis > Tincture of senna, com - Trochisci acidi tartarici 1189 Ed. 1193 pound 1185 Trochisci creta? 1189 Unguentum cantharidis Tincture of soap 632 Trochisci glycyrrhiza? 1189 U.S. 1192 Tincture of soap, cam- Trochisci glycyrrhizae et Unguentum cera? alba? 1204 phorated 1184 ..opii 1189 Unguentum cera? flava? 1204 Tincture of Spanish flies 1164 Trochisci ipecacuanha? 1190 Unguentum cetacei, Dub. 888 Tincture of squill 1185 Trochisci lactucarii 1190 Unguentum cetacei, Lond. Tincture of stramonium 1186 Trochisci magnesia? 1190 1193 Tincture of tolu 1186 Trochisci menthae piperi- Unguentum citrinum 1199 Tincture of valerian 1187 tae 1190 Unguentum-fcocculi 1193 Tincture of valerian, Trochisci morphiae 1190 Unguentum conii 1194 ammoniated 1187 Trochisci morphiae et ip e- Unguentum creasoti 1194 Tincture of Virginia cacuanhae 1191 Unguentum cupri subace- snakeroot 1186 Trochisci sodae bicarbon . tatis 1194 Tinctures 1158 atis 1191 Unguentum elemi 1194 Tinder 1223 Trona 672 Unguentum galla? 1195 Tin-foil 684 Tulip-tree bark 432 Unguentum galla? comp 0- Tinnevelly senna 655 Tunbridge water 113 situm 1195 Toadflax, common 1229 Turkey gum 7 Unguentum hydrargyri 1195 Tobacco 697 Turkey opium 509 Unguentum hydrargyri Tobacco ointment 1205 Turkey rhubarb 592 ammoniati 1198 Tolu, balsam of 715 Turlington's balsam 1163 Unguentum hydrargyri Toluifera balsamum 715 Turmeric 293 biniodidi 1198 Tolutanum 715 Turner's cerate 891 Unguentum hydrargyri Tonics 2 Turnsol 420 fortius 1195 Tonka bean 1301 Turpentine 708 Unguentum hydrargyri Toothache tree 117 Turpentine, Bordeaux 711 iodidi 1198 Tormentil 716 Turpentine, Canada 70? ,712 Unguentum hydrargyri Tormentilla. 716 Turpentine, Chian 70b ,713 mitius 1195 Tormentilla erecta 716 Turpentine, common Unguentum hydrargyri Tormentilla officinalis 716 American 711 nitratis 1199 Touch-me-not 1263 Turpentine, common Unguentum hydrargyri Touchwood 1223 European 708 ,711 nitrico-oxydi 1201 Tous les mois 159 Turpentine, Damarra 713 Unguentum hydrargyri Toxicodendron 717 Turpentine, Dombeya 713 oxidi rubri 1201 Tragacanth 719 Turpentine, Strasburg 713 Unguentum hydrargyri Tragacantha 719 Turpentine, Venice 708 , 712 oxydi nitrici 1201 Tragacanthin 721 Turpentine, white 711 Unguentum infusi canth a- Transparent soap 631 Tiirpentinic acid 500 ridis 1192 Traveller's joy 1243 Turpeth mineral 1000 Unguentum iodini 1201 Tree primrose 1281 Tussilago 725 Unguentum iodini com- Trigonella fcenumgrascum Tussilago farfara 725 positum 1202 1302 Tutia 1302 Unguentum mezerei 1202 Triosteum 721 Tutty 1302 Unguentum oxidi hydrar Triosteum perfoliatum 721 Tutty ointment 1206 gy- 1201 Tripoli 1302 Unguentum picisliquida? 1202 Tripoli senna 655 u Unguentum picis nigra? 1202 Trisnitrate of bismuth 875 Unguentum piperis nigr 1203 Triticum aestivum 722 Unguentum plumbi ace- Triticum compositum 722 Ulmic acid 726 tatis 1203 Trticum hybernum 722 Ulmin 726 Unguentum plumbi car- Triticum repens 1302 Ulmus 726 bonatis 1203 Troches 118S-: Ulmus Americana 727 Unguentum plumbi com Troches of bicarbonate Ulmus campestris 726 positum 1203 of soda 1191 Ulmus fulva 726 Unguentum plumbiiodidil203 Troches of chalk 1189 Ulmus rubra 726 Unguentum populeum 1290 Troches of gum Arabic 1189 Umber 1302 Unguentum potassa? hy- Troches of ipecacuanha 1190 Umbrella tree 443 driodatis 1203 Troches of lactucarium 1190 Uncaria gambir 194, Unguentum precipitati Troches of liquorice 1189 Uncrystallizable sugar 613 albi 1198 Troches of liquorice and Undulated ipecacuanha 402 Unguentum resinae albae 889 opium 1189 Unguenta 1191 Unguentum resinosum 889 Troches of magnesia 1190 Unguentum acidi nitrici 1191 Unguentum sabinae 889 Troches of morphia 1190 Unguentum acidi sulphu- Unguentum sambuci 1204 Troches of morphia and rici 1191 Unguentum scrophularia? 1204 ipecacuanha 1191 Unguentum asruginis 1194 Unguentum simplex 1204 Troches of peppermint 1190 Unguentum antimonii 1192 Unguentum stramonii 1204 Troches of tartaric acid 1189 Unguentum aquae rosae 1192 Unguentum sulphuris 1205 Index. 1367 Unguentum sulphuris compositum 1205 Unguentum tabaci 1205 Unguentum tartari eme- tici 1192 Unguentum tutiae 1206 Unguentum veratri albi 1206 Unguentum zinci 1206 Unguentum zinci oxidi 1206 Unrectified sulphuric ether 805 Upland sumach 598 Urtica dioica 1302 Urtica urens 1302 Ustulation 764 Uva passa 727 Uva ursi 729 Uvae passa? minores 728 Vaccinium vitis Ida?a 729 Valerian 730 Valeriana 730 Valeriana Celtica 1279 Valeriana dioica 732 Valeriana jatamensi 1279 Valeriana officinalis 730 Valeriana phu 732 Valeriana tuberosa 1279 Valerianate of iron 1302 Valerianate of quinia 239 Valerianate of zinc 1303 Valerianic acid 731,1303 Vallet's ferruginous pills 1064 Vanilla 1303 Vanilla aromatica 1303 Vapour bath 115 Vareck 672 Various-leaved fleabane 317 Varvicite 445 Valeria Indica 1228,1248 Vegetable acids 780 Vegetable albumen 723 Vegetable charcoal 173 Vegetable ethiops 1253 Vegetable fibrin 723 Vegetable jelly 179 Vegetable juices, pre- served 1159 Vegetable sulphur 1274 Vegetable wax 200 Vegeto-mineral water 1074 Venetian red 1303 Venice sumach 1255 Venice turpentine 708, 712 Veratria 610, 1206 Veratric acid 609 Veratrin 609 Veratrum album 732 Veratrum officinale 609 Veratrum sabadilla 609 Veratrum viride 734 Verbascum thapsus 73a Verbena hastata J^ Verbena officinalis !•*« Verbena urticifoha 1-^ Verdigris -{au Verdigris, distilled Verditer Verjuice Vermilion Veronica beccabunga Veronica officinalis Veronica Virginica Vervain Vesicating ammoniacal ointment Vesicating taffetas Vesicatories Vienna caustic Vina medicata Vincetoxicum Vinegar Vinegar, distilled Vinegar generator Vinegar of colchicum Vinegar of opium Vinegar of Spanish flies Vinegar of squill Vinegar, radical Vinegars Vinous fermentation Vinum 291 i 1304 728] 1003 1304 1304 1272 1303 83 887 2 1082 1209 1251 13 773 14 776 776 775 777 783 773 58 736 w Wade's balsam Wake-robin Wall pellitory Walnut, white Warm bath 1163 123 1286 410 115 Vinum album Hispanum 736 Vinum aloes Vinum antimonii Vinum colchici radicis Vinum colchici seminis Vinum ergota? Vinum ferri Vinum gentiana? Vinum ipecacuanha? Vinum opii Vinum rhei Vinum tabaci Vinum veratri albi Vinum Xericum Viola Viola odorata Viola ovata Viola pedata Viola tricolor Violet Violine Virgin scammony Virgineic acid Virginia snakeroot. Virgin's bower, common 1243 Virgin's bower, sweet- scented 1243 Virgin's bower, upright 1243 Viscin Viscum album Vitellus ovi Vitis vinifera Vitriol, blue Vitriol, green Vitriol, white Vitriolated soda Vitriolated tartar Vitrum antimonii Viverra civetta Viverra zibetha Volatile alkali Volatile alkali, mild Volatile liniment Volatile oils 482, Warming plaster 917 Warner's gout cordial 1184 Washed diaphoretic an- timony 1251 Washed sulphur 694, 696 Water 109 Water avens 351 Water, distilled S55 Water dock 605 Water eryngo 318 Water germander 1301 Water hemlock 1242 Water of ammonia 828 Water of ammonia, table of the strength of 830 • Water of carbonate of soda 1122 Water of cassia 861 Water of sulphuret of potassa 1106 Water plantain 1225 Water-bath 759 Watercress 1279 Water-lily, sweet- scented 1280 Water-lily, white 1280 Watermelon 1250 Watermelon seeds 1250 Water-parsnep 1295 Water-radish 1279 Waters, distilled 856 Waters, medicated 856 Wax, myrtle 201 Wax plaster 914* Wax, vegetable 200 Wax, white 199 Wax, yellow 198 Waxed cloth 887 Weights and measures 753 Weights and measures, tables of 1314 Weld 1292 Well water 111 Wheat flour 722 Wheat starch 96 White arsenic 17 White bay 443 1234 White bryony 1235 1304 White Castile soap 632 529 White elm .-. 727 728 White flux 562 291 White fraxinella 1252 971 White hellebore 732 1218 White horehound 452 675 White ipecacuanha 402 571 White lead - 551 1256 White lily I273 1243 White marble 451 1243 White mustard seeds 664 80 White oxide of bismuth 875 824 White pepper 540 1019 White poppy 506 1046 White precipitate 1004 1209 847 1210 1210 1211 958 1211 1211 1211 1212 1212 1212 736 742 742 742 743 743 742 743 643 650 657 1368 Index. White resin 586 White sugar 616, 618 White sulphur water 113 White swallow-wort 1251 White tartar 560 White turpentine 711 White vitriol 1218 White walnut 410 White water lily 1280 White wax 199 White wine vinegar 16 White wines 737 White-oak bark 581 Whiting 1304 Wild briar 599 Wild chamomile 279 Wild cucumber 307 Wild ginger 125 Wild horehound . 319 Wild indigo 1231 Wild ipecac 721 Wild lemon 557 Wild lettuce 421 Wild pink 1295 Wild potato 269 Wild sarsaparilla 116 Wild senna 188 Wild thyme 1301 Wild-cherry bark 576 Willow 622 Willow-herb, purple 437 Windsor soap 631 Wine 736 Wine, antimoniai 847 Wine, Madeira 738 Wine measure 1314 Wine of aloes 1209 Wine of colchicum root 1210 Wine of colchicum seed 1210 Wine of ergot 1211 Wine of gentian 1211 Wine of ipecacuanha 1211 Wine of iron 958 Wine of opium ,», 1211 Wine of rhubarb 1212 Wine of tobacco 1212 Wine of white hellebore 1212 Wine, Port 738 Wine, Sherry 737 Wine, Teneriffe 738 Wine vinegar 16 Wine-whey 741 Wines, acidulous 737 Wines, astringent 737 Wines, domestic 740 Wines, dry 737 Wines, light 737 Wines, medicated 1209 Wines of different coun tries 737 Wines, red 737 Wines, rough 737 Wines, sparkling 737 Wines, spirituous 737 Wines, sweet 737 Wines, table of the strength of 739 Wines, white 737 Winter cherry, common 1288 Winter savory 1294 Wintera 744 Wintera aromatica 744 Winter-berry 574 Winter-green 207 , 346 Winter-green,i, spotted 208 Winter's bark 744 Wistar's cough lozenges 1190 Witch-hazel 1259 Witherite 136 Woad 1269 Wolfsbane 53 Wood betony 1233 Wood naphtha 1291 Wood-sorrel 12 Woody nightshade 305 Woorari 1304 Worm tea 682 Wormseed 206 Wormseed of Europe 122 Wormwood 4 Woulfe's apparatus 760 Wrightia tinctoria 1264 X Xanthorrhiza 745 Xanthorrhiza apiifolia 745 Xanthorrhiza tinctoria 745 Xanthoxylin 716 Xanthoxylum 745 Xanthoxylum fraxineum 745 Xylobalsamum 1231 Xyloidine ■ 38 Y Yarrow 1222 Yeast 201 Yeast cataplasm 883 Yellow bark 225 Yellow ladies bed-straw 1255 Yellow pine 709 Yellow resin 5^5 Yellow sulphate of mer- cury 1000 Yellow wax 19S Yellow-flowered rhodo- dendron 1292 Yellow-root 745, 1261 Yellow-rooted water dock 606 z Zamia integrifolia 450 Zamia lanuginosa 620 Zea mays 1304 Zedoary 1305 Zerumbet- 1305 Zibethum 1243 Zinc 746 Zinc, acetate of 1213 Zinc, carbonate of 748 Zinc, chloride of 1215 Zinc, cyanuret of 1251 Zinc, flowers of 1217 Zinc, impure oxide of 1302 Zinc, iodide of 1267 Zinc, oxide of 1216 Zinc, preparations of 1213 Zinc, prepared carbonate of' 1214 Zinc, silicate of 748 Zinc, sulphate of 1218 Zinc, table of the prepa- rations of 747 Zinci acetas 1213 Zinci acetatis tinctura 1214 Zinci carbonas 748 Zinci carbonas impurum 748 Zinci carbonas impurum praeparatum 1214 Zinci carbonas praspara- tus 1214 Zinci chloridum 1215 Zinci cyanuretum 1251 Zinci ferrocyanuretum 1253 Zinci iodidum 1267 Zinci oxidum 1216 Zinci sulphas 1218 Zinci valerianas 130.3 Zincum 746 Zingiber 749 Zingiber cassumuniar 1305 Zingiber officinale 74') Zingiber zerumbet 1305 Zittmaun's decoction 908 Zizyphus jujuba 1305 Zizyphus lotus 1305 Zizyphus vulgaris 1305 THE END. ( ^~»?*~?? im-i '■?■?*," •hrr£vsr " '-•''" Vr'-'rifflS *.-,?.'-•■■ •*- i T iV *M*w*mk.' |P^ gV« »,»■•»« ■ •» NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NLPI D320*-4flOO D NLM032048000 30